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Chapter 45

Endocrine System

Autocrine Signaling signaling hormones released


by the cells that affect their own behavior

Pheromones chemicals released into the


environment to communicate among individuals of a
single species.

45.1 Regulation of Body Processes by Chemical


Messengers

Four Mechanisms of Cell Communication


o Direct Contact send
signals across gap
junctions
o Paracrine Signaling
secretions from one
cell have an effect only
on cells in the
immediate area
o Endocrine Signaling
hormones are
released in the
organisms circulatory
system, which
carries them to
the target cells
o Synaptic
Signaling
transmission of
neurotransmitters
from a neuron
over a small
synaptic gap to
the target cell

45.1.1 Some Molecules act as Both Circulating


Hormones and Neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter chemical messengers secreted


by the axons of neurons into the synaptic cleft
o Diffuse only a short distance to the postsynaptic
membrane
o Synaptic transmission affects only the
postsynaptic cell that receives neurotransmitter
Hormones a regulatory chemical that is secreted
into extracellular fluid and carried by the blood
o Can act at a distance from its source
Endocrine Glands organs that are specialized to
secrete hormones
Endocrine System organs and tissues that
produce hormones
Hormone Receptor Proteins bind the hormone
and activate signal transduction pathways that
produce a response to the hormone
Paracrine regulators other molecules released and
act within an organ on nearby cells as local regulators
o Similar to endocrine hormones but do not travel
through the blood to reach their target
o Allows cells of an organ to regulate one another

A molecule produced by an endocrine gland and used


as a hormone may also be produced and used as
neurotransmitter by neurons
o Norepinephrine

Adrenal gland: hormone

Sympathetic nerve endings: neurotransmitter

Neurohormones hormones secreted by neurons


o Allows neurons to deliver chemical messages
beyond the nervous system itself
o Neurohormone Antidiuretic Hormone
secreted by neurons in the brain

The secretory activity of many endocrine glands is


controlled by nervous system
o Hypothalamus

controls the hormonal secretion of the


Anterior-Pituitary Gland

produces the hormones of the posterior


pituitary

The secretion of a number of hormones can be


independent of neural control
o Increase in blood concentrations of glucose
insulin by the pancreas
o Increase in blood concentrations of potassium
+
(K ) aldosterone by the adrenal cortex

45.1.2 Endocrine Glands Produce Three Chemical


Classes of Hormones

2.

Amino Acid Derivatives hormones


manufactured by enzymatic modification of
specific amino acids

Catecholamines (Tyrosine) adrenal


medulla epinephrine (adrenaline) and
noripeniphrine (noradrenaline)

Tyrosine thyroid glands thyroid


hormones

Tryptophan pineal gland melatonin

[*Biogenic Amines - organic bases with low molecular weight


and are synthesized by microbial, vegetable and animal
metabolisms.]
[*Tyrosine one of the 22 amino acids that are used by cells
to synthesize proteins]
[*Tryptophan one of the 22 standard amino acids and an
essential amino acid in the human diet.]
3.

Steroids lipids manufactured by enzymatic


modifications of cholesterol

Testosterone, Estradiol, Progesterone,


Aldosterone, Cortisol

Sex steroids secreted by testes, ovaries,


placenta and adrenal cortex

Corticosteroids (mineralocorticoids and


cortisol) secreted only by the adrenal
cortex

45.1.3 Two Categories of Hormones

Hydrophilic water-soluble
Lipophilic - fat-soluble
45.1.4 Paracrine Regulators Exert Powerful
Effects within Tissues

endocrine secretions when the hormones is


secreted into the extracellular fluid where it diffuses
into the surrounding blood capillaries
exocrine glands excrete their products into a duct
to outside the body, or into the gut
o pancreas excretes hydrolytic enzymes into the
lumen of the small intestine

molecules that function as hormones must exhibit two


basic characteristics:
o must be sufficiently complex to convey
regulatory information to their targets
o must be adequately stable to resist destruction
prior to reaching their target cells

three primary chemical categories of molecules that


meet these requirements:
1.

