0

More NextBlog

CreateBlog SignIn

GATEMetallurgicalEngineering
ThedestinationfortheGATEaspirants!
Home

TOPICS

INITIATIVES

AboutUs

VIDEOS

Forum

FAQ's

News

USEFULLINKS

GATE
IIScBangalore
IITBombay
IITKanpur
IITKharagpur
IITMadras
IITRoorkee
ITBHU
NPTEL

SEARCHTHISBLOG

ShowingpostswithlabelBasics. Showallposts

MillerIndicesandsomeusefulrelations

Search

IMAGES

MillerindicesofPlane
Proceduretodeterminemillerindicesofplane:(1)Chooseorigininsucha
waywhichliesoutsidetheplaneofinterest(choiceoforiginisarbitrary)(2)
Find the intercepts of the plane on the three co ordinate axes (3) Take
reciprocals(4)Convertintosmallestintegersinthesameratio(5)Enclose
theminparentheseswithoutcamoseg:(hkl)
()denotesplane,{}denotesfamilyofplanes

FOLLOWBYEMAIL

Emailaddress...
Submit

FOLLOWERS

Jointhissite
withGoogleFriend
Connect

Members(42)
More

Alreadyamember?
Signin

Usefulaspectsaboutmillerindicesforplanes(1)Aplaneanditsnegative
are identical eg: (0 1 0) = (0 1 0)(2) Planes and their multiples are not
identicalasplanardensitiesandpackingfactorsaredifferent(3)Familyof
planeswillhavesametypeofatomicpackingbutnotallmembersoffamily
areparalleltooneanother

LABELS

Basics
Books
ebooks
ExamPattern

MillerindicesofdirectionDirectionsincrystalarespecifiedinashorthand
vectornotation.Letavectorrrepresentsadirectioninacrystal.Themiller
indicesaresimplythevectorcomponentsofdirectionresolvedalongeach
ofthecoordinateaxesandreducetosmallestintegersi.ethecomponents
of the vector along 3 axes are determined as multiples of the unit vector
correspondingtoeachdirection.
[]denotesdirection,<>denotesfamilyofdirections

GATEMTpapers

Usefulaspectsaboutmillerindicesfordirections(1)Adirectionandits
negativearenotidentical,[100][100]samelinebutoppositedirection
(2)Adirectionanditsmultipleareidentical,[110]=[220],butshould
not be reduced to lowest integers (3) Crystal directions of family are not
necessary parallel to one another (4) Crystal plane and a crystal direction
normaltoithavesameindicesi.e[111](111)

solutions

MillerbraviasindicesForhexagonalcrystalsafourdigitnotationhkil
known as Miller bravias indices is used. The use of such a notation
enables crystallographically equivalent planes or directions in hexagonal
crystals to be denoted by the same set of indices. 3 axes a1, a2, a3 are
coplanarandlieonthebasalplaneofthehexagonalprismwitha120angle
betweenthem.Thefourthaxisisthecaxisperpendiculartothebasalplane.
The indices of plane or direction are calculated similar to that in miller
indices.For3coplanarvectorsh+k=i
Inter planar spacing The distance or spacing between the plane and a
parallelplanepassingthroughtheorigin.Incaseofcubicsystemitisgiven
by

Anglebetweenplanesordirections
Forcubiccrystals,theanglebetweentwoplanes(h1k1l1)and(h2k2l2)or
twodirections[h1k1l1]and[h2k2l2]is

Lineofintersection[hkl]oftwoplanes(h1k1l1)and(h2k2l2) is cross
productoftwoplanes.
h=k1l2l1k2k=l1h2h1l2l=h1k2k1h2
Thedirection[h1k1l1]liesintheplane(h2k2l2)ifh1h2+k1k2+l1l2=
0.

