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------------------------------------------------------------------1.

geography as a discipline
geography word coined by eratosthenese.
geo (earth) + graphy (description) => description of earth as abode of human lif
e.
geography derives its database from other natural and social science and attempt
s their synthesis.
geographer explains phenomena in a cause-effect relationship(asking why?).
thus it studies the interaction between human and nature as a whole.
humanised nature and naturalised human beings.
branches of geography:
human ecology - ecology => scientific study of habitat characteristics and their
species.
zoo geography - zoology => spatial pattern of animals their characteristics in t
heir habitats.
phyto geography - botany => spatial pattern of natural vegetation in their habit
ats.
soil geography - pedology => study of soil profiles and its distribution.
oceanography - hydrology => study of water bodies and its effects.
climatology - meteorology => study of elements of atmosphere, climate, weather.
geomorphology - geology => study of landforms, evolution and related processes.
economic geography - economics => study of economic activities.
population geography - demography => population, growth, settlement, distributio
n.
political geography - political science => political events, boundaries, neighbo
urs, elections etc.
historical geography - history => study of historical process.
social geography - sociology => aspects of society.
cultural geography - anthropology => aspects of culture.
environmental geography - environmental science => environmental problems like p
ollution, land gradation, conservation.
Approaches to study geography:
1> systematic
-introduced by alexander von humboldt (1769-1859) a german geographer.
-phenomen studied world over as a whole and then identification of patterns done
.
-branches of geography:
a>physical geography => geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, soil geography.
b>human geography => social/cultural, political/settlement, economic, historical
, political.
c>biogeography => interface between above two, plant, zoo, ecology, environment.
2> regional
-introduced by karl ritter (1779-1859) another german geographer.
-world divided into regional heirarchies and then all geographical phenomena in
that region studied.
-region can be natural, political or designated.
-branches of geography:
a>regional studies => macro, meso, micro regional studies.
b>regional planning => rural and urban planning.
c>regional development.
d>regional analysis.
two aspects common to every discipline are:
a>philosophy - geographical thought and human ecology.
b>methods and techniques - cartography, statistics, field survey, geo-informatic

s(GIS,GPS,remote sensing).
------------------------------------------------------------------2. origin and evolution of earth
<Origin of earth>
early theories:(formation of planets)
1>nebular hypothesis
-proposed by philosopher immanuel kant and revised by mathematician laplace in 1
796.
-planets were formed out of cloud of material associated with a youthful sun whi
ch was rotating slowly.
-chamberlain and moulton in 1900 proposed that a wandering star approached the s
un, cigar shaped extension of material was separated that started revolving arou
nd the sun and condensed into planets.
-later there were arguments proposing companion to the sun termed as "binary the
ories"
-otto schmidt in russia and carl weizascar detailed nebular hypothesis and propo
sed that sun was surrounded by solar nebula consisting mostly of hydrogen, heliu
m and dust. friction and collision let to formation of disk and accretion let to
formation of planets.
modern theories:(formation of universe)
1>big bang theory or expanding universe hypothesis
-edvin hubble in 1920 provided evidence for this.
-development stages:
--all matter in a tiny ball of unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature a
nd density.
--"tiny ball" exploded 13.7 billion years ago and energy got converted into mass
.
--within three minutes of big bang the first atom began to form.
--within 3 lac years temperature dropped to 4500K and gave rise to atomic matter
.
--star formation:
---difference in density and gravitational force leads to formation of galaxy.
---galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of very lar
ge cloud called nebula.
---in these we have localised clumps of gas that keep getting denser to form sta
rs.
---stars were formed 5-6 billion years ago.
--planet formation:
---stars are localized lumps of gas.
---grativational force leads to formation of core and huge rotating disc of gas
and dust around it.
---gas clound starts condensing and matter around core forms small objects which
come together to form planetesimals.
---these planetesimals accrete to form planets.
Our Solar System:
-contains 8 planets, 3 dwarf planets, 62 moons, one star, millions of asteroids/
comets and huge amount of dust grains and gaseous matter.
-galaxy was formed about 5-5.6 billion years ago.
-planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago.
-inner planets: mercury, venus, earth, mars since they lie between sun and aster
oids.
-outer planets: jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune beyond asteroids.
-terrestrial:
--earth like made up of rocks and metals

--consists of mercury, venus, earth, mars


--closer to star so too warm for gases to condense
--solar wind was strong to blow the gases and dust
--planets are smaller and their gravitation could not hold gases
-jovian:
--jupiter like since made up of gas
--consists of jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune
--much larger with dense atmosphere of hydrogen and helium
-Moon:
--only natural satellite of earth
--sir george darvin in 1838 suggested that moon formed from earth(became dumbel
shaped and then detached) and was part of depression occupied by the pacific oce
an a claim which is now refuted.
--present scientist accept the theory of giant impact or "bit splat"
--according to this, a body 1-3 times of mars collided with earth after its form
ation and blasted its mass in space. this kept revolving around the earth and ev
entually formed moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
|prop
|merc.|venus|earth|mars |jupiter |saturn |uranus |nep. |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
|distance|0.39 |0.72 |1.00 |1.52 |5.20
|9.54 |19.18 |30.06|
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
|density |5.44 |5.25 |5.52 |3.95 |1.33
|0.70 |1.17 |1.66 |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
|radius |0.38 |0.95 |1.00 |0.53 |11.19 |9.50 |4.11 |3.88 |
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
|satell. |0
|0
|1
|2
|16
|18
|17
|8
|
|---------------------------------------------------------------|
distance in AU, density in gm/cm3, radius in equatorial radius
<Evolution of earth>
transformation from rocky, barren, hot mass with hydrogen/helium atmosphere to p
resent layered form.
Lithosphere:
-increase in density lead to increase in temperature.
-due to this materials started getting separated according to their densities.
-with time it solidified with denser layers(like iron) at bottom and lighter one
s on top.
-"great impact" i.e. formation of moon lead to differentiation.
-layers: crust, mantle, outer core and inner core.
Atmosphere and Hydrosphere:
-loss of primordial atmosphere due to solar winds
-hot interior of earth contributed to evolution of atmosphere by degassing. then
the atmosphere consisted chiefly of water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, met
hane, ammonia and very little oxygen.
-water vapour condensed forming water, CO2 dissolved it further cooling and cond
ensing. this water got collected into the depressions forming oceans. this happe
ned around 4.0 billion years ago.
-life evolved around 3.8 billion years ago while photosynthesis around 2.5 to 3.
0 billion years ago.
-eventually oceans were saturated with oxygen around 2.0 billion years ago and m
ade its way in the atmosphere.
----------------------------------------------------------------|

eons |era
|period
|epoch
|age
|life
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|
|
|
|holocene |0-11K
|modern man |
|
|quaternary|
|
|
|
|
|
|Pleistocene|11k-2m |homo sapiens |
|cenozoic |----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
|
|Pliocene |2-5m
|early human |
|
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|
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|meocene
|5-24m
|apes
|
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|tertiary |
|
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|oligocene |24-38m |anthropoid |
|
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|eocene
|38-54m |rabbits
|
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|paleocene |54-65m |rats
|
|---------|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
|cretaceous|
|65-146m |dino.gone
|
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|mesozoic |jurassic |
|146-208m |birds/flowers|
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|triassic |
|208-240m |dino appears |
|---------|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
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|240-500m |
|
|paleozoic|
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|cambrian |
|500-570m |first verteb |
-------|---------|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
protero|
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zoic |pre
|
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|570m-2.5b|multicellular|
|
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|
-------|
|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
|
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archaen|cambrian |
|
|2.5b-3.9b|unicellular |
|
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|
-------|
|----------|-----------|---------|-------------|
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hadeon |age
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|3.9b-4.6b|rocks
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----------------------------------------------------------------|
------------------------------------------------------------------3. interior of the earth
determined only by indirect evidences since nobody had gone into the interior.
radius of earth: 6370 kms
direct sources:
rocks are direct sources.
gold mines in south africa are 3-4 kms deep. beyond this its too hot.
scientist working on projects to penetrate greater depths, two of which are "dee
p ocean drilling project" and "integrate ocean drilling project".
the deepest drill at kola in arctic has so far reached 12 kms.
volcanic eruptions and magma are another direct sources.
indirect sources:
with increase in depth temperature, pressure, density increases and volcanic eru
ptions.
indirect sources include: meteors(rocks similar to earth), gravitation(depends o
n mass, latitude), magnetic field(distribution of magnetic material), seismic ac
tivity(most important).

earthquake:
-all natural earthquakes occur in lithosphere(from surface to 200 kms deep).
-caused due to release of energy that generates waves that travel in all directi
ons.
-energy generally released at faults which are sharp break in crustal rocks and
tend to move in opposite direction leading to release of energy.
-point where energy is released is called focus of earthquake or "hypocenter".
-point on surface of earth nearest to focus is called "epicenter".
-earthquake waves are of two types: surface and body
-body waves:
--two types are p-waves and s-waves
--p-waves are primary waves and can travel through solid, liquid and gas
--p-waves are the first to be recorded
--p-waves are the only one which vibrate parallel to direction of propagation.
--p-waves shadow zone is between 105-145 degrees
--s-waves are secondary waves and reach surface after some lag
--s-waves can travel only through solid material and hence had helped us infer i
nterior structure of earth
--s-waves shadow zone is beyond 105 degrees
-surface waves:
--last to be reported on seismograph and most destructive since they propagate p
erpendicular to direction of propagation.
types of earthquakes:
-tectonic: sliding of rocks along a fault
-volcanic: special type of tectonic confined to volcanoes
-collapse: roofs of mines collapse causing minor tremors
-explosion: ground shaking due to explosion
-reservoir induced: due to reservoirs
measuring earthquakes:
magnitude => richter scale => 0-10 => relates to energy released
intensity => mercalli scale => 1-12 => takes into account visible damage
tsunamis are waves generated by tremors and not earthquakes. its effects are dev
astating provided the magnitude is more than 5 on richter scale.
structure of earth=>
the crust:
-outermost solid part of earth, brittle in nature
-mean thickness varies, ocean(5 kms), land(30 kms) and himalayas(70 kms)
-made up of heavier rocks(basalt) having density 3 gm/cm while in oceans its 2.7
g/cm
the mantle:
-lies below crust
-extends from moho's discontinuity to 2900 kms
-upper portion is called asthenosphere(weak), extends till 400 kms, main source
of magma, density 3.4 g/cm
-crust + upper mantle = lithosphere and extends till 10-200 kms
-lower mantle extends beyond asthenosphere and is in solid state
the core:
-core mantle boundary located at depth 2900 kms
-outer core in liquid while inner core is solid
-density at core-mantle boundary is 5 g/cm while at center its 13 g/cm
-made up of very heavy material, mostly nickel and iron hence known as "nife"
volcano types and landforms=>

shield volcanoes - mostly made up of basalt, largest of all types.-ex: Hawaii is


lands
composite volcanoes - eruption of cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt
caldera volcanoes - most explosive indication that source is quite near
flood basalt provinces - flow of lava covers large area e.g. deccan trap
mid ocean ridge - in oceans
lava on cooling forms igneous rocks
volcanic rocks - lava cools on surface
plutonic rocks - lava cools in crust
------------------------------------------------------------------4. distribution of oceans and continents
oceans: 71% and continents: 29%
"the continental drift theory"
-proposed by alfred wegener in 1912 regarding the distribution of oceans and con
tinents.
-initially we had PANGEA (all earth) and PANTHALASSA (all ocean).
-around 200 million years ago pangea spilt into two viz, laurasia and gondwanala
nd
-subsequently it split and reached the current form.
-evidences for continental drift:
--matching of continents (south america and africa).
--rocks of same age across oceans (oldest marine deposits on coastline of south
america and africa of jurassic age)
--placer deposits of gold in ghana and brazil
--distribution of fossils
-forces for drift: pole-fleeing due to rotation and tidal due to attraction of m
oon and sun
convectional current theory proposed by arthur holmes in 1930 discussing the pos
sibility of convectional current in the mantle of the earth.
this made available certain facts which were not evident from the drift theory,
-volcanic eruptions common along mid-oceanic ridge.
-ocean crust(200 million) much younger than continental crust(3.2 billion) and s
o are the sedimentary deposits.
-deep trenches have deep seated earthquakes while ridges have shallow ones.
ocean floor configuration: continental margin, abyssal plain, mid-ocean ridges.
seismic activity along the mid-ocean ridges (shallow) and pacific rim including
himalayan-alpine rim (deep). pacific rim also termed as "rim of fire" due to a n
umber of active volcanoes in the region.
based on the facts ascertained from convectional current theory hess proposed "s
ea floor spreading" hypothesis.
plate tectonics:
1. Africa; 2. South America; 3. Antarctica; 4. Australia; 5. India;
6. China; 7. North America; 8. Europe; 9. and 10. Siberia
7 9 10 4
3
6 5 2
8
1
-McKenzie, parker, morgan came up with plate tectonics.
-earth's lithosphere divided into 7 major and several minor plates.

-major plates: antartica, north america, south america, pacific, india-australia


-NZ, africa, eurasia
-minor plates: significant are, cocos(west of mexico), nazca(west of peru/chile)
, arabian plate, phillipine, caroline plate(north of new guinea), fuji(north-eas
t of australia)
-looks like the single landmass "pangea" was formed due to convergence and the p
lates have been moving continuously and will keep doing that in the future also.
-divergent boundary: new crust formed as plates move away from each other.(mid o
cean ridges)
-convergent boundary: one plate moves beneath another(gets destroyed). zone term
ed as "subduction zone"
-transform boundary: plates move along each other
--india started her northwards journey around 200 million years ago when pangea
broke.
--deccan traps formed around 60 million years ago.
--around 40 million years ago we crossed the equator and therafter formation of
himalayas started which is still going on.
------------------------------------------------------------------5. minerals and rocks
98% of earths crust is made up of 8 elements viz, oxygen, silicon, aluminium, ir
on, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium. rest contains titanium, hydrogen, pho
sphorus, manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and others.
percentage:
----------------------|oxygen
|46.60 |
|silicon
|27.72 |
|aluminium
| 8.13 |
|iron
| 5.00 |
|calcium
| 3.63 |
|sodium
| 2.83 |
|potassium
| 2.59 |
|magnesium
| 2.09 |
----------------------elements never occur in free state but appear in combined form as minerals.
some exceptions are silver, gold, copper, graphite, sulphur.
some 2000 minerals have been identified though the no. of elements are limited.
magma is the basic source of minerals.
mineral properties: crystal form, cleavage, fracture, lustre, color, streak, tra
nsparency, structure, hardness (talc, gypsum, calcite, fluorite, apatite, feldsp
ar, quartz, topaz, corundum, diamond) mohs scale, specific gravity
some major minerals:
feldspar:
-occupies half of the earth's crust
-composed of silicon and oxygen while some varities contain sodium, potassium, c
alcium, aluminium
-light pink to salmon color and used in ceramic and glass making
quartz:
-one of the most important component of sand and granite and composed of silica
-hard and virtually insoluble in water
-white or colorless and used in radio and radars
pyroxene:
-occupies 10% of earth's crust
-composed of calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron and silica

-green or black in color and found in meteorites


amphibole:
-occupies 7% of earth's crust
-aluminium, calcium, silica, iron, magnesium
-green or black in color and used in asbestos industry
mica:
-occupies 4% of earth's crust
-potasium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica
-found in igneous and metamorphic rocks
-used in electrical industry
olivine:
-magnesium, iron, silica
-found in basaltic rocks and used in jewellery
minerals can be metallic(precious, ferrous, non-ferrous) or non-metallic
Rocks:
-an aggregate of one or more minerals
-they do not have definite composition or mineral constituents
-feldspar and quartz are the common minerals found in rocks
-petrology is the study of rocks
types of rocks:
Igneous:
-formed from cooling of magma or lava and are the primary sources
-if cooled inside earth, grain size is large else it is small
-some examples are: granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia, tuff
Sedimentary:
-existing rocks worked on by external agents and then deposition (lithification)
-mechanically formed: sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess
-organically formed: geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal
-chemically formed: chert, limestone, halite, potash
Metamorphic rocks:
-formed due to recrystallisation under pressure, volume, temperature(PVT) change
s
-layers(foliated) or banded(non-foliated) types
-gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite
------------------------------------------------------------------6. geomorphic process
earth's surface is sensitive and its landforms depend on endogenic(internal to e
arth forces) and exogenic(external forces like atmosphere).
internal forces are termed land building forces while external are termed land d
egrading force.
due to their activities surface of earth is uneven.
geomorphic process: The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses
and chemical actions on earth materials and bringing about changes in the config
uration of the surface of the earth.
diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic processes.
exogenic process/agents include water, ice, wind.
movement occurs due to gravitation and gradients(low/high pressure/level).
Endogenic process:

-due to radioactivity, tidal friction, primordial heat.(thermal gradient)


-diastropism:
-processes that involve movement, elevation, build up process of earth's crust a
nd includes following
-orogenic - mountain building due to severe folding
-epeirogenic - uplift or warping of large part of earth's crust (continental bui
lding)
-earthquakes
-plate tectonics
-above processes cause faulting and fracturing of crust leading to PVT changes a
nd inducing metamorphism
-volcanism:
-movement of magma and forming of intrusive and extrusive landforms.
Exogenic process:
-stress is the main factor responsible for this process be it shear stress or gr
avitational stress or molecular stress.
-all execogenic processes are covered under the generic term "denudation"
>weathering:
-mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition due to various elements of
weather and climate.
-types of weathering: chemical, physical, biological
-chemical:
-solution - soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates, potassium, c
alcium
-carbonation - breaking down of feldspar and carbonate minerals
-hydration - calcium sulphate <-> gypsum, swelling and contraction of clay in ro
cks leading to disintegration
-redox - most commonly involved are iron, manganese, sulphur
-physical:
-unloading and expansion - exfoliation
-temperature changes and expansion - differential heating and expansion/contract
ion
-freezing, thawing and frost wedging
-salt weathering
-biological:
-burrowing, wedging, ploughing, algae, plant roots
-weathering leads to erosion. accumulation of minerals facilitates mass movement
though not required
>mass movements:
-agent is gravitational force
-aided by gradient slope, friction, less load etc
-heave, flow, slide are the three forms of movement
-slow, rapid, landslides
>erosion and deposition:
-most important of the degradation agents
-agents solid(glacier), liquid(water), gas(wind)
-who is more effective K.E=1/2*mv2
soil formation:
-soil:dynamic medium in which many chemical, physical and biological activities
go on constantly.
-weathered rock > colonized by bacteria, moss, lichens > humus accumulation due
to dead > minor grass and ferns grow > bushes and trees > burrowing > moisture r
etension > complex soil
-soil forming factors:

parent material,topography,climate,biological activity,time


------------------------------------------------------------------7. landforms and their evolution
-landforms --> landscapes
-work of geomorphic agents(running and ground water, glacier, wind, waves) over
long time
-erosion and deposition
-factors that can affect evolution of landforms: stability of sea level, tectoni
c stability of landmass, climate
Running water:
-overland flow and rivers and streams
-overland flow causes rills -> gullies -> streams -> river
-monadrocks(hilly area here n there in plains) and periplain(almost plain)
-stages: youth, mature, old
-erosional:
-valleys- from rills->gullies->valleys forming gorge(hard rocks) and canyons(sed
imentary).
-potholes and plunge pools- depressions and pits like foothills of water falls.
-incised or entrenched meanders- meanders on hard rocks(initial stages/upliftmen
t) meading to gorges/canyon. - lateral erosion
-river terraces- different flood plains, result of receding water, tectonic acti
vity, change in sea level etc - vertical erosion.
-depositional:
-alluvial fans- forming high cones, distributaries
-delta- low cones and stratified, distributaries
-flood plains, natural leeves and point bars
-meanders- oxbow lakes
-braided channels
Ground water:
-water percolates vertically and then flows horizontally. this flow is the main
factor in landform evolution
-mostly works on limestone and dolomites that can dissolve and precipitate
-erosional:
-pools, sinkholes, lapies, limestone pavements
-caves/tunnels
-depositional:
-stalactites, stalagmites and pillars
Glacier:
erosional:
-cirque- trough formed due to headward erosion of glacier
-horns and ridges- three or more cirques meet forming a horn. examples are mount
everest(highest peak in himalayas) and matterhorn(highest peak in alps)
-glacial valleys and troughs
depositional:
-moraines- long ridges of deposits of glacial tills
-eskers- melted water flowing on ground with ice as banks
-outwash plains- at the foot of glaiciers
-drumlins
Waves and Currents:
-high rocky coasts - cliff formation, spits, bars, lagoons, western coast of ind
ia
-low sedimentary coasts - gentle slope with marshes, lagoons which may turn swam
p and then into coastal plains

erosional:
-cliffs, terraces, caves, stack - erosional activity against rocks, deposition a
t foot called terraces, further lashing of waves leading to caves at bottom, rem
nants of retreating cliffs due to fallen caves termed stack
depositional:
-beaches/dunes- common along low sedimentary coasts
-bars/barriers/spits
Winds:
deflation - lifting and removal of dust and small particles from rocks
erosional:
-pediments and pediplains- gently inclined rocky floors at foot of mountains
-playas
-defaltion/hollow caves
-mushroom, table and pedestal rocks
depositional:
-sand dunes
-barchans
------------------------------------------------------------------8. composition and structure of atmosphere
99% of the total mass of atmosphere is confined to 32 kms.
carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only till 90 kms while oxygen is negli
gible after 120 kms.
---------------------------gas
percentage |
--------------------------nitrogen
78.08
|
oxygen
20.95
|
argon
0.93
|
carbon dioxide 0.036
|
neon
0.002
|
helium
0.0005
|
krypto
0.0001
|
xenon
0.00009
|
hydrogen
0.00005
|
--------------------------Gases:
-carbon dioxide is transparent to solar radiation but opaque to terrestorial rad
iation.
-it absorbs a part of latter and reflects back to earth and hence is responsible
for green house effect.
-percentage of co2 had been increasing in past few decades due to fossil fuels.
-ozone lies between 10-50 kms and absorbs the harmful ultraviolet rays and preve
nts it from reaching the earth.
water vapour:
-another variable component of air and can be 4%(in warm wet tropics) to less th
an 1%(cold deserts).
-decreases with increase in altitude and distance from equator.
-absorbs part of sun's insolation and prevents heat from radiating from earth an
d thus acts as a blanket and does not allows earth to get too cool or too hot.
dust particles:
-salts, smoke, soil, ash, dust
-generally concentrated in lower layers of atmosphere
-concentration more in sub-tropics and temperate zone compared to equator due to

winds
-act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses
structure of atmosphere:
-atmosphere divided into different layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere
, ionosphere and exosphere.
troposphere:
-average height of 13 kms. 8 at poles and 18 at equator.
-dust particles and smoke present.
-biologically most important layer.
-temperature decreases by 1 degree for every 165m height.
-changes in climate and weather take place in this layer.
stratosphere:
-tropopause separates it from troposphere.temperature here is -45 deg. at poles
and -80 deg at equator.
-stratosphere extends till 50 kms
-contains ozone layer
mesosphere:
-extends till 80 kms
-temperature decreases with altitude and reaches -100 degrees at 80 kms
-separated from ionosphere by mesopause
ionosphere:
-located between 80 and 400 kms
-contains electrically charged ions hence the name
-radio waves transmitted are reflected back to earth by this layer
-above this lies exosphere about which little is known.
generally we are concerned about the first two layers only.
------------------------------------------------------------------9. solar radiation, heat balance and temperature
differential heating and cooling of earth creates thermal gradient leading to wi
nds.
solar radiation:
-energy received in short wavelengths called incoming solar radiation or "insola
tion"
-rays falls obliquely on the atmosphere and received on an average 1.94 calories
per cm per minute
-distance between earth and sun: 4th july(152 million kms) termed aphelion and 3
rd january(147 million kms) termed perihelion
-insolation varies due to rotation of earth, inclination of sun rays, length of
day, (transparency of atmosphere, configuration of land)=> less effect
-earth's axis of rotation makes an angle 66.5 degrees with the plane of its orbi
t around the sun because of which the duration of day varies round the year.
-angle of inclination of sun rays distributes the energy to a greater area.
-near infrared radiations absorbed by water vapour, ozone and other gases.
-very small suspended particles in troposphere scatter visible spectrum giving r
ed/blue color to sky.
-insolation varies from 320 watt/m2 at equator to 70 watt/m2.
-maximum insolation is received over sub-tropical deserts which is less cloudy
-at same latitude insolation over continent is more as compared to oceans.
heating and cooling of atmosphere:
-sun rays reaching earth are reflected as long waves.
-conduction(unequal temperatures) and convection(vertical movement of air confin
ed to troposphere) takes place and layers of air in atmosphere get heated.
-transfer of heat due to horizontal movement is called advection.

terrestrial radiation:
-earth gets heated and transmits heat back in long waves.
-these long waves are absorbed to some extent by green house gases further heati
ng the atmosphere.
-atmosphere further transmits it back to space thereby maintaining the temperatu
re of earth which is explained in detail in heat budget below.
Heat Budget:
-100% insolation reaches top of atmosphere.
-35% is reflected back to space even before reaching the earths atmosphere (27%
by clouds, 2% by snow/ice and 6% by scattering) and is termed "albedo" of earth
-remaining 65% - 14% absorbed by atmosphere and 51% by earth
-earth radiated the 51% back (17% direct to space and 34% to atmosphere)
-of 34%, 6% directly, 9% turbulence and convection and 19% by condensation.
-insolation absorbed by atmosphere is also send back to space.
-which means total received from space 65% and returned back (14+34+17=65%)
factors for variation of temperature:
-latitude- due to inclination of sun rays
-altitude- more height less terrestrial radiation, less heat. per 1km temperatur
e decreases by 6.5%.
-distance from sea- sea gets heated and cooled slowly hence less temperature var
iance. land close to sea are influenced by breeze and hence moderated.
-air mass and ocean currents- warm air mass higher temperature and vice versa.
isotherms are line joining places having equal temperature.
------------------------------------------------------------------10. atmospheric circulation and weather system
-weight of air contained in a unit column from mean sea level to top of atmosphe
re is termed as atmospheric pressure measured using mercury or aneroid barometer
.
-unit is millibars or pascal. commonly used as kiloPascal written hPa.
-with increase in altitude pressure decreases
-though not strictly, pressure decreases by 1mb every 10m increase in elevation
in the lower layers of atmosphere.
-vertical pressure gradient is larger than horizontal but balanced by gravitatio
nal force and hence we don't see wind moving up.
-isobars: line joining places with similar pressure
-near equator pressure system is low and known as "equatorial low"
-around 30N and 30S pressure system is high and is known as "subtropical high"
-around 60N and 60S its low again and termed "sub polar low"
-poles are termed "polar highs"
-these zones are not permanent but move along with the apparant motion of the su
n.
Forces affecting the velocity and direction of wind:
-pressure gradient force- rate of change of pressure w.r.t distance.
-frictional force
-coriolis force: right movement in northern while left in southern hemisphere wh
en converging at ITCZ
--maximum at poles while absent at equator
--acts perpendicular to pressure gradient which is perpendicular to isobar
--hence in low pressure areas wind blows around it while at equator since there
is no coriolis force low pressure areas get filled up and hence no tropical cycl
ones there.
-pressure and wind
--wind circulation around low is called "cyclonic circulation" while around high
is called "anticyclonic circulation"

general circulation of atmosphere.


-latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating
-emergence of pressure belts and movement with their apparent motion of sun
-distribution of continents and oceans
-rotation of earth
hadley cell: column of air towards equator from tropics, upwards, back to tropic
s
ferrel cell: similar cell near poles
seasonal winds, local winds, land(night) and sea(day) breeze, mountain and valle
y winds, air masses, front(boundary between two air masses), extra tropical cycl
ones, tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, tornadoes
difference between tropical and extra-tropical cyclones:
-tropical cyclones occur in sea while extra-tropical can occur on land and sea.
-extra-tropical cyclones affect a much larger area.
-wind velocity in tropical cyclones are much higher and destructive.
-tropical cyclones move from east to west while extra-tropical move west to east
.
conditions for tropical cyclones:
-large sea surface with temperature more than 27 deg.
-presence of coriolis force
-small variation in vertical wind speed
-upper divergence above sea
-pre-existing low pressure area
cyclones that cross 20 N recurve and are more destructive
------------------------------------------------------------------11. water in the atmosphere
-moisture in air: evaporation form oceans and transpiration from plants.
-water vapour in air is termed as humidity.
-absolute and relative humidity. greater over oceans and less on continents.
-increase in temperature increases the moisture absorption and retention capacit
y of air and vice versa.
-air containing moisture to its full content is termed as saturated and at that
point the temperature is termed as dew point.
evaporation and condensation
dew:
-moisture deposited on cooler surfaces in the form of water droplets
-dew point should be above freezing point
frost:
-excess moisture deposited as ice crystals instead of droplets
-dew point should be at or below freezing point(zero degrees)
fog and mist:
-when temperature of air mass containing large water vapour falls suddenly
-fog is cloud with its base very near the ground
-in urban places smoke provides nuclei for condensation leading to smog
-mist are similar to fog only that they contain more moisture
clouds:
-cirrus- formed at 8-12 kms and always white and feathery

-cumulus- look like cotton wool, at 4-7 kms, flat base, scattered
-stratus- layeres
-nimbus- black/dark gray, dense, opaque, low, shapeless and contain thick vapour
precipitation:
after condensation its the release of moisture => rainfall, snowfall, sleet, hai
l
-rainfall types
--conventional
--orographic
-cyclonic
in general as we move away from the equator, rainfall decreases steadily.
coastal areas receive more rainfall than land.
------------------------------------------------------------------12. world climate and climate change
classification approaches:
empirical, genetic and applied
koeppen's scheme of clasification(empirical approach):
-close relationship between distribution of vegetation and climate
----------------------------------------------------------------|A-Tropical|tropical wet
|Af-no dry season
|
|humid
|tropical monsoon
|Am-monsoonal, short dry season |
|
|tropical wet n dry |Aw-winter dry season
|
|average temperature of coldest month is 18 degrees or higher |
----------------------------------------------------------------|B-Dry
|subtropical steppe |BSh-Low-latitude semi arid/dry |
|
|subtropical desert |BWh-Low-latitude arid/dry
|
|
|mid-latitude steppe |BSk-Mid-latitude semi arid/dry |
|
|mid-latitude desert |BWk-Mid-latitude arid/dry
|
|potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|C-Warm
|humid subtropical |Cfa-No dry season, warm summer |
|temperate |mediterrean
|Cs-Dry hot summer
|
|
|marine west coast |Cfb-No dry season, warm n cool |
|
|
|summer
|
|avg. temperature in coldest month between -3 and 18 deg.
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|D-Coldsnow|humid continental |Df-No dry season, severe winter|
|forest
|subarctic
|Dw-Winter dry and very severe |
|avg. temperature in coldest month -3 or below
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|E-Cold
|tundra
|ET-No true summer
|
|climate |polar ice cap
|EF-Perennial ice
|
|average temperature for all months below 10 degrees
|
----------------------------------------------------------------|H-Highland|highland
|H-Highland with snow cover
|
|cold due to elevation
|
----------------------------------------------------------------Group A:
-Af:tropical evergreen forests with dense canopy, bio-diversity, amazon, western
equatorial africa, east indies island, temperature 20-30 degrees, rainfall thro
ughout the year.
-Am:india, NE south america, northern australia. rainfall in summer and winter i
s dry.

-Aw:north and south of Af type climates, wet season is shorter while dry longer
with drought severe. deciduous forests and grasslands.north and south of amazon
forests. bolivia, paraguay, sudan, south of central africa.
Group B:
-very low rainfall not suitable for plant growth
-low latitude(15-30 degree) in subtropical high
-middle latitude(35-60 degree) confined to interior of continents where maritime
winds do not reach and its surrounded by mountains
-subtropical steppe receives slightly more rainfall than deserts enough for the
growth of sparse graslands. rainfall is highly variable
-The highest shade temperature of 58 C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on 13 S
eptember 1922.
Group C:
-30 to 50 latitude mainly from eastern and western
-humid subtropical - poleward tropic of cancer and
s, south china interior plains
-mediterranean- around mediteranean climate, along
30-40 degrees), central california, central chile,
rn coast of australia
-marine west coast- poleward to mediterranean west

margins of continents
capricorn, north indian plain
the west coast of continents(
south eastern and south weste
of continent

Group D:
-large continental area in north hemisphere between 40 and 70 north latitude
Group E:
-70 degree north latitude
-tundra- low growing moss, lichen, flowering plants due to short growing season
and water logging. sub-soil is permanently frozen.
-ice cap- interior greenland and antartica
Green house gases:
carbon dioxide(CO2),chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs),methane(CH4),nitrous oxide(N2O) an
d ozone(O3).
carbon dioxide- increasing at 0.5% annually, largest GHG, source is mainly fossi
l fuel combustion
-CFC- destroying ozone in stratosphere leading to ozone hole
-kyoto protocol - binds 35 industrialised nations to reduce their emissions by 2
012 to 5% less than the level in 1990.
-global warming leads to rise in sea levels
-year 1998 was the warmest year of the millenium.
------------------------------------------------------------------13. water (oceans)
water on earth hence "blue planet"
Hydrological cycle:
-circulation of water within earth's hydrosphere in different forms i.e. liquid,
solid, gas
oceans
ice caps and glaciers
groundwater
lakes
atmosphere
biosphere

:
:
:
:
:
:

97.25%
2.05%
0.68%
0.01%
0.001%
0.00004%

-71% of the planetary water is found in the oceans

-59% of the water that falls on the land returns to the atmosphere through evapo
ration
Relief of ocean floor
-continental shelf:
--extended margin of each continent
--shallowest part of ocean with average gradient of 1 degree of even less
--average width is 80 kms and varies from continent to continent
--siberian shelf is the largest one(1500 kms). while chile, west of sumatra don'
t have any
--source of fossil fuel due to massive deposition of sediments
-continental slope:
--end of shelf and steep slope with 2-5 deg. gradient.
--end of continents. this also connects shelf with ocean basins
--can be 200 metres to 3 km deep
-deep sea plain:
--gently sloping area's of ocean basin
--flatest and smoothest regions of the world
--width varies between 3 to 6 kms and is covered by silt and clay
-oceanic deep or trenches:
--deepest part of the oceans
--associated with active volcanoes and earthquakes
--57 deeps have been explored. 32 in pacific, 19 in atlantic and 6 in indian oce
an
minor relief features:
-mid-oceanic ridges:
--composed of two chains of mountains supported by large depression
--peaks can be as high as 2.5 km and can reach above sea level e.g. iceland
-seamount:
--mountain with pointed summits rising from sea floor but not reaching the surfa
ce
--3 to 4.5 km tall
--emperor seamount, hawaiian island
-submarine canyons,guyots, atoll etc
temperature of ocean waters:
-latitude: temperature decreases as distance from equator increases since insola
tion also decreases polewards.
-unequal distribution of land and sea: ocean in northern hemisphere surrounded b
y land receives more heat
-prevailing wind from land leading to longitudinal variation
-ocean currents
horizonal and vertical distribution of temperature:
-temperature decreases sharply after about 200-400 metres and this boundary is t
ermed thermocline
-about 90% of water lies below this layer and approaches 0 deg. celcius
-maximum temperature of oceans is at the surface
salinity:
vertical:
-total content of dissolved salt in sea water
-amount of salt in gms in 1000 gms of sea water and unit is ppt(parts per thousa

nd)
-24.7 ppt is termed upper limit of brackish water
-highest salinity: lake van in turkey (330 ppt), dead sea (238), great salt lake
(220)
-dissolved salts in sea water
chlorine
: 18.97%
sodium
: 10.47%
sulphate
: 2.65%
magnesium
: 1.28%
calcium
: 0.41%
potassium
: 0.38%
horizontal:
average salinity,
indian ocean
: 35 ppt
atlantic
: 36 ppt
------------------------------------------------------------------14. movements of ocean water
vertical - due to tides
horizontal - ocean currents(water moves in one direction), waves(water does not
moves here)
Waves:
-wind provides energy to waves
-stagnant deep water is not affected
-steep waves from local winds, slow and steady winds from far away places possib
le another hemisphere
-water particles vibrate at its place when waves travel
Tides:
-rise and fall in water level due to attraction of sun and moon(more effective)
-another factor is the centrifugal force which is balancing gravitational force
and causing tidal bulge on both sides together with the lunar attraction
-highest tides occur in the bay of fundy, nova scotia, canada with tide bulge of
15-16 m
-types:
-based on frequency
semi-diurnal tide: most common with 2 high and 2 low each day
diurnal tide: one high and one low each day
mixed tide: of varying height occuring in west coast of north america and pacifi
c islands
-based on sun, moon, earth positions
-spring tides: when sun, moon, earth are in straight line. height of tide is hig
h and occurs twice a month once every full moon and new moon day.
-neap tides: seven day interval between neap and spring. sun and moon are at rig
ht angles to each other and their forces counteract. moon closest to earth(perig
ee) unusually high and low tides, on apogee range is limited. similarly when sun
is closer (perihelion around 3rd jan) range is bigger compared to aphelion(4th
july).
time interval between high and low tide: ebb
time interval between low and high tide: flow/flood
can be quite useful in power generation. 3 MW tidal project is underway at durga
duani in sunderbans, west bengal
Ocean tides:

-similar to river flows in oceans


-primary forces initiate while secondary forces influence motion
-primary forces: insolation, wind, gravity, coriolis force
-currents measured by their strength in knots. most have speed less than 5 knots
-types:
-surface currents: 10% of ocean water. top 400 metres
-deep water currents: remaining 90% of water
-cold currents: bringing cold water into warm areas(west coast of continents, ea
st coast in north hemisphere)
-warm currents: bringing warm water into cold areas (east coast of continents in
low and mid latitudes)
mixing of warm and cold water replenish oxygen and favor growth of planktons whi
ch is food for fish and hence such areas form the best fishing zones.
------------------------------------------------------------------15. life on earth
done with three major realms of environment, viz. lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmo
sphere.
now onto bioshpere which includes all living components on earth and their inter
action with environment.
interaction important for development and evolution of organisms.
Ecology:
-the interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors within
a particular habitat resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cyc
les on land, water and air, are called ecological systems.
-ernst haeckel, german zoologist was the first to use this term in 1869.
-terrestrial ecosystems: further into biomes which is plant and animal community
covering large geographical area. e.g. forest, grasland, desert, tundra
-aquatic ecosystems: marine and freshwater ecosystems
structure and fuctions:
food chain: grazing food chain and detritus food chain
producers -> primary consumer + decomposers -> secondary consumer + decomposers> tertiary consumer + decomposers
bio-geo chemical cycles:
-of the total insolation reaching the earth only 0.1% is fixed by photosynthesis
-of this more than half is used by plants for respiration while remaining is tem
porarily stored
-life exists on earth due to flow of energy in cycles
-cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the organism and
the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles
two types: gaseous(involving atmosphere) and sedimentary(soil and other rocks)
-water cycle
-carbon cycle: photosysthesis, carbohydrates, food, decomposition leading to rel
ease
-oxygen cycle: photosysthesis, oxidation, release of energy and back to co2
-nitrogen cycle: only few species such as soil bacteria and blue-green algae cap
able of utilizing directly from atmosphere. once nitrogen is fixed it can b util
ized by plants and animals. denitrification done by some soil bacteria again rel
ease it to atmosphere.
world biomes:
1>forest
subtypes:
A. Tropical A1. Equitorial A2. Deciduous

B. Temperate
C. Boreal
regions:
A1. 10 N-S,
A2. 10 - 25 N-S,
B. Eastern North America, N.E. Asia, Western and Central Europe
C. Broad belt of Eurasia and North America, parts of Siberia, Alaska, Canada and
Scandinavia
climate:
A1. Temp. 20-25C, evenly distributed
A2. Temp. 25-30C Rainfall, ave. ann. 100 cms, seasonal
B. Temp. 20-30 C, Rainfall evenly distributed 75-150 cms, Welldefined seasons and
distinct winter.
C. Short moist moderately warm summers and long cold dry winter;very low tempera
tures. Precipitation mostly snowfall 40 -100 cms
2>Deserts:
subtypes:
A. Hot and Dry desert
B. Semi arid desert
C. Coastal desert
D. Cold desert
regions:
A. Sahara, Kalahari , Marusthali, Rub-el-Khali
B. Marginal areas of hot deserts
C. Atacama
D. Tundra climatic regions
climate:
A. Temp. 20 - 45C.
B. 21 - 38C.
C. 15 - 35C.
D. 2 - 25C
A-D Rainfall is less than 50 mm
3>Grassland:
subtypes:
A. Tropical Savannah
B. Temperate Steppe
regions:
A. Large areas of Africa ,Australia, South America and India
B. Parts of Eurasia and North America
climate:
A. Warm hot climates, Rainfall 50-125 cms
B. Hot summers and cold winter.Rainfall 50-90 cms
4> aquatic:
subtypes:
A. Freshwater
B. Marine
region:
A. Lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands
B. Oceans, coral reefs, lagoons and estuaries

climate:
A-B Temperatures vary widely with cooler air temperatures and high humidity
------------------------------------------------------------------16. biodiversity and conservation
weathering mantle is the basis of diversity of vegetation and hence biodiversity
. this depends on insolation and water and hence such areas receiving these will
be rich in biodiversity.
biodiversity is not even and is found rich in the tropics.
biodiversity is termed as the number and variety of organisms found in a geograp
hical area.
biodiversity can be discussed at three levels: genetic diversity, species divers
ity(ecological hotspots), ecosystem diversity.
world conservation strategy suggested measures for biodiversity conservation:
(i) Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.
(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.
(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals a
nd
their wild relatives should be preserved;
(iv) Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their pr
otection.
(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be saf
eguarded and protected.
(vi) International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.
some countries situated in the tropics contain a lot of diverse organism and are
termed as mega-diversity centers.
There are 12 such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Zai
re, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia,Indonesia and Australia
Ecological hotspots of the world:
central american highland forest
central american lowland forest
western equador and columbian choco,
tropical andes,
atlantic forest, brazil
upper guinean forest
eastern arc mountains, tanzania
eastern madagaskar
western ghats, india
eastern himalayas
sinharaja forest, srilanka
peninsular malaya
indonesia
phillipines
northern bomeo
queesland
melanesia
-------------------------------------------------------------------

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