Professional Documents
Culture Documents
- Problems
- Khilafat movement embraced violence- while Gandhi was a strong advocate from
non-violence
- Muslims regarded this as foolish
- Restlessness grew
- Rowlatt Bills (Illustrates the changing nature of imperialism, the nature and impact of
nationalism and the differing views of democracy)
- The Defence of India Act, 1919
- Under the act- India had been given social powers in regards to anti-terrorism
legislation
- Suspended civil liberties
- Indians did have have human rights
- The Media was censored
- Power of provincial governors to imprison suspected terrorists without trial
- In any area of India notified as subversive to the British
- The government should be authorised to take action and impose martial law
- Laws effected very few Indias
- Most of Indias population were peasants (could not read or write)
- Problems
- Committees proposal- attempt to prolong the governments wartime
powers
- Indian politicians strongly against
- Argued that terrorist acts were isolated and did not justify
powers to impose restrictions on the whole country
- British misuse of power
- Implementation of the Rowlatt Bills
- Gandhis opposition to the Bills- Satyagraha campaign
- Hartal- An effort to discover, discern, obtain or apply the truth
- British governments bemused by the concept
- Stated that the laws deprived the people of their God given right of
free expression, thus breaking the law of God
- The Hartal (A campaign of resistance and an event showing the nature and impact of
nationalism)
- Gandhis dream
- the idea came to me in a dream, that we should call upon the country to
observe a general hartal
- Planning
- With a lack of forethrough- Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal, 6th April
- How the hartal was to be obserced by local leaders- Gandhi gave
them no guidance
- Informed the Viceroy that he would start recruiting signatories if the
government did not chnage its position
- Indian oposition
- Opposition from many senior Indian political figues
- Saw Gandhi as a naive Gujarati upstart, playing with fire by
trying to mobilise the masses
- Many disciples who were committed to non-violence
- Troubled by the idea of using satyagraha against measures
designed to contol terrorism
- The Hartal
- Mass confusion
- Delhi, March 30th
- Khadi- constructed an India that was united, disciplined and cohesive- for a British
would have previously viewed India as a land of separate communities whose
varied clothing styles announced their unfitness for self rule
- Spinning was a means to self-reliance and self-respect
- In speeches, gandhi reminded people that before the advent of the British,
every village of self-sufficient
- Leader of National Congress
- Able to appeal effectively to the people outside the marrow population of the
educated elite
- Influenced the Congress into accepting his ideas on non-cooperation
- Meant that his role was crucial- affected what action the Indian political
leader took
- Related to the poverty stricken Indian masses
- Through use of symbolism- wearing a dhoti, diet and traveling 3rd class
- Gain independence
- By forcing the British to realise that they had no reason to continue to
occupy India through non-violent means
- Nature and Impact of Satyagraha and Nationalism 1924-1930- social reform initiatives
- After release from prison 1924- Gandhi temporarily withdraw from the nationalist
movement to concentrate on a life of prayer, contemplation and social reform
- Encourages hand spinning and weaving
- Believed that poverty was cased by the introduction of machinery
- Remove prejudice from untouchables
- Improvements in villages
- Cleanliness a feature of his campaign
- Neatly swept streets, uncluttered drains and personal hygiene
- Impact of symbolism
- Chadha- the wearing of khadi was the only visible and tangible tie that bound the
educated elite to the masses
- Used fasting as a form of self-suffering to express his views and concerns with the
public
- Rights for women
- Spoke on problems such as widow marriage, prostitution, divorce, dowries, child
brides and wife beater
- Begun a deliberate appeal to woman to participate in swaraj
- All of India must be involved in order to obtain swaraj- including women of all
casts and religions
- Fasting
- Technique worked very effectively- public cared for Gandhi and would listen to
him if it meant that he would stop fasting
- Used to make the opponent feel guilty about their actions- press attention
- Further events in the 1920s
- The Simon Commission (illustrates differing views of Democracy)
- Britain announced a proposal to advance India towards self-government
- Due to the upcoming British election- feared that the Labour party would
win and allow changes in India to occur more rapidly
- Report on Indias readiness for further progress to self-government
- Commission- only consisted of British MPs
- Congress- boycotted the commission
- Nehru report (differing views of Democracy)
- Establish a committee to draft an alternative proposal to whatever
the Simon commission might propose
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- Supported by Gandhi
- The 1937 Elections and the Formation of Congress Ministries (changing nature of
imperialism and nature and impact of nationalism)
- Congress won 716 seats- sweeping victory
- Significance
- Chadha- poor showing by the Muslim League and the attitude of Congress ensured that
the seeds of discord were sown and nurtured, contributing to the countrys partition a
decade later.
4. The Road to Independence and Partition
- The Impact of WWII on Anglo-Indian Relations
- Outbreak of WWII- Indian army 205,000 men
- Grew to be the largest all-volunteer force rising to over 2.5 million
- 1939, Viceroy Linilthgow proclaimed (without consulting any Indian) that India was at war with
Germany
- A meeting was held between over 50 Indian leaders and the Viceroy
- Nehru- India cannot associate herself with a war said to be for democratic freedom when
that very freedom is denied to her
- Viceroy- Dominion status was the goal of the British policy in India and that the Act of
1935 would be open to modification at the end of the war
- Outcome
- All Congress provincial ministries resigned
- Gandhi supported non-violence
- Left governors in charge
- Nehrus proposition
- Demanded recognition of Indian right, which would include independence after the
war
- If the British agreed to this demand, Congress would assist Britains war
effort
- Gandhi resigned from a party now prepared to accept violence
- Jinnah and the Muslim League left in charge- Day of Deliverance
- Lahore resolution, 1940
- Presented the two nations theory
- Demanded that India be partitioned and the areas in which the Muslims are
numerically in a majority should be grouped to constitute Independent
States
- Gandhi opposed resolution
- August 1940 offer
- Faced with the prospect of a German invasion of India- British cabinet offered an
Indianised Executive Council immediately and an Indian Constitute Assembly after the
war to draw up a constitution with regards for minority rights
- Although British virtually conceded to the right of Indians to determine their own
future- Congress was unenthusiastic and rejected the offer
- Despite their concessions, it was obvious that the government would remain
firmly under the Viceroy's council
- Atlantic Charter
- Indian hopes raised when Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter with Roosevelt
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- Promised all peoples the right to live under the governments of their choice after
the war
- Dashed when Churchill made a speech to British parliament expressly
excluding India from the provisions of the Charter
- Japanese declaration of war
- Fall of Singapore and invasion of Burma
- Bose- planned a collaboration with the Japanese
- Gandhi believed that India should remain passive with neutral in the world conflict
- The Cripps Mission
- Roosevelt- impressed upon Churchill the urgent necessity of winning more positive
support for the war effort in India- through new and more generous concessions to
Nationalist demands
- Churchill had no desire to transfer what he regarded as a Brahman oligarchy- but
was in no position to resits American demands
- Dispatched Sir Cripps to India with Cabinets new proposals
- Cripps
- Labour member of the British coalition government
- Friend of Nehru and the Congress party
- Confusion over what he was entitled to offer India in support for the war
- Offered
- Promised India Dominion Status immediately after the war
- Envisaged setting up of an elected constitution making body- fame a
constitution for Indian union
- British cabinet conscious of the importance of retaining the
allegiance of Muslims (during WWII)- provided the possibility for
Pakistan
- Any province in India which wished to remain outside the
Union was free to frame its own constitution and exist as an
independent dominion
- Immediate interim reforms- war time government
- Work under the supervision and control of the Viceroy
- Gandhi and Nehru reaction
- Could not accept the governments long term proposals
- Feared they would eventually lead to the fragmentation of the Indian
Union
- Willing to accept the interim suggestions
- Provided all responsibility for defence was given to an Indian
member of council
- Dismayed by the possibility of a Japanese invasion
- Believed if the Indians had control of defence it would
secure greater Indian participation in the war effort
- Outcomes
- Long and futile negotiations- Cripps was compelled to give up his mission
and return to London
- Congress saw the offer as little too late
- Gandhi- a post-dated cheque of a failing bank
- Increased the atmosphere in India of bitterness and discontent
- Churchill ensured that the Mission achieved nothing
- Satisfied Americans- saw that the British had made a genuine offer
- The Impact of the Quit India Movement
- Context
- Gandhi noted that the people were in no mood to resist a Japanese invasion
- Believed that the only solution was an immediate declaration of independence
- While the British troops should remain on Indian soil, the British must hand
over the administration
- Believed that given a stake in the defence of their country- the people would rally
behind their leaders and see the country through the crisis
- British refused to grant independence- Gandhi and Congress authorised a civil
disobedience campaign- Quit India
- Gandhis beliefs
- Britain had to leave immediately- not after the war
- India had nothing to fear from the Japanese
- Nehru opposition
- Claimed that there was nothing in the recent Japanese record to
support Gandhis optimistic view
- Gandhi stated that with the British gone, the Japanese would
no longer have any interest in India
- If the Japanese did invade, they should be resisted
with unadulterated non-violent non-cooperation
- 1942, Congress passed the Quit India resolution- committed itself to a non-violent mass
struggle for freedom
- Gandhi determined to gain independence- do or die situation
- we shall either free India or die in the attempt
- Impact
- British were not going to treat any civil disturbances lightly
- War to be fought- trouble in India not tolerated
- Morning after- Gandhi and important Congress leaders in jail
- Resulted in mass demonstrations- government attempted to suppress rigorously
- Imprisoned leaders powerless to control it
- Campaign went through 2 phases
- Period of widespread violence- brutally suppressed
- 6 week campaign fought in the countryside
- Main targets= roads, railways and other limes of communication
- Harshly suppressed
- Last well into 1943, period of terrorism and guerilla warfare
- Created only limited problems for the British
- End of 1943- 1065 killed, 91,836 arrests
- Gandhi begins to fast
- Protesting the government accusations that he was responsible for the violence of
the campaign
- Viceroy offered to release Gandhi for the duration of his 3 week fast
- Gandhi declined- government made secret security arrangements for his
possible death
- Quit India movement was a failure in its attempts to non-violently gain independence
- Gandhi- Jinnah Talks
- Gandhi turn to brother Jinnah to discover whether Congress and the Muslim League
could come to an arrangement- lead the British to revise their attitude
- Brought about hope for the Muslims- believed that it now amounted to Gandhis
acceptance of Pakistan in principle
- Jinnah- understood that he was maneuvering to a position of strength in his talks with
Gandhi
- Had the blessing of the British
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- Chadha- Here came British Cabinet ministers, statesmen and diplomates from various
nations, senior members of Indian Civil Service and journalists from all over the world, to
hold conference with Gandhi behind his spinning wheel.
- the Congress-League deadlock remained and there could be no agreed basis for
forming a constitution
- Cabinet warned that mass partition would be a grave danger of violence, chaos and even
civil war
- Viceroy wrote to the king
- We must try leave India united and we must secure the cooperation of the
Congress which represents the great majority of India public opinion,
whatever our view on the past record of that party.
