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Yield Stress
Proof Stress
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Actual breaking Stress
Nominal breaking stress
Ductility
(a) Percentage elongation
(b) Percentage reduction in area
(vii)
Modulus of elasticity.
Typical stress-strain curve for an M.S. bar of uniform cross section as shown in figure.
Up to limit of proportionality A, the material obeys Hooks law and so the curve will be a straight
line. Point B is the limit of elasticity up to which bar can be loaded without any permanent set.
ie. on removing the load, the whole deformation will vanish. Beyond point B the rate of
increase in strain will be more till the point C is reached, where the material undergoes
additional strain without increase in stress and undergoes plastic deformation. This is known
as Yield point and the stress is known as yield stress. Actually at this point there is a drop in
stress and yielding commences.
After yielding any further increase in stress will cause considerable increase in strain and curve
raised till point D is reached which is known as point of ultimate stress. The deformation in
this range is partly elastic and plastic. From this moment neck formation takes place. On
continuing the loading as the curve reaches E, the bar breaks.
Modulus of elasticity E = __Pl with usual notations.
Ao
From the straight line graph between load and extension P/A can be determined. Measure l&
A and calculate E
During loading at a particular point the load remains constant for few seconds and again goes
on increasing. This point corresponds to yield point. Stress at that point gives yield stress.
Tensile strength can be calculated by dividing maximum load by original cross sectional area of
the test piece.
Percentage elongation
PROCEDURE: - Clean the mild steel rod neatly with sand paper and measure the diameter of
the rod at three places and find the mean of them (d). Calculate the original cross sectional
area (So). Insert suitable jaws in the grips. Calculate the maximum load assuming the ultimate
stress of mild steel as 500 N/mm2. Insert the test piece in the grips by adjusting the cross
head of the machine after making zero correction. Keep the left valve (outlet valve) in fully
closed position and the right valve (inlet) in normal open position. Open the right valve and
close it after the lower table is slightly lifted. Now adjust the load to zero by Tare push button.
(This is necessary to remove the dead weight of lower table, upper cross head and other
connecting parts from the load).
Operate the lower grip operation handle and lift the lower cross head, up and grip fully lower
part of the specimen. Lock the jaws in position by operating the jaw-locking handle. Turn the
right control valve slowly in open position (anti clock wise) until a desired loading rate is
reached. Start the electronic equipment along with hydraulic pump and note the extension
corresponding to each load. Increase the load gradually until the test piece is broken. Close
the right control valve; take out the broken piece of test pieces. Open the left control valve to
take the piston down. Place the broken pieces together so that the length between gauge
lengths after elongation can be noted. Calculate the reduced cross sectional area by
measuring the reduced diameter of the broken pieces.
Draw the Load Vs Extension graph and calculate the required quantities.
NOTE:
1.
If an extensometer is used for noting the extension, first of all calculate the gauge
length Lo = 5.65So. Mark the gauge length on the specimen such that central point
is at middle of gauge length. Punch the marked points. Again mark the
extensometer gauge length on either side of the center point. Place and tighten the
specimen in the extensometer.
2.
If the minimum elongation specified is not obtained, the result of the test should
unless otherwise agreed be discarded if the distance between the fracture and the
nearer gauge mark is less than one third of gauge length.
3.
To avoid the possibility of rejecting test pieces due to fracture being outside the limits
specified above, the following method might be employed. (a) Before testing subdivide the gauge length Lo into N equal parts.
(b) After testing, designate by A the end mark on the shorter piece, on the longer
piece designate by B. The graduation mark, the distance from which to the
fracture is most nearly equal to the distance from the fracture to the end mark A.
(c) If n is the number of intervals between A&B, the elongation after fracture is
determined as follows.
If (N-n) is an even number (Fig.A) measure the distance between A&B and the distance
from a graduation mark C, at (N-n)/2 intervals from B, then calculate the elongation after
fracture from the formula:
A=
AB + 2BC Lo
Lo
x 100
If (N-n) is an odd number (see Fig. B) measure the distance between A&B and distance
from B to the graduation mark C and C at (N-n-1)/2 and (N-n+1)/2 intervals from B;
then calculate the elongation after fracture from the formula:
A =AB+ BC + BC Lo x 100
Lo
B
C
N-n
2
Fig(A)
A
N-n-1
1
2
Fig(B)
Measurement of elongation:
Any statement of the result of percentage of elongation test should include the dimensions
of the section of the test piece and its gauge length (where it is convenient, for economic or
other reasons to use a fixed gauge length irrespective of the cross sectional area, the
equivalent elongation on 5.65So, may if required be obtained by means of a formula or
conversion chart given in IS 3803-1967. In case of dispute the elongation should be
measured on a gauge length of 5.65So.
