Eagle - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle

Eagle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Eagle is a common name for many large birds of prey of the family Accipitridae; it belongs to several
groups of genera that are not necessarily closely related to each other.

Eagle

Most of the 60 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa.[1] Outside this area, just 14 species can
be found two in North America, nine in Central and South America, and three in Australia.

Contents
1 Description
2 Distribution
3 Groups
3.1 Fish eagles
3.2 Booted eagles
3.3 Snake eagles
3.4 Harpy eagles
4 Species
5 Eagles in culture
5.1 Etymology
5.2 Religion and folklore
5.3 Heraldry
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Bald eagle

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Chordata

Class:

Aves

Order:

Accipitriformes

Family:

Accipitridae

Description
Eagles are large, powerfully built birds of prey, with a heavy head and beak. Even the smallest
eagles, like the booted eagle (Aquila pennata) (which is comparable in size to a common buzzard
(Buteo buteo) or red-tailed hawk (B. jamaicensis)), have relatively longer and more evenly broad
wings, and more direct, faster flight despite the reduced size of aerodynamic feathers. Most eagles
Golden eagle
are larger than any other raptors apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the
South Nicobar serpent eagle (Spilornis klossi), at 450 g (0.99 lb) and 40 cm (16 in). The largest
species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have very large hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong
muscular legs, and powerful talons. The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey. Eagles' eyes are extremely
powerful, having up to 3.6 times human acuity for the martial eagle, which enables them to spot potential prey from a very long
distance.[2] This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction (scattering) of the
incoming light. The female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male.[3][4]
Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in tall trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick
frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched. The dominant chick tends to be a female, as they are bigger than the male. The
parents take no action to stop the killing.[5][6]
Due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The
type of prey varies by genus. The Haliaeetus and Ichthyophaga eagles prefer to capture fish, though the species in the former often
capture various animals, especially other water birds, and are powerful kleptoparasites of other birds. The snake and serpent eagles of
the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and
Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, taking almost any medium-sized vertebrate they
can catch. Where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may
assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich Spizaetus genus, live
predominantly in woodlands and forest. These eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are
often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with
some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based their environment and prey at any given time. Most eagles grab
prey without landing and take flight with it so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart.[7]
The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest load verified to be carried by any flying bird, since one eagle flew with a 6.8 kg
(15 lb) mule deer fawn.[8] However, a few eagles may target prey considerably heavier than themselves; such prey is too heavy to fly
with, thus it is either eaten at the site of the kill or taken in pieces back to a perch or nest. Golden and crowned eagles have killed
ungulates weighing up to 30 kg (66 lb) and a martial eagle even killed a 37 kg (82 lb) duiker, 78 times heavier than the preying eagle.
[7][9] Authors on birds David Allen Sibley, Pete Dunne, and Clay Sutton described the behavioral difference between hunting eagles and
other birds of prey thus (in this case the bald and golden eagles as compared to other North American raptors):[10]
They have at least one singular characteristic. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders
before striking prey (or shortly thereafter); predation is after all a two-edged sword. All hawks seem to have this habit, from
the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous but not the Eagles.
Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey: only the condors and some of the Old World vultures are markedly larger. It is
regularly debated which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body
1 6 mass, or wingspan. Different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species. For02/05/2016 03:48 AM
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Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey: only the condors and some of the Old World vultures are markedly larger. It is
regularly debated which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body
mass, or wingspan. Different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species. For
example, many forest-dwelling eagles, including the very large harpy and Philippine eagles, have relatively short wingspans, a feature
necessary for being able to maneuver in quick, short bursts through dense forested habitats.[7] Eagles in the genus Aquila, though
found almost strictly in open country, are superlative soarers, and have relatively long wings for their size.[7]
These lists of the top five eagles are based on weight, length, and wingspan, respectively. Unless otherwise noted by reference, the
figures listed are the median reported for each measurement in the guide Raptors of the World[11] in which only measurements that
could be personally verified by the authors were listed.[7]
Rank Common name

Scientific name

Body mass

Steller's sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus

6.7 kilograms (15 lb)

Philippine eagle

Pithecophaga jefferyi

6.35 kg (14.0 lb)

Harpy eagle

Harpia harpyja

5.95 kg (13.1 lb)

White-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla

Martial eagle

Rank

Common name

4.8 kg (11 lb)[12]

Polemaetus bellicosus 4.6 kg (10 lb)[12]

Scientific name

Total length

Philippine eagle

Pithecophaga jefferyi

100 cm (3 ft 3 in)[13]

Harpy eagle

Harpia harpyja

98.5 cm (3 ft 3 in)

Wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax

95.5 cm (3 ft 2 in)

Steller's sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus

95 cm (3 ft 1 in)

Crowned eagle

Rank

Common name

Stephanoaetus coronatus 87.5 cm (2 ft 10 in)

Scientific name

Median wingspan

Philippine eagle

Pithecophaga jefferyi

220 cm (7 ft 3 in)

White-tailed eagle

Haliaeetus albicilla

218.5 cm (7 ft 2 in)

Steller's sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus

212.5 cm (7 ft 0 in)

Wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax

210 cm (6 ft 11 in)[14][15]

Golden eagle

Aquila chrysaetos

207 cm (6 ft 9 in)

Martial eagle

Polemaetus bellicosus 206.5 cm (6 ft 9 in)

Distribution
Nearctic (USA and Canada): golden eagle (also found in Palearctic), bald eagle
Neotropical (Central and South America): Spizaetus (four species), solitary eagles (two spp.), harpy eagle, crested eagle, blackchested buzzard-eagle
Australasian
Australia: wedge-tailed eagle (range extends into southern New Guinea), white-bellied sea-eagle (range extends into Asia),
little eagle
New Guinea: Papuan eagle, white-bellied sea-eagle, pygmy eagle

Groups
Eagles are often informally divided into four groups.[note 1][17]
The snake eagles are placed in the subfamily Circaetinae. The fish eagles, booted eagles, and harpy eagles have traditionally been
placed in the subfamily Buteoninae together with the buzzard-hawks (buteonine hawks) and harriers. Some authors may treat these
groups as tribes of the Buteoninae; Lerner & Mindell [18] proposed separating the eagle groups into their own subfamilies of Accipitridae.

Fish eagles
Sea eagles or fish eagles take fish as a large part of their diets, either fresh or as carrion.
Proposed subfamily Haliaeetinae. Genera: Haliaeetus, Ichthyophaga.
Some authors include Gypohierax angolensis, the "vulturine fish eagle" (also called the palm-nut vulture) in this group.[17] However,
genetic analyses indicate it is related to a grouping of NeophronGypaetusEutriorchis (Egyptian vulture, bearded vulture (lammergeier),
and Madagascan serpent eagle).[19]
The fish eagles have a close genetic relationship with Haliastur and Milvus; the whole group is only distantly related to the Buteo
group.[19]

Booted eagles
Booted eagles or "true eagles"[17][20] have feathered tarsi (lower legs).
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Tribe Aquililae
or proposed
subfamily
Genera: Aquila, Hieraaetus; Spizaetus, Oroaetus, Spizastur; Nisaetus;[19] Ictinaetus,

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Booted eagles or "true eagles"[17][20] have feathered tarsi (lower legs).

Tribe Aquililae or proposed subfamily Aquilinae. Genera: Aquila, Hieraaetus; Spizaetus, Oroaetus, Spizastur; Nisaetus;[19] Ictinaetus,
Lophoaetus; Polemaetus; and Stephanoaetus.[17][20]
See comments under eagle species for changes to the composition of these genera.

Snake eagles
Snake or serpent eagles are, as the name suggests, adapted to hunting reptiles. [The bird does not look like a snake or serpent]
Subfamily Circaetinae. Genera: Circaetus, Spilornis, Dryotriorchis, Terathopius.[17]
Eutriorchis (subfamily Gypaetinae or Circaetinae).
Despite filling the niche of a snake eagle, genetic studies suggest that the Madagascan serpent eagle Eutriorchis is not related.[19]

Harpy eagles
Harpy eagles[17] or "giant forest eagles"[16] are large eagles that inhabit tropical forests. The group contains two to six species,
depending on the author. Although these birds occupy similar niches, and have traditionally been grouped together, they are not all
related: the solitary eagles are related to the black-hawks, and the Philippine eagle to the snake eagles.
Harpy eagles (proposed subfamily Harpiinae)
Harpia harpyja, harpy eagle Central and South America.
Morphnus guianensis, crested eagle Central and South America.
Harpyopsis novaeguineae, Papuan eagle New Guinea.
Philippine eagle
Pithecophaga jefferyi, Philippine eagle Philippines.
Solitary eagles
Chaco eagle or crowned solitary eagle, Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) coronatus South America.
Solitary eagle or montane solitary eagle, Buteogallus (formerly Harpyhaliaetus) solitarius South America.

Species
Major new research into eagle taxonomy suggests that the important genera Aquila and Hieraaetus
are not composed of nearest relatives, and it is likely that a reclassification of these genera will soon
take place, with some species being moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus.[18]
Bonelli's eagle and the African hawk-eagle have been moved from Hieraaetus to Aquila.
Either the greater spotted eagle and lesser spotted eagle should move from Aquila to join the
long-crested eagle in Lophaetus, or, perhaps better, all three of these species should move to
Ictinaetus with the black eagle.
The steppe eagle and tawny eagle, once thought to be conspecific, are not even each other's
nearest relatives.
Family Accipitridae
Subfamily Buteoninae hawks (buzzards), true eagles and seaeagles
Genus Geranoaetus
Black-chested buzzard-eagle, Geranoaetus melanoleucus
Genus Harpyhaliaetus
Chaco eagle, Harpyhaliaetus coronatus
Solitary eagle, H. solitarius
Genus Morphnus
Crested eagle, Morphnus guianensis
Genus Harpia
Harpy eagle, Harpia harpyja
Genus Pithecophaga
Philippine eagle, Pithecophaga jefferyi
Genus Harpyopsis
Papuan eagle, Harpyopsis novaeguineae
Genus Spizaetus
Black hawk-eagle, S. tyrannus
Ornate hawk-eagle, S. ornatus
Black-and-white hawk-eagle, S. melanoleucus - formerly Spizastur
Black-and-chestnut eagle, S. isidori - formerly Oroaetus
Genus Nisaetus - previously included in Spizaetus
Changeable or crested hawk-eagle, N. cirrhatus
Flores hawk-eagle N. floris - earlier a subspecies, S. c. floris
Sulawesi hawk-eagle, N. lanceolatus
Mountain hawk-eagle, N. nipalensis
Legge's hawk-eagle, Nisaetus kelaarti - previously a race of S. nipalensis
Blyth's hawk-eagle, N. alboniger
Javan hawk-eagle, N. bartelsi
(Northern) Philippine hawk-eagle, N. philippensis
Pinsker's hawk-eagle (Southern Philippine hawk-eagle), Nisaetus pinskeri 3 6
philippensis
pinskeri
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Martial eagle in Namibia.

Philippine eagle, Pithecophaga

jefferyi in Southern Philippines.

Wedge-tailed eagle in Australia.

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Wedge-tailed eagle in Australia.

(Northern) Philippine hawk-eagle, N. philippensis
Pinsker's hawk-eagle (Southern Philippine hawk-eagle), Nisaetus pinskeri earlier S. philippensis pinskeri
Wallace's hawk-eagle, N. nanus
Genus Lophaetus
Long-crested eagle, Lophaetus occipitalis possibly belongs in Ictinaetus
Genus Stephanoaetus
Crowned eagle, Stephanoaetus coronatus
Malagasy crowned eagle, Stephanoaetus mahery (extinct)
Genus Polemaetus
Martial eagle, Polemaetus bellicosus
Genus Hieraaetus
Ayres's hawk-eagle, H. ayresii
Little eagle, H. morphnoides
Pygmy eagle, H. weiskei - previously subspecies H. m. weiskei
Booted eagle, H. pennatus
Genus Harpagornis (extinct)
Haast's eagle, Harpagornis moorei possibly belongs in either Hieraaetus or Aquila[21]
Genus Lophotriorchis
Rufous-bellied hawk-eagle, L. kienerii
Genus Aquila
Bonelli's eagle, Aquila fasciata formerly Hieraaetus fasciatus
African hawk-eagle, A. spilogaster formerly in Hieraaetus
Cassin's hawk-eagle, A. africana formerly in Hieraaetus or Spizaetus genera
Golden eagle, A. chrysaetos
Eastern imperial eagle, A. heliaca
Spanish imperial eagle A. adalberti
Steppe eagle, A. nipalensis
Tawny eagle, A. rapax
A steppe eagle in Lahore Zoo,
Greater spotted eagle, A. clanga to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus
Pakistan
Lesser spotted eagle, A. pomarina to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus
Indian spotted eagle, A. hastata to be moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus
Verreaux's eagle, A. verreauxii
Gurney's eagle, A. gurneyi
Wahlberg's eagle, A. wahlbergi - to be moved to Hieraaetus
Wedge-tailed eagle, A. audax
Genus Ictinaetus
Black eagle, Ictinaetus malayensis
Genus Haliaeetus
White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla
Bald eagle, H. leucocephalus
Steller's sea eagle, H. pelagicus
African fish eagle, H. vocifer
White-bellied sea eagle, H. leucogaster
Sanford's sea eagle, H. sanfordi
Madagascar fish eagle, H. vociferoides
Pallas' sea eagle, H. leucoryphus
Genus Ichthyophaga
Lesser fish eagle, Ichthyophaga humilis
Grey-headed fish eagle, I. ichthyaetus

Subfamily Circaetinae: snake-eagles

Genus Terathopius
Bateleur, Terathopius ecaudatus
Genus Circaetus
Short-toed snake eagle, Circaetus gallicus
Black-chested snake eagle, C. pectoralis
Brown snake eagle, C. cinereus
Fasciated snake eagle, C. fasciolatus
Western banded snake eagle, C. cinerascens
Genus Dryotriorchis
Congo serpent eagle, D. spectabilis
Genus Spilornis
Crested serpent eagle, Spilornis cheela
Central Nicobar serpent eagle, S. minimus (subspecies or species)
Great Nicobar serpent eagle, S. klossi
Mountain serpent eagle, S. kinabaluensis
Sulawesi serpent eagle, S. rufipectus
Philippine serpent eagle, S. holospilus
Andaman serpent eagle, S. elgini
Genus Eutriorchis
Madagascar serpent eagle, Eutriorchis astur

Short-toed snake eagle in flight

Eagles in culture
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Etymology

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Etymology
The modern English term for the bird is derived from Latin: aquila by way of French: aigle. The origin
of aquila is unknown, but it is believed to possibly derive from either aquilus (meaning dark-colored,
swarthy, or blackish) as a reference to the plumage of eagles or from aquilo (meaning north wind).
Old English used the term earn, related to Scandinavia's rn/rn. It is similar to other Indo-European
terms for "bird" or "eagle", including Greek: (orns), Russian: (orl), and Welsh: eryr.
In Britain before 1678, eagle referred specifically to the golden eagle, with the other native species,
the white-tailed eagle, being known as erne. The modern name "golden eagle" for aquila chrysaetos
was introduced by the naturalist John Ray.

The sculpture of eagle at the top of

the fountain at Plac Ora Biaego
in Szczecin, Poland

Religion and folklore

The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped the animal and often depicted eagles in their art.[22]
The eagle is also the patron animal of the ancient Greek god Zeus. In particular, Zeus was said to
have taken the form of an eagle in order to abduct Ganymede, and there are numerous artistic
depictions of the eagle Zeus bearing Ganymede aloft, from Classical times up to the present (see
illustrations in the Ganymede (mythology) page.)
The United States eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American
ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for
religious or spiritual reasons.[23] In Canada, the poaching of eagle feathers for the booming U.S.
market has sometimes resulted in the arrests of First Nations person for the crime.[24]
Psalm 103 mentions renewing one's youth "as the eagle". Augustine of Hippo gives a curious
explanation of this in his commentary on the Psalms.[25]
The eagle is a common form in the Anglican tradition, often used to support the Bible because of the
symbolism of spreading the gospel over the world. Additional symbolic meanings for "eagle" include
the pronouncements to the Israelites in Exodus 19:4; Psalms 103:5 and Isaiah 40:31.
In Hinduism, Garuda is a lesser divinity, usually the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu. Garuda is depicted
as having the golden body of a strong man with a white face, red wings, and an eagle's beak and
with a crown on his head. This ancient deity was said to be massive, large enough to block out the
sun.

Eagle lectern in St James' Church,

Sydney.

A number of classical writers considered the eagle the "bird of Jove".[26]

Heraldry
Eagles are an exceptionally common symbol in heraldry, being considered the "King of Birds" in
contrast to the lion, the "King of Beasts". They are particularly popular in Germanic countries, due to
their association with the Holy Roman Empire. The eagle of the Holy Roman Empire was two-headed,
supposedly representing the two divisions, East and West, of the old Roman Empire.
Heraldic eagles are most often found displayed, i.e. with their wings and legs extended. They can
also occur close, i.e. with their wings folded, or rising, i.e. about to take flight. The heads, wings, and
legs of eagles can also be found independently.
The coat of arms and flag of Albania has a black double-headed eagle. Furthermore, the eagle
gives Albania its name (in Albanian Shqiperia means Land of the eagles) and Albanians call
themselves shqipetar or shqipe meaning eagles.
The coat of arms of Armenia has a gold eagle and a lion.
The coat of arms of Austria has a black eagle.
The coat of arms of the Czech Republic integrates the symbols of Moravia and Silesia (both
with female eagles in their emblems red-and-white chequered and black respectively) with
Bohemia's lion.
The coat of arms of Egypt is a golden eagle looking towards the viewer's left. It is taking from
the golden Eagle of Saladin founded on Saladin Citadel of Cairo.
The coat of arms of Germany has a black eagle.
The coat of arms of Ghana has two golden eagles holding it.
The coat of arms of Iceland has an eagle holding it, as well as a dragon, a bull and a giant.
The coat of arms of Indonesia has an eagle-like garuda carrying a shield on its neck and a
banner on its feet.
The coat of arms of Iraq has the golden Eagle of Saladin.
The Coat of Arms of Kurdistan has the eagle of the Medes
The coat of arms of Mexico has a golden eagle perched upon a cactus devouring a snake.
The coat of arms of Moldova consists of a stylized eagle holding a cross in its beak and a
sceptre and a branch in its claws.
The coat of arms of Montenegro represents the two-headed eagle in flight.
The coat of arms of Moravia has a red-and-white eagle.
The coat of arms of Navarre/Basque Country Kingdom has a black eagle.
The coat of arms of Nigeria has a red eagle on top.
The coat of arms of Palestine has the golden Eagle of Saladin.
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The coat of arms of Panama has a harpy eagle.
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Garuda, the Vahana of Lord

Vishnu, depicted with an eagle's
beak and wings.

Coat of Arms of Austria

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The coat of arms of Nigeria has a red eagle on top.

The coat of arms of Palestine has the golden Eagle of Saladin.
The coat of arms of Panama has a harpy eagle.
The coat of arms of the Philippines has the bald eagle of the United States as a symbol of its
colonial past, but the monkey-eating eagle is the de jure national bird of the country.
The coat of arms of Poland has a white eagle with a golden beak and talons wearing a golden
crown.
The coat of arms of Romania has a golden aquila holding a cross in its beak and a mace and a
sword in its claws.
The coat of arms of Russia has a gold double-headed eagle.
The coat of arms of Serbia has a white bicephalic eagle of the House of Nemanji.
The coat of arms of Syria formerly had the eagle of Saladin.
The Great Seal of the United States has a bald eagle.
The coat of arms of Yemen depicts a golden eagle with a scroll between its claws.
The coat of arms of Zambia has an orange red eagle on top.
The Polish and the Serbian eagles are distinguished by their white color.

Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor

Historic uses:
Persian Empire: the symbol of the Persian Army was an eagle.
The Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt used it as their seal.
Napoleon I used the Roman golden eagle as the symbol of his new French empire.
The Romans used it on the standards of their armies. From this derives:
The late Byzantine Empire chose a two-headed golden eagle as its symbol. It is popularly
that one head symbolised ancient Rome, and the other head symbolized "new Rome" at
Constantinople. From this derives:
The two-headed eagle is the emblem of "Shqipria" or Land of the Eagles, which is
known in English as Albania (see The Tale of the Eagle for the legendary origin of
the name).
After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Empire took the two-headed eagle as its
own symbol.
Arms of Napoleon, Emperor of the
After his crowning as the new Roman Emperor, Charlemagne adopted the ancient Roman
French - an eagle perched on a
eagle as his own symbol. The Holy Roman Empire born of his kingdom took the eagle.
thunderbolt
From this derives:
The Austrian Empire had a two-headed eagle as its symbol. After the abolition of
Austria-Hungary, Austria took as its symbol a one-headed eagle in the modern coat of arms of Austria.
Prussia, and later Germany have used a black eagle as their national symbol.
The Spanish Catholic monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand, used the eagle as a part of the royal shield representing Saint
John the Evangelist. The eagle was again on the Spanish shield under the Francoist regime and the transition to
Democracy (19391981).
The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks both used a double-headed eagle in their coats-of-arms.
During the 1930s and 1940s, Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany used a black eagle with its wings outstretched and clutching a swastika
as its insignia.

Notes
1. "There are four major groups of eagles: fish eagles, booted eagles, snake eagles and giant forest eagles."[16]

References
1. del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1994). Handbook of
the Birds of the World Volume 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl.
Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-15-6
2. Shlaer, Robert (1972). "An Eagle's Eye: Quality of the Retinal Image"
(PDF). Science 176 (4037): 920922.
doi:10.1126/science.176.4037.920. PMID 5033635. Retrieved
16 April 2012.
3. Leclerc, Georges Louis, Comte de Buffon (2010). The Natural
History of Birds: From the French of the Count de Buffon; Illustrated
with Engravings, and a Preface, Notes, and Additions, by the
Translator. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60.
ISBN 978-1-108-02298-9.
4. Grambo, Rebecca L. (2003). Eagles. Voyageur Press.
ISBN 978-0-89658-363-4.
5. Grambo, Rebecca L (2003). Eagles. Voyageur Press. p. 32.
ISBN 978-0-89658-363-4.
6. Stinson, Christopher H (1979). "On the Selective Advantage of
Fratricide in Raptors". Evolution 33 (4): 12191225.
doi:10.2307/2407480. JSTOR 2407480.
7. Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D. (2001). Raptors of the World. London:
Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-8026-1.
8. "Amazing Bird Records". Trails.com. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
9. Watson, Jeff (2011). The Golden Eagle: Second Edition.
ISBN 978-0-30017-019-1.
10. Sutton, C.; Dunne, P.; Sibley, D. (1989). Hawks in Flight: The Flight
Identification of North American Migrant Raptors. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-3955-1022-8.
11. Ferguson-Lees, et al.)
12. del Hoyo, J; Elliot, A; Sargatal, J (1996). Handbook of the Birds of
the World 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-20-2.
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13. Gamauf,
A., Preleuthner,
M.,version
and Winkler,
H. (1998). "Philippine Birds
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14. Morgan, A.M. "The spread and weight of the Wedge-tailed Eagle"
(PDF). South Australian Ornithologist 11: 156157.
15. Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and
Feats. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
16. Stalcup, Carolyn. "All About Eagles". The American Eagle
Foundation. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
17. Rutledge, Hope. "Eagles of the World". American Bald Eagle
Information. Retrieved 11 June 2014. from Grambo, Rebecca L.
(1999). Eagles. Voyageur Press, Inc.
18. Lerner, H. R. L.; Mindell, D. P. (2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old
World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and
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25. Psalm 103
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Augustine's commentary.