Chapter 7: Nuclear Energy

7.1
7.2

Introduction
Radioactive decay

7.3

Different radioactive decay processes

7.4

Laws of radioactive decay

7.5

Half life

7.6

Average or mean lifetime

7.7

Mass Defect and Binding energy

7.8

Energy due to Fission

7.9

Nuclear Chain Reactions

7.10

Controlled Nuclear Fission

7.11

Timescales of nuclear chain reactions

7.12

Effective neutron multiplication factor

7.13

Energy due to Fusion

7.14

Important fusion reactions

7.1

Introduction

Nuclear energy is released by three exoenergetic (or exothermic) processes:

Radioactive decay, where a neutron or proton in the radioactive nucleus decays

spontaneously by emitting either particles, electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays),
neutrinos (or all of them)
Fusion, two atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus
Fission, the breaking of a heavy nucleus into two (or more rarely three) lighter nuclei

The difference between the masses before and after the nuclear reactions representing the above
three nuclear processes corresponds to the reaction energy or nuclear energy, according to
the mass-energy relation E=mc2.
Nuclear energy was first discovered by French physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, when he found
that photographic plates stored in the dark near uranium were blackened like X-ray plates, which
had been just recently discovered at the time 1895.
Example-1: Find the energy equivalent of 1gm of matter.
Solution:
m= 0.001 kg
Page 1 of 14

E=mc2 = 0.001x (3.0x108)2 = 9x1013 joule or watt-sec

9 x1013
= 2.5x107 kWh
1000 x3600

7.2

Radioactive decay

For a nucleus to be stable, the number of neutrons should in most cases be little higher than the
number
of
protons.
For
example,
oxygen
has
three
stable
isotopes
16
8
13
8

O,

17
8

O,

14
8

O,

O,

18
8

O [ N 8,9,10]

15
8

O,

19
8

O and

20
8

and

five

known

unstable

. In the case of the isotopes

are not enough neutrons for stability while the isotopes

19
8

O,

13
8

(i.e.

O,

20
8

14
8

O,

radioactive)
15
8

isotopes

[ N 5,6,7] there

O [ N 11,12] have too many

neutrons.

7.3

Different radioactive decay processes

(i) Beta Decay:

Nuclei such as

15
8

O which are lacking in neutrons, undergo +-decay. In this process one of the

protons in the nucleus is transformed into a neutron and a positron and a neutrino are emitted.
This transformation is written as
15
8

O 157 N

where + signifies the emitted positron which in this context is called a -ray and denotes the
neutrino.
By contrast, nuclei like

19
8

O which are excessively rich in neutron, decay by decay. In this

process one of the neutron in the nucleus is transformed into a proton and an electron and an
antineutrino are emitted. This transformation is written as

19 O 19 F
8
9
It should be noted that in both +-decay and decay the atomic mass number remains the
same.

(ii) Electron capture:

A nucleus lacking in neutrons can also increase its neutron number by electron capture. In this
process, an atomic electron interacts with one of the protons in the nucleus and a neutron is
formed of the union. This leaves a vacancy in the electron cloud which is latter filled by another
electron. Usually the electron that is captured by the nucleus is the innermost or K-electron and
so this mode of decay is also called K- capture.
A classic example of K-capture is the transformation of vanadium-49 into titanium 49 :
49 V 0 e
23
1

49
Ti
22

(iii) Alpha Decay:

Another way by which some unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay is by the emission of an
alpha particle [ 24 He ]. For example

Page 2 of 14

238 U234 Th 4 He
92
90
2

Decay by -emission is comparatively rare in nuclides lighter than lead, but it is common for the
heavier nuclei.
(iv) Gamma Radiation:
The nucleus formed as the result of -decay (+ or -), electron capture or -decay is often left in an
excited state following the transformation. The excited nucleus then decays by the emission of
one or more -rays (photons).

An example of gamma ray production follows:

First cobalt-60 decays to excited nickel-60 by beta decay:

Then the nickel-60 drops down to the ground state by emitting a gamma ray:
Gamma rays of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV are produced.