RESULT: 1.
Yield Stress
2.
Proof Stress
3.
4.
5.
6.
Percentage elongation
(gauge length________)
7.
8.
Modulus of elasticity
INFERENCE:-
OBSERVATIONS:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Reduced diameter = Du
7.
8.
9.
10.
Ultimate load = Fm
11.
Breaking load
= Fb
N/mm2
2.
N/mm2
3.
N/mm2
4.
N/mm2
5.
Percentage elongation on a
Gauge length of ________mm
6.
= (Su-So)/So x 100 =
7.
Youngs Modulus
N/mm2.
------------%
= 2F
N/mm2
mm
Approximate load
Failure load F
Shear strength
= F/A
N/mm2
2F/d2
SPRING TEST
ExptNo :
Date:
AIM to determine stiffness of the given springs and the modulus of rigidity of the material of the
springs.
EQUIPMENTS:- Spring testing machine, Screw gauge, Vernier calipers.
PRINCIPLE:R - Mean radius of spring coil.
D Wire diameter
P Pitch of coil
N Number of coils.
W Axial load on spring.
Moment M at any point on the spring due to axial W load W is W*R. Component of M
along the axis of the wire will produce torsion and component perpendicular to the axis will
produce bending.
i.e. T = WR cos ,
M = WR sin
T = /16 fs d3
WR cos = T/16fs d3
We know that M/I = f/y
f = My/I = WRsind/2
/64 d4
32 WR sin
d3
RESULT :Spring
Under
Compression
Tension
Modulus of rigidity
Stiffness
INFERENCE :-
Spring
Compression
Under
Tension
Load
Kg
Scale Reading
Average reading
Deflecti
on
Loading
Unloading
Spring
under
Tension
Spring
under
compre
-ssion
Maximum load Wm =
Maximum deflection m
= W/
E= 2N (1+1/m) = 2N (1+0.3)
= 2.6N
N/mm2
= U/V
= Dh
D
D D2 d 2
2
Applied load
Area of indentation
F
Dh
2F
2
2
= D D D d
Usually Brinell Hardness HB is supplemented by an index giving at the first place the diameter
of the ball in mm., at the second place the test load in Kg and at the third place the duration of
the load in seconds. For example, the symbol: HB 5/750/20 indicates that the test was
conducted using a steel ball 5mm diameter under a test load of 750 Kg, which was maintained
for 20 seconds.
Normally a ball of 10mm nominal diameter shall be used. Balls of diameters 1, 2, 2.5 and
5mm are also used but in no case the nominal diameter of the ball shall be less than one
millimeter unless otherwise specified.
The surface of the piece to be tested shall be sufficiently smooth and even to permit the
accurate determination of the diameter of the indentation. It shall be free from oxide scale and
foreign matter. The thickness of the test piece shall not be less than 8 times the depth of the
indentation h. No deformation shall be visible at the back of the test piece after the test.
The following table shows the minimum thickness of various ball diameters, loads and
hardness values: -
Ball
diameter
in mm
2.9
5.0
10.0
Load
Kg
100
187.5
750
3000
1.91
3.81
2.64
HB Values
300
200
0.95
1.90
3.81
0.64
1.27
2.54
0.48
0.97
1.90
400
500
0.42
0.84
1.70
2F
2
2
HB = D D D d
NOTE :- For most metals, Brinell hardness increases linearly with the tensile strength values of
the metal.
Tensile Strength = k x Brinell Number in tonnes/sq.inch
For mild steel, k = 0.23, for plain carbon steel, k = 0.22
For wrought light alloys, tensile strength = (BHN/4)-1
It should be noted that the same analysis of metals or alloy will give a variation in
hardness values in the forged, hot or cold rolled, extruded, cast or heat treated
conditions.
