Surface Runoff &

Hydrograph Analysis

Surface Runoff
rainfall = evaporation + infiltration +
depression storage + surface runoff
surplus over all other losses
gravitational flow over surface to channel
if rain intense or prolonged surface
runoff overflow of river channel
flooding damage to property & life
2

Surface Runoff (cont)

concerned with magnitude & dimension of
runoff for a particular catchment with time
determine frequency & duration of
discharge with time
how to reduce discharge volume
cost of flood prevention damage arisen
value of stored flood water in drought time
3

Catchment Characteristics
catchment area
peak runoff/area & min. runoff/area
main stream length
slope of catchment
steeper slope peak runoff

catchment orientation
seasonal pattern of wind & storm direction

shape of catchment
4

Catchment Characteristics (cont)

annual average rainfall
stream frequency
affect time of concentration

baseflow
catchments underground storage

lake & reservoir area

stores surface water & smooth out hydrograph

soil moisture deficit

5

Climatic Factors
effect of storm movement on surface runoff
if areal extent of storm not cover whole
catchment runoff lesser
rainfall intensity = depth/duration
rainfall duration
time of concentration
time taken by water to flow through stream
channels to control section
6

Influence of Duration on Runoff

Hydrograph

Influence of Duration on Runoff

Hydrograph (cont)
uniform intensity rain with constant depth
storm covering whole catchment area
after time of conc., runoff rate = constant
effect of short periods of rain = subtraction
of 2 hydrographs of longer periods
exceeding tc separated by short period
typical shape of most hydrographs
8

Rainfall/Runoff Correlation
general cause-&-effect relationship
not direct one
establish empirical relationship for
particular catchment
based on annual precipitation & runoff
use water year
12 month period starting & finishing at time of
seasonal minimum flow

Rainfall/Runoff Correlation (cont)

10

Rainfall/Runoff Correlation (cont)

R = P/y - x
where P = annual precipitation

R = annual runoff

has limitation
variation from straight line due to
markedly higher/lower groundwater levels in
preceding year
variation in seasonal distribution of rainfall
11

Flow Rating Curves & Adjustment

12

Flow Rating Curves & Adjustment (cont)

graph between water level elevation (stage)
& discharge at certain cross-section
measured on falling or rising stage
looping effect due to
channel storage (S = BLh/t)
example 6.1

variation in surface slope as flood wave moves

along channel
13

Rating Curve Adjustment

Manning formula Q = Am2/3s1/2/n
A, h, n are constant & s changes with Q
rising stage greater slope discharge
right on rating curve
falling stage left on rating curve
correct discharge measurement to steady
state condition
Q s1/2 & Qa (ss)1/2

14

Rating Curve Adjustment (cont)

15

Rating Curves Adjustment (cont)

s=(dh/dt)/U
dh/dt +ve for rising stage & -ve for falling stage

Qa/Q = {[s+(dh/dt)/U]/s}1/2
= {1+(dh/dt)/(Us)}1/2
flood wave celerity U 1.3Qa/A
Q = Qa/{1+(Adh/dt)/(1.3Qas)}1/2
example 6.2
16

Extension of Rating Curves

rare occurrence of high flood conditions
need to determine probable discharge occur
at long return period
3 ways of rating curve extension
fitting equation to curve
Q = k(h-a)x
where h
= stage
k & x = constant
17

Extension of Rating Curves (cont)

Stevens method
Chezy formula Q = AC(ms)1/2
Cs constant = k, m D
Q = kAD
take account of varying stream geometry

slope-area method
Mannings equation Q = Am2/3s1/2/n
measure water slope & area
dependence on n
18

Measurement of Discharge
velocity area method
for medium to large rivers
isovel plotting or sectional averaging

19

Measurement of Discharge (cont)

flow measuring structures
v-notch, compound weirs

dilution gauging
continuous source m(kg/s) at upstream
sampling c(kg/m3) at complete mixing region
m = cQ

20

10

Hydrograph Analysis

21

Hydrograph Analysis (cont)

discharge vs. time
baseflow
groundwater contribution from aquifers
discharge more & more slowly with time
Qt= Q0e-t
where Q0 = discharge at start of period
Qt = discharge at end of time t
= coefficient of aquifer
22

11

Hydrograph Analysis (cont)

net effective rain
gross rain - (infiltration, evaporation,
interception losses)

rising limb
recession limb
groundwater depletion curve
infiltration & percolation continuing during
gross rain period
23

Contribution of Baseflow
influent stream
-ve base flow, stream feeds groundwater

effluent stream
+ve base flow, groundwater feeds stream
act as drain for bordering aquifer

perennial stream
low dry-season flow fed by base flow
mainly effluent streams
24

12

Separation of Baseflow & Runoff

25

Separation of Baseflow & Runoff (cont)

dividing line is indeterminate
constant base flow
point of greatest curvature on recession limb of
hydrograph
constant time after flood peak

surface runoff = runoff hydrograph baseflow

26

13

Unit Hydrograph (unit graph)

correlation between net/effective rain &
surface runoff
3 principles
different intensities of rain of same duration
produce runoff of same period of time
principle of proportion - different rain
intensities of same duration produce runoff
hydrograph in same proportion as intensities
principle of superposition

27

Unit Hydrograph (cont)

28

14

Unit Hydrograph (cont)

29

Unit Rain Concept

unit depth = 1 cm [L] over catchment area
volume of rainfall = [L]3
[L]2
area under hydrograph curve
[L3/T] x [T] = [L]3 = volume of runoff

identical quantities [L]3

if unit graph of duration t1 for a catchment
known any rain of same duration known
transform unitgraph to other duration t2
30

15

Method of Superposition

31

Method of Superposition (cont)

change unitgraph of short duration t1 to unit
graph of longer duration t2
t2 = Nt1 (integer multiple)
N unit & Nt1 duration hydrograph =
[unitgraph of duration t1with time lag t1]
unitgraph of duration t2 = above
hydrograph/N
32

16

S-curve Method
change unitgraph of duration t1 to unitgraph
of duration t2
no limitation (t2 > t1 or t2 < t1)
S-curve
hydrograph of runoff of continuous rainfall at
intensity 1/t1
discharge become constant after tc
33

S-curve Method (cont)

34

17

S-curve Method (cont)

S-curve shifted by t2
S-curve difference = t1 hr S-curve (started at t=0)
- t1 hr S-curve (started at t = t2)
= hydrograph of duration t2
hr & intensity 1/t1 cm/hr
t2 hr unit hydrograph = above hydrograph
x(t1/ t2)
35

S-curve Method (cont)

equilibrium flow Qe (m3/s)
1 cm of rain on catchment supplied & removed
every t1 hr
= 2.78A (km2) /t1 (hr)

Qe = tabulated S-curve terminated value

serve as check on validity of unit graph
example 7.1
36

18

S-curve Method (cont)

S-curve additions
S-curve ordinates shifted by t1 hr

first t1 hr of unitgraph & S-curve are same

S-curve additions & S-curve columns are
filled in, in alternate steps
same effect as setting out unitgraph
ordinates successively staggered at t1 hr
S-curve additions represent sum of all
37
previous unitgraph ordinates

Flood Routing
procedure to obtain hydrograph at
downstream point D(t) from hydrograph for
point upstream I(t)
how flood wave be reduced in magnitude &
lengthened in time by storage in reach
between 2 points
38

19

Storage Equation
assumed that storage capacity not change
substantially in time
can be used to route predicted longer flood
non-uniform surface slope during flood
prism storage
wedge storage
39

Storage Equation (cont)

40

20

Storage Equation (cont)

continuity of flow through reach
I = D + dS/dt
where I
= inflow to reach
D
= discharge to reach
dS/dt = rate of change in reach storage

for time interval t, approximated as

(I1 + I2)t/2 - (D1+D2)t/2 = S2 - S1
subscripts 1 & 2 at start & end of time t
41

Storage Equation (cont)

given I(t) & initial D
determine D(t)
inflow (I) & outflow (D) hydrographs
consist of series of straight lines
if routing period t too long, may miss peak
flow
if t too short, amount of computation
42

21

Reservoir Routing
no wedge storage discharge is function
of surface elevation
reservoir receiving inflow at one end
discharge through spillway at other
storage (S) is function of discharge (D) only
required information
elevation - discharge curve
elevation - storage curve
inflow hydrograph

43

Reservoir Routing (cont)

choose storage unit so that routing period t
= 1 unit
construct D vs. S Dt/2 & S relationships
assume initial discharge D1
find (S1-D1t/2) from D vs. S-Dt/2 curve
average successive pairs of inflow value
(I1+I2)/2
44

22

Reservoir Routing (cont)

arrange all known terms on LHS
(I1 + I2)t/2 + (S1 - D1t/2) = (S2 + D2t/2)

insert known values obtain (S2 + D2t/2)

deduce corresponding D2 from D vs. S+Dt/2
relationship
D2 becomes D1 in next routing period
example 8.1
45

Routing in River Channel

more complicated than for reservoir
involve wedge storage
storage is function of both inflow & outflow
Muskingum method
S = K[xI + (1-x)D]
where x = dimensionless constant for that river
reach
K = storage constant (dimension [T])
46

23

Routing in River Channel (cont)

47

Routing in River Channel (cont)

48

24

Routing in River Channel (cont)

try different x values
plot S vs [xI + (1-x)D]
until linear relationship established
particular x adopted
K obtained by measuring slope of line
storage eqn.
(I1 + I2)t/2 - (D1+D2)t/2 = S2 - S1
49

Muskingum Method
Muskingum eqn
S2 - S1 = K[x(I2 - I1) + (1-x) (D2 - D1)]
D2 = C0I2 + C1I1 + C2D1
where C0= -(Kx-0.5t)/(K-Kx+0.5t)
C1= (Kx+0.5t)/(K-Kx+0.5t)
C2= (K-Kx-0.5t)/(K-Kx+0.5t)

example 8.2
50

25

Muskingum Method (cont)

51

Graphical Routing Methods

if x = 0, S = KD
dS/dt = KdD/dt
Storage eqn. I - D = dS/dt
(I - D)/K = dD/dt
dD/dt represents slope of outflow
hydrograph
K plotted horizontally from each I value
52

26

Graphical Routing Methods (cont)

53

Graphical Routing Methods (cont)

line drawn from end of K line to previous D
value
construct outflow hydrograph
time interval accuracy
no need to have equal intervals
can vary K if know variation
x = 0 apply to reservoir routing only
54

27