7.4

Laws of radioactive decay

There is only one law which governs all decay processes. This law states that the probability
per unit time that a nucleus will decay is a constant, independent of time. This constant is
called the decay constant and is denoted by .
Let us suppose that at time t the number of radioactive nuclei which have not yet decayed is N(t).
The rate at which these nuclei decay is therefore N (t ) disintegrations per unit time. This decay
rate is called the activity of the sample. Activity is measured in Becquerel (Bq) which is one
disintegration per second.
Let us suppose that at the beginning of disintegrations i.e. at t=o, the number of radioactive nuclei
present in the sample is N0.
Since N (t ) dt nuclei decay in the time interval dt, it follows that the decrease in the number of
undecayed nuclei in the sample in time dt is

dN (t ) N (t )dt ,

[1]

This equation can be written as

dN (t )
N (t ), [ 2]
dt
From [2] we can write

dN
dt
N
N

N0

dN
dt
N
0

Eq (3) shows that the number of

surviving nuclei at any time t decreases
exponentially with time.

log e [ N / N 0 ] t
N (t ) N 0 e t ,

[3]

Page 3 of 14

From [3], we can write

N (t ) N 0 e t
A (t ) A e
0

or

[ 4]

where A(t) is the activity at time t and A0 is the activity at time t=o.

7.5

Half life

It is defined as the time interval during which one half of the total number of nuclei that were
present at the beginning of the time interval have decayed .
If N1 nuclei are present at time t1 and one half that number N 2 N 1 / 2 have survived at time t2,
we can write
N1 N 0e t1
N 2 N 0e t 2
N1

N2

[ t2 t1]

[ t2 t1] ln 2
ln 2 0.693
T1/ 2 half life [ t2 t1]

7.6

Average or mean lifetime

If there are N0 radioactive nuclei at time =0, the number that decay in some time interval dt at t is

dN N [t ]dt N 0 e t dt
If we multiply this number by the life time t of these nuclei, sum over all the possible lifetimes from
t=0 to t= , and divide by the total number of nuclei, we get the average or mean lifetime :

1
t dN te t dt te t
N0 0
0
0
{[te

e t dt
0

1
/ ] e t dt}
0

Now, we know

t
A(t ) A0 e t A0 e
In can be seen from this equation that in one mean (average) life, the activity falls to (1/e) of its
initial value.

Example-2: Find the half-lives of a radioactive material if its activity drops to (1/16) th of its initial value
in 30 years.
Page 4 of 14

Solution:

We know that N N 0 (1 / 2) .
n

N
1
1
1

( )4 ( )n
N 0 16
2
2

or

n4

Therefore, Half-life = Total time of disintegration / No. of half-lives = 30 years / 4 = 7.5 years.

Example-3: What percentage of initial amount of a radioactive material decays during the time, equal
to mean lifetime of this material?
Solution:

Number of radioactive nuclei left after one mean lifetime

= N N 0e

Percentage of decay

7.7

N 0 e N 0 / e, 1 /

N0 N
1
1
x100 (1 ) x100 (1
) x100 63 %
N0
e
2.7

Mass Defect and Binding energy

A nucleus consists of proton and neutrons. However, the total mass of a nucleus is always less
than the sum of the masses of its constituents e.g. the mass of helium nucleus is 4.00388 amu
(atomic mass unit) whereas the mass of 2 protons and 2 neutrons totals 4.03312 amu.
Thus, the mass of a helium nucleus is 0.02924 amu less than the sum of the masses of its
constituents. This difference is known as mass defect. The mass defect of a given nucleus can be
calculated by using the equation:

Mass defect = [Z mp + (A - Z) mn] nuclear mass

Where,

Z = atomic number = number of protons in the nucleus

A = atomic mass number = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
mp = mass of proton = 1.007825 amu
mn = mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu

The energy equivalent of mass defect is called binding energy. An amount of mass equal to mass
defect has been converted into potential energy which holds the nucleus together.
Example-4: Show that a mass defect of 1amu is equivalent to about 931 Mev of energy.
Solution:
1 amu = 1.66054x10-27kg
Energy = mc2 = 1.66x10-27x(3.0x108)2 = 1.49x10-10J =

1.49 x10 10
1.6 x1019

931MeV .

The binding energy per nucleon of different elements is different. In Figure below, we show the
binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number for different elements. It is seen from
this figure that binding energy is highest at the centre of the periodic table. This means that if
lighter elements are fused together or heavier elements split, release of energy would take place.
This gives two fundamental ways of obtaining nuclear energy:

Page 5 of 14

(i)
(ii)

Fusion of light elements into heavier elements

Fission of heavy elements into lighter elements.