- I also have much sympathy with Jinnah, more positive and more sincere
than most of the Congress leaders; but he overcalled his hand in the end
- Chadha- Soon after the departure of the Cabinet mission, relations between
Congress and the League deteriorated further
- Nehru stated that there would be no grouping of the provinces
- The league withdrew their acceptance of the plan- declared they
would launch a direct action day to achieve Pakistan
- Solution
- An all India union on the old three-tier basis
- The provision that any province would have the powers to opt out of
a group would satisfy the Leagues demand for separate Muslim
zones
- At the same time- preserving the conception of a united India
- Impact
- Jinnah and the League withdrew their acceptance of the constitutional plan
- Insisted that Pakistan was the only solution
- Congress- scraped plan
- Direct Action Day
- Wavell invited Nehru to form an interim government- kept the door open for the League
- He stressed that no one side could bar the nominees of the other
- Jinnah= furious- we have forged a pistol and are in a position to use it
- Jinnah declared a Direct Action Day 1946
- we bid goodbye to constitutional methods.why should I sit with folded hands
- The streets of Calcutta ran with blood
- 5000 + dead, 20,000 serious injured, 100,000 residents homeless
- Chada- Hindu population hit back with parallel fury
- Nehru took office as Prime Minister
- Jinnah declared it a day of mourning
- 2 weeks later- agreed to join the interim government
- More of a tactical nature than a gesture of conciliation
- Finance minister Ali Kahn- made certain that he was able to
obstruct the effective functioning of every department by
arresting funds
- Intended to prove that a unified government was not
practical
- 3rd June- Congress accepted MBs plan for Indias independence and partition
- Punjab and Bengal- divided and parts allocated to India and Pakistan
- Compromises by both parties
- Congress- accepted parition
- League- accepted that Pakistan would not inherit all of the Punjab and
Bengal- a moth-eaten Pakistan
- 4th June, MB announced Britains intention to act even more speedily- power transfered on the
15th August 1947- British would leave immediately afterwards
- 2 months to divide Indias joint assets between India and Pakistan
- Practical consequences of partition
- Civil service and armed forces
- Railways
- Police and revenue services divided
- Typewriters
- Rupees and pounds
- 50 committees set up to divide up the governments assets- proceeded along 50
different lines
Nature
- 15th August 1947- Britain handed authority over to the two new states
- Bharat and Pakistan
- Great rejoicing- not for Gandhi
- Uncertainty of where the partition lines lay
- Sir Radcliffe- given the task of drawing the boundaries
- Problems
- He had never been to the subcontinent
- Did not know any of its people
- Had no first had knowledge of its culture, economics or history
- Had to work with Census stats which were outdated and unreliable
- Supplied meagre information- believed that some of the information
was falsified by the communal elements on both sides
- Hardly had anytime to do a proper job of the assignment
- Given the enormous task on deciding a boundary that (one chronicle noted) would
divide more than 35 million people, thousands of villages, town and cities and a
people who despite their religious differences shared a common colure, language
and history.
- One will never know his thought process, judgements and discretions that
determine the destiny of two nations
- Insurmountable challenge of creating two homogenous countries which was
perhaps beyond human capabilities
- Religious continuity does not follow geography
- His award satisfied neither the owners of India or Pakistan
- Consequences of partition
- Horrendous for both countries- doubtful that anything Radcliff could have done would
have made a different
- Even the most well crafted border would have provoked the massive population
migrations which resulted
- As mass numbers of Muslims migrated to Pakistan and mass number of
Hindus migrated to India- violence erupted
- Chadha- when Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims all lost sight of reason
and committed atrocities
- 10,000,000 homeless
- 1,000,000 dead
- Fierce communal riots
PERSONAL NOTES
Indian Independence 1919-47 (National Study)
Introduction- Who was Gandhi
-Geography
-Very large population- 1 billion
-Not evenly spread
-Areas with extreme populations vs. sparsely populated jungle or desert
- Great heat
- Monsoon rains
- North
- Mountain ranges
- Mount Everest
- Himalayas
-South of Himalayas
-River systems
-Large proportion of the population
-Religion
-Hinduism
-Islam
-Christianity (South)
-Sikhism (Punjab)
-Parsis
-Jews
-Hindu
- 4000 since the Aryan invasion of north India
- 600 million followers
- No single g-d or founder
- No single belief
- Caste system
- Accepted by Indian Sikhs
- Very different from British social class division
- Based in ancient scriptures
- 4 main caste groups (determined by occupation)
-Brahmans, priests
-Kshatriyas, warriors
-Vaishyas, merchants
-Shudras, farmers
-Untouchables, unclean or no caste
-Many sub-castes
-Enter caste at birth, cannot change
-Promotion can only be achieved in a later life by reincarnation
-Must faithfully forfill the duties of ones caste in the previous lifetime
-Gandhi
-Islam
-Muslims came to India, around 1000AD
-20% of population (1881)
-Not evenly distributed across India
-Majority in north west and eastern Bengal
-Founded by the prophet Muhammad
-Must observe the five pillars of Islam
-Profession of faith which is recited at the beginning on prayers
-Worship
-Almsgiving
-Pilgrimage to Mecca
-Fasting
-Holy warfare (jihad, war against nonbelievers)
-Hindus & Muslims
- G-d vs. Many G-ds
- Single set of beliefs vs. endless array
- Get along reasonably well
- Friction on occasion
-Clashed during the end of British colonial rule
-Resulting in the partition of the country in 1947
British conquest and early nationalism
-British as traders
-1660, East India Company founded
-Purpose, trading with the east
-Spice trade
- Portuguese had a trade monopoly
- Dutch and English traders took over
-British as conquerors
-Opportunity to take over from the Dutch
-Mid 18th century
-200 yrs, India ruled by the Mughal Dynasty
-Control declined
-British fortified their trading posts
-Administration and Economy
-British objectives
- Developing an administration and territories they conquered
- Western style administration
- Train network
- Roads
- International economy
-Exploiting economic potential of India
- Increase trade, textile
-India of the Princes
-2 forms of administration
-British India
-Princely India
-Continued to rule over areas not taken over by British
-Rules their territories as Despots (Tyrants)
-Reliant on the British allowing them to keep their authority
HSC STUDY BUDDY
-Indian Mutiny
-May 1857
-Mutiny of Indian troops serving in the British army
-Reasons
-Greased cartridges
-Westernisation
-Insensitive to Indian social and religious practices
-Land reform
-Indian troops to serve overseas
-Loss of caste
-Spread over north India
-British restored authority by March 1858
-E.I.C abolished
-India exclusively ruled by the British crown
-Viceroy
-Council of advisors
-Princes had loyalty to the British during the mutiny, alliance
-Post mutiny, princes were permitted to rule their states
-Beginning of Indian Nationalism
-Nationalism, belief in the unity and independence of a nation
-Slow to evolve, made organised opposition difficult
-Several distinct racial groups
-Diversity of cultures
-Many different languages and religions
-Size of the country
-Variety of landscapes & climate
-Literacy was poor
-90% lived in villages
-Indian National Congress
-Some Indians prospered post Mutiny
-Became educated business men
-Felt entitled to have a say in how their country was run
-A. O. Hume, Englishman
-Started the I.N.C
-Believed the growing Indian middle class deserved more consideration by the British
-Characteristics
-All members educated in a English style system
-Comparatively wealthy
-Engaged in business or associated with
-Concentrated in the main cities
-No Muslims
-Higher castes
-No women
-WW1
-Attempts to loosen British control
-2 Home Rule leagues founded, 1915
-Failure to work together meant their impact was negligible
-Failure of Early Congress
-4 reasons
-British perceived it to be unimportant
-Congress was a narrow movement primarily concerned with the interests of middle-class India
-Gandhi
-Opposed to the view of a divided nation
-He believed differences in religion were unimportant
Gandhis Early Life, 1869-1914
-Introduction
-Youngest child of fathers 4th wife
-Caste= Banias
-Trading caste
-Family history of PM of Porbandar
-Modest fortune
-Father became PM of Kathiawar
-Deeply respected and feared his father
-Regarded mother as a saint- very religious and strong common sense
-Arranged marriage at 13
-Gandhis Childhood
-Important aspects
-Banias were traditionally shopkeepers
- Regarded as mean and greedy in India
-Gandhi rose above this reputation completely
-Gandhi came from Gujarat
-Most mobile and considerable trading fortunes
-Willingness to travel overseas
- Religion was a dominant part in Gandhis life
- Roots created
- Grew up as a Hindu
-Early Educational Failure
-1887 finished secondary education
-University to study a bachelor of arts degree
- Failed and withdrew
- Unable to understand what the professors were saying
-Best way to get a head was studying law in London
-Gandhi in London
-1888
-Difficulties
-Vegetarian
-Joined vegetarian society
- English aspects
- Imitated English dress
- Dancing
HSC STUDY BUDDY
- Violin
-Bhagavad Gita
-Teaches renunciation of desire and the material things in the world
-Principals
-Person should remain free from all desire and attachment to worldly things
-Seek in acts of service the good of all humankind, no self-benefit
-Spiritual liberation
-If followed, higher rebirths until finally the human spirit merges in blissful union with g-d
-London society
-Learnt to respect the society
-Trust in British authorities
-Western civilisation
-Developed a concern for the moral and religious weakness of western society
-Enthused abut Englands rich culture
-Education
-Galleries
-Theatres
- it was not with deap regret that I left dear London, Gandhi
-Failure back in India
-Sailed for Bombay, 12 June 1891
-Seen as an outcast for having left India and crossing dark waters
-Barrister in India
-Didnt know anything about Indian law
-When rose to defend client he was unable to think of anything to ask him
-Opportunity in South Africa
-Gujaratis from Porbandar living and trading in South Africa were locked in a major legal dispute
-A case that required no knowledge of Indian law
-Generous payment offered
-Contract for 1 yr
-Train journey
-Humiliating racist experience
-Had a first class ticket
-White person objected to the presence of an Indian in the same carriage
-Expelled from the train after refusing to move
-Indian Franchise Bill
- Natal government intention to introduce a bill to deprive all eligible Indians of the right to vote
- British colony
- 250 eligible to vote
-Most illiterate labourers who had been shipped from India to work on sugar plantations or
mines
- Gandhi saw this as depriving Indians of their political rights
- Mounted a vigourous campaign to stop the bill
- Founded the Natal Indian Congress
- Collected signatures for a petition opposing the bill
- Gained admission as a barrister to the Natal supreme court
-Bill passed 1896
-Gandhi directed his campaign to the Colonial Office in London
-Had the right to veto the law
- Law vetoed on the grounds that it discriminated against another country of the British Empire
- Wording changed but had no effect in changing Indian rights
- Succeeded in arousing interest of congress back in India
- Demonstrated what courage and determination could do against a hostile government
-Fight against further regulations
- Boer War 1899-1902
-Returning to India
-Activities in SA had earned him prominence
-Received the title of Mahatma (great soul)
-Joined Congress (I.N.C)
-Unknown in Indian politics
-Remained quiet
-Familiarise himself with the situation in India
-Spoke at the Hindu University College
-Regarded as a serious breach of etiquette
-He related the true state of Indias misery as he saw it
-Challenging the colonial government to do something about it
-Champaran
- District in the extreme north-western corner, border with Nepal
- Rajkumar Shukla wanted Gandhi to come see the serious troubles in this district
-The Problem
-Much of the land had been permanently leased the the British indigo planters
-Used for producing blue dye
- Peasants sub-leased their land from the planters on the tinkathia system
- 3/20ths
- Each peasant was forced to use 3/20ths of his leased land to grow indigo
- Then required to sell the indigo to the planters at a fixed price by the planter
- German invention of a synthetic substitute produce a serious decline of the price of indigo
- Land devoted to its production was cut
-Most British planters sought to maintain their income by increasing the rent for their Indian subtenants
-During WW1 there was a high demand for indigo but the British planters demanded that the peasants
grow more indigo but were keeping the extra profit
-Made it clear to the Indian government that the issue in Champaran had to be dealt with via
satyagraha
-Showed weaknesses within satyagraha
-When Gandhi left no one stayed on to bring about long-term changes in the society after
victory was won
