Network layer:

transport segment from sending to receiving host

Forwarding and routing:
Forwarding: Packet arive at router's input link -> the router move the p
acket to the appropriate output link
Example: Packet arrive from host H1 to router R1
must be forwarded to the next router on a path to H2
Routing: The network layer must determine the route or path taken by pac
kets as they flow from a sender to a receiver.
Use Routing algorithms (determine the path along which
packets flow from H1 to H2)
Forwarding: router-local action of transferring a packet from an input l
ink interface to the appropriate output link interface
Routing: network-wide process that determines the end-to-end paths that
packets take from source to destination
Network service model:
Guaranteed delivery
Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay
Flow of packets:
In-order packet delivery
Guaranteed minimal bandwidth
Guaranteed maximum jitter
Security services
Internet = Best-effort service = no service at all
ATM network:
Constant bit rate (CBR) ATM network service
Available bit rate (ABR) ATM network service
Network layer connection and connectionless service:
datagram network provide network connectionless service
VC provide network connection servicee
analogous to transport layer service, but:
service: host-to-host
no choice: network provide 1 or the other
implementation: in network core
virtual-circuit (VC) networks:
only a connection service at the network layer
datagram networks:
only a connectionless service at the network layer
Internet = datagram network
ATM, frame relay = VC network
VC network:
maintain connection state information for the ongoing connections
each time a connection is established across a router, a new connection
entry must be added to the router's forwarding table
each time a connection is released, an entry must be removed from the ta
ble
call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carry VC identifier (not destination host addr)
every router on source-dest maintain state for each passing connection

link, router resources may be allocated to VC

consist of:
path from src to dest
VC number, 1 number for each link along the path
entries in forwarding table in router along path
packet belong to VC carry VC number
VC number can be change on each link
phases:
VC setup
Data transfer
VC teardown
routers along the path between 2 end systems are involved in VC setup
each router is fully aware of all the VCs passing through it
Initial call -> Incoming call -> Accept call -> Call connected -> Data f
low begins -> Receive Data
signaling messages: set up the VC
signaling protocols: exchanges signaling messages
forwarding table modified when an existing connection through the router
is set up or torn down
Datagram network
router matches a prefix of the packet's destination addr with the entrie
s in the table
longest prefix matching rule
no call setup at the network layer
no state about end-to-end connections
packet forward using dest host addr
connectionless
maintain forwarding state information in their forwarding tables
forwarding tables are modified by routing algorithm, update 1 - 5 min
Forwarding Table
forwarding = switching
Input ports
Switching fabric
Switching via memory
Switching via a bus
Switching via an interconnection network
Output ports
Routing processor
forwarding table = router forwarding plane
router control plane
Queue
packet loss, drop tail
packet scheduler -> quality-of-service guarantees

active queue management (AQM)

random early detection (RED)
head-of-the-line (HOL) blocking
Internet: datagram
data exchange among computers
elastic service, no strict timing
smart end systems
can adapt, perform control, error recovery
simple inside network, complexity at edge
many link types
different characteristics
uniform service difficult
ATM: VC
evolve from telephony
human conversation:
strict timing, reliability requirements
need for guaranteed service
dumb end systems
telephone
complexity inside network
Router:
run routing algorithm/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
forwarding datagram from incoming to outgoing link
input port function:
given datagram dest, look up output port using forwarding tabnle
in input port memory
goal: complete input port processing at line speed
queuing if datagram arrive faster than forwarding rate into swit
ch fabric
Switching fabric:
memory, bus, crossbar
output port:
buffering required when datagram arrive from fabric faster than
the transmission rate
scheduling discipline choose among queue datagram for transmissi
on

IP
datagram
Version number
Header length (20 bytes)
Type of service
Datagram length (16 bits)
identifier, flags, fragmentation offset
time-to-live
upper layer protocol
header checksum
source and dest IP addr
options
payload
20 bytes header

IP/TCP: 40 bytes header

fragment
IPv4
interface
dotted-decimal notation
subnet, subnet mask
IP addr:
32 bit for host, router interface
interface:
router have multiple interface
host have 1 interface
IP addr associate with each interface
Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
prefix
classful addressing
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
encapsulated in UDP, IP, 802.1 Ethernet
temporary IP addressing
plug-and-play protocol
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP

server discovery: DHCP server message

server offer: DHCP offer message, address leave time
request: DHCP request message
ACK: DHCP ACK message

can return more than just allocated IP addr on subnet

addr of first-hop router for client
name and IP addr of DNS server
network mask (indicate network versus host portion of ad
dr)
NAT (Network Address Translation)
real with private addr
NAT translation table
connection reversal - NAT traversal
controversial:
router should onlhy process up to layer 32
violate end-to-end argument
addr shortage should be solved by IPv6
UPnP: Universal Plug and Play
allow NATed host to:
learn public IP addr
add, remove port mappings (with lease times)
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
error report, echo request/reply
carry in IP datagram
IPv6
expanded addressing capabilities: 128 bit addr
anycast addr
streamlined 40-byte header

flow labeling and priority

datagram format
version
priority (traffic class)
flow label
payload length
next header
hop limit
source and dest addr
data
NO: fragmentation, reassembly, checksum, options
ICMPv6
Translation from IPv4 to IPv6
dual-stack
tunneling
IPsec: IP security
cryptographic agreement
encryption of IP datagram payloads
data integrity
origin authentication
Routing Algorithm
Global:
all routers have complete topology, link cost info
link state algorithms
Decentralized:
router know physically connected neighbor, link cost to neighbor
iterative process of computation, exchange of info with neighbor
distance vector algorithm
Static:
route change slowly over time
Dynamic:
routes change more quickly
periodic update
in response to link cost changes
Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra algorithm
net topology, link cost known to all nodes
compute least cost path from 1 node to other node
give forwarding table for that node
iterative: after k iterations, know least cost path to k
dest
Distance Vector Algorithm
Bellman-Ford Equation
from time-to-time, each node send its own distance vector estima
te to neighbors
asynchronous
iterative, asynchronous
each local iteration caused by
local link cost change
update message from neighbor

distributed
each node notify neighbor when it change
neighbor then notify their neighbor if need
each node:
wait for change from neighbor
recompute estimate
if distance vector to any dest change, notify neighbor
Compare Link-State and Distance Vecotr:
Message Complexity:
LS: with n nodes, E links -> O(nE) message send
DV: exchange between neighbor only (convergence time var
y)
Speed of Convergence:
LS: O(n^2) require O(nE) messages
DV: vary (routing loop, count-to-inf problem)
Robustness
LS: node can advertise incorrect link cost
each node computes only its own tabnle
DV: DV can advertise incorrect path cost
each node table used by others
Hierarchical Routing:
scale: with 200 million dest
can't store all in routing table
administrative autonomy
each network admin may want to control routing in its ow
n network
aggregate router into regions: autonomous system (AS)
router in same AS run same routing protocol
intra-AS routing protocol
forwarding table configured by both intra and inter AS routing a
lgorithm
intra AS set entry for internal dest
inter AS and intra AS set entry for external dest
Intra AS routing:
IGP: Interior Gateway Protocol
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)
RIP: distance vector algorithm
distance vector: exchange among neighbor every 30 sec via Respon
se message (advertisment)
if no advertisment heard after 180sec
neighbor/link declare dead
routes via neighbor invalidate
new ads sent to neighbors
neighbor sed new ads (if table change)
link failure info quickly propagate to entire net
poison reverse use to prevent ping pong loop
manage by application-level called route-d (daemon)
ads sent in UDP packet, periodically repeat

OSBF: link state

carry 1 entry per neighbor router
ads dissemninate to entire AS (via flooding)
sent directly over IP
security: all message authenticate
multiple same-cost path allow (RIP only 1 path)
for each link, multiple cost metric for different TOS
integrate uni and multicast support
hierarchical OSPF in large domain
hierarchical OSPF:
2-level hierarchy: local area, backbone
link state ads only in area
each node has detail area topology, only now dir
ection (shortest path) to net in other area
area border router
backbone router
boundary router
BGP: Border Gateway Protocol: de facto standard
TCP
message:
OPEN: open TCP connection to peer and authenticate sende
r
UPDATE: advertise new path
KEEPALIVE: keep connection alive in absence of UPDATE, a
lso ACKs OPEN request
NOTIFICATION: report error in previous message, also use
to close connection
Difference between Intra and Inter AS routing:
policy:
inter: admin want control over how its traffic route, who route
intra: singlel admin, no policy decision deed
scale:
hierarchical routing save table size, reduce update traffic
performance:
intra AS: can focus on performance
inter: policy may dominate over performance
Broadcast routing:
deliver packet from source to all other node
source duplication is inefficient
flooding: when node receive broadcast packet, send copy to all neighbor
-> circle and broadcast storm
controlled flooding: node only broadcast if it hasn't broadcast same pac
ket before
keep track of packet already broadcast
RPFL reverse path forwarding:
only forward if it arrive on shorteest path between node
and src
spanning tree:
no redundant packet receive by any node
Multicast Routing:
find a tree connecting routers having local multicast group member
source base tree: one tree per source
shortest path tree

reverse path forwarding

group share tree: group use 1 tree
minimal spanning (steiner)
center base tree