Peptides and Proteins composed of chains of


amino acids

Peptide hormones
Antidiuretic hormone (9 amino acids)
Insulin (51 amino acids)
Growth hormone (191 amino acids)

Glycoproteins most complex composed


of 2 peptide chains with attached
carbohydrates
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Luteinizing Hormone

Growth Factors proteins that promote growth and


cell division in specific organs
o Among the most important paracrine regulators
o Plays a critical role in regulating mitosis
throughout life
o Damage to the gene coding for growth factors or
their receptors can lead to the unregulated cell
division and development of tumor
o Epidermal growth factors activates mitosis of
skin and development of connective tissues
o Nerve growth factor stimulates the growth and
survival of neurons
o Insulin-like Growth factor stimulates cell
division in developing bone as well as protein
synthesis in many other tissues
o Cytokines specialized to control cell division
and differentiation in the immune system
o Neutrophins regulate the nervous system

Paracrine Regulation of Blood Vessels


o Paracrine regulation supplements the
regulation of blood vessels by autonomic nerves

Enables vessels to respond to local


conditions (increased pressure or reduced
oxygen)
o Endothelium of blood vessels

Nitric oxide (NO) functions as a


neurotransmitter
Promotes vasodilation

Endothelin stimulate vasoconstriction

Bradykinin promotes vasodilation

Prostaglandins
o
o
o

o
o
o

o
o

Particularly diverse group of paracrine regulators


20-carbon-long fatty acid that contains a 5membered carbon ring
Derived from the precursor molecule
arachidonic acid released from phospholipids
in the cell membrane under hormonal or other
simulation
Produced in almost every organ
Participate in variety of regulatory functions
Regulate reproductive functions

Gamete transport

Labor

Possibly ovulation
Some are active in promoting smooth muscle
contraction

Lung and kidney regulation


Excessive production may be involved in:

Premature labor

Endometriosis

Dysmenorrhea

Iodine + tyrosine (amino acid)

Prostaglandins (fish)

function as both a hormone and a paracrine


regulator

produced in fishs ovary during ovulation

can travel to the brain to synchronize


associated spawning (releasing of eggs and
sperms) behavior

o
o

Produced at locations of tissue damage

Promote many aspects of inflammation,


including swelling, pain and fever
Aspirin inhibits prostaglandin synthesis

Alleviates the symptoms brought by


prostaglandins

Most widely used of the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) a class of


drugs that also includes indomethacin and
ibuprofen

Acts to inhibit two related enzymes


Cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1)
produces unwanted side effects,
including gastric bleeding and prolonged
clotting time
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) antiinflammatory effects

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) necessary for


the production of prostaglandins from
arachidonic acid
COX-2 inhibitors recently developed
pain reliever

have a great benefits to arthritis


sufferers

lessened gastrointestinal side


effects

not more effective for pain than


older NSAIDs

45.2 Actions of Lipophilic Versus Hydrophilic Hormones

Hormones can be categorized as:


o

Lipophilic (nonpolar) fat-soluble

Includes:
Steroid hormones

thyroid hormones

other lipophilic regulatory molecules

retinoids (vitamin A)
Travel in the blood attached to transport
proteins
Can cross cell membranes and bind to
intracellular receptors
days to week

Hydrophilic (polar) water-soluble

most other hormones

freely soluble in blood

cannot cross the membrane of target cells

minutes to hours

45.2.1 Lipophilic Hormones Activate Intracellular


Receptors

transport and receptor binding


o

Earl Sutherland (1960) showed that the


activation of the epinephrine receptor on liver
cells increases intracellular cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP) which then serves as
intracellular second messenger
two-lipid messengers generated by a
hormonally regulated second-messenger system

Inositol triphosphate (IP3)

diacylglycerol (DAG)

Activation of Transcription in the Nucleus


o Hormone response elements DNA regions
located in the promoters of specific genes
o Receptors function as hormone-activated
transcription factors
o Takes several hours before the response to
lipophilic hormone stimulation because of
activation and transcription process which
requires alterations in gene expressions