The nuclear fission process is used in nuclear power plants for generation of energy. The nuclear
fusion process has still not been exploited commercially.

Fig. : Binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number.

The peak at A=4 corresponds to the exceptionally stable

4
2

He nucleus which is alpha

particle. The binding energy per nucleon is a maximum for nuclei of mass number A =56.
This figure suggests that we can liberate energy from the nucleus in two different ways. If we
split a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei, energy is released because the binding energy
per nucleon is greater for the two lighter fragments than it is for the original nucleus. This
process is known as nuclear fission. For example, if the uranium nucleus is broken into two
smaller nuclei, the binding energy difference per nucleon as about 0.8 MeV. The total energy
given off is therefore
[0.8 MeV/nucleon][235 nucleons]=188 MeV
Alternatively when we combine two light nuclei into a heavier nucleus, again, energy is
released when the binding energy per nucleon is greater in the final nucleus than it is in the
two original nuclei. The process is known as nuclear fusion. For instance, if two deuterium[
2
1

H ] nuclei combine to form a

4
2

He helium nucleus, over 23 MeV is released. In fact,

nuclear fusion is the main energy source of the sun and other stars.
Example-5: Find the average binding energy per nucleon for (a) heavy hydrogen
Uranium
Solution:

2H
1

, (b)

235 U
92 .

(a)

For

2H
1

, atomic mass = 2.0141 amu

Mass defect = (1.007825 x 1) + 1.008665 (2-1) 2.0141 = 0.00239 amu

Total binding energy = 931x 0.00239 MeV = 2.225 MeV
Page 6 of 14

Average binding energy per nucleon =

total binding energy

2.225
1.1125
=
atomic mass number
2

MeV
(b)

For

235 U
92 ,

atomic mass = 235.0439 amu

Mass defect = (1.007825 x 92) + 1.008665 (235-92) 235.0439 = 1.9151 amu

Total binding energy = 931x 1.9151 MeV = 1782.95 MeV
total binding energy 1782.95
7.587 MeV
Average binding energy per nucleon =
=
atomic mass number
235

7.8

Energy due to Fission

The fission of a heavy atom can be caused by bombarding

it with a thermal neutron. If a 235U atom is bombarded by a
neutron, the nucleus splits to give nuclei of other elements.
One possible fission reaction of 235U is
235

U + n = 148La + 85Br + 3n

The mass equation of this reaction is

(235.124 + 1.009) amu = (147.961 + 84.938 + 3.0027) amu
The mass of fission products is 0.207 amu less than mass on the left hand side. Thus this
reaction means a mass defect of 0.207 amu, which is equivalent to
0.207x931 MeV = 192.717 MeV of energy
Generally, it is assumed that 1 fission of 235U causes a release of 200 MeV of energy as:
165
7
6
7
6
9

MeV
MeV
MeV
MeV
MeV
MeV

~ kinetic energy of fission products

~ gamma rays
~ kinetic energy of the neutrons
~ energy from fission products
~ gamma rays from fission products
~ anti-neutrinos from fission products

200 MeV
1 MeV (million electron volts) = 1.609 x 10 -13 joules
If all the atoms of 1 kg of pure 235U (25.64x1023 atoms) were fissioned, the energy released would
be equivalent to that contained 3x10 6 kg of coal. Natural uranium contains only 0.7% 235U. If
fission efficiency is 50% fission of 1 kg of natural uranium would give energy equivalent to 10500
kg of coal.
There are two classes of fissionable materials.
Fissile Material: A fissile material is one that will undergo fission when bombarded by
neutrons of any energy. Fissile materials are 235U, 233U, 239Pu and 241Pu
Page 7 of 14

235
92 U

94
1
01n 139
56 Ba 36 Kr 3 0 n

Fertile Material: A fertile material is one that will capture a neutron, and transmute by
radioactive decay into a fissile material. Fertile isotopes may also undergo fission directly, but
only if impacted by a high energy neutron, typically in the MeV range. Fertile materials are
232
Th, 238U, 240Pu,
238
1
92 U 0 n

239
239
239
92 u 93 Np 94 Pu

Thus fissile and fertile materials together are defined as fissionable materials.

7.9

Nuclear Chain Reactions

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons

released in fission produce an additional fission in at least
one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons,
and the process repeats. The process may be controlled
(nuclear power) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons).
If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then the number of fissions doubles each
generation. In that case, in 10 generations there are 1,024 fissions and in 80 generations about 6
x 10 23 (a mole) fissions.
U235 + n fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV

7.10

Controlled Nuclear Fission

To maintain a sustained controlled reaction, for

every 2 or 3 neutrons released, only one must
be allowed to strike another uranium nucleus. If
this ratio is less than one then the reaction will
die out; if it is greater than one it will grow
uncontrolled (an atomic explosion).

Materials used:
Nuclear reactions are controlled by a neutron-absorbing material, such as silver, indium and
cadmium. Other elements that can be used include boron, cobalt, hafnium, dysprosium,
gadolinium, samarium, erbium, and europium, or their alloys and compounds, e.g. high-boron
steel, silver-indium-cadmium alloy, boron carbide, zirconium diboride, titanium diboride, hafnium
diboride, gadolinium titanate, and dysprosium titanate.

7.11

Timescales of nuclear chain reactions

Prompt neutron lifetime

The prompt neutron lifetime, l, is the average time between the emission of neutrons and either
their absorption in the system or their escape from the system. The term lifetime is used because
Page 8 of 14

the emission of a neutron is often considered its "birth," and the subsequent absorption is
considered its "death." For thermal (slow-neutron) fission reactors, the typical prompt neutron
lifetime is on the order of 10 4 seconds, and for fast fission reactors, the prompt neutron lifetime is
on the order of 107 seconds. These extremely short lifetimes mean that in 1 second, 10,000 to
10,000,000 neutron lifetimes can pass.

Mean generation time

The mean generation time, , is the average time from a neutron emission to a capture that
results in fission. The mean generation time is different from the prompt neutron lifetime because
the mean generation time only includes neutron absorptions that lead to fission reactions (not
other absorption reactions). The two times are related by the following formula:
In this formula, k is the effective neutron multiplication factor, described below.

7.12

Effective neutron multiplication factor

The ratio of neutrons available for fissioning in any one generation to the number available in the
preceding generation is called the effective multiplication factor, keff, and is calculated by:
keff =

Number of fissions, one generation

Number of fissions, preceding generation

keff < 1 (subcriticality): The system cannot sustain a chain reaction, and any beginning
of a chain reaction dies out over time.
keff = 1 (criticality): Every fission causes an average of one more fission, leading to a
fission (and power) level that is constant. Nuclear power plants operate with keff = 1
unless the power level is being increased or decreased.
keff > 1 (supercriticality): For every fission in the material, it is likely that there will be "
keff " fissions after the next mean generation time. The result is that the number of
fission reactions increases exponentially. Nuclear weapons are designed to operate
under this state.

In a nuclear reactor, keff will actually oscillate from slightly less than 1 to slightly more than 1, due
primarily to thermal effects (as more power is produced, the fuel rods warm and thus expand,
lowering their capture ratio, and thus driving k lower). This leaves the average value of k at
exactly 1. Delayed neutrons play an important role in the timing of these oscillations.

Page 9 of 14

7.13

Energy due to Fusion

Nuclear energy can also be released by

fusion of two light elements (elements
with low atomic numbers). Nuclear fusion
reactors, if they can be made to work,
promise virtually unlimited power for the
indefinite future. This is because the fuel,
isotopes of hydrogen, are essentially
unlimited on Earth. Efforts to control the
fusion process and harness it to produce power have
been underway in the United States and abroad for
more than forty years.uclear fusion is the source of
energy in the sun and stars where high temperatures
and densities allow the positively-charged nuclei to get
close enough to each other for the (attractive) nuclear
force to overcome the (repulsive) electrical force and
allow fusion to occur. Figure shows one fusion reaction.
The most promising fusion reaction,
3

H + 2H = 4He + n + 17.6 MeV

To produce energy using this reaction, both the

magnetic confinement reactor with a high temperature
plasma (a gas that has been completely ionized) and
the inertial confinement reactor (which utilizes laser implosion technologies) have been
investigated. Extremely high plasma temperatures are required in the magnetic confinement
reactor and difficult laser implosion techniques are required for the inertial confinement reactor.
Although significant progress has been made in these investigations, no working reactor that
produces more energy than it consumes has been built. Unfortunately, the funding for continuing
this work has declined, and the work is proceeding at a slower pace.
Although these types of reactors would not have the fission product waste disposal problem of
fission reactors, fusion reactors generate large number of fast neutrons, leading to large
quantities of radioactive byproducts.
Another approach to nuclear fusion an approach that could lead to aneutronic power (power
without neutrons) and non-radioactive nuclear energyuses the concept of colliding-beam fusion
(CBF). One aneutronic method features the 2H + 3He reaction leading to the products 1H + 4He.
However, this requires 3He as fuel and terrestrial sources of this are limited. The Moon is a
potential source of 3He produced by cosmic-ray protons hitting the Moon directly and not being
absorbed by an atmosphere as on Earth. Another potential approach for colliding beam fusion is
the 11B + 1H reaction leading to the three 4He nuclei. The energy release is in the form of charged
particles whose kinetic energy can be converted to electricity with a very high efficiency. Current
research predicts that this energy source has an extremely high degree of cleanness and
efficiency. In all current energy sources, approximately two-thirds of the energy is lost in the form
of waste heat or thermal pollution.

Page 10 of 14

7.14

Important fusion reactions

(i) Astrophysical reaction chains

The most important fusion process in nature is that which powers the stars. The net result is the
fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two electrons, two neutrinos, and
energy, but several individual reactions are involved, depending on the mass of the star. For stars
of the size of the sun or smaller, the proton-proton chain dominates. In heavier stars, the CNO
cycle is more important.

(ii) Proton-proton cycle

Since the sun is composed of ordinary hydrogen, rather than deuterium, it is first necessary to
convert the hydrogen to deuterium. This is done according to the reaction
1
1

H 11H 12 H e

This process involves converting a proton to a neutron and is analogous to the beta-decay
processes discussed earlier. Once we have obtained 2H (deuterium), the next reaction that can
occur is
2
1

followed by

3
2

H 11H 23He

He 23He 24He 211H

Note that the first two reactions must occur twice in order to produce the two 3He we need for the
third reaction. We can write the net process as
31
H 3
He
1
2
61
H 3
He 3
He 4
He 21
H 2 2 2
1
2
2
2
1
41
H 4
He 2e 2 2
1
2

The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two
electrons, two neutrinos, and energy, but several individual reactions are involved, depending on
the mass of the star. Since the two positrons disappear in this process, the only masses
remaining are four hydrogen atoms and the one helium atom, and so
Q ( m i m f )c 2 ( 4 x1.007825 u 4.002603 u ) (931.5 MeV / u ) 26.7 MeV

Each fusion reaction liberates about 26.7 MeV of energy. Let us now try to calculate the rate at
which these fusion reactions occur in the sun. The power output from the sun may be shown to
be about 4x1026 W, which corresponds to about 10 38 MeV/s. Thus there must be about 10 38 fusion
reactions per second, consuming around 4x10 38 protons per second. For stars the size of the sun
or smaller, the proton-proton chain dominates.

Page 11 of 14

(iii) Carbon cycle

In heavier stars, the CNO cycle is more important. A more likely sequence of reactions in the
carbon cycle is shown below:
12

C 1H

13

13

C H

14

14

15

15
15

13

13

C e

N H
15

O
1

N e

N H

N
O

12

He

Notice that the 12C plays the role of catalyst; we neither produce nor consume any 12C in these
reactions, but the presence of the carbon permits this sequence of reactions to take place at a
much greater rate than the previously discussed proton-proton cycle. The net process is still
described by 41H 4He, and of course the Q value is the same. Since the coulomb repulsion
between H and C is larger than the Coulomb repulsion between two H nuclei, more thermal
energy and a correspondingly higher temperature are needed for the carbon cycle. The carbon
cycle probably becomes important at a temperature of about 20 X 10 6 K, while the Suns interior
temperature is only 15 X 106 K.
When all of the hydrogen has been converted to helium, the Sun will contract and its temperature
will increase until helium burning occurs, by processes such as
3 4He 12C
Two He nuclei have a larger mutual Coulomb repulsion than two H nuclei, so helium fusion needs
more thermal energy than hydrogen fusion.
When the helium is used up, a still higher temperature will allow carbon fusion to make even
heavier elements, for example, 24Mg. Such processes will continue until 56Fe is reached; beyond
this point no further energy is gained by fusion.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Problem No. 1: Show that after 10 half-lives a radioactive material is reduced to 1/1000 part
approximately.
Solution: From radioactive decay law, one can show that a radioactive material, after n half-lives, will
decay to N N 0 (1 / 2) .
n