-Karia
-People uninterested in gaining home rule- more in the condition of their crops and cost of living
-By 1912 crops had been poor and cost of living rose
-Crisis
-Satyagraha campaign
- 2 stage affair
- Appeals to the government (Dec 1917- March 1918)
- Satyagraha (March- June 1918)
- Gandhi acquired new followers
- Under Gandhi
- Peasants refused to pay tax on grounds were harvest had been poor
-Government gave orders for mamlatdars (tax collectors) to seize possessions and
crops
- Government called off the mamlatdars not to force payment by the peasants
-Only provided a compromise and not a victory (according to the govt)
-Strengthened Gandhis ties with the peasants
-Only Gandhi was able to live as one of the people and use language the ordinary person
would be able to understand
-Satyagraha in Ahmedabad
-Indian cotton mill owners
-1918
-Locked out all their workers when they refused to accept the withdrawal of a bonus which had
perviously been paid to keep them on the job after a recent outbreak of the plague
-Gandhi conducted satyagraha against the mill owners
-Won the workers an increase in their wages
-Significance
-Used not only against the British but to target Indians
-Gandhi fasted, mill owners frightened he would die, gave in
-Debate weather this method was compatible to with satyagraha method
-Gandhis Recruitment Campaign
-1918, tested the loyalty of Gandhis followers
-Gandhi felt that it was his duty to help the empire in its time of need (WW1)
-Became a recruiter for the army, persuade men to enlist
-Revealed the inconsistencies in his thinking concerning non-violence
Rowlatt and Khilafat 1918-1920
- Congress rightfully believed that Gandhi had no national support or backing from a political party
but had no other option
- Had little assistance from Congress or the people (unknown)
-Hartal
-The closing of all shops and businesses, 6th April
-Day spent fasting and praying
-Response
-Delhi got the date wrong
-Effective in Bombay, 4/5th of businesses
-Violence
-Police fired on a procession in Delhi
-Bombay, police swung steel-tipped lathis (long batons), charged at a crowd of protesters
-Government response
-Reluctant to arrest him
-Seen as a martyr
- Gandhi arrested on April 8th
-Released on the condition he did not leave Bombay
-News of Gandhis arrest
-Had the effect the British feared
-British officer killed
-Government buildings set on fire
-Attempts to tear up railroad lines
- Violence coming from his own people upset Gandhi
- Jalliaqala Bagh, Amriter massacre
-Meeting to protest Gandhis arrest
-Meeting in the area had been forbiden by the Rawlatt acts
-Home of the sikhs
-Protest meeting held in Jalliagala Bagh
-Military commander (Dyer) forbid meetings of any kind and sent in armed troops
-Kills 379 people (disputed)
-Set up (british) the hunter commission to inquire into what happened
-Gandhi doesnt hear about the event (bad communication)
-Himalayan miscalulation
-Crawling Orders
-Law issued by the British
-All Indians passing though the lane where Miss Sherwood had been seriously assaulted by rioters
-Required to crawl along their stomachs
-Those who refused to crawl were publicly flogged
-Indians who refused to salaam (greet) British officers were also flogged
-Pulling down of official notices= flogging
-Censoring of the press
-Meant that news of these events didnt reach the rest of India for some weeks
-Failure of Campaign
-Satyagraha suspended, 18th April
-Rowlatt campaign had been a failure
-Government had not been intimidated in any way
-The violence outbreaks had opposed the fundamental principle if satyagraha
- Success of the Campaign
- Showed that Indian were concerned about other issues besides not being allowed to vote
- Showed India that there was an alternative to the kind of politics that had been practised for decades
without result
- Those who worked the land were hit by a monsoon failure, 1918-19
-Those who were less well-off were outraged by the ability of a few Indians to make large
fortunes
-The brutality of Amritsar shooting and the humiliating British response represented a turning point
of modern India
-Destroyed any moral justification Britain might have claimed for its conquering presence in
India
-Unrest in India was widespread
-The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (govt of India act)
Change to the constitution
-1919
-Review of the administration of India
-Dyarchy
-Some aspects of government were allocated to elect provincial assemblies
-Giving the provinces limited Home Rule
-Britain held control of defence and taxation
-Right to vote in elections was very limited
-Viceroy had the power to veto the actions of any province
-Secretary of state
-Rate of change- Glacial (extremely slowly)
- The Hunter Report
- Hunter commission of inquiry
- Consider allegations of police brutality during the period of martial law in the Punjab
- The shootings at Jallianwala Bagh
-Partially condemned Dyers actions although he was heavily praised but the British
public- sword of honour
-The Khilafat Issue
-1920
-Matter of serious concern for Muslims
-Gandhi took close interest
-Propelled him to the forefront of National politics
-Pre WW1
-Turkish empire included Islams holy places
-The cities of Mecca
-Medina
-Jerusalem
- Sultan of turkey
- regarded as the Muslim Khalif (spiritual protector of the holy places)
- Bestowed by G-d
-Post WW1
-Turkey stripped of its empire and the sultan lost control of all 3 holy places
-Muslims in India demanded that the Sultan have his authority restored
- Gandhi supported the Muslims
- Many people couldnt understand why Gandhi supported this cause
-Wanted to let the Muslims handle it
-Hindu-Muslim Unity?
-For the sake of Indian unity all Indians should take up the cause, Gandhi
-Opportunity for India and Gandhi to rise above the politics of separate communities and establish a
national political movement
-All religions in India would demonstrate to the British their ability to work together in the interest of
an independent India
-Khilafat and Amristar- 2 main wrongs the British had done to India
-Primary reasons for the Non-cooperation movement of 1920-22
Non-cooperation, 1920-1922
- Non-cooperation
-If Indians refused to cooperate with their British rulers the British would be unable to rule them
HSC STUDY BUDDY
-If the vast numbers of civil servant and other workers for the Raj (British government) declined to
serve what could the Raj do?
-British would be helpless
-Very few British in India
- Believed that non-cooperation was less likely to lead to violence then direct civil disobedience
- Bring the entire British system to a halt within 12 months
-The Khilafat Rulers
- Realised that Gandhi could deliver their cause a considerable amount of Indian support
- Ali brothers embraced the use of violence
- Accepted Gandhi's non-violence with reluctance
-Gandhi= Khilafat ruler
-Great exposer
-Opportunity for him to unite Muslim and Hindu
-Gandhi met with lord Chelmsford
-Requested that he should resign if the allied powers did not withdraw their terms which had been
announced in the peace treaty with turkey
-Declined
-Khilafat satyagraha campaign merged with the Punjab agitation
-Lead up to the Non-cooperation satyagraha campaign
-Gandhi returned the medal the British government had awarded him for his services in SA
-I am not pleading for India to practise non-violence because she is weak. I want her to practise non-violence
being conscious of her strength and power- Gandhi
-Congress Attitude
-Campaign had been instigated without congress approval
-Approval was not needed but made the campaign easier
-Calcutta congress meeting
-Advantages to Gandhi
-Old leaders of congress had died
-Disadvantages to Gandhi
-The meeting had been called in Calcutta where opposition to Gandhi would be the
strongest
-Home of C. R. Das
-Wealthy lawyer
-Plenty of money to buy support
-Very doubtful about Gandhis usual methods
-Gandhi narrowly won with 144 vs. 132 votes
-Why did Gandhi win?
-3 powerful groups of supporters
-Muslims
-Delegates from areas new to congress
-Places where Gandhi carried out important work
-Extremely wealthy caste of Marwaris
-The Non-cooperation Campaign
-Three areas marked out for particular attention
-All titles and honour conferred on Indians by the British were to be given up
-There should be no participation in the changes due under the Montagu-Chelmsford
-No one should stand for election under them
-Swadeshi (boycott) of all foreign foods
-The wearing of Khadi or khaddar (home-spun cotton cloth) and Gandhi cap became a
symbol of swadeshi
-The spinning wheel came to occupy a position of immense importance
-Daily duty to spin a length of cotton
-Great symbolic importance
-Cheap cotton cloth produced in large cotton mills had produced a devastating
decline in Indian home spun cotton
-Introduction
HSC STUDY BUDDY
-Personal hygiene
-Critics believed that village reform was a side-track from the real need for
swaraj
-Introduction
-New years day, flag of Independence
-Shouts of Inqilab Zindabab (long live the revolution)
-26th Jan, Independence Day
-Gandhi involved in politics
- Congress committed to following Gandhi
-Gandhis Decision
-Prepared a set a social and economic demands
-If accepted by the British would give India independence
-Did not know what strategy to adopt for achieving British acceptance
-Came to a decision via his inner voice
-Focus on 1 of his 11 demands
-The abolishment of the salt tax
- Breaking the salt laws would not seriously threaten government finances
- Provide Gandhi with an opportunity to educated people about satyagraha
- British government resisted the salt campaign
- Accepting Gandhis demands would have looked like giving in
- Make it harder to resist his other 10 demands
- Gandhi wrote to the viceroy issuing an ultimatum
- 11th on March
- Break the Salt Laws
- Irwin refused to negotiate
- The Dandi Salt March
- March from Satyagraha Ashram (Sabar Mati) to Dandi (385kms)
- Through Gujarat
- Gandhi home town
- Most support
- Last about 1 month
- Gradually demand the attention of all of India
- 78 men
- Stopped in villages where Gandhi addressed the people
- Press became interested
- Overseas support
- Number of marchers grew with every village visited
- Reached Dandi
- Bent down and scooped up a lump of salt left by the evaporation of sea water
- Proclaimed that he had made salt an illegal act
- Anniversary of the Amritser massacre
- Gandhi Broadens the Campaign
- Urged his followers to follow prohibition
- Total abstinence from liquor
- Played a part in persuading women to join in demonstrations
- Patna
- Protesting crowd defined police order to disperse
- Lay on the ground as the horses galloped towards them
- Horses pulled up
- Arrest of Gandhi
- Viceroy (Irwin)
- At first followed the advice to do nothing
- Arrest would make Gandhi a martyr
- Government embarrassment of him fasting in Jail
- Gandhi announced that there would be a raid on the Dharasana salt works
- Gandhi was arrested
- March went on
- Protesters were beaten by British but non struggled back
HSC STUDY BUDDY
- Witnessed by reporter
- International opinion was anti British
- British said they were morally superior- loss of British morals
- Civil Disobedience Continues
- Gandhi arrest- widened the civil disobedience movement
- June
- Congress meetings were declared illegal
- Many congress leaders were arrested
- Muslim community
- Hardened against cooperation with the predominately Hindu congress
- Viceroy allowed his representatives and two congress moderates to meet with Gandhi in prison
- Other jailed congress members were allowed to join the talks
- Cased considerable embarrassment in Britain
- As if they are on the same level and negotiate
- Churchill- I did not become the first minister to see its empire disintegrate
- The Campaign Recedes
- Government of India took control
- Decline in the imported cloth trade
- Reduction of those who took part in the September elections, 1930
- First Round Table Conference
- 3 round table conferences were to be held in London to discuss ways ways of implementing its
recommendations (Simon Commission) that Indian self-rule could be granted
- No longer any significant local issues on which to build a powerful national movement
- Election due in 1934
- Many congressmen wanted to work for their own election
- Not for an outdated tactic like civil disobedience
- Civil disobedience became more spasmodic (sporadic)
- Gandhi demonstrated his willingness to compromise to preserve the unity of congress
- Communal Award
- Round table conference
- Muslim demand for separate electorates was accepted
- Untouchables were also granted separate electorates
- Gandhi fasted in jail
- Maintained that untouchables were a part of Hindu India
The Lull before the Storm, 1932-40
- Introduction
- Gandhi fasting
- Life was slipping away
- British not wanting to be held responsible for his death
- The award was amended to Gandhis satisfaction
- Third round table conference
- 1932
- Very few Indian representatives, none from congress
- Gandhi fasts again
- Protesting the lack on progress with his untouchability campaign
- Gandhi released from jail
- Cat and mouse
- Indian politics
- Routine lasted the rest of the 1930s
- No clear winner
- Gandhi resigned from congress, 1934
- Devoted himself to village reform
- Civil disobedience resulted in violence
- Moved to a village near Wardha
- Segaon
- Intended it to become a model village
- Which could be copied all over India
- Cleanliness
- Personal hygiene
- Nutritious diet
- Based on a crop grown locally
- Clean water
- Revival of simple village industries such as????
- Basic education
- Village crafts
- Continued to be consulted by congress leaders
HSC STUDY BUDDY
- Introduction
- Congress members had all resigned
- Muslim league about to declared itself in favour of the division of India into 2 countries
- Gandhi continued to preach the necessity of national unity and non-violence
- If the people of India continued to refuse to cooperate with the dictators, victory would be theirs
- Most found this solution too simplistic
- Jinnah had scorn for all of Gandhis notions
- British Opinions
- No longer any real reason for Britain to remain in India
- No economic returns
- The rise of educated, articulate Indians to the nationalist movement made the task of staying in India
increasingly difficult
- Congress response
- Wary of continued British control during the war
- Critical of the right to succession
- Churchill made sure the Cripps mission achieved nothing
- Served its purpose
- The Americans could be satisfied that the British had made a genuine offer
- Gandhi returned to political activity
- Britain had to leave immediately, not after the war
- India had nothing to fear from the Japanese
- With the British gone, Japan would no longer have any interest in India
- If Japanese did invade= non-violence, non-cooperation
- Nehru claimed that there was nothing in recent Japanese record to support Gandhis
optimistic view
- Quit India
- 8 August, 1942, congress passed the Quit India resolution
- Committing itself to non-violent mass struggle for freedom
- Either free India or die in the attempt, Gandhi
- Britain was not going to tolerate any trouble within India while a war was being fought
- Jailed most important congress leaders (including Gandhi)
- Without Gandhis leadership
- Flared into a violent revolt, 2 stages
- Widespread violence, largely urban
- Brutally suppressed
- 6 week campaign fought in the countryside
- Targets= roads, railways and communication lines
- Harshly suppressed
- Terrorism and guerilla warfare
- Lasted until 1943
- Creating only limited problems for the British
- Gandhi begins to fast
- Protesting the governments accusations that he was responsible for the violence of the Quit India
campaign
- Temples defiled
- Women raped
- Hindus in neighbouring Bihar province took revenge
- Slaughtered thousands of defenceless Muslims
- Gandhi wanted to persuade the people to abandon violence
- Travelled around on foot preaching his message
- Important calming effect on the area
- Partition Finally Accepted
- 1947, Attlee announced British intention of leaving India of June 1948, regardless of the condition of the
country
- Calcutta Pacified
- Muslim Premier of Bengal
- Urged Gandhi to stay to prevent further outbreaks of violence in Calcutta against the Muslim
Minority
- Vallabhbhai Patel
- Born to a peasant family
- Applied himself to his legal studies
- Train in Britain
- Won over by Satyagraha
- Devoted himself to Gandhian politics
- Became one of congress principal negotiators
- 1947, elected Deputy PM
- Jawaharlal Nehru
- Born into a wealthy family
- Highest of castes (Brahmans)
- Educated in England
- Won over by Gandhi and his methods in 1919
- Frequently jailed
- Lead congress in its negotiations with the British
- Indias first PM
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah
- Family converts to Islam
- Sent to England for Legal training
- Entered congress
- Dressed elegantly
- Did not have time for the popular Gandhi movement
- Leader of the Muslim League
- Inflexible in negotiations with the British
- Insisted on the creation of Pakistan
- Pakistan first Governor General
Glossary
Word
Description
Ahimsa
Non-violence
Ashrams
Hindu retreat
Bagh
Park
Bapu
Father
Bharah
India
Brahman
Priestly caste
Civil liberties
Coalition
Despots
Tyrants
Dhoti
Loincloth
Diarchy
Dominions
Hartal
Home Rule
Jihad
Khadi
Khalif
Khilafat
Mahatma
Great soul
Nationalism
Ordinance
Purna Swaraj
Complete independence
Raj
Word
Description
Sarvodaya
Uplift of all
Satyagraha
Swadeshi
Boycott
Campaigns of Gandhi
- Hartal
- Champaran
- Karia
- Non-cooperation (major)
- Chauri Chaura
- Realised that he should not let non-trained people participate
- Amtritsar Massacre
- Civil- disobedience (major)
- Salt Campaigns
- Quit India
Jinnah= constitutionalist
- only changes through the law
Communalism
- rivalry between Hindus and Muslims
Britain could no longer control the Indian population
-Dyarchy
-Very
limited
Home
Rule,
important
aspects
of
government
still
in
hands
of
British
-Minute
movement
towards
democracy,
but
in
name,
not
in
action
Simon Commission 1927
-British
commission
to
recommend
measures
for
devolution
of
British
power
in
India
-Promised
all
peoples
right
to
live
under
governments
of
choice
after
War
except
for
Indians
-No
democracy
Cripps Mission 1942
-Churchill
wants
favour
with
Roosevelt
-Promised
dominion
status
after
the
War,
elected
constitutional
body
for
India
Union
-Possibility
of
Pakistan
-Interim
government
under
supervision
of
Viceroy
-Talks
break
down
Jinnah
-Congress
critical,
too
little
too
late,
a
p ost-d ated
c heque
o n
a
failing
b ank
(Gandhi)
-Sort
of
democratic.
Sort
of.
Simla Conference 1944
-Indias
future
constitution,
failure
Jinnah
-Moving
closer
to
democracy
as
discussing
a
future
of
India
with
the
possibility
of
Pakistan
and
Independence
Cabinet Mission 1946
-Viceroy
Wavell
says
British
leaving
1945
India
cant
do
much
for
Britain
post-War
-Khadi
=
unification,
against
British
belief
that
Indians
couldnt
self-rule
as
they
wore
different
clothes
(separate
peoples,
separate
regions).
Take
that,
British
define
t he
wearer
a s
a
m ember
o f
a
universal
Indian
t radition
(Metcalf
and
Metcalf)
Nehru Report 1928
-Opposition
to
the
Simon
Commission
-Not democratic
-Their idea of democracy turned out to be not very democratic 1 million died, no infrastructure etc
ESSAYS/PARAGRAPH
TIMELINE
Asses the nature of Satyagraha and its impact in Indian Independence
Midnight 15th of August 1947. With shouts of Inqilab Zindabab! independence was declared in
India. After more then three centuries India, was now independent from the repressive nature of the
British Raj and was free to govern themselves. But one must question how India was able to reach
this stage. With many nations around the world still under British jurisdiction, why would Britain
give up the Jewel of the British empire? This assessment of Indias independence in 1947
throughly analyses the nature of Gandhis Satyagraha and the successful impact it had on gaining
independence.
Satyagraha is defined as truth force; the power of nonviolent resistance to oppressive social
structures through the search for truth and self-purification. Gandhis writings state that there are
two major princples of satyagraha. The first is a strict, non-violent approach to situations which
allows the opponent to realise the injustice of the situation and put forward a resolution. The second
is the creation of small communities known as Ashrams. These strictly observed principles of
satyagraha, including ahimsa (non-violence) and sarvodaya (uplifting of spirits), at all times and
performed manual labour jobs, generally executed by untouchables. Historian David Arnold
Gandhi; Profiles in power, reiterates the two principles of Satyagraha by stating that Love and
suffering were to be the essence of Satyagraha, but behind them lay Gandhis concept of nonviolent power.
Since the colonisation of India in the 1600s, under the control of the Viceroy, the British Raj had
complete power over the political, economic and social status of India. In 1919, with the outbreak
of war in Europe, the British government implemented the Rowlatt Bills. These bill granted special
powers in relation to anti-terrorism legislation, including the power to suspend civil liberties and
human rights, censor the media and imprison supposed terrorists without trial. Virtually every
Indian politician was opposed to the bill and branded the act as depriving the people of their god
given right of free expression. After much deliberation, congress turn to Gandhi and his theory of
Satyagraha. This was Gandhis opportunity to prove that the principles of Satyagraha could help to
unite the Indian people and force the British out. After listening to the voices Gandhi suggested a
principle of Satyagraha known as Hartal. This campaign of resistance meant the closing of shops
and businesses for a day of fasting and praying. On the 6th of April 1919, thousands across India
took to the streets to observe the Hartal. Although the Hartal was based on the principles of
satyagraha and non-violence, Gandhis lack of forethought and giving of guidance to local leaders
led to the outbreak of violent protests. In the city of Lahore, a peaceful protest broke out into a mass
riot with the burning down of government buildings, looting of houses and murder of British police
HSC STUDY BUDDY
sergeants. As a result of this violence, general ODyer set on a peaceful protest in Amritsar with
machine guns, murdering all participants. In spite of the overall failure of the campaign it
demonstrated many key factors that would aid later, more successful Satyagraha campaigns. It
showed India that there was another alternative to the kind of politics that had been practiced in
India for decades without result and it exhibited the brutality of the British to the international
community.
On the principles of Satyagraha, Gandhi felt that in order to gain independence he had to bring to
India more than a campaign of non-violence. While he knew that he could not defeat the British
with sheer manpower and violence, he believed that he could force the British out if he removed
their main purpose for occupation, economic gain. As the British had a monopoly on cloth
manufacturing, Gandhi insisted that every Indian set aside half an hour, each day, for the spinning
of Khadi (cotton). This would mean that the village would become self sufficient and not rely of the
British for expensive cloth. Historian David Arnold expresses that Gandhis message was intended
to reach out to other classes as well; they, too were to avoid British rule by spinning and wearing
khadi. Gandhi also realised that the British would not leave India in a state of chaos and be blamed
by the international community. He therefore made it his mission to unite the people of India behind
a common goal. In order to achieve this, Gandhi used symbols to appeal to all members of the
Indian population, whether they be educated or illiterate. He wore traditional clothing in stark
contrast to the other members of Congress, spoke the native language of India and travelled third
class.
Now that Gandhi had the support of Congress and the people, he was ready for his first major
satyagraha campaign. In response to the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi initiated a policy of noncooperation based on the principles of Satyagraha. He believed that a nation wide campaign of
non-cooperation was the most effective way to achieve independence in view of that fact that if
Indians refused to cooperate with their British rulers, the Raj would be unable to successfully rule
over them. In this campaign, Gandhi marked out areas for particular attention. All titles and honors
conferred on Indians by the British were to be given up, there was to be no participation in the
constitutional changes due under the Montagu-Chelsford reforms, Indians must refuse to work for
British employers or send children to British schools and a boycott against all British products was
imposed. Gandhi also believed that the success of this campaign hinged on the support of the
minority Muslim community for non-cooperation and his ability to unite all Indians under a
common goal. Gandhi met with the leaders of the Khilafat movement, who spoke for a large
majority of the Muslim population, and offered support for their campaign against the annexation of
the Sultan from Turkey in return for their cooperation with non-cooperation. Historian Stanley
Wolpert states in Gandhis Passion the significance of Muslim support for non-cooperation.
