Understanding Basic Electrical Concepts

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
Topic 1:
Basic Concept of Electrical
Overview
Electricity can be considered from two points of view. The scientist is concerned with
what happens in electric system and seeks to explain its mysteries. The engineer accepts
that electricity is there and seeks to make use of its properties without the need to fully
understand them.
A basic electrical system has four constituent parts as shown in Figure 1, i.e. source, load,
transmission system and control apparatus. A source may usually be thought of as a
battery or a generator, although for simplicity we might even think of a socket outlet as a
source. The function of a load is to absorb the electrical energy supplied by the source.
The transmission system conducts energy from the source to the load, and the control
apparatus will control the transmission.
Transmission system
Source
Control
Load
Figure 1: A Basic Electrical System

An Electrical system generally transmits energy due to the movement of electric charge.
Electricity appears in two forms which are called negative and positive electricity.
Electric charge is the excess of negative and positive electricity on a body or in space. If
the excess is negative, the body is said to have a negative charge and vice versa.
Theory
The most basic electrical quantity is a property of atomic particle called charge (positive
and negative). There is a force between charged particles, called Coulomb force, which
causes like charge particles to be repelled from each other and unlike charge to be
attracted. This force is the basis for electrical behavior.
Matter is composed of units called atoms, which may be pictured as being composed of a
nucleus contained positively charged particles called protons, surrounded by an equal
number of negatively charged particles, called electrons. Normally the number of positive
and negative charges in a given quantity of matter is equal and we say that it is uncharged
or neutral. If electrons are moved from a neutral quantity of matter, the result is
negatively charged matter.
An electron is an elementary particle charged with a small and constant quantity of
electricity. A proton is similarly defined but charged with positive electricity, while the
neutron is uncharged and is therefore neutral. All electrons have certain potential energy.
Given enough energy, they move freely between one energy level to another and this
movement is called an electric current flow. Current flows from a point of high
energy/potential to a point of low energy/potential. Conventional current flow opposite to
that of electron current.
System International (SI) standard defined unit of charge as the Coulomb. This is the
amount of charge that results from an electrical current flow from one ampere for one
second. It is also the charge possessed by 6.24 x 1018 electrons. As a variable, the change
is described by the variable label Q for fixed charge or q(t) for time changing charge.
1.1 Current
An electrical current exists whenever charge, q(t), is transferred from one point in the
conductor to another. The SI system defines the basic unit of current as the ampere (A).
This represents a current for which charge is being transferred at the rate of one coulomb
in one second. In an equal form, we have the current defined as the rate of charge, i.e. the
derivative.
i (t ) =
Where i(t) =
Q(t) =
T
=
dq
td
current in ampere (A)

charge in Coulombs
time in seconds (s)
if the flow is uniform, i.e. a constant current, then the equation reduces to the form
I=
Q
t
Here, I is the steady current and Q is the amount of charge transferred in a time t. Note
that the capital letter I is used for constant current and lowercase i(t) for varying current.
The polarity of the current really indicates direction of flow and depends on the polarity
of the charges being transferred. Two standards are used to describe the direction. The
most common called conventional current, defines positive current direction as the
motion of positive charges, thus opposite to the direction in which electron flow, as
shown in Figure 1.1a. Some treatment use the standard called electron flow wherein
current direction is defined with a positive sign for the direction of electron flow.
For current flow in a circuit, there must be a complete circuit and enough driving
influence or force. The driving influence is called electromotive force (e.m.f). Current is
the rate of flow of charge through a section of the circuit. The factor, which causes a
current to flow, is the e.m.f. It is similar to the value of potential difference (p.d) between
two points is a circuit. This relationship is governed by the Ohms law, which related the
value of current, resistance and voltage.
Actual Electron Flow

Connecting Wire
Connecting Wire
Conventional Current Flow
Figure 1.1a: Conventional current flow direction is opposite that of actual electron flow
Self assessment 1.1:

Thirty coulombs of charge pass a given in a wire in 5 s. How many ampere of current are
flowing?
Solution
From equation, for a constant current, we have
I=
Q (30C )
=
= 6C / s = 6 A
(5s )
t
1.2 Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but
only transformed. The electrical form of energy may be produced from many other types
of energy, such as chemical (as in battery), mechanical (as in hydroelectric generator),
and atomic (as in a nuclear reactor). The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). The letter
symbol W or w(t) is often used for energy.
1.3 Voltage
If energy is expanded (as work) on a quantity of change, then the ratio of the energy
expended to the quantity of charge is called the voltage. Voltage is the force that makes
the charge move i.e. voltage produce the current, which does work. For example a battery
uses chemical processes to do work on charged particles to make them move through a
conductor. Thus, a voltage exists across the battery terminals to force the charges to
move. The unit of voltage in the SI system is the volt (V). The letter symbol V (for fixed),
or v(t) (for varying), is often used for the voltage.
If 100 J of energy is used to move 20 C of charge through an element, what is the voltage
across the element?
Solution:
Because voltage is the ratio of energy to change, we have
V=
W (100 J )
=
= 5V
Q (20C )
1.4 Ohms Law
A resistor is a two-terminal component with the property that the ratio of voltage across
its terminals to current through it is a constant. That constant is called its resistance.
Ohms law defines this fact in equation form, as
R=
Where R
V
I
=
=
=
V
I
the resistance in ohms (ohm)

the voltage drop in volts (V)
the current passed in amperes (A)
Note that the voltage drop polarity is always such that the voltage is positive on the
terminal of the resistor into which the conventional current enters.
Self assessment 1.4a:
Determine the resistance of the resistor given voltage supply is 25 V and current is 2 A/
Solution:
Using Ohms law, R =
(25V ) = 12.5
(2 A)
Equation R=V/I serves as a definition of the unit of resistance, which is called the ohm,
and is symbolized by a capital Greek omega, . One ohm equals volt per ampere, i.e. a
current of 1 ampere through a resistance of 1 ohm will produce a voltage across the
resistor of 1 volt. Figure 1.4a shows the schematic symbol for the resistor and the voltage
across and current through the element. Note the relationship between voltage polarity
and current direction. The voltage across or dropped across the resistor is positive on the
end into which the current enters. The schematic symbol used in Figure 1.4a is the most
common. In some cases, however, a small rectangle is also used for the resistor. The ideal
resistor has zero inductance and zero capacitance. The current versus voltage (I-V) curve
shown in Figure 1.4a is a straight-line (linear) curve of I versus V with a slope of (I/R).
Slope = 1/R
IR
VR
+
IR
VR
Figure 1.4a: Schematic Symbol for a resistor and the IR characteristic curve
Self assessment 1.4b:

A resistor in the middle of a TV UHF tuner is found to have a voltage across it of 3.45 V
and a current through it of 6.9 mA at a certain instant of time. What is the resistance?
Solution:
The fact that the resistor I-V does not depend on time, we fine
R=
V 3.45V
=
= 500
I 6.9mA
1.5 Resistance and Conductance
The physical definition of resistance is in terms of the material size and its resistivity.
Figure 1.5 shows a piece of material of constant cross section with area A and of length
L. The resistance of these materials is given by
R=
Where L
A
=
=
=
L
A
the length of the wire

its cross-surface area
resistivity
Figure 1.5: Physical definition of electrical resistance

This is the same value that would be obtained if the ration of voltage across and current
through the device were measured and divide, as in Figure 4.1

For ammeter shunt, it is necessary to provide a resistance of exactly 0.356 . How can
this be constructed from copper wire?
Solution:
Resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 108 ohm-m. Let say the copper wire has a diameter of 0.010
inch. We need to determine the proper length to obtain 0.356 . First we find the crosssectional area in square meters. Diameter D, is
D=
(0.010in )
(0.0254m / in )
= 2.54 x10 4 m
Then,
A=
D 2
= 5.067 x10 7 m 2
4
Now, from the previous equation;

L=
RA
= 1.061m
So, a length of 1.061 m coil will give the required resistance.
1.5.1 Combinations of Resistor

i)
Series Combination
Rnet = R1 + R2 + R3
ii)
Parallel Combination
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
or equivalent resistance
Req R1 R2 R3
The conductance method:
Recall resistance is the opposition shown to current flow, and conductance, conversely, is
the ease with which current passes through a component or circuit to calculate
conductance use the reciprocal of resistance, G=1/R, where G is conductance in Siemen
(S) and R is resistance in ohm ().
Self assessment 1.5.1:

The three resistors in Figure 1.5.1 have values of 82, 47, and 12 k, respectively. A 15 V
source is placed across the parallel combination. What is the equivalent resistance, the net
current drawn from the source, and the current through each resistor?
Figure 1.5.1: Resistor in Parallel Combination
Solution:
The equivalent resistance can be found from
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
= 8.56k
Req 82k 47 k 12k
The current is found from Ohms Law, the 15 V source, and the equivalent resistance:
I net =
V
15V
=
= 1.75mA
Req 8.56k
The current through is found from Ohms Law directly since each has the 15 V source
across it:
15V
= 0.18mA
R1
15V
I2 =
= 0.32mA
R2
15V
I3 =
= 1.25mA
R3
I1 =
1.6 Power
When work is done over a period of time, a definition of the rate at which work is done,
is more useful than the amount of work. This is called the power and is describe by the SI
unit of watt (W), which is work done are a rate of one joule In one second. The letter
symbol P (for fixed) or p(t) (for varying) is often used for the power label. Since it is a
rate, power is defined by the derivative
p(t ) =
dw
dt
or, for fixed power,

P=
W
t
if the power is known, the energy can be found, in general, by the relation
w(t ) = p( )d
or, for constant power, W=pt. The variable of integration is .
The specification of condition at t = - infinity is not always convenient, so an alternative

to previous equation makes use of known conditions at some initial time, to.
w(t ) = p ( )d + w(t o )
Since current is the time rate of change of charge and voltage is the rate of change of
work with charge, we see that p(t) may be generalized for electrical variables as
p (t ) = i (t )v(t )
or, when the voltage and current do not vary with time, as P=IV.

i. An amount of energy equal to 200 J is used in 10 s by electrical motor. What is the
power?
Solution:
p=
W (200 J )
=
= 20W
t
(10s )
ii. A 60 W light bulb operates on 120 V. How much current does it requires?
I=
1.
P (60W )
=
= 0.5 A
V (120V )
Power Dissipation
The fact that the current and dropped voltage of a resistor are in phase indicates that the
resistor is taking energy from the circuit at a constant rate. This rate is called the
electrical power dissipated and is measured is joules/second (J/s) or watts (W). This
power shows up as heating of the resistor as it dissipates the energy to its surroundings.
The basic relation gives the amount of power
P = IV
Where P
=
power dissipated in watts (W)
I
=
current through the resistor (A)
V
=
voltage across the resistor (V)
The above equation can be expressed in alternative forms by using Ohms Law,
P = I 2 R or P =
V2
R
Summary
Current is directly related to voltage, and inversely related to the circuit resistance.
Ohms Law states this as I=V/R. The direction of current flow through a circuit, external
to the voltage source, is from the sources negative side, through the circuit, and back to
the sources positive side. Arrows are frequently drawn on schematic diagrams to
illustrate this. The direction electrons would move through a circuit is the standard being
used in this textbook. Conventional current is considered to flow in the direction that a
positive charge would move through the circuit. That is, from positive to negative.
Electrical power is the rate of using electrical energy to do electrical work. Power is
generally dissipated in a circuit or in a component in the form of heat. One watt of power
is the performance of electrical work at the rate of 1 Joule per second. A joule is the
energy used in moving one coulomb of charge between two points that have a difference
of potential of one volt between them. Electrical energy usage is computed by
multiplying the power used times the amount of time it was used (W=PxT). Units of
measure for usage of electrical energy are; wattseconds (Ws); watthour (Wh); and for
large amounts of energy usage, kilowatthour (kWh).
Tutorials
1. A current in a circuit is due to a p.d of 10 V applied to a resistor of resistance 100 .
What resistance would permit the same current to flow if the supply voltage were
100V?
2. Calculate the current in a circuit due to p.d of 10 V applied to a 10 k resistor. If the
supply voltage is doubled while the circuit resistance is trebled, what is the new
current in the circuit?
3. A p.d of 12 V is applied to a 7.5 ohm resistor for a period of 5 s. Calculate the electric
charge transferred in this time?
Further Reading
The principle of electricity is important is the understanding of circuit operation. Solid
knowledge in the relation for various parameters in electric circuit will enhance further
analysis and assist in design problems. Ensure proper understanding of relevant
parameters in SI units is important.
References
1. Edward Hughes, Electrical Technology, 7th. Edition, Prentice Hall
2. Charles K. Alexander & Matthew N.O. Sadiku, Fundamental of Electric Circuit,
McGraw-Hill.
10
Summary of important formulae
F [newtowns] = m [kg] x a [ms-2]

F = ma
Torque,
T =Fr (newtown-meters)
Work,
W = Fl (joules)
Kinetic energy, W = mu2

Power,
P = Fu (watts)
= T = M = 2nT
Efficiency, = Po / Pin
Electric charge, Q = It (Coulombs)
Voltage,
V = P/I (volts)
= W/Q = IR
Power,
P = IV = I2R = V2/R (watts)
In a series circuit
voltage,
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (volts )
resistance, R = R1 + R2 + R3 (ohms )
In a parallel network
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 (amperes )
current,
1 1
1
1
= +
+
R R1 R2 R3
Effective resistance of two parallel resistors:

RR
R= 1 2
R1 + R2
Current division rule for two resistors:
R2
I1 =
I
R1 + R2
Energy,
W = I2Rt
Resistance, R = l/A
11
Solution Tutorials
V
10V
=
= 0.1A
R 100
V 100
R= =
= 1000
I
0.1
I=
1.
V
10V
=
= 1.0 x10 3 A
R 10k
2.
V
20V
I= =
= 6.67 x10 4 A
R 30k
I=
V 12V
=
= 1.6 A
3.
R 7.5
Q = IT = 1.6 A(5s ) = 8C
I=
12
Topic 2:
Circuit Theorems
Overview
An electrical network is an interconnection of elements called sources and components.
Each element has a voltage across its terminals and a current passing through its
terminals. The objective of network analysis and the use of network theorems are to
determine the magnitude and polarity of the voltages and currents as a function of time.
The elements of a linear network are of two types; passive and active. Passive elements
which inject no energy into the networks are components such as resistors, capacitors,
and inductors. Active elements, which may inject energy into the network are real and
controlled sources of voltage and current. A passive element receives power from the
network, while an active element delivers power to it.
Theory
Electrical networks can be defined by the following five classifications:
Linear or non-linear
Time Invariant and Time Varying
Passive and Active
Lumped and Distributed
Pattern (refer to Figure 2a)
Linear networks use ideal sources that either maintain a specified voltage between their
terminals, regardless of current, or maintain a specified current regardless of voltage. Fig.
2b shows a network that helps define the following terms:
A node is a point in a network at which two or more elements are joined. If there are
three or more elements connected at a node, that node is called a. junction.
A branch of a network extends from one junction to another and may consist of a
single element or a series of elements. Thus, there is a node at the ends of each
element and a junction at the end of each branch.
A loop is a closed path for current in a network, while a mesh is a combination of
loops.
Figure 2a: Networks Patterns; ladder, lattice and bridged-T

13
Passive Elements
Node and Junction
Branch
Node
Loop
Branch
Source
Figure 2b: General schematics to define networks terms
Following are five types of network or circuit techniques widely used in electrical circuits
analyses.
2.1)
KIRCHOFF'S LAW
Kirchoff's current law states that

At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents at a junction in a network is zero.
Different signs are allocated to currents held to flow towards the junction and to those
away from it.
Kirchoff's voltage law states that
At any instant in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s acting around the loop
is equal to those the algebraic sum of the p.d.s round the loop.
Self-Assessment 2.1:
i) In Fig.2.1a, all currents are given in both magnitude and direction except for that
through R3. Find the current through R3.
Solution:
To apply KCL, we first note the interconnection of resistors at the top forms one junction
of four elements as illustrated in Figure 2.1b. Solving for the unknown, we solve l3.
I 3 = I T I1 I 2
I 3 = 200 70 50
I 3 = 80mA
14
IT = 200 mA
((a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.1: Example circuit showing how KCL is applied
ii) For the network shown in Figure in Figure 2.1c, determine the unknown voltage drop,
V2.
Figure 2.1c: Example circuit showing how KVL is applied
Solution:
V1 V2 + V3 = E
V2 = V1 + V3 E
V2 = 45V
15
2.2)
THEVENINS LAW
The current through a resistor R connected across any two points A and B of and active
network (i.e. network containing one or more sources of e.m.f) is obtained by dividing
the p.d between, with R disconnected by (R + r), where r is the resistance of the network
measured between points A and B with R disconnected and the sources of e.m.f replaced
by their internal resistances.
An alternative way of stating Thevenins theorem is as follows. An active network having
two terminals A and B can be replaced by a constant-voltage source having an e.m.f and
internal resistance r. The value of E is equal to the open-circuit p.d between A and B, and
r is the resistance of the network measured between A and B with the load disconnected
and sources of e.m.f replaced by their internal resistances.
Suppose A and B in Figure 2.2a to be the two terminals of a network consisting of
resistors having resistances R2 and R3 and a battery having an e.m.f. El and an internal
resistance Rl. It is required to determine the current through a load of resistance R
connected across AB. With the load disconnected as in Figure 2.2b.
Figure 2.1: Networks to illustrate Thevenins Theorem
Current through
R3 =
E1
R1 + R3
p.d. across
R3 =
E1 R3
R1 + R3
and
16
Since there is no current through R2, p.d. across AB is

V=
E1 R3
R1 + R3
Figure 2.2c shows the network with the load disconnected and the battery replaced by its
internal resistance Rl. Resistance of network between A and B is
r = R2 +
R1 R3
R1 + R3
Thevenin's theorem merely states that the active network enclosed by the dotted line in
Figure 2.2a can be replaced by the very simple circuit enclosed by the dotted line in
Fig.2.2d and consisting of a source having an e.m.f. E equal to the open-circuit potential
difference V between A and B, and internal resistance r, where v and r have the values
determined above. Hence,
Current through
R=I =
E
r+R
Use Thevenin's theorem to find the equivalent circuit between points a and b in Figure
2.2.la. Use this circuit to find the load voltage across the external load RL.
R1 = 100
R4 = 25
R3 = 75
R2 = 50
R1 = 100
(a)
R4 = 25
R3 = 75
RL = 100
Req = 75
R Req
R3
=100
VT = 8.33 V
R2 = 50
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.2.1: Example circuit for Thevenins Theorem
17
Solution:
Figure 2.2.Ib shows the network for finding the resistance. The Thevenin voltage is
implying the voltage dropped across the 75 resistor in Figure 2.2.1a. Since the 25
resistor carries no current (open circuit from a to b), the Thevenin's voltage is,
Req = R4 +
R3 (R1 + R2 )
R1 + R2 + R3
= 25 +
(150 ) + (75 ) = 75
150 + 75
VT =
R3
V = 8.33V
R1 + R2 + R3
IL =
VT
= 47.6mA
TEQ + RL
VL = I L RL = 4.76V
Figure 2.2.Ic shows the equivalent circuit with the load attached. The load voltage is
shown above.
2.3)
NORTONS LAW
When a branch in a circuit is open-circuit, the remainder of the circuit can be represented
by one source of e.m.f in series with a resistor. Norton's Theorem is therefore a
restatement of Thevenin's theorem using an equivalent current-generator source instead
of the voltage-generator source. It therefore can be stated that:
The current which flows in any branch of a network is the same as that which would
flow in the branch if it were connected across a source of electrical energy, the shortcircuit current of which is equal to the current that would in short-circuit across the
branch, and the internal resistance of which is equal to the resistance which appears
across the open-circuited branch terminals.
Norton's theorem is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
The model of a physical battery is an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor, as
shown in Fig 2.3 a. Find the Norton equivalent circuit to show how it can be modeled as a
current source.
18
R = 0.01
IN = 1200 A
Req = 0.01
b
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3: Example circuit for Nortons Theorem
Solution:
The Norton current will be the current through a short between output terminals a and b.
I N = I SC =
V
12V
=
= 1200 A
R 0.01
If the ideal voltage source is replaced by a short to find the Norton resistance, the, value
will simply be the series resistance, RN = R = 0.01. Thus the Norton equivalent circuit
is shown in Figure 2.3b.
2.5)
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
The Superposition Theorem states that in any network containing more than one source,
the current in, or the p.d across, any branch can found by considering each source
separately and adding their effects; omitted sources of e.m.f are replaced by resistances
equal to their internal resistances. Self-assessment in Figure 1.4 illustrates Superposition
theorem, based on the network in Figure 2.4a. Since there are two sources of e.m.f. in the
network, then two separate network need to be considered, each having one source of
e.m.f. as in Figure 2.4b and Figure 2.4c.
19
For Figure 2.4b,
2 x18
= 2.8
2 + 18
10
I 1b =
= 3.57 A
2.8
18
I 2b =
x3.57 = 3.21A
2 + 18
I 1b + I 2b = 3.57 3.21 = 0.36 A
1+
thus
and
also
For Figure 2.4c
thus
and
also
thus
and
also
1x18
= 6.78 A
1 + 18
20
I 2c =
= 6.78 A
2.95
18
I 1c =
x6.78 6.42 = 0.36 A
1 + 18
I 1= I 1b + I 1c = 3.57 6.42 = 2.85 A
2+
I 2 = I 2b + I 2c = 3.21 + 6.78 = 3.57 A

I 1 + I 2 = 2.85 + 3.57 = 0.72 A
Figure 2.4: Example circuit for the Superposition Theorem
20
2.5)
DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION
Figure 2.5a shows three resistor R1, R2 and R3 connected in a closed mesh or delta to
three terminals A, B and C, their numerical subscripts 1,2 and 3 being opposite to the
terminals A,B and C respectively. It is possible to replace these delta-connected resistors
by three resistors Ra, Rb and Re connected respectively between the same terminals A, B
and C and a common point S, as in Figure 2.5b. Such arrangement is said to be starconnected. It will be noted that the letter subscripts are now those of the terminals to
which the respective resistor are connected. If the star-connected network is to be
equivalent to the delta-connected network, the resistance between any two terminals in
fig b must be the same as that between the same two terminals in figure a. Thus, if we
consider terminals A and B in figure a, we have a circuit having a resistance R3 in parallel
with a circuit having resistances R1 and R2 in series, hence
For figure 4.3 l(b), we have
R AB =
R3 (R1 + R2 )
R1 + R2 + R3
R AB = Ra + Rb
Figure 2.5: Example circuit for the Star-Delta Transformation
In order that both networks may be equivalent to each other, RAB must have equal value.
Ra + Rb =
R3 (R1 + R2 )
R1 + R2 + R3
Rb + Rc =
R1 R2 + R1 R3
R1 + R2 + R3
Ra + Rc =
R1 R2 + R2 R3
R1 + R2 + R3
Similarly,
and
21
Similarly,
R3 R1
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 R2
Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3
Rb =
and
Subtracting,
R a Rc =
R2 R3 R1 R2
R1 + R2 + R3
Adding and dividing by 2,
Ra =
R2 R3
R1 + R2 + R3
The equivalent star resistance connected to a given terminal is equal to the product of the
two delta resistance connected to the same terminal divided by the sum of the delta
resistance.
Summary
Most circuit problems can be solved by applying Kirchoffs laws to produce

simultaneous equations; the solution of these equations is often unnecessarily difficult.
The superposition theorem states that we can solve a circuit problem one source at a
time, finally imposing the analyses one on another.
Thevenin's theorem states that any network supplying a load can be replaced by a
constant-voltage source in series with an internal resistance.
Norton's theorem states that any network supplying a load can be replaced by a
constant-current source in parallel with an internal resistance.
The delta-star transformation permits us to replace any three loads connected in delta
by an equivalent three load connected in star. The star-delta transformation permits the
converse transfer.
22
For delta-star transformation
Ra =
R2 R3
R1 + R2 + R3
For star-delta transformation
R1 = Rb + Rc
Rb Rc
Ra
23
Tutorials
1. A network is arranged as shown in Figure A. Calculate the value of the current in the
8 resistor by (a) the Superposition theorem, (b) Kirchoffs Laws, and (c) Thevenins
theorem.
Figure A
2. Calculate the voltage across AB in the network shown in Figure B and indicate the
polarity of the voltage, using (a) Kirchoffs Laws, and (b) Delta-star transformation.
Figure B
Further Reading:
There are other techniques that can be utilized for circuit or network analysis. The stated
techniques are the most common and widely used. A proper understanding of network
analysis will be acquired after applying the available techniques in actual circuit and after
further analysis.
24
References:

McGraw-Hill.
25
Solution Tutorials:
1 a) Superposition Theorem
i2
i3
i1
12 ( 8 )
(15 )
20
+ 5 = 12.450
RT =
12 ( 8 )
+ 15
20
i2 =
15 ( iT )
25
i4
V
= 0.3213 A
RT
iT =
= 0.19278 A
i3 =
12 ( i2 )
i6
i5
RT = 17.06
iT = 0.3518 A
i5 = 0.1954 A
i = i3 + i5
= 0.1157 A + 0.1954 = 0.32 A
26
22
= 0.1157 A
1 b) Kirchoffs Law
Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
Loop 1
6 in 3
4 = 5i1 + 15i1 15i2
3 8i3
6 = 20i3 + 8
21.75
6 = 20i3 2.94i3 + 1.1
4 = 20i1 15i2
Loop 2
4.9 = 17.06i3
0 = 15i2 + 10i2 + 8i2 15i1 + 8i3

0 = 33i2 15i1 + 8i3
i3 = 0.29 A
in 6
Loop 3
3 8(0.29)
21.75
i2 = 0.03 A
6 = 12i3 + 8i3 + 8i2

6 = 20i3 + 8i2
i1 =
4 + 15i2
20
i2 =
4
i8 = i2 + i3
4 in 2
i8 = 032 A
4 + 15i2
0 = 33i2 15
+ 8i3
20
= 33i2 3 11.25i2 + 8i3
= 21.75i2 3 + 8i3
i2 =
3 8i3
21.75
i8 = 0.03 + 029
27
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY ENG 2022
1 c) Thevenins theorem
RTH
RTH
(15 5 )
+ 10 [12]
15 + 5
=
(15 5 )
+ 10 + [12]
15 + 5
RTH = 6.41
Loop 1
Loop 2
VTH
4 15i2
0 = 6 + 37i2 + 15
20
0 = 6 + 37i2 + 3 11.25i2
Loop 1
0 = 4 + 5i1 + 15i1 + 15i2
0 = 4 + 20i1 + 15i2
4 15i1
i1 =
20
i2 = 0.1165 A
1
VTH = 6 12i2
Loop 2
VTH = 4.6V
0 = 6 + 22i2 + 15i2 + 15i1

0 = 6 + 37i2 + 15i1
RTH
1 in 2
VTH
28
4.6V
14.41
i = 0.32 A
2 a) Kirchoffs laws
i=
i1
6 Ohm
0 = 10 + 6i1 + 2i1 2i3 + 2i1 + 2i2

0 = 10 + 10i1 + 2i2 2i3
0 = 6i1 + 5i3 2i2
1
2
(5 & 6) in 1
0 = 5i3 + 6i2 + 6i3 2i1 + 2i3

0 = 2i1 + 6i2 + 13i3
0 = 10 + 10(1.75i3 ) + 2(2.75i3 ) 2i3
0 = 10 + (17.5i3 ) + (5.5i3 ) 2i3

10 = 25i3
(2 x 2) + (3x6)
i3 = 0.4 A
0 = 32i2 + 88i3
i2 =
88i3
= 2.75i3
32
R across i3 = 5 ohm
Vi3 = (0.4)(5) = 2 V above A
(2 x 6) + (3x2)
0 = 32i1 + 56i3
i2 =
56i3
= 1.75i3
32
29
2 b) Delta-star transformations
=
2.3
B
0.92
0.77
6 2
= 0.92
13
65
= 2.3
13
5 2
= 0.77
13
i2 =
( 6.77 4.3)
RT =
+ 092 + 2
( 6.77 + 4.3)
RT = 5.55
6.77 1.8 A
= 1.10 A
11.07
i3 =
4.3 1.8 A
= 0.70 A
11.07
VA = 1.10 A 2.3 = 2.53V

VB = 0.7 A 0.77 = 0.539V
VAB = VA VB
VAB = 2.53 0.539

VAB = 2V
above
30
i1 =
10V
= 1.80 A
5.55
Topic 3:
Electrostatic Current and Capacitors
Overview
A capacitor is a component of electrical and electronic circuits that exhibits the property
of capacitance. In this module, capacitance is defined and the characteristics of
capacitors are given. The basic definition of a capacitor is found from the measured
behavior of the component in an electric circuit. Consider two metal plates separated by
an insulator and connected to a source of some voltage, V, as shown in Figure 3. Current
will flow in the circuit to build up charges on the plates in response to the voltages. A t
every instant of time the ratio of charge on the plates, Q (in coulombs) to voltage across
the plates, V (in volts), is a constant. Thus, if the voltage changes, the charge on the
plates will also change such that the ratio will remains constant. This ratio is called the
capacitance. The capacitance or capacity of the component is usually denoted by the variable, C.
Plate
Voltage
V
Charge, Q
Plate
Figure 3: A basic capacitor construction
Theory
3.1 Types of capacitors and their application
Capacitors differ in two ways, its construction and type of dielectric. There are different
types of capacitors available, namely:
Stacked capacitors
Tubular capacitors
Disc capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors
Variable capacitors
a. Stacked capacitors
A series of stacked plates is employed. The dielectric insulators separate these plates.
This capacitor, often called multilayer, is illustrated in Figure 3.1a. Each layer acts like a
31
single capacitor and the entire stack is like a parallel arrangement. Since capacitors in
parallel add the net capacitance is the sum of the individual members. Assembly is
encapsulated in glass, ceramic, or a high-quality plastic. Two types of stacked capacitor
are based on mica and ceramic.
Figure 3.1a: A stacked capacitor

b. Tubular capacitors
If the capacity must be large, we need a large plate area and small separation between the
plates with a high dielectric constant material. A very common technique for making the
area large, yet keeping the total size down, is to form the plates as two long strips
separated by an insulator. This assembly is then rolled in to a tubular form. Figure 3.1b
illustrates this basic concept. The two strips extend beyond the insulator, one on each
side. This allows secure connections to the plates with, typically, axial leads. Thus such a
capacitor often looks like a resistor, although it is usually larger. The tubular form is then
encapsulated in plastic or ceramic. Examples of tubular capacitors are based on paper and
plastic film
Figure 3.1b: A tubular capacitor

32
c. Disc capacitors
A disc capacitor is formed by depositing metal film on each side of a ceramic dielectric
insulator. Since the ceramic can be made very thin, it is possible to make the effective
plate separation small to increase the capacitance. In some case several such discs are
stacked to increase the capacitance. The complete package is then encapsulated in a
ceramic or plastic insulation. Figure 3.1c shows an example of disc capacitors.
Figure 3.1c: A disc capacitor
d. Electrolytic capacitors
In general, all capacitor types are limited to a maximum capacity of a few microfarads.
It is possible to produce larger capacitance in such units but only if they are made very
large. In many applications, such as power supply filtering, it is desirable to have
capacitance values of hundreds or even thousands of microfarads. The electrolytic type
of capacitor can provide these values in a modest size. Examples of electrolytic
capacitors are made polarized, AC electrolytic and Tantalum-based capacitors. Refer to
Figure 3.1d.
Figure 3.1d: An electrolytic capacitor

33
e. Variable Capacitors
There are many instances when the value of capacitance must be varied to alter circuitry
performance. We classify two modes of such variation. A tuning capacitor is one which
regular and repeated variation of capacity is required in some applications. An example is
the tuning of different stations in an AM radio receiver. A trimmer variable capacitor is
one, which only a single time, or infrequent variations in capacitance, is necessary. Refer
to Figure 3.1e and 3.lf for examples of this type of capacitors.
Figure 3.1e & Figure 3.1f: Examples of variable capacitor
Basic Constructions of a Capacitor:

A simple capacitor can be made from two strips of metal foil sandwiched with two thin
layers of insulation. Waxed paper is a suitable insolent; the wax needed to keep damp out
of the paper which otherwise would quickly cease being an insulator. Thus we have a
device bringing two conductors of large area into a very close proximity with one another
yet which are insulated, and this would provide a practical capacitor which can be used to
hold electric charge.
34
3.2 Capacitance, Charge
The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge when its plate is at different
potentials is referred to as its capacitance.
The unit capacitance is termed the farad (F) which may be defined as the capacitance of a
capacitor between the plates of which there appears a potential difference of 1 volt when
it is charge by 1 coulomb of electricity.
Ch arg e(C )
= capaci tan ce( F )
Applied p.d (V )
or
Q
=C
V
Q = CV
In practice, the farad is found to be inconveniently large and the capacitance is usually
expressed in microfarads (F) or in picofarads (F).
1 F = 10-16 F
1 F = 10-12 F
3.3 Capacitors in series, parallel
3.3.1 Capacitors in series

Suppose C1 and C2 in Figure 3.3.1 to be two capacitors connected in series with suitable
centre-zero ammeters Ai and A2, a resistor R and a two-way switch S. When S is put
over to position a, A1 and A2 are found to indicate exactly the same charging current,
each reading decreasing simultaneously from a maximum to zero. Similarly when S is put
over to position b, A1 and A2 indicate similar discharges.
If V1 and V2 are the corresponding p.d.s across C1 and C2 respectively, then from
equation
Q = C1V1 = C2V2
So that
V1 =
Q
C1
and
35
V2 =
Q
C2
If we were to replace C1 and C2 by a single capacitor of capacitance C farads such that it

would have the same charge Q coulombs with the same p.d. of V volt, then
Q = CV
V =
or
Q
C
But it is evident from Figure 3.3.1 that V = V1 + V2. Substituting for V, V1, and V2 we
have.
Hence the reciprocal of the resultant capacitance of capacitors connected in series is the
sum of the reciprocal of their respective capacitances.
Q Q Q
=
+
C C1 C 2
1
1
1
=
+
C C1 C 2
Figure 3.3.1: Capacitors in series
3.3.2 Capacitors in parallel

Suppose two capacitors, having capacitances C1 and C2 farads respectively, to be
connected in parallel, Figure 3.3.2 across a p.d of V volts. The charge on C1 is Q1
coulombs and that on C2 is Q2 coulombs, where
Q1 = C1V
and
Q2 = C2V
If we were to replace C1 and C2 by a single capacitor of such capacitance C farads that

the same total charge of (Q4 + Q2) coulombs would be produced by the same p.d.,
then Q1 + Q2 = CV
Substituting for Q1 and Q2, we have
C1V + C2V = CV
C=C1 + C22
36
Hence the resultant capacitance of capacitors in parallel is the arithmetic sum of their
respective capacitance.
Figure 3.3.2: Capacitors in parallel
3.4 Energy stored in capacitors and di-electric strength

3.4.1 Energy stored
Suppose the p.d. across a capacitor of capacitance C farads to be increased from v to (v+
dv) volts in dt seconds.
The charging current, i amperes is given by
i = C.
dv
dt
Instantaneous value of power to capacitor is

iv
watts = vC.
dv
watts
dt
And energy supplied to capacitor during interval dt is

vC.
dv
.dt = Cv.dv joules
dt
Hence total energy supplied to capacitor when p.d. is increased from 0 to V volts is
1
Cv.dv = 2 C [v ]
v
2 v
0
37
1
CV 2
2
joules
1
CV 2
2
W=
also
1 Q
1 Q2
W = C = .
2 C
2 C
For a capacitor with dielectric of thickness d metres and area A square metres, energy per
cubic metre is
1 CV 2 1 A V 2
.
= . .
2 Ad
2 d Ad
2
1 V
1
= E2
2 d
2
1
1 D2
DE =
2
2
joules
3.4.2 Dielectric strength

If the p.d. between the opposite sides of a sheet of solid insulating material is increased
beyond a certain, the material breaks down resulting a tiny hole or puncture through the
dielectric so that it can not be used as an insulator anymore.
The potential gradient necessary to cause the breakdown is called dielectric strength of
the material. The value of the dielectric strength of a given material decreases with
increase of thickness.
Material
Air
(at
normal
temperature)
pressure
Thickness
(mm)
0.2
0.6
1.0
6.0
10
0.01
0.1
1.0
1.0
5.0
1.0
0.1
1.0
1.0
and
Mica
Glass (density 2.5)

Ebonite
Paraffin-waxed paper
Transformer oil
Ceramics
38
Dielectric strength
(MV/m)
5.75
4.92
4.46
3.27
2.98
200
176
61
28.5
18.3
50
40-60
200
50
Summary
Capacitance is a measure of the ability to store electric charge

Capacitance is also a measure of the ability to store energy in an electric field.
Charging is the process of increasing the charge held in a capacitor.
Discharging is the process of reducing the charge held in a capacitor
Farad is the capacitance of a capacitor which has a potential difference of 1V
when maintaining a charge of 1 C
Leakage current is the rate of movement of charge through a dielectric
Permittivity is the ratio of electric flux density to electric field strength measured
in farads per meter.

Q [coulombs] = C [farads] x V [volts]
Charging current of capacitor i is

dq
dv
=C
dt
dt
1 F = 10-6 F
1 pF = 10-12 F
Energy stored in capacitor is

W = CV2 joules
For capacitors in parallel

C = C1 + C2 +
Energy per cubic meter of dielectric is

1 2 1
1 D2
joules
E = DE =
2
2
2
For capacitors in series

1 1
1
= +
+ ...
C C1 C2
For C1 and C2 in series
C2
V1 = V
C1 + C2
Electric field strength in dielectric, E =
Electric flux density, D =
Capacitance, C =
o r A
V
d
Q
A
D
= = o r
E
Permittivity of free space is
o = 8.85 1012 F m
Absolute permittivity,
Capacitance of parallel-plate capacitor with n plates is

(n 1) A
d
39
Self-Assessment
1. A 50 F capacitor charged to 250 V. What is the stored energy?

Solution:
The stored energy can be found using W =
1
CV 2 = 1.5625 J
2
2. Three capacitors with values 270, 47 and 1200 pF are connected in series, what is the
equivalent series capacity?
Solution:
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
= 2.55 1010
Req 270 pF 47 pF 1200 pF
Thus, Req =
1
= 3.9 10 11 = 39 pF
10
2.55 10
3. What would be the net capacitance if the three capacitors of example 2 previously are
arranged in parallel?
Solution:
Rnet = 270 pF + 47 pF + 1200 pF = 1517 pF
4. A capacitor having a capacitance of 80 F is connected across a 500 V d.c supply,

calculate the charge.
Solution:
From
Q = CV
Charge
= (80x10-6)F x 500 V = 0.04 C = 40 mC
5. A capacitor is made with seven metal plates parallel (i.e. multi-plate capacitor) and
separated by sheets of mica having a thickness of 0.3 mm and a relative permittivity
of 6. The area of one side of each plate is 500 cm2. Calculate the capacitance in
microfarads.
Solution:
Using the equation;
C = [ o r (n 1) A] / d Farads
C = 0.0531 x 10-6 F = 0.0531 F
40
Tutorials
1. Three capacitors have capacitances of 10 F, 15 F, and 20 F respectively. Calculate

the total capacitance when they are connected (a) in parallel (b) in series
2. A certain capacitor has a capacitance of 3 F. A capacitance of 2.5 F is required by
combining this capacitance with another. Calculate the capacitance of the second
capacitor and state how it must be connected to the first.
3. Two capacitors, A and B are connected in series across a 200 V dc supply. The p.d
across A is 120 V. This p.d is increased to 140 V when a 3 F capacitor is connected
in parallel with B. Calculate the capacitance of A and B.
4. A parallel-plate capacitor has a capacitance of 300 pF. It has 9 plates, each 40 mm x
30 mm separated by mica having a relative permittivity of 5. Calculate the thickness
of the mica.
Further Readings
Capacitor is a passive-type component which is being widely used in microelectronic

circuits and systems. Time constant/delay device, Filter and Oscillator circuits are some
example of the use of capacitors. Further reading of the function of capacitors in
electronic circuits will enhance our understanding of the importance of capacitance effect
in circuits.
References

McGraw-Hill.
41
Solution Tutorials:
1 a) in parallel
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
CT = 10 F + 15 F + 20 F = 45 F
1 b) in series
1
1
1
1
= +
+
CT C1 C2 C3
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
= 4.615 F
CT 10 F 15 F 20 F
1
1
1
=
+
2.5 F 3 F C2
CT = 2.5 F
1
= 66666.67 F
C2
C1 = 3 F
C2 = ?
3.
in series.
C2 = 15 F
120 V
140 V
C1
C2
C1
V1 = V
C2
C1 + C2
C2
120 = 200
C1 + C2
140 = 200
0.6(C1 + C2 ) = C2
0.7 =
0.6C1 = 0.4C2
C2 = 1.5C1
C2
3 + C 2
3 + C2 + C1
3 + C2
3 + C2 + C1
0.7C2 + 0.7C1 = 0.9 + C2
C1 =
42
0.9 + 0.3C2
0.7
2 in 1
0.9 + 0.3C2
C2 = 1.5
0.7
C2 = 1.9286 + 0.64286C2
C2 = 5.4 F
C1 = 3.6 F
C = 300 pF
n=9
A = 1200mm2
r = 5
4.
0 = 8.85 1012
o r ( n 1) A
C=
Farads
d
8.85 1012 5(9 1)1200mm2
d=
300 pF
d = 1.416mm
43
Topic 4:
Magnetism and Magnetic Circuits
Overview
Magnet is a certain form of iron ore that attracts iron. Iron fillings are used to indicate the
pattern of the magnetic field due to effect of magnet. Magnetic field is the region around
the magnet within which a force will be exerted upon magnetic materials. The places on
the magnet where the magnetic field appears to be most concentrated are referred to as
the poles of the magnet (north and south-seeking poles). Similar poles will repel, unlike
poles will attract. This is similar to the concept of electric charges, repelling and
attracting depending on the types of charge. The pattern that the iron fillings take in
Figure 4.1 is the magnetic field. Magnetic effect has been utilised in various electrical
and electronic devices/systems. Electrical system such as transformer and electrical
motor operations depend on the principles of magnetic circuits.
Figure 4.1: Magnetic field lines
Theory
4.1 Magnetism
When a magnet is created, there is an area of magnetic influence near the magnet called a
magnetic field. A magnetic field is establish either by alignment of internal magnetic
forces within a magnetic material, or by organised movement of charges (current flow)
through conductor materials. This magnetic field is composed of magnetic lines of force,
called flux. The symbol for flux is Greek letter phi (). A magnetic field is a vector
quantity, i.e., it has direction and strength. The strength of a magnetic field is measured in
the number of lines of magnetic force, or magnetic flux per unit area, B. The SI unit is
Tesla (T) or weber per square meter (Wb m2). 1 T = 1 Wb m2.
A
flux density (T)
flux (Wb)
cross-sectional area (m2)
=
Where B
=
=
=
44
The lines of flux have certain properties (refer to Figure 4.1);
Lines of flux always form closed loops, beginning from N pole and finishing from
S pole.
Lines of flux cannot cross one another
Lines of flux take the possible path
Parallel lines of flux in the same direction repel one another
4.2 Magnetic Circuit
The presence of a magnetic filed is often illustrated through the concept of lines of force.
The total number of lines is a measure of flux, , or the strength of the filed. We use the
concept of the number of flux lines passing perpendicularly through a given crosssectional area. i.e. B.
4.2.1 Magnetic field due to the flow of an electric current
Two properties of the magnetic field are important, i.e. pattern of the field and its
strength. Figure 4.2.1 shows the magnetic field due to a long straight wire. The direction
of the field follows the right-hand grip rule. According to this rule, the thumb of the
right hand points along the direction of the current and the direction of the fingers give
the direction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field strength (B) depends linearly with
the current (I) through the wire, i.e.
B I
Figure 4.2.1 shows the magnetic field due to a long straight wire
As we move away from the wire, the magnetic field gets weaker, if r represents distance,
then
B I
So we have;
r
B = o 1
2r
)
45
The constant o is referred lo as permeability of free space and measures the ease with
which magnetic forces are transmitted through space. (o = 4 x 10-7). The suitable unit
for o is Tesla meter per ampere (Tm A-1).
4.2.2 Magnetic field due to a short coil of wire
Consider the magnetic field due to a single circular loop. Figure 4.2.2 shows the pattern
of the magnetic field produced from above. We can think of the magnetic field as being
due to the result of the magnetic fields of two wires carrying currents in opposite
directions. At points near the center, the magnetic fields of these two wires add to make
the total magnetic field stronger. The strength of the field is given by;
( 2r )
B = o 1
Figure 4.2.2: Pattern of magnetic field due to a single circular loop (from above)
4.2.3 Magnetic field due to a long coil of wire
The magnetic field for a long coil of wire is shown Figure 4.2.3 where the magnetic field
inside the coil is approximately uniform and is given by:
( l)
B = o n1
where l is the length of the coil and n is the number of turns.

4.2.4 Force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
The force acting on a conductor has two parts; direction and magnitude. The direction
tells us which way the conductor tends to move and the magnitude tells us the strength
of the force exerted on the conductor. Strictly, the force only acts on the moving
46
charges, but because they are bound to the conductor, the whole conductor will move
(refer to Figure 4.2 4a). A convenient way of knowing the direction in which force acts
is given by 'Flemings left-hand rule (see Figure 4.1.41b). The first finger point in the
direction of the magnetic field, while the second finger points in the direction of the
current flow. The direction of the thumb indicates the direction of the force acting on the
conductor. The magnitude of the force depends on;
The strength of the magnetic fields
The amount of current flowing in the conductor
The length of the conductor in the magnetic field
So, F = Bil (F is measured in Newtons). Force acting at an angle is governed by:

F = Bil sin ( )
Figure 4.2.3: The magnetic field for a long coil of wire
Figure 4.2.4a: Force acting on the moving charge in a conductor

47
Figure 4.2.4b: Flemings left hand rule
4.2.5 The magnetic force between two current-carrying conductors
It is important to consider the force between two current-carrying parallel conductors.

Suppose we have two thin, very long conductors which we place a distance r apart.
Suppose current I1 flows in the first conductor and current I2 flow in the second
conductor. There will magnetic fields interaction due to these two current-carrying
conductors. Both conductors will experience a uniform magnetic field with strength, B1
and B2, with current I1 and I2 flowing respectively. The magnitude of force acting on a
length l of the second conductor is determined by the formula
F2,1 = B1l 2 l = o (l1l 2 l ) / 2r
Now, we need to determine the direction in which it acts. This is done by using the
Flemings left-hand rule.
Special case:
Suppose the current flowing in each conductor, l1 and l2, is one ampere, the
conductors are separated by 1 meter and the length of each conductor is 1 meter
then the force between the conductors is:
F2,1 = o / 2r = 2 10 7 N
The operation of the magnetic force between two current-carrying conductors is shown in
Figure 4.2.5.
48
Figure 4.2.5: Magnetic force between two current-carrying conductors

4.2.6 Magnetic Toroid
To produce a magnetic field in most magnetic devices, a current is established in a coil of

wire (refer to figure 4.2.6). The flow of current produces a magnetic field around the
wire. Consider a coil of wire where the coil is formed into a toroid as shown. When a
current flows in the coil, a magnetic field is formed within the toroid. This current
produces a magneto motive force (mmf) directly proportional to the amount of current,
that flows and the number of turns in the coil. The basic formula for magneto motive
force is given by:
Figure 4.2.6: Magnetic field in a coil of wire

Where F
N
I
=
=
=
F = NI
Magneto motive force (mmf) in amp turns
number of turns in the coil
coil current (A)
49
Dividing the mmf by the average length of the flux path gives the magnetic field
intensity, H or
H = ( NI ) / L
Where H
N
I
L
=
=
=
=
magnetic field intensity in ampere turns per meter (A-t/m)

number of turns in the coil
coil current (A)
average length of the flux path (m)
The ratio of the flux density B to the magnetic field intensity H for a given magnetic field
is defined as the permeability or = B/H. For non magnetic materials, permeability is a
constant, i.e. the ratio of B to H is a constant. For magnetic materials the permeability
varies nonlinearly as H is changed. The permeability is a measure of how easily magnetic
fields can be established in a given material. To compare the permeability of different
materials, the concept of relative permeability was developed where the relative
permeability of a material is given by
r = / o
Where r
=
=
=
relative permeability
actual permeability of the material
permeability of a vacuum equal to 4 x 10-7 per amp-turn
per meter
The relative permeability of all nonmagnetic materials is unity, whereas for magnetic
materials the relative permeability runs from the low hundreds up into the thousands. The
resistance of a given material to the establishment of a magnetic field within the material
is called the reluctance. The reluctance is given by
R = L / (A)
Where R
L
=
=
=
=
Reluctance
average length of the flux path (m)
permeability of the material
cross-sectional area of the material (m2)
Another approach of deriving the formula for reluctance is as follows;

Given = BA and mmf (F) = magnetic strength x length
Therefore,
F=HL
= BA
= r o A
F
HL
L
F = L
( o r A ) = R
( ) (
( )
50
F = R
R= L
o r A
Because of the definition of , the expression for R can also be written as
R=F
or F = R
This latter expression is frequently referred to as Ohms law for magnetic circuits. The
reciprocal or reluctance is called permeance (P).
4.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits

4.3.1 Self-Inductance
Changing currents in an isolated electric circuit can induce voltages within the same
circuit, i.e. within itself. This is called self-inductance. A circuit component designed
specifically for the purpose of providing self-inductance is called an inductor. The
concept of self-inductance arises when it is found that if the current is caused to vary in
time, a voltage will generated or induced across the coil terminals. This induced voltage
is related to the rate of change of current by a constant. This constant is called
inductance, and the unit is Henry (H), which is equal to one volt per amp per second, i.e.
1 H = lV/ (A/s). In equation form,
vl (t ) = L(di L dt )
Where vL(t) =
L
=
diL/dt =
voltage induced in volts (V)

inductance in henrys (H)
rate of change of current through coil in amperes per
second (A/s)
Figure 4.3.1 shows the physical structure of an inductor. The basic equation for inductor
is given by
v L (t ) = N
L=N
d
d di
=N
dt
di dt
d N 2 A
=
di
Lc
51
Figure 4.3.1: The physical structure of an inductor
4.3.2 Mutual Inductance
Consider two coils arranged near each other so that the flux from either coil passes
through the other. They are magnetically linked. Magnetic field will be induced in each
coil due to the other coil. This is mutual inductance as a result of parallel magnetic
circuits. Figure 4.3.23 shows the relationship. In general the mutual inductance is given
by;
M = k L1. L 2
Where k
coupling coefficient value (between 0 and 1)
The mutual inductance has a polarity with respect to the self-inductance of the coils. That
is, the mutual inductance can induce a voltage that is in opposite polarity to that induced
from self-inductance. This is generally specified by showing a dot on the schematic to
indicate the end of the coil which an entering current would induce a voltage to enhance
the self-induced voltage of the second coil. Figure 4.3.2b shows a coil for which current
introduced into the top of each coil produces an induced voltage of the same sense as the
self-inductance voltage. In Figure 4.3.2b, the opposite is true.
52
Figure 4.3.2a: Mutual inductance as a result of parallel magnetic circuits
Figure 4.3.2b: Use of dots to denote aiding or impeding flux linkages
53
Summary
A magnetic field can be described using lines of flux. Such lines form closed loops,
do not cross and, when parallel, repel one another.
Magnetic fields have North, and South poles. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
A current-carrying conductor lying in a magnetic field experiences a force.
The relative directions of the field, force and current are given by the left-hand rule.
The relative directions of the filed, motion and induced emf. are given by the righthand rule. (Fleming's right-hand rule)
A magnetic flux is a created by a magneto motive force.
The magnetic field strength is the mmf gradient at any point in a field.
The magnetic field strength and flux density at any point in a field are related by the
permeability. For ferromagnetic material, the relative permeability varies according to
the magnetic field strength.
The variation of flux density with magnetic field strength is illustrated by the
magnetisation characteristics (B/H curve).
The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the ratio of the mmf to the flux.
Magnetomotive force,
F = NI (amperes or ampere-turns)
Magnetic field strength
H = F/l = NI/L (amperes per meter)
Flux density,
B = x H (teslas)
Permeability of free space,
o = 4 x 10-7 (henrys per meter)
Reluctance of a magnetic circuit,
S=F
l
S=
o r A
Induced e.m.f.
di
(volts)
dt
d
e= N
dt
e = L
Inductance,
54
L = N
(webers per ampere or henrys)
Energy stored in an inductor,

Wf = LI2 (joules)
Energy density in a magnetic field,
wf = BH (joules per cubic meter)
EMF induced by mutual inductance,
di
(volts)
e=M
dt
Mutual inductance,
N
M= 2 2
I1
M=
N1 N 2
S
Coupling coefficient of a mutual inductor,

M = k ( L1 L2 )
Effective inductance of a mutual inductor

L = L1 + L1 2 M
Self-Assessment
1. A conductor carries a current of 800 A at right angles to a magnetic field having a
density of 0.5 T. Calculate the force on the conductor in newtons per meter length.
Solution:
From formula: F = BIL ; Force per meter length = 0.5 T x 800 A = 400 N
2. A rectangular coil measuring 200 mm by 100 mm is mounted such that it can be
rotated about the midpoints of the 100 mm sides. The axis of rotation is at the right
angles to a magnetic field of uniform flux density 0.05 T. Calculate the flux in the
coil for the following conditions:
a. the maximum flux through the coil and the position at which it occurs.
b. the flux through the coil when the 100 mm sides are inclined at 45 degrees to the
direction of flux.
55
Solution:
a) The maximum flux will pass through the coil when the plane of the coil is at right
angles to the direction of the flux.
= BA = 0.005 200 10 3 = 1 mWb
b) = BA sin = 1 10 3 sin 45 o = 0.71 mWb
3. A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring having a mean
circumference of 600 mm and a uniform cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. If the
current through the coil is 4 A, calculate
a. the magnetic field strength
b. the flux density
c. the total flux
Solution:
a) Mean circumference = 600 mm = 0.6 m
H = 4x200 / 0.6 = 1.333 A/m
b) From formula: Flux density = oH = 1675 T
c) Cross-sectional area = 500 mm2 = 500x10-6 m2
Total flux = 1675 T x (500x10-6)m2 = 0.8375 Wb
Tutorials
1. A mild steel ring has a mean diameter of 160 mm and a cross-sectional area of 300
mm2. Calculate
a. the mmf. to produce a flux of 400 Wb
b. the corresponding values of the reluctance of the ring and the relative
permeability
2. A 1500-turn coil surrounds a magnetic circuit which has a reluctance of 6x106 A/Wb.
What is the inductance of the coil?
3. If an emf. of 5 V is induced in a coil when the current in an adjacent coil varies at a
rate of 80 A/s, what is the value of the mutual inductance of the two coils?
4. When a current of 2 A through a coil P is reversed, a deflection of 36 divisions is
obtained on a fluxmeter connected to a coil Q. If the fluxmeter constant is 150 Wbturns/div, what is the value of the mutual inductance of coils P and Q?
56
Further Readings
Magnetic circuits concept is important in the understanding of many electrical/electronic
circuits and systems. The basis of motor operation, either DC or AC depends on the
characteristics of magnetic circuit relationship. More emphasis and understanding are
needed in the topic of inductance and how it is applied in electrical machines.
References
McGraw-Hill.
57
Solution Tutorials:
= 400 106 Wb
1
a)
B=
400 106
=
= 1.33T
A 300 106
H = 1750 A
m
b) From figure, F = Hl = 1750 160 103 = 880 A
S=
2.
F
880
=
= 2.2 106 / H
6
400 10
N 2 15002
L=
=
= 0.375H
S
6 106
3.
di
=
dt
5
M=
= 65.2mH
80
4.
1.35 mH
e=M
58
Topic 5:
Single-Phase A.C Circuits
Overview
Many applications of electrical and electronics involve voltages and currents that are
constant in time. These networks are called direct current (dc), although the abbreviation
dc is used with voltage as well as current. Time-varying voltage and current sources are
also of great importance in electrical and electronics. Alternating current can be
abbreviated to ac, hence a system with an alternating current is known as an ac system.
The curves relating current to time are known as waveforms. Basic waveforms are such
as sinusoidal, square and triangular waves. Other waveforms can be more complicated.
Phase is also important in an alternating voltages and currents circuits, e.g., single and
multiphase circuits or electrical motors.
Most homes and rural areas are supplied with single-phase ac electrical power. Consequent, most electrical home appliances and electrically driven farm machines employ
single-phase motors. They drive washing machines refrigeration and air-conditioning
compressors, grain dryers, fans, pumps, sewing machines vacuum cleaners, clocks,
phonographs, hand tools, and so on. Literally millions of single-phase motors are
manufactured each year. The difficulty with single-phase as a power source for motors is
that it does not lend itself to producing a rotating magnetic field. Several schemes have
been developed to circumvent this difficulty. Each result in a motor with specific
characteristics suitable for certain range of uses only. In this module, the analysis of ac
components and circuits will be conducted and power parameters are determined using
complex variable and phasor diagrams.
59
Theory
5.1 Determination of r.m.s, mean and peak, shape factor and peak factor
If Im is the maximum values of a current which varies sinusoidal as shown in Fig. 5.1, the
instantaneous value i is represented by
i = I m sin
Where is the angle in radians from instant of zero current
Figure 5.1: Average and r.m.s values of a sinusoidal current

For very small interval d radians, the area of the shaded strip is i. d ampere-radians.
The use of the unit 'ampere-radians' avoids converting the scale on the horizontal axis
from radians to seconds. Therefore, total area enclosed by the current wave over halfcycle is;
i.d = I m sin .d = I m [cos ]0

0
= I m [ 1 1]
= 2 I m ampere radians
From, Average = (Area enclose ever half-cycle)/(Length of base over half-cycle)

Average value of current over a half-cycle is:
I av = 2 I m (amp rads ) / (rad )
i.e.
I av = 0.637 I m amperes
60
If the current is passed through a resistor having resistance R ohms, instantaneous heating
effect = i2R watts. The variation of i2R during a complete cycle is shown in Figure 5.1
during interval d, heat generated is i2R . d watt-radians and is represented by the area of
the shaded strip. Hence, heat generated during the first half-cycle is area enclosed by the
i2R curve and is;
2
2
2
i R.d = I m R sin .d
0
I R
(1 cos 2 ).d
2 0
2
m
I2R
1
= m sin 2
2
2
0
=
I m2 R watt radians
Average heating effect can be expressed as:

Average heating effect over half-cycle = (Area enclosed by i2R curve over half cycle)
Length of base
Hence, the heating effect is:
( 2 ) I R ( watt radians ) = 1 I R
2
m
( radians )
2
m
watts
This result is really obvious from the fact that sin2 = 1/2 - 1/2 cos 2. This means that
the square of a sine wave may be regarded as being made up of two components: a) a
constant quantity equal to half the maximum value of sin2 curve, and b) a cosine curve
having twice the frequency of the sin curve. From Figure 5.1 it is seen that the curve of
the heating effect undergoes two cycles of change during on recycle of current. The
average value of component (b) over a complete cycle is zero; hence the average heating
effect is 1 2 I m2 R . If I is the value of direct current through the same resistance to produce
the same heating effect;
therefore,
I=
Where I
Im
=
=
Im
= 0.7071m
2
instantaneous current
peak current
61
Since the voltage across the resistor is directly proportional to the current, it follows that
the relationship derived for current also applies to voltage. Hence, in general, average
value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is 0.637 x maximum value.
therefore;
Iav = 0.637 Im
r.m.s value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is 0.707 x maximum value;

therefore;
I = 0.707 Im
Given that form (shape) factor:
r.m.s value
, hence the form factor of a sine wave is;
Average value
0.707 max imum value

= k f = 1.11
and peak (crest factor) =
peak or max imum value

, hence for a sine wave:
r.m.s value
max imum value
= k p = 1.414
5.2 R-L-C Circuit is series and parallel
a) Series R-L-C Circuit

Circuit of the contain elements of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. In an
inductive AC circuit, current lags voltage by 90 degrees. In a AC capacitive circuit,
current leads voltage by 90 degrees. It can be seen that inductance and capacitance
are 180 degrees apart. Since they are 180 degrees apart, one element will cancel out
all or part of the other element (Figure 5.2a).
An AC circuit is:
Resistive if XL and XC are equal.
Inductive if XL is greater than XC.
Capacitive if XC is grater that XL.
62
Figure 5.2a: Elements
Calculating Total Impedance in a Series R-L-C Circuit
The following formula is used to calculate total impedance of a circuit containing

resistance, capacitance, and inductance:
Z = R2 + ( X L X C )
In the case where inductive reactance is greater than capacitive reactance,

subtracting XC from XL results in a positive number. The positive phase angle is an
indicator that the net circuit reactance is inductive, and current lags voltage. In the
case where capacitive reactance is greater than inductive reactance, subtracting XC
from XL results in a negative number. The negative phase angle is an indicator that
the net circuit reactance is capacitive and current leads voltage. In either case, the
value squared will result in positive number.
Calculating Reactance and Impedance in a Series R-L-C Circuit
In the following Figure 5.2b, given a circuit with 120 volt, 60 hertz, resistance is
1000, inductance is 5 mH, and capacitance is 2 F.
Figure 5.2b: Example circuit to calculate total impedance
63
To calculate total impedance, first calculate the value of XL from XC, then impedance
can be calculated.
XC =
1
2 fC
1
6.28 60 0.000002
X C = 1,327
XC =
Z = R2 + ( X L X C )
Z = 10002 + (1.884 1,327 )
Z = 1, 000, 000 + ( 1,325.116 )
Z = 1, 000, 000 + 1, 755,932.41

Z = 2, 755,932.41
Z = 1, 660.
Calculating Circuit Current in a Series R-L-C Circuit

Ohms Law can be applied to calculate total circuit current.
E
Z
120
I=
1, 660.1
I = 0.072amps
I=
b) Parallel R-L-C Circuit
Calculating impedance in a parallel circuit
Total impedance (Zt) can be calculated in a parallel R-L-C circuit if values of

resistance and reactance are known. One method of calculating impedance involves
first calculating total current, then using the following formula:
Zt =
Et
It
Total current is the vector sum of current flowing through the resistance plus, the
difference between inductive current and capacitive current. This is expressed in the
following formula:
64
I t = I R2 + ( I C I L )
In the following Figure 5.2c, given a circuit with 120 volt, 60 hertz, capacitive
reactance has been calculated to be 25 ohm and inductive reactance 50 ohm.
Resistance is 1000 ohm.
Figure 5.2c: Example circuit to calculate impedance in parallel
A simple application of Ohms Law will find the branch currents. Remember, voltage
is constant throughout a parallel circuit.
IL =
E
XL
120
50
I L = 2.4 amps
IL =
E
R
120
IR =
1000
I R = 0.12 amps
IC =
IR =
E
XC
120
25
I C = 4.8 amps
IC =
Once the branch currents are known, total current can be calculated.
I t = I R2 + ( I C I L )
I t = 0.122 + ( 4.8 2.4 )
I t = 0.0144 + 5.76
I t = 5.7744
I t = 2.4 amps
Impedance is now found with an application of Ohms Law
65
Zt =
Et
It
120
2.4
Z t = 50
Zt =
5.3 Determination of power and power factor using complex variables and phasor
diagrams
5.3.1 Power and Power Factor in an AC Circuit
Power consumed by a resistor is dissipated in heat and not returned to the source. This is
true power. True power is the rate at which energy is used. Current in an AC circuit rises
to peak values and diminishes to zero many times a second. The energy stored in the
magnetic field of an inductor, or plates of a capacitor, is returned to the source when
current changes direction. Power in an AC circuit is the vector sum of true power and
reactive power. This is called apparent power. True power is equal to apparent power in a
purely resistive circuit because voltage and current are in phase. Voltage and current are
also in phase in a circuit containing equal values of inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance. If voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase, as would be in a purely
capacitive or purely inductive circuit, the average value of true power is equal to zero.
There are high positive and negative peak values of power, but when added together the
result is zero.
5.3.2 True power and apparent power formulas
The formula for true power is:

P = EI cos
Apparent power is measured in volt-amps (VA). True power is calculated from another
trigonometric function, the cosine of the phase angle (cos). The formula for apparent
power is:
P = EI
True power is measured in watts. In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in
phase. There is a zero degree angle displacement between current and voltage. The cosine
of zero is one. Multiplying a value by one does not change the value. In a purely resistive
circuit the cosine of the angle is ignored. In a purely reactive circuit, either inductive or
capacitive, current or voltage is 90 degrees out of phase. The cosine of 90 is zero.
Multiplying a value times zero results in a zero product. No power is consumed in a
purely reactive circuit.
66
Calculating apparent power in a simple R-L-C Circuit
The following Figure 5.3.2 is given a circuit with 120 volt. It is equal to 84.9 milliamps.
Inductive reactance is 100 ohm and capacitive reactance is 1100 ohm. The phase angle is
-45 degrees. By referring to a trigonometric table, the cosine of-45 degree is found to be
0.7071.
Figure 5.3.2: Calculating apparent power
The apparent power consumed by the circuit is:

P = EI
P = 120 0.0849
P = 10.2 VA
The true power consumed by the circuit is:
P = EI cos
P = 120 0.0849 0.7071
P = 7.2 Watts
Another formula for true power is
P = I 2R
P = 0.08492 1000
P = 7.2 Watts
5.3.3 Power Factor

Power factor is the ratio of true power to apparent power in an AC circuit. Power
factor is expressed in the following formula:
Power Factor (PF) = PT (True or Active Power) / PA (Apparent Power)
67
Power factor can also be expressed using the formulas for true power and apparent
power. The value of El cancels out because it is the same in the numerator and
denominator. Power factor is the cosine of the angle.
PF = EI cos / EI
PF = cos
In a purely resistive circuit, where current and voltage are in phase, there is no angle of
displacement between current and voltage. The cosine of a zero degree angle is one.
The power factor is one. This means that all energy delivered by the source is consumed
by the circuit and dissipated in the form of heat.
In a purely reactive circuit, voltage and current are 90 degrees apart. The cosine of
a 90 degree angle is zero. The power factor is zero. This means the circuit returns all
energy it receives from the source to the source. In a circuit where reactance and
resistance are equal, voltage and current are displaced by 45 degrees. The cosine of a 45
degree angle is 0.7071. The power factor is 0.7071. This means the circuit has used
approximately 70% of the energy supplied by the source and returned approximately
30%.
5.4 Single-Phase Electrical Connections

Single-phase circuits are important because they are commonly used around the home in
the form of single-phase three-wire circuits (see Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4.1: Single-Phase Circuit connection

Single phase circuits require less wiring (important in homes) but the power drawn from
the supply (i.e. the utility company) varies with time. This is not the case with balanced
three phase supplies attached to a balanced load
The source of single-phase power in all facilities is by generation from a single-phase
generator or by utilization of one phase of a three-phase power source. Basically, each
phase of the distribution system is a single-phase generator electrically spaced 120
68
degrees from the other two; therefore, a power source is convenient and practical to use
as a source of single-phase power.
Figure 5.4.2: Three-Phase to Single-Phase Connection
Single-phase loads can be connected to three-phase systems utilizing two methods. The
diagram shown in Figure 5.4.2 illustrates these connections. The first scheme (Figure
5.4.2A) provides for the connection of the load from a phase leg to any ground point and
is referred to as a phase-to-ground scheme. The remaining scheme (Figure 5.4.2B)
connects the single-phase load between any two legs of the three-phase source and is
referred to as a phase-to-phase connection. The choice of schemes, phase-to phase or
phase-to-ground, allows several voltage options depending on whether the source threephase system is a delta or wye configuration. The only approved method of wiring singlephase power is the scheme commonly referred to as the 3-wire, single-phase Edison
system. The illustration in Figure 5.4.3 depicts the use of a center-tapped transformer,
with the center tap grounded, providing half voltage (120 V) connections on either side or
full voltage (240 V) across both sides.
69
Figure 5.4.3: 3-Wire Edison Scheme
The physical connections to the transformer secondary involve two insulated conductors
and one bare conductor. If the conductor is a current-carrying leg or neutral leg, the
conductor will be insulated. The remaining uninsulated conductor will serve as a safety
ground and will be bonded to the ground point of the system. In all cases, 3 wires will be
presented to the load terminals, and the safety ground will be bonded to each junction
box, or device, in the distribution system. In the case of half voltage (120 V) use, the
intended path of the current is from the supply leg through the load and back to the
source on the neutral leg. No current would be carried on the ground unless a fault
occurred in the system, in which case the current would flow safely to ground. In the full
voltage system (240 V), the insulated conductors are connected across the full winding of
the transformer, and the uninsulated conductor is again bonded to the grounded center
tap. In a balanced system, all currents will flow on the insulated conductors, and the
grounded neutral will carry no current, acting only in a ground capacity. In the case of
either an unbalanced load or a fault in the system, the bare conductor will carry current,
but the potential will remain at zero volts because it is tied to the ground point. As in the
case of the half voltage system, the uninsulated conductor will be bonded to each device
in the system for safety.
Summary
If a circuit is purely resistive, the current is in phase with the voltage. If it is purely
inductive, the current lags the voltage by 90. If the circuit is purely capacitive, the
current leads the voltage by 90.
If a circuit contains both resistance and inductance, the current lags the voltage by an
angle less than 90o but the angle is greater than 0.
If a circuit contains resistance and capacitance, the currents leads the voltage by an
angle less than 90, but the angle is greater than 0
The reactance of an inductor rises with frequency. The reactance of a capacitor
70
inversely falls with frequency

The active power (true / real power) is the rate of energy conversion or dissipation
takes as an average over one or more complete cycles.
The reactive power is the peak rate of energy storage in the reactive elements of a
circuit. The average rate of energy is zero, the energy continually flowing into and
back out of the reactive elements.
The apparent power is the product of the rms voltage and current and is related to the
active power by the power factor. The apparent power is a useful means of rating
certain equipment, bearing in mind that conductor heat losses occur whether or not
current is in phase with the voltage.

For a general circuit
Active power,
P = VI cos (watts)
Reactive power,
Q = VI sin (vars)
Apparent power,
S = VI
(volt-amperes)
Power factor
cos = P/S
S2 = P2 + Q2
For a series RLC circuit
XL = XC
1
fr =
2 LC
Q factor = r L
R
For a parallel RLC network
fr =
1
2
Zr = L
1 R2
2
LC L
CR
Self-Assessment
1. A coil having a resistance of 12 ohm and an inductance of 0.1 H is connected across a
100 V. 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
71
a) the reactance and the impedance of the coil

b) the current
c) the phase difference between the current and the applied voltage
Solution:
X L = 2 fL = 2 50 0.1 = 31.4 ohm
a) Reactance,
Z=
Impedance,
(R
+ X L2 = 33.6 ohm
I = V / Z = 100 / 33.6 = 2.97 A
b) Current,
c) tan = X / R = 31.4 /12 = 2.617

Therefore,
=69o
2. A coil having a resistance of 6 ohm and an inductance of 0.03 H is connected across a

50 V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate:
a) the current
b) the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage
c) the apparent power
d) the active power
Solution:
a) The phasor diagram for such a circuit is given in Figure 2
Reactance of circuit = 2 fL = 2 3.14 60 0.03 = 11.31 ohm
Impedance =
62 + 11.312 = 12.8 ohm
Current = 50/12.88 = 3.91 A

b) From equation,
tan = X / R = 11.31/ 6 = 1.885
=69o
c) Apparent power, S = 50 3.91 = 195.5 VA
d) Active power = apparent power x cos = 1995.5 x 0.469 = 91.7 W
72
Alternatively; Active power = I 2 R = ( 3.91) 6 = 91.7W

2
3. A 1/4 120 V split-phase motor draws at the instant of starting a current of 4 A in its
starting winding, while the main winding current takes 5.8 A, lagging the supply
voltage by 15 and 45, respectively. At startup, determine :
a) the line current and the power factor
b) the in-phase components of the currents with the supply voltage
Solution:
I start = 4 15o = 3.86 j1.04 A
a) I main = 5.8 45o = 4.10 j1.04 A

I line = I start + I main = 7.96 j 5.14 = 9.48 33o A
Power factor = cos (-33o) = 0.84 lagging
b) From the calculated results in part (a) we see that the in-phase components of
currents with the line voltage, being the real parts of the respective currents, are
3.86 A and 4.10 A for the starting winding and main winding current,
respectively. As shown, these components are practically equal at the instant of
starting.
Tutorials
1. A coil of 0.5 H inductance and negligible resistance and a 200 ohm resistor are
connected in series to a 50 Hz supply. Calculate the circuit impedance.
An inductor in a radio receiver has to have a reactance of 11k ohm at a frequency
of 1 5 MHz supply. Calculate the inductance (in mH)
[Ans:254 ohm, 1.168mH]
2. A p.d of 100 V at 50 Hz is maintained across a series circuit having the following
characteristics: R = 10 ohm, L = 100/ mH, C = 500/ F. Draw the phasor
diagram, and calculate a) the current b) the active and reactive components of the
current.
[Ans: 7.07 A, 5 A, 5A]
3. A single-phase motor takes 8.3 A at a power factor of 0.866 lagging when
connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Two similar capacitors are connected in
parallel with each other to form a capacitance bank. This capacitance bank is now
connected in parallel with the motor to raise the power factor to unity. Determine
the capacitance of each capacitor.
73
[Ans: 28.7 microFarad]

4. A 25 kVA single-phase motor has a power factor of 0.8 lag. A 10 kVA capacitor
is connected for power-factor correction. Calculate the input apparent power in
kVA taken from the mains and its power factor when the motor is a) on half load
b) on full load Sketch a phasor diagram for each case.
[Ans: 10.3 kVA, 0.97 leading.20.6 kVA, 0.97 lagging]
Further Readings
Single-phase is a widely used system in our everyday usage. The analysis of a singlephase system requires good grasp of complex variable and the use of phasor diagrams.
Single-phase system is found electrical motor, consumer products and many others type
of applications. A good understanding of RLC circuit behavior is a must.
References
McGraw-Hill.
74
Solution Tutorials:
1 i)
L = 0.5 H
R = 200
f = 50 Hz
Z = R2 + ( X L )
Z = R2 + ( X L X C )
0.1
106
2
Z = 10 + 2 50
2 50 0.1
Z = 2002 + ( 2 50 0.3)
Z = 100 (10 20 )
Z = 254
Z = 14.14
2
p.d. = 100 V
f
= 50 Hz
R = 10
L = 100/ mH
C = 500/ F
a)
b)
V
100V
=
= 7.07 A
Z 14.14
the active component of current
I=
P = I 2R
P = ( 7.07 ) (10 ) = 500W
2
I active =
P 500W
=
= 5A
V 100V
the reactive component of current
75
IL =
E
100
=
X L 2 50 500
IL = 5A
ii)
XL = 11k
f = 1.5MHz
L =?
X L = 2 1.5M L
L = 1.167mH
IM = 8.3 A
p.f = 0.866 lagging
V = 230 V
f = 50 Hz
I
IC
IM
M
VR = IR = 7.07 10
= 70.7V
230V
50Hz
VL = IX L = 7.07 10
= 70.7V
VC = IX C = 7.07 20
Active component of IM = IM cos M

= 8.3 x 0866
= 7.1878 A
= 141.4V
phase difference between current and
supply voltage
= cos 1
Reactive component of IM
VR
70.7
= cos 1
= 45
V
100
= I M sin M
= 8.3 1 ( cos )
= 8.3 1 ( 0.866 )
= 4.15 A
VL=70.7V
when p.f = 1.0,

Active component of I = IM cos M
= 7.1878 x 1.0
= 7.1878 A
VR=70.7V
V=100V
VC-VL=70.7V
VC=141.4V
76
I C = 2 fCV
4.15
= 57.4 F
2 50 230
C = C1 + C2 , C1 = C2
C=
C = 2C12
Reactive component of IM
57.4 F
2
C12 = 28.7 F
C12 =
= I M sin M
= 7.1878 1 ( cos )
= 8.3 1 (1.0 )
= 0A
IC = reactive component of IM reactive

component of I
IC = 4.15 A 0 A
IC = 4.15 A
4.
25
0.8 = 10kW
2
25
For motor,
QM = 0.6 = 7.5k var
2
For capacitor, QC = 10k var
On half load, P =
QM
S
P
QC
77
2
S = 102 + (10 7.5 ) = 10.3kVA
10
cos =
= 0.97leading
10.3
On full load, P = 10kW
QM = 15k var
QM
S
QC
2
S = 202 + (15 10 ) = 20.6kVA
20
cos =
= 0.97lagging
20.6
Topic 6:
Three-Phase AC Circuit
Overview
Nearly all of the electrical power generated in the world is generated as three-phase AC.
A three-phase circuit is just a particular configuration of electrical circuit elements and
may be solved by straightforward application of electric circuit theory. Such an approach
is appropriate when a three-phase circuit is unbalanced. However power equipment
works better when system voltages are balanced, and every effort is made to maintain
balanced operation of three-phase power circuits. Special techniques are available that
make the solution of balanced three-phase circuits extremely simple. These techniques
are easily learned, so it would be very inefficient to use general circuit theory to solve the
problems of a balanced three-phase circuit.
Theory
6.1 Three-Phase System
78
Three-phase systems offer certain advantages in power systems, power electronics, and
electric machinery, and because they are often used in practice For example,
Three-phase Systems do not require neutral-neutral connections between source

and load,
Three-phase systems provide the simplest solution for generating rotating current
waves and fields in electric machines, and
Three-phase AC generates a superior DC voltage than single-phase AC when
rectified
In a balanced three-phase system, all electrical variables are represented by 3 sinusoids of

equal magnitude and frequency, but are 120 out of phase A simple example of such a
system, consisting of a 3-phase voltage source connected to a 3-phase load, is shown in
Figure 6.1. In the figure a resistor R connects the neutrals of the voltage source and load.
The voltages in this system are as follows:
Figure 6.1: Simple 3-phase power system

van (t ) = Vin cos ( wt )
vbn (t ) = Vin ( wt 2 / 3)
vcn (t ) = Vin ( wt + 2 / 3)
6.1.1 Phasor analysis
It is convenient to use phasors in the analysis of three-phase systems. In phasor analysis

the cosine cos (wt + ) of a variable is replaced with a complex exponential ej(wt+) =
ejejwt. As each variable will have an ejwt term, this term is dropped in the analysis. One
can then easily use Kirchoffs voltage and current laws with phasors by performing
complex number operations. When the actual value of calculated variable is desired, it is
only necessary to replace the ejwt term and take the real part of the complex variable. In
our three-phase system the voltages are represented in phasor notation as:
79
di
V = jwLI = Z L I
dt
dv
V
i=C
I = jwCV =
dt
ZC
v=L
Van = Vln e j = VLN 0o

Vbn = Vln e
Vcn = Vln e
2
s
2
s
= VLN 120o
= VLN 120o
Phasor analysis also allows the use of the concept known of "impedance", where
inductors and capacitors can be considered as complex resistances: Ohm's law applies to
impedances as well as resistances, and so the analysis of 3-phase AC systems becomes
quite straight forward.
Z L = Z L
A 3-phase load consists of 3 impedances of equal magnitude and phase angle:
Ia =
Van Van
=
= I ph
ZL
ZL
Ib =
Vbn
= I ph 120o
ZL
Ic =
Vcn
= I ph 120o
ZL
For now we assume that the resistance R = 0. Inspection of Figure 6.1 reveals that the
phase currents la, Ib, and Ic can he determined by noticing that the voltages across the
impedances are the so called "line to neutral" voltages of each phase. Note that these
three phasors are also 120 out of phase- Figure 6.2 presents the phasor representation of
these currents on the complex plane. By performing Kirchoffs current law at the neutral
of the load we can derive an expression for the neutral current In ;
80
Figure 6.2: Phasor currents in 3-phase system

I n = I a + Ib + Ic
A useful feature of balanced three-phase systems is that the sum of the 3-phase variables
is zero. Hence there is no neutral current in a balanced 3-phase system. Now assume that
the resistance is nonzero. Since in a balanced system there is no neutral current, there will
be no voltage drop across B, and our previous analysis is still valid. Hence in 3-phase
systems there is no need for a neutral-neutral connection between source and load. 3phase systems are the simplest systems that possess this quality.
6.2 Three-phase connections

6.2.1 Delta-Star Connections
Power systems operate with large ratings. The greater the power then, for a given voltage,
the greater the current is. Eventually the current becomes too large and we have to seek a
change of system which can cope. A highly significant advance can be made using the
three-phase system.
81
Figure 6.2.1a: Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s
The three phases of Figure 6.2.1a can, for convenience be represented as in Figure 6.2.1b
where the phases are shown isolated from one another; L1, L2, and L3 represent loads
connected across the respective phases. Since we have assumed the emfs to be positive
when acting from 'start' to 'finish', they can be represented by the arrows eR, ey and eB in
Figure 6.2.1b. This arrangement necessitates six line conductors and is therefore
cumbersome and expensive, so let us consider how it may be simplified. For instance, let
us join R1 and Y together as in Figure 6.2.1c., thereby enabling conductors 2 and 3 of
Figure 6.2.1b to be replaced by a single conductor
Figure 6.2.1b: Three-phase windings with six line conductors
Similarly, let us join Y1 and B together so that conductors 4 and 5 may be replaced by
another single conductor. Before we can proceed to join 'start' and 'finish' R, we have to
prove that the resultant emf between these two points is zero at every instant, so that no
circulating current is set up when they are connected together.
82
Figure 6.2.1c: Resultant emf in a delta-connection winding

Instantaneous value of total ems acting from B1 to R is
eR + eY + eB
= Em sin + sin 120o + sin 240o
)}
= Em sin + sin .cos120o cos .sin120o + sin .cos 240o cos .sin 240o
= Em ( sin 0.5sin 0.866 cos 0.5sin + cos )

=0
Since this condition holds for every instant, it follows that R and B1 can be joined
together, as in Figure 6.2.1d, without any circulating current being set up around the
circuit. The three line conductors are joined to the junctions thus formed. It might be
helpful at this stage to consider the actual values and directions of the emfs at a particular
instant. For instance, at instant P in Figure 6.2.1e, the emf generated in phase R is positive
and is represented by P1 acting from R1 to R in Figure 6.2.1d, the emf in phase Y is
negative and is represented by PM acting from Y to Y1, and that in phase B is also
negative and is represented by PN acting from B to B1. But the sum of PM and PN is
exactly equal numerically to PL; consequently the algebraic sum of the emfs round the
closed circuit formed by the three windings is zero.
83
Figure 6.2.1d: Delta connection of three-phase winding
Figure 6.2.1e: Waveforms of three-phase e.m.f.s
It should be noted that the directions of the arrows in Figure 6.2.1d represent the
directions of the total emf at a particular instant, whereas arrows placed alongside symbol
e, as in Figure 6.2.1c, represent the positive directions of the emfs. The circuit derived in
Figure 6.2.1d is usually drawn as in Figure 6.2.1f and the arrangement is referred to as
delta (from Greek capital letter ) connection, also known as a mesh connection. It will
be noticed that in Figure 6.2.1f, r is connected to Y1 instead of B1 as in Figure 6.2.1d.
Actually, it is immaterial which method is used. What is of importance is that the 'start' of
one phase should be connected to the 'finish' of another phase, so that the arrows
representing the positive directions of the emfs point in the same around the mesh formed
by the three windings.
84
Figure 6.2.1f: Conventional representation of mesh-connected windings
6.2.2 Star connection of three-phase windings:

Let us go back to Figure 6.2. Ib and join together the three 'starts', R1, Y1 and B1 at N, as
in Figure 6.2.2a, so that the three conductors 2,4 and 6 of Figure 6.2.1b can be replaced
by the single conductor NM of Figure 6.2.2a
Figure 6.2.2a: Star connection of three-phase winding

Since the generated emf has been assumed positive when acting from 'start' to 'finish', the
current in each phase must also be regarded as positive when flowing in that direction, as
represented by the arrows in Figure 6.2.2a. If iR, iy, and ib are the instantaneous values of
the currents in the three phases, the instantaneous value of the current in the common
wire MN is (iR + iy + ib), having its positive direction from M to N.
85
Figure 6.2.2b: Four-wire connected system

This arrangement is referred to as four-wire star-connected system and is more
conveniently represented as in Figure 6.2.2b, and junction N is referred to as the star or
neutral point. Three-phase motors are connected to the line conductors, R, Y and B,
whereas lamps, heaters, etc, are usually connected between the line and neutral
conductors as indicated by L1, L2s and L3, the total load being distributed as equally as
possible between the three lines. If these three loads are exactly alike, the phase currents
have the same peak value Im, and differ in phase by 120. Hence, if the instantaneous
value of the current in load L1 is represented by
i1 = I m sin
Instantaneous current in L2 is
i2 = I m sin ( 120o )
And instantaneous current in L3 is
i3 = I m sin ( 240o )
Hence instantaneous value of the resultant current in neutral conductor MN (Figure
6.2.2a) is
i1 + i2 + i3 = I m sin + sin 120o + sin 240o
)} = I
0 = 0
i.e. with a balanced load, the resultant current in the neutral conductor is zero at every
instant; hence this conductor can be dispensed with, thereby giving us the three-wire starconnected system in Figure 6.2.2c.
86
Figure 6.2.2c: Three-wire connected system with balanced load
When we are considering the distribution of current in a three-wire, three-phase system it

is helpful to bear in mind:
1. That arrow such as those of Figure 6.2.2a, placed alongside symbols, indicate the
direction of the current when it is assumed to be positive and not the direction at a
particular instant.
2. That the current flowing outwards in one or two conductors is equal to that flowing
back in the remaining conductor or conductors
6.3 Determination of current, voltage and power

6.3.1 Voltage and currents in star-connected system
Let us assume the emf in each phase to -be positive when acting from the neutral points
outwards, so that the r.m.s values of the emfs generated in the three phases can be
represented by ENR, ENY, and ENB in Figure 6.3.1a and Figure 6.3.1b.
When the relationships between line and phase quantities are being derived for either the
star or delta-connected system, it is essential to relate the phasor diagram to a circuit
diagram and to indicate on each phase the direction in which the voltage or current is
assumed to be positive. A phasor diagram by itself is meaningless.
87
Figure 6.3.1a: Star-connected generator

The value of the emf acting from Y via N to R is the phasor difference of ENR and ENY.
Hence EYN is drawn equal and opposite to ENY and added to ENR, giving EYNR as the emf
from Y to R via N. Note that the three subscript letters YNR are necessary to indicate
unambiguously the positive direction of this emf.
Figure 6.3.1b: Phasor diagram for Figure 6.3a

Having decided on YNR as the positive direction of the line emf between Y and R, we
must adhere to the same sequence for the emfs between the other lines, i.e. the sequence
must be YNR, RNB, and BNY. Here ERNB is obtained by subtracting ENR from ENB and
EBNY is obtained by subtracting ENB from ENY, as shown in Figure 6.3.1b. From the
symmetry of this diagram, it is evident that the line voltage is equal and is spaced 120
apart. Further, since the sides of all the parallelograms are of equal length, the diagonals
bisect one another at right angles. Also, the bisect angles of their respective
parallelograms; and, since the angle between ENR and ENY is 60o,
Therefore,
i.e.
EYNR = 2 ENR cos 30o = 3ENR

Line voltage = 1.73 x star (or phase) voltage
88
From Figure 6.3.1a, it is obvious that in a star-connected system the current in line
conductors is the same as that in phase to which that line conductor is connected.
Hence, in general, if
VL = p.d between any two line conductors = line voltage
And
VP = p.d between a line conductor and the neutral point
= star voltage (or voltage to neutral)
And if IL and IP are line and phase currents respectively, then for a star-connected system,
And
VL = 1.73 VP
IL = IP
In practice, it is the voltage between the line conductors or between a line conductor and
the neutral point that is measured. The voltage given for a three-phase system is always
the line voltage unless it is stated otherwise.
6.3.2 Voltage and currents in a delta-connected system

Let I1, I2, and I3 be the rms values of the phase currents having their positive direction as
indicated by the arrows in Figure 6.3.2a, since the load is assumed to be balanced, these
currents are equal in magnitude and differ in phase by 120o, as shown in Figure 6.3.2b.
Figure 6.3.2a: Delta-connected system with balanced load

From Figure 6.3.2a, it will be seen that 11, when positive, flows away from line
conductor R, whereas I3, when positive, flows towards it. Consequently, IR is obtained by
subtracting I3 from I1, as in Figure 6.3.2b. Similarly, IY is the phasor difference of I2 and
I1, and IB is the phasor difference of I3 and I2. From Figure 6.3.2b, it is evident that the
line currents are equal in magnitude and differ in phase by 120, also
I R = 2 I1 cos 30 = 3I1
89
Hence for a delta-connected system with a balanced load

Line current = 1.73 x phase current
i.e.
I L= 1.7 3 IP
from Figure 6.3.2a, it is obvious that in delta-connected system, the line and the phase
voltages are the same, i.e.
VL = VP
Figure 6.3.2b: Phasor diagrams for Figure 6.3.2a
90
6.4 Determination of Power Factor using complex variable and phasor diagrams
6.4.1 Power in a three-phase system with a balanced load
If IP is the rms value of the current in each phase and VP are the rms values of the p.d
across each phase,
And
Active power per phase = IPVP x power factor

Total active power
= 3 IPVP x power factor
P = 3I PVP cos
If IL and VL are the rms values of the line current and voltage respectively, then for a
delta-connected system,
VP = VL / 1.73 and IP = IL
Substituting for IP and VP, we have,
Total active power in watts =
3 ILVL x power factor
For a delta-connected system,

VP = VL and IP = IL /1.73
Again, substituting for IP and VP , we have
Total active power in watts =
3 ILVL x power factor
Hence, it follows that, for any balanced load,

Active power in watts = 1.73 x line current x line voltage x power factor
= 1.73 ILVL x power factor
P = 3VL I L cos
91
6.5 Measurement of Factor

6.5.1 Measurement of active power in a three-phase three-wire system
Case a) Star-connected balanced load, with neutral point accessible
If a wattmeter W is connected with its current coil in one line and the voltage
circuit between that line and the neutral point, as shown in Figure 6.5.1a, the
reading on the wattmeter gives the power per phase:
Therefore, total active power = 3 x wattmeter reading
Figure 6.5.1a: Measurement of active power in a star-connected balanced load

Case b) Balanced or unbalanced load, star-connected or delta-connected. The twowattmeter method
Suppose the three loads L1, L2 and L3 are connected in star, as in Figure 6.5.1b. The
current coils of the two wattmeters are connected in any two lines, say the 'red and 'blue'
lines and the voltage circuits are connected between these lines and the third line.
Suppose VRN ,VYN , and VBN are the instantaneous values of the p.d.s across the loads, this
p.d.s being assumed positive when the respective line conductors are positive in relation
to the neutral point. Also, suppose iR, iY and iB is the corresponding instantaneous values
of the line (and phase) currents. Therefore, instantaneous power in load L1= iRVRN,
instantaneous power in load L2 = iYVYN , and instantaneous power in load L3 = iBVBN
Therefore,
Total instantaneous power = iRVRN, + iYVYN + iBVBN
From Figure 6.5.1.b, it is seen that instantaneous current through current coil of W1 = iR
and instantaneous p.d across voltage circuit of W1 = VRN - VRN. Therefore,
92
Instantaneous power measured by W1 = iR (VRN - VYN)
Figure 6.5.1b: Measurement of power by two wattmeters

Similarly, instantaneous current through current coil W2 = iB and instantaneous p.d across
voltage circuit of W2 = VBN - VYN.
It is important to note that this p.d is not VYN - VBN. This is due to the fact that a
wattmeter reads positively when the currents in the current and voltage coils are both
flowing from the junction of these coils or both towards that junction; and since positive
direction of the current in the current coil of W2 has already been taken as that of the
arrowhead alongside IB in Figure 6.5.1b, it follows that the current in the voltage circuit
W2 is positive when flowing from the 'blue' to the 'yellow' line.
Therefore, Instantaneous power measured by W2 = iB (VBN - VYN)
Hence the sum of the instantaneous powers of W1 and W2 is
iR (VRN - VRN)+ iB (VBN - VYN) = iRVRN + iBVBN ( iR+ iB ) VYN
From Kirchoffs first law, the algebraic sum of the instantaneous currents at N is zero, i.e.
iR + iY + iB = 0
Therefore,
iR + iB iY
So that sum of instantaneous powers measured by W1 and W2 is

iRVRN + iBVBN + iYVYN = total instantaneous power.
93
The sum of the wattmeter readings gives the average value of the total power absorbed by
the three phases, i.e. the active power. The sum of the two wattmeter readings gives the
total power under all conditions (the above proof was derived for a star-connected load)
6.5.2 Power Factor measurement by means of two wattmeters
Figure 6.5.2a: Measurement of active power factor by two wattmeters

Suppose L, in Figure 6.5.2a to represent three similar loads connected in star, and
suppose VRN ,VYN , and VBN to be the rms values of the phase voltages and iR , iY ,and iB to
be the rms values of the currents. Since these voltages and currents assumed sinusoidal,
they can be represented by phasors, as in Figure 6.5.2b, the currents being assumed to lag
the corresponding phase voltages by an angle . Current through current coil of W1 is IR.
Potential difference across voltage circuit of W1 is
Phasor difference of VRN and VYN = VRYN
94
Figure 6.5.2b: Phasor diagram for Figure 6.5.2a

Phase difference between IR and VRNY = 30 + Therefore reading on W1 is
P1 = IRVRNY cos (30+)
Current through current coil of W2=IB. Potential difference across voltage circuit of W2 is
Phasor difference of VBN and VYN = VBYN
Phase difference between IB and VBYN = 30 - . Therefore reading on W2 is
P2 = IBVBNY cos (30+)
Since the load is balanced,
And
IR + IY + IB = (say) IL, numerically

VRNY = VBNY = (say) VL, numerically
Hence,
P1 = ILVL cos (30 + )
And
P2 = ILVL cos (30 - )
P1 + P2 = I LVL {cos ( 30 + ) + cos ( 30 )}
= I LVL cos 30.cos sin 30.sin 30 + sin 30.sin
= 1.73I LVL cos
Namely the expression deduced previously for the total active power in a balanced threephase system. This is an alternative method of proving that the sum of the two wattmeter
readings gives the total active power, but it should be noted that this proof assumed a
balanced load and sinusoidal voltages and currents.
95
Hence by using the equation, we have,

P1 cos ( 30 + )
=
= ( say ) y
P2 cos ( 30 )
y=
(
(
)
3 / 2 ) cos + (1/ 2 ) sin
3 / 2 cos (1/ 2 ) sin
so that
3 y cos + y sin = 3 cos sin
from which
3 (1 y ) cos = (1 + y ) sin
2
1 y
2
2
2
3
cos = sin = 1 cos
+
1
y
1 y
1 + 3
cos = 1
1 + y
Power factor = cos =
1
2
1 y
1 + 3

1 + y
A more convenient method is to draw a graph of power factor for various ratios of P1/P2l;
and in order that these ratios may lie between +1 and -1, as in Figure 6.5.2c, it is always
the practice to take P1 as the smaller of the two readings. By adopting this practice, it is
possible to derive reasonable accurate values of the power factor from the graph.
96
Figure 6.5.2c: Relationship between power factor and ration of wattmeter readings
An alternative method of deriving power factor is by using trigonometric approach, hence

a trigonometric table.
P2-P1 = ILVL sin
Tan = sin / cos = 1.73 [(P2-P1)/( P2+P1)]
6.6 Three-Phase Electrical Applications

6.6.1 Three-phase core-type transformer:
Modem large transformers are usually of the three-phase core type shown in Figure 6.6.1.
Three similar limbs are connected by the top and bottom yokes, each limb having
primary and secondary windings, arranged concentrically. In Figure 6.6.1, the primary is
shown star-connected and the secondary mesh-connected. Actually the windings may be
connected star/delta, delta/star, star/star, or delta/delta, depending upon the conditions
under which the transformer is to be used.
97
Figure 6.6.1: Three-phase core-type transformer
6.6.2 AC Synchronous Machine Windings
A synchronous machine can either be a motor or generator. The machine is normally

constructed with stationary poles and rotating three-phase windings and three slip-rings.
An example of a three-phase single-layer winding for a synchronous motor is shown in
Figure 6.6.2a. The heavily lined rectangles (full and dotted lines) represent the coils, each
coil consisting of a number of turns, and the thin lines - other than those representing the
poles - indicate the connections between the various coils. Figure 6.6.2b shows one phase
of a three-phase double-layer winding layout. Figure 6.6.2c shows the production of
rotating magnetic flux by the three-phase currents.
98
Figure 6.6.2a: A three-phase single-layer winding for a synchronous motor
Figure 6.6.2b: One phase of a three-phase single-layer winding
Figure 6.6.2c: The production of rotating magnetic flux by the three-phase currents
99
Summary
Multi-phase systems are best noted for their general ability to transmit high powers
efficiently and also to provide powerful motor drives.
Most multiphase systems operate with three phases, although others operate with two,
six and even twelve phases.
Three phase can be connected either in star (Y or wye) or delta (mesh) connections.
The voltage across, and the currents in, the components of the load or source are
termed the phase values. The voltages between the supply conductors and the currents
in these supply conductors are termed the line values.
In the star connection, the phase and line currents are identical
In the delta connection, the phase and line voltages are identical.
In both star and delta-connected systems, the line voltages are mutually displaced by
120
The sum of currents in the supply conductors in a three-wire system is always zero.
The active power can be given by measuring the active power in one phase and
multiplying by 3 provided the load is balanced. However two wattmeters can be used
to measure the total active power whether the load is balanced or not.
For a star-connected system,

VL = 1.73VP
IL = IP
For a delta-connected system,

IL = 1.73IP
VL = VP
For start- or delta-connected system with a balanced load,

P = 3 VP IP cos
= 1.73 VL IL cos
If P1 and P2 are the indications obtained from the two wattmeters applied to a three-wire,
three-phase system,
P = P1 + P2 under all conditions
For a balanced load operating with sinusoidal waveforms
100
cos =
1
2
P2 P1
1 + 3

P1 P2
and
P P
tan = 1.73 2 1
P2 + P1
Self-assessment
1. In a three-phase four-wire system, the line voltage is 415 V and non-inductive loads
of 10 kW, 8 kW, and 5 kW are connected between the three line conductors and the
neutral as in Figure 1a. Calculate:
a) the current in each line
b) the current in the neutral conductor.
Figure 1a: Circuit diagram for example 1
Figure 1b: Phasor diagram for example 1
101
Solution:
a)
b)
Voltage to neutral = line voltage / 1.73 = 415 / 1.73 = 240 V

If IR, IY, and IB are the current taken by the 10 kW, 8 kW, and 5 kW respectively
(Figure 1a),
IR = 10 x 1000/240 = 41.67 A
IY = 8 x 1000/240 = 33.33 A
And IB = 5 x 1000/240 = 20.83 A
These current are represented by the respective phasors in the Figure 1b shown.
The current in the neutral is the phasor sum of the three line currents. In general, the
most convenient method of adding such quantities is to calculate the resultant
horizontal and vertical components thus: horizontal component is
IH
= IY cos 30 - IB cos 30 = 0.866 (33.33 - 20.83) = 10.83 A
And vertical component is

IV = IR - IY cos 60 - IB cos 60 = 41.67-0.5 (33.33 + 20.83) = 14.59 A
These components are represented below, Figure 1c:
Figure 1c: Vertical and horizontal components of IN

Current in neutral = IN =
{(10.83) 2 + (14.59 ) 2} = 18.2A
102
2. A delta-connected load is arranged as in Figure below. The supply voltage is 415 V at

50 Hz. Calculate:
a) the phase currents
b) the line currents
Solution:
Figure 2a: Circuit diagram for example 2
Figure 2b: Phasor diagram for example 2
103
a)
Since the phase sequence is R, Y, B, the voltage having its positive direction from
R to Y leads 120 on that having its positive direction from Y to B, i.e. VRY is 120 in
front of VYB. Similarly, VYB is 120 in front of VBR. Hence the phasors representing the
line (and phase) voltages are as shown in Figure 2b for this example.
If I1,I2,I3 are the phase currents in loads RY, YB, and BR respectively:
I1 = 415/100 = 4.15 A, in phase with VRY
I2 = 415 / ( (20 2+602)) = 415/63.25 = 6.56 A
I2 lags VYB by an angle 2 such that
2 = tan-1 (60/20) = 71 34'
Also I3 = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 30 x 10 -6 x 415 = 3.91 A, leading VBR by 90
b) If the current IR in line conductor R is assumed to be positive when flowing towards
the load, the phasor representing this current is obtained by subtracting I3 from I1, as
shown in the phasor diagram, Figure 2c.
Therefore
I2R = (4.15)2 + (3.91)2 + 2 x 4.15 x 3.91 cos 30 = 60.53

IR = 7.78 A.
The current in line conductor Y is obtained by subtracting I1 from I2, as shown separately
in below. But angle between I2 and I1 reversed is
2 -60 = 71 34' -60 = 11 34'
Figure 2c: Phasor diagram for deriving IY

104
Therefore
I2Y = (4.15)2 + (6.56)2 + 2 x 4.15 x 3.91 cos 1134' = 113.6

IY = 10.66 A.
Similarly, the current in line conductor B is obtained by subtracting I2 from I3, as shown
in the phasor diagram Figure 2d, for angle between I3 from I2, when reversed it is;
Figure 2d: Phasor diagram for deriving IB

180 - 30 - 1134' = 138 26'
I2B = (6.56)2 + (3.91)2 + 2 x 6.56 x 3.91 cos 138 26'
IB = 4.47 A.
This problem could be solved graphically, but in that case it would be necessary to draw
the phasor to a large scale reasonable accuracy.
105
Tutorials
1. Three similar coils, connected in star, take a total power of 1.5 kW, at a power factor
of 0.2, from a three-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
a) the resistance and inductance of each coil

b) the line currents if one of the coils is short-circuited
[Ans: a) 4.48 ohm 69.9mH) 18.5 A 32.1 A]
2. Three similar inductors, each of resistance 10 and inductance 0.019 H, are deltaconnected to a three-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz sinusoidal supply. Calculate: i) the value of
the line current; ii) the power factor; iii) the active power input to the circuit.
[Ans: 59.5 A, 0.859 lag, 35.5 W]
3. Three coils are connected in delta to a three-phase, three-wire, 400 V, 50 Hz supply
and take a line current of 5 A 0.8 power factor lagging. Calculate the resistance and
inductance of the coil. If the coils are star-connected to the same supply, calculate the
line current and total power. Calculate the line currents if one coil becomes opencircuited when the coils are connected in star.
[Ans: a) 110.7, 0.264 H b) 1.67 A, 926 W c) 1.44 A]
Further Readings
Three-phase systems are widely used in our everyday usage especially in relation to
electrical machinery, power transmission and other high power applications. Three-phase
approach has its own advantages in comparison to a single-phase system. Further
readings need to be done in the application of three-phase systems, so as to understand
the parameters involved in its operation, especially the use of phasor diagrams.
References

McGraw-Hill.
106
Solution Tutorials:
1.
415
= 236.6V
3
P = V p I p cos for each coil
500 = 236.6 x Ip x 0.2
Ip = 10.57 A
V p 236.6
Zp =
=
= 22.38
I p 10.57
Vp =
R = 22.38cos = 22.38 0.2 = 4.48

XL =
L=
(Z
R 2 ) = 21.96 = L
21.96
= 69.9mH
314
The two coils experience line voltage, hence

V
415
I coil = 1 =
= 18.54 A
Z 22.38
Therefore for two lines, the current is 18.54 A.
For the remaining line, I = 3 18.54 = 32.1A
Z=
2.
i)
ii)
iii)
(R
+ X L2 )
2
Z = 102 + ( 314 0.019 ) = 11.64
Vp
400
Ip =
=
= 34.4 A
Z 11.64
I L = 3 I p = 3 34.4 A = 59.5 A
R
= 0.859lag
Z
P = 3I p2 R = 3 34.42 10 = 35.5kW
cos =
I1
5
=
= 2.89 A
3
3
V 400
Z= =
= 138.4
I 2.89
Ip =
3.
a)
107
R = Z cos = 138.4 0.8 = 110.7

X = Z sin = 138.4 0.6 = 83
X
L = = 0.264 H
V1
= 230.9V
3
230.9
I1 = I p =
= 1.67 A
138.4
P = 3I 2 R = 3 1.67 2 110.7 = 926W
Vp =
b)
c)
I=
V1
400
=
= 1.44 A
2 Z 2 138.4
108
Topic 7:
Electrical Machinery
Overview
Electric machines and transformer have electric circuits and magnetic circuits interlinked
through the medium of the magnetic flux. Electric currents flow through the electric
circuits which are made up of windings and magnetic fluxes "flow" through the magnetic
which are made up of iron cores. Interaction between currents and fluxes is the basis of
the electromechanical energy conversion process that takes place in the electric
generators and motors. In transformer, we think more in terms of an energy transfer. In
energy conversion, we convert mechanical energy into electrical energy (generator
action), or the reverse process takes place (motor action). In transformer, the energy
transfer is normally associated with a change in voltage and current levels. Thus magnetic
circuits play an essential role in electric machine and transformers. In this module, we
will examine the application of electric and magnetic concept to the operation of DC/AC
motors and generators, i.e., electrical machines in general.
Theory
7.1 Principles and applications of Electric Motors and D.C generator
There is no difference of construction between a dc motor and a dc generator. The only difference
is that in a motor the generated emf is less than the terminal voltage, whereas in a generator the
generated emf. is greater than the terminal voltage. Electric motors function on the principle of
magnetism; where like poles repel, and unlike poles attract.
7.1.1 Electric Motor
In a simple motor, a free-turning permanent magnet is mounted between the prongs of an

electromagnet. Since magnetic forces travel poorly through air, the electromagnet has
metal shoes that fit close to the poles of the permanent magnet. This creates a stronger
more stable magnetic field. (The electromagnet functions as the stator, and the freeturning magnet is the rotor.) Fluctuating polarity in the electromagnet causes the freeturning magnet to rotate. The poles are changed by switching the direction of current
flow in the electromagnet. (Refer to Figure 7.1.1a)
109
Figure 7.1.1a: Basic construction of an Electric Motor

The direction of current flow can be changed in one of two ways. In a DC motor,
connections must be interchanged at the battery. AC current oscillates on its own. The
stator in an AC motor is a wire coil, called a stator winding. Its built into the motor.
When this coil is energized by AC power, a rotating magnetic field is produced. When a
magnetic field comes close to a wire, it produces an electric current in that wire. This is
called induction. In induction motors, the induced magnetic field of the stator winding
induces a current in the rotor. (Refer to Figure7.1.1b)
Figure 7.1.1b: Magnetic Poles of a D.C Machine

Induction motors are equipped with squirrel rotors, which resemble the exercise wheels
often associated with pet rodents like gerbils. Several metal bars are placed within end
rings in a cylindrical pattern. Because the bars are connected to one another by these end
rings, a complete circuit is formed within the rotor.
i) Principles of Operation
DC motors comprise four principal components:

a) field, b) armature, c) commutator, and d) brushes.
The field is the equivalent of a stator in an AC motor, and the armature functions as the
rotor (Refer to Figure 7.1.1a). The brushes act as contacts between an external power
source and the commutator. The design of these carbon brushes allows them to move up
and down on a brush holder, to compensate for the irregularities of the commutator
surface. Thus they are said to ride the commutator. Each section of the commutator is
connected to an armature coil, essentially a conductive loop of wire. A current induced in
the armature coil, by way of the brushes and commutator, creates a magnetic field around
the armature. Since the current flowing through the armature flows at a right angle to the
field's magnetic lines of flux, the two magnetic forces interact. This interaction creates a
third magnetic field that tends to rotate counter clockwise.
110
The commutator regulates current flow in the armature coils, allowing it to flow in one
direction only. Each segment of the commutator is directly connected to an armature coil,
so the commutator rotates with the armature. As it rotates, each segment of the
commutator is constantly breaking contact with one brush, while simultaneously
connecting with the other. Every time contact with a new brush occurs, the flow of
current reverses in the armature coil.
The interaction of magnetic force from the armature and field poles is renewed each time
the armature completes one-half of a rotation. This causes the armature to rotate for as
long as current is maintained in the coils.
DC motors provide excellent speed control for acceleration and deceleration with
effective and simple torque control. The fact that the power supply of a DC motor
connects directly to the field of the motor allows for precise voltage control, which is
necessary with speed and torque control applications.
DC motors perform better than AC motors on most traction equipment. They are also
used for mobile equipment like golf carts, quarry and mining equipment. DC motors are
conveniently portable and well suited to special applications, such as industrial tools and
machinery that is not easily run from remote power sources.
ii) Types of Motors
There are several kinds of DC motors commonly used in industrial applications. The
motors have similar external appearances but are different in their internal construction
and output performance. When selecting a DC motor for a given application, two factors
must be taken into consideration:
a. The allowed variation in speed for a given change in load.
b. The allowed variation in torque for a given change in load.
Shunt Wound DC Motors
Shunt wound DC motors provide medium starting torque, 125 to 200 full loads, and are
capable of delivering 300% of full load torque for short periods. With excellent speed
control, shunt wound motors generally drive loads requiring speed control and low
starting torque. Some applications include fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, conveyors,
elevators, printing presses, woodworking machines, and metalworking machines (See
Figure7.1.1c)
111
Figure 7.1.1c: Shunt Wound D.C Motor
Series Wound DC Motors
A series wound DC motor has its armature and field connected in a series circuit. These
type motors normally drive loads that require high torque and do not require precise
speed regulation. Series DC motors are ideal for traction work where the load requires a
high breakaway torque. Such are locomotives, hoists, cranes, automobile starters, or oil
drilling rig applications. Starting torque developed in series motors normally ranges
between 300% and 375% of full load, but attains 500% of full load torque. These motors
deliver this high starting torque because their magnetic field operates below saturation.
Speed regulation in series motors is inherently less precise than in shunt motors. If motor
load diminishes, current flowing in both the armature field circuits reduces as well,
effecting a reduction in flux density. This results in a greater increase in speed than
realized in shunt motors. Removal of mechanical load from series motors results in
indefinite speed increase whereby centrifugal forces generated by the armature eventually
destroy the motor. (Refer to Figure 7.1.1 d)
Figure 7.1.1d: Series Wound D.C Motor

112
Compound Wound DC Motors
Whenever an operation requires speed regulation characteristics unavailable in series or

shunt motors, compound wound motors perform well. With medial starting torque
capability, between 180 and 260% of full load, they deliver constant operating speeds
under any percentage of full loads. This characteristic is a result of placing part of the
field circuit in series with that of the armature. When under load, increased series
winding current raises the level of field flux. Enlarged field flux in compound wound
motors yields greater reduction in speed than in a shunt motor. The compound wound DC
motor comprises both series and shunt windings. The shunt winding connects in parallel
with armature and series windings. Some associated applications include punch presses,
shears, crushers, and reciprocating compressors. (See Figure 7.1.1e)
Figure 7.1.1e: Compound Wound D.C Motor
Permanent Magnet DC Motors
Permanent magnet motors are well fit for use where response time is a factor. Their speed
characteristics are similar to those of shunt wound motors. Built with a conventional
armature, they use permanent magnets rather than windings in the field section. DC
power is supplied only to the armature. Permanent magnet motors are not expensive to
operate since they require no field supply. The magnets, however, lose their magnetic
properties over time and this effect less than rated torque production. Some motors have
windings built into the field magnets that re-magnetize the cores and prevent this from
happening. Automobiles have installed DC permanent magnet motors that control power
seats, windows, and windshield wipers. DC permanent magnet motors produce high
torque at low speed, and are self-braking upon disconnection of electrical power.
Permanent magnet motors cannot endure continuous operation because they overheat
rapidly, destroying the permanent magnets. (See Figure7.1.1f)
113
Figure 7.1.1f: Permanent Magnet D.C Motor
Brushless DC Motors
Brushless DC motors facilitate extremely precise speed and torque control. They require
appropriate controls, due to their entirely electronic operation. Brushless DC motors,
though expensive, provide high efficiency and exemplary precision of control.
Universal DC Motors
Universal motors seldom exceed one horsepower, and do not run at constant speeds. The
speed of a universal motor varies with its load. Among the applications using these
motors are vacuum cleaners, food mixers, portable drills, portable power saws, and
sewing machines. In most cases, little more than a few hundred rpm is reached with
heavy loads. When the motor operates with no load, the speed may attain 15,000 rpm.
The universal series motor differs in design from a true induction motor. The rotor of a
universal motor is made of laminated iron wound with wire coils. The ends of the coils,
or loops, connect to a commutator. Electric current in the motor flows through a complete
circuit formed by the stator winding and rotor winding. Brushes ride on the commutator
and conduct the current through the rotor from one stator coil to the other. Directed by
these brushes the rotor current interacts with the magnetic field of the stator causing the
rotor to turn. When the direction of current flow changes in the stator, it changes in the
rotor. Since the magnetic field is reversed, the rotor continues to turn. Universal motors
have series wound rotor circuitry similar to that of DC motors. They have high starting
torque and high starting current. The name universal derives from the motor's capability
of operating on either AC or DC power sources. Universal, variable speed motors slow
down with increased loads. High horsepower-to-size ratio is characteristic of their design.
Due to the brush/commutator setup, universal motors require more maintenance than
other motor designs.
114
7.1.2 D.C generator
For all practical purposes, the direct-current generator is only used for special
applications and local dc power generation. This limitation is due to the commutator
required to rectify the internal generated ac voltage, thereby making large scale dc power
generators not feasible. Consequently, all electrical energy produced commercially is
generated and distributed in the form of three-phase ac power. The use of solid-state
converter nowadays makes conversion to dc economical. However, the operating
characteristics of dc generators are still important, because most concepts can be applied
to all other machines.
A dc machine is capable of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy
(generator) or electrical energy into mechanical energy (motor). Since generators and
motors are fundamentally the same construction, particularly true for dc machines, they
differ only in the way they are employed. When the dc machine is operating as a
generator, it is driven by a prime mover that rotates the rotating member, consisting of an
armature core, or simply the armature, supported on a shaft. This rotating assembly is
mounted in a set of bearings which are an integral part of the end shields. The armature
has a winding, called the armature winding placed in slots that run axially along the
periphery of the armature core.
Generator action (refer to Figure 7.1.2) takes place because of the relative motion
between an existing field on the stator, in the form of field poles, and the armature
conductors. In describing the various constructional parts of a dc machine, we can divide
the machine into two parts: the stationary part generally referred to as the stator, and the
rotating part, usually called the rotor, or the armature when referred to a dc machine. The
role of the stator is to serve as the seat of the magnetic flux that is to penetrate the
armature core. Except for small special machines using permanent magnets, the field
circuit usually consists of a cylindrical yoke or frame to which a set of electromagnets,
the field poles are bolted. The type of dc generator is characterized by the manner in
which the field excitation is provided. In general, the method employed to connect the
field and armature windings falls into the following groups
a. Separately excited generators: The field winding is connected to a separate dc supply.
b. Self-excited generators: They may be further classified as:
Shunt generators, the field winding is connected to the armature terminals.
Series generators, the field winding are connected in series with the armature winding.
c. Compound generators: The field excitation is provided by a combination of a shunt
and series field winding.
115
Field connections for dc generators: (a) separately excited generator; (b) self-excited, shunt generator: (c) series generator:
(d) compound generator, short-shunt connection; (e) compound generator, lone-shunt connection.
Figure 7.1.2: Generator Action
116
7.2 Transformer
7.2.1 Introduction
One of the main advantages of ac transmission and distribution is the ease with which an
alternating voltage can be increased or reduced. For example the general practice to
generate at voltage about 22 kV, then set up by means of transformers to higher voltages
for transmission lines at suitable points, other transformers are introduced to step the
voltage down to values suitable for motors, lamps, heaters etc. The common form of
transformer involves a ferromagnetic core in order to ensure high values of magnetic flux
linkage. There are factors about ferromagnetic core, which affect the construction of
transformers and rotating machines; these factors are partly responsible for the loss of
power transfer and require a brief explanation before considering the principle of action
of a transformer.
7.2.2 Core factors
When the core is energized from an ac source, the magnetizing force rises and falls in
accordance with the magnetizing current, which basically is sinusoidal. This variation
does not cause B and H to vary according to the magnetic characteristic, but rather in a
manner called hysteresis loop as shown in Figure 7.2.2.
The larger the loop, the greater the energy required creating the magnetic field, and this
energy has to be supplied during each cycle of magnetization. This requirement of
supplying energy to magnetize the core is known as the hysteresis loss. The varying flux
in the core induces emfs and hence currents in the core material. These give rise to I2R
losses. These losses are called eddy-current losses. The sum of the hysteresis loss and
eddy-current losses is known as the core loss.
117
Figure 7.2.2: A basic construction of a transformer
7.2.3 Principle of action of a transformer
Fig.7.2.2 shows the general arrangement of a transformer. A steel core C consists of

laminated sheets, insulated from one another. The purpose of laminating the core is to
reduce the eddy-current loss. The vertical portions of the core are referred to as limbs and
the top and bottom portions are the yokes. Coils P and S are wound on the limbs. Coil P is
connected to the supply and is therefore termed the primary, coil S is connected to the
load and is termed the secondary.
An alternating voltage applied to P circulates an alternating current through P and this
current produces an alternating flux in the steel core. The mean path of this flux being
represented by the dotted line D. If the whole of the flux produced by P passes through S,
the e.m.f induced in each turn is the same for P and S. Hence, if N1 and N2 are the
number of turns on P and S respectively,
Total e.m. f induced in S N 2 e.m. f per turn N 2
=
=
Total e.m. f induced in P N1 e.m. f per turn N1
118
When the secondary is an open circuit, its terminal voltage is the same as the induced
emf. The primary current is then very small, so that the applied voltage V1 is equal and
opposite to the emf induced in P. Hence,
V2 N 2
V1 N1
Since the full-load efficiency of a transformer is nearly 100%,
I1V1 x primary power factor I2V2 x primary power factor

But the primary and secondary power factors at full load are nearly equal,
I1 V2
I 2 V1
Transformer action occurs whenever two or more coils are magnetically coupled.
Transformers are used extensively m both AC power applications and in electronics.
There are four basic uses for these devices:
Voltage transformation
Current transformation
Impedance transformation
Electrical Isolation
Transformer can be classified as follows:
Frequency: power, audio-frequency, radio-frequency
Core: air core, iron core, or other ferromagnetic material
Phase: single phase, three phase
Other: pulse; fly back, auto, input, etc.
7.3 Single and multiple phase induction motor

7.3.1 Single Phase Induction Motor
Single-phase induction motors are used in residential and other application where threephase AC is not available and the mechanical power requirement does not exceed about 5
hp. This motor has squirrel-cage rotor but, of course, only one phase in the stator
winding. They also must have special provision for starting purposes. The magnetic field
of a single phase stator consists of two components rotating at synchronous speed in
opposite directions. These are represented in Figure 7.3.1a., by Bs+ and Bs-, and we
assume the rotor to be turning at rate n in the clockwise direction. The interaction of Bs+
with the rotor produces a torque-speed characteristic just like a three-phase motor, and
Bs- has the same effect but with the torque and speed in opposite direction. The resultant
119
average torque is then the sum plotted in Figure 7.3.1a. Thus, although the motor can run
in either direction, it has zero starting torque. When the motor is running in a given
direction, the instantaneous torque consists of the average torque plus a pulsating
component caused by the oppositely rotating stator field, similar to the conditions in a
single-phase alternator. Of course, the torque must pulsate if the speed is constant, since a
single-phase AC circuit delivers instantaneous power.
Figure 7.3.1a: A basic construction of a transformer
Figure 7.3.1b: Starting torque

Starting torque can be obtained by using an auxiliary stator winding displaced by 90,
from the main winding, as shown in Figure 7.3.1b. This is a split-phase motor. Another
variation is the shaded-pole motor. Both improve the phase shift and running
performance.
120
7.3.2 Multiphase (Three-Phase) Induction Motors
Structurally, the simplest, most rugged and reliable rotating machine is the three-phase
squirrel-cage induction motor. The stator is identical to that of a synchronous machine
with distributed windings, but the rotor winding consists of a "squirrel-cage" arrangement
of conducting bars shorted together by two end rings. Figure 7.3.2a illustrates the
construction, omitting the laminated rotor core that fills the remaining space. There are
no rotating electrical connections or a DC exciter supplying field current. Instead, the
rotor field needed to develop mechanical torque comes from the stator field via induction.
For a qualitative description of this process, consider the simplified rotor in Figure 7.3.2a
and assume it to be initially at rest. The stator has an applied voltage of frequency, f, and
its field, Bs, rotates at the synchronous speed, ns= 120 f/ p rpm. As Bs sweeps past the
rotor bars, it induces an emf which causes current to circulate in the rotor and thereby
produces a rotor feld, BR. Torque develops from the interaction between Bs and BR, so
the rotor begins to turn and eventually reaches a steady-state speed, n.
The rotor speed must be less than the synchronous speed, for there would be no induced
emf if n = ns, so no rotor current or field and no torque to sustain the rotation against a
mechanical load. We, therefore, write
Figure 7.3.2a: Basic construction of a three-phase induction motor

n = (1 s )ns
where s is called the slip and defined as
s 1 ( n ns )
We also define the slip-speed;

121
sns = ns n
Which equals the rotational rate of Bs relative to the rotor bars. The electrical frequency
of the rotor's induced emf is then
f r = ( p 120 ) sns = sf
Accordingly, the resulting three-phase rotor field vector BR rotates at sns rpm relative to
the rotor. Since the rotor turns at n rpm, BR has total speed n + ns = ns and stays in
synchronism with Bs. Therefore, the developed torque will be constant and free of
pulsations, just as in a synchronous motor, even though the rotor turns at n < ns. The
torque-speed curve of an induction motor illustrates three significant properties (see
Figure7.3.2b)
An induction motor develops torque at any speed less than the synchronous speed,
but it is designed to operate near the rated speed nFL somewhat less than ns.
The maximum torque Tmax is developed below rated speed, allowing the motor to
drive an overload T > TFL at reduced speed for short intervals of time
The starting torque To at n = 0 (or s = 1) usually exceeds the rated torque, so the
motor can start under load and come up to speed.
Figure 7.3.2b: Torque-speed curve
7.4 Inverters and alternators
122
7.4.1 Inverters
Inverters convert dc to ac, Rotating machines did that job for years but modern electronic
devices and circuits have taken over. Inverters are not in widespread use but there are
some important applications. An electronic inverter can produce a variable frequency AC
voltage for controlling the speed of induction motors, or an inverter can be used to
provide a backup source of three-phase power for emergencies. The three-phase fullwave bridge rectifier circuit can be modified to function as a three-phase inverter.
Replace the diodes with SCRs and the dc load with source as shown in Fig.7.4.1. The
SCRs are turned on and off sequentially by a timing signal, which will determine the
frequency of the three-phase ac output. The individual SCRs are turned on and off one at
a time so that the current in each line reverses during each cycle. There are six distinct
steps in each cycle and two different possible timing schemes. One scheme has two SCRs
conducting at a time and the other has three SCRs conducting at a time. The details of the
switching are not shown. The line currents will not be very sinusoidal in appearance but
they will have the proper phase relationship for a three-phase source. Filtering can be
used if necessary to obtain output voltages that are more nearly sinusoidal.
Figure 7.4.1: A three-phase inverter circuit

7.4.2 Alternators
Synchronous machines are called "synchronous" because their speed is directly related to
the line frequency. Like any other electrical machines, synchronous machines may be
operated either as motors or generator. A polyphrase synchronous machine operated as a
generator is called an alternator. The largest electrical machines in the world are
synchronous alternators. Some are rated as much as 1.7 billion watts (1700 MW).
Although designed to operate as generators, even these large machines can be operated as
motors and sometimes do "motor" under abnormal system conditions. For pumpedstations, synchronous machines with ratings in the order of 50 MW are designed for both
motor and generator operations; and many smaller polyphrase synchronous machines (5
to 8000 hp) are designed primarily for motor applications.
Summary
123
D.C machines can be separately excited or self excited. Separately excited machines
are often used in control systems
D.C machines can readily act both as motors and as generators
The torque developed is proportional to the pole flux and to the armature current.
The control of d.c motors is increasingly achieved using power electronic circuits.
Transformer effect changes of voltage with virtually no loss of power. The input is
called the primary and the output is termed the secondary. Both are connected by
magnetic flux.
The winding terminals are so connected to their respective windings that the primary
and secondary voltages are normally in phase with one another
Losses occur in a transformer due to the IR losses in the windings, plus the hysteresis
and eddy-current losses in the core.
The rotating field of the stator induces emfs and hence current in the rotor conductors.
The rotor conductors can either take the form of windings as in the wound-rotor
machine or short-circuited bars as in the cage-rotor machine.
The speed of the rotor relative to the rotating field is termed the slip
Three-phase induction motor can be started by the star-delta method, the autotransformer starter and by a soft starter.
Induction motor can be used to break the load, a procedure called plugging.
An inverter is used to convert DC signal to AC signal for power supply circuit.
124
For an idealized transformer,

V2 N 2
=
V1 N1
I1 N 2
=
I 2 N1
E1 = 4.44 N1 f m (volts )
The no-load current relates to its power and magnetizing components using
Io =
(I
2
ol
2
+ I om
Voltage regulation,
V1 V2'
=
V1
The rotational speed per second,
f = np
The synchronous speed,
f
n1 =
p
n n
hence slip, s = 1 r
n1
Rotor frequency,
f r = sf
Rotor e.m.f. per phase,
Er = sEo
Rotor impedance per phase,
Zr =
(R
+ ( sX o )
For maximum torque, R = sX o
Self-assessment
125
1. A d c motor operates at 1680 r/min when drawing 28 A from 230 V supply. If the
armature resistance is 0.25 ohm, calculate the no-load speed if IA = O A at no load.
(This amounts to assuming that brush losses and rotational losses are negligible)
Solution:
When loaded, IA = 28 A, therefore,
EC = VL IARA = 230 - 28 x 0.25 = 223 V
223 = kn = k x 1680 or k = 223 / 1680 = 0.1327
And
At no load, IA = O; thus EC = VL = 230 V. Then EC = kn, where the prime

indicates the new load condition, that is, no load. Hence,
230 = k x n
and
n = 230/0.1327 = 1733 r/min
Note that the flux remained constant. This is true only for separately excited motors.
2. A 100 k-VA 2400/240 V transformer has 60 turns on the secondary winding. Calculate
a) the approximate value of primary and secondary currents

b) the number of primary turns
c) the maximum flux m in the core
Solution:
a) Ip (full load) = (kVA x 1000) / VP = 100,000/2400 = 41.7A
and
Is, =100,000/240= 417 A
b) a = 2400/240 = 10, therefore NP = a Ns = 10 x 60 = 600 turns

c) m= 2400 /(4.44 x 60 x 600) = 0.015 Wb
Tutorials
126
1. A 240 V dc motor takes 20 A when running at 960 r/min. The armature resistance is
0.2 ohm. Determine the no-load speed, assuming negligible losses.
2. A 14-pole, 50 Hz induction motor runs at 415 r/min. Deduce the frequency of the
currents in the rotor winding and the slip.
3. A single-phase transformer has 400 primary turns and 800 secondary turns. The net
iron cross-sectional area of the core is 40 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to
a 60-Hz supply at 600 V, calculate:
a) the maximum value of core flux density
b) the secondary induced voltage
Further Readings
The relationships of magnetic circuits and electric circuits are important in understanding
the operation of various types of electrical machines, such as dc motor, transformer,
induction machine and inverters. Various considerations need to be considered when
choosing a particular system for certain application. Further study in this topic is
required, especially in the comparison of single-phase and three-phase electrical
machines.
References

McGraw-Hill.
3. Peter F. Ryff, Electric Machinery, Prentice Hall
4. George McPherson, Robert D. Lamore, Electrical Machines And Transformer,
John Wiley & Sons.
IA = 20 A
= 960 r/min
RA = 0.2
Solution Tutorials:
Given,
VL = 240 V
127
EC = VL I A RA
V2
EC = 240 ( 20 )( 0.2 )
800
600
400
V2 1200V
EC = 236V
V2
EC = k = k 960
k =
236
= 0.2458
960
E2 = 4.44 N 2 f M
IA = o
1200
4.44 800 60
M = 5.63mWb
EC = VL
B=
at no load,
M =
E 'C = k '
'=
240
= 976 r
min
0.2458
n1 =
f 50
=
= 7.143r / s or 3000r / min
p 7
428.6 415
= 3.17
428.6
f r = sf = 0.0317 50 = 1.584 Hz
s=
N2
V1
N1
Given,
N1 = 400
N2 = 800
f = 60 Hz
V1 = 600 V
A = 40 cm2
128
5.63mWb
=
= 1.408T
A
40cm2

Understanding Basic Electrical Concepts

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CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Basic Concept of Electrical

Figure 1: A Basic Electrical System

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

current in ampere (A)

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Actual Electron Flow

Conventional Current Flow

Self assessment 1.1:

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Self assessment 1.3:

1.4 Ohms Law

the resistance in ohms (ohm)

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Self assessment 1.4a:

Self assessment 1.4b:

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

1.5 Resistance and Conductance

the length of the wire

Figure 1.5: Physical definition of electrical resistance

Self assessment 1.5:

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Now, from the previous equation;

So, a length of 1.061 m coil will give the required resistance.

1.5.1 Combinations of Resistor

Self assessment 1.5.1:

Figure 1.5.1: Resistor in Parallel Combination

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

or, for fixed power,

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

The specification of condition at t = - infinity is not always convenient, so an alternative

Self assessment 1.6:

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Summary of important formulae

F [newtowns] = m [kg] x a [ms-2]

Kinetic energy, W = mu2

P = IV = I2R = V2/R (watts)

Effective resistance of two parallel resistors:

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Figure 2a: Networks Patterns; ladder, lattice and bridged-T

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Figure 2b: General schematics to define networks terms

Kirchoff's current law states that

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Figure 2.1: Example circuit showing how KCL is applied

Figure 2.1c: Example circuit showing how KVL is applied

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Figure 2.1: Networks to illustrate Thevenins Theorem

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Since there is no current through R2, p.d. across AB is

Figure 2.2.1: Example circuit for Thevenins Theorem

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Figure 2.3: Example circuit for Nortons Theorem

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

I 2 = I 2b + I 2c = 3.21 + 6.78 = 3.57 A

Figure 2.4: Example circuit for the Superposition Theorem

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E

Figure 2.5: Example circuit for the Star-Delta Transformation

CLB 10402 FUNDAMENTAL OF E & E