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Studies in the Decorative Arts.
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KATHERINEW. RINNE
34
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Rome 35
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
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Studiesin theDecorarneArts/F
all-Winter
2001-2002
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Rome 37
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
oftheRegionary
Allowingforthelikelyexaggeration
publicfountains-5
With
thetransfer
of
would
be
even
half
that
numbers,
impressive.
figure
the capital of the Roman Empireto Constantinoplein 330 A.D.,
to maintainthe networkof
however,thevastsumsofmoneynecessary
wereno longeravailable.Graduallythesystem
aqueductsand fountains
In 537
ceasedto function.
and mostofthepublicfountains
deteriorated
of the aqueductsweresabotagedby invadingGoth
A.D., the majority
forces,thuscuttingoffwaterto bothpublicand privatefountainsand
almostcompletelydeprivingthe hills of Rome of theirwatersupply.
many
Althoughseveralaqueductswere restoredalmostimmediately,
called
the
down
to
the
lowmoved
Martius
(later
lyingCampus
people
Campo Marzio) to be close to the river,or theyabandonedthe city
Thus thehillswerenearlyemptiedofpopulation.
altogether.
water
For the next millenniumthe Tiber Riverwas the primary
and domesticneeds.Therewerea fewexceptions.
sourceforindustrial
suchas monasticcommunities
with
ororganizations
families,
Individuals,
somewealthmightownor drilla newwellfortheirprivateuse. A small
in theRomanForum,
suchas theFonsJuturna
numberofnaturalsprings,
continuedto flowat leastuntiltheNormanSack of1084,whenmuchof
In 1122
buriedunderfiveto tenmetersofrubble.6
thecitywasreportedly
known
as
the
Marrana
so
Callisto
II
diverted
a
small
brook
Acqua
Pope
thatit enteredthe cityfromthe east,throughthe PortaMetronia,and
then flowedthroughthe valleyof the Circus Maximusto the Tiber
River.7Althoughintendedto providewaterforthe animalsand lands
ownedbythechurchofSan Giovanniin Lateranoand locatedalongthe
route,the Acqua Marranawas crossedby public bridgesand flowed
have beenaccessedby
through
publicland:itcouldconceivably
partially
the Roman populace.Althougha fewof the aqueductswererestored
intermittently,
onlya handfulof the hundredsof fountainstheyonce
A statute
centuries.
servedwereoperablebetweenthesixthand fifteenth
in
publishedin 1452bytheMaestridelleStrade,theciviladministration
maintenance
of
mentions
their
mandate
to
of
the
charge
publicstreets,
butitappearsthattherewereonlya fewfor
careforthepublicfountains,
themto maintain(Fig. I).8
wherewomencollected
Only a fewpiazzashad workingfountains,
freshwaterthattheycarriedhome fordrinking,
cooking,laundry,and
bathing.The Acqua Virgo,an aqueductbuiltbyAgrippain 19 B.C., was
in lengthand ran entirelyunderground
untilit
only 19.04 kilometers
reachedthecity.Consequentlyit was the easiestaqueductto maintain,
and in factit was restored
periodically
duringthe medievaland Renaissance periods.Extensiveand well-documented
restorations
weresponsoredbyPope HadrianI in the 770s and byPope NicholasV in 1453.9
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38
Studiesin theDecorative
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FIGURE 1
documentedin Rome by
Publicfountains
1570. KatherineW. Rinne,2000.
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Rome 39
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
FIGURE 2
The eighteennew fountains
proposedfor
Rome in 1570. KatherineW. Rinne,
2000.
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40
2001-2002
Studiesin theDecorative
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restoration
oftheAcqua Vergine,buthe wentmuchfurther
to increase
a
series
of
new
fountains.
On July
waterdistribution,
developing
public
31, 1567, Pius establishedthe Congregazionecardinaliziasuperviispontibus
the"Congregation
ofcardinalsin chargeofstreets,
and
fontibus,
bridges,
to overseethepublicand privatedistribution
ofwater.17
On
fountains,"
September18, 1568, he named Giacomo della Porta,who was the
architect
forthecityofRomeat thetime,as thetechnicaladvisorforthe
thedesign,placement,
restoration
oftheAcqua Vergineand to supervise
In 1570 the
of new fountainsand theirconduits.18
and construction
all of
Congregazione
proposeda plan foreighteennewpublicfountains,
whichwere intendedforthe majorpiazzasand streetsof the Campo
ofthesenew fountains
was designedin 1572
Marzio(Fig.2).19The first
and completedin 1575 forthe Piazzadel Popolo (Fig. 3). It was soon
followedbyothersin the PiazzaColonna,Piazzadel Pantheon,and the
PiazzaNavona.
