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The Landscape of Laundry in Late Cinquecento Rome

Author(s): KATHERINE W. RINNE


Source: Studies in the Decorative Arts, Vol. 9, No. 1 (FALL-WINTER 2001-2002), pp. 34-60
Published by: University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Bard Graduate Center
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KATHERINEW. RINNE

The LandscapeofLaundryin Late


CinquecentoRome
Althoughwateris a sine qua non forall human life,archaeological,
recordsconcerningits management,
and literary
historical,
particularly
are
and laundry
domesticpracticessuchas cooking,gardening,
regarding
essential
these
scant.Since womentypically
tasks,
everyday
performed
of theirlives.
lack of knowledgeof the activitieslimitsunderstanding
Water was needed forall such choresand was typicallycollectedat
Unlikemostdomesticlabor,which
wells,or streams.
fountains,
springs,
often
was a publicactivity,
was conductedinsidethe home,laundering
Insidethehomea
outsideat a fountainor alonga riverbank.
performed
whichsheworked
conditions
under
over
the
command
had
more
woman
than she did outside,wherepiazzas,streets,and streamswere usually
undercivilsupervision.
Hence,thepublicplaceswherewomencollected
had thepotentialto becomeflashpointsfor
water,or did theirlaundry,
physicaland emotionaltensionsbetweenwomen,and the civil authorof these
itieswho soughtto controlpublicactivities.An investigation
of
women's
interactions
providesinsightintohithertoneglectedaspects
lives in late cinquecentoRome.Justas growingknowledgeof Imperial
Roman bathingpracticesrevealsmuch about the social and cultural
thatshapedthepubliclivesofancientRomans,particularly
institutions
men,an increasedawarenessofpracticesassociatedwithwashinglinens
and clothingin thecinquecentocan reveala greatdeal aboutthedaily
for doing the
lives of women,who held the primaryresponsibility
the
for
of
locations
choice
The
official
activities,
publiclaundry
laundry.
of the cityas a
physicalcharacterof the siteswithinthe topography
to
and
communities
the
and
governments
whole,
policiesdevelopedby
muchaboutthestatusof
overseethosesitesand activitiescommunicate
toward
attitudes
the
official
about
and
these
tasks
at
who
worked
women
the use ofpublicstreetsand piazzasfordomestictasks.
ofwateris crucialto thesmoothfunctionControland distribution
theextentand fameof
considering
ingofanycity.Thus it is remarkable,
thattherecordfordomesticwater
Romanaqueductsand watersystems,
use in ancientRomeis so slim.As Dora Crouch,one ofthefewscholars
to tacklethe subjectofwaterdistribution,
pointsout in WaterManagementinAncientGreekCities(1993), verylittleis knownaboutdomestic
KatherineW. Rinne is Associate Fellow, InstituteforAdvanced Technologyin the
ofVirginia.
Humanities,
University

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Rome 35
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

wateruse in the Greekworld,even forsitesthatare well documented,


such as Athensand Morgantina,
Sicily.Paolo Squatriti,in Waterand
comSocietyin EarlyMedievalItaly,A.D. 400-1000 (1998), justifiably
the
to
an
that
documentation
of
domestic
plains
support understanding
waterutilization
duringthe medievalperiodis meagerat best,and that
evidenceforthe washingof clothesis almostnonexistent.
Nor is the
situationmuchimproved
fortheRenaissance.Onlyforthe late Renaissanceand Baroqueperiodsis enoughknownto allowsomeinferences
to
be drawnabouttherolethatthepublicwatersupplyplayedin thedaily
life of the city,includinglaundrypractices.The documentsconsist
of paymentrecordsto the architectsand sculptorsof the
primarily
and papal edictswarningofthepunishments
variouslaundryfountains,
those
who
dared
to washdirtylinensin the othercivic founawaiting
tains,whichwereintendedto ornamentthe publicstreetsand piazzas,
such as the PiazzaNavona. Fromthe late sixteenththroughthe nineteenthcenturies,
and finally
frescoes,
prints,
drawings,
photographs
provide a wealthof visualdetailabout the physicalsettingsof the public
fountains,
includinglaundrybasinsand the people usingthem.1Many
basins
remainedfunctionaluntil the end of the nineteenth
laundry
and earlytwentiethcentury.
Althoughthereare workingnineteenthfountains
still
in
small
townsthroughout
centurylaundry
operating
Italy,2thereare no surviving
examplesin Rome itself.
In RomeduringtheRenaissanceand Baroqueperiods,theprovision
ofpubliclaundry
a mundaneconcern,bristled
with
facilities,
superficially
and
social
Here
a
for
political
implications.
landscape
laundrywas
createdin whichwomenconducteda seemingly
purposely
privatedo- the washingof dirtylinens- in the publicrealm.The
mesticactivity
and administration
ofthesefacilities
had a
siting,
physicalconfiguration,
seriousimpacton the livesof the people who used them housewives
and theirdaughters
as well as professional
some of whom
laundresses,
wereformer
The juxtapositionof virtuousand "comproprostitutes.3
mised"women,working
sidebyside,createdan unusualsocialtensionin
thepublicpiazzas,bothamongthewomenthemselves
andbetweenthem
and the men who observedthem.As a result,laundryactivitieswere
strictly
regulated
bybothpapal and communalpolicy,and womenwere
for
outsidetheestablished
harshly
punished operating
physicaland social
An examinationof threelate cinquecentopublic laundry
parameters.
fountains
as reflections
of churchand community
policyis particularly
revealing.
The threenew public laundrysites in questionopened within
twenty-five
yearsofone anotherin Rome.In 1563 Pope PiusIV opened
the Fontedi San Giorgio,a laundryin the Velabrodistrict,
whichwas

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suppliedby a naturalspringnear the TiberRiver.The secondlaundry


theLavatoiodellaPiazzadel Popolo,wassuppliedbythenewly
fountain,
restoredaqueduct,the Acqua Vergine.Sponsoredby the civil administration,the Communeof Rome,the fountainwas builtin 1581 to the
west of the Piazza del Popolo. The third,the Lavatoio Felice, was
completedin 1588 by Pope SixtusV and was suppliedby the Acqua
the yearbefore.The aqueductand
Felice,whichhe had inaugurated
- FelixPeretti.The laundry
were
named
for
the
was
laundry
papalpatron
locatedon top of the Quirinalhill.
All threelaundrieswereplaced in peripheral
areasat theedgeofor
theinhabitedareaofthecity,ratherthanwithinthe
beyondtheabitato,
areasconvenientto the womenwho woulduse them.
mainresidential
Whereasthe sitingof the first
the Fontedi San Giorgio,was
fountain,
determined
by the locationof the existingspring,the locationsof the
otherlaundrieswerenotsimilarly
restricted
bywatersource.The Acqua
Vergineservedmostof the low-lying
Campo Marzio,whilethe Acqua
FelicesuppliedtheQuirinal,Esquiline,and Capitolinehillsas wellas the
thesouthern
endoftheCampoMarzionotservedbytheAcqua
Suburra,
the
Velabro
district.What were the politicsand urban
and
Vergine,
thechoiceofthesesites?Weretheyviablelocations
policiesmotivating
forpubliclaundries?

