Geological Process

on the Earth

Dr. Tushara Chaminda

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering,
Uni. of Ruhuna

Soil Composition
Soil forms in layers during the process of its development.
The parent rock is the solid bedrock from which weathered
pieces of rock first break off.
The smallest pieces of weathered rock, along with living and
dead organisms, remain in the very top layer.
Rainwater seeps through this top layer of materials,
dissolves soluble minerals, and carries them into the lower
layers of the soil.

 Residual soil
parent bedrock.

is

soil

located

above

its

Transported soil is soil that has been moved to a

location away from its parent bedrock by agents of
erosion, such as running water, wind, and glaciers.
The parent bedrock determines what kinds of
minerals a soil contains.
The parent rock and climatic conditions of an area
determine the length of time it takes for
soil to form.

STAGE 1

STAGE 2

STAGE 3

STAGE 4

Definitions
Weathering, erosion, mass-wasting, and depositional processes occur at
or near the Earths surface and produce changes to the landscape that
influence surface and subsurface topography and landform development.
Weathering is the physical disintegration or chemical alteration of
rocks at or near the Earths surface.
Erosion is the physical removal and transportation of weathered
material by water, wind, ice, or gravity.
Mass wasting is the transfer or movement of rock or soil down slope
primarily by gravity.
Deposition is the process by which weathered and eroded materials
are laid down or placed in a location that is different from their source.
These processes are all very important to the rock cycle because over
geologic time weathering, erosion, and mass wasting transform solid rock
into sediments and soil that result in the redeposition of material forming
new sedimentary rocks.
5

Rock Cycle

Types of Weathering
1)

Mechanical (physical) weathering is the physical disintegration and

reduction in the size of the rocks without changing their chemical
composition.
Examples: exfoliation, frost wedging, salt wedging, temperature changes, and
abrasion

2)

Chemical weathering decomposes, dissolves, alters, or weakens the

rock through chemical processes to form residual materials.
Examples: carbonation, hydration, hydrolosis, oxidation, and solution

3)

Biological weathering is the disintegration or decay of rocks and

minerals caused by chemical or physical agents of organisms.
Examples: organic activity from lichen and algae, rock disintegration by plant or
root growth, burrowing and tunneling organisms, and acid secretion
7

I. Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rocks are
broken into smaller and smaller pieces by physical forces.
These physical forces may be running water, wind, ocean
waves, glacier ice, frost action and expansion and contraction
caused by gain and loss of heat.

The rock fragments in the lower right side

of this image have weathered as a result
of extreme fluctuations in day and night
temperature changes.

The weathered fragments of rock break

apart from the exposed rock from
freeze-thaw action and collect as
angular blocks of talus material.

Expansion by the freezing of water in pores and

fractures in cold regions

Abrasion processes in creek beds

produce rounded boulders and cobbles.
Over time, abrasion processes will
eventually break these rocks into
progressively smaller particle sizes, such
as gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

The processes most commonly involved in mechanical weathering are:

Mechanical unloading- Vertical expansion due to the reduction of vertical load by
erosion. This will open existing fractures and may permit the creation of new
fractures.
Mechanical loading- Impact on rock, and abrasion by sand and silt size windborne
particles in deserts. Impact on soil and weak rocks by raindrops during in tense
rainfall storms.
Thermal loading - Expansion by the freezing of water in pores and fractures in cold
regions, or by the heating of rocks in hot regions. Contraction by the cooling of rocks
and soils in regions.
Wetting and drying- Expansion and contraction associated with the repeated
absorption and loss of water molecules from mineral surfaces and structures.
Crystallization- Expansion of pores and fissures by crystallization within the minerals
that were originally in solution. Expansion is only severe when crystallization occurs
within a confined space.
Pneumatic loading- The repeated loading by waves of air trapped at the head of
fractures exposed in the wave zone of a sea cliff (steep rock stones face to sea).

2. Chemical weathering (decomposition):

Chemical weathering is the break-down of minerals into new compounds by the
action of chemical agents. The original material may be changed to something
entirely different (e.g. chemical weathering of feldspar can produce clay minerals).
Some chemical agents associate with chemical weathering are the acid in the air, in
rain and in river water.

Commonly occurring processes in chemical weathering are:

Solution -Separation of minerals in to ions. This is greatly aided by the presence of
Co2
in the soil profile, which forms carbonic acid (H2Co3) with percolating
rainwater.
Oxidation -The combination of oxygen with a mineral to from oxides and hydroxides
or any other reaction in which the oxidation number of the oxidized elements is
increased.
Reduction -Release of oxygen from a mineral to its surrounding environment (i.e.
iron leaves the mineral structure as the oxidation number is decreased).

Hydration -Absorption of water molecules into the mineral structure. This normally
results in expansion of material (some clay expand as much as 60%). By admitting
water accelerates the processes of solution, oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis).
Hydrolysis -Hydrogen ions in percolating water replace mineral cations (no
oxidation-reduction occurs)
Leaching -The migration of ions produced by the above processes. Ca, Mg, Na, K
are easily leached by moving water. Fe is more resistant, Si is difficult to leach and
Al is almost immobile.
Cation Exchange -Absorption onto the surface of negatively charged clay of
positively charged cations in solution (especially Ca, H, K, Mg).

Limestone weathered by
carbonation processes

Stalactite and stalagmite joining together in

Onondaga Cave State Park, Missouri.

The weathering rinds shown on this sample of

amphibolite illustrate the effects of hydrolysis
weathering on deposited rock fragments.

Hydration processes cause the formation of clays

and contribute to the reddish-tan color of the
saprolite.

The reddish-orange color of this sandstone is a

result of oxidation processes weathering the rock.