[estrogen receptor in liver cells of chicken cell activates


produces vitellogenin(protein) ovary formation of yolk of eggs]
[thyroid hormone receptor in the anterior pituitary of humans
inhibits the expression of the gene in thyrotropin(a mechanism of
negative feedback)]

45.2.2 Hydrophilic Hormones activate Receptors


on Target Cell Membranes

peptide, protein, glycoprotein hormones and


catecholamine hormones that are too large or too
polar to cross the plasma membane of their target cell
o binds to receptor proteins located on the outer
surface of plama membrane activates the
hormone response inside the cell initiates the
process of signal transduction
protein kinases powerful intracellular enzymes
o critical regulatory enzymes that activate or
deactivate intacellular proteins by
phosphorylation

Receptor Kinases
o Receptors that can directly phosphorylate
intracellular proteins that alter cellular activity
o Growth hormone works he same, instead,
hormone-bound receptor recruits and activates
intracellularkinases

Second-messenger Systems
o Second messengers small molecules or
substances that helps relay the message within
the cytoplasm

alters the behavior of cellular proteins by


binding them and changing their shape

The Activation of G proteins


o G proteins membrane proteins that links
receptors that activate second messengers to a
second-messenger-generating enzyme (Gprotein coupled receptor, GPCR)

(epinephrine) adenylyl cyclase an enzyme


activated by the G protein

Catalyzes the formation of the formation of


the second messenger cAMP (cyclic
Adenosine Monophosphate) from ATP
Identities of proteins varies:

(liver cells) cAMP-depensent protein kinases


activate enzymes that convert glycogen
into glucose

(cardiac muscle) cAMP increase activates


an increase in the rate and force of cardiac
muscle contraction

Activation versus Inhibition


o The cellular response to a hormone depends on
type of G protein activated by the hormones
receptor.

receptors linked to G proteins that activate


second-messenger-producing-enzymes
stimulate protein kinases

receptors linked to G proteins that inhibit


their second-messenger-generating-enzyme
inhibit their target cells
o (smooth muscle) Epinephrine receptors
linked through a different stimulatory G protein to
the IP3-generating enzyme phospholipase C

Results in IP3-regulated release of


intracellular calcium causes muscle
contraction

Duration of Hydrophilic Hormone Effects


o Binding of a hydrophilic hormone to its receptor is
reversible and usually very brief
o Target cells contain specific enzyme that rapidly
deactivate second messengers and protein
kinases

45.3 The Pituitary and Hypothalamus: The Bodys Control


Centers

45.3.2 The Posterior Pituitary Stores and Releases


Two Neurohormones

(1) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)


o 1912 endocrine role first became evident

a man who had been shot in the head had to


urinate every 30 minutes

bullet lodged in his posterior pituitary

removal of posterior pituitary produces the


same symptoms
o 1950s investigators isolated a peptide of
posterior pituitary, ADH

ADH stimulates water reabsorption by the


kidneys, inhibits 5ieresis

(2) Oxytocin
o Second peptide neurohormone that, like ADH,
composed of nine amino acids
o (mammals) stimulates the milk ejection reflex
o Needed to stimulate uterine contractions in
women during childbirth
o Helps in returning the normal size of
breastfeeding mothers after pregnancy
o Important regulator of reproductive behavior

Called cuddle hormone promotes pair


bonding

Regulating sexual responses (arousal and


orgasm)
o Arginine vasotocin related posterior pituitary
neurohormone exerts similar effects in
nonmammalian species

(chickens and sea turtles) activates oviduct


contraction during egg laying

Hypothalamic Production of the Neurohormones


o ADH and Oxytocin produced by neuron cell
bodies located in hypothalamus

Stored in posterior pituitary


o Stimulation of release by posterior pituitary:

ADH Increased blood plasma osmolarity

Oxytocin suckling of baby


o Neuroendocrine reflex secretes ADH and
oxytocin

Pituitary gland (hypophysis) hangs by a stalk


from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain
posterior to the optic chiasm
Hypothalamus part of the CNS that has a major
role in regulating body processes
45.3.1 Pituitary is a Compound Endocrine Gland

Two parts:

have different embryonic origins

secrete different hormones

regulated by different control systems


o

(1)Anterior Pituitary (adenohypophysis)


appears glandular

Develops from the pouch of epithelial tissues


that pinches off from the roof of the embryos
mouth

Not part of the nervous system

Independent endocrine gland


(2) Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
appears fibrous (contains axons)

as the floor of the third ventricle of the brain


forms the hypothalamus, part of this neural
tissue grows downward producing posterior
pituitary

45.3.3 Anterior Pituitary Produces Seven


Hormones

Seven essential hormones


o Stimulate growth of target organs
o Tropic hormones (tropin) Production and
secretion of other hormones from additional
endocrine glands
Three structurally similar families of hormones
produced by anterior pituitary:
o Peptide hormone
o Protein hormones
o Glycoprotein hormones
(1) peptide Hormones
o cleaved from a single precursor protein
o fewer than 40 amino acids

(a) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH


or corticotrophin)
stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
corticosteroid hormones
(cortisol:humans; corticosterone: in
many other vertebrates)
Regulates glucose homeostasis and are
important in the response to stress

(b) Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone


(MSH)
stimulates the synthesis and dispersion
of melanin pigment

(2) Protein Hormones


o approximately 200 amino acids
o share significant structural similarities

(c) Growth Hormone (GH or somatotropin)


stimulates the growth of muscle, bone
(indirectly), and other tissues
Essential for proper metabolic regulation

(d) Prolactin (PRL)


best known for stimulating the mammary
glands to produce milk
regulation of ion and water transport
across epithelia
stimulation of variety of organs that
nourish young
activation of parental behaviors

(3) Glycoprotein Hormones


o
largest and most complex hormones are dimers
(consist of and subunits)

subunit common to all three hormones

subunit differs, endowing each hormone


with a different target specificity
o 100 amino acids in size with covalently linked
sugar residues

(e) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH or


thyrotropin)
stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
the hormone thyroxine (regulates
development and metabolism by acting
on nuclear receptors)

(f) Luteinizing Hormone (LH)


Stimulates the production of estrogen
and progesterone by the ovaries and is
needed for ovulation in female
reproductive cycles
(males) stimulates the testes to produce
testosterone (needed for sperm
production and for the development of
male secondary sexual characteristics)

(g) Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)


Required for the development of ovarian
follicles(female) and sperm (male)
Stimulates the conversion of
testosterone into estrogen (female) and
into dihydroxytestosterone (males)
[*gonadotropin LH and FSH]

45.3.4 Hypothalamic Neurohormones regulate the


Anterior Pituitary

Hypothalamus still controls the production and


secretion of the hormones of anterior pituitary
o Hormonally rather than by nerve axons

Two types of neurohormones secreted by the neurons


in the hypothalamus:
o
Releasing hormones
o
Inhibiting hormones

(1) Releasers peptide neurohormones that


stimulate release of other hormones
o Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)
stimulates the release of TSH
o Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)
stimulates the release of ACTH
o Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH)
stimulates the release of FSH and LH
o Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
releases growth hormone
o TRH, Oxytocin, vasoactive intestinal peptide
releasing hormones for prolactin

(2) Inhibitors inhibit the release of certain anterior


pituitary hormones
o Somatostatin (growth hormone inhibiting
hormone, GHIH) inhibits secretion of GH
o Prolactin Inhibiting Factor (PIF) inhibits the
secretion of prolactin and a neurotransmitter for
dopamine
o MSH-inhibiting hormone (MIH) inhibits the
secretion of MSH

o
o
o
o

45.3.5 Feedback From Peripheral Endocrine


Glands Regulates Anterior-Pituitary Hormones

Negative feedback acts to maintain relatively


constant levels of the target cell hormone

45.3.6 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Work


Directly and Indirectly

An example of Negative Feedback: Thyroid Gland


Control
o Hormonal control of the Thyroid Gland:

Hypothalamus (TRH)
hypothalamohyphophyseal portal system
anterior pituitary (TSH) thyroid gland
(thyroxine )
o Thyroxine

And other thyroid hormones affect


metabolic rate

Target: hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

Inhibits the secretion of TRH and TSH

Contains iodine
o Goiter lack of iodine

high levels of TSH

enlargement of thyroid land to manufacture


more thyroxine

Positive Feedback uncommon; causes deviations


from homeostasis; accentuates change;

An example of Positive Feedback: Ovulation


o Ovulation explosive release of a mature egg
(an oocyte) form the ovary

Hypophysectomy surgical removal of the pituitary


gland
Deficits of a Hypophysectomized Animal :
o Reduced growth and development
o Diminished metabolism
o Failure of reproduction
Pituitary Gland Master Gland
(1) Direct effects anterior pituitary hormones
activate receptors in nonendocrine targets (liver,
muscle, and bone) - GH, prolactin, MSH
(2) Indirect effects tropic hormones ability to
activate other endocrine glands (thyroid, adrenal
glands and gonads) ACTH, TSH, LH, FSH

Effects of Growth Hormone


o GH stimulates protein synthesis and growth of
muscles of connective tissues; Indirectly
promotes the elongation of bones

Stimulates the production of insulin-like


growth factors by liver and bone
stimulates cell division in the
cartilaginous epiphyseal growth plate
o Gigantism excessive growth of the entire body
or any of its parts

Robert Wadlow tallest human being


Born in 1928 1950 (22 y/o)
811 height
485 pounds weight

Acromegaly form of gigantism


Bone and tissue deformities
Protruding jaw, elongated fingers,
thickening of skin and facial features

Cure: activation of somatostatin or by


mimicking ghrelin
o Dwarfism a failure to achieve normal sature
o Ghrelin produced by the stomach between
meals

potent stimulator of GH release

establishing an important linkage between


nutrient intake and GH production

Other hormones of the Anterior Pituitary


o Prolactin

(birds) Implicated in the regulation of tissues


important on birds for the nourishment and
incubation of young
Crop produces crop milk nutritional
fluid fed to chicks by regurgitation
Brood patch vascular area on the
abdomen of birds used to warm eggs

[*negative feedback inhibition. The hormones secreted by


some of the endocrine glands feed back to inhibit the secretion
of hypothalamic releasing hormones and adenohypophysis
tropic hormones]

oocyte grows follicle cells produce increasing


levels of estrogen (steroid hormone) peak
estrogen hypothalamus ovulation
estrogen exerts positive feedback on
hypothalamus and pituitary resulting in surge of
LH in anterior pituitary
LH surge causes the follicle cells to rupture
and release oocyte in the oviduct, where it can
potentially be fertilized
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and
estrogen that feed back to inhibit the secretion of
FSH and LH

o
o
o
o

(amphibians) promotes transformation of


salamanders from terrestrial forms to aquatic
breeding adults

Reproductive actions:
Parental care in mammals
Broodiness in birds
water drive in amphibians
TSH thyroid gland
ACTH adrenal cortex
Gonadotropins (LH and FSH) gonads
MSH melanophores contains melanin (black
pigment)

(humans) Melanocytes

Thyroid hormones direct the metamorphosis


of tadpoles into frogs

45.4 The Major Peripheral Endocrine Glands

Adrenal medulla and pancreas independent of


pituitary control
Thyroid and parathyroid glands produce
hormones that regulate processes associated with
nutrient uptake
45.4.1 the Thyroid Gland Regulates Basal
Metabolism and Development

Thyroid gland found in the neck area, anterior of


the heart
o Secretes three hormones:

Thyroxine four iodine atoms

triiodothyronine (collectively: thyroid


hormone) three iodine atoms

calcitonin
Thyroid-Related Disorders
o Hypothyroidism low metabolism due to
underproduction of thyroxine