IITBMMadmission
IITKMSE
admission
ImporatantDates
2012
key
NewinGATE2012
Syllabus

Interstitial Voids The empty space that is unoccupied by the atoms in a

closedpackedsystem.
Types:(1)tetrahedral(2)octahedral
Tetrahedralvoid
Thisformswhenanatomisputinthevalleyformedbythreespheresofa
closedpackedplane
Thenamedhasbeenderivedbecauseregulartetrahedronisformedwhen
hecentersof4atomsarejoined
Octahedralvoid
It is surrounded by 6 solvent atoms situated at 6 corners of a regular
octahedron
Thenamehasbeenderivedbecauseof8equalfacesofequilateraltriangles
4atomsinaplane(squarebased)andoneontopandotheratbottom
Labels:Basics

IronIroncarbidePhaseDiagram
Pure iron has two crystalline forms, one BCC, commonly called iron
whichremainsstablefromlowtemperaturesupto910C(1414F)whenit
changes to FCC called iron. The iron remains stable upto 1394C
(2554F), when it reverts to BCC form now called as iron, which is
stableuptothemeltingpointofiron(1539Cor2802F).Alltheallotropic
changes give off heat (exothermic) when iron is cooled and absorb heat
(endothermic)whenironisheated.

Effectofpressureonallotropyofiron
Increse in pressure lowers the Fe to Fe transition temperature and
incresestheFetoFetraqnsitiontemperature.Thisisaccordingtothe
lechatliersprincipleasvolumeofFCC(Fe)islowerthanthatofBCC.
AvolumechangeofFCCtoBCCis8.8%.
IronIroncarbidediagram
The temperature at which allotrophic change (critical temperatures) takes
place is influenced by alloying elements. The curie temperature is not
effected by alloying elements. Carbon is the most common alloying
elementintheironwhichsignificantlyaffectstheallotrophy,structureand
properties of iron. Conventionally, the complete Fe C diagram should
extendfrom100%Feto100%carbon(graphite),butitisnormallystudied
upto 6.67% carbon (Fe3C) because iron alloys of practical industrial
importance contain not more than 5% carbon. Fe Fe3C is not a true
equilibrium diagram, since Fe3C (meta stable) decomposes into Iron and
Carbonwhichtakeaverylongtimeatroomtemperatureandevenat700C
it takes several years to form graphite. When the carbon content becomes
more than solubility limits of iron though carbon should be present as
Graphite(lowerfreeenergythancementite),yetcementiteformsbeacause
the formation of cementite is most probable kinetically i.e. it is easier to
from it, as only 6.67% C has to diffuse to segregate to form cementite
whereas100%Csegregationisrequiredtonucleategraphite..

DefinitionofstructuresorphasesinFeFe3Cdiagram
Ferrite:itisaninterstitialsolidsolutionofcarboniniron(BCC).The
maximum solubility of carbon in ferrite is 0.02 wt% at 727C and the
minimumis0.00005wt%at20C.thesizeofthelargestatomthatcanfitin
octahedral void is 0.19 A, which is much smaller than carbon atom
(0.71A).sothesolubilityisexremelylimited.Itissoftandductile.Ferrite
isferromagneticupto768Cbecomesparamagneticabovethistemperature.
Austenite:itisaninterstitialsolidsolutionofcarboniniron(FCC).The
maximumsolubilityofcarbonis2.1wt%at1146Cwhichdecresesto0.77
wt%at727C.thesizeofthelargestatomthatcanfitinoctahedralvoidis
0.52A.correspondinglythesolubilityislargerherecomparedtoferrite.It
is soft, ductile, malleable, tough and nonmagenetic. It is stable above
727Cinplaincarbonsteelsbutcanbeobtainedevenatroomtemperature
byaddingelementslikeNiorMninsteels.
ferrite:itisaninterstitialsolidsolutionofcarboniniron(BCC).The
maximumsolubilityofcarbonis0.09wt%at1495C.itisparamagnetic.It
ishightemperatureversionofiron.
Cementite(Fe3C):Itisaninterstitialintermetlliccompoundhavinbgfixed
carbon content of6.67wt%. it has a complex orthorhombicstructure,with
12 Fe atoms and 4 C atoms per unitcell. High hardness, brittle, very low
tensile strenght and high compressive strength. It is the hardest phase that
appearsonthephasediagram.
Ledeburite: it is eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite. It contains
4.3wt%Candisformedat1146C.thisisveryfinemixture.
Pearlite:itiseutectoidmixtureofferriteandcementitecontaining0.8wt%
Candisformedat727C.itisaveryfineplatelikeorlamellarmixture.
InvariantreactionsinFeFe3Cdiagram
1.Peritecticreaction