By 1594 the Acqua Verginesuppliedat least thirtypublicfoun^
tains- fromthe Piazza del Popolo to the Ponte Sant' Angelo and the
Campo dei Fiori.A second aqueduct,the Acqua Felice,was commissionedbyPope SixtusV and completedin 1587,and by 1594 it supplied
an additionaltwenty-three
public fountains.These too were widely
in
the
from
piazza frontof the Villa Medici,to the Moses
dispersed
Fountainon the top of the Quirinalhill,to the PiazzaMontanaranext
to theTeatroMarcello.By 1600therewereat leastsixtypublicfountains
withinthe walls of Rome. Most wereeithersmalldrinkingfountains
FIGURE 3
Giacomodella Porta,Fontanadella Piazza
del Popolo,designed1572,completed
1575. FromGianbattista
Falda,Le fontane
di Roma(Rome,1675). Photo:Fiske
ofVirginia.
KimballLibrary,
University
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Rome 41
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
piazzas(Fig. 4).
Rome
LaundrySites in Pre-Baroque
As withotherdomesticactivitiesbetweenthe sixthand sixteenth
has come to lightconcerning
centuries,littlereliabledocumentation
What
is
known
indicates
that
there
werephysicallimitsto the
laundry.
ofwater,and thereweremoralproblems
facedbythewomen
availability
who of necessitywereforcedto wash clothesin public.Accordingto
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42
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FIGURE 5
CarletonH. Graves,Wash-Dayin Italy,
of
photo 1900. CourtesyLibrary
Congress.
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Rome 43
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
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44
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Studiesin theDecorative
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laundrybasin to the rightof the Trevi ... forthe use of fullers,dyers,and
laundresses,and other cleaners of stains,"28
Late CinquecentoLaundrySites
In the late cinquecentotherewereseveralsiteswithinthe abitato
thatwerelargeenoughto accommodatea publicwash site. They hv
eludedthePiazzaNavona,PiazzaColonna,Piazzadi San Pietro,and the
Campo dei Fiori.Forreligiousand ceremonialreasonsthe Piazzadi San
Pietrowas clearlyout of the question,and the Navona and Campo
Since
civicfunctions.
locationswerealreadyassignedto othersignificant
as
a
communal
as
was
the
the
Piazza
Navona
was
used
market,
1477,
Campo dei Fiori,whichwas also an officialsite forpublicexecutions.
activities
wereconductedin themidst
Whilethesenoisyand malodorous
themostmundanetaskswere
oftheabitato,
womenwhowereperforming
and not allowedequal accessto thesecentral
shuntedto the periphery
which
all
contained
by 1594publicfountains
piazzas,
siteoutsidetheurbancenterwastheFontedi San
One suchlaundry
the
PalatinehillneartheTiberRiver.The district,
at
the
foot
of
Giorgio
knownas the Velabro,was richwithhistoricand mythicsignificance.
in the adjacentarea includedseveralancientbuildings,inStructures
cludingthe Templeof Hercules(also called the TempleofVesta), the
Templeof Portunus(also knownas theTempleofFortunaVirilis),the
Pons Sublicius(a bridgeoverthe Tiber),and theJanusQuadrifrons
(a
In
it
was
the
di
also
known
as
fact,
arch,
Tempio Giano).
triumphal
drifted
ashore
nearbythatthe infantsRomulusand Remuspurportedly
above
the
the
Velabro
a
Tiber
flood.
district,
Indeed,
onlyslightly
during
flooded.The site,justat theedgeofthe
leveloftheriver,wasfrequently
which providedan abundant,
a
natural
was
fed
abitato,
by
spring,29
beenusedas a washsitebefore
reliablesupplyofwater,and had probably
van Heemskerck
ofabout
Maarten
thenewbasinwasbuilt.A drawing
by
wash sitenear the ruinsof the Janus
1535 depictsan earlier,informal
a bundleof laundryon her
A
is
shown
woman
Quadrifrons.30
carrying
head, and some clean linens have been set out on the hillsideand
immediweightedwithstonesas theydry.Althoughthe neighborhood
wasdenselypopulated,therewereveryfewhouses
atelyto thenorthwest
the
around
laundrysite itself.The titularchurchesSan
immediately
Giorgioin Velabro,Sant'Anastasias,andSantaMariain Cosmedinwere
nearby.
In orderto increaseaccessto freshwaterin the city,Pope Pius IV
conditionsaroundthisnaturalspringand builtthenewpublic
improved
in 1563.In a 1575cityplan (printed
whichincludeda laundry,
fountain,
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Rome 45
Laundryin LateCinquecento
whichwas reachedby
in 1577),EtienneDu Peracdepictedthelaundry,
a rampand locatedin an excavatedarea thatseemsto have been about
two metersbelow groundlevel.31The printshows thirteenwomen
engagedin thevariousactivitiesofwashingclothes,and thesiteappears
largeenoughto have accommodatedat least twicethatnumber.The
clothes.The
groundoutsideand abovetheworkareawasusedfordrying
was longand narrow,
abouta meterhigh,32
U-shapedbasin,apparently
and women are shown workingin a line on both sides. An early
versionbyMarcusSadelerof a detailfromthe Du
seventeenth-century
Peracprintillustrates
thecharacterofthesiteand showsthe laundryin
theforeground
were,theyoffered
6).