Reduced ability to utilize carbohydrates and


fats

Adults with hypothyroidism fatigued,


overweight, and feel cold

Infants or children (Cretinism) impairs


growth, brain development, and reproductive
maturity
o Hyperthyroidism overproduction of thyroxine

Weight loss, nervousness, high metabolism,


and overheating
Actions of thyroid hormones
o Thyroid hormones only molecules in the body
containing iodine

Ensure that adequate cellular energy is


available to support metabolically demanding
activities

functions cooperatively, or synergistically,


with other hormones, promoting the activity
of growth hormone, epinephrine, and
reproductive steroids

(humans) TH is maintained in the blood at


constantly elevated levels

(reptiles, amphibians, fish undergoes


seasonal cycles of activity) TH levels in the
blood:
increase during periods of metabolic
activation (growth, reproductive
development, migration, or breeding)
diminish during periods of inactivity in
cold months

45.4.2 Calcium Homeostasis is Regulated by


Several Hormones

Calcium structural component of bones and has a


role in ion-mediated processes such as muscle
contraction
Thyroid + parathyroid + vitamin D - regulates
calcium homeostasis

Calcitonin Secretion by the Thyroid


o Calcitonin a peptide hormone that plays a role
in maintaining proper levels of calcium (Ca2+) in
the blood

High blood Ca2+ concentration calcitonin


stimulates the uptake of calcium into bones
lowers blood calcium level

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)


o Parathyroid Glands four small glands
attached to the thyroid
o PTH - hormones that stimulates the release of
calcium from bones in response to falling levels
2+
of Ca in the blood

Significant fall in the blood Ca2+ can cause


severe muscle spasms

Vitamin D
o Produced in the skin from a cholesterol derivative
in response to ultraviolet light
o essential vitamin
o Inactive form of hormone
o 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (activated) gained
two hydroxyl groups (-OH) stimulated by PTH

Added by an enzyme in liver

Enzyme in kidneys
o 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D stimulates the
2+
intestinal absorption of Ca and thereby helps
raise blood Ca2+ levels so that bone can become
properly mineralized
o Rickets poor bone formation due to vitamin D
deficiency

45.4.3 the Adrenal Gland Releases both


Catecholamine and Steroid Hormones

Adrenal Glands located just above each kidney


o Adrenal medulla inner portion
o Adrenal Cortex outer layer

The Adrenal Medulla


o Receives neural input from axons of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system
o Secretes catecholamines (epinephrines and
norepinephrines)

Increased heart rate

Increased blood pressure

Dilation of the bronchioles

Elevation in blood glucose

Reduced blood flow to the skin and digestive


organs

Increased blood flow to the heart and


muscles

secreted in large amounts in responses to


stress
o Epinephrine released as a hormone,
supplement those of neurotransmitters released
by the sympathetic nervous system

The Adrenal Cortex


o Corticosteroids steroid hormones from the
adrenal cortex

Cortisol (hydrocortisone) and related steroids


act on various cells in the body to maintain
glucose homeostasis

(humans) Glucocorticoids regulated by


ACTH from the anterior pituitary
Stimulate the breakdown of muscle
protein into amino acids, which are
carried by the blood to the liver
Stimulate the liver to produce the
enzymes needed for gluconeogenesis
(amino acids to glucose)
secreted in large amounts in responses
to stress
suppress the immune system in persons
with immune disorders (such as
rheumatoid arthritis)
prevent the immune system form
rejecting organ and tissue transplants

Prednisone (cortisol derivative) have


widespread medical use as antiinflammatory agents

Aldosterone mineralcorticoid because it helps


regulate mineral balance

Fall in blood pressure Activated by


angiotensin II as well as high blood K+

Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb Na+ from


the urine

Absorption of Na+ results in kidney excretion


of K+ in the urine

Prevents K+ from accumulating in the blood

45.4.3 Pancreatic Hormones are Primary


Regulators of carbohydrate Metabolism

Pancreas adjacent to the stomach and is


connected to the duodenum of the small intestine by
the pancreatic duct
o secretes bicarbonate ions and a variety of
digestive enzymes into the small intestine
through this duct
insulin
o (1869) Paul Langerhans

Islets of Langerhans produces hormones


that prevents diabetes mellitus (glucose in
urine)
o Insulin secreted by cells of the islets
o (1922) Banting and Best succeeded in
isolating insulin thus treating a boy with diabetes

45.5 Other Hormones and Their Effect


45.5.1 Sex Steroids regulate Reproductive
Development

Glucagon
o Glucagon secreted by cells if the islets

Acts antagonistically to insulin

Ovaries and testes producing sex steroid


hormones
o Estrogen
o Progesterone
o Testosterone
Estrogen and progesterone primary female sex
steroids
Testosterone primary male sex steroids or
androgens
(mammals) sex steroids responsible for the
development of secondary sexual characteristics at
puberty
(female) sex steroids important in maintaining the
sexual cycle
o Estrogen and progesterone critical regulators of
the menstrual and ovarian cycles
o (During pregnancy) estrogen production in the
placenta maintains the uterine lining

45.5.2 Melatonin is Crucial to Circadian Cycles

Pineal gland located in the roof of the third ventricle


of the brain in most vertebrates; size: pea; shape:
pinecone
o Evolved from a medial light-sensitive eye (third
eye)
o Cyclostomes pineal eye in primitive fish and
some modern reptile
o Secreting the hormone melatonin

Melatonin ability to cause blanching of the skin of


lower vertebrates by reducing the dispersal of melanin
granules
o Melatonin levels in the blood increase in
darkness and fall during the daytime
o Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) of the
hypothalamus regulates the secretion of
melatonin

Major biological clock in vertebrates

45.5.3 Some Hormones are not Produced by


endocrine Glands

Treatment of Diabetes
o Insulin only hormone that promotes movement
of glucose from blood into cells
o Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus
lack the insulin secreting cells and produce no
insulin

Treatment: insulin injections


o Type II (non-insulin dependent) diabetes
mellitus normal or even above normal levels of
insulin in their blood but their cells have a
reduced sensitivity to insulin

90% of cases of diabetes in North America

346 million suffer from diabetes worldwide

Thymus site of T cell maturation in mammals


o Secretes number of hormones that function in the
regulation of immune system

Right Atrium (heart) secretes atrial natriuretic


hormone
o ANH stimulate kidneys to excrete salt and
water in the urine

Kidney secretes erythropoietin


o Erythropoietin stimulates the bone marrow to
produce red blood cells

Liver, stomach, small intestine secrete hormones

Skin secretes vitamin D

45.5.4 Insect Hormones Control Molting and


Metamorphosis

(invertebrates) hormones control reproduction,


growth and color change

(insects) hormones similar to role of thyroid in


amphibian metamorphosis
o Postembryonic development hardened
exoskeleton do not expand

Insects undergoes series of molts wherein


they shed their old exoskeleton and secrete
a new larger one

(Juvenile insect or larva) metamorphosis


radical transformation to the adult form
during a single molt
o Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) small
peptide secreted by the neurosecretory cells on
the surface of the brain prior to molting

Stimulates a prothoracic gland (gland in


the thorax) to produce molting hormone
(ecdysone)
o Corpora allata pair of endocrine glands near
the brain

produce Juvenile hormone


high level JH prevents the
transformation to the adult and results in
a larval-to-larval molt
low level JH molt will result in
metamorphosis

45.5.5 Cancer Cells may Alter Hormone


Production or have altered Hormonal Responses

tumors, developed in endocrine glands, anterior


pituitary or thyroid - produce excessive amount of
hormones causing gigantism or hyperthyroidism
mutation in growth factor receptors activates
excessive cell division resulting tumor formation

diethylstilbestrol (DES) synthetic estrogen that


was given to pregnant women from 1940 -1970 to
prevent miscarriage
o daughters exposed to DES as fetuses had an
elevated probability of developing a rare form of
cervical cancer

developmental alterations elicited by a hormone may


take many years to become apparent

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