Gandhis commitment to the brothers of the Khilafat cause and the Muslim masses who followed
them won him greater national popularity then was enjoyed by any other Nationalist leader. With
the support of the majority of the population, Gandhi now believed that India was ready to take on
the British Raj, aided with the principles of Satyagraha.
After two years of continuous struggle, the campaign of non-cooperation collapsed. In defile of the
principles of Satyagraha, Indian protests hacked to death and burned 22 Indian policemen, an act
which demonstrated to Gandhi that India was not ready for nation wide Sayagraha. The support of
the Khilafat movement was also crumbling owning to the lack of confidence they had in a
campaign of non-violence. Although the campaign did not achieve independence from British rule,
it was highly significant for the growth of Satyagraha in India. The campaign gave many Indians
real hope that Swarji (independence) was possible after decades of suppressive British rule. Many
Indians also renounced their British titles and many teachers were inspired to leave the cities and
teach literacy and satyagraha in the villages. Gandhi also became a national hero for not only the
elite but the peasants due to his dress and respect for their needs. This allowed nationalism to
become a prominent feature of Indian independence and electrified thousands of people to rally
behind Gandhi and cry Mahatma Gandhi ki jai!
With his international profile and national support gained from previous satyagraha campaigns,
Gandhi set out on a new campaign of civil disobedience. As the British had made it illegal for
individuals to manufacture salt, a necessity in the diet of many Indians, Gandhi proposed an attack
on these laws. This would threaten government finances and present an opportunity to educate
millions of the principles of satyagraha. Subsequently, Gandhi hoped this campaign would exhibit
to the world the absolute brutality of the British government. On the 12th of March 1930, Gandhi,
together with 78 trained Satyagrahias set off from his ashram in order to March the 385kms to
village of Dandhi and publicly break the salt laws. As Gandhi marched through villages he stopped
to address the people on the importance of satyagraha. Gradually, international press became
interested as the marchers grew with every village visited. Historian Yogesh Chadha, author of
Rediscovering Gandhi explains that the spectacle of this sixty-six year old man, staff in hand,
striding vigorously to challenge peacefully the mighty British Empire aroused the interest and
sympathy of millions all over the world. On the 5th of April, a group of several thousand strong
reached the sea at Dandi. Gandhi bent down and scooped up a lump of salt left by the evaporation
of sea water. Yogesha Chadha describes how this small symbolic act inspired millions across India.
Within a week the storm had swept across India and everyone seemed to be gathering salt.
The true significance of the Salt Satyagraha can be seen through the Dharsana salt march which
took place without the assistance of Gandhi. On the 25th of April, thousands of supporters walked
towards the salt works watched by foreign reporters. When struck by the British none of the man
raised an arm to fend off the blows. This act was to define world opinion of the British occupation
of India. Previously, British validated their presence in India by claiming that the Indians were
barbarians who could not govern themselves. But, as U.S correspondent Webb Miller reports, this
was not the case anymore. The police commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the
abdomen and testicles. It is evident that this single satyagraha campaign was a genuine catalyst to
an increase in Indian nationalism and push for independence.
Gandhis final campaign, based on the non-violent principles of satyagraha was Bharat Chhodo
Andolan (Quit India) 1942. As stated by Gandhi, this final crusade was either to free India, or die
in the attempt. Due to the impact of World War Two, the British were no longer willing to tolerate
any trouble within India. Within twenty-four hours, Gandhi and the majority of congress leaders
were jailed. Without Gandhis leadership the campaign flared into a violent revolt with widespread
violence and guerilla warfare. This act, while showing the impact satyagraha had on Indian
nationalism, brings into question the true impact that the principles of satyagraha had on the Indian
population. Although for many years Gandhi had preached non-violence and a peaceful means for
gaining independence the realities of practicing Satyagraha on a population of over five hundred
million people were becoming clear. Historian Rajmodan Gandhi Gandhi, The man his people and
the empire, puts forward a different assessment of the impact of the Quit India campaign stating that
campaign made it clear in the minds of the British that the fight for independence was not only
being fought for by the congress but the entire Indian population. It decoupled the Indian people
from their British rulers and fused them together with congress. Kathryn Tidrick takes the opposite
side of the spectrum and attributes no successes to the entire campaign. The rebellion was crushed
by the British Authorities- another miscalculation by Gandhi. By the end of September the British
had regained control.
The year of 1945 showed a very different Britain to that which the had invaded India in. The
Second World War had diminished Britains status as a superpower and forced the government to
rely heavily on loans from the United States. The coalition government headed by Churchill was
defeated by the Labour party. Headed by Atlee, this government was strongly committed to
HSC STUDY BUDDY
granting India independence as they knew that the British people would not accept another period
of bloodshed. While many point to the election of a labour government and the loss of international
status as the reason for the granting independence, one must question why the British were still able
to retain power of other colonised nations such as Northern Ireland and Zimbabwe. Here, historian
Kathryn Tidrick points to Gandhis satyagraha campaigns as the reason for independence. She
states that their ability to promote nationalism, unite the masses of India, reduce Britains economic
gains in India and prompt International criticism of British occupation, showed India to be a
structured, independent nation and a nothing more than a tedious drag of the British empire.
It is evident through the study of the nature of Gandhis Satyagraha in the period 1919-1947, that its
implementation had a profound influence on the granting of Independence by the British. The nonviolent campaigns of non-cooperation, salt March and Quit India in combination with Gandhis
work in the villages forced the British to see that their occupation was no longer needed or
economically beneficial. With the population now united behind Gandhi, the British were able to
leave India in more then capable hands.
ESSAY 2
Asses the significance of the 1920-22 campaign of non-cooperation for Indian resistance to British rule.
With the end of the First World War, India with the aid of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was
heavily campaigning for Swaraj (Home Rule). After the effective early campaigns of Champaran,
Karia, Hartal and overall satyagraha, Gandhi believed that a nation wide campaign of noncooperation was the most effective way to achieve independence from British rule. Gandhi was
convinced that if Indians refused to cooperate with their British rulers, the Raj would be unable to
successfully rule over them and come to a halt within twelve months. Although this campaign
ultimately broke out in violence and massacre, it put Gandhi at the forefront of Indian politics with
the support of the majority of the nation.
Before Gandhi could assure that his campaign could lead to significant resistance towards British
rule he needed the support of the Muslim leaders and Congress. First Gandhi met with the Khilafat
rulers (Ali brothers) for support. Although the brothers generally endorsed the use of violence they
reluctantly accepted Gandhi non-violence scheme. This resulted in in the merge of the satyagraha
campaign and the Punjab agitation. Historian Stanley Wolpert tells us in Gandhis Passion the
significance of Muslim support for the campaign. Gandhis commitment to the Khilafat cause of
the brothers and the Muslim masses who followed them, won him greater national popularity than
was enjoyed by and other nationalist leader. Gandhi went to Congress and after narrowly winning
support at the Calcutta Congress meeting, had the full support of the major Hindu leaders.
Now that Gandhi had nationwide support he marked out areas for particular attention. All titles and
honour conferred on Indians by the British were to be given up, no participation in the changes due
under the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, refusing to work for British employers or send their
children to British school, refusal to pay taxes and the Swadeshi (boycott) of all foreign foods.
Gandhi also heavily endorsed the wearing of khadi or khaddar, the Gandhi cap which became a
symbol of swadeshi and a daily duty to spin a length of cotton. This was due to the fact that cloth
produced in large cotton mills had produced a devastating decline in Indian home spun cotton
making the villages less self-sufficient.
After two years of a continuous struggle, the campaign collapsed due to a number of reasons. The
support of the Ali brothers was crumbling owing to the lack of confidence in a non-violent
campaign. The second reason was the Chauri Chaura massacre where Indian protesters hacked to
death and burned 22 Indian policemen. This act demonstrated to Gandhi that the people of India
were not yet ready for nation wide Satyagraha. Many of the Congress leaders, particularly C. R.
Das were angered by the calling off of the non-cooperation campaign. This is clearly shown Calvin
Kytles account of Gandhis life. Nehru: why pull back when we seem to be consolidating our
position on all our fronts? To which Gandhi replied; Its a million times better to appear untrue
before the world than to be untrue to ourselves.
Although the campaign did not achieve complete independence from British rule, it was highly
significant for the growth of Indian nationalism for 1922-47. The campaign gave many Indians real
hope that Swarji was a possibility after decades of suppressive British rule. Gandhi also became a
national hero for not only the elite but the peasants due to his dress and respect for their needs. This
allowed nationalism to become a prominent feature of Indian independence and electrified
thousands of people to rally behind Gandhi and cry Mahatma Gandhi ki jai!
Gandhis arrest after the Chauri Chaura massacre allowed him to internationally preach his political
message which was imperative to his campaign of passive resistance and satyagraha. At his trial
(later known as the Great Trial) he appealed for the severest of penalties stating that I invite and
cheerfully submit to the highest penalty that can inflicted upon me. This demonstrated Gandhis
strong commitment to satyagraha and inspired others to not be afraid of jail in the quest to gaining
national independence. Gandhis declaration of passive resistance also allowed him to portray the
British tyrants for international opinion and appeal to the British conscious. Historian Geoffrey
Ashe, Gandhi, a study in revolution speaks of the significant of Gandhis tactics in the court room
and Britains resolve to never allow the Raj to be embarrassed in such a way. The authorities saw
their mistake too later. But they did learn from it. This was the last time they ever put him on trial.
After 1992 they imprisoned him without trial.
As direct result of the non-cooperation campaign, many Indian renounced their British titles and
medals, thousands of lawyers abandoned their legal practices and the British court system and many
students and teachers left the cities to teach literacy and non-cooperation in the villages. These acts
had significant impacts on the growth on Indian nationalism as Indians were now starting to
acknowledge the importance of their commitment to Swarji. Additionally the teaching of nation
wide satyagraha brought the importance independence to the most remote of villages.
The impact of non-cooperation in India although not immediate, had significant impact for Indian
resistance to British rule. Gandhis commitment to nation wide satyagraha promoted nationalism
and crucial importance to be placed on Swarji from peasants to congress leaders. Without this initial
pressure placed on the British Raj, the path to independence may have been littered with far more
obstacles.
ESSAY 3
Asses the significance of the 1930s Salt Satyagraha in the development of Indian nationalism.
With shouts of Inqilab Zindabab! the 26th of January was declared Independence Day in India.
After nearly a decade of private life, Gandhi immersed himself in Indian politics and his ultimate
goal of securing purna swarji. With his international profile and national support gained from
previous satyagraha campaigns, Gandhi set out on a new campaign of civil disobedience. During
this campaign, Gandhi aim to abolish the salt tax and arm the Indian population with the power to
gain independence. Subsequently, he hoped this campaign would exhibit to the world the absolute
brutality of the British government. It is evident from the study of Indian independence that this
single campaign was a genuine catalyst to reforms in British India policy and an increase in Indian
nationalism.
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India during the 1930s was a nation eager for Independence. Angered by the Amritser massacre and
encouraged by Nehrus success in the Bardoli tax campaign, India looked to the returned Gandhi
for a solution to brutal British rule. By means of his inner voice, Gandhi looked to the salt taxes
placed on India as a way to band the people of India together, united under a common cause. He
announced that together with 78 trained Satyagrahias from his ashram he would March to the
village of Dandhi and publicly break the salt laws that made it illegal for individuals to manufacture
salt in India. As Gandhi marched through villages he stopped to address the people on the
importance of satyagraha. Gradually, international press became interested as the marchers grew
with every village visited. Historian Yogesh Chadha, author of Rediscovering Gandhi explains
that the spectacle of this sixty-six year old man, staff in hand, striding vigorously to challenge
peacefully the mighty British Empire aroused the interest and sympathy of millions all over the
world. On the 5th of April, a band several thousand strong reached the sea at Dandi. Gandhi bent
down and scooped up a lump of salt left by the evaporation of sea water. Yogesha Chadha describes
how this small symbolic act inspired millions across India. Within a week the storm had swept
across India and everyone seemed to be gathering salt. This demonstrated the significant impact of
Gandhis campaigns on Indian nationalism.
British response to march campaign was disinclined as they wanted to avoid the embarrassment of
Gandhi emerging as a martyr or fasting in jail. At the announcement of a march on the Dharsana
salt works, Viceroy Irwin had no choice but to arrest him. The true significance of the Salt
Satyagraha on the development of Indian nationalism can be seen through the Dharsana salt march
which took place without the assistance of Gandhi. On the 25th of April, thousands of supporters
walked towards the salt works watched by foreign reporters. When struck by the British none of the
man raised an arm to fend off the blows. This act was to define world opinion of the British
occupation of India. Previously, British validated their presence in India by claiming that the
Indians were barbarians who could not govern themselves. But, as U.S correspondent Webb Miller
reports, this was not the case anymore. The police commenced savagely kicking the seated men in
the abdomen and testicles.
These historical events were to shape the development of Indian nationalism throughout the 1930s.
This was to be the beginning of a social revolution. For the first time, incidents occurring in India
were gaining strong international media coverage and with the arrest of Gandhi, the civil
disobedience movement widened to millions across India. The reaction of the British to this
growing civil disobedience in India was to establish a set of three round table conferences to discuss
the ways of implementing the recommendations made by the Simon Commission. As most of the
congress leaders were in gaol, the first round table conference was devoid of any Indian
representation. At the realisation that no lasting solutions were likely to emerge from the round
table conferences, Viceroy Irwin created a pact with Gandhi in 1931. In an embarrassing move for
the British, the pact allowed representatives of congress to meet with Gandhi in prison, all future
negotiations would involve congress, the future constitution would be federal and ensured that
congress would immediately end civil disobedience. This pact was highly significant as it displayed
the hight of Gandhis status in International politics as the leader of the Indian nationalism
movement and gave India the appearance that they were negotiating on the same level with the
British. Historian Stanley Wolpert author of Gandhis Passion speaks of how Winston Churchill,
British Prime Minister was particularly angered by the pact. who was nauseated to see the half
naked fakir striding upstairs to the residency of the viceroy.
The second round table conference, held in 1931 was a strong indication of the international support
being given to Gandhis work in India. Gandhis arrival in London was given extensive media
attention and the public welcomed him as a hero. His visit to the Cotton Mill workers in Darwen
whose jobs had been effected by campaigns in India was warmly welcomed with excited, cheering
crowds. In the midst of central London, surrounded by English values, Gandhi still wore his
traditional Indian clothing. This symbolised how effective his campaigns in India had been over the
past fifty years. As a result of the round table conferences and continued disturbance in India, the
British government approved the Government of India Act, 1935. This was the largest act ever
passed by a British parliament. India was to become a federation with powers shared between the
viceroy and two federal assembles (diarchy). The act was given support by Gandhi as he wished to
unite congress and an election was called. Although the win by the Congress party boosted national
moral, it had major implications for the future unity of India.
The 1930s Salt Satyagraha campaign led to major developments in Indian Nationalism. Gandhis
rallying of millions across India and effective campaigning allowed for a common belief that India
had the power to one day become an independent nation. With the aid of international media
attention and salt satyagraha campaign, support for Indian nationalism grew over the 1930s. A
nations culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people- Mohandas Gandhi
ESSAY 4
Asses the view that communalism was more important then nationalism in India 1919-47
Based on a South Asian political theory, communalism highlights the conflicts between religious
communities and the insists on protecting the rights of a particular religious or ethnic sect. In India,
this conflict references specifically to friction between Hindu and Muslim communities. In stark
contrast, nationalism refers to a policy of asserting the interests on a nation, viewed as separate
from the interests of other nations. Although the prominent focus in India was the promotion of
nationalism and gaining independence, the advent of communalism became of a more important
nature as the rift between Hindu Muslim relations led to a major split within the Indian community
and the formation of a separate Muslim state. Dating back to the the loss of the Mughal Empire,
Muslims in India have expressed feeling of oppression by the Hindus and under representation
within political movements. With the split from the Indian National Congress in 1906, the All India
Muslim League was established and Muslims started to gain a political voice. Although the
Leagues goal was not for a separate state, as conflicts arose between Hindus and Muslims, the
Muslim League lead by Mohhamed Ali Jinnah came to the realisation that the Muslim minority
were not going to receive fair representation within India. This assessment of the importance of
communalism from 1919 to 1947 throughly analyses the nature of Hindu, Muslim relations and the
impact it had on a nation.
The nature of the Muslim religion differs dramatically from that of the Hindu government. Based
on the teachings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Islam commands obedience and the fusion of
religion and political activity. In stark contrast Hinduism ensures that society operates in such a way
that allow each person to follow his/her dharma (religious duty). The two religions also fought over
dominant language, the sacred nature of cows and Hindu Muslim intermarriage. With such
dissimilarity between the two religions, the ability for each to live side-by-side has become an
unattainable aspiration and has resulted in communalism. Prior to the 1947 partition, numerous
attempts were made to prevent communalism but attempts seemed fruitless. In 1885 the Indian
National Congress was founded. Although Congress made genuine efforts to incorporate the
Muslim community it was indisputably a Hindu dominated party. This worried many Muslims as
with the introduction of Gandhis nationalistic agenda such as satyagraha and non-cooperation
campaign, independence appeared increasingly feasible and the concept of a dominant Hindu Raj
was no more appealing then a British Raj. A decisive moment came in 1900 when the British
Administration gave into Hindu demands for the official language in India to be changed to Hindi
in
place of Persian which had been the court language under the Mughal Empire. This act appeared to
verify Muslim fears that the Hindu Congress would suppress Muslim culture in an independent
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India. British official Sir Percival Griffiths stated that the Muslim belief that their interest must be
regarded as completely separate from those of the Hindus, and that no fusion of the two
communities was possible.
Amongst the members of Congress was Muslim born Muhammed Ali Jinnah, a major advocate for
nationalism and Hindu, Muslim unity. Jinnah did not join the Muslim league when first formed as
its platform was based around support for the British Raj. To promote among the Mussalamans of
India, feelings of loyalty to the British government. In 1920 Jinnah resigned from Congress when
he felt the methods of Gandhi unleashed unconstitutional disruption and appealed to the mob.
He was also convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate electorates for
Muslims. Although at this stage Jinnah still supported Hindu, Muslim unity he argued that Muslims
should be guaranteed one-third of the seats in any Indian parliament. Jinnahs split from Congress
was a major advocate for communalism as his support was one of the remaining few for Congress
policies. Becoming the president of the Muslim League in 1916, Jinnah negotiated the Lucknow
pact between the Congress and Muslim League. An agreement was reached that pressure would be
placed on the British government for self-government and separate electorates for all communities.
In 1920, moves were made by both Congress and the Muslim League to prevent the advent of
communalism. With the post World War One concerns of the loss of the Sultans authority in
Turkey
and the non-cooperation campaign underway, the Ali brothers of Muslim decent came to the
realisation that Gandhi could deliver their cause a considerable amount of Indian support. Although
Gandhis ultimate goal was a united India and he ceded to the offer of a united front, many of the
League members regarded non-violence as foolish and outbreaks of violence followed. After the
ultimate failure of the non-cooperation campaign, Jinnah became disillusioned with politics and
spent most of the 1920s in London. The leadership of the league was taken over by Sir Muhammad
Iqbal. Unlike Jinnah the ambassador for Hindu Muslim unity, Iqubal had radical ideas about the
creation of a homeland for Muslims, separate from India. He called this land Pakistan, the land of
the pure. This notion was a major pivotal point for communalism as prior to this, there had been no
mention of a religious split within India. When proposed to Jinnah he was greatly angered as he
claimed the British brought Hindu Muslim unity and the League was striving to destroy it. Historian
Akbar Ahmed Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity states that at this point in time, Jinnah was
going through a mid-life crisis and was very detached form the feelings of the Muslim population
in India. Not even responding to the the most important political crisis of the decade, that of the
Khilafat, he seemed to be increasingly isolated from his community.
Congress made several more mistakes in their policies towards the Islamic culture. One such policy
was the institution of the Bande Matram, a form of national anthem which expressed anti-Muslim
sentiments. Congress insisted that this song must be sung daily in schools throughout India. In1927,
Jinnah entered into negotiations with Hindu leaders on the issue of a future constitution. The
League heavily pushed for separate electorates for provinces with a Muslim majority whereas the
Nehru report constructed by members of congress, wanted collaboration. In answer to the Nehru
report Jinnah constructed a fourteen point plan but failed to achieve his proposed three quarter
Muslim representation. Historians Metcalf and Metcalf suggest that this failure led to Jinnahs
distrust in Congress. Distrust was never subsequently to be overcome. The 1937 elections proved
to the the final straw for Jinnah and the ever expanding advent of communalism. After Congresss
refusal to allow solely Muslim lead provinces Jinnah felt alienated and became a determined
opponent of Congress and its policies. He now fervently believed that Hindu Muslim unity could
not be achieved due to the stubborn, uncompromising nature of Congress.
With Jinnahs rejection of Congress and subsequent pledge for a separate homeland, the Muslim
League started to gain crucial support from the Muslim community. In 1939 war broke out across
Europe and Britain was called to arms and as India was still apart of the British empire its
population had a duty to back Britain in the form of military support. As Congress had banned
support for the British during the war and subsequently resigned from government, the British
turned to the Muslim community for support. This withdrawal of Congress from power had helped
the League gain authority and favour in the eyes of the British. To celebrate Jinnah called for a Day
of Deliverance for all Indian Muslims. Although at this point Jinnah was being granted concessions
by the British he still did not know wanted he wanted for the future of the Muslim community in
India. Historian .......
The Lahore conference of 1940 saw a significant change in Jinnahs attitude towards the partition of
India. Dressed in a traditional Muslim garb sherwani in contrast to his previous English style
suits, Jinnah addressed a crowd of Muslims calling for a separate homeland as Hindus and
Muslims belong to tow different religions, philosophies, social customs and literature. To yoke
together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a
majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up
for the government of such a state. It is imperative to note that at this point in time, Jinnah does not
use the word Pakistan but strives for a separate province ruled by Muslims within India.