(Fig. Simpleas thesearrangements
Womenworkedstandingup,whichis far
realamenities
and innovations.
lessphysically
than
demanding
workingon handsand kneeson a hard
stonesurface.
The location,probablyonlyeleven metersabove sea level at the
bottomof the ramp,was clearlyvulnerableto frequent
floodingby the
TiberRiver.The riverflowedat an averageheightof six and one-half
meters
abovesea level,and itcouldrisethreeto fivemetersduringsevere
a minorfloodaboutonce every
winterstorms.
On average,Romesuffered
tenyearsand a majorflood(greaterthansixteenmetersabove sea level)
once everyforty-one
Forexample,on September15, 1557,the
years.33
area was underas muchas six metersof water,and on December24,
floodrecordedin Rome, it was
1598,the yearof the mostdevastating
FIGURE 6 ,
Marcus Sadeler, Vestigidel Tempio di Giano
in Roma,Prague,1606. Engraving,
12 x 19
cm. Version^
ofdetailofplan ofRome by
EtienneDu Perac,1575 (printed1577).
Privatecollection.
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46
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it was locatedalmost
undernearlysevenmetersofwater.Furthermore,
ancient
channel
thatdrainedthe
over
Cloaca
the
the
Massima,
directly
RomanForumand theEsquilineHill, and servedas themajorsewerfor
thispartof thecity.WhenevertheTiberroseeven a fewmetersabove
itsnormallevel,riverwatercouldbackup intotheCloaca and floodthe
area.34It is notsurprising,
then,thatas earlyas 1567 Sebastiano
laundry
Varo describedthe laundryas "filledwithdirt,so thatthe earthfrom
In additionto thesephysical
above now overfills
the laundrybasins."35
therewereotherdrawbacksas well.
deficiencies,
areaof
livedin theimmediate
A largepopulationofpoorprostitutes
nearthechurchoftheirpatronSanta Maria
theFontedi San Giorgio,36
ancientTemple of Portunusclose to the
which
the
occupied
Egiziaca,
In the sixteenthcentury,the professionof laundresswas
laundry.37
The proximity
ofpracticing
consideredsuitableforformer
prostitutes.38
as
laundresses
and
working
may
livingnearby, ex-prostitutes
prostitutes
have taintedthe laundryarea forthe virtuouswomen who worked
housewivesand girlsdoingthefamilylaundry
alongsidethem.Ordinary
To washclothesin public,
vulnerableto harassment.
becameparticularly
with rolled-upsleeves,hitched-upskirts,and wet bodices,may have
suggestedthe same level of sexual availabilitythat lingeredaround
to
In July1566 Pope PiusV movedtheseprostitutes
former
prostitutes.
anotherghettoknownas the "Ortaccio,"an area betweenthe Piazza
Lombarda(now the Piazza Cinque Lune), the PiazzaCondopula (now
thePiazzaMonted'Oro), and thePortodi Ripetta,neartheMausoleum
wereremoved,
Evenaftertheprostitutes
ofAugustus.39
however,women
werestillat risk.In 1567 SebastianoVaro noted "manyinsolent,imyouths"who molestedthe womenwithdisproper,and presumptuous
honestwords,signs,and acts"withoutanyregardto publichonoror the
privacyof the womenwho gatherthere,includingmanymaidensand
With constantfloodingand continualharassment,
marriedwomen."40
have
been almostas intolerableas workingat the
situation
must
the
TiberRiver.
The Fontedi San Giorgio,shownas abandonedin the 1625 city
plan by Giovanni Maggi,seems to have been restoredand possibly
was builtnextdoor.41Both the
enlargedin 1637 whenan ironfactory
offloods,one
and a laterone followedin theaftermath
1637 restoration
The sitewas
1660.42
on
November
and
another
on February
5,
22, 1637,
describedagainin 1662 as being"dryand fullof dirtand coveredwith
In 1663,however,4,744 cubic metersof earthwereremoved
plants."43
fromthe Piazza del Pantheonand then depositedclose to the San
Giorgiolaundryfountain.The site appearedin a pair of "before"and
"after"
plansthatindicatean intentionto restorethe laundryfollowing
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Rome 47
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
the transfer
of earth.44The fountainmayhave continuedin use, aluntil at least 1756 when it, or another
thoughperhapssporadically,
of
nearbylaundryof the samename,was listedin a citywide inventory
fountains.45
the Lavatoiodi Piazza del Popolo, was comThe secondlaundry,
in
pleted 1584-Accordingto AlbertoCassio, writingin 1756, it was
"forthe use of poor womenwho did not have a
intendedspecifically
linens."46
This laundrywas locatedadjacentto a small
place to wash
- placed withinthe
at the edge of the abitato
growingneighborhood
contextof habitation,not desolation,as seen at the Velabro. The
area justoffthe Piazzadel Popolo,
laundrysitewas a smallrectangular
withhousesto thesouthand westand a walledgardento thenorth;its
boundarywas not an excavatedearthenwall, but houses and shops.
