Diet and Exercise

Balanced diet:
Proteins - Build new tissue - Growth/Repair - Meat, eggs, fish
Vitamins and Minerals - General Health
Fibre - Help to prevent disease - fruit/veg
Water - Chemical Reactions
Fats - Stored energy (malnutrition = under/over weight (not getting nutrients needed) - Oils, Butter
Carbohydrates - Energy - Bread, potatoes,rice
Depending on the in/out ratio depends on whether you gain weight, lose it or it stays the same.
For example, If a person consumed more energy than they burnt they would gain weight, if they
consumed less energy than they burned they would lose weight.
Metabolism is a term to describe all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the living
state of the cells and the organisms.
Slow Metabolism:
Uses fewer calories for energy than the average person of the same size.
Fast Metabolism:
Uses more calories for energy than the average person of the same size.
Factors affecting Metabolism:
MUSCLE MASS
WEIGHT
AGE
ACTIVITY LEVEL
Cholesterol:
Too much cholesterol leads too blocked arteries that go to the heart. This means that oxygenated
blood cant get around the body, starving it of oxygen. This causes heart attacks.
Type 2 Diabetes is caused by being overweight. The body cannot control the sugar level. However
this can be fixed by taking Insulin with an improved diet. Insulin has side affects which includes
death however.

Diseases
Microorganisms:
Bacteria
->
Viruses
->
Fungi
->
Bacterium

->

Cause disease

->

Pathogens

Produces Toxins

The virus causes the body cells to break, allowing the virus into the cells and then the virus
reproduces in the cells.
Three Methods:
White Blood Cells:
1. Ingest
2. Produce Antibodies
3. Produce Antitoxins
Method 1: White blood cells ingesting:
1.
2.
3.
4.

White blood cell and a pathogen

White blood cells sees the pathogen and gets closer to it
The white blood cell surrounds the pathogen
The white blood cell swallows the pathogen and releases enzymes to digest it

Method 2: Producing Antibodies:

1. Antigens have a specific shape. It takes time for the white blood cells to work out the right
shape but once it has it can produce antibodies in the shape of the antigen.
2. The antibodies attach themselves to the antigens and start to destroy the bacteria.
Method 3: Producing Antitoxins:
1. The white blood cells produce antitoxins that counteract the toxins of the pathogen and make
them harmless
Prevent getting disease:
Vaccination
Vaccine injected into the body. The vaccine contains dead/inactive form of the pathogen which
makes it harmless so you dont actually get the disease the vaccine is vaccinating against but there
is a small part of the disease there so the bodys white blood cells can destroy it. The white blood
cells produce antibodies which can fit the antigens on the pathogen. In the future if the person gets
the real pathogen the body can produce these antigens again as the body has memorised how to
produce these antibodies.
MMR - MEASLES, MUMPS AND RUBELLA: some people believe it is linked to autism

Semmelweis (1850s)
No idea about bacteria
Childbed fever - Every time a midwife helped to deliver a baby there were a low number of cases
- Every time a medical student helped to deliver a baby there were a high number
of cases (med students were cutting up dead bodies and not wash hands)
Observations - collected some data
Hypothesis - idea or prediction based on observations
Experiment/Investigation - made students wash their hands
Results - deaths reduced
Conclusion - washing hands helped to reduce childbed fever

Antibiotic Resistance
Bacteria has affected body
-> Causes symptoms
Takes medicine such as painkillers
-> Still have same
number of bacteria in body
-> medicine relieves symptoms
Take antibiotics
-> Relieves symptoms and affects bacteria
-> All bacteria been killed
Antibiotics prescribed too much and too often
-> Antibiotics kill bacteria
-> Over prescription causes some bacteria to mutate and therefore become resistant
-> Mutation is a random spontaneous change in the DNA
-> This mutated bacteria reproduces as it divides
-> Population of antibiotic resistant bacteria is created
-> Scientist have to develop new antibiotic

Growing Microbes
Culturing micro-organisms - growing micro-organisms
agar jelly (to grow micro-organisms)
Aseptic technique
1.
Sterilise agar and petri dish to make sure nothing else grows (contamination)
2.
Take Inoculating loop and place it on the bunsen burner to make sure it is sterile
3.
Leave loop to cool down as microbes will die
4.
Once cool place the loop in microbe sample and then transfer it to the agar
5.
Put lid on agar
6.
Seal it
7.
Incubate at 25 degrees (school)
8.
Incubate at 37 degrees (normal) but could grow pathogens
Then get disinfectant samples and carefully put in agar in separate places
Leave for period of time
Area becomes clear where bacteria is dead. Larger the area the more affective