The Direct Action Day, also known as the Great Calcutta Riots 1946 became a decisive day for the
promotion of communalism and Jinnah as an advocate of the partition of India in the form of
Pakistan. Now that Britain under the new leadership of Clement Attlee was willing to offer India
complete independence the issue of communalism was breached with dire consequences. In July
1946, Jinnah held a press conference in Bombay and declared the League had decided to boycott
the Constitute Assembly that proposed the transfer of power post independence to a combination
interim government. He stated that if Muslims were not granted Pakistan he would launch Direct
Action. We do not want war, if you want war we accept your offer unhesitatingly. We shall have
India divided or we shall have India destroyed." This statement trigged mass riots by Muslims in
Calcutta against Hindu and Sikhs and followed with retaliatory attacks on Muslims by Congress
supporters. Within seventy two hours more then 4,000 people had lost their lives and 100,000 left
homeless in the city of Calcutta. These events convey Jinnahs conclusive attitude and sow the seed
for the partition of India.
PARAGRAPH TIMELINE
Context of British India
With a population of over 1 billion people, India is made up of areas of extreme population
masses, and sparsely populated jungle or desert. Unlike Britain, India is characterised by
numerous religions including, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Christianity, each with a
different belief system and set of values. The Hindus who make up a large majority of the
population follow a caste system, broken up into 4 main caste groups determined by
occupation. Muslims on the other hand, make up 20% of the population and live in highly
populated masses in the north west and eastern Bengal. Unlike the Hindus, they follow
one g-d and observe the five pillars of Islam. Prior to British rule, these dichotomous
religions lived in relative harmony with little friction.
As the British took over India as part of their empire, they attempted to westernise the
colony. A western style administration system including a train network and international
economy was developed. In terms of a system of government, India was ruled exclusively
by the British crown, via a viceroy, council of advisory and princely India who ruled over
their territories as despots. Many Indians also felt that they were entitled to have a say in
how their country was run, Englishman Hume, founded the Indian National Congress, a
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group of well educated, wealthy and higher caste Hindus. These characteristics prevented
them from initially receiving support from the mass, poverty stricken, illiterate population
and the Muslim community.
Under this system of government, many economic and social problems erupted, creating
an atmosphere of unrest and discontent. Many Indian blamed their poverty on the British
government and landowners. No one could escapee. The middle classes were caught
between the high cost of living and fixed incomes, the merchants faced the possibility of
losing their wartime profits and the untouchables were experiencing high shortages of food
and basic necessities. Muslims also blamed the British for many of their social and
political issues. After Turkey was defeated in WWI it was stripped of its empire and the
Sultan lost control of the three holy Muslim places. Many Muslims, especially those of the
Khilafat movement, demanded of the British, that the Sultan regain his authority and
guardianship.
Hartal 1919
It was in this atmosphere of nationwide political, religious and social unrest, that the British
introduced the Rowlatt Bills, referred to by many Indians as Black Laws. During WWI, the
British Raj was granted special powers, powers that instilled internment, suspended many
civil liberties and human rights. However, after the war the government attempted to
prolong its wartime powers via the Defence of India Act 1919. Virtually every Indian was
opposed to the act viewing it as an an attempt to deprive the people of their g-d given
right to freedom of expression, thus breaking the law of g-d- Gandhi. In response to the
act, Congress member Gandhi offered Satyagraha in the form of a Hartal. Satyagraha was
a technique Gandhi developed at the Bhagava Gita in London, and in South Africa dealing
with the Black Ordinance Laws 1906. The technique was centered around Ahimsa, a
force born of truth, love and nonviolence- Gandhi. Satyagraha had first been brought to
India by Gandhis Champaran campaign 1914 and Karia 1917. Although these campaigns
had mixed results, it proved that Satyagraha was an effective way of communication with
the peasants in India (an act never attempted by an India politician), and sharing their way
of life. Now faced with the problems of British oppression, Gandhi proposed a Hartal to
Congress, a day of fasting, praying and closure of shops. The proposal was met with
opposition from many senior political figures who saw Gandhi as a naive Gujirati upstart,
playing with fire by trying to mobile the masses. However, the Hartal was schedule for the
6th May 1919.
From the outset, the campaign was characterised by mass confusion and violence. In
Delhi, the campaign started a week early and crowd clashed with police. In the Punjab,
Lieutenant Michael ODwyer, a retiring general relished at the prospect of a final
showdown with the Indians. After ordering armed police onto the streets of Lahore, he
issued an exclusion order, arresting Gandhi as he tried to enter the Punjab. At the news of
Gandhis arrest, protestors took to the streets, attacking Europeans, burning government
buildings, looting shops and graffitiing buildings with kill all Europeans. A meeting at
Jaliaqala Bagh was also called in protest of Gandhis arrest, an meeting that for forbidden
by the Rowlatt Act. General Dyer was called in to deal with the meeting, a man who made
ODywer appear a watery liberal. Entering the enclosure, Dyer machine gunned 379
participants as they were trying to flee. Dyer also implemented the crawling orders which
aimed to humiliate Indians, forcing them at bayonet to crawl on their bellies, and erected a
platform by which Indians could be publicly flogged.
The campaign was called off on April 18th. The government had no been intimidated,
many lives and been sacrificed, and the violent outbreaks had exposed the fundamental
principles of mass satyagraha. Gandhi took the failure of the campaign upon himself,
describing it as a Himalayan miscalculation and acknowledged that much educating
needs to be done before it could be used as a mass weapon. However, the campaign had
not been a complete failure. It represented a turning point in modern india, uniting the
people behind an ideal of nationalism after years of ineffectual constitutionalism and
community divisions. Many Indians began to realise that there was an alternative to the
type of politics that had been practiced in India for decades without success. Furthermore,
the brutality of the Amritsar massacre destroyed any moral justification the British may
have claimed for their conquering presence in India.
In 1920, the Hunter Committee was set up to investigate the recent disturbances in the
Punjab, They concluded that his majesties government repudiates the doctrine of
frightfulness upon which general Dyer based his actions. However, back in Britain Dyer
for awarded with a jeweled stone, inscribed with the words to the savour on Punjab an
the Morning Post launched a fund to raise money for the man who saved India. In
response, the once sympathetic and peaceful minded Gandhi, become a determined
opponent of the British, and forthwith campaigned for self-government in India. When a
government takes up arms against its unarmed subjects, this it has for fitted its right to
govern. Nothing less then the removal of the British and complete self-government could
satisfy India.
Non-cooperation 1920-22
In 1919, the British government implemented the Montague-Chelsford reforms
(Government of India Act) which introduced a system of Diarchy to India. This system of
government aimed to allocate aspect of government to elected provincial assemblies
(limited home rule). However, many important aspects of government still remained in the
hands of the viceroy and counil, who had the power to veto the actions of any province. In
light of the upcoming elections, and the two wrongs the British had imposed on India,
Khilafat and Amritsar, Gandhi responded with a campaign of non-cooperation. Noncooperation was based on the principles of satyagraha and that idea that if any Indians
refused to cooperate with their British rulers, the British would be unable to rule and bring
the entire British system to a halt within 12 months.
After narrowly winning Congress support, Gandhi marked out areas for particular attention
in the campaign. There would be no electoral participation under the 1919 act, Swedish
would be imposed on all foreign goods, all titles and honors conferred on Indians by the
British were to be given up and all Indians must refuse to work for their British employers.
Furthermore, the wearing of Khadi and spinning because a mass symbol of Swedish. As
cheap cotton cloth produced in factories had prompted a devastating decline in Indian
spun cotton, Gandhis introduction of the daily ritual of spinning allowed the Indian villages
to become self-sufficient. On the first day of non-cooperation, millions of Indians gathered
behind Gandhi shouting Mahatma Gandhi Ki Jai!. Thousands of students and teachers
left the cities to teach literacy and satyagraha in the villages. When Gandhi told audiences
they that must not wear foreign cloth, they stripped off their clothing into a pile and burned
it. The spinning of Kahdi also opened up opportunities for women, as it allowed women to
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participate in the creation of a nation. Non-cooperation saw a new era in unity and action,
transforming India into a totally self-sufficient society of peaceful industrious people.
The khilafat movement also participated in the campaign after realizing that Gandhi could
deliver their plight for the restoration of the Sultan, considerable support. Although in
essence, the movement and its leaders, the Ali Brothers, embraced violence, they
accepted Gandhis non-violent stance and become major participants in the campaign.
Gandhi saw their involvement as a major opportunity to rise above the policies of separate
communities, and establish a national political movement. Now that Gandhi had the whole
of India working together, the Hindus, Muslims and women, he could now demonstrate to
the British, Indias ability to work together as a united movement and gain independence.
However, by 1922, Gandhi called off the campaign due to the increased outbreaks of
violence. An Indian mob had lacked and burned 22 policemen in Chari-Chuara and the
support of the Ali brothers was crumbling. India was still not ready for Gandhis
satyagraha. Like the Hartal, although the campaign had ended in failure, it had great
impacts on the growth of nationalism. Many across India were now looking to Gandhi to
guide them to Swaraj and the British were slowly, but steadily, losing their grip on the
country. Gandhis arrest and trial also had significant impacts on the growth of nationalism.
In his trial for sedition, Gandhi was allowed to read out a lengthy statement, stating that I
cheerfully submitted to the highest penalty. This in turn inspired others not to be afraid of
jail in their pursuit of their national goal and turned Gandhi into a nationally recognised
martyr.
Role, Ideas and Impact of Gandhi 1922-27
During Gandhis time in prison, Congress became divided over differing ideologies. The
no-changers, led by Patel, wanted to continue Gandhis program, emphasize the
importance of preparing Hindu-Muslim relations, and preach the importance of spinning.
On the other side, the pro-changers led by Nehru, believed India was not ready for a full
program of satyagraha, pushing for a new political strategy. At the 1922 meeting of
Congress, the pro-changers were defeated, and went on to form their own party, Congress
Swaraj Party until its collapse in 1925.
In 1924, Gandhi was released form prison due to ill health. However, he did not rejoin the
political sphere, opting to return to his ashram and devote himself to social reform. He
contended that focusing on the daily incremental socio-economic changes, could bring
nationalism and satyagraha to the life of every peasant. Gandhis ability to resonate in the
hearts of many Indians and make a huge impact in the villages was mainly due to the
popularity he gained during his previous campaign. The symbolism of traveling third class
and wearing Khadi was a visible tie that bound him with the masses- Chadha.
Furthermore, Gandhi believed that if he could make himself a complete spiritual being and
one with g-d, his world would be like magic to the Indian people, and they would unite
under a common goal of swaraj.
Over the next few years, Gandhi set out across the country, visiting the villages and
preaching his message of anti-discrimination, Hindu-Muslim unity and spinning. Gandhi
suggested that spinning was the cloth binds all the brothers and sisters of India together
and will lift them to freedom from their present lives of poverty. Gandhi focus on spinning
not only allowed the villages to become self-sufficient and united, but showed the British
that india was not a land of separate communities with varied clothing styles, but a land fit
for self-rule. Furthermore, he believed that village reform was vital to gaining
independence as Indias strength lied within her people. Cleanliness became a major
feature of his campaign, including swept streets and personal hygiene. Lastly Gandhi
believed it was vital to promoted the rights of women, speaking on problems such as
divorce and child brides. Much of this social reform was driven by Gandhis belief that in
order to obtain Swarak, all of India, all castes, religions and gender must be involved.
Gandhi's also used ashrams (communal living) to show the people of India, the ideals and
cultural values he envisaged for the nation. Within these ashrams, first used by Gandhi in
South Africa, a strict set of rules including celibacy, manual labour that was generally
reserved for untouchables and ahimsa, was observed at all times, by all members. All
masculine traits were to be rejected, as Gandhi believed masculinity led to anger and
violence, allowing the women to participate in ashram life and the men to love ones fellow
man. This further emphasises Gandhis message of unity between all religions and castes,
in the fight for swaraj.
Although Gandhi was preaching daily, Hindu-Muslim unity, the relations between the two
religious was rapidly deteriorating. In 1924, Turkeys president abolished the position of
the Sultan and the Khilafat movement, the last link between Gandhi and the Muslim
community, fell apart. Muslim was now deliberately killing cows in public and Hindu would
direct loud religious processions past mosques. In 1925, relations hit a low when a Hindu
published a book offending Muslims. The Muslim community reacted by killing the author
and massacring 36 Hindus. Gandhi and satyagraha was still a long way from gaining a
united, independent India.
Simon Commission 1927
In 1927, the British government announced a proposal to advance India towards selfgovernment. This was a due to the upcoming British election in which the conservative
party heard the if the Labour government won, they would allow concessions to occur
within India more rapidly, and Britain could loose the jewel of the empire. The Simon
commission was appointed to visit India and report on its readiness for further progress
towards self-government. However, the commission only consisted of British MPs and was
therefore boycotted by Congress. A Congress committee was established to draft an
alternative proposal to whatever the Simon Commission proposed, commencing in the
Nehru report. The report proposed a system of joint and reserved electorates in an
independent India, not separate. This angered many of the Muslim community who
rejected the report.
The Simon Commission also provoked arguments within Congress over whether dominion
status or independence should be adopted as the parties goal. This argument brought
gandhi back into the political sphere. He offered a compromise, of the British had not
granted dominion status by 1929, Congress would opt for Swaraj. In 1929, the British
government declared that dominion status was their objective and swaraj was adopted as
Congresss goal. There political sphere was now set for a battle for independence.
Salt Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience 1930-32
Gandhi was now ready, after years of devotion to the villages, to begin a second
satyagraha campaign. He came to the decision, via his inner voice, to personally break
the salt laws which made it illegal for individuals to manufacture salt. This campaign could
not have come at a better time as with the great depression spreading across the world,
Britain heavily relied on its foreign markets and their monopoly on salt. Furthermore, this
campaign would allow Gandhi to educate more people on satyagraha and have a powerful
emotional appeal, as all Indians regarded salt as a necessity in their diet. Unlike his
previous campaigns, which involved the Indian masses, Gandhi decided to only encourage
those who were rigorously trained in satyagraha to break the salt laws. Gandhi ensured
that this campaign would be a non-violent struggle as to not alienate those who feared a
serious struggle with the British.
On the 12th of March, dressed only in Khadi, Gandhi along with 78 trained satyagrahsias
began the long March from his ashram to the sea in Dandhi. Along the way, he stopped in
the villages preaching satyagraha, and as his passed, the number of marchers grew. On
the anniversary of the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi reached the sea, stooped down and
picked up a pie of salt declaring, I have made salt an illegal act. This symbolic act gave
Indians the conviction that they could lift the foreign yoke from their shoulders. Between
1930-32, Gandhi broadened his campaign, urging students to suspend your studies and
join the fight for freedom, and urging his followers to follow prohibition, which played a
part in persuading women to join his cause.
Although viceroy Irwin was determined not to arrest Gandhi in fear of the repercussions,
when Gandhi announced a raid on the Dharaana salt works, he was left with no choice.
However, Gandhi's followers decided to carry on Gandhis work and publicize their cause
around the world. In May, a group of satyagrahsis approached the salt works, instructed by
leader Naidu, you must no even raise a hand to ward off the blows. As the men
advanced, they sat down and the police proceeded to lash out at the men. Reporter Webb
Miller described the scene. Marchers simply walked forward until struck down. Not even
one raised their hand to fend off the blows. They went down like ten-pin bowel as the
police savagely kicked the seated men in the abdomen and testicles. This gallant act
served to be of great political significance as it showed the world, that the British who
claimed oral superiority, were without credibility. Furthermore, it symbolized Britain to be
powerful and the Indians invincible.
Round Table Conferences 1931
In 1931, the Round Table Conferences were held in London to discuss the implementation
of the recommendations made by the Simon Commission. However, as many of the
Congress leaders were in jail from civil-disobedience, no Indian representatives were
present. Viceroy Irwin realised that without the involvement on Congress, no lasting
solutions were likely to emerge. Although he did not want to be seen negotiating with
Congress, he was forced to released the leaders and subsequently made a pact with
Gandhi so that he would go to London. In this fact, it was agreed that all future
negotiations would involve Congress, Civil disobedience would ended, and that people in
coastal areas would be permitted to collect salt, thus ending Britains monopoly.
Gandhis arrival in London for the 2nd RTC was met with tremendous welcome by the
media, showing his international influence, and mass media attention. Many saw him,
especially the poorer members of English society, as an inspirational figure. However, his
dealing with Churchill and the British were no where near as successful. The Muslim
representation refused to accept that Congress represented the entire population, and
force fiercely for separate electorates. Churchill was also much less sympathetic to Indian
ambitions, stating I did not become the first minister to see its empire disintegrate.
Gandhi left London feeling isolated and alienated, returning to India with nothing to show
for his efforts. I wanted to turn the truce settled in Delhi into a permanent settlement. But
for g-d sake, give a frail man a little bit of a change. It add insult to injury, a decision
confirming separate electorates was passed for Muslims and Untouchables, a bitter blow
for Gandhi and his fight for unity and anti-discrimination. He fasted until the decision was
overturned.
On Gandhis return to India. He announced a second civil disobedience campaign, but it
proved to be highly ineffective. The government was no longer willing to handle
disobedience lightly, jailing 30,000 Indians, and with the world wide depression over,
Indians were finding their difficult circumstances easing. No longer were there any
significant local issues on which to build a powerful national movement. For the next few
years that passed, the situation descended into a cat and mouse game between Britain
and India, with no clear winner. In 1934, gandhi once again resigned from Congress to
devote himself to building more ashrams, and civil-disobedience, like the campaign that
had proceeded it, ended in violence.
Impact of WWII
With the outbreak of war in Europe, viceroy Linithgow proclaimed without consulting any
Indians, that India was at war with germany. Spokesperson for Congress, Nehru, was
greatly angered by with proclamation and stated, India cannot associate herself with a
war said to be for democratic freedom when that very freedom is being denied to her. As
Congress members resigned leaving Jinnah and the Muslim League in charge. Faced with
the prospect of a Japanese invasion of India, the British offered an Congress an Indianised
executive council immediately after the war in return for their support, but Congress
rejected this offer. They were pessimistic that even through Britain was virtually offering
them self-rule, the power would still remain firmly under the viceroy. Indian hopes of
independence were raised when Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter with Roosevelt, as
the charter promised all peoples the right to live under a government of their choice after
the war. However, these hopes were dashed when Churchill made a speech to the British
cabinet, expressly excluding India from the provisions of the charter. This served only to
confirm Indian suspicions that regardless of what was offered, Churchill would never
concede self-rule to India.
As the war heated up in the Pacific, Roosevelt impressed on Churchill the urgency of
winning more positive support for the war effort in India. Gandhi believed that India should
remain neutral in the world conflict and Congress has expressly denied participation.
Although Churchill had no desire to transfer power to a Brahman Oligarchy, he was in no
position to resist Roosevelt's demands. He dispatched Sir Cripps to India, to negotiate with
Congress. While in India, Cripps was under no guidance as to what he was entitled to offer
the Indian. In this atmosphere of confusion, he offered India dominion status, a constitution
making body, and offered the Muslims, who the British wished to retain allegiance with, the
possibility of Pakistan. Any province in India which wishes to remain outside the union is
free to frame its own constitution and exist as an independent union. Despite Cripps
efforts, the mission proved to be long and futile. The Congress saw the offer as too little to
HSC STUDY BUDDY
late, and Gandhi as a post-date cheque of a failing bank. Churchill also ensured that the
mission achieved nothing, but still served to satisfy the American who saw that the British
had made a genuine offer.
Quit India 1942-43
By 1942, the Japanese were on Indias doorstop. Gandhi believed that the only way to
stop an invasion was an immediate declaration of independence, as given a stake in the
defence of their country, Gandhi contested that the people would rally behind its leaders
and see the country through the crisis. Furthermore, Gandhi suggested that with the British
out of India, they had nothing to fear from the Japanese. This optimist view was met with
fierce opposition from Nehru, would claimed that there was nothing in the Japanese record
to support Gandhi;s view that non-violence would be effective in this situation. However, in
a final push for independence, Congress decided to push through a resolution called Quit
India, and committed themselves to a final non-violence struggle for freedom. we shall
either free India or die in the attempt. In this zeitgeist, the British were ot going to treat any
civil-disobedience lightly. There was a war to be fought and trouble in India was not to be
tolerated.
The morning after the announcement, Gandhi and many leading Congress members, were
arrested and jailed. The campaign continued, going through various stages of widespread
violence, First was a period of widespread rioting, which was brutally expressed.
Following, the Indians tried a tactic of targeting British influences in India, roads, railways
and lines of communication with little success. Lastly, guerilla warfare was fought which
lasted well into 1943. This tactic only created limited problems for the British. By the end of
1943, 1065 Indians were killed and thousands arrested. The campaign ended as it had
stared, in mass confusion and violence, signally the failure of the non-violence to gain
independence.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944
In 1944, Gandhi turned to brother Jinnah to discuss the future and possible unity of the
League and Congress. The war appeared to be coming to an end and Gandhi hoped that
as a united front, they could force the British to submit to independence. However, many
Muslims saw the talks as a symbol of Gandhi's acceptance of Pakistan in principle. From
thr outset, the talks were characterised with confusion and contrasting ideologies. Held at
Jinnahs home, the talks lasted 18, and by the end, both leaders left frustrated and with no
decision reached. One major reason for their failure was the position of strength Jinnah
was in going into the talks. After returning from London, Jinnah had reshaped the Muslim
League into a powerful political force, and his aid of Muslim troops to the war effort had
given him favour in the eyes of the British, especially after Quit India. Jinnah was therefore
in no mood to negotiate for unity. Chadha explains, the fact that the talks were held in
Jinnahs home and at Gandhi's initiative, indicated the advantage the League had
acquired. The talks showed a major turning point in Hindu-Muslims relations which was to
a decisive relationship in the years to come. Jinnah emerged as a powerful, unrelenting
leader in a new era of Muslim power and fight for partition.
End of the War & British Power 1945
In 1945, the end of the war came with the dropping of the bomb on Hiroshima, and the
British had to face the question of their role in India. The British public were swimming in
waves of war weariness and Churchill knew they couldnt accept another period of
bloodshed in India. Furthermore, the British had experienced huge casualties and loss of
resources during the war making it evident that they couldnt maintain their pre-war
imperial power. A process of Indianisation was begun by the government. By 1948, it was
said that only 3000 British civil-servants would remain in India, and viceroy Wavehill
announced that self-government would be granted to India. Mass restructure of the
executive council followed, which was to include equal Congress and League
representatives, a concession given to Jinnah for his aid during the war. This meant that
after independence, the League was to be given equal status to Congress, an illustration
of how far the League had come. The various parties were summoned to Simla to discuss
a future constitution, but the meeting proved to be a failure due to deep rooted divisions
between Congress and the League.