it was donatedby the Communeitself,ratherthan the
Interestingly,
The
laundryappearson the 1593 Tempestacityplan and was
pope.47
ofthe 1625 Maggiplan (Fig. 7), demonstratnamedas a distinctfeature
to thecity.Bytheeighteenth
its
century,
importance
ing acknowledged
A
it providedthe name forthe adjacentstreet,via delle Lavandare.48
and
Sixtus
V
for
the
Biblioteca
frescocommissioned
Vaticana,
byPope
the erectionof the
paintedbyCesareNebbia in 1589 to commemorate
obeliskin the Piazzadel Popolo,49providesa rareimageof the laundry
The frescoshows some of the physical
fountainin the foreground.
set
contextofthelaundry
basin, at theedgeofthePiazzadel Popolowith
a smalleranimal trough,and the ornamentalfountaindesignedby
waterfromthe della Porta
Giacomo della Portanearby.The run-off
fountainsuppliedboth the animal troughand the laundryfountain.
People,animals,and cartsareshowncrossingthisbusypiazza.Although
to the southof the
Nebbia also indicatesthat the area immediately
was
out
clothes
to
this
fountain usedforlaying
dry, seemsunlikelysince
a 1551 cityplan byLeonardoBufalinialreadyshowsthe area as somewhatbuiltup.
in thePiazzadel Popolowasnotonly
The siteforthispubliclaundry
different
fromtheearlierone in theVelabrobutalso different
physically
in termsof the social dynamicsof the people who used it. Although
laundresses,
mayhave used thisfaprofessional
perhapsex-prostitutes,
the
absence
of
a
of
in
the
immediateneighborcility,
ghetto prostitutes
hood probably
"insolentyouths"and the likefromtaunting
discouraged
wasclose
thewomenand girlswhoworkedthere.Althoughthefountain
to a majorcitygate,the Portadel Popolo, therewas nonethelessan
forwomento createa publicspaceforthemselves
underthe
opportunity
of
and
other
Little
lewd
behavwatchful
eyes grandmothers
neighbors.50
iorfromoutsiders
wouldhave been toleratedand womenweresafeto
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48
Studiesin theDecorative
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FIGURE 7
Detail ofplan ofRome byGiovanni
della
Maggi,1625. FromMaggi,Iconografia
cittdi Roma(Rome, 1625). The laundryof
the Piazzadel Popolo is seen at bottom
center.Photo:Library
ofCongress.
in a communallivingroomwatchedoverbyneigh'
socialize,essentially
domesticchores.The Nebbiafrescoclearlyshows
bors,as theyperformed
a childplayingwitha dog whilethe womenwork:suchStaffage
would
have underlined
one ofthesocialbenefits
ofpapal and civicbuildingto
the Romanpoor.
The thirdlaundrycomplex,the LavatoioFelice,was sponsoredby
and namedforPope SixtusV in 1588.LocatedatoptheQuirinalhill,far
uninhabitedpartof Rome,it
awayfromthe abitatoand in a relatively
used waterprovidedby the renovatedaqueduct,the Acqua Felice.
Hulkingremainsof the Baths of Diocletian,recentlyremodeledby
Michelangelointo the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, stood
nearby.There were other churchesas well as convents,villas, and
butonlya fewsmallhousesand not muchof a
gardensin the vicinity,
thearchitect
for
neighborhood
(Fig.8).51In 1590 DomenicoFontana,52
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Rome 49
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
FIGURE 8
Detail ofplan ofRome by Maggi,1625.
From Maggi, Iconografiadella cittdi Roma.
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50
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Studiesin theDecorative
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Fontanadi Mose in
Quirinalhill and decoratedit withthemonumental
asserteddominion
the formof a triumphal
arch,and thussymbolically
therock,
overthepestilential
CampoMarzio.HereMosesis seenstriking
he
water
to
Rome
as
just
broughtit to
symbolically
bringing
life-giving
the Sinai desert.
The Felice aqueduct,fountain,and laundrywerepartof a papal
in order
urbandevelopment
scheme,proposedandpartially
implemented
the city.They werealso intravelthroughout
to facilitatepilgrimage
tended to help create and supporta workingneighborhoodin the
thathe had
Quirinalarea.56Sixtusconsideredthe laundryso important
in
a frescoed
imageofit includedin a muralcyclethathe commissioned
1588forhisCasinoFelicein theVilla Montalto,locatedjustto thesouth
ofSanta MariadegliAngeli(Fig.9). These frescoes,
completedin 1589,
of
his
urban
major
projects,includingtheobelisksofSan
depictedmany
of the Column
Pietroand ofSanta MariaMaggioreand the restoration
the
Nebbia
frescostates
of MarcusAurelius.Latin textaccompanying
watersto the place wherethe poor
that"Sixtusbroughtthe propitious
The facilitywas supervisedby the
woman washed dirtylaundry."57
Cisterciannunsat Santa Susanna,underthe patronageof
neighboring
CamillaPeretti,a piouswidowand the sisterofSixtusV. Serviceswere
forthe womenwho used thislaunheld at Santa Susanna specifically
dry.58In the Nebbia frescotwo nuns appearto be escortinga noblewomen
whiletwenty-one
womanand noblemanon a tourofthefacility,
washclothesand waitfor
unhindered
bychildrenunderfoot)
(apparently
theirlaundryto dry.