Compositionwt%0.090.530.17
2.Eutecticreaction

Compositionwt%4.32.116.67

3.Eutectoidreaction

Compositionwt%0.770.026.67
CriticaltemperatureinFeFe3Cdiagram
Thetemperaturesatwhichphasetransformationsoccursduringheatingor
coolinganalloy.certainsymbolsareusedtodenotethecriticaltemperature

insteels.Theupperandlowercriticallinesunderequilibriumareindicated
byAe3andAe1etc.
Itisfoundthatinactualpracticethecriticallineonheatingandthecritical
line on cooling are not occur at same temperature. The critical line on
heating is always higher than the critical line on cooling. The former is
denotedbyAcandthelaterisdenotedbyAr.Aforarret(meansarrest),C
forchauffage(meansheating),RforRefroidissement(meanscooling),efor
equilibrium.
If extremely slow rates of heating or cooling are employed then critical
temperaturesarenearlyequali.e.Ac1=Ar1=Ae1.
The curie temperature (magnetic to nonmegnetic change) of cementite is
calledA 0.Ae 1 orA 1 is eutectoid tempersture line (727C).Ae 2 orA 2 is
curietemperatureline(768C)andthisisconstantforallFeCalloys.
Hypoeutectoidside
Uppercriticaltemperature(Ae3,Ac 3,Ar 3):Itisthetemperatureatwhich
Austenitetoferritetransformationbeginsoncooling(or)atwhichferriteto
austenitetransformationendsonheating.ThisisdenotedbyA 3line.(Ac3
>Ar3)
Lower critical temperature: It is the temperature at which Austenite to
ferrite transformation ends on cooling (or) at which ferrite to austenite
transformationstartsonheating.(Ac1>Ar1).
Hypoeutectoidside
Lower critical temperature (Ae3,1 Ac 3,1Ar 3,1) : It is the temperature at
which precipitation of cementite from austenite ends uopn cooling (or) at
whichdissolutionofcementiteinaustenitebeginsuponheating.
Uppercriticaltemperature(Aem,Acm,Arm):Itisthetemperatureatwhich
precipitationofcementitefromaustenitebeginsuopncooling(or)atwhich
dissolutionofcementiteinausteniteendsuponheating.
EffectofalloyingelementsontheFeCdiagram
Ferrite stabilizers: some alloying elements tend to stabilize the ferrite
phaseinpreferencetoaustenite.Manyoftheseelementshavesamecrystal
structure as ferrite (BCC).They reduce the extent of the austenite area on
theequilibriumdiagrambyformingagammaloop.Austeniteisenclosed
withintheloop.eg:Cr,Si,Mo,W,V,Tietc.
Austenitestabilizers:Theseenlargetheareaoftheaustenitephaseonthe
phase diagram. critical amount of these alloying elements results in
Austeniteevenatroomtemperture.eg:Mn,Ni,C,Netc.
Effectoneutectoidtemperatureandcomposition
Ferrite stabilizers raises the eutectoid temperatute to above 727C,
Austenite stabilizers lowers the euctectoid tempersture to below 727C.
Both Ferrite and Austenite stbilizers decrease the eutectoid composition
from0.77%tolowervalues.
Labels:Basics