It is recommended that the Brinell Test as specified in IS 1500-1968 should not be used for
steels with a Brinell hardness exceeding 450. For harder steels, a test with harder indenter, for
example, tungsten carbide and diamond may be substituted. But the hardness number would
then be on a different scale. In cases when a tungsten carbide ball is used, the test shall be
termed as Modified Brinell Hardness Test and the symbol HBW should be used.
RESULT :Material
INFERENCE:-
b
Yy
oe =
d
2
c
D
D
2
y =2
d
2
d
P
D
D
2
2
D
BHN =
D
D D2 d 2
2
2P
2
2
= D D D d
OBSERVATIONS:Material of
specimen
Load in Kg
and duration
Diameter
of indenter
D mm
Diameter of indentation
d1 d2 d=(d1+d2)/2
HB Value
Mean
INFERENCE:-
OBSERVATIONS:Sl No.
Material
Test Load
in Kg
Penetrator
used
Scale Used
Rockwell
Hardness
Number
Mean
IMPACT TEST
(IS 1499 1977, 1598-1977 & 3766 1966)
Expt No. :
Date:
AIM :- To find the impact strength (energy required to rupture the specimen) in izod and
charpy tests.
EQUIPMENTS:- Impact testing machine (Model IT-30)
The principal features of a single blow pendulum impact testing machine are
1.
A moving mass whose kinetic energy is great enough to cause rupture of the test
specimen placed in its path.
2.
An anvil and a support on which the specimen is placed to receive the blow and
3.
A means of measuring the energy required to rupture the specimen and residual
energy of the
moving mass after the specimen is broken.
GENERAL:The ordinary tensile and bending tests are no true criterion of the impact resisting
qualities of a material. Satisfactory performance of certain machine parts such as parts of
percussion drilling equipments, parts of automotive engines, parts of rail road equipments track and buffer devices; depends upon the toughness of the parts under shock loading.
Some materials will withstand great deformation together with high stress without fracture.
Such materials have great toughness. Some materials under tension can be drawn out to a
considerable elongation without fracture. Such materials are ductile. A ductile material that
can be stretched out only under high stress is tough. One way of determining toughness is to
fracture the specimen by a single blow from a moving mass of metal and determining the
energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. The impact test measures energy required for
fracture not force.
In the design of many machine parts subject to impact loading the aim is to provide for
the absorption of as much energy as possible through elastic action and then dissipate that
elastic energy by some damping device. In such cases the elastic energy capacity derived
from static loading may be adequate.
The impact test gives energy capacity at rupture. This is different from the elastic
energy capacity or resilience.
PRINCIPLE :The charpy test consists of measuring the energy absorbed in breaking by one blow from a
swinging hammer, under prescribed conditions, a test piece V notched in the middle and
supported at each end.
The izod test consists of breaking by one blow from a swinging hammer under specified
conditions, a V notched test piece gripped vertically with the bottom of the notch in the same
plane as the upper face of the grips. The blow is struck at a fixed position on the face having
the notch. The energy absorbed is determined.
CALIBRATION OF THE MACHINE :The pendulum in its highest position is inclined at an angle of 141 0 47 to the vertical and the
initial energy in this position is 300J for conducting the charpy test. In the case of izod test, it
is inclined at an angle of 90o and the initial energy is 168J
Initial Energy E1=wh= Wl(1+sin 1)
Considering the pendulum as a simple pendulum, l
can be determined and from the above formula,
weight of the pendulum can be determined.
After breaking the specimen, the pendulum will move
through a high h1 making an angle 2 with the rest position.
Residual energy E2 = Wl(1-cos2)
Energy absorbed is calculated for various values of 2
and a graph is plotted between EL and 2 which is the
calibration curve for the machine.
PROCEDURE:CHARPY TEST:Calculate the length of the pendulum by noting the period of oscillation using
which the weight has to be determined. Mount the test piece in such a way that the edge of the
hammer is in one line with the groove on the test piece. Then turn the groove away from the
edge of the hammer. Adjust the support by proper means. Adjust the striker in such a way
that the vertical edge hits the specimen. After placing the test piece on the support, lift the
hammer by hand and place it by means of catch. Then release the hammer by drawing the
safety device and raising the catch. The hammer hits the test piece. The pointer automatically
moves with the hammer. The pointer reads the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen
(The test set up is so arranged that the angle 2 can be read from the dial from which the
energy absorbed can be calculated using the relevant formulae).