The sitingof thisfacilityposes problems.It made sense as to the
Whomwas it meantto
ofwaterand increasedhealthfulness.
availability
serve?Fontana tells us that it was designedto accommodatethree
butwhoweretheyand wheredidtheylive?Certainly
hundredwomen,59
or
was locatedin thedisabitato,
theydid not livenearby,forthelaundry
overthe doorwaydid not
area of the city.The inscription
uninhabited
to the
butto "poorwomen"probablynot dissimilar
referto laundresses
Piazza
del
at
the
the
for
whom
women"
Popolo was
laundry
"poor
donatedby the Commune.Neitherdid Fontanareferto the womenas
so it is unlikelythattheylived
thetermforformer
convenite,
prostitutes,
at one of the nearbyconvents.Was it assumedthatwomenwouldbe
up anddowntheQuirinalhill,which
willingto carrytheirheavylaundry
meters
wasnearlyforty
awayfrom
higherthanand morethana kilometer
the Fontanadi Trevi,wherethereseemsto have been a laundrybasin,
perhapssince 1563? AlthoughFontana made no specificmentionof
in 1590,perhapsthesituationhad changed,becausein 1603
laundresses
to the womenwho used the chapel at the churchof Santa
he referred
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Rome 51
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
laundresses.
If thiswas the case,
Susanna as lavandaie,or professional
thendirtylaundrymighthave been collectedby wagonsfromvarious
clean. The women
and thenreturned
clients,deliveredto the laundry,
from
wherever
themselves
have
walked
to
work
might
theylivedin the
abitato.
of this
Severalquestionsemergeabout the physicalconfiguration
Fontanadescribedit as a kindofsafehaven.He referred
facility.
laundry
to it as a serraglio,
or enclosedcourtyard
overseenbya porter,who kept
thewomensecurefrom"everysortofdanger. . . and anysortofperson
The shutgatesuggests
whentheywereinsidetheshutgate."60
something
ratherthana publicfacility.
It is unclearwhether
similarto a nunnery,
oftheCistercian
thiscloseprotection,
accompaniedbythesurveillance
offemaleorders,61
wassimplyto protect
nuns,one ofthemostcloistered
virtuous
women(elevatedhighatop the Quirinalhill like the nuns) or
to providea safehavenforformer
prostitutes
workingas laundresses.62
thehonest
Such an opportunity
to washawayone'ssinsthrough
literally
FIGURE 9
CesareNebbia,LavatoioFelice,fresco,
1589. FromLudwigvon Pastor,SistoV: II
creatore
dellanuovaRoma(Rome, 1922).
Photo:IstitutoMassimo,Rome.
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52
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IllegalWaterUse
in the
sitessuchas thethreenewonesestablished
"Official"
laundry
latersixteenthcentury,in additionto the oldersitesat the Marrana
Brookand possiblyat the Fontanadi Trevi,could not beginto satisfy
demandin cinquecentoRome.66Women continuedto use the Tiber
River,and as a resultof the increasedwatersupplyand numerous
fountainsservedby the new aqueducts,womendevisedstrategiesto
morewaterforlaundryuses. One tacticwas to excavate
appropriate
sites underthe archesof the Acqua Verginebetweenthe
unofficial
Fontanadi Treviand the slopeof the Pincianhill,wherethe aqueduct
These illegallaundriessiphonedoffenormous
emergedabove ground.67
thus
of
posingthreatsto the overallpublicsupplyby
quantities water,
waterflowto publicfountainsand to legal,private
seriously
impairing
the
fromtheaqueductsuffered
locatedfarthest
The fountains
consumers.
A 1608 edict,issuedbytheCameraApostolica,strictly
mosthardship.68
forbadetappingAcqua Verginewatersforuse in "basementlaundries"
hiddenin cellarsand other"subterranean
places."Those whodidso were
and
ofall waterservices,
termination
scudi
to
a
five
hundred
fine,
subject
The size of the
at the discretionof the arbitrator.69
otherpunishments
the seriindicates
male
for
nude
that
five
times
swimmers,
fine,
illegal
ousnessof the threatto thepublicwatersupply.
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Rome 53
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
FIGURE 10
Giacomo della Porta,FontananellaPiazza
de' SS. Muti sottoCampidoglio(Fontana
CeremonialRome
The fountains
themselves,
costlyto buildand maintain,weremeant
as ornamentsto the city;therefore
theywereprotectedforaesthetic
was anothergraveoffense
forwhich
reasonsas well.Defacingfountains
both men and womenwerepunished.Women werespecifically
discifor
on
the
sides
of
ornamental
founhowever,
hanginglaundry
plined,
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54
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lines betweenbuildings,
tainsor adjacentwalls,and also forstringing
columns,and gatesnear the fountainsto hang theirlaundryto dry.71
Theseaestheticconcernswereno doubtpartially
relatedto theparticular
locationsoftheornamental
fountains.
of
the
fountains
wereplaced
Many
in specificpiazzas associatedwith carefullyorchestrated
processional
movementthroughRome,whereceremonyand ritualwereimportant.
