Sources of Radiation Exposure

Radioactivity is a part of our earth -- it has existed all along. Naturally occurring radioactive
materials are present in its crust, the floors and walls of our homes, schools, or offices and in
the food we eat and drink. There are radioactive gases in the air we breathe. Our own bodies - muscles, bones, and tissue -- contain naturally occurring radioactive elements.
Man has always been exposed to natural radiation arising from the earth as well as from
outside the earth. The radiation we receive from outer space is called cosmic radiation or
cosmic rays.
We also receive exposure from man-made radiation, such as X-rays, radiation used to diagnose
diseases and for cancer therapy. Fallout from nuclear explosives testing, and small quantities of
radioactive materials released to the environment from coal and nuclear power plants, are also
sources of radiation exposure to man.
Sources of exposure for the general public
Natural radiation of terrestrial origin
Natural radiation of cosmic origin
Natural internal radioisotopes
Medical radiation
Technologically enhanced natural radiation
Consumer products
Fallout
Nuclear power
Occupational exposure

Another way to look at the same data is shown in the Table below with the doses expressed in
both uSv and mrem. [What information is required to express these different types of dose in
units of Sv or rem?]
In the United States, the annual estimated average effective dose equivalent is 360 mrem per
adult. This is broken down as:
Annual estimated average effective dose equivalent received by a member of the population
of the United States.
Source
Average annual effective dose equivalent
(Sv)
(mrem)
2000
200
Inhaled (Radon and Decay Products)
390
39
Other Internally Deposited Radionuclides
280
28
Terrestrial Radiation
270
27
Cosmic Radiation
10
1
Cosmogenic Radioactivity
3000
300
Rounded total from natural source
600
60
Rounded total from artificial Sources
3600
360
Total
Shown in the table above, 82% of the total average annual effective dose is from natural sources
of radiation, and of that, most is from radon. Of the other 18%, the majority is from medical
diagnosis and treatments, with <1% from nuclear power and fallout.

Other 1%
Occupational
Fallout
Nuclear Fuel
Cycle
Miscellaneous

3%
<0.3%
0.1%
0.1%

Summary:
Average effective dose (U.S.) 360 mrem/year (3.6mSv/y)
NCRP 116; ICRP 60: Recommended dose limits:
Occupational worker
Effective Dose, annual

5 rem /year (50mSv/y)

Pregnant workers

0.05 rem/month (0.5mSv/month)

General public,
Infrequent exposure
Continuous exposure

0.5 rem (5mSv/y)

0.1 rem (1mSv/y)

Radioactivity in Nature
Our world is radioactive and has been since it was created. Over 60 radionuclides can be found
in nature, and they can be placed in three general categories:
1. Primordial - been around since the creation of the Earth
2. Cosmogenic - formed as a result of cosmic ray interactions
3. Human produced - enhanced or formed due to human actions
Radionuclides are found in air, water and soil, and additionally in us, being that we are products
of our environment. Every day, we ingest/inhale nuclides in our air we breathe, in the food we
eat and the water we drink. Radioactivity is common in the rocks and soil that makes up our
planet, in the water and oceans, and even in our building materials and homes.

Where do radioactive isotopes come from?

1) Natural (primordial) radionuclides
About 340 nuclides have been found in nature, of which about 70 are radioactive and are found
mainly among the heavy elements. All elements having an atomic number greater than 80
possess radioactive isotopes, and all isotopes of elements heavier than number 83 are radioactive.
2) Artificial radionuclides
Result of bombardment of stable nuclei.
Uranium-238 is the heaviest natural radionuclide, however heavier species can be artificially
made. These are called trans-uranics and are usually short lived.

1) Primordial radionuclides
When the earth was first formed a relatively large number of isotopes would have been
radioactive. Those with half-lives of less than about 108 years would by now have decayed into
stable nuclides. Radionuclides that exist for more than 30 half-lives are not measurable. Thus,
the primordial (or natural terrestrial) radionuclides are left over from when the world and the
universe was created. They are typically long lived, with half-lives often on the order of
hundreds of millions of years. The progeny or decay products of the long-lived radionuclides are
also in this heading. A few examples of primordial radionuclides:
Primordial nuclides
Nuclide
Symbol
Uranium 235
U
235
Uranium 238
U
238
Thorium 232Th

Half-life
7.04 x 108 yr

Natural Activity
0.72% of all natural uranium

99.2745% of all natural uranium; 0.5 to 4.7 ppm

total uranium in the common rock types
1.41 x 1010 yr 1.6 to 20 ppm in the common rock types with a
4.47 x 109 yr

232
Radium
226
Radon 222
Potassium
40

226

Ra

222

Rn

40

crustal average of 10.7 ppm

0.42 pCi/g (16 Bq/kg) in limestone and 1.3 pCi/g
1.60 x 103 yr
(48 Bq/kg) in igneous rock
Noble Gas; annual average air concentrations range
3.82 days in the US from 0.016 pCi/L (0.6 Bq/m3) to 0.75
pCi/L (28 Bq/m3)
1.28 x 109 yr soil - 1-30 pCi/g (0.037-1.1 Bq/g)

Primordial radionuclides can be divided into those that occur singly, or those occurring as part of
one of three series or chains of radioactive species decaying sequentially.

Some other primordial radionuclides are 50V, 87Rb, 113Cd, 115In, 123Te, 138La, 142Ce, 144Nd, 147Sm,
152
Gd, 174Hf, 176Lu, 187Re, 190Pt, 192Pt, 209Bi.

1) Single primordial nuclides

At least 22 naturally occurring single or nor-series primordial radionuclides have been identified.
Most of these have such long half-lives, small isotopic and elemental abundances and small
biological uptake and concentration that they give little environmental dose. The most important
is potassium-40. Potassium is a metal with 3 natural isotopes, 39, 40 and 41. Only 40K is
radioactive and it has a half life of 1.3 x 109 years.

Natural Radioactivity in soil

How much natural radioactivity is found in an area 1 square mile, by 1 foot deep? The following
table is calculated for this volume (total volume is 7.894 x 105 m3) and the listed activities.
Activity levels vary greatly depending on soil type, mineral make-up and density (~1.58 g/cm3).
This table represents calculations using typical numbers.
Natural Radioactivity by the Mile
Activity used
Nuclide
in calculation
0.7 pCi/gm (25 Bq/kg)
Uranium
1.1 pCi/g (40 Bq/kg)
Thorium
Potassium 40 11 pCi/g (400 Bq/kg)
1.3 pCi/g (48 Bq/kg)
Radium
0.17 pCi/gm (10 kBq/m3) soil
Radon

Mass of Nuclide
2,200 kg
12,000 kg
2000 kg
1.7 g
11 g

Activity
0.8 curies (31 GBq)
1.4 curies (52 GBq)
13 curies (500 GBq)
1.7 curies (63 GBq)
0.2 curies (7.4 GBq)

Potassium is essential to life and is thus found in all living, and formerly living, things.
The isotopic abundance of 40K is small, only 0.012% of naturally occurring potassium which
gives a specific activity of 855 pCi/g (31.6 Bq/g) of natural K.
S.A = 0.00012 x

6.02 x1023 atoms / g

x
A

S.A = 0.00012 x

6.02 x10 23 atoms / g

0.693
x
9
A
1.3 x10 years x 3.2 x107 sec/ y

S.A. = 30.1 disintegrations/sec/gram

From a biological point of view potassium is everywhere. A 70 kg man contains about 140 g,
mostly in muscle. The K concentration in men is about 20-30% greater than in women of the
same age, largely due to the greater muscle mass and lower fat content in men.
855 pCi/g x 140 g = 0.12 Ci of 40K in a 70 kg male.
While the mean overall concentration of K in the soft tissues of the body is about 0.2%, there is
considerable variability among the various organs and tissues. Highest in muscle, lowest in teeth
and bones. Because the body composition is homeostatically controlled, the K level will not
change as we change diet, residence location, etc. Typically the soft tissues (those with the
greatest concentrations of K such as the muscles and the gonads) will incur a dose of about 19
mrad (190Gy) per year from the 40K decay, about 85% of which is from the beta particles
associated with the decay of the nuclei and the remainder from photons.
Because it is everywhere in the environment, and because of the 1.46 MeV photon associated
with the decay, 40K also delivers a small external dose.

2) Chain or series decaying primordial radionuclides.

Some nuclides like 232Th have several members of its decay chain. You can roughly follow the
chain starting with 232Th
232
Th --> 228Ra --> 228Ac --> 228Th --> 224Ra -->
220
Rn --> 216Po --> 212Pb --> 212Bi --> 212Po --> 208Pb (stable)
Radioactive series refers to any of four independent sets of unstable heavy atomic nuclei that
decay through a sequence of alpha and beta decays until a stable nucleus is achieved. These four

chains of consecutive parent and daughter nuclei begin and end among elements with atomic
numbers higher than 81, which is the atomic weight of thallium; the members of each set are
genetically related by alpha and beta decay. Three of the sets, the thorium series, uranium series,
and actinium series, called natural or classical series, are headed by naturally occurring species
of unstable nuclei that have half-lives comparable to the age of the elements. By 1935 these three
radioactive series had been fully delineated. The fourth set, the neptunium series, is headed by
neptunium-237, which has a half-life of 2,000,000 years. Its members are produced artificially
by nuclear reactions and do not occur naturally; all their half-lives are short compared with the
age of the elements.
Because the two pertinent decay processes result either in no change or in a change of four units
in the mass number, the mass numbers of all the members of each series are divisible by four,
with a constant remainder. Within each series, therefore, the mass number of the members may
be expressed as four times an appropriate integer (n) plus the constant for that series; thus, the
thorium series is sometimes called the 4n series; the neptunium series, 4n + 1; the uranium series,
4n + 2; and the actinium series, 4n + 3.
The thorium series begins with thorium-232 and ends with the stable nuclide lead-208. The
neptunium series is named for its longest-lived member, neptunium-237; it ends with bismuth209. The uranium series begins with uranium-238 and ends with lead-206. The actinium series,
named for its first-discovered member, actinium-227, begins with uranium-235 and ends with
lead-207.
Alpha decay, symbolized by a larger arrow in the accompanying diagram, involves the ejection
from an unstable nucleus of a particle composed of two protons and two neutrons. Thus alpha
emission lowers the atomic number (number of protons) by two units, the neutron number by
two units, and the mass number (total of neutrons and protons) by four units. At the head of the
thorium series, for example, thorium-232 undergoes alpha decay to radium-228.
Negative beta decay, symbolized by a smaller arrow, involves the ejection from an unstable
nucleus of an electron and an antineutrino that are produced by the decay of a neutron into a
proton. This process lowers the neutron number by one unit, raises the atomic number by one
unit, and leaves the mass number unchanged. At the end of the neptunium series, for example,
lead-209 undergoes negative beta decay to bismuth-209.
Branching (the decay of a given species in more than one way) occurs in all four of the
radioactive series. For example, in the actinium series, bismuth-211 decays partially by negative
beta emission to polonium-211 and partially by alpha emission to thallium-207.

Important points about series-decaying radionuclides

3 main series
the fourth exists only with man-made isotopes, but probably existed early in the life of
the earth
the 3 main series decay schemes all produce radon (but primary radon source, the longest
half-life, is the uranium series).

Series name

Begins

Thorium

232

Uranium

238

Actinium

235

Ends

T1/2

Gas (T1/2)

1.4 x 1010 yr

208

Pb

220

4.5 x 109 yr

206

Pb

222

7.1 x 108 yr

207

Pb

219

Th

Rn (55.6 sec) thoron

Rn (3.8 days) radon

Rn (4.0 sec) actinon

Uranium 238 decay scheme.

Note the tendency of decay to push the series back towards the line of stability.
Branching occurs when the radionuclide is unstable to both alpha and beta decay, for example,
218
Po.
Gamma emission occurs in most steps.

High Background Radiation Areas

Background radiation levels are from a combination of terrestrial (from the 40K, 232Th, 226Ra,
etc.) and cosmic radiation (photons, muons, etc.). The level is fairly constant over the world,
being 8-15 rad/hr. Around the world though, there are some areas with sizable populations that
have high background radiation levels. The highest are found primarily in Brazil, India and
China. The higher radiation levels are due to high concentrations of radioactive minerals in soil.
One such mineral, Monazite, is a highly insoluble rare earth mineral that occurs in beach sand
together with the mineral ilmenite, which gives the sands a characteristic black color. The
principal radionuclides in monazite are from the 232Th series, but there is also some uranium and
its progeny, 226Ra.

10

In Brazil, the monazite sand deposits are found along certain beaches. The external radiation
levels on these black sands range up to 5 mrad/hr (50 Gy/hr), which is almost 400 times normal
background in the US. Some of the major streets of the surrounding cites have radiation levels as
high as 0.13 mrad/hr (1.3 Gy/hr), which is more than 10 times the normal background. Another
high background area in Brazil is the result of large rare earth ore deposits that form a hill that
rises about 250 meters above the surrounding area. An ore body near the top of the hill is very
near the surface, and contains an estimated 30,000 tons of thorium and 100,000 tons of rare earth
elements. The radiation levels near the top of the hill are 1 to 2 mrad/hr (0.01 to 0.02 mGy/hr)
over an area of about 30,000 m2. The plants found there have absorbed so much 228Ra, that they
can produce a self "x-ray" if placed on a sheet of photographic paper (an autoradiogram).
On the Southwest coast of India, the monazite deposits are larger than those in Brazil. The dose
from external radiation is, on average, similar to the doses reported in Brazil, 500-600 mrad/yr (5
- 6 mGy/yr), but individual doses up to 3260 mrad/yr (32.6 mGy/yr) have been reported.
An area in China, has dose rates that are about 300-400 mrad/yr (3-4 mGy/yr). This is also from
monazite that contains thorium, uranium and radium.
[From BEIR V, National Research Council report on Health Effects of Low Levels of Ionizing
Radiation: In areas of high natural background radiation, an increased frequency of chromosome
aberrations has been noted repeatedly. The increases are consistent with those seen in radiation
workers and in persons exposed at high dose levels, although the magnitudes of the increases are
somewhat higher than predicted. No increase in the frequency of cancer documented in
populations residing in areas of high natural background radiation. ]

Internal Radiation
What makes a radionuclide biologically important?
Abundance (both elemental and isotopic)
Half-life
Decay scheme (emission type and energy)
Chemical state
Chemical behavior in the body
Does it concentrate?
Ultimate location
Rate of excretion
How do the series radionuclides contribute to our dose?

Inhalation
o Isotopes of radon (inert gas, but may decay in the lung)
o Dust; e.g., our main source of uranium is due to resuspension of dust particles
from the earth. Uranium is ubiquitous, a natural constituent of all rocks and soil.

11

Externally- gamma emission occurs in most decay steps.

Consumption- food and drinking water

Example:
Alpha activity in various foodstuffs (pCi/g)
Brazil nuts
Cereals
Teas
Organ meats
Flours
Peanuts
Chocolate
Cookies
Milk (evaporated)
Fish
Cheeses
Eggs
Vegetables
Meat
Fruits

14
0.06
0.04
0.015
0.014
0.012
0.008
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.0009
0.0009
0.0007
0.0005
0.0001

N.B.: The Brazil nut tree concentrates barium, which is chemically similar to radium. Brazil also
has areas of very high natural concentrations of thorium and radium in ores and soil.
In most places on earth, natural radioactivity varies only within relatively narrow limits. In some
places there are wide deviations from these limits due to the presence of abnormally high
concentrations of radioactive minerals in local soils.
The important contributors to our exposure:

Uranium:
found in all rocks and soil, and thus in both our food and in dust.
High concentrations in phosphate rocks (and thus in commercial fertilizers)
Is absorbed by the skeleton which receives roughly 0.3 mrem/year (3 Sv/year) from
uranium

Radium:
Also present in all rocks and soils, but food is a more important source of intake
226Ra and its daughter products (beginning with 222Rn) contribute the major dose
components from naturally occurring internal emitters
dissolves readily
chemically similar to calcium, and is absorbed from the soil by plants and passed up
the food chain to humans
variations in Ra levels in soil lead to variations in Ra levels in food
12

80% of the total body Ra is in bone (~7mrem/year). The rest is uniformly distributed
in soft tissue.

Thorium
Lots in dust but little is incorporated in food
Thorium is present in the highest concentrations in pulmonary lymph nodes and lung,
indicating that the principle source of exposure is due to inhalation of suspended soil
particles.
Ultimately a bone seeker with a long residence time
Since it is very slowly removed from bone, concentration increases with age.

Lead
Also a bone seeker, half-life in bone is ~ 104 days

Polonium
Unlike other naturally occurring -emitters, 210Po deposits in soft tissue not bone.
Two groups exist for which the dose from 210Po is apt to be exceptionally high.
Cigarette smokers
Residents of the north who subsist on caribou and reindeer. Reindeer eat lichens that
absorb trace elements in the atmosphere (210Po and 210Pb). The 210Po content of
Lapps living in northern Finland is ~12 times higher than the residents of southern
Finland. Liver dose in the Laplanders is 170 mrem/year compared to 15 mrem/year
for those in the south.

Human body
The human body is made up of many elements, and it should be of no surprise that some of them
are radionuclides, many of which are ingested daily in water and food. The following table lists
the estimated concentrations of radionuclides calculated for a 70 Kg adult based on ICRP 30
data:
Natural Radioactivity in your body
Total Mass of Nuclide Total Activity of Nuclide
Nuclide
Daily Intake of Nuclides
Found in the Body
Found in the Body
90 g
30 pCi (1.1 Bq)
1.9 g
Uranium
30 g
3 pCi (0.11 Bq)
3 g
Thorium
Potassium
17 mg
120 nCi (4.4 kBq)
0.39 mg
40
31 pg
30 pCi (1.1 Bq)
2.3 pg
Radium
95 g
0.4 Ci (15 kBq)
1.8 g
Carbon 14
0.06 pg
0.6 nCi (23 Bq)
0.003 pg
Tritium
0.2 pg
1 nCi (37 Bq)
~0.6 g
Polonium
It would be reasonable to assume that all of the radionuclides found in your environment would
exist in the body in some small amount. The internally deposited radionuclides contribute about
11% of the total annual dose.
13

2) Cosmic Radiation
History
It was noted by several investigators that electroscopes would remain slightly ionized. This
could be reduced with lead blocks (implying an external radiation source).

The radiation was more penetrating than radium in the walls.

Also seen atop the Eiffel tower (too high for radium effects).

Balloon experiments showed that the radiation intensity increased with altitude (thus not a
terrestrial radiation).

Millikan coined the term cosmic rays in 1925. [First American-born scientist to win the
Nobel prize in physics.]

Cosmic Rays
The term cosmic rays or cosmic radiation refers to primary energetic particles of extraterrestrial
origin that enter the earths atmosphere, and to the secondary radiations produced by their
interactions with the atmosphere.
Primary cosmic radiation consists mostly of very high-energy protons: up to 1018 eV (alpha
particles and heavy element nuclei constitute ~ 20%). A large percentage of it comes from
outside of our solar system and is found throughout space. Some of the primary cosmic radiation
is from our sun, produced during solar flares. Little of the primary cosmic radiation penetrates to
the Earth's surface; the vast majority of it interacts with the atmosphere. When it does interact, it
produces the secondary cosmic radiation, or what we actually see here on Earth. These reactions
produce other lower energy radiations in the form of photons, electrons, neutrons and muons that
make it to the surface. All vary widely in energy.
Cosmic rays can be conveniently divided into two components: I) galactic rays, which originate
outside of our solar system, and II) solar radiations (solar wind and solar flares) which emanate
from the sun.
The origins of the galactic component are still unknown. Most of the heavy nuclei
contribution is from galactic rays.
Continual emanation from the sun is known as the solar wind.
Solar wind is a continuous flux outward from the sun of very low energy (< 1 keV)
particles which cannot penetrate the earths magnetic field to reach the atmosphere and
hence is of no significance from an environmental point of view. However, they may be
important sources of exposure in manned space flight or even high altitude flights by the
supersonic transport.

14

The upper atmosphere interacts with many of the cosmic radiations, and produces radioactive
nuclides. They can have long half-lives, but the majority have shorter half-lives than the
primordial nuclides. The following table lists three common cosmogenic nuclides:

Cosmogenic Nuclides
Nuclide Symbol Half-life
Source
Natural Activity
Carbon
14
C
5730 yr Cosmic-ray interactions, 14N(n,p)14C; 6 pCi/g (0.22 Bq/g)
14
Cosmic-ray interactions with N and O;
0.032 pCi/kg (1.2 x
12.3 yr spallation from cosmic-rays,
Tritium 3H
10-3 Bq/kg)
6
Li(n,alpha)3H
0.27 pCi/kg (0.01
Beryllium 7
Be
53.28 days Cosmic-ray interactions with N and O;
Bq/kg)
7
10
26
36
80
14
32
39
Some other cosmogenic radionuclides are Be, Al, Cl, Kr, C, Si, Ar, 22Na, 35S, 37Ar,
33
P, 32P, 38Mg, 24Na, 38S, 31Si, 18F, 39Cl, 38Cl, 34mCl.

Track structure of a cosmic ray collision in a nuclear emulsion

The atmosphere and the Earth's magnetic fields act as shields against cosmic radiation, reducing
the amount that reaches the Earth's surface. Thus, the annual dose from cosmic radiation
depends on altitude. From cosmic radiation in the U.S., the average person will receive a dose of
27 mrem per year and this roughly doubles for every 6,000 foot increase in elevation.
Typical Cosmic Radiation Dose rates:
4 R/hr in the Northeastern US
20 R/hr at 15,000 feet
300 R/hr at 55,000 feet
There is only about a 10% decrease at sea level in cosmic radiation rates when going from pole
to the equator, but at 55,000 feet the decrease is 75%. This is due to the effect of the earth's and
the Sun's geomagnetic fields on the primary cosmic radiations.

15

Flying can add a few extra mrem to your annual dose, depending on how often you fly, how high
the plane flies, and how long you are in the air.

Variations in cosmic ray intensity at the earths surface are due to:
Time
Latitude
Altitude
(i) Time
In general the galactic component is constant with time. Cosmic ray fluence has remained more
or less constant for at least 200 years (and may have varied only by a factor of 2 over the last 109
years).
Temporal variations in the solar component have been directly observed for about a century and
occur in cycles of 11 years (seemingly associated with or following the sunspot cycle), 1 year, 27
days and 1 day. This effect is small, less than 10% at sea level (but it is very important for air
and space travel).
A sunspot is a magnetically disturbed area on the surface of the sun that is cooler than its
surroundings.
It appears darker only because its gases, at 4000 - 4500 K, radiate less than the surrounding gas
at 5700 K.
Around 1830 an obscure German amateur astronomer, H. Schwabe, began observing sunspots as
a hobby. In 1851 he announced a solar cycle the number and positions of sunspots vary in a
cycle.
A year later it was discovered that terrestrial magnetic compass deviations followed the same
cycle.
The cycles duration averages 22 years and consists of two 11year cycles.

16

The sunspot cycle occurs because the sun rotates faster at its equator than near its poles. This
causes a shearing and twisting of the magnetic field that controls the motion of the solar gas.
During years of maximum sunspot activity, solar particles shooting off the sun affect the
magnetic field and upper atmosphere of the earth, disturbing radio communications and causing
aurorae.
The effect on cosmic ray dose to persons living at sea level is small (~ 10% change) but solar
flare activity is of major concern to space travel and, to some extent, air travel.
(ii) Latitude
The source of the latitude effect is basically geomagnetic and is related to the location of the
earths magnetic poles.
On entering the earths magnetic field, some of the primary particles are deflected toward the
polar regions, resulting in a somewhat lower radiation flux at the equator. This phenomenon
becomes more accentuated with altitudes above a few kilometers. The difference in the dose rate
due to geomagnetic latitude varies from 14% at sea level to 33% at 4360 meters.

17

(iii) Altitude
The most important factor from the radiation dose point of view.
The cosmic ray dose approximately doubles with each 1800 meter rise in altitude, at least for the
first 10 km or so above the surface of the earth. This variability is largely due to the change in
attenuation brought about by the decreasing thickness and density of air, which results in reduced
shielding as one ascends from the surface.
(However for the first 1000 m, the total dose rate actually decreases with altitude above the
surface, because attenuation of the rays from terrestrial sources occurs more rapidly than the
increase in cosmic radiation).
Residents of Denver (altitude 1600 m) receive nearly twice the dose than at sea level, and in
Leadville, Colorado (altitude 3200 m) the residents receive about 125 mrem/year from cosmic
rays, more than four times the annual dose at sea level.

18

The van Allen Radiation Belts

The trapping regions of high-energy charged particles surrounding the Earth are called radiation
(or van Allen) belts. The inner one, located between about X = 1.1 - 3.3 Re (Earth radii,
geocentric) in the equatorial plane, contains primarily protons with energies exceeding 10 MeV.
Flux maximum is at about X = 2 Re. (Distances given here are approximate, since the location of
particles is energy dependent.) This is a fairly stable population but it is subject to occasional
perturbations due to geomagnetic storms, and it varies with the 11-year solar cycle. The source
of protons in this region is the decay of cosmic ray induced albedo from the atmosphere.
As a result of the offset between the Earth's geographical and magnetic axes, the inner belt
reaches a minimum altitude of about 250 km above the Atlantic Ocean off the Brazilian Coast.
This South Atlantic Anomaly occupies a region through which low-orbiting satellite frequently
pass. Energetic particles in this region can be a source of problems for the satellites and
astronauts.

19

The outer belt contains mainly electrons with energies up to 10 MeV. It is produced by injection
and energization events following geomagnetic storms, which makes it much more dynamic than
the inner belt (it is also subject to day-night variations). It has an equatorial distance of about 3 9 Re, with maximum for electrons above 1 MeV occurring at about X = 4 Re. 'Horns' of the outer
belt dip sharply in towards the polar caps.
Recently a new belt has been found within the inner belt. It contains heavy nuclei (mainly
oxygen, but also nitrogen and helium, and very little carbon) with energies below 50 MeV/nuc.
The source of these particles are the so called "anomalous cosmic rays" of interstellar origin.
The radiation belts are of importance primarily because of the harmful effects of high energy
particle radiation for man and electronics:
it degrades satellite components, particularly semiconductor and optical devices
it induces background noise in detectors
it induces errors in digital circuits
it induces electrostatic charge-up in insulators
it is also a threat to the astronauts

Auroras
Earth itself is a gigantic magnet. The solar wind confines Earth's magnetic field to a cometshaped cavity known as the magnetosphere. As the solar wind flows past the magnetosphere, it
acts like a cosmic generator, producing millions of amps of electric current. Some of this electric
current flows into Earth's upper atmosphere which can light up like a neon tube to create the
aurora. People living in the arctic or antarctic regions can witness the aurora-- beautiful
shimmering curtains of light appearing in the night sky. The aurora takes its name from the
Roman goddess of dawn, but its cause has nothing to do with the Sun's light. Earth's magnetotail
deflects solar wind toward Earth's polar regions. An aurora is produced when the energetic

20

charged particles comprising the solar wind collide with neutral gas molecules in the upper
atmosphere. The electrical discharge occurs about 70 miles above Earth's surface.

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Summary
Estimated per caput annual effective dose equivalent
from natural sources in areas of normal background
(Estimates from the UNSCEAR 1982 Report are given in parentheses.)

Annual effective dose equivalent (Sv)

Source of irradiation
External
irradiation

Cosmic rays
Ionizing component
Neutron component
Cosmogenic radionuclides
Primordial radionuclides
K-40
Rb-87
U-238 series:
U-238 U-234
Th-230
Ra-226
Rn-222 Po-214
Pb-210 Po-210
Th-232 series:
Th-232
Ra-228 Ra-224
Rn-220 Tl-208
Total (rounded)

Internal
irradiation

300 (280)
55 (21)

Total

15 (15)

300 (280)
55 (21)
15 (15)

180 (180)
6 (6)

330 (300)
6 (6)

100 (90)

5 (10)
7 (7)
7 (7)
1100 (800)
120 (130)

1300 (1040)

160 (140)

3 (3)
13 (13)
160 (170)

340 (330)

800 (650)

1600 (1340)

150 (120)

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2400 (2000)

3) Human Produced
Humans have used radioactivity for just over one hundred years, and through its use, added to
the natural inventories. The amounts are small compared to the natural amounts discussed above,
and due to the shorter half-lives of many of the nuclides, have seen a marked decrease since the
halting of above ground testing of nuclear weapons. A few examples are listed below.
Human Produced Nuclides
Nuclide
Symbol
Half-life
Tritium

12.3 yr

Iodine 131

131

8.04 days

Iodine 129

129

1.57 x 107 yr

Cesium 137

137

Cs

Strontium 90

90

Technetium
99m
Technetium
99
Plutonium
239

99m

Sr
Tc

99

Tc

239

Pu

30.17 yr
28.78 yr

Source
Produced from weapons testing and fission reactors;
reprocessing facilities, nuclear weapons manufacturing
Fission product produced from weapons testing and fission
reactors, used in medical treatment of thyroid problems
Fission product produced from weapons testing and fission
reactors
Fission product produced from weapons testing and fission
reactors
Fission product produced from weapons testing and fission
reactors

6.03 hr Decay product of 99Mo, used in medical diagnosis

2.11 x 105 yr Decay product of 99mTc
2.41 x 104 yr

Produced in reactors by neutron bombardment of 238U

( 238U + n--> 239U--> 239Np +--> 239Pu+)

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