N N 0 (1 / 2) 10 N 0 / 1024 N 0 / 1000
Problem No. 2: The half-life of radium is 1600 years. After how much time (1/16) th part of radium will
remain un-disintegrated in the sample?
4
n
Solution: Given N N 0 / 16 , therefore, N / N 0 (1 / 16) (1 / 2) (1 / 2)

Page 12 of 14

n4

Therefore, time of disintegration = No. of half-lives x half-lives = 4 x 1600 = 6400 years.

Therefore, Half-life = Total time of disintegration / No. of half-lives = 30 years / 4 = 7.5 years.
Problem No. 3: There is a stream of neutrons of kinetic energy of 0.025 eV. If the half-life of neutron is
700 seconds, what fraction of neutrons will decay, before they travel a distance 10 m?
Solution:

We

1
K .E mv 2
2

2 xK .E

know

that

2 x.025 x1.6 x10 19

2.19 x10 3 m / s
27
1.67 x10

Time needed to travel a distance of 10 m = 10 m / (2.19 x10 3) = 4.57x10-3 seconds.

3
N
e t e ( 4.57 x10 / 700 ) 0.99999347
N0

fraction

decayed 1

N
6.53 x10 6
N0

Problem No. 4: A sample of uranium is a mixture of three isotopes

234
92

U,

235
92

U and

238
92

U , present

in the ratio 0.006%, 0.71% and 99.284% respectively. The half-lives of these isotopes are 2.5x10 5
years, 7.1x108 years and 4.5x109 years respectively. Calculate the contribution to activity (%) of each
isotope in sample.

Solution: No. of

234
92

0
U nuclei in the mixture = N 24
=

0.006 x 6.02 x10 23

(Taking total mass of
234

100gm)

0.71x6.02 x10 23
235

No. of

235
92

0
U nuclei in the mixture = N 25
=

No. of

238
92

0
U nuclei in the mixture = N 28
=

99.284 x6.02 x10 23

238

The relative contribution of the isotopes in the activity (%) would be

0
24

N 24 :

or

0
25

N 25 :

0
28

N 28

1.02 x10 10 : 0.0425 x10 10

Problem No. 5: The half-lives of

Today the isotopic abundance of

0.006 x6.02 x10 23 x 0.693 0.71x6.02 x10 23 x0.693 99.284 x6.02 x10 23 x
:
:
234 x 2.5 x10 5
235 x 7.1x10 8
238 x 4.5 x10 9
: 0.926 x10 10 1.02 : 0.0425 : 0.926 51.41% : 2.13% : 46.45%

235
92

U and

235
92

238
92

U and

U are 7.1x108 years and 4.5x109 years respectively.

238
92

U are respectively 0.72% and 99.28%. Assuming

Page 13 of 14

that initially these isotopes were in equal abundance and no isotopic separation has occurred,
calculate the age of these elements on the earth.
Solution:

N 25 N e
0
25

25 t

N 28 N 280 e 28t
0
0
In the beginning, N 25 N 28 .

e 28t 99.28

137.88
0.72
e 25t
or [ 28 25 ]t ln 137.88 4.927

or
Now

t 4.927 /[ 25 28 ]
8
10
25 0.693 / T125
per year
/ 2 0.693 / 7.1x10 9.76 x10
9
10
28 0.693 / T128
per year
/ 2 0.693 / 4.5 x10 1.54 x10

t 4.927 /[9.76 1.54] x10 10 5.99 x10 9 years

Problem No. 6: Calculate the amount of energy required to remove a neutron from

nucleus.Given the masses of

40
20

Ca=39.962589 amu,

39
20

Solution:

Ca

Ca n

39
20

Mass defect = (mass of Ca-39 +n) mass of Ca-40 = 38.970691 + 1.008665 39.962589

= 0.016767 amu = 0.016767 amu 931 MeV/amu = 15.61 MeV

Page 14 of 14

Ca

Ca=38.970691 amu, mn=1.008665

amu.

40
20

40
20