The most famousprocessionwas the Possessoof a new pope, who
proceededfromSan Pietroto San Giovanniin Lateranoto layclaimto
his titularchurch.Other routeswerefollowedby visitingdignitaries,
headsofstate,whooftenproceededfromthePortadel Popolo
principally
theCampo Marzio
downtheCorsoto thePiazzaVenezia,thenthrough
The manynew
to the PonteSant' Angelo,and finallyto San Pietro.72
fountainslocated along theseroutes,builtby Pope GregoryXIII and
and Paul V and AlexanderVII in the
SixtusV in thesixteenth
century,
werenot onlypartof the growingarchitectural
seventeenthcentury,
refinement
of the city,intendedin part to impressvisitors,but also
of papal munificence.
Otherornamentalfountains
constantreminders
were placed at key politicalsites, includingthe frontof the papal
residenceat theQuirinalPalace and thetopoftheCapitolinehill,which
and the symboliccenterof the
was the seat of municipalgovernment
Commune.These locationsdemandeda level of civilizeddecorumat
suchas washingclothes.
oddswithdomesticactivities,
the ceremoRome'sthreeofficial
laundrysitesdid not compromise
the
to itsdepictionin theNebbiafresco,
nial imageofthecity.Contrary
basinnearthePiazzadel Popolowasnotactuallyin thepiazza,butto the
out of sightofany
westin a relatively
insignificant
position,essentially
area
would
have
been
blockedby the
to
the
Views
laundry
procession.
hundredsof people liningthe road duringa ceremonialpageant.Even
the Renaisthe Treviwas offthe majorceremonialroutesthroughout
statusafter
sanceand Baroqueperiods.The areaonlyacquireditspremier
modern
di
the completionof the
Fontana Trevi,designedby Nicola
Salvi,whicheliminatedthe laundrybasinthatBerninihad includedin
his 1640redesign
ofthefountain.73
Washingactivitieswerethenmoved
via del Lavatore74
at thefoot
butdistinctly
to thenearby,
unceremonial,
on
the
Salvi
Fountain
in
of the Quirinalhill afterconstruction
began
1735.75
Since theascendancyofPope MartinV in 1417 and therestoration
to reconstruct
ofthepapacyto Rome,therehad been a concertedeffort
Sixtus
IV
Nicholas
V
the imageofthe city.
(14474453),
(14714484),
widenedand pavedstreets,
created
and Leo X (1513-1521) aggressively
new piazzas,restoredaqueducts,bridges,and sewers,and set new stanIn partthiswas intendedto
dardsof elegancein palace construction.76
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Rome 55
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
Conclusions
In 1599 womenconstituted
onlyabout thirty-nine
percentof the
of
it
a
of
men
the pope, his
Rome,78
making chiefly city
population
household,cardinalsand their"families,"
monks,and manyitinerants
on
business
without
their
wivesand families.79
There
traveling papal
weretokenwomenin cardinals'households sisters,
aunts,and in-laws
who entertained
visitors
and
create
a social comdistinguished
helped
These noblewomen,however,werea relatively
smallportion
munity.80
ofthetotalpopulation.Nuns,prostitutes,
and courtesans
probablyconoftheadultfemalepopulationthanin most
stituted
a largerproportion
otherRenaissancecities.81Courtesanswere also subjectto numerous
mandatesintendedto controltheirbehavior;nonethelesstheymoved
Comfreelyin society,and manyof themownedproperty.
surprisingly
mon prostitutes,
who, like the Jewishpopulationin the ghetto,were
in wheretheycouldlive82and how theycoulddress,stillplied
restricted
theirtradethroughout
the city.83
There werealso femaleservants,
but
mostof the domesticactivitiesforwhich theywere employedwere
conductedin basements,
out of sightof the cardinalsand princes,and
In anycase,therewasa lotoflaundry
theirguestsandfamilies.
to do,and
itwasthejob ofwomento do it.Ordinary
womenand especiallythepoor
such
as
the
"married
women
and
maidens"
at thelaundry
ones,
fountain,
who operatedoutsidethe papal sphereof influence,may have been
perceivedas a potentialthreatto publicorder,and hence theywere
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56
2001-2002
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in thepublicyetmundaneactivitiesoftheir
ofpapal interference
targets
has alwaysbeen marginalized
of
women
lives.
