Magma and Igneous

Rocks
Rock: A coherent, naturally occurring, aggregate of minerals
or glass
Geologists distinguish three main types of rocks
1- Igneous
Rocks that form by the freezing or solidification of melt

2- Sedimentary
Rocks that form by the cementing of grains or fragments of pre-existing rocks, or
by the precipitation of minerals out of a solution

3- Metamorphic
Rocks that form when pre-existing rocks change due to temperature or pressure,
and/or as a result of squashing or shearing.

Thin Sections
To study rocks
in detail,
geologists cut
thin slices of
rock so that they
are translucent
Geologists cut rocks with a rotating saw

Geologists can
then look at
them through
petrologic
microscopes

and then grind them into thin sections

A hand sample of granite

A magnified thin section of granite

Igneous Rocks- The Basics

Solidified molten rock
(which freezes at high
temp).
1,100C to 650C.
Depends on composition.

Earth is mostly igneous

rock.
Magma: Subsurface melt.
Lava: Melt at the surface.

Magma erupts via

volcanoes.

Igneous Rock Types

In general, there are
two basic types of
igneous rocks
Extrusive/Volcanic:
Igneous rocks that
form due to the
freezing of melts
above the surface of
the Earth
Includes rocks made
of volcanic ash
(pyroclastics)

Intrusive/Plutonic:
Form by freezing of
melts below the
surface of the Earth.

Formation of Magma
Remember that the tectonic plates dont really float on a
liquid asthenosphere, rather the asthenosphere is a ductile
solid and is only melted in specific locations.
Most magma/lava is not 100% liquid.
Magma/Lava is made of many compounds, all of which have
different melting temps. Analogy: a slushy or frozen margarita
Only a few percent of liquid is required to make a melt.

Other than a rise in temperature, what causes

melting of rock within the Earth?
Melting happens because of:
Decrease in pressure (decompression)
Addition of volatiles (H2O, CO2, etc)
Heat transfer from rising magma

Melting due to Decompression

The Earth gets hotter
with increasing depth
due to primordial heat
and radioactive decay of
elements near the core.
The rate at which
temperature increases
with depth is called the
geothermal gradient, or
geotherm

Liquids have no
organized structure, so to
melt a rock, the mineral
bonds must be broken
(animated gif of atoms)

The geotherm of the Earth

Melting due to Decompression

At depth, confining
pressure prevents atoms
from breaking free of
crystals
Solidus: The temperature
when a rock first begins
to melt
Liquidus: The
temperature where the
last solid particle melts

The asthenosphere cools

only slightly as it rises
(convection) because it is
a good insulator (high
specific heat)

The solidus and liquidus of peridotite (ultramafic mantle rock)

Melting due to the Addition of Volatiles

Volatiles: A substance that can easily change into a gas at relatively low
temperatures (H2O, CO2, etc).
The addition of volatiles at depth (mainly H2O) seeps into rocks and
helps break bonds (aids in melting).
Analogy: Think of putting salt onto ice to lower the melting temperature.
Likewise, adding water to rocks changes the melting point of rocks just
like adding salt to water.

Melting due to the Addition of Volatiles

Depth (km)

The addition of H2O into

basalt, for example,
drastically changes its
melting temperature

In this case, basalts at

60km depth beneath the
continents could begin to
melt only if they were
volatile rich.

The geotherm beneath a continent and the solidus

of wet and dry basalt

Melting Due To Heat Transfer

Melting can also occur
when rising bodies of
hot material essentially
bake the nearby rock
Analogy: Think of
pouring hot fudge into
ice cream. The hot fudge
transfers heat to the ice
cream and melts it

What is Magma Made of ?

All magmas contain Si and O
Upon cooling, bond together into silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons
More silica (i.e. felsic), more viscous (harder to flow, thicker)

Also contain varying amounts of other elements like Na, K, Al,

Ca, Mg, Fe, etc
Dry magmas no volatiles
Wet Magmas up to 15% volatiles
Volatile content strongly effects the viscosity (ability to flow)
More volatiles, less viscous (easier to flow or more fluid)

Increasing Fe, Mg

Increasing SiO2

Types of Magma - Composition

Like rocks, not all magma is made of the same stuff
We divide magmas into groups by their composition
Felsic (Silicic): 66-76% Silica (SiO2)
Most viscous, Least dense (~2.5 gm/cm3), melting point 650-800oC

Intermediate: 52-66% SiO2

Mafic: 45-52% SiO2, lots of MgO, FeO, and Fe2O3
Ultramafic: 38-45% SiO2, abundant MgO, FeO, and Fe2O3
Least viscous, Most dense (~3.5 gm/cm3), melting point up to 1300oC

Magma Compositions
Composition controls density, T, and viscosity.
Most important is the content of silica (SiO2).
Silica-rich magmas are thick and viscous.
Silica-poor magmas and thin and runny.