Selectiveleaching
Selectiveleachingisremovalofoneelementfromsolidalloybycorrosion
process. Parting is metallurgical term sometimes applied but selective
leaching is preferred. The term dealloying is frequently used and is
preferred by some corrosionists. Dimensional changes do not occur. The
mostcommonexampleisremovalofZincinbrass.Similarprocessoccurs
in other alloy systems in which Al, Fe, Co, Cr and other metals are
removed.
Advantagesofselectiveleaching
(1) Enrichment of silicon observed in the oxide film on stainless steels
resultsinbetterpassivityandresistancetopitting(2)PreparationofRaney
nickel catalyst by selectively removing aluminium from AlNi alloy by
actionofcaustic.
Dezincification
Twogeneraltypes(i)uniformorlayertype(seemstooccurinhighbrasses
i.e. high Zn content) (2) localized or plungtype (seems to occur in low
brasses i.e. low Zn content). The dezincified portion is weak, permeable,

porous, brittle and possesses little aggregate strength. Hence addition of

zinctocopperlowersthecorrosionresistanceofcopper.Twomechanisms
havebeenproposed(1)Zincisdissolved,leavingvacantsitesinthebrass
lattice structure (not proven) (2) Brass dissolves, zinc ions stay in the
solutionandcopperplatesbackon(commonlyaccepted).
Prevention:(1) reducing aggressiveness of medium (i.e. oxygen removal)
orbycathodicprotection.butthesenoteconomical.(2)AdditionofSnto
Admiralitybrass(70Cu30Zn).(3)addinhibitorslikeAs,Sb,P.
Graphitization Gray cast irons some times shows selective leaching in
relativelymildenvironments.thenameisgivenbasedonthesurfacelayer
has appearance of graphite. it is misnomer to call this as graphitization as
graphite presents in the material before corrosion. This is also called as
graphitic corrosion. selective leaching of Iron or steel matrix leaving the
graphitenetworkingraycastiron(presenceofgraphiteflakes).Graphiteis
cathodictoferrite,(asamountofcarbonislessinferrite)andagalvaniccell
exists,whichresultsindissolutionofironleavingaporousmassconsisting
graphite,voidsandrustandlosesitsstrength.SurfaceshowsrustingThis
corrosion does not occur in nodular or malleable (absence of graphite
flakes)andwhitecastiron(nofreecarbon).
Labels:Basics

CathodicandAnodicprotection
CathodicprotectionThisismethodofreducingorpreventingcorrosionof
ametalbymakingitacathodeintheelectrolyticcell.Thiscanbeachieved
by means of an externally impressed current or sacrificial anode. An
electrolyteisneededtoensurethepassageofcurrentthroughtheparttobe
protected.Thisiseffectiveonlyinsoilsoraqueousmediawhereparttobe
protectedisimmersed.Itisnoteffectiveintheatmosphere.
(1)ImpressedcurrentmethodanexternalDCpowersupplyisconnected
to the metal be protected. The negative terminal of power supply is
connectedtotheparttobeprotectedandthepositivetoanAuxiliaryor
inertanodeeg:graphite.Steelscrap,Al,SiFearealsocanbeused.Si
Fe and graphite are suitable for groundbedsburied or seabed for
marineprojects.
Applications: pipelines, underground cables ofAl, Pb storage tanks,
heatexchangers, steelgates exposed to sea water, hulls of ships,
highwaysandbridges.
(2)Sacrificialanode(orgalvaniccoupling)inthismetalwhichhasmore
negative electrode potential than the structure to be protected is
connected electrically to the part or structure to be protected. The
structure is protected at the sacrifice of another metal. Mg alloys, Zn,
Al5%Zn are widely used. These anodes are replaced as soon as
consumed.
Applications:underwaterpartsofships,shiphull,undergroundpipes,
steelwatertanks,waterheaters,condensertubes,oilcargoballesttanks.
Galvanizedsheetissacrificialprotectionofsteel(Znonsteel).
AnodicprotectionThis is based on the formation of a protective film on
metals by externally applied anodic currents. An external current i crit is
initially applied impressed on the metal so as to passivate it. Then the
currentdensityisreducedtoipassiveandmaintainedatthatvaluetoensure
the passive film does not dissolve. Material must exhibit passivity in
corrodent eg: Ni, Fe, Cr, Ti and their alloys. A potentiostat is used to
maintainthemetalataconstantpotentialw.r.tareferenceelectrode.Ifthe
controlislosttemporarilyandthepotentialstraysintotheanodicregion,the
corrosion can be disastrously high. The primary advantage is its
applicability in extreme corrosive environments with low current
requirements.
ComparisonofAnodicandCathodicprotection
Anodic
Applicability
Activepassive
matals/alloys
Natureofcorrosive
Weaktoaggressive
medium
Cost:Installation
High
Maintenance
Verylow
Operatingconditions
Canbeaccurately
determine
Significanceof
Directmeasureof

Cathodic
Allmetals/alloys
Weaktomedium
Low
Mediumtohigh
Determinedby
empiricaltesting
Complextoindicate

appliedcurrent

protectedcorrosion
rate

corrosionrate

Labels:Basics

Strenghteningfromfineparticles
Small second phase particles (Hard) distributed in a ductile matrix are a common
sourceofalloystrengthening.
Precipitationhardeningisproducedbysolutiontreating(heatingtoasinglephase
region) and quenching an alloy in which a second phase is in solid solution at the
elevated temperature but precipitates upon quenching and aging at room
temperature (natural aging) or at slightly higher temperature (artificial aging, 100
200degrees). for this to occur the second phase must be soluble at an elevated
temperature but must exhibit decreasing solubility with decreasing temperature.
coherencybetweentheprecipitatesandmatrixisessential.Thehardnessincreases
with the formation of GP zones (Guinierpreston) and the intermediate transition
precipitates.. A peak in hardness results due to critical dispersion of GP zones ,
further aging leads to decrease in hardness due to coarsening of precipitates
(incoherent). This is called overaging. eg:AlCu (aerospace industry) and CuBe
(sparkingtoolsincoalmines).
Thepeakhardnessdependson
1.Averageparticlesize(fineparticles)
2.NumberofParticles(morefinerparticles)
3.Interparticledistance(less)
Methodsofstudyingprecipitation
1.Mechanical properties During aging as the amount of precipitate increases with
timewhichincreasesthestrengthorhardnessofthealloy.tensiontestorhardness
measurementcanbeusedtoknowthechangesinmechanicalproperties.
2.ElectricalresistivityDuringagingtheexcesssolutecomesoutgradually hence
strainsinthecrystallatticedecreaseshenceresistivitydecreases.
3.XraydiffractionItsapplicationistomeasurestraininthecrystal.strainsinthe
latticewilldecreasewithtime.
4.ElectronMicroscopyasprecipitatesareverysmallinsize(fewnanometers)we
havetouseelectronmicroscopytoobservetheprecipitation.
The fraction of second phase is limited by solubility limit. Higher supersaturation
causes faster precipitation. The degree of super saturation decreases with the
increaseofagingtemperatureresultinginlowerpeakhardnessathightemperatures.
sincetheamountofsecondphaseislessandinterparticledistanceishigh.
Reasonsforhardeninginprecipitationhardening
1.InternalstrainhardeningbyelasticcoherencystrainsaroundGPzones.
2. Chemicalhardening due to precipitates being sheared (cut) by moving
dislocations.
3. Dispersionhardening due to formation of loops of dislocations around
precipitates.
The requirement of a decreasing solubility with temperature places a limitation on
the number of useful precipitationhardening alloy systems. Precipitation hardened
alloys can't be used at higher temperatures precipitates dissolve in the matrix at
higher temperature. To overcome these difficulties a dispersion strengthening is
developed.
Dispersion hardening The hard and strong foreign particles are dispersed in a
metal/alloy (matrix). Powder metallurgy is the best route to consolidate these
dispersionalloys.Theseparticlesareoxides,carbides,nitridesetc.Suchalloysare
called dispersion strengthened alloys. The second phase alloys has very little
solubility in the matrix even at elevated temperatures. No coherency between the
secondphase particles and the matrix. These alloys are much more resistant to
recrystallization and grain growth than singlephase alloys. Second phase particles
donotdissolveevenathightemperature.
Advantages
1.canbeusedforHightemperatureapplications
2.wecanusethisforanyalloysystem
3.Nolimitationonthefractionoramountofdispersoid
Labels:Basics

ColdworkingandAnnealing
Coldworkingisdeformationcarriedoutunderconditionswhererecovery
processesarenoteffective.Hotworkingisdeformationunderconditionsof

temperature and strain rate such that recovery processes take place
simultaneouslywiththedeformation.
Structural changes during cold working of polycrystalline metals and
alloys
(1) Changes in shape and size of grains: The equiaxed grains on
deformationareelongatedinthedirectionofactingforcei.e.stretched
inthedirectionofmaintensiledeformationstresssay,inthedirection
ofrollingorwiredrawing.
(2)Changesinorientationofgrains:Preferredorientationortextureofis
thestateofseverelycoldworkedmetalinwhichcertaincrystallographic
planesofthegrainsorientthemselvesinapreferredmannerwithrespect
tothedirectionofthestress(ormaximumstrain).
(3)Changesininternalstructureofgrains:duringcoldworkingaround
15%oftheworkofthedeformationgetsabsorbedinthematerial(restis
lostasheat).Thisstoredenergyistheformofenergyofcrystaldefects.
Plastic deformation increases the concentration of point defects. With
increaseofcoldworking,thenumberofstackingfaultsincreases,thus
density of extended dislocations increases.The number of kinks, jogs,
dipoles,prismaticloopsincrease.Themostimportantinternalchangeof
structure is increase in density of dislocation from 106 108 cm2 in
annealedstateto10101012bymoderatecoldworking.
Effectofcoldworkonproperties
Coldworkingorstrainhardeningistheincreaseinthestressrequiredto
cause further slip because of previous plastic deformation. This is an
importantindustrialprocessthatisusedtohardenmetalsoralloysthatdo
notrespondtoheattreatment.Itchangesvariousmechanical,physicaland
chemicalpropertiesofmetalsandalloys.
With increase in amount of cold work, Ultimate Tensile Strength, Yield
Strength,Hardnessincreasesbutductily(elongationandreductioninarea)
decreases.ColdworkedtextureandmechanicalfiberingleadstoAnisotropy
in in properties of materials. The ductility and impact toughness is much
lower in transverse section rather than in longitudinal section. As the
internalenergyofcoldworkedstateishigh,thechemicalreactivityofthe
material increases i.e. the corrosion resistance decreases, and may cause
stress corrosion cracking in certain alloys. The rate of strain hardening
(slopeofflowcurve)isgenerallylowerinHCPmetalsthancubicmetals.
Hightemperaturesofdeformationalsolowertherateofstrainhardening.
AnnealingofColdworkedmaterials
Incertainapplicationsmaterialsareusedinthecoldworkedstatetoderive
benefits of increased hardness and strength. The cold worked dislocation
cellstructureismechanicallystable,butnotthermodynamicallystable.Itis
necessary to restore the ductility to allow further cold deformation or to
restore the optimum physical properties such as electrical conductivity
essentialforapplications.Thetreatmenttorestoretheductilityorelectrical
conductivity with a simultaneous decrease in hardness and strength is
Annealing(orRecrystallizationannealing).Itisheatingcoldworkedmetal
toatemperatureaboverecrystallizationtemperature,holdingthereforsome
timeandthenslowcooling.
TheprocessofAnnealingcanbedividedintothreefairlydistinctstages(1)
Recovery (2) Recrystallization (3) Grain growth. There is no change in
composition or crystal structure during annealing. The driving force for
recoveryandrecrystallizationisthestoredcoldworkedenergy,whereasfor
graingrowthistheenergystoredingrainboundaries.
Recovery It is restoration of the physical properties of the cold worked
metal without of any observable change in microstructure. It is the
Annihilation and rearrangement of point imperfections and dislocations
withoutthemigrationofhighanglegrainboundaries.Recoveryisinitially
very rapid, and more when the annealing temperature is high. Electrical
conductivity increases rapidly toward the annealed value and lattice strain
measuredusingXRDisappreciablyreduced.Propertiesthosearesensitive