The
work
through
daily
low pay, poor workingconditions,and sexual harassment.In Rome
as well,as
marginalized
duringthe late 1500stheirworkwas physically
siteswerelocatedat theedgesofthecity,farfromthe
theofficial
laundry
districtsdensestresidential
Dedicatedlaundrysitesbuiltin late cinquecentoRome mayhave
forboth ordinary
providedcleanerand healthierworkenvironments
whousedthem.The laundriesat
laundresses
womenand theprofessional
sitedforwomen'ssafetyand
were
not
and
the
the Velabro
Quirinal
convenience,however,butratheras a wayto regulatelaundryactivities,
a marginal
and controltheworkofwomen,and to segregate
to supervise
activityfromthe ceremonialcity.In addition,the workitselfand its
meant
associationwith"converted"prostitutes
workingas laundresses
in ways
thatwomenwho used the publiclaundriesweremarginalized
similarto otheroutcastgroups.Like the Jewishpopulationand prostitutes,theywereassignedtheirown ghettosin the leastsalubriousareas
ofRome.
laundrysites,the superiorexamplewas the one
Amongthe official
at the Piazza del Popolo, developedby the Commune itself,where
womenwereallowedto workwithinan area thatwas bothrelaxedand
between
a physicaland socialcompromise
safe.It appearsto have offered
and uncleannessoftheVelabrositeand the
theopenness,vulnerability,
on theQuirinalhill- between
serraglio
gated,policed,and well-ordered
and the moral
of insolentyouthsat the former
the lecherousscrutiny
scrutinyof the Church at the latter.It was this typeof facility,in
continualuse fornearly230 years,that provideda model forother
- smallerfountains,
withinsmallerpiazzassurrounded
facilities
byhouses
to
and
came
closest
that
be
and shops thatcould locallycontrolled,
creatinga viablelandscapeforlaundryin Rome.
has always
betweenwaterand topography
The physicalrelationship
had a profoundimpacton publicpolicyin general.Until mechanical
werereadilyavailablein the late nineteenthand early
pumpingsystems
- the actualtopogthephysicallandscapeofwater
twentieth
centuries,
raphyof a cityor site,and the elevationof the watersupplywithin
ofwhereandhowwaterwasdistributed.
determinant
it- wastheprimary
The relationshipof each waterfeature,whetheraqueduct,river,or
fountainwithinthe system,determinedto a largedegreehow much
watercouldbe deliveredto each partofthecity,and how it was stored
and distributed.
Topographyalso had a profoundeffecton how and
forritualuses,drinking,
wherewaterwasused- whether
laundry,
factory,
how thewaterwas displayedwhenit arrivedat
and so forth,
irrigation,
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Rome 57
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
- in jets,sprays,
itsdestination
etc.- and how it leftthe
falls,streams,
city.Whetherthe watersources(the springsand aqueducts)werecontrolledby privateindividualsor publicagenciesoftendetermined
who
for
the
water
and
whom
it
served
the
church,state,patron,
paid
or others.
populace,industry,
is one ofthebasicbuildAs mentionedearlier,waterinfrastructure
and
ingblocksofanycity,and yetit is largelyunknown,misunderstood,
disregarded
by historiansand other scholars.Because of the strong
and becausewater
betweenwaterand topography,
physicalrelationships
distribution
has been demonstrated
to be closelyallied withpolitical,
ofwaterinfrastructure
and socialagendas,an understanding
can
cultural,
providea valuabletool forurbananalysis.Fromthisbriefintroduction
theprovisioning
facilities
in
intoquestionssurrounding
ofpubliclaundry
late RenaissanceRome, it is apparentthat an examinationof water
infrastructure
can illuminatelargerquestionsabout the daily life of
ofan urbanimage,thepoliticsofsocialcontrol,
women,theconstruction
Researchof thistypeencourand the dynamicsof urbandevelopment.
based on an acages a new level of urbananalysisand appreciation,
of
the
that
forces
and processes,
knowledgment
hydrological
impact
and hydraulic
exerton urbangrowthand form.
technology
topography,
Waterfollowsthe same physicallaws and satisfies
the same needs for
oflocation.Hence,byexamining
humans,animals,andplantsregardless
itswaterinfrastructure,
a richerunderRome,or anyothercitythrough
is
of
urban
and
form,
technology gained- an understanding
history,
in therealcontextofthecity.This in turnbrings
standing
fully
grounded
ofthespecific
histories
and features
ofindividual
a deeperunderstanding
and places, and can help illuminatethe historiesof
neighborhoods
marginalpopulationsand activities.
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58
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NOTES
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Rome 59
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
il
34. Vittoriodi Martinoand M. Belati,Qui arrivo
Tevere:Inondazioni
del Teverenelletestimonianze
e
neiricordi
storici
(Rome,1980), 146-47,listsTiber
floodsbetween1230and 1937thatreachedat least
16 metersabove sea level.The 1557 floodroseto
18.90 metersabove sea level and thatof 1598 to
19.56 meters.
48. Blasi,Stradario,
226, mentionsthatwhenthe
laundryfountainwas demolishedin 1809-1814
laundresses
lived in the area.
professional
49. Publishedin Ludwigvon Pastor,SistoV: II
creatore
dellanuovaRoma(Rome, 1922), pl. 16.