These characteristics govern eruptive style.

Type

Density

Temperature

Viscosity

Felsic

Very low

Very low (600 to 850C)

Very High: Explosive eruptions.

Intermediate

Low

Low

High: Explosive eruptions.

Mafic

High

High

Low: Thin, hot runny eruptions.

Ultramafic

Very high

Very high (up to 1,300C) Very low

Bowens Reaction Series

In order to understand the melting and solidifying of magma we need to understand

Bowens reaction series. Bowen figured this out by melting rocks in an oven, letting
them cool, and watching what minerals crystallized
This series outlines the order in which minerals form in a cooling melt
Also applies in reverse order to rocks that are partially melted

Discontinuous series (different minerals form) and Continuous series (Plagioclase only)
So, a melt gets less mafic as it cools; In heating, the first minerals to melt are felsic.

Why are Magmas so Variable in Composition?

Differences in Magma composition occur due
to 5 main reasons

1.

Different source rock compositions

melt a felsic rock = felsic magma

2.

Magma mixing
mix felsic magma with mafic magma
= intermediate magma

3.

Partial melting

4.

Assimilation

5.

Fractional crystallization

Partial Melting
Most magmas are not 100% liquid
Commonly 2-30% melt; called a crystal mush

According to Bowens reaction series, rocks that are partially

melted become more mafic, because the silica-rich felsic minerals
are melted first.
The melted part of the partial melt is thus more felsic than the
remaining rock.

The felsic
mineral,
quartz, is a
common
cement in
many rocks

Assimilation
As magma sits in its chamber,
it may incorporate minerals
from the surrounding wall rock
Called assimilation

Occurs when wall rocks fall

into the magma and melt
(stoping) or when the magma
partially melts minerals from
the wall rock
Degree of assimilation depends
on composition of wall rock,
temp of magma, amount of
H20 present, amount fractures
in and strength of the wall
rock, and residence time

Stoping & Xenoliths

Stoping: The process of incorporating chunks of wall rock into a magma body
Xenolith: A non-melted chunk of wall rock incorporated into a magma body
May have a very different composition than the magma

Xenolith
A xenolith in
granite in the
Mojave desert
Usually recognized
because they may
have a different
texture (grain size)
and composition
than the rest of the
rock

Fractional Crystallization
Not all minerals crystallize at
the same temperature This is
fractional crystallization
As magmas cool, they become
more felsic.
Mafic minerals crystallize first
and are more dense than the
melt, so they sink to the bottom

Bowens reaction
series is an example
of fractional
crystallization

Magma Movement
If magma did not move, no extrusive/volcanic rocks would
ever have formed
Magma rises because:
hotter and less dense than the surrounding rock and therefore
buoyantly rises.
the weight of the overlying rock (lithostatic pressure) literally
squeezes the magma out.
Analogy: Think of stepping on a tube of toothpaste to force it out, or mud
squishing through your toes when you step in a puddle

Viscosity affects a magma or lavas ability to flow

Controlled by:
Temperature (high temp - low viscosity)
Volatile content (more volatiles less viscous)
Silica content silica tends to form silica-oxygen tetrahedrons that
bond with each other to make long chains that ultimately resist flow
(more silica more viscous)

Extrusive Igneous Rock Environments

Explosive eruptions generally occur

when source magma is:

Effusive eruptions generally occur when

source magma is:

High in silica (felsic-intermediate)

Low temp
High in volatiles

These volcanoes form

These volcanoes form

Lava domes
Ash clouds and ash flows

Hawaii

Cascades
NW USA

Low in silica (mafic)

High temp
Low in volatiles
Fluid lava flows
Fire fountains (if volatiles), lava tubes

Intrusive Igneous Rock Environments

Magma rises by percolating between grains and/or by forcing open cracks in the
subsurface
The magma that doesnt reach the surface of the Earth cools into intrusive
igneous rocks
Country rock or wall rock: The pre-existing rock that magma intrudes into
Intrusive contact: The boundary between the igneous intrusion and the wall rock

Tabular intrusions: Dike, Sill, Laccolith (pseudo-tabular, or sheet-like)

Non-tabular intrusions: Pluton, Batholith, Stock

Mt.
Rushmore is
carved out of
a granitic
igneous
intrusion

Dikes and Sills

Dikes: igneous
intrusions that cut
across layering, i.e.
discordant
Sills: igneous
intrusions that
follow layering, i.e.
concordant

Dikes in the Sierra Nevada Batholith

Near Ruby Lake, CA @ ~12,000 ft

Laccoliths
Laccolith: a dome-like sill that bends the layers above it into a
dome shape

Non-Tabular Intrusions: Plutons

Pluton: Irregular blob-shaped
discordant intrusions that range
in size from 10s of m, to 100s
of km

Batholith: A pluton that is 100 km2

in surface exposure
Stock: A pluton that is <100 km2 in
surface exposure

The Sierra Nevada Batholith

The Sierra Nevada Batholith

At ~100 Ma the
west coast of the
US, was a
subduction zone
with numerous
volcanoes

The magma
chambers cooled
and the rocks
above were
eroded away
leaving a large
batholith
exposed.