The Nervous System

Detect stimuli (change in environment) to coordinate behaviour
EYES - Light Receptors
EARS - Sound
- Detect position (balance)
NOSE - Chemical -> Smell
MOUTH - Chemical -> Taste
SKIN - Touch
- Pressure
- Temperature
- Pain
Stimulus -> Receptor -> Sensory Neurone -> CNS -> Motor Neurone -> Effector -> Responce
Synapses - Chemicals travel across the gap via diffusion

Controlling body conditions

Homeostasis is the control of internal conditions
Water:
All chemical reactions happen in a watery environment. By reducing the amount of water youre
reducing the ability of the chemical reactions to happen.
Water can get into the body by drinking and via food and it can be lost by breathing, sweating and
urinating.
Ions:
Gets into body via food. Used for hardening teeth, muscles to contact and for nerve cells to send
messages.
Lost via sweating and urinating.
Blood sugar:
Gets into the body via food and drink.

Lost via exercise and insulin (hormone).

Temperature:
Increase via exercise or warm weather.
Decrease via sweating or other ways (such as blood flowing closer to skin if too hot to cool skin
down)
Ideal temperature 37 degrees. Enzymes will otherwise denature.

Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle

Hormones:

control blood sugar (insulin), control water levels in body, control release of eggs
and control growth.

Stimulate - Increase/cause something to happen

Inhibit - Slow/stop
FSH -> PRODUCED IN PITUITARY GLAND
Job: MATURE AN EGG
STIMULATES OESTROGEN
OESTROGEN -> PRODUCED BY OVARIES
Job: THIKEN THE LINING OF THE WOMB
INHIBITS THE PRODUCTION OF FSH
STIMULATES LH
LH -> PRODUCED IN PITUITARY GLAND
Job: RELEASE THE EGG
Hormones in Controlling Fertility
Stopping pregnancy -> Oral Contraceptive
Encouraging/causing pregnancy -> IVF
Types of oral contraception:
Oestrogen as it inhibits FSH so it cant mature an egg.
Side Effects
-> Headaches
-> High blood pressure
Newer pills have progesterone and lower doses of oestrogen or progesterone only
Much less side effects
Thickens lining of womb
IVF
Female not producing enough FSH
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Give fertility drug and this contains FSH and LH

Release of several matured eggs
Remove the eggs
Placed in a petri dish
Fertilise the eggs with sperm from father
Eggs grow into embryos (small ball of cells)
Embryo placed back into the womb of the mother
Pregnancy

Hormones in plants
Phototropism = Light -> Grows towards it
Positive Geotropism = Shoot growing against the force of gravity
Negative Geotropism = Root grows towards the force of gravity/moisture
Hormones -> Auxin -> shoots -> encourages growth
-> roots -> slows growth
Phototropism = Auxin moves away from the side where the light is coming, therefore that side
grows more than the side thats getting the light so the plant grows toward the light.

DRUGS
Types of drugs - > medical
- > recreational -> legal
-> illegal
why?
-> mood, happier, relaxed, socialise
- > Performance enhancing drugs
Medical Drugs
New drugs - > Lab (tested on cells, tissue and animals) (tests toxicity)-> Volunteers (clinical trials)
(low dose) -> further clinical trials double blind so you dont know if youre getting the actual thing
or a placebo - > approved
Thalidomide (used for sleeping pill):
Toxicity PASS
Clinical PASS
Further Clinical PASS
APPROVED
Thalidomide to cure morning sickness:
Test -> Pregnant women
v
Babies -> Deformed limbs
v
BANNED

Recreational Drugs:

LEGAL
Caffeine ->
Nicotine ->
Alcohol ->

Addictive

ILLEGAL
Cocaine
- Heroin
HIGHLY ADDICTIVE - Cannabis -> May lead to mental illness -> Gateway drug
- Ecstasy
(ADVERSE AFFECTS ON HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM)

Anabolic steroids
Stimulants
ect

-> Build muscle

-> Increase heart rate -> work harder
-> beta blockers -> calm and steady

Adaptations
Competition
Compete to survie and reproduce
Plants compete for:
light
water
space
nutrients
Animals compete for:
- food
- territory
- mates

Extremophiles are organisms that have adapted to live in extrem environments

Salt

-> Sea
-> Lakes
-> Certain types of bacteria have adapted
-> Mangroves (Tree) -> Roots that absorb just the water from the sea and not salt
Heat -> 37 degrees
-> Camels have adapted to tolerate 40 degrees +
-> Bacteria has adapted to tolerate up to 80 degrees
Pressure
-> Ocean
-> Certain types of bacteria has adapted
-> Fish have adapted
-> Sea mammals such as whales and dolphins can deal with it
COLD ENVIRONMENTS
Polar bear/artic fox -> Thick coat of fur -> reduces heat lose -> traps air which is a good insulator
White fur for camouflage (snow)
Killer Whale -> Thick layer of fate -> good insulator -> reduces heat lose
Camouflaged
Reduce surface area in contact with air
Polar bear/artic fox -> small ears
Killer Whale -> large
HOT ENVIRONMENTS
Elephant
Surface area -> greater surface area easier to transfer heat
Large ears and lots of blood vessels in the ears so blood can be cooled down
DRY ENVIRONMENTS
Cactus ->Thick stem -> store water
-> Leaves -> Low surface area
-> Large and extensive root system -> near surface -> most likely to get water

Energy and Biomass in Food Chains

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light energy -> Chemical energy glucose

-> Proteins
-> Fats
-> Carbohydrates

(fox)
(rabbit)
(grass)
Pyramid of Biomass

Biomass is lost due to: respiration

waste

-> Movement
-> Heat
-> Faeces
-> Urine

NEW LIVING TISSUE

(BIOMASS -> GROWTH)

Decay
Living things need nutrients
Plants need nutrients from the soil
They need nutrients for healthy growth
Nutrients: Nitrates
Minerals
Leaves drop off trees, animals produce waste and every living thing will eventually die. Inside their
body ist still all the nutrients and it is important that all these nutrients get back into the soil so the
current living things can make use of them. This is done via decay. Decay is done by things that
will eat the bodies of the animals (microorganisms).
Amount of nutrients going into the soil is about the same as the amount of nutrients going out stable environment
Compost - plant material that has been broken down by microbes and can be put on soil to e
encourage plant growth.

Right conditions: Oxygen, Warm and moisture.

Holes in side of container to allow oxygen in as microbes use it for respiration. Respiration
produces heat which encourages further growth of microorganisms and open top to allow moisture
in

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon -> Proteins

-> Fats
-> Carbohydrates

->
->
->

Body Tissue of living things

Carbon dioxide in atmosphere

Adds extra
carbon to
atmosphere
Plants on land and in ocean take
in the carbon via photosynthesis

Respiration which
a waste product is carbon dioxide

Factories

Respiration
from
microorganisms
Animals eat the plant
and then they get the
proteins from that

Fossil
Fuels

Faeces
Decay
Microorganisms

Decay
Microorganisms

Death

Fossil fuels come from the remains of plants and animals that died millions of millions of years ago.

Reproduction
Cloning Techniques

Tissue Culture - Can produce thousands of clones of the parent plant (extensive)
Small groups of cells taken from leaf or stem or roots
These cells are then encouraged to grow by being put into nutrient agar (Aseptic techniques)
- Vitamins
- Sugars
- Hormones
Small plants will grow in the nutrient agar
They are strong enough to grow by themselves and can be planted into soil

Embryo Transplants
Take an egg and sperm cell
They fuse together to produce a fertilised egg cell
Grows into embryo -> ball of unspecialised cells
Embryo can be split into smaller balls of cells
Ball of cells then put into the host mothers
Eventually clones are born
Adult Cell Cloning
Sheep A is perfect
Skin cell taken from Sheep A and the nucleus is removed
Egg cell taken from Sheep B and the nucleus is removed
Skin Cells nucleus from Sheep A is placed into Sheep Bs egg cell
Small electric shock is given before the egg cell is planted into host mother to encourage growth
The Egg cell is planted into Sheep C - Host Mother
Clone is then born

Genetic engineering
-> Transfer of genes
Insulin -> controls level of sugar in blood
Find gene responsible for producing insulin -> remove it from chromosome via enzymes -> put into
bacterium -> bacterium reproduces and produces lots of insulin

Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction -> Male & Female sex cells (gametes)
-> Fusion of gametes
egg and sperm
Genetic information
(genes)
-> Variation (due to half chromosomes from mum and father)
Asexual reproduction -> One parent (no gametes)
-> No mixing of genes so clones
-> Strawberry and Spider plants

Evolution
Charles Darwin
Didnt believe darwin because:

1. God created everything

2. Not enough evidence
3. No way of understanding variation & inheritance

Natural Selection
All living species show variation
Some features give an advantage
Live longer, breed -> pass the genes on
The ones with disadvantage die out

DNA can be changed via mutation which is a random and spontaneous change in the genes
-> Further advantage
Millions of years for changes to happen

Darwin vs Lamarck
Darwin

Lamarck

Any species there is always some level of variation

between the species (e.g neck length of giraffe). The
features that give an advantage to the individual
allows it to live longer and if it lives longer it is more
likely to reproduce and pass these features to their
offspring. Overtime the feature becomes part of the
species.

In the lifetime of the species it would spend a long

time reaching up and stretching its neck for food.
Day in and day out over lifetime and due to the daily
stretching the neck gets longer and this feature can
be passed onto offsprings.