50. See the articleby ElizabethS. Cohen and
ThomasV. Cohen in thisissue.
51. CarolynValone, "Women on the Quirinal
Hill,"ArtBulletin
76, no. 1 (March 1991): 128-46.
She describesthe populationand physicalconditionof the Quirinalat thistime.
64- Gregory
Martin,RomaSancta(London,1581),
ed. George BrunerParks(Rome, 1969), 145-46.
41. Rome,ArchivioStoricoCapitolino,credenza
52. Domenico Fontana,Della trasportazione
dell' See specificallythe section titled "Harlots and
I, 33: fol. 172r and v, Sept. 7, 1637, cited in
obeliscovaticanoet dellefabbriche
di NostroSignore Courtesans."
88. The floodof Febd'Onofrio,Acquee fontane,
Fata SistoV, bk. 2 (Naples,1603), 2: facingpl. 17.
ruary22, 1637, rose to 17.55 metersabove sea
65. JohannesA. F. Orbaan,"La Roma di SistoV
level.
53. Beata di Gaddo, Le fontanedi Roma (Genoa,
negli' Avissi,"Archiviodell R. SocietRomanadi
e fontane), StoriaPatria33 (1910): 306. He quotesan entryin
1964), 59 (quotingPecchiai,Acquedotti
42. Di Martinoand Belati,Tevere,147. The flood
of 22.34 cm to equal one
gives a measurement
an unnamedcollectionof bandifromthe Vatican
ofNovember5, 1660,roseto 17.11 metersabove
palmo.
Archives(Misc. Arm.V., vol. 210). I have been
sea level.WhenevertheTiberflooded,the recedunableto findthisbandoin orderto establishthe
ing waterswould have filledthe wash site with 54. "SIXTUS.PP.V.PAUPERUM.COMMODIdate.
alluvialsoil and debris.
TATI.MULIERUM.EXTRULFECIT.A.M.DII
XXX Vili," in Fontana,Della trasportazione,
2: pl.
66. Theremayhavebeena laundry
in thePiazzadi
"Il
lavatore
anche
ma
diruto
43.
esiste,
[sic] 17.
quale
San Silvestroby 1586. The Trevi basin thatape guasto,ripienodi sassie ricoperto
d'erbe";Giopearsin thecityplansof1575byDu Perac(printed
vanniAngeloMaffei,
55. Von Pastor,History,
22: 297.
Acquee
quotedin d'Onofrio,
in 1577), of 1593 by Tempesta,and of 1625 by
88, n. 16.
fontane,
56. Tod Marder,"Sixtus V and the Quirinal," Maggi mayhave been used forlaundry.In 1640
to regularize
the area in frontof Journal
Historians
BerniniremodeledtheTreviFountainand shifted
44. In an effort
37,
oftheSocietyofArchitectural
the Pantheon,AlexanderVII had the earthre- no. 4 (December1978): 286. Marderdescribesthe it to the positionit now occupiesin the piazza,
movedfromthe Piazzadella Rotundaon Septem- plans of SixtusV forthe entirequarter.The re- facingsouth, ratherthan west. See d'Onofrio,
ber 20, 1663. RodolfoLanciani,Rotondae terme centlycompletedAcqua Felice allowedSixtusto
531-36. A laundrywas built in
Acque e fontane,
ofthe initiatehis far-reaching
Agrippa(Rome,1882), 37. The marginality
plans,and,as Mardersug- 1614 near the JewishSynagogue;it used Acqua
Velabroarea mayexplainwhyit tookso long to
the Quirinalwas to fertilize
[his] Paola water.See AntonioNibby,Romanel anno
gests,"to irrigate
restorethesiteafterthe 1660 flood,or Alexander investments."
1838 (Rome, 1841), 4: 72.
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60
Studiesin theDecorative
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2001-2002
Arts/F
to live
77. In 1556 Paul IV forcedJewishresidents
in a gatedghettoalongthe TiberRiver.See von
17: 395-400,406-8,fora seriesof
Pastor,History,
bandiand avvisiissuedby Pius V concerning"the
ofmorals"in 1566-1567,and foravvisi
purification
from1568-1569thataddresstherelocationofprostitutesto theirown ghettos.
etsociale,1: 421-22.
78. Delumeau,Vieconomique
Renaissance
79. Partner,
Rome,48.
80. See Waddy,Seventeenth-Century
RomanPalaces,27-28,fortheexampleofCostanzaMagalotti
sister-in-law
ofUrbanVIII.
Barberini,
81. See Delumeau,Vie conomique
et sociale,1:
forprostitutes
in Venice
425, forpopulationfigures
and Rome duringthe seicento.
82. Von Pastor,History,
17: 396. For 1527 census
see ItaloInsolera,Roma,immagini
e realit
statistics,
dalXalXX secolo(Rome,1980;seconded.,Rome,
1985), 83.
83. Cassio,Corso,pt. 1: 317.
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