For repeating the experiment, shift the pointer to the initial position.
IZOD TEST:- (Cantilever Test):The striker is fitted with the horizontal face in the striking position. Raise the
pendulum to the izod position and lock it. The device for securing the specimen is screwed to
the base plate of the pendulum stand. Then clamp the test piece into the vice in such a way
that the middle of the groove (to be turned towards the hammer) is in one level with the upper
face of the vice. Release the hammer. It hits the specimen. Note the readings as for the
charpy test.
Calculate,
Impact Strength =
Impact value
-----------------------------------------Area of cross section of the specimen
Below notch in m2
Impact modulus =
Impact value
--------------------------------------------Volume of cross section of specimen
Below notch in m3
RESULT:Test No.
Details of
specimen
Impact Strength
Impact modulus
Charpy
From
Calculation
From
Graph
From
Calculation
INFERENCE:-
Description
Weight W
Izod
Charpy
Length L
Initial energy E1
Initial Energy E1 = w1(1+sin1)
1 =
Energy loss EL = w1(sin 1 + cos
2)
2, Degrees
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
140
14147
Impact Strength
Impact modulus
TESTS ON WOOD
2. Compression test parallel to grain:AIM :- To determine the compressive test of wood under compression parallel to grain using
compressive testing machine.
EQUIPMENTS:- Compression testing machine
PRINCIPLE:- The test consists of subjecting a wooden piece to compressive load and
recording the maximum load P at failure. Then the compressive strength shall be calculated
using the formula P/A where A is the cross-sectional area of the given specimen.
PROCEDURE:- Measure the dimensions of the specimen and calculate the cross sectional
area.
Assuming ultimate stress, determine the maximum load that can be applied on the specimen.
Place the specimen on the compression plate such that the application of load will be parallel
to grain. Select the dial for that particular range of load. Tightly close the outlet valve. Slowly
open the inlet valve as well as valve corresponding to the selected dial. Apply the load
continuously until the specimen fails. The pointer shows maximum reading and then turns
back. Note the maximum load. Open the outlet vale to release the load on the specimen.
Calculate the compressive strength of given specimen parallel to the grains.
3. Compression Perpendicular to Grains:AIM:- To find out the compressive strength of specimen perpendicular to grain.
PROCEDURE:- Measure the dimensions of the specimen. Place the specimen between
compression plates such that axis of loading is perpendicular to the grain. Calculate the
maximum load that can be applied on the specimen. Apply the load slowly by opening the inlet
valve until specimen fails. Note down the maximum load open one outlet valve to release the
load.
RESULT :1. Bending test
a) Fiber Stress at limit of proportionality
b) Modulus of elasticity
c) Modulus of rupture
d) Elastic Resilience
Moment of inertia,
I = (bd3)/12 =
Maximum load,
Wu
(from graph)
Deflection at limit of proportionality
(from graph)
Fibre stress at limit of proportionality
=
= M/Z = (Wl)/4Z =
= (W13)/48I
Observations:Load at A
Deflection at B
Load at B
Deflection at A
OBSERVATION:Diameter of specimen
A = d2/4
P=
R1
R2
Percentage elongation
P/A
= [(R2-R1)/R1] x 100
FATIGUE TEST
Expt No,:
Date:
AIM:- To determine the number of cycles required for breaking the given specimen using
Fatigue testing machine.
GENERAL:- While studying the mechanical properties of a material it is quite necessary to
study the fatigue limit of the material also. In tension test, hardness test, torsion test etc. we
have seen stress due to gradually applied load and without shock. In most cases, most of the
members are subjected to efforts of loads that do not remain steady.
Some of the machine parts like axles, shafts, connect rods, pinion teeth are subjected to
varying stress. Due to some loading in these parts, while they rotates, the stress in the
member will change alternately (ie from tension to compression or viceversa). This alternating
stresses are equal but opposite in sign and hence the mean stress becomes zero. This
particular case of stress is known as reversed stresses or stress reversal.
Due to continuous effect of stress reversal, after sometime, the member will possibly get failed.
For avoiding the failing due to stress reversal in the above said or similar machine parts, it is
necessary to find the fatigue limit of the material.
Fatigue failure is a phenomenon in which a component fails due to repeated loading.
Repeated loading condition in a component occurs when the stresses in it due to the load
applied vary or fluctuate between maximum and minimum values. In the case of static loading
conditions, the load is applied gradually, giving sufficient time for the strain to develop, whereas
in the case of repeated loading this does not hold good. Hence, machine members subjected
to repeated loading have been found to fail at stresses that are very much below the ultimate
strength and very often below the yield strength.
Fatigue failure usually begins with a small surface crack undetectable with naked eyes, and
grows rapidly deeper causing the component to fail. The stress concentration due to internal
cracks, grooves, keyways etc. becomes more predominant after the surface crack develops.
Repeated loading can be applied in four fashions, namely, reversed axial loads, reversed
bending loads, reversed torsional loads and combined loads. The subject machine applies
load in reversed bending fashion so that the fibers of the test specimen are stressed once in
tension and once in compression. The stresses vary in a sinusoidal form. The bending
moment in the test cross-section of specimen is constant during the test. Counter records the
number of revolutions at which the specimen fails.
PURPOSE:- The testing machine is mainly used for two purposes: 1. To study the behaviour
of the material and to draw the S-N diagram and 2. To check the material for expected
number of revolutions at specific stress.
In the first case, a number of identical test piece bars are made from the material to be tested.
First fix one piece in the space provided in the machine. Then apply some load. Allow the
electric motor to run so that it rotates the specimen also. The cycle counter will automatically
record number of rotations made provided. After some time due to continuous stress reversal
the specimen will fail. By knowing the diameter of the specimen, stress applied in the material
can be calculated. Note the number of rotations. Then repeating the test for the remaining
specimen by decreasing the load, the corresponding stresses as well as number of rotations
are recorded. We can see as the load is decreasing, the number of rotations required for failing
the specimen is increased. Then draw a graph with stress in the Y-axis and number of
rotations in the X-axis. From the graph we can see after some tests, a limit is reached where
the stress is not sufficient to break the material. This safe stress is known as Endurance limit.
Stress
Endurance Limit
No of cycles
In the second case, generally the bending stress to be applied is decided, depending upon the
design requirements. Suppose the design requirement is such that it should withstand a
bending stress of 400N/mm2, then the load to be applied is calculated as follows:
fb = (509.3 x P)/d
P = (fb x d)/509.3 = (400 x (8) )/509.3
P = 402 N
This load is applied and the number of revolutions at which the specimen fails are recorded
and checked against the expected.
PRINCIPLE:L = 10 cm
L = 10 cm
SPECIMEN
P/2
P/2
P
M
The specimen loading arrangement (fig.) results in a constant bending moment PL/2 over the
test length of specimen.
Where P = load applied over the specimen (N)
L= 10cm
Now Bending moment Mb = PL/2 = (Px100)/2 = 50P N-mm
Bending Stress fb = Mb/Z N/mm2
Where Z = Section modulus = d/32 for circular cross sections
fb = (Mb x 32)/d = (50P x 32)/( x d)
= 509.3P/ d N/mm
Where P is in N, fb in N/mm, Mb in N-mm, d in mm.
PROCEDURE:- Fix the specimen to the specimen pulling out stud in the tapping provided
over face. Insert the specimen with stud into the bore of LH swiveling body and push it further
till it gets inserted in the collet of RH swivelling body and rests against the specimen locator. In
this position the specimen cannot be pushed further. By pressing down the locking rod such
that is a\inserts into the slots of locking ring and prevents hollow shaft from rotating, tighten the
specimen by rotating the clamping cum loosening ring with the help of special spanner. The
locking rod is spring loaded and hence it will immediately come out of the slots, as soon as
hand is released. In no case should be the locking enters the slots when machine is in running
condition. Repeat the procedure for other side assembly. Take out the specimen pulling out
stud by removing it from the tap in specimen. Select the load required, depending upon the
bending moment to be imposed, by moving the loading weight and selecting proper set of
additional weights. Lock the loading weight by locking screw. Use the pin and support while
moving the loading weight so that the lever is not moved. Remove the pin from the support
before starting the motor (otherwise the specimen will rotate without application of any bending
moment). Check the direction of rotation. Reset the counter to show all zeroes before running
the specimen. Start the motor, thus starting the test. The motor will stop after the specimen
fails and the counter will have recorded the number of revolutions completed by the specimen.
RESULT ;Number of cycles required for breaking the specimen
INFERENCE:-