Effects of Intrusions
Dikes form in regions of
crustal stretching

Sills may cause uplift at the

surface of the Earth

Effects of Intrusions
Dikes form in regions of
crustal stretching

Scotland was stretched during the Cenozoic

Sills may cause uplift at the

surface of the Earth

La Sal Mountains, Utah were uplifted by a laccolith

Effects of Intrusions
Plutons disrupt the
surrounding layers of rock
and may cause crustal
stretching above
Plutons grow by stoping:
opening cracks and
assimilating xenolithic
blocks in the melt

Cooling of Magma and Lava

Magma cools for
several reasons
Removal of
volatiles
It rises to a cooler
location and has
time to cool
Cooling depends
very much on the
geometry (surface
area) of the
intrusion.
Tabular-shape = fast
cooling
Spherical shape =
slow cooling

Cooling times vary

from days minutes
to millions of years

Igneous Textures
Glassy Texture: A solid mass of glass
or tiny crystals surrounded by a glass
matrix
Matrix: the smaller stuff in a rock
(relative term)

Interlocking Texture (Phaneritic):

Rock made of interlocking crystals that
grew as the melt solidified. Commonly
called crystalline igneous rocks
Crystals fit together like pieces of a puzzle

Igneous Textures
Fragmental Texture:
Volcanic rocks that are made
of various types of fragments
that form from volcanic
eruptions.
Fragments can be:
Crystals
Xenoliths (from volcano walls)
Glass
Volcanic
Breccia
angular pieces
of fragments
entrained in the
eruption

A Welded Tuff white specks are fragments, grey is ash

Crystalline Igneous Rocks

Glassy Igneous Rocks

Obsidian: Mass of solid felsic glass; conchoidal fracture

Tachylite: mafic, bubble-free mass of >80% glass (very rare)

Pumice: glassy felsic volcanic rock that contains abundant open

pores called vesicles (lt grey to tan in color). Occasionally less
dense than water (it floats!)
Vesicle: a open space left over from a gas bubble in a lava or magma

Scoria: glassy mafic volcanic rock with abundant vesicles

(>30%). Grey, black, or red in color.
Typically has larger and rounder vesicles than pumice

Fragmental Igneous Rocks

{ Rocks blasted out of volcanoescommonly called pyroclastic rocks }

Tuff: Fine-grained rock, composed of lithified volcanic ash and/or fragmented

lava and pumice. Formed from ash fall from the air, or from hot material that
avalanches down the side of a volcano.
If material is still very hot (gooey) it may get squished upon landing and weld with
other particles forming a welded tuff

Volcanic Breccia: Large angular chunks of material from either volcanic

debris flows (blocky lava flow) or air fall (bombs).

Hyaloclasite: formed when lava erupts under ice of water and cools so quickly
that it shatters into fragments that weld or cement together.

Where Does Igneous Activity Occur?

Most volcanoes occur at plate boundaries or Hot Spots

Most subaerial (above sea level) occur in volcanic arcs
Subduction-related volcanic arcs are responsible for the ring of fire

Subduction and Volcanism

Subduction creates
volcanism
1- The down-going slab has
lots of volatiles (e.g. H2O).
At depth, these volatiles are
heated and are squeezed
from the rock and migrate
into the asthenosphere
above the plate.
2- The addition of volatiles,
as we now know, changes
the melting point of rocks
and causes the
asthenosphere to melt above
the sinking plate.
3- The sinking plate may
partially melt too, but most
melting occurs in the
asthenosphere above the
slab.

Hot Spots and Volcanism

There are many hot spots throughout the world, including

Hawaii and Yellowstone.
Many pacific islands are or were hot spots

Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs)

LIP: a region of particularly voluminous eruptions of magma/lava

May be a consequence of a super plume

Flood Basalts

Flood basalts are a type of LIP that emits a large amount of

basalt flows.
The Columbia River flood basalts (above) and the Deccan
Traps (India) are two examples.

Formation of Igneous Rocks at Mid Ocean Ridges

~70% of the Earths surface
(including the underwater
surface) is oceanic crust, so
most igneous rocks form at mid
ocean ridges

Mid Ocean Ridge lavas are

compositionally similar to
Oceanic Hot Spots (basalt,
mafic)
Underwater flows for Pillow
Basalts
Pillows have glassy outer rim and
more crystalline center