topointdefectsareaffected,andstrengthpropertiesarenotaffected.With
increasing time at constant temperature the recovery becomes slower.The
greater the initial cold work, the more rapid is the initial rate of recovery.
Therateofrecoveryoffinegrainsishigherthanthatofcoarsegrains.
Polygonizationoneoftherecoveryprocesseswhichleadstorearrangement
ofthedislocations,witharesultantloweringofthelatticestrainenergy.Itis
a process of arranging excess edge dislocations in the form of tilt
boundaries, and the excess screw dislocations in the form of twist
boundaries, with the resultant lowering of the elastic strain energy. Climb
and slip of dislocations are essential for polygonization. The presence of
soluteatomsinametalreducestherateofpolygonization.
Recrystallization It is nucleation and growth of new strainfree crystals
fromthecoldworkedmetal.Kineticsofrecrystallizationresemblesaphase
transformation. Two distinct nucleation mechanisms have been identified.
(1) Straininduced boundary migration, where a strainfree nucleus is
formedwhenoneoftheexistinggrainboundariesintoitsneighbour,leaving
astrainfreerecrystallizedregion.(2)newgrainsareformedintheregions
of sharp lattice curvature through subgrain growth. This seems to
predominateathighstrains,withnucleiappearingatgrainboundariesorat
inclusions or second phase particles. Mechanical properties change
drastically over a very small temperature range to become typical of the
annealedmaterial.Electricalresistivitydecreasesharply.
Factorsinfluencerecrystallizationbehaviorare(1)Amountofdeformation
(2)temperature(3)time(4)initialgrainsize(5)composition(6)amountof
recovery or polygonisation (7) Method of deformation. Hence
recrystallization temperature is not a fixed temperature in the sense of a
meltingtemperature.Itcanbedefinedasthetemperatureatwhichagiven
alloyinahighlycoldworkedstatecompletelyrecrystallizesin1h.Thelaws
ofrecrystallizationare:(1)aminimumamountofdeformationisneededto
cause recrystallization. (2) Smaller the degree of deformation, higher the
temperature required to cause recrystallization. (3) Recrystallization rate
increases exponentially with temperature. Doubling the annealing time is
approximatelyequivalenttoincreasingtheannealingtemperature10C.(4)
Greaterdegreeofdeformationandlowerannealingtemperature,thesmaller
the recrystallized grains. (5) Larger the original grain size, the greater the
amount of coldwork required to produce equivalent recrystallization
temperature.(6)Therecrystallizationtemperaturedecreaseswithincreasing
impurity of motel.Alloying always raise recrystallization temperature. (7)
Theamountofdeformationrequiredtoproduceequivalentrecrystallization
behaviorincreaseswithincreasedtemperatureofworking.
Solute and Pinning effects The impurity in metal segregate at grain
boundaryandretardthemigratingboundariesduringrecrystallization.This
is known as the solution drag effect. When fine second phase particle
(carbides) lies on the migrating boundary, the grain boundary area is
reduced by an amount equal to cross sectional area of particle. When the
boundary moves further, it has to pull away from the particle and thereby
create new boundary are equal to cross sectional area of particle. This
increases energy and manifests itself as a pinning acting on the boundary.
Consequentlytherateofrecrystallizationdecreases.
Grain growth It is uniform increase in the average grain size following
recrystallization.Thegrainsizedistributiondoesnotchangeduringnormal
grain growth. During abnormal grain growth called secondary
recrystallization because the phenomenon shows kinetics similar to
recrystallization,thegrainsizedistributionmayradicallychangei.e.some
very large grains present along with the fine grains.The driving force for
abnormal growth is decrease in surface energy. Solute drag and pinning
actionofsecondphaseparticlesretardmovementofamigratingboundary
duringgraingrowthaswell.
comparison ofmechanicalpropertiesduringRecovery,RecrystallizationandGrain
growth.

Labels:Basics

NewerPosts

Home

OlderPosts

Subscribeto:Posts(Atom)

Home

AboutUs

Initiatives

Videos

Forum

FAQ's

News

Topics

Allrightsreserved@ourteamGATEMT.PoweredbyBlogger.