The WaterSupplyin Rome


In orderto understand
fresh-water
distribution
policyin cinquecento
to understand
who controlledthe water,whatit
Rome,it is important
wasusedfor,wherethemajority
ofthepopulationwaslocatedin relation
movedaroundthe
to the watersources,how the waterwas physically
was
available
for
how muchwater
publicconsumption.
city,and finally,
about the
As mentionedearlier,thereis an abundanceof literature
and
and
ancientRoman and Baroque aqueducts
fountains, yet little
thereis
foreitherperiod.Additionally,
knowledgeofwaterdistribution
for
the
one
of waterdistribution
thousand
littleunderstanding
nearly
yearsthatseparatetheseperiods,when freshwaterresourceswereseverelylimited.
fortheirquantity
werefamedthroughout
Romanfountains
antiquity
and
and beautyas well as the abundance
salubrityof theirwaters.
Between312 B.C. and 226 A.D. elevenaqueductswerebuiltto servea
In 97 A.D, SextusJuliusFrontinus,
numberof fountains.4
staggering
of the waterboardunderEmperorNerva,reported630
administrator
of
in the city.The Regionary
Catalogue,an inventory
publicfountains
datingfromthetimeofConstantine,listed1,352
publicworksprobably

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Rome 37
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

oftheRegionary
Allowingforthelikelyexaggeration
publicfountains-5
With
thetransfer
of
would
be
even
half
that
numbers,
impressive.
figure
the capital of the Roman Empireto Constantinoplein 330 A.D.,
to maintainthe networkof
however,thevastsumsofmoneynecessary
wereno longeravailable.Graduallythesystem
aqueductsand fountains
In 537
ceasedto function.
and mostofthepublicfountains
deteriorated
of the aqueductsweresabotagedby invadingGoth
A.D., the majority
forces,thuscuttingoffwaterto bothpublicand privatefountainsand
almostcompletelydeprivingthe hills of Rome of theirwatersupply.
many
Althoughseveralaqueductswere restoredalmostimmediately,
called
the
down
to
the
lowmoved
Martius
(later
lyingCampus
people
Campo Marzio) to be close to the river,or theyabandonedthe city
Thus thehillswerenearlyemptiedofpopulation.
altogether.
water
For the next millenniumthe Tiber Riverwas the primary
and domesticneeds.Therewerea fewexceptions.
sourceforindustrial
suchas monasticcommunities
with
ororganizations
families,
Individuals,
somewealthmightownor drilla newwellfortheirprivateuse. A small
in theRomanForum,
suchas theFonsJuturna
numberofnaturalsprings,
continuedto flowat leastuntiltheNormanSack of1084,whenmuchof
In 1122
buriedunderfiveto tenmetersofrubble.6
thecitywasreportedly
known
as
the
Marrana
so
Callisto
II
diverted
a
small
brook
Acqua
Pope
thatit enteredthe cityfromthe east,throughthe PortaMetronia,and
then flowedthroughthe valleyof the Circus Maximusto the Tiber
River.7Althoughintendedto providewaterforthe animalsand lands
ownedbythechurchofSan Giovanniin Lateranoand locatedalongthe
route,the Acqua Marranawas crossedby public bridgesand flowed
have beenaccessedby
through
publicland:itcouldconceivably
partially
the Roman populace.Althougha fewof the aqueductswererestored
intermittently,
onlya handfulof the hundredsof fountainstheyonce
A statute
centuries.
servedwereoperablebetweenthesixthand fifteenth
in
publishedin 1452bytheMaestridelleStrade,theciviladministration
maintenance
of
mentions
their
mandate
to
of
the
charge
publicstreets,
butitappearsthattherewereonlya fewfor
careforthepublicfountains,
themto maintain(Fig. I).8
wherewomencollected
Only a fewpiazzashad workingfountains,
freshwaterthattheycarriedhome fordrinking,
cooking,laundry,and
bathing.The Acqua Virgo,an aqueductbuiltbyAgrippain 19 B.C., was
in lengthand ran entirelyunderground
untilit
only 19.04 kilometers
reachedthecity.Consequentlyit was the easiestaqueductto maintain,
and in factit was restored
periodically
duringthe medievaland Renaissance periods.Extensiveand well-documented
restorations
weresponsoredbyPope HadrianI in the 770s and byPope NicholasV in 1453.9

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FIGURE 1
documentedin Rome by
Publicfountains
1570. KatherineW. Rinne,2000.

At aboutthe same timethatNicholasrestoredthe Acqua Virgo,then


knownas the Acqua Vergine,he also builta new publicfountainat
Santa Maria Maddelenanear the Pantheon10and commissioned
Leon
drew
BattistaAlbertito remodeltheFontanadi Trevi.11Bothfountains
waterfromtheAcqua Vergine.The Acqua Traiana,whichenteredthe
cityfromwestoftheTiberRiver,wasbuiltbyTrajanin 109 A.D. It was
restored
byHadrianI in the eighthcenturyand laterbyPopesGregory
IV (827-844) and NicholasI (858-867) in orderto insurea continuous
hill, to the Vatican,and to
supplyof waterto millson the Janiculum
in
San
The Acqua Traina
located
the
Piazza
di
Pietro.12
fountains
public
was probablynot functioning
duringthe late Middle Ages and early
Renaissance.Rather,thehandfulofpublicfountains
associatedwiththe
In
Vaticanand St. Peter'swereprobably
suppliedfromnearbysprings.13

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Rome 39
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

frontof the Churchof Santa Maria in Trastevere,therewas also a


fountain,
perhapssuppliedby one of the numerousspringson the east
hill14Thisfountain,
whichappearsin a 1471map
slopeoftheJaniculum
ofRomebyPietrodel Massaio,15
was restored
byNicolasV forthe 1450
HolyYearand againbyPope AlexanderVI in 1500-Ifa womandid not
livenearone ofthesepublicfountains,
or iftherewas no wellor cistern
waterwithinher livingcompound,she collectedTiber River water
or boughtit fromtheacquaeroli(watersellers)who sold it from
herself,
barrelscarriedfromdoorto dooron donkeys.
The firstcomprehensive
overhauland amplification
of the public
fountainsystemsince antiquity(as opposed to the constructionor
restoration
ofa singlefountain)was initiatedbyPope PiusV in 1566 in
responseto a typhoidepidemic,whichkilledthousandsofpeoplein the
denselypopulatedCampo Marzio.16Like Nicholas,he too sponsoreda

FIGURE 2
The eighteennew fountains
proposedfor
Rome in 1570. KatherineW. Rinne,
2000.

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restoration
oftheAcqua Vergine,buthe wentmuchfurther
to increase
a
series
of
new
fountains.
On July
waterdistribution,
developing
public
31, 1567, Pius establishedthe Congregazionecardinaliziasuperviispontibus

the"Congregation
ofcardinalsin chargeofstreets,
and
fontibus,
bridges,
to overseethepublicand privatedistribution
ofwater.17
On
fountains,"
September18, 1568, he named Giacomo della Porta,who was the
architect
forthecityofRomeat thetime,as thetechnicaladvisorforthe
thedesign,placement,
restoration
oftheAcqua Vergineand to supervise
In 1570 the
of new fountainsand theirconduits.18
and construction
all of
Congregazione
proposeda plan foreighteennewpublicfountains,
whichwere intendedforthe majorpiazzasand streetsof the Campo
ofthesenew fountains
was designedin 1572
Marzio(Fig.2).19The first
and completedin 1575 forthe Piazzadel Popolo (Fig. 3). It was soon
followedbyothersin the PiazzaColonna,Piazzadel Pantheon,and the
PiazzaNavona.
By 1594 the Acqua Verginesuppliedat least thirtypublicfoun^
tains- fromthe Piazza del Popolo to the Ponte Sant' Angelo and the
Campo dei Fiori.A second aqueduct,the Acqua Felice,was commissionedbyPope SixtusV and completedin 1587,and by 1594 it supplied
an additionaltwenty-three
public fountains.These too were widely
in
the
from
piazza frontof the Villa Medici,to the Moses
dispersed
Fountainon the top of the Quirinalhill,to the PiazzaMontanaranext
to theTeatroMarcello.By 1600therewereat leastsixtypublicfountains
withinthe walls of Rome. Most wereeithersmalldrinkingfountains

FIGURE 3
Giacomodella Porta,Fontanadella Piazza
del Popolo,designed1572,completed
1575. FromGianbattista
Falda,Le fontane
di Roma(Rome,1675). Photo:Fiske
ofVirginia.
KimballLibrary,
University

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Rome 41
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

attachedto streetwallsof palaces,or purelydecorativefountainsthat FIGURE 4


Documentedpublicfountains
in use in
wereusuallyplaced in the centerof important
piazzasand intendedto
intramural
Rome by 1600, including
ornament
thecity,butanimaltroughsand laundryfountains
werebuilt
animaltroughs,
and laundry
drinking,
at severallocationsas well. Graduallythe focus of water-gathering
use.
fountains,
categorized
byprimary
activitiesshiftedaway fromthe Tiber River into the neighborhood KatherineW. Rinne,2000.

piazzas(Fig. 4).

Rome
LaundrySites in Pre-Baroque
As withotherdomesticactivitiesbetweenthe sixthand sixteenth
has come to lightconcerning
centuries,littlereliabledocumentation
What
is
known
indicates
that
there
werephysicallimitsto the
laundry.
ofwater,and thereweremoralproblems
facedbythewomen
availability
who of necessitywereforcedto wash clothesin public.Accordingto

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PatriciaWaddy,noble womenand theirattendantsin the earlysevenwhichwereusuallybuiltin palace


teenthcentury
had privatelaundries,
basements.20
Beforethenmostpalacesdid not have pipedwater,and it
is unclearwhere these householdswashed theirclothes and linens.
Servantsmighthave usedwellwateror gonedownto theriver.Perhaps
to a countryvilla estatewithpipedwater,and
laundrywas transported
the
Forordinary
thenreturned
to
urbanpalace in wagons.21
women,the
TiberRiverwasprobably
themajorpublicwashsitebetweenthesackof
werebuilt.
537 A.D. and thelatecinquecentowhennewpubliclaundries
Womenknelton flatstonesat thewater'sedgeand scrubbedthelaundry
withsmallerstones,or stoodand stampedon theclotheswiththeirbare
feet(Fig.5). Forthe"annualwash,"whichwasthespringcleaning,when
all winterclotheswerewashed,cauldronsweresetup, and clotheswere
in a causticsoda or ash solution,and then
boiledand soakedovernight
washedat the river'sedge.Since wet laundryis extremely
heavy,there
was probablya dryingarea on the nearbybank.

FIGURE 5
CarletonH. Graves,Wash-Dayin Italy,
of
photo 1900. CourtesyLibrary
Congress.

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Rome 43
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

Even in the bestof timestheTiberwas a miserableplace to work.


The riverbankwas squalid. Filth washed ashore fromshippingand
brickfactories,
cat gutdealriverside
activitiessuchas slaughterhouses,
tanneries.
Refuse
flowed
into
the
Tiber
from
the few
and
ers,mills,
sewers.The same 1452 edict fromthe Maestridellestrade
functioning
ofpublicfountains
also specified
thatrefuse
the
concerning maintenance
and butchers,
fromfishmongers
etc.,be dumpeddirectlyintothe Tiber
and
itsprimacy
as the
to
streets
(as opposed public
piazzas),thusassuring
chiefsewerof Rome.22The Tiber was also notoriousforfrequentand
or rendereduselessany
floodswhichmusthave destroyed
devastating
riverbank
washsites.In winterthe riverwas swollenwithrain,and in
risk
whenthewaterswereslowand rank,therewasconsiderable
summer,
cleanerTibersitesat the northend of the
ofdisease.At the relatively
city,womenwereoftenthreatenedby nude male batherswho swam
nearby,forexampleat the beach adjacentto the Ospedale di Santo
Spiritoin the Borgo.Fromat least 1599 on, menwerefineda hundred
the moralsof the "marriedwomenand
scudi if caughtcompromising
Faced withmiasmicphysical
maidens"neartheriverinelaundrysites.23
social settings,
it seemsapparent
conditionsand morallycompromised
that if moresalubriouslargesiteshad been available,Roman women
wouldhave usedthem.
It appearsthattherewereat leasttwopre-cinquecento
laundrysites
in additionto theTiberRiver.One was alongthebanksoftheMarrana
BrookinsidethePortaMetronia,whereJohnCapgraveobservedseveral
nunsdoingtheirlaundryin 1450.24Therewasprobablyanotherlaundry
at the Trevi Fountain.In a 1414 frescomap of Rome by Taddeo di
Bartolo,locatedin the PalazzoPubblicoin Siena, the Treviis depicted
withthreeseparatebasins.Consideringthe scarcityof freshwater,it is
purpose:
possiblethateach basinmayhave been intendedfora different
anotherforanimals,and the thirdfor
one forhumanconsumption,
or leathertanning.The acquacaduta,or
nonpotableusessuchas laundry
run-off
waterfromthemainbasin,couldeasilyhave been pipedintoan
animalbasinand thena laundrybasin,as was done withlaterBaroque
fountains.25
When Albertiredesignedthe Trevi Fountainin 1453, he
substituted
a singlelargebasin. Giacomo della Porta redesignedthe
in 1563,26and perhapsaddeda laundry
basinlikethe
fountain,
probably
one thatappearsto thenorthof the fountainin the cityplansof 1575
(printedin 1577) byEtienneDu Perac,of 1593 byAntonioTempesta,
andof1625byGiovanniMaggi.27
It is unclearwhetherthisfountain
was
a laundrybasin or a basin forfullersor purgatane
to processwool, or
perhapsboth,at alternatetimesof the day or week. In 1570 Pius V
provideda fountainforfullers,but in 1585 SixtusV placed a "long

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laundrybasin to the rightof the Trevi ... forthe use of fullers,dyers,and
laundresses,and other cleaners of stains,"28

Late CinquecentoLaundrySites
In the late cinquecentotherewereseveralsiteswithinthe abitato
thatwerelargeenoughto accommodatea publicwash site. They hv
eludedthePiazzaNavona,PiazzaColonna,Piazzadi San Pietro,and the
Campo dei Fiori.Forreligiousand ceremonialreasonsthe Piazzadi San
Pietrowas clearlyout of the question,and the Navona and Campo
Since
civicfunctions.
locationswerealreadyassignedto othersignificant
as
a
communal
as
was
the
the
Piazza
Navona
was
used
market,
1477,
Campo dei Fiori,whichwas also an officialsite forpublicexecutions.
activities
wereconductedin themidst
Whilethesenoisyand malodorous
themostmundanetaskswere
oftheabitato,
womenwhowereperforming
and not allowedequal accessto thesecentral
shuntedto the periphery
which
all
contained
by 1594publicfountains
piazzas,
siteoutsidetheurbancenterwastheFontedi San
One suchlaundry
the
PalatinehillneartheTiberRiver.The district,
at
the
foot
of
Giorgio
knownas the Velabro,was richwithhistoricand mythicsignificance.
in the adjacentarea includedseveralancientbuildings,inStructures
cludingthe Templeof Hercules(also called the TempleofVesta), the
Templeof Portunus(also knownas theTempleofFortunaVirilis),the
Pons Sublicius(a bridgeoverthe Tiber),and theJanusQuadrifrons
(a
In
it
was
the
di
also
known
as
fact,
arch,
Tempio Giano).
triumphal
drifted
ashore
nearbythatthe infantsRomulusand Remuspurportedly
above
the
the
Velabro
a
Tiber
flood.
district,
Indeed,
onlyslightly
during
flooded.The site,justat theedgeofthe
leveloftheriver,wasfrequently
which providedan abundant,
a
natural
was
fed
abitato,
by
spring,29
beenusedas a washsitebefore
reliablesupplyofwater,and had probably
van Heemskerck
ofabout
Maarten
thenewbasinwasbuilt.A drawing
by
wash sitenear the ruinsof the Janus
1535 depictsan earlier,informal
a bundleof laundryon her
A
is
shown
woman
Quadrifrons.30
carrying
head, and some clean linens have been set out on the hillsideand
immediweightedwithstonesas theydry.Althoughthe neighborhood
wasdenselypopulated,therewereveryfewhouses
atelyto thenorthwest
the
around
laundrysite itself.The titularchurchesSan
immediately
Giorgioin Velabro,Sant'Anastasias,andSantaMariain Cosmedinwere
nearby.
In orderto increaseaccessto freshwaterin the city,Pope Pius IV
conditionsaroundthisnaturalspringand builtthenewpublic
improved
in 1563.In a 1575cityplan (printed
whichincludeda laundry,
fountain,

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Rome 45
Laundryin LateCinquecento

whichwas reachedby
in 1577),EtienneDu Peracdepictedthelaundry,
a rampand locatedin an excavatedarea thatseemsto have been about
two metersbelow groundlevel.31The printshows thirteenwomen
engagedin thevariousactivitiesofwashingclothes,and thesiteappears
largeenoughto have accommodatedat least twicethatnumber.The
clothes.The
groundoutsideand abovetheworkareawasusedfordrying
was longand narrow,
abouta meterhigh,32
U-shapedbasin,apparently
and women are shown workingin a line on both sides. An early
versionbyMarcusSadelerof a detailfromthe Du
seventeenth-century
Peracprintillustrates
thecharacterofthesiteand showsthe laundryin
theforeground
were,theyoffered
6).
(Fig. Simpleas thesearrangements
Womenworkedstandingup,whichis far
realamenities
and innovations.
lessphysically
than
demanding
workingon handsand kneeson a hard
stonesurface.
The location,probablyonlyeleven metersabove sea level at the
bottomof the ramp,was clearlyvulnerableto frequent
floodingby the
TiberRiver.The riverflowedat an averageheightof six and one-half
meters
abovesea level,and itcouldrisethreeto fivemetersduringsevere
a minorfloodaboutonce every
winterstorms.
On average,Romesuffered
tenyearsand a majorflood(greaterthansixteenmetersabove sea level)
once everyforty-one
Forexample,on September15, 1557,the
years.33
area was underas muchas six metersof water,and on December24,
floodrecordedin Rome, it was
1598,the yearof the mostdevastating

FIGURE 6 ,
Marcus Sadeler, Vestigidel Tempio di Giano

in Roma,Prague,1606. Engraving,
12 x 19
cm. Version^
ofdetailofplan ofRome by
EtienneDu Perac,1575 (printed1577).
Privatecollection.

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46

all-Winter
2001-2002
Studiesin theDecorative
Arts/F

it was locatedalmost
undernearlysevenmetersofwater.Furthermore,
ancient
channel
thatdrainedthe
over
Cloaca
the
the
Massima,
directly
RomanForumand theEsquilineHill, and servedas themajorsewerfor
thispartof thecity.WhenevertheTiberroseeven a fewmetersabove
itsnormallevel,riverwatercouldbackup intotheCloaca and floodthe
area.34It is notsurprising,
then,thatas earlyas 1567 Sebastiano
laundry
Varo describedthe laundryas "filledwithdirt,so thatthe earthfrom
In additionto thesephysical
above now overfills
the laundrybasins."35
therewereotherdrawbacksas well.
deficiencies,
areaof
livedin theimmediate
A largepopulationofpoorprostitutes
nearthechurchoftheirpatronSanta Maria
theFontedi San Giorgio,36
ancientTemple of Portunusclose to the
which
the
occupied
Egiziaca,
In the sixteenthcentury,the professionof laundresswas
laundry.37
The proximity
ofpracticing
consideredsuitableforformer
prostitutes.38
as
laundresses
and
working
may
livingnearby, ex-prostitutes
prostitutes
have taintedthe laundryarea forthe virtuouswomen who worked
housewivesand girlsdoingthefamilylaundry
alongsidethem.Ordinary
To washclothesin public,
vulnerableto harassment.
becameparticularly
with rolled-upsleeves,hitched-upskirts,and wet bodices,may have
suggestedthe same level of sexual availabilitythat lingeredaround
to
In July1566 Pope PiusV movedtheseprostitutes
former
prostitutes.
anotherghettoknownas the "Ortaccio,"an area betweenthe Piazza
Lombarda(now the Piazza Cinque Lune), the PiazzaCondopula (now
thePiazzaMonted'Oro), and thePortodi Ripetta,neartheMausoleum
wereremoved,
Evenaftertheprostitutes
ofAugustus.39
however,women
werestillat risk.In 1567 SebastianoVaro noted "manyinsolent,imyouths"who molestedthe womenwithdisproper,and presumptuous
honestwords,signs,and acts"withoutanyregardto publichonoror the
privacyof the womenwho gatherthere,includingmanymaidensand
With constantfloodingand continualharassment,
marriedwomen."40
have
been almostas intolerableas workingat the
situation
must
the
TiberRiver.
The Fontedi San Giorgio,shownas abandonedin the 1625 city
plan by Giovanni Maggi,seems to have been restoredand possibly
was builtnextdoor.41Both the
enlargedin 1637 whenan ironfactory
offloods,one
and a laterone followedin theaftermath
1637 restoration
The sitewas
1660.42
on
November
and
another
on February
5,
22, 1637,
describedagainin 1662 as being"dryand fullof dirtand coveredwith
In 1663,however,4,744 cubic metersof earthwereremoved
plants."43
fromthe Piazza del Pantheonand then depositedclose to the San
Giorgiolaundryfountain.The site appearedin a pair of "before"and
"after"
plansthatindicatean intentionto restorethe laundryfollowing

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Rome 47
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

the transfer
of earth.44The fountainmayhave continuedin use, aluntil at least 1756 when it, or another
thoughperhapssporadically,
of
nearbylaundryof the samename,was listedin a citywide inventory
fountains.45
the Lavatoiodi Piazza del Popolo, was comThe secondlaundry,
in
pleted 1584-Accordingto AlbertoCassio, writingin 1756, it was
"forthe use of poor womenwho did not have a
intendedspecifically
linens."46
This laundrywas locatedadjacentto a small
place to wash
- placed withinthe
at the edge of the abitato
growingneighborhood
contextof habitation,not desolation,as seen at the Velabro. The
area justoffthe Piazzadel Popolo,
laundrysitewas a smallrectangular
withhousesto thesouthand westand a walledgardento thenorth;its
boundarywas not an excavatedearthenwall, but houses and shops.
it was donatedby the Communeitself,ratherthan the
Interestingly,
The
laundryappearson the 1593 Tempestacityplan and was
pope.47
ofthe 1625 Maggiplan (Fig. 7), demonstratnamedas a distinctfeature
to thecity.Bytheeighteenth
its
century,
importance
ing acknowledged
A
it providedthe name forthe adjacentstreet,via delle Lavandare.48
and
Sixtus
V
for
the
Biblioteca
frescocommissioned
Vaticana,
byPope
the erectionof the
paintedbyCesareNebbia in 1589 to commemorate
obeliskin the Piazzadel Popolo,49providesa rareimageof the laundry
The frescoshows some of the physical
fountainin the foreground.
set
contextofthelaundry
basin, at theedgeofthePiazzadel Popolowith
a smalleranimal trough,and the ornamentalfountaindesignedby
waterfromthe della Porta
Giacomo della Portanearby.The run-off
fountainsuppliedboth the animal troughand the laundryfountain.
People,animals,and cartsareshowncrossingthisbusypiazza.Although
to the southof the
Nebbia also indicatesthat the area immediately
was
out
clothes
to
this
fountain usedforlaying
dry, seemsunlikelysince
a 1551 cityplan byLeonardoBufalinialreadyshowsthe area as somewhatbuiltup.
in thePiazzadel Popolowasnotonly
The siteforthispubliclaundry
different
fromtheearlierone in theVelabrobutalso different
physically
in termsof the social dynamicsof the people who used it. Although
laundresses,
mayhave used thisfaprofessional
perhapsex-prostitutes,
the
absence
of
a
of
in
the
immediateneighborcility,
ghetto prostitutes
hood probably
"insolentyouths"and the likefromtaunting
discouraged
wasclose
thewomenand girlswhoworkedthere.Althoughthefountain
to a majorcitygate,the Portadel Popolo, therewas nonethelessan
forwomento createa publicspaceforthemselves
underthe
opportunity
of
and
other
Little
lewd
behavwatchful
eyes grandmothers
neighbors.50
iorfromoutsiders
wouldhave been toleratedand womenweresafeto

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48

Studiesin theDecorative
all-Winter
2001-2002
Arts/F

FIGURE 7
Detail ofplan ofRome byGiovanni
della
Maggi,1625. FromMaggi,Iconografia
cittdi Roma(Rome, 1625). The laundryof
the Piazzadel Popolo is seen at bottom
center.Photo:Library
ofCongress.

in a communallivingroomwatchedoverbyneigh'
socialize,essentially
domesticchores.The Nebbiafrescoclearlyshows
bors,as theyperformed
a childplayingwitha dog whilethe womenwork:suchStaffage
would
have underlined
one ofthesocialbenefits
ofpapal and civicbuildingto
the Romanpoor.
The thirdlaundrycomplex,the LavatoioFelice,was sponsoredby
and namedforPope SixtusV in 1588.LocatedatoptheQuirinalhill,far
uninhabitedpartof Rome,it
awayfromthe abitatoand in a relatively
used waterprovidedby the renovatedaqueduct,the Acqua Felice.
Hulkingremainsof the Baths of Diocletian,recentlyremodeledby
Michelangelointo the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, stood
nearby.There were other churchesas well as convents,villas, and
butonlya fewsmallhousesand not muchof a
gardensin the vicinity,
thearchitect
for
neighborhood
(Fig.8).51In 1590 DomenicoFontana,52

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Rome 49
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

the facilityas an enclosure290 palmi


the Felice laundry,
characterized
long53and 251 palmiwide,withtwolongnarrowbasinsand a covered
areafordrying
clotheswhenit rained.An inscription
overthedoorway
forthe use ofpoorwomen.54
statedthatSixtusbuiltthefacility
The Acqua Feliceand theFelicelaundry
shouldbe understood
as an
of
to
achieve
what
von
Sixtus's
Pastor
calls
integral
part
program
Ludwig
of moraldisciplinein the EternalCity."55A major
"theestablishment
focusof the Counter
ion agenda carriedout duringSixtus's
-Reformat
this programwas reflectedphysicallythroughthe pope's
pontificate,
manybuildingprojectsand theirplacementand symbolically
through
theirattributes.
SixtusrelocatedEgyptian
obelisks,placingthemin front
ofpilgrimage
churches.He removedpaganstatuesfromthe columnsof
MarcusAureliusand Trajan and crownedeach withan apostlefigure.
theAcqua Verginein orderto bringfresh
AlthoughPiusV had restored
waterto the Campo Marzio,thatarea was stillrifewithdisease.Sixtus
was moresuccessful.
He broughtthe Acqua Felice to the top of the

FIGURE 8
Detail ofplan ofRome by Maggi,1625.
From Maggi, Iconografiadella cittdi Roma.

The LavatoioFelice is showndirectly


above the "A" in "Acqua Felice."Photo:
Libraryof Congress.

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50

2001-2002
Studiesin theDecorative
Arts/Fall-Winter

Fontanadi Mose in
Quirinalhill and decoratedit withthemonumental
asserteddominion
the formof a triumphal
arch,and thussymbolically
therock,
overthepestilential
CampoMarzio.HereMosesis seenstriking
he
water
to
Rome
as
just
broughtit to
symbolically
bringing
life-giving
the Sinai desert.
The Felice aqueduct,fountain,and laundrywerepartof a papal
in order
urbandevelopment
scheme,proposedandpartially
implemented
the city.They werealso intravelthroughout
to facilitatepilgrimage
tended to help create and supporta workingneighborhoodin the
thathe had
Quirinalarea.56Sixtusconsideredthe laundryso important
in
a frescoed
imageofit includedin a muralcyclethathe commissioned
1588forhisCasinoFelicein theVilla Montalto,locatedjustto thesouth
ofSanta MariadegliAngeli(Fig.9). These frescoes,
completedin 1589,
of
his
urban
major
projects,includingtheobelisksofSan
depictedmany
of the Column
Pietroand ofSanta MariaMaggioreand the restoration
the
Nebbia
frescostates
of MarcusAurelius.Latin textaccompanying
watersto the place wherethe poor
that"Sixtusbroughtthe propitious
The facilitywas supervisedby the
woman washed dirtylaundry."57
Cisterciannunsat Santa Susanna,underthe patronageof
neighboring
CamillaPeretti,a piouswidowand the sisterofSixtusV. Serviceswere
forthe womenwho used thislaunheld at Santa Susanna specifically
dry.58In the Nebbia frescotwo nuns appearto be escortinga noblewomen
whiletwenty-one
womanand noblemanon a tourofthefacility,
washclothesand waitfor
unhindered
bychildrenunderfoot)
(apparently
theirlaundryto dry.
The sitingof thisfacilityposes problems.It made sense as to the
Whomwas it meantto
ofwaterand increasedhealthfulness.
availability
serve?Fontana tells us that it was designedto accommodatethree
butwhoweretheyand wheredidtheylive?Certainly
hundredwomen,59
or
was locatedin thedisabitato,
theydid not livenearby,forthelaundry
overthe doorwaydid not
area of the city.The inscription
uninhabited
to the
butto "poorwomen"probablynot dissimilar
referto laundresses
Piazza
del
at
the
the
for
whom
women"
Popolo was
laundry
"poor
donatedby the Commune.Neitherdid Fontanareferto the womenas
so it is unlikelythattheylived
thetermforformer
convenite,
prostitutes,
at one of the nearbyconvents.Was it assumedthatwomenwouldbe
up anddowntheQuirinalhill,which
willingto carrytheirheavylaundry
meters
wasnearlyforty
awayfrom
higherthanand morethana kilometer
the Fontanadi Trevi,wherethereseemsto have been a laundrybasin,
perhapssince 1563? AlthoughFontana made no specificmentionof
in 1590,perhapsthesituationhad changed,becausein 1603
laundresses
to the womenwho used the chapel at the churchof Santa
he referred

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Rome 51
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

laundresses.
If thiswas the case,
Susanna as lavandaie,or professional
thendirtylaundrymighthave been collectedby wagonsfromvarious
clean. The women
and thenreturned
clients,deliveredto the laundry,
from
wherever
themselves
have
walked
to
work
might
theylivedin the
abitato.

of this
Severalquestionsemergeabout the physicalconfiguration
Fontanadescribedit as a kindofsafehaven.He referred
facility.
laundry
to it as a serraglio,
or enclosedcourtyard
overseenbya porter,who kept
thewomensecurefrom"everysortofdanger. . . and anysortofperson
The shutgatesuggests
whentheywereinsidetheshutgate."60
something
ratherthana publicfacility.
It is unclearwhether
similarto a nunnery,
oftheCistercian
thiscloseprotection,
accompaniedbythesurveillance
offemaleorders,61
wassimplyto protect
nuns,one ofthemostcloistered
virtuous
women(elevatedhighatop the Quirinalhill like the nuns) or
to providea safehavenforformer
prostitutes
workingas laundresses.62
thehonest
Such an opportunity
to washawayone'ssinsthrough
literally

FIGURE 9
CesareNebbia,LavatoioFelice,fresco,
1589. FromLudwigvon Pastor,SistoV: II
creatore
dellanuovaRoma(Rome, 1922).
Photo:IstitutoMassimo,Rome.

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52

2001-2002
all-Winter
Studiesin theDecorative
Arts/F

laborof washingclothesmayhave appealedto Sixtus,knownforhis


zeal. The waterflowedfromcentraljets fashionedintosmall
reforming
mountaintriadsthatrecallhis family(Montalto)arms,whichsymboliprosticallysuggeststhatthe salvationof the women,perhapsformer
This is reinforced
fromthepope himself63
tutes,floweddirectly
bythe
rock
as
a
of
salvationof
Moses
the
striking
prfiguration
depiction
suchwomen,perceivedas
It mayhave seemedprudentto segregate
availableor vulnerable,as a way to protectmen who mightbe easily
Martinwrotethat
seducedbytheirown weaknatures.In 1581 Gregory
of
the
to
in
the
most
vile
were
areas
City"thereby
prostitutes segregated
menthatestemeoftheirhonorand honestyto abstaynefrom
restrayne
the sitingof
Such a rationalemighthave influenced
such hauntes."64
laundryfacilitiesas well The Felice laundrymayhave continuedto
appearon
operateat leastuntil1625. The gateand wall oftheserraglio
the Maggiplan of thatyear,just to the southof the Moses Fountain,
althoughthe basins are not visible in the bird's-eyeview. Johannes
when the nuns
Orbaan indicatesthat it was finallydecommissioned
foundthevoicesof thewomenusingthe laundryto be unbearable,but
he failsto givethe date forthe documentthathe cites.65

IllegalWaterUse
in the
sitessuchas thethreenewonesestablished
"Official"
laundry
latersixteenthcentury,in additionto the oldersitesat the Marrana
Brookand possiblyat the Fontanadi Trevi,could not beginto satisfy
demandin cinquecentoRome.66Women continuedto use the Tiber
River,and as a resultof the increasedwatersupplyand numerous
fountainsservedby the new aqueducts,womendevisedstrategiesto
morewaterforlaundryuses. One tacticwas to excavate
appropriate
sites underthe archesof the Acqua Verginebetweenthe
unofficial
Fontanadi Treviand the slopeof the Pincianhill,wherethe aqueduct
These illegallaundriessiphonedoffenormous
emergedabove ground.67
thus
of
posingthreatsto the overallpublicsupplyby
quantities water,
waterflowto publicfountainsand to legal,private
seriously
impairing
the
fromtheaqueductsuffered
locatedfarthest
The fountains
consumers.
A 1608 edict,issuedbytheCameraApostolica,strictly
mosthardship.68
forbadetappingAcqua Verginewatersforuse in "basementlaundries"
hiddenin cellarsand other"subterranean
places."Those whodidso were
and
ofall waterservices,
termination
scudi
to
a
five
hundred
fine,
subject
The size of the
at the discretionof the arbitrator.69
otherpunishments
the seriindicates
male
for
nude
that
five
times
swimmers,
fine,
illegal
ousnessof the threatto thepublicwatersupply.

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Rome 53
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

FIGURE 10
Giacomo della Porta,FontananellaPiazza
de' SS. Muti sottoCampidoglio(Fontana

della PiazzaAracoeli),1591. FromFalda,


Le fontane
di Roma.Photo:FisiceKimball
ofVirginia.
Library,
University

Women also washedclothesin the new ornamentaland public


such as the Fontanadella Piazza Colonna (1576drinkingfountains,
the
1577) suppliedby
Acqua Vergine,and the Fontana della Piazza
others
Aracoeli(1591) suppliedbytheAcqua Felice,as wellas numerous
thatwereappearingin themostdenselypopulatedareasofthecity(Fig.
forlaundering
was considereda serious
10). The use of thesefountains
civicviolationbecausesuchusesendangered
publichealth.Womenwere
fountains,
penalizedforwashingand rinsingclothesin publicdrinking
waterin bucketsfromsuch fountains.
and also forremoving
Assuredly
the harshlaundrysoaps pollutedthe waterand made it unpotablefor
bothhumansand animals.That womencontinuedto breakthelaw and
thatthiswasregarded
as a seriousviolationareevidencedthroughout
the
later
the
of
the
edicts
seventeenth
and
directed
by
century
frequency
towardlaundressesand the severityof the fines,which could in- her
clude publicwhippingor confiscation
of the woman'slivelihood
laundry.70

CeremonialRome
The fountains
themselves,
costlyto buildand maintain,weremeant
as ornamentsto the city;therefore
theywereprotectedforaesthetic
was anothergraveoffense
forwhich
reasonsas well.Defacingfountains
both men and womenwerepunished.Women werespecifically
discifor
on
the
sides
of
ornamental
founhowever,
hanginglaundry
plined,

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54

all-Winter
2001-2002
Studiesin theDecorative
Arts/F

lines betweenbuildings,
tainsor adjacentwalls,and also forstringing
columns,and gatesnear the fountainsto hang theirlaundryto dry.71
Theseaestheticconcernswereno doubtpartially
relatedto theparticular
locationsoftheornamental
fountains.
of
the
fountains
wereplaced
Many
in specificpiazzas associatedwith carefullyorchestrated
processional
movementthroughRome,whereceremonyand ritualwereimportant.
The most famousprocessionwas the Possessoof a new pope, who
proceededfromSan Pietroto San Giovanniin Lateranoto layclaimto
his titularchurch.Other routeswerefollowedby visitingdignitaries,
headsofstate,whooftenproceededfromthePortadel Popolo
principally
theCampo Marzio
downtheCorsoto thePiazzaVenezia,thenthrough
The manynew
to the PonteSant' Angelo,and finallyto San Pietro.72
fountainslocated along theseroutes,builtby Pope GregoryXIII and
and Paul V and AlexanderVII in the
SixtusV in thesixteenth
century,
werenot onlypartof the growingarchitectural
seventeenthcentury,
refinement
of the city,intendedin part to impressvisitors,but also
of papal munificence.
Otherornamentalfountains
constantreminders
were placed at key politicalsites, includingthe frontof the papal
residenceat theQuirinalPalace and thetopoftheCapitolinehill,which
and the symboliccenterof the
was the seat of municipalgovernment
Commune.These locationsdemandeda level of civilizeddecorumat
suchas washingclothes.
oddswithdomesticactivities,
the ceremoRome'sthreeofficial
laundrysitesdid not compromise
the
to itsdepictionin theNebbiafresco,
nial imageofthecity.Contrary
basinnearthePiazzadel Popolowasnotactuallyin thepiazza,butto the
out of sightofany
westin a relatively
insignificant
position,essentially
area
would
have
been
blockedby the
to
the
Views
laundry
procession.
hundredsof people liningthe road duringa ceremonialpageant.Even
the Renaisthe Treviwas offthe majorceremonialroutesthroughout
statusafter
sanceand Baroqueperiods.The areaonlyacquireditspremier
modern
di
the completionof the
Fontana Trevi,designedby Nicola
Salvi,whicheliminatedthe laundrybasinthatBerninihad includedin
his 1640redesign
ofthefountain.73
Washingactivitieswerethenmoved
via del Lavatore74
at thefoot
butdistinctly
to thenearby,
unceremonial,
on
the
Salvi
Fountain
in
of the Quirinalhill afterconstruction
began
1735.75
Since theascendancyofPope MartinV in 1417 and therestoration
to reconstruct
ofthepapacyto Rome,therehad been a concertedeffort
Sixtus
IV
Nicholas
V
the imageofthe city.
(14474453),
(14714484),
widenedand pavedstreets,
created
and Leo X (1513-1521) aggressively
new piazzas,restoredaqueducts,bridges,and sewers,and set new stanIn partthiswas intendedto
dardsof elegancein palace construction.76

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Rome 55
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

ofRomancitizens,but it was also a


increasethehealthand well-being
tacticto increasethe prestigeof the cityand the papacy.By 1420 the
overtheCommuneitself,
whichhad
papacyhad assumedsomeauthority
becomeextremely
the
absence
of
in
powerfulduring
popes the fourAs majorstreets
becamemoreregulated
withpavingand
teenthcenturynoxious
activities
that
theprestige
of
mightcompromise
buildingcodes,
thecityweremovedfurther
insidethe islandsofhabitation,awayfrom
theprocessional
routesThen, in thelaterhalfofthesixteenthcentury,
thestreets
were"sociallycleansed"bymovingJewishresidents
intotheir
own walled ghetto,and "morallycleansed"as individualsengagedin
and laundresses
shameful
or suggestive
were
activitysuchas prostitutes
in undesirableor remoteareas.77The latter,
systematically
sequestered
women
not
onlycleanseddirtylinensbut in theory(at least
"polluted"
fortheformer
amongthem)cleansedtheirsoulsas wellwith
prostitutes
In practicetheywere sewaterprovidedthroughpapal intervention.
in wheretheywereallowedto undergothishoped-for
verelyrestricted
transformation.
spiritual

Conclusions
In 1599 womenconstituted
onlyabout thirty-nine
percentof the
of
it
a
of
men
the pope, his
Rome,78
making chiefly city
population
household,cardinalsand their"families,"
monks,and manyitinerants
on
business
without
their
wivesand families.79
There
traveling papal
weretokenwomenin cardinals'households sisters,
aunts,and in-laws
who entertained
visitors
and
create
a social comdistinguished
helped
These noblewomen,however,werea relatively
smallportion
munity.80
ofthetotalpopulation.Nuns,prostitutes,
and courtesans
probablyconoftheadultfemalepopulationthanin most
stituted
a largerproportion
otherRenaissancecities.81Courtesanswere also subjectto numerous
mandatesintendedto controltheirbehavior;nonethelesstheymoved
Comfreelyin society,and manyof themownedproperty.
surprisingly
mon prostitutes,
who, like the Jewishpopulationin the ghetto,were
in wheretheycouldlive82and how theycoulddress,stillplied
restricted
theirtradethroughout
the city.83
There werealso femaleservants,
but
mostof the domesticactivitiesforwhich theywere employedwere
conductedin basements,
out of sightof the cardinalsand princes,and
In anycase,therewasa lotoflaundry
theirguestsandfamilies.
to do,and
itwasthejob ofwomento do it.Ordinary
womenand especiallythepoor
such
as
the
"married
women
and
maidens"
at thelaundry
ones,
fountain,
who operatedoutsidethe papal sphereof influence,may have been
perceivedas a potentialthreatto publicorder,and hence theywere

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56

2001-2002
all-Winter
Studiesin theDecorative
Arts/F

in thepublicyetmundaneactivitiesoftheir
ofpapal interference
targets
has alwaysbeen marginalized
of
women
lives.
The
work
through
daily
low pay, poor workingconditions,and sexual harassment.In Rome
as well,as
marginalized
duringthe late 1500stheirworkwas physically
siteswerelocatedat theedgesofthecity,farfromthe
theofficial
laundry
districtsdensestresidential
Dedicatedlaundrysitesbuiltin late cinquecentoRome mayhave
forboth ordinary
providedcleanerand healthierworkenvironments
whousedthem.The laundriesat
laundresses
womenand theprofessional
sitedforwomen'ssafetyand
were
not
and
the
the Velabro
Quirinal
convenience,however,butratheras a wayto regulatelaundryactivities,
a marginal
and controltheworkofwomen,and to segregate
to supervise
activityfromthe ceremonialcity.In addition,the workitselfand its
meant
associationwith"converted"prostitutes
workingas laundresses
in ways
thatwomenwho used the publiclaundriesweremarginalized
similarto otheroutcastgroups.Like the Jewishpopulationand prostitutes,theywereassignedtheirown ghettosin the leastsalubriousareas
ofRome.
laundrysites,the superiorexamplewas the one
Amongthe official
at the Piazza del Popolo, developedby the Commune itself,where
womenwereallowedto workwithinan area thatwas bothrelaxedand
between
a physicaland socialcompromise
safe.It appearsto have offered
and uncleannessoftheVelabrositeand the
theopenness,vulnerability,
on theQuirinalhill- between
serraglio
gated,policed,and well-ordered
and the moral
of insolentyouthsat the former
the lecherousscrutiny
scrutinyof the Church at the latter.It was this typeof facility,in
continualuse fornearly230 years,that provideda model forother
- smallerfountains,
withinsmallerpiazzassurrounded
facilities
byhouses
to
and
came
closest
that
be
and shops thatcould locallycontrolled,
creatinga viablelandscapeforlaundryin Rome.
has always
betweenwaterand topography
The physicalrelationship
had a profoundimpacton publicpolicyin general.Until mechanical
werereadilyavailablein the late nineteenthand early
pumpingsystems
- the actualtopogthephysicallandscapeofwater
twentieth
centuries,
raphyof a cityor site,and the elevationof the watersupplywithin
ofwhereandhowwaterwasdistributed.
determinant
it- wastheprimary
The relationshipof each waterfeature,whetheraqueduct,river,or
fountainwithinthe system,determinedto a largedegreehow much
watercouldbe deliveredto each partofthecity,and how it was stored
and distributed.
Topographyalso had a profoundeffecton how and
forritualuses,drinking,
wherewaterwasused- whether
laundry,
factory,
how thewaterwas displayedwhenit arrivedat
and so forth,
irrigation,

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Rome 57
Laundryin Late Cinquecento

- in jets,sprays,
itsdestination
etc.- and how it leftthe
falls,streams,
city.Whetherthe watersources(the springsand aqueducts)werecontrolledby privateindividualsor publicagenciesoftendetermined
who
for
the
water
and
whom
it
served
the
church,state,patron,
paid
or others.
populace,industry,
is one ofthebasicbuildAs mentionedearlier,waterinfrastructure
and
ingblocksofanycity,and yetit is largelyunknown,misunderstood,
disregarded
by historiansand other scholars.Because of the strong
and becausewater
betweenwaterand topography,
physicalrelationships
distribution
has been demonstrated
to be closelyallied withpolitical,
ofwaterinfrastructure
and socialagendas,an understanding
can
cultural,
providea valuabletool forurbananalysis.Fromthisbriefintroduction
theprovisioning
facilities
in
intoquestionssurrounding
ofpubliclaundry
late RenaissanceRome, it is apparentthat an examinationof water
infrastructure
can illuminatelargerquestionsabout the daily life of
ofan urbanimage,thepoliticsofsocialcontrol,
women,theconstruction
Researchof thistypeencourand the dynamicsof urbandevelopment.
based on an acages a new level of urbananalysisand appreciation,
of
the
that
forces
and processes,
knowledgment
hydrological
impact
and hydraulic
exerton urbangrowthand form.
technology
topography,
Waterfollowsthe same physicallaws and satisfies
the same needs for
oflocation.Hence,byexamining
humans,animals,andplantsregardless
itswaterinfrastructure,
a richerunderRome,or anyothercitythrough
is
of
urban
and
form,
technology gained- an understanding
history,
in therealcontextofthecity.This in turnbrings
standing
fully
grounded
ofthespecific
histories
and features
ofindividual
a deeperunderstanding
and places, and can help illuminatethe historiesof
neighborhoods
marginalpopulationsand activities.

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58

Studiesin theDecorative
2001-2002
all-Winter
Arts/F
NOTES

The authorwishesto acknowledgethe help of


Professors
MiraslavaBens,Jeffrey
Collins, William Wallace, and JamesWescoat Jr.,who graciouslyreadearlierdraftsof thispaperand made
usefulcomments.Professors
ElizabethS. Cohen,
ThomasV. Cohen,andRobertDavis alsoprovided
information
in sixteenthconcerning
prostitution
centuryRome. Particularthanksare extendedto
Professor
Beth Holman forher carefuland constructive
editing.
1. For fountainsand laundryfacilitiesin seventeenth-and eighteenth-century
Rome, see the
Falda,GiuseppeVasi,
printseriesby Gianbattista
Gianbattista
Piranesi,and Achille Pinelli.
2. BagnoRegio,Vitorchiano,
and Poli,townsnear
fountains
stillin use.
Rome,have laundry
3. It is unclearwho could afford
to have a laundresscollect,wash,and return
theirlinens,orhow
manyprivatelaundries,such as that owned by
Simone Boscaglianear the Arco di Portogallo,
wereoperatingduringthe late sixteenthcentury.
On that laundry,see Rome, Archiviodi Stato,
busta744, fols.54, 55, and 252.
4. For an overviewof aqueducts,see Thomas
Ashby,The Aqueductsof AncientRome(Oxford,
1935), and PeterJ.Aicher,GuidetotheAqueducts
Rome(Wauconda,111.,1995).
ofAncient
5. HenriJordan,
derStadtRomimAlTopographie
terthum
(Berlin,1878), 2: 44.
6. RodolfoAmadeo Lanciani,NotesfromRome,
ed. AnthonyL. Cubberley(London,1988), 320.
7. Papal Bull of May 6, 1389,in PieroBecchetti,
"La Marranadell' Acqua Mariana,"LunarioRomano3 (1974): 17-19.
8. EmilioRe, "I maestri
di strade,"
Archivio
dellaR.
Societdi StoriaPatria43 (1920), appendix3, editto
7. Re, p. 26, also statesthatmaintenanceof the
Trevi("la vigilanzasulFacqua di Trevi")wasstipulatedin a 1410 statute.

A DeAcqua Santa (Holy Water).At a timewhenpure 24. JohnCapgrave,Ye Solace of Pilgrims:


waterwasscarce,a streetfountain
mayindeedhave
scription
ofRome,c. 1450,ed. C. A. Mills(London,
seemedlike a miracle.See BenedettoBlasi,Stra- 1911), 150. The nunsmayhave had the approval
dario Romano: Dizionariostorico,etimologico-to-oftheLaterantodo theirownlaundry,
ortheymay
have been providinglaundryservicesforthe Lat(Rome, 1933; reprint,
Milan, 1971), 18.
pografico
eran itself.The MarranaBrookalso poweredsev11. JohnPinto,The TreviFountain(New Haven
eralmillsnearthe CircusMaximus,whichappear
and London, 1986), 31 and fig.20. The 1453
in GianbattistaNolli, La piantagrandedi Roma
renovationof the Trevi is usuallyattributed
to
(Rome, 1748).
Leon BattistaAlberti.See GiorgioVasari,Livesof
theArtists(firstpub. 1550; London, 1970), s.v.
25. See n. 29.
Alberti,1: 347.
26. VitalianoTiberia,GiacomodellaPorta,un ar12. GiorgioCoppa, LuigiPediconi,and Girolamo chitetto
tramanierismo
e barocco(Milan, 1974), 53Bardi, Acque e acquedottia Roma, 1870-1904 57.
(Rome, 1984), 129.
to Gugliemodella Porta
27. Fora plan attributed
13. A. Corazza and L. Lombardi,"Idrogeologia (no relation)and dated to 1571
by Schiavo, see
dell' area del centrostoricodi Roma,"in Servizio ArmandoSchiavo, La
fontanadi Trevie le altre
Geologicodi Roma,La Geologiadi Roma:11centro operedi Nicob Salvi(Rome, 1955), 81, fig.18.
storico(Rome, 1996), 1: 190-91,and fig.2.
28. "Stese un lungoLavatoio al destrolato della
14. Ibid.,1: 191-94,and fig.2. A seriesofsprings
Fontana,voltandoviun tubo della Vergine,per
occursalong a seam betweenthe permeablesedi- comodode'
Tintori,e Lavadaie,o altri
Purgatane,
and volcanictufalayers,and the imper- Pulitoridi macchie siccome
mentary
espressein questa
meable marl,at approximately
meters
forty-five
2
Lapide";AlbertoCassio,Corsodell acqueantiche,
above sea level, inclinedto the east flankof the vols.
(Rome, 1756), 1: 285. In 1570 PiusV specihill.
fiedthatthe runoff
waterfromtheTrevifountain
was
for
the
use
of
fullers
"nearby"the Trevi.See
15. Cesare d'Onofrio,Acque e fontanedi Roma
Rodolfo Amadeo Lanciani, Storiadegliscavi di
and
401-2.
(Rome, 1977), 339-42,
figs.
Romae notizie
intorno
lecollezioni
romane
diantichit
16. Ludwigvon Pastor,The Historyof thePopes (Rome, 1902; reprint,
Rome,1975), 3: 262.
fromtheMiddleAges(firstpub. in German,1886;
29. The springappearson the 1551 cityplan by
first
Englished., London,1891), 17: 106 and 125.
LeonardoBufalini(sheetH-I) as the"fonsdeluturdella congregazione nae." See GiovannaAragozzini
17. "Libri congregationum
and MarcoNocca,
cardinaliziasupervus, pontibusfontibus,"
ali' ottocento
Rome, Le piantedi Roma dal cinquecento
Archiviodi Stato,busta1, fols.3-5.
(Rome,n.d.), 27.
18. Ibid.,fol. 12. Della PortareplacedNanni di
Baccio Bigio.
19. See d'Onofrio,Acquee fontane,
82-84,pl. 63,
for a descriptionof the entireproposal,and a
distribution
plan bydella Porta(Rome,Cod. Vat.
Lat. 11257,c. 149).

30. D'Onofrio,Acquee fontane,


fig.68.
31. Ibid.,fig.69.

32. The Du Peracprintshowsonlyone basin,but


an inscription
recordedin Pio Pecchiai,Acquedotti
e fontane
diRomanelcinquecento
(Rome,1944),41,
statesthattherewereat leasttwobasins:"Subter20. Patricia Waddy, Seventeenth-Century
Roman rneos. Fontes.In. Foro. Boario Ab. Imo. In.
fouraqueducts,see
9. ForHadrianI, whorestored
/
Palaces:TheUseandtheArtofthePlan(Cambridge,
Terrae / Ad Communem.Usum /
and CommenLiberPontificalis:
Superficiem.
Texts,Introduction
Mass., 1990), 38.
Suis. Sumptibus.
Eduxit/ M.D. LXIV." The fountary,ed. Louis Duchesne (Paris,1886), 1: 94.59,
tain clearlyappearsas a U-shapedbasin in the
94.81,94.61-62,and 94.65.
21. Ibid.
1575 Du Perac cityplan (printedin 1577) pub10. Eugene Muntz,Les arts la cour des papes 22.
and Nocca, Le piantedi Roma,
lishedin Aragozzini
Re, "I maestri,"
appendix3, editto38, p. 100.
leXVeetleXVlesicle:Recueildedocuments Efforts
pendant
in 1566byPiusV to preventcontamination 55.
indits(Paris, 1878), 4: 157. It is not yet clear oftheTiberhad littleeffect.
See von Pastor,Hiswhichwasmeantforpublic
33. G. P. Gregori,R. Santoleri,et al., "The Analwhether
thisfountain,
tory,17: 108.
use,was locatedwithinthe churchprecinctor in
ysisof Point-LikeHistoricalData Series,"in Past,
wallof 23. CameraApostolica,editti
ofJune7, 1599,and Presentand FutureTrendsin Geophysical
Research
thepublicstreet.The streetat thenorthern
the churchwas originallyknownas vicolo dell' August4, 1612.
(Bremen-Roennebeck,
1988), 146-211.

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Rome 59
Laundryin Late Cinquecento
il
34. Vittoriodi Martinoand M. Belati,Qui arrivo
Tevere:Inondazioni
del Teverenelletestimonianze
e
neiricordi
storici
(Rome,1980), 146-47,listsTiber
floodsbetween1230and 1937thatreachedat least
16 metersabove sea level.The 1557 floodroseto
18.90 metersabove sea level and thatof 1598 to
19.56 meters.

mayhave waitedto restorethe laundryas partof


his largerschemeforthe Pantheon.The "before"
and "after"
plansarepublishedin d'Onofrio,
Acque
e fontane,
85 and pls.66-67.The "after"
plan shows
the earthplaced in twomoundsnearthe laundry.
The earthmayhave been usedto createa platform
abovethefloodplainfortwonewbuildings,
which
appearin the 1676 plan of Rome by Gianbattista
35. "Tanto ripienadi terra,che il slo [sic] del
Faldapublishedin Aragozzini
and Nocca, Le piante
terreno
horaragualgiliato
alii poggidellilavatoi"; di
withan averageeleRