basic networking interview questions

What is ping? Why you use ping?

PING Stands for Packet InterNet Gopher. PING is used for connectivity checking of any network or any host or device
of any or other networks.
Routers are always preferrable for routing services. Routers work at which OSI layers?
Router works at network layer for providing routing services between or among several networks.
A gateway works in which layer?
Transport layer of OSI model.
How can you check the connectivity of any network?
By using ping command.
What is a gateway?
A gateway acts a door for the packet to reach the outside of the internal network.
What are the differences among router, switch, bridge and hub?
Router, switch, bridge and hub are network devices. Yet there are some differences among them. The main
differences are:

Router: A layer 3 device, can work on physical, data and network layer.

Switch: A layer 2 device, can work on data link layer

Bridge: A layer 2 device, can work on data link layer.

Hub: A layer 1device, just a multi-port repeater and works on physical layer
What is the range of class A address?
0-127 is the range of class A address.
Tell an IP which has class C range. Also tell why that IP is an class C address.

IP of Class C: 193.1.1.1

Why this is a class C address: Class C addresses have the range of 192 - 223
Name a device which can operate at physical layer of OSI model.
Hub.
Note: Remember, hub is the device that can work only into the physical layer of OSI model. But switch, router can
also be used instead of a hub. So, all the answers hub, switch or router are all correct.
What is the major differences between a router and a switch?

A router can divide the broadcast domain and collision domain. But a switch can only divide the collision domain.
Router can communicate among different networks where as the switch can not communicate different networks.
Hub operates at which layers of OSI model? Is it wise to use a hub for huge networks? Why or why not?

Hub operates at only physical layer of OSI model.

No, it's not so wise to use hub for a huge network.

Hubs can't divide the broadcast domain or the collision domain. So, if we use hubs then there creates huge
broadcast domain. When there are huge broadcast, the network gets problem time to time. So, it's not wise to use
hubs to support a huge network.
How many layers are in OSI model? Name them
There are seven layers of OSI model. The layers are:

1.

Application layer

2.

Presentation layer

3.

Session layer

4.

Transport layer

5.

Network layer

6.

Data link layer

7.

Physical layer
Note: You can remember the seven layer model by a simple sentence. Please Do Not Touch Steven's Pet Alligator.
See, the starting of each word forms the layer.
Why do you need to use a router?
Router can easily divide the broadcast domain and collision domain. So, to communicate among several networks,
routers are used.
What is the second layer of OSI model?
Data Link layer.
Name two network devices which can work as layer 2 device.
Switch and router
What is OSI model?

OSI revers for Open System Interconnection Reference Model. It is an abstract model for layered communications
and computer network protocol design. There are seven layers of OSI model which, from top to bottom, are the
Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data-Link, and Physical Layers.
OSI model also referred as OSI layered model, OIS layered technology, 7 layer model, OSI seven layer
model, OSI reference model.
What is the data unit of Data Link layer?
Frame
What are the difference between TCP and UDP?

TCP: Connection oriented protocol, acknowledged one, Point to point communication.

UDP: Connection less protocol, unreliable, less traffic

What is the port no of DNS and Telnet?

DNS port no: 53

Telnet port no: 23

What is the port no of SMTP and POP3?

SMPT port no: 25

POP3 port no: 110

What is the functionality of network layer? Name the data unint of network layer.

Functionality of network layer: Path determination and logical addressing

Data unit of network layer: Packet

Which three layers of OSI model is treated as "Media Layers"?
Physical layer, data link layer and network layer are treated as "Media Layers".
What is deadlock?
Deadlock is a situation when two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be caused by only
one of the waiting processes. The implementation of a semaphore with a waiting queue may result in this situation.
Mention the advantages and disadvantages of a router.
Advantages:

Router can limit the collision domain and broadcast domain

Router can function both on LAN & WAN.

Different media & architectures can be connected among themselves through router.

Router can determine best path/route for data to reach

the destination.

Router can filter the broadcasts.

For communicating different networks, routers must be used.

Disadvantage:

Router is more expensive than any other networking devices like Hub, Bridge & Switch.

Router only work with routable protocols.

Routing updates consume some bandwidth.

Increase latency due to greater degree of packet

filtering.

Routers function as software based and so it's slower compared to switch.

Mention the private IP address rannge of class B and C.

For Class B: 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255

For Class C: 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

What is the IP range of class C IP address?
240.0.0.0

255.255.255.255

What is the default subnet mask of class C IP address?

255.255.255.0
Why do you need subnet mask?
Subnet mask is required to divide a large network into several small networks.
Tell the full name: DNS, FTP

DNS: Domain Name System

FTP: File Transfer Protocol

What is the functionality or ARP?
ARP refers to Address Resolution Protocol. ARP is a computer networking protocol for determining a network host's
link layer or hardware address when only its Internet Layer (IP) or Network Layer address is known.
Which one is reliable: TCP or UDP?

TCP is reliable and UDP is an unreliable service.

How DHCP works?
DHCP works by four-steps: (1) IP request, (2) IP offer (3) IP selection and (d) Acknowledgement.
What is POP3? Why you require POP3?
POP stands for Post Office Protocol. This is used to describe how e-mail clients interact with mail servers. The POP3
Server is a type of mail server used for incoming mail. POP is only used to receive messages.
What is the difference between Layer 2 Switch and Layer 3 Switch?
Layer 2 switch is based on MAC addresses which operates on Data Link Layer of OSI mode. And Layer 3 switching
is based on network topology table populated and works on Network layer.

Cheat Chart: Some common terms

ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

DNS: Domain Name System

FTP: File Transfer Protocol

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol

IP: Internet Protocol

NNTP: Network News Transfer Protocol

POP3: Post Office Protocol 3

PPP: Point-to-Point Protocol

SMPP: Short Message Peer-to-Peer

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

UDP: User Datagram Protocol

Cheat Chart: OSI layers
OSI reference model has seven layers:

Application layer

Presentation layer

Session layer

Transport layer

Network layer

Data link layer

Physical layer
Cheat Chart: OSI layers functionality

Application layer: Network process to application

Presentation layer: Data representation and encryption

Session layer: Interhost communication

Transport layer: End-to-end connections and reliability

Network layer: Path determination and logical addressing

Data link layer: Physical addressing

Physical layer: Media, signal and binary transmission

Cheat Chart: TCP/IP reference model
TCP/IP reference model has four layers:

Application

Transport

Internet

Network Access
Cheat Chart: Data Units of OSI layers

Application layer...........Data

Presentation layer.........Data

Session layer.................Data

Transport layer..............Segment

Network layer................Packet

Data link layer...............Frame

Physical layer................Bit
Chear Chart: Default Port Numbers
Service

Port No.

FTP

-------- 20,21

SSH

--------

22

telnet --------

23

SMTP -------- 25

DNS

DHCP --------

67,68

TFTP --------

69

HTTP --------

80

POP3 -------- 110

NNTP -------- 119

NTP

IMAP4 -------- 143

LDAP -------- 389

HTTPS --------

443

IMAPS --------

993

RADIUS-------- 1812

AIM

--------

53

-------- 123

--------

5190

Cheat Chart: Public IP address ranges

Every computer in the Internet has an IP address. There are five types of IP address. In the following table, you will
find all the classes of IP address and the class name:
Class

Start address Finish Address

0.0.0.0

127.255.255.255

128.0.0.0

191.255.255.255

192.0.0.0

223.255.255.255

224.0.0.0

239.255.255.255

240.0.0.0

255.255.255.255

Cheat chart: Default subnet mask

In the following section, you will see the default subnet mask of each class:

For Class A: 255.0.0.0

For Class B: 255.255.0.0

For Class C: 255.255.255.0

Cheat Chart: Private IP address ranges
Public IP address is not so much. That's why the concept of private IP arises. In the following, you will find all the
private IP address ranges of all classes.

For Class A:

For Class B: 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255

For Class C: 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255

Cheat Chart: Host layers and media layers

Host layers: The upper four layers are known as Host layers. The layers of host layers includes : Application
layer, Presentation layer, Session layer and Transport layer.

Media layers: The lower three layers are known as Media layers. The layers of media layers are : Network layer,
Data link layer and Physical layer.

HSRP:
Hot Standby Routing Protocol, a proprietary protocol from Cisco. HSRP is a routing protocol
that provides backup to a router in the event of failure. Using HSRP, several routers are
connected to the same segment of an Ethernet, FDDI or token-ring network and work
together to present the appearance of a single virtual router on the LAN. The routers share
the same IP and MAC addresses, therefore in the event of failure of one router, the hosts on
the LAN are able to continue forwarding packets to a consistent IP and MAC address. The
process of transferring the routing responsibilities from one device to another is transparent
to the user.

VRRP :
Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol, an election protocol that dynamically assigns

responsibility for one or more virtual router(s) to the VRRP router(s) on a LAN,
allowing several routers on a multiaccess link to utilize the same virtual IP address.
A VRRP router is configured to run the VRRP protocol in conjunction with one or
more other routers attached to a LAN. In a VRRP setup, one router is elected as the
master router with the other routers acting as backups in case of the failure of the
master route

Short notes of OSI layers

Layer7(Application):
To allow access to network resources.
e.g: Telnet, FTP. NFS, NIS
Layer6(presentation):
To translate encrypt and compress datas.
e.g: jpeg, mpeg
Layer5(session):
To establish, manage and terminate sessions.
e.g: RPC
Layer4(Transport):
To provide reliable end to end message delivery and error recovery. e.g: TCP, UDP
Layer3(network layer):
To move packets from source to destination to provide internetworking.
e.g: ip, ARP/RARP/ICMP

Layer2(datalink layer):
To organize bits into frame to provide node-to-node delivery.
e.g:ethernet, FDDI, PPP, HDLC
Layer1(physical layer):
To transmit bits over a medium to provide mechanical and electrical specifications.
e.g: Fiber, coax, 100baseT

1) What is a Link?
A link refers to the connectivity between two devices. It includes the type of cables and
protocols used in order for one device to be able to communicate with the other.
2) What are the layers of the OSI reference model?
There are 7 OSI layers: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer,
Session Layer, Presentation Layer and Application Layer.
3) What is backbone network?
A backbone network is a centralized infrastructure that is designed to distribute different
routes and data to various networks. It also handles management of bandwidth and various
channels.
4) What is a LAN?
LAN is short for Local Area Network. It refers to the connection between computers and
other network devices that are located within a small physical location.
5) What is a node?

A node refers to a point or joint where a connection takes place. It can be computer or
device that is part of a network. Two or more nodes are needed in order to form a network
connection.
6) What are routers?
Routers can connect two or more network segments. These are intelligent network devices
that store information in its routing table such as paths, hops and bottlenecks. With this info,
they are able to determine the best path for data transfer. Routers operate at the OSI
Network Layer.
7) What is point to point link?
It refers to a direct connection between two computers on a network. A point to point
connection does not need any other network devices other than connecting a cable to the
NIC cards of both computers.
8) What is anonymous FTP?
Anonymous FTP is a way of granting user access to files in public servers. Users that are
allowed access to data in these servers do not need to identify themselves, but instead log
in as an anonymous guest.
9) What is subnet mask?
A subnet mask is combined with an IP address in order to identify two parts: the extended
network address and the host address. Like an IP address, a subnet mask is made up of 32
bits.
10) What is the maximum length allowed for a UTP cable?

A single segment of UTP cable has an allowable length of 90 to 100 meters. This limitation
can be overcome by using repeaters and switches.
11) What is data encapsulation?
Data encapsulation is the process of breaking down information into smaller manageable
chunks before it is transmitted across the network. It is also in this process that the source
and destination addresses are attached into the headers, along with parity checks.
12) Describe Network Topology
Network Topology refers to the layout of a computer network. It shows how devices and
cables are physically laid out, as well as how they connect to one another.
13) What is VPN?
VPN means Virtual Private Network, a technology that allows a secure tunnel to be created
across a network such as the Internet. For example, VPNs allow you to establish a secure
dial-up connection to a remote server.
14) Briefly describe NAT.
NAT is Network Address Translation. This is a protocol that provides a way for multiple
computers on a common network to share single connection to the Internet.
15) What is the job of the Network Layer under the OSI reference
model?
The Network layer is responsible for data routing, packet switching and control of network
congestion. Routers operate under this layer.
16) How does a network topology affect your decision in setting up a
network?
Network topology dictates what media you must use to interconnect devices. It also serves
as basis on what materials, connector and terminations that is applicable for the setup.
17) What is RIP?
RIP, short for Routing Information Protocol is used by routers to send data from one network
to another. It efficiently manages routing data by broadcasting its routing table to all other
routers within the network. It determines the network distance in units of hops.

18) What are different ways of securing a computer network?

There are several ways to do this. Install reliable and updated anti-virus program on all
computers. Make sure firewalls are setup and configured properly. User authentication will
also help a lot. All of these combined would make a highly secured network.
19) What is NIC?
NIC is short for Network Interface Card. This is a peripheral card that is attached to a PC in
order to connect to a network. Every NIC has its own MAC address that identifies the PC on
the network.
20) What is WAN?
WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is an interconnection of computers and devices that
are geographically dispersed. It connects networks that are located in different regions and
countries.
21) What is the importance of the OSI Physical Layer?
The physical layer does the conversion from data bits to electrical signal, and vice versa.
This is where network devices and cable types are considered and setup.
22) How many layers are there under TCP/IP?
There are four layers: the Network Layer, Internet Layer, Transport Layer and Application
Layer.
23) What are proxy servers and how do they protect computer
networks?
Proxy servers primarily prevent external users who identifying the IP addresses of an
internal network. Without knowledge of the correct IP address, even the physical location of
the network cannot be identified. Proxy servers can make a network virtually invisible to
external users.
24) What is the function of the OSI Session Layer?
This layer provides the protocols and means for two devices on the network to communicate
with each other by holding a session. This includes setting up the session, managing

information exchange during the session, and tear-down process upon termination of the
session.
25) What is the importance of implementing a Fault Tolerance System?
Are there limitations?
A fault tolerance system ensures continuous data availability. This is done by eliminating a
single point of failure. However, this type of system would not be able to protect data in
some cases, such as in accidental deletions.
26) What does 10Base-T mean?
The 10 refers to the data transfer rate, in this case is 10Mbps. The word Base refers to base
band, as oppose to broad band. T means twisted pair, which is the cable used for that
network.
27) What is a private IP address?
Private IP addresses are assigned for use on intranets. These addresses are used for
internal networks and are not routable on external public networks. These ensures that no
conflicts are present among internal networks while at the same time the same range of
private IP addresses are reusable for multiple intranets since they do not see each other.
28) What is NOS?
NOS, or Network Operating System, is specialized software whose main task is to
provide network connectivity to a computer in order for it to be able to communicate with
other computers and connected devices.
29) What is DoS?
DoS, or Denial-of-Service attack, is an attempt to prevent users from being able to access
the internet or any other network services. Such attacks may come in different forms and
are done by a group of perpetuators. One common method of doing this is to overload the
system server so it cannot anymore process legitimate traffic and will be forced to reset.
30) What is OSI and what role does it play in computer networks?
OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) serves as a reference model for data communication. It is
made up of 7 layers, with each layer defining a particular aspect on how network devices

connect and communicate with one another. One layer may deal with the physical media
used, while another layer dictates how data is actually transmitted across the network.
31) What is the purpose of cables being shielded and having twisted
pairs?
The main purpose of this is to prevent crosstalk. Crosstalks are electromagnetic
interferences or noise that can affect data being transmitted across cables.
32) What is the advantage of address sharing?
By using address translation instead of routing, address sharing provides an inherent
security benefit. Thats because host PCs on the Internet can only see the public IP address
of the external interface on the computer that provides address translation and not the
private IP addresses on the internal network.
33) What are MAC addresses?
MAC, or Media Access Control, uniquely identifies a device on the network. It is also known
as physical address or Ethernet address. A MAC address is made up of 6-byte parts.
34) What is the equivalent layer or layers of the TCP/IP Application
layer in terms of OSI reference model?
The TCP/IP Application layer actually has three counterparts on the OSI model: the Session
layer, Presentation Layer and Application Layer.
35) How can you identify the IP class of a given IP address?
By looking at the first octet of any given IP address, you can identify whether its Class A, B
or C. If the first octet begins with a 0 bit, that address is Class A. If it begins with bits 10 then
that address is a Class B address. If it begins with 110, then its a Class C network.
36) What is the main purpose of OSPF?
OSPF, or Open Shortest Path First, is a link-state routing protocol that uses routing tables to
determine the best possible path for data exchange.
37) What are firewalls?

Firewalls serve to protect an internal network from external attacks. These external threats
can be hackers who want to steal data or computer viruses that can wipe out data in an
instant. It also prevents other users from external networks from gaining access to the
private network.
38) Describe star topology
Star topology consists of a central hub that connects to nodes. This is one of the easiest to
setup and maintain.
39) What are gateways?
Gateways provide connectivity between two or more network segments. It is usually a
computer that runs the gateway software and provides translation services. This translation
is a key in allowing different systems to communicate on the network.
40) What is the disadvantage of a star topology?
One major disadvantage of star topology is that once the central hub or switch get
damaged, the entire network becomes unusable.
41) What is SLIP?
SLIP, or Serial Line Interface Protocol, is actually an old protocol developed during the early
UNIX days. This is one of the protocols that are used for remote access.
42) Give some examples of private network addresses.
10.0.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0
172.16.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.240.0.0
192.168.0.0 with subnet mask of 255.255.0.0
43) What is tracert?
Tracert is a Windows utility program that can used to trace the route taken by data from the
router to the destination network. It also shows the number of hops taken during the entire
transmission route.
44) What are the functions of a network administrator?

A network administrator has many responsibilities that can be summarize into 3 key
functions: installation of a network, configuration of network settings, and
maintenance/troubleshooting of networks.
45) Describe at one disadvantage of a peer to peer network.
When you are accessing the resources that are shared by one of the workstations on the
network, that workstation takes a performance hit.
46) What is Hybrid Network?
A hybrid network is a network setup that makes use of both client-server and peer-to-peer
architecture.
47) What is DHCP?
DHCP is short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. Its main task is to automatically
assign an IP address to devices across the network. It first checks for the next available
address not yet taken by any device, then assigns this to a network device.
48) What is the main job of the ARP?
The main task of ARP or Address Resolution Protocol is to map a known IP address to a
MAC layer address.
49) What is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP is short for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. This is a set of protocol
layers that is designed to make data exchange possible on different types of computer
networks, also known as heterogeneous network.
50) How can you manage a network using a router?

Routers have built in console that lets you configure different settings, like security and data
logging. You can assign restrictions to computers, such as what resources it is allowed
access, or what particular time of the day they can browse the internet. You can even put
restrictions on what websites are not viewable across the entire network.

51) What protocol can be applied when you want to transfer files
between different platforms, such between UNIX systems and Windows
servers?
Use FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfers between such different servers. This is
possible because FTP is platform independent.
52) What is the use of a default gateway?
Default gateways provide means for the local networks to connect to the external network.
The default gateway for connecting to the external network is usually the address of the
external router port.
53) One way of securing a network is through the use of passwords.
What can be considered as good passwords?
Good passwords are made up of not just letters, but by combining letters and numbers. A
password that combines uppercase and lowercase letters is favorable than one that uses all
upper case or all lower case letters. Passwords must be not words that can easily be
guessed by hackers, such as dates, names, favorites, etc. Longer passwords are also better
than short ones.
54) What is the proper termination rate for UTP cables?
The proper termination for unshielded twisted pair network cable is 100 ohms.
55) What is netstat?
Netstat is a command line utility program. It provides useful information about the current
TCP/IP settings of a connection.
56) What is the number of network IDs in a Class C network?
For a Class C network, the number of usable Network ID bits is 21. The number of possible
network IDs is 2 raised to 21 or 2,097,152. The number of host IDs per network ID is 2
raised to 8 minus 2, or 254.
57) What happens when you use cables longer than the prescribed
length?

Cables that are too long would result in signal loss. This means that data transmission and
reception would be affected, because the signal degrades over length.
58) What common software problems can lead to network defects?
Software related problems can be any or a combination of the following:
client server problems
application conflicts
error in configuration
protocol mismatch
security issues
user policy and rights issues
59) What is ICMP?
ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol. It provides messaging and communication for
protocols within the TCP/IP stack. This is also the protocol that manages error messages
that are used by network tools such as PING.
60) What is Ping?
Ping is a utility program that allows you to check connectivity between network devices on
the network. You can ping a device by using its IP address or device name, such as a
computer name.
61) What is peer to peer?
Peer to peer are networks that does not reply on a server. All PCs on this network act as
individual workstations.
62) What is DNS?
DNS is Domain Name System. The main function of this network service is to provide host
names to TCP/IP address resolution.
63) What advantages does fiber optics have over other media?
One major advantage of fiber optics is that is it less susceptible to electrical interference. It
also supports higher bandwidth, meaning more data can be transmitted and received.
Signal degrading is also very minimal over long distances.

64) What is the difference between a hub and a switch?

A hub acts as a multiport repeater. However, as more and more devices connect to it, it
would not be able to efficiently manage the volume of traffic that passes through it. A switch
provides a better alternative that can improve the performance especially when high traffic
volume is expected across all ports.
65) What are the different network protocols that are supported by
Windows RRAS services?
There are three main network protocols supported: NetBEUI, TCP/IP, and IPX.
66) What are the maximum networks and hosts in a class A, B and C
network?
For Class A, there are 126 possible networks and 16,777,214 hosts
For Class B, there are 16,384 possible networks and 65,534 hosts
For Class C, there are 2,097,152 possible networks and 254 hosts
67) What is the standard color sequence of a straight-through cable?
orange/white, orange, green/white, blue, blue/white, green, brown/white, brown.
68) What protocols fall under the Application layer of the TCP/IP stack?
The following are the protocols under TCP/IP Application layer: FTP, TFTP, Telnet and
SMTP.
69) You need to connect two computers for file sharing. Is it possible to
do this without using a hub or router?
Yes, you can connect two computers together using only one cable. A crossover type cable
can be use in this scenario. In this setup, the data transmit pin of one cable is connected to
the data receive pin of the other cable, and vice versa.
70) What is ipconfig?
Ipconfig is a utility program that is commonly used to identify the addresses information of a
computer on a network. It can show the physical address as well as the IP address.

71) What is the difference between a straight-through and crossover

cable?
A straight-through cable is used to connect computers to a switch, hub or router. A
crossover cable is used to connect two similar devices together, such as a PC to PC or Hub
to hub.
72) What is client/server?
Client/server is a type of network wherein one or more computers act as servers. Servers
provide a centralized repository of resources such as printers and files. Clients refers to
workstation that access the server.
73) Describe networking.
Networking refers to the inter connection between computers and peripherals for data
communication. Networking can be done using wired cabling or through wireless link.
74) When you move the NIC cards from one PC to another PC, does the
MAC address gets transferred as well?
Yes, thats because MAC addresses are hard-wired into the NIC circuitry, not the PC. This
also means that a PC can have a different MAC address when the NIC card was replace by
another one.
75) Explain clustering support
Clustering support refers to the ability of a network operating system to connect multiple
servers in a fault-tolerant group. The main purpose of this is the in the event that one server
fails, all processing will continue on with the next server in the cluster.
76) In a network that contains two servers and twenty workstations,
where is the best place to install an Anti-virus program?
An anti-virus program must be installed on all servers and workstations to ensure protection.
Thats because individual users can access any workstation and introduce a computer virus
when plugging in their removable hard drives or flash drives.
77) Describe Ethernet.

Ethernet is one of the popular networking technologies used these days. It was developed
during the early 1970s and is based on specifications as stated in the IEEE. Ethernet is
used in local area networks.
78) What are some drawbacks of implementing a ring topology?
In case one workstation on the network suffers a malfunction, it can bring down the entire
network. Another drawback is that when there are adjustments and reconfigurations needed
to be performed on a particular part of the network, the entire network has to be temporarily
brought down as well.
79) What is the difference between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA?
CSMA/CD, or Collision Detect, retransmits data frames whenever a collision occurred.
CSMA/CA, or Collision Avoidance, will first broadcast intent to send prior to data
transmission.
80) What is SMTP?
SMTP is short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol deals with all Internal mail,
and provides the necessary mail delivery services on the TCP/IP protocol stack.
81) What is multicast routing?
Multicast routing is a targeted form of broadcasting that sends message to a selected group
of user, instead of sending it to all users on a subnet.
82) What is the importance of Encryption on a network?
Encryption is the process of translating information into a code that is unreadable by the
user. It is then translated back or decrypted back to its normal readable format using a
secret key or password. Encryption help ensure that information that is intercepted halfway
would remain unreadable because the user has to have the correct password or key for it.
83) How are IP addresses arranged and displayed?
IP addresses are displayed as a series of four decimal numbers that are separated by
period or dots. Another term for this arrangement is the dotted decimal format. An example
is 192.168.101.2

84) Explain the importance of authentication.

Authentication is the process of verifying a users credentials before he can log into the
network. It is normally performed using a username and password. This provides a secure
means of limiting the access from unwanted intruders on the network.
85) What do mean by tunnel mode?
This is a mode of data exchange wherein two communicating computers do not use IPSec
themselves. Instead, the gateway that is connecting their LANs to the transit network
creates a virtual tunnel that uses the IPSec protocol to secure all communication that
passes through it.
86) What are the different technologies involved in establishing WAN
links?
Analog connections using conventional telephone lines; Digital connections using
digital-grade telephone lines; switched connections using multiple sets of links between
sender and receiver to move data.
87) What is one advantage of mesh topology?
In the event that one link fails, there will always be another available. Mesh topology is
actually one of the most fault-tolerant network topology.
88) When troubleshooting computer network problems, what common
hardware-related problems can occur?
A large percentage of a network is made up of hardware. Problems in these areas can
range from malfunctioning hard drives, broken NICs and even hardware startups. Incorrectly
hardware configuration is also one of those culprits to look into.
89) What can be done to fix signal attenuation problems?
A common way of dealing with such a problem is to use repeaters and hub, because it will
help regenerate the signal and therefore prevent signal loss. Checking if cables are properly
terminated is also a must.
90) How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network
administration?

Instead of having to visit each client computer to configure a static IP address, the network
administrator can apply dynamic host configuration protocol to create a pool of IP addresses
known as scopes that can be dynamically assigned to clients.
91) Explain profile in terms of networking concept?
Profiles are the configuration settings made for each user. A profile may be created that puts
a user in a group, for example.
92) What is sneakernet?
Sneakernet is believed to be the earliest form of networking wherein data is physically
transported using removable media, such as disk, tapes.
93) What is the role of IEEE in computer networking?
IEEE, or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is an organization composed
of engineers that issues and manages standards for electrical and electronic devices. This
includes networking devices, network interfaces, cablings and connectors.
94) What protocols fall under the TCP/IP Internet Layer?
There are 4 protocols that are being managed by this layer. These are ICMP, IGMP, IP and
ARP.
95) When it comes to networking, what are rights?
Rights refer to the authorized permission to perform specific actions on the network. Each
user on the network can be assigned individual rights, depending on what must be allowed
for that user.
96) What is one basic requirement for establishing VLANs?
A VLAN requires dedicated equipment on each end of the connection that allows messages
entering the Internet to be encrypted, as well as for authenticating users.
97) What is IPv6?
IPv6 , or Internet Protocol version 6, was developed to replace IPv4. At present, IPv4 is
being used to control internet traffic, butis expected to get saturated in the near future. IPv6
was designed to overcome this limitation.

98) What is RSA algorithm?

RSA is short for Rivest-Shamir-Adleman algorithm. It is the most commonly used public key
encryption algorithm in use today.
99) What is mesh topology?
Mesh topology is a setup wherein each device is connected directly to every other device on
the network. Consequently, it requires that each device have at least two network
connections.
100) what is the maximum segment length of a 100Base-FX network?
The maximum allowable length for a network segment using 100Base-FX is 412 meters.
The maximum length for the entire network is 5 kilometers.

A Wired Computer Network (LAN) is basically a combination of various Active and

Passive Network Components. In this article, we explore the salient points on the
important Active and Passive Components that are required for building a basic wired
computer network.

Wired Computer Network Architecture Diagram:

Architecture Diagram Active and Passive Components in an IP Network

In the above diagram, let us assume that there are basically three departments in an
organization that wants to have a LAN across all the departments IT Department,
Department 1, Department 2. So, if we are to plan for the network components
department wise, for the IT department, we could plan for,
Network rack,
Router, Core switch
Edge Switches (if required)
UTP Patch panel, UTP Patch Cords
Fiber Patch Panel, Fiber Patch Cords
Cat 6/ Cat6A UTP cables
I/O Box with Face Plate, UTP Patch Cords

PVC Channel Casing Caping/ Conduits

Fiber Cables (Single Mode or Multi Mode)
The components required in the other two departments would also be similar with the
exception of router/ core switch being replaced by distribution/ edge switches.
The above mentioned network components can be broadly divided in to two categories
Active Components and Passive Components. Active Components are those devices
which required to be supplied with external power (AC/DC/POE etc) in order to function.
They also boost the power of the signals. Passive components do not require to be
provided with any electrical power to work They just plug on to active components and
transmit/ carry the information (electrical / optical signals).

Active Network Components:

Network Switches:
Network Switches are the basic components of an IP Network. All the network
endpoints (like PCs, Laptops, Printers, etc) connect to these switches. As the name
goes, they switch (distribute) the data received from one node to any other node in the
network. The network switches come in a variety of configurations, and the popular
ones are mentioned below:
8 Port 10/100/1000 Mbps
16 Port 10/100/1000 Mbps
24 Port 10/100/1000 Mbps
48 Port 10/100/1000 Mbps
Network switches could also have 10/100 Mbps and POE/Non-POE Port combinations.
They could also have variations in terms of functionalities Manageable, SemiManageable and Unmanaged Switches. There are even 24/ 48 Port Optical Switches
which connect as many optical connections in addition to the 2/4 ports of the optical
connections that normal switches have.

The numbers (8, 16 etc.) in the above list refers to the number of Copper UTP
Connectors the switch has, and the switches can connect to as many network devices.
Each such port supports a maximum speed of 10(or)100 / 10(or)100(or)1000 Mbps
depending on the end-point connecting to it (it can auto negotiate to the highest speed
supported by the endpoint). Some ports support POE (Power over Ethernet) which is a
technology to carry the power as well as data to the endpoints, so that the endpoints
need not connect to a separate power source (In the case of Wireless Access Points, IP
Phones etc).
Some network switches are of Un-managed type You can just connect the computers
to them, connect them to neighboring switches and extend the network, but beyond that
function, not much functionalities/ management features are supported by them. The
advantages of unmanaged switches are their cost they are inexpensive.
Some network switches are of Semi-Managed type They come with a web browserbased management interface, limited QoS configurations, VLAN configuration, 802.1x
support and other such limited management features required for the management of
the critical functionalities of the network. But these management features are limited to
what is determined by the manufacturer. These switches are slightly more expensive
than the unmanaged variety but less expensive than fully manageable switches.
Some network switches are Fully Manageable They allow the configurations of
VLANs per port, allow VLAN trunking, support web-based management functionalities,
support SNMP/RMON protocols so that each port can be monitored by an SNMP based
network management system, support RSTP (Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol) so that
alternates cabling paths can be created for uplinking, support Link Aggregation so that
couple of cables from individual ports can connect to the uplink switch with double the
speed, support port mirroring for management/ call recording, support stacking and
many other such useful features which help in maintaining a network.

Layer 3 Switches:
As the network becomes bigger and bigger, it becomes difficult to manage all the nodes
using a single layer 2 network segment. One of the main problem with such
unsegmented networks are broadcasts which can create performance bottlenecks on
large networks. Another issue is the spreading of virus and botnets with a segmented

network, these remain mostly within their segments. Thats why VLANs are advocated
on large networks which segment the network based on the location/ department/
application etc.
But the devices in one segment of the network would need to invariably communicate
with the other segments Especially in centralized networks where all the servers are
designed to be in a common VLAN and the nodes communicating with them are from
different VLANs. In such cases, there needs to be a Layer 3 network device that
performs seamless Inter-VLAN routing without affecting the performance of the network
This is exactly the reason why Layer-3 switches are required. They are capable of
performing both the Layer 2 Switching and Layer 3 Routing at Line Rate. They also
allow to configure flexible network wide security policies and perform Layer 3 QoS
functionalities which are critical in converged networks which carry a substantial amount
of real-time traffic that require low latency.

Passive Network Components:

Structured Cabling has become quite common for inter-connecting the various active
devices in an IP network. So the following passive components are commonly utilized in
an IP Network for Structured Cabling:

Cat 6 UTP (Un-shielded Twisted Pair) Copper Cables These are the network cables
that connect a PC/ endpoint to a network switch. Some times, they are also used to provide
inter-connectivity between switches as long as the distance is not greater than 90 meters, which
is the distance they support for transmitting data without using any repeater (repeater function is
provided by using network switches).

Cat 6 UTP Patch Cords These are one meter/ 2 meter factory crimped cables with
RJ-45 connectors installed at both ends. Actually, the Cat 6 Cables are not recommended to be
directly terminated in either the network switch or the PC/endpoint. Only the patch cords
terminate on both devices and connect to the Cat 6 Network cable through an I/O Box and UTP
patch panel.

Network Rack Network Racks are either wall mounted or Floor Standing types
depending upon their size. Common sizes of network racks range from 6U to 42U. All the
network equipments are designed in multiples of 1U so as to be accommodated in to these

racks with standard fittings. They generally have a width of 19. The network racks come with a
glass door, lock and key, fans required for cooling, trays, power supplies, cable managers and
all other accessories.
I/O Box and Face Plate: The I/O Box and Face Plate are kept near the computers and a

UTP patch cord is used to connect the Face Plate with the network port in the PC. The Cat 6
UTP cable which comes from the switch terminates in to a permanent connection behind the I/O
Box.

UTP Patch Panel: The UTP Patch Panel is used for terminating all the Cat 6 Cables that
come from various PCs/endpoints in the network (Actually I/O Box) to the rack. These Cables
are permanently connected behind the UTP Patch Panel and UTP Patch Cords connect from
the respective ports in front to the network switches. This allows for flexible moves, adds and
changes without disturbing the switch ports. All the ports in the patch panel are labelled for easy
identification of which node they are connected to.

Optical Fiber Cables: For carrying data over 90 meters, Optical Fiber Cables are used.
These cables use light for transmission of data instead of the electrical signals used by the UTP
cables. They can carry data for longer distances even to a few kilo meters without having to
repeat the signals in between. There are two types of cables Single Mode (Used for higher
bandwidth requirements for longer distances) and Multi Mode (Used for shorter distances). They
connect directly to the Fiber Patch Panel at either end. Usually they come in multiples of 6
Cores 6 Core, 12 Core, 24 Core being common. For each connection, two cores are used
one for transmit and another for receive.

Fiber Patch Panel/ Patch Cords: The Optical Fiber Cables are terminated on either
end using the Fiber Patch Panel, Pigtails and Coupler assembly. Actually each core of the Fiber
Cable is spliced to fit in to the Fiber Patch Panel. A Fiber Patch Cord connects to the Patch
Panel and the Fiber interface of the Network Switch. The Fiber interface is usually an SFP Port
over which a Fiber Module is inserted (Mini-Gbic interface). This Fiber Module can connect to
the fiber patch cord directly.

A Wireless network basically utilizes the wireless frequencies (2.4 Ghz or 5 Ghz
spectrum) to transmit the data, voice and video from one point to another using the
wireless signals as the medium But it is very rare to have a total stand-alone wireless
network as the wireless transmission and reception is restricted from the client
(PC/Laptop/Wi-Fi Phone etc) to the Wireless Access Point. Beyond that, the data is

carried in the wired backbone network. A look at the below Wi-Fi architecture diagram
would better clarify this point.

Wir
eless Network Architecture Diagram

As shown in the above diagram, the various wireless devices like laptops, computers,
tablets, wi-fi enabled cell phones, wi-fi phones, wireless cameras etc connect to the
wireless access points present in their respective floors and from there, the data is
transmitted over the copper UTP cables to the wired network switch in each department
and then via the optical fiber network to the core switch/ router in the IT Department and
then to the outside world (Internet). So, only the client access is on Wi-Fi technology,
and in rare cases the backbone also could be on wireless technology (with some
limitations) using a wireless mesh. We are talking only about the enterprise campus
wide wireless networks and not about the city-wide or nation wide wireless connectivity.

So, why are wireless networks required

at all?
Cant we just have wired network to all the places? We can, but wireless networks have
the following key advantages over wired networks:

Network Access from anywhere: Its just much more convenient for us to access the
network from any place in the campus and not just our seat alone. Think about it, you go to your
project managers room for discussion, and you may want to show something from your laptop.
You go to the conference room or cafeteria and might want to connect to the network. When
laptops have become ultra portable, so must the network!

Cost Reduction: In certain places like hostels for example, it does not make sense to
have wires running to each room for Internet connectivity. Its not only the cables but the
additional switch ports, the passive components, I/O boxes, patch cords and so many
components that come along with the wired network. So, having a wireless network in these
high density browsing locations (hot-spots) reduces a lot of cost.

No cluttering of cables: A wireless network certainly eliminates clutter to a huge extant

and makes the place look much more neat.

Good performance/ throughput: With the advent of IEEE 802.11n technology, wireless
networks can now support higher throughput around the range of 300 Mbps. So, even if this
bandwidth gets divided by the number of systems connecting to each access point, we are still
left with a decent throughput. Lets accept it 1000 Mbps to the desktop offered by the wired
networks are just not required!!

What do you need in order to set up a

wireless network?
For Small Office/ Home Office (SOHO) (1-15 employees)
If yours is a home office or a small office (with fewer than 15 users connecting to the
network and within a compact area), then a small stand alone access point costing less

than 100 USD would suffice your requirement. Just plug it to the wired network switch,
and your network is ready! Some times, the broadband modem which terminates the
broadband line comes with built in modem, and that might also suffice simple wi-fi
requirements.
But always keep in mind that the laptops/ PCs connecting to the wireless network
should be having IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n standards based wireless adapters. For laptops,
this comes built-in mostly but for PCs, you may need to add an USB based / PCMCIA
slot based Wireless adaptor. So, if you are using only PCs in your network, getting the
wireless adaptors for all of them might increase the cost considerably! Also, some
network devices like printers, servers etc require dedicated wired connectivity. So, keep
these factors in mind while planning for a wireless network in a small office.

For medium sized organizations (20 100 employees):

This is where the confusion comes should you go for a stand alone access points
based wireless network or a controller based wireless network? Of course, the best
option would be to go for a controller based wireless network (see next section for top
reasons for the same) but this might increase the cost. If you go for a stand-alone
access points based wireless network, you might not only lose a lot of centralized
functionalities, but might also be prone to wireless interference between the neighboring
access points. There are three options you could try in such cases (in case you decide
to go for stand alone access points):
Set the frequency of operation for each access point manually so that the neighboring
access points operate in different frequencies (But some access points do not allow to
do this setting and the frequencies are reset every time the access points boot up due
to power failure for example so such things need to be taken care of).
Go for stand alone access points that can be upgraded to controller based access
points in the future This means the access points still are stand alone types and can
work individually without the controller, but when the network grows or there are
excessive maintenance problems, you could buy a controller of the same make and
manage all these access points through it, at a later date. There are a very few vendors
who offer such access points, though.

Go for access points which support clustering within the stand-alone access points.
Clustering is a technology that allows the access points to share certain information
within themselves in order to provide some entry level centralized management for all
these access points. But these access points can share information only when each of
them are in range of at least one access point within the cluster group and there is also
limitation in the maximum number of access points that can be part of a cluster group. If
these access points can later on be upgraded to a controller based access points, it is
even better!

For Large Organizations (More than 100 employees):

Its highly recommended that larger organizations go with a centralized controller based
wireless solution where the wireless controller is used to provide centralized
management functionalities to all the access points across the network. Below are a list
of top five reasons for the same:

The Top 5 reasons to have a wireless controller:

Centralized Authentication and Encryption: If you have multiple stand alone access
points at multiple locations, imagine having to update each access point with the list of
MAC addresses that can connect to it. Consider maintaining such a set up as some
employees are going to leave the organization and some will join. And what will happen
to guests who want a temporary access to Internet? Wireless controllers integrate with
centralized corporate directories like Active Directory/ LDAP etc to give user based
authentication (User-name/password and(or) prior installed certificates). This would be
applied to all the users irrespective of which access point they connect to. The guests
can be given a temporary account with which they can access only certain resources
and that too only for a certain time period with a wireless controller. All the
communications between laptops and access points (and) access points and controller
are encrypted for security.
Radio Management and Interference Mitigation: If two neighboring access points
operate in the same frequency, there would be a lot of interference and would result in
loss of data or loss of connections happening frequently. So, wireless controller can
identify which access points are nearer to each other and assign them to operate in
different frequencies. The controller can also do load balancing of users between

access points and can push the users to another access points if the primary access
point that they connect to, fails.
Network Access Control: Wireless Controller can organize users in to various groups
and enforce certain policies on what network resources they can use and what they
cannot. Some users may not be given Internet access but given ERP access and vice
versa, for example.
Roaming: For voice clients like voice over wi-fi phones and dual mode cell phones, it is
very critical that the connection does not terminate when the users are talking over them
and moving across the campus simultaneously. So, controller supports roaming fast
hand-off of voice sessions to near by access points in order to keep a voice session
from breaking abruptly when it goes beyond the range of one access point.
QoS and Network Visualization: For supporting real time applications like voice and
video, the wireless network needs to support an end-to-end QoS setting for prioritization
of the real time latency sensitive voice and video packets across the network. It would
further help if the wired network is also configured with such QoS prioritization settings.
Controller also allows administrators to see the signal strength levels across their
network in a live heat map this could be very helpful while maintaining huge wi-fi
networks.

Which is better 2.4 Ghz Spectrum or 5 Ghz Spectrum?

Wireless devices can connect to the wireless network in either 2.4 Ghz spectrum or 5
Ghz spectrum (depending on which spectrum the wireless adapter in the laptop and the
access point, both support). While 5 Ghz spectrum is more cleaner and is rid of
interference from sources like microwave etc, the commonly available laptops and
access points mostly support only 2.4 Ghz. Actually, 2.4 Ghz spectrum allows only three
non-overlapping channels for IEEE 802.11b/g! But with the advent of IEEE 802.11n
technology, it is now possible to have wireless adaptors and dual radio access points
supporting both the spectrums and the controller can decide (based on the load etc) as
to which is better for individual clients.

What are the wireless standards for Wi-Fi ?

IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers) have drafted certain standards
for wireless equipments and each equipment needs to support one of them or multiples
of them so that they can inter operate with wireless equipments made by other vendors.
The different standards are:
IEEE 802.11 b This was a very early standard and supports a maximum throughput of
11 Mbps and operates in the 2.4 Ghz spectrum
IEEE 802.11 a This is a more recent standard supporting a maximum throughput of
54 Mbps and operates in the 5 Ghz spectrum
IEEE 802.11 g This is the most common standard supporting a maximum throughput
of 54 Mbps and operates in the 2.4 Ghz spectrum Almost every laptop and access
point should support this.
IEEE 802.11 n This is the latest standard supporting a maximum throughput of 300
Mbps now and operates in both 2.4 Ghz as well as 5 Ghz spectrums.
Note: You cannot get the higher throughput offered by 802.11 n technology by just
replacing the older access points with the newer access points you need to replace
the client adaptors to support 802.11n as well and you need to upgrade the backbone
wired network to support 1000 Mbps throughput instead of the earlier 100 Mbps. The
latest standards are backward compatible IEEE 802.11n would support IEEE
802.11b/g or/and IEEE 802.11a.

An overview of passive components in

a Local Area Network
This article discusses the advantages of passive components in a network,
introduction to popular passive components like copper cables, optic fiber cables
and racks.
Why

are

Passive

network(Advantages)?

components

exciting

in

LAN

 Passive components provide the physical connectivity between the

various

network

devices.

They provide a medium to transfer data in a relatively high speed

(Bandwidth)

They

help

between
in

the

connecting

devices

network
over

greater

devices.
distances.

Copper cables:
Copper cables are the UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables which are also called
as Catx cables in a LAN network. They are cheaper than fiber and faster to set up.
They dont require the detailed splicing requirements of the fiber cables and
anyone with a basic level expertise can set them up. They are very common for
connecting the end user computers/laptops/printers etc. to the Network Switches.
They are also used in the interconnectivity of the Switches and sometimes
interconnectivity of two separate buildings/departments. The main disadvantage of
copper cables is the distance limitation. They can give a lossless performance only
up to 90 meters and after that the signals have to be boosted using another switch
or a repeater as the losses tend to be pretty high. There are various categories (Cat)
of UTP Copper cables and the popular ones and the bandwidth supported by them
are given below:
Cat5

Cables

Support

100

Cat5E

Cables

Support

Cat6a

Cables

Support

10

Mbps
Gbps
Gbps

up

to

90

meters.

up

to

90

meters.

up

to

90

meters.

Cat7a Cables Expected to support up to 40 Gbps in the future.

The accessories for UTP copper cables include patch cord, RJ45 Connectors,
crimping

tools

etc.

Fiber Cables:
Unlike the copper cables, which carry data through electrical signals, the fiber
cables carry data through optical (light) signals which are propagated through a

narrow core of the fiber, which is a non conductive substance. There are two
modes of fiber optic communications Single mode and multi mode.
The advantages of Fiber optic cables:
Can propagate the light signals through a longer distance (Usually upto 2 Km) and
in special cases, even higher without the need of a repeater in between to boost the
signals.
Can support the higher bandwidth requirements of a demanding network as
multiple cores are generally intertwined in the same cable. It uses one core for
transmission

and

one

core

for

reception

of

light

signals.

Fiber optic cables are immune to the EMI Electro Magnetic Interference (Which
affect

the

copper

cables

when

carried

along

with

the

power

cables).

There is no risk of a spark or a shock which the copper cables are prone to as they
carry current and hence the fiber optic cables can be used in electrically sensitive
areas

like

chemical

plants

etc

as

they

are

safer.

It is impossible to tap through a fiber optic cable in the same way that it is done
with a copper cable. So, the transmitted data is secure on the way.
Disadvantages of optical fiber cables include the higher cost and the greater
expertise required to splice and install the OFC set up. But these costs are coming
down fast.
Optical fiber cables are generally used to connect the various Network Switches and
are

also

useful

for

the

long

distance

connectivity.

Network Racks:
The network racks are used to house the servers, switches, routers and all the
other electronic components of a data centre. Usually, since the data centre space
is highly critical the various components of the data centre needs to be arranged
neatly one on the top of another and yet be accessible to carry out maintenance
activities. Racks provide the platform to do so. Racks are either open ended, or
closed from two sides. They are either fixed or movable. They house the network
equipments (19 inch form factor is the most common form factor for holding in a

rack) and come with the cable managers to neatly carry cables through them. They
may also come with power connectivity and fans to cool the network equipment
which can generate a lot of heat.