Subsurface dissolution of halite has

caused overlying rocks to collapse
and form crater-like features.

This is an example of a limestone

solution karst feature found in
Florida's Everglades National Park.

3. Biological Weathering
Biological weathering is the disintegration or decay of rocks and
minerals caused by chemical or physical agents of organisms.

Organic activity from lichen and algae

Rock disintegration by plant growth
Burrowing and tunneling organisms
Secretion of acids

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Lichen, Algae, and Decaying Plants

Organisms such as lichen and algae often live on bare rock and extract minerals from
the rock by ion-exchange mechanisms.
This bio-chemical weathering process leaches minerals from the rock causing it to
weaken and breakdown.
The decaying of plant materials can also produce acidic compounds which dissolve
the exposed rock.
The presence of organisms growing, expanding, or moving across the surface of the
rock also exerts a small amount of abrasion and pressure that gradually cause the
mechanical weathering of the rock as the organisms extract various minerals.

This is an example of biological weathering

that is caused by mosses and lichen
growing on the face of a rock.
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Plant Roots
The most common form of biological weathering is when plant roots penetrate into
cracks and crevices of rocks and cause the rock to split or break into smaller particles
through mechanical weathering.

Although, this process is gradual, it can be fairly effective at breaking apart rocks that
may already have a pre-existing weaknesses such as fractures, faults, or joints.

This is an example of a tree that

is growing between a crevasse
in a rock. The tree is splitting the
rock along parallel planes of
alignment that are already
weakened by foliation
processes, a form of mechanical
weathering.

19

Organism Activity

Burrowing, tunneling, and acid-secreting organisms are another form of biological

weathering that chemically or mechanically contribute to weathering.
Some animals may burrow or tunnel into rocks or cracks in rocks and cause the rock
to break down and disintegrate. Small animals, worms, termites, and other insects,
often contribute to this form of biological weathering.
Some organisms, such as snails, barnacles, or limpets, attach themselves to rocks
and secrete acid acids that chemically dissolve the rock surface.

The periwinkle snails on this rock

are secreting acids that dissolve
the rock. This picture is taken from
a volcanic shoreline in Hawaii.

20

Erosion
Erosion
Process by which weathered rock and soil particles are
moved form one place to another
Carries away products of weathering

Deposition
Process by which sediments are laid down in new
locations
Final stage in the erosion process

Erosion moves materials; deposition builds new

landforms

Agents of Erosion

Gravity
Wind
Running water
Glaciers
Waves

Running Water
Water has more power than wind to move particles (exceptions are
hurricane and tornado winds)
When water moves faster, erosion is greater
Erosion by running water in small channels on side of slope is rill
erosion
When channels become deep it evolves into gully erosion

Gravity
Pulls rocks and soil down slopes
Agent of mass movements
Landslides
Mudflows
Avalanches

Wind
Major agent of erosion in hot, dry climate or places with little or no
vegetation
When wind erodes soil to depth that water is present,
shrubs/grasses can growcalled oasis (happens in desert)
Wind barriers (windbreaks) are used to reduce effects of wind erosion
Trees, plants planted perpendicular to winds direction
Reduces soil erosion, can trap blowing snow, protect crops, etc.

Deposition
When the sediment being carried is dropped (or
deposited) in a new area, it is called deposition.
Depositions can create new landforms like
beaches and sand dunes.

Hydrological Cycle and Ground Water

Water makes us unique and gives life to Earth

25

The Hydrological cycle

Water distribution in the hydrological cycle:

Seas and Oceans

Snow and Ice
Ground water
Atmosphere
Fresh water Lakes
Salt water Lakes and Inland Seas
Soil Moisture
Rivers

97.08 %
1.99 %
0.62 %
0.29 %
0.01%
0.005%
0.004%
0.001%

Basin Hydrologic Cycle

28

Water in Natural Formations

Aquifer: a rock unit that will yield water in a usable quantity
to a well or spring.
(saturated geological formation, containing and transmitting significant quantities
of water under normal field quantities)
Aquiclude: formation containing water do not transmit
significant quantities
Aquifuge: formation does not contain nor transmit
Confining bed: rock unit with low hydraulic conductivity to
restrict movement of GW either into or out of adjacent
aquifers

Basin Hydrologic Cycle GW/SW Interaction

32

Unconfined Aquifers
Ground water occurring in aquifers: water fills
partly an aquifer: upper surface free to rise and decline:

unconfined or water-table aquifer: unsaturated or

vadose zone
Near surface material not saturated
Water table: at zero gage pressure: separates saturated
and unsaturated zones: free surface rise of water in a
well

Confined Aquifer
Artesian condition
Permeable material overlain by relatively
impermeable material
Piezometric or potentiometric surface
Water level in the piezometer is a measure of
water pressure in the aquifer

Water storing and transmitting capability

Geologic
Formation

Water Storing
Capability

Water Transmitting
Capability

Aquifer

Good

Good

Aquiclude

Fair

None-Very Poor

Aquifuge

None

None

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36

37

Recharge
Natural
Precipitation
Melting snow
Infiltration by streams and
lakes

Artificial
Recharge wells
Water spread over land in
pits, furrows, ditches
Small dams in stream
channels to detain and
deflect water

38

Groundwater Meets Surface Water

Stream and lake hydrodynamics is influenced by ground water.
How it is influenced depends on the water table level; hence, precipitation.
Wet seasons when theres high water, groundwater may feed the stream in
addition to runoff events.
Dry seasons when the water table is low, sheet flow runoff may be the only
source of stream flow, in which case the stream feeds (recharges) the
groundwater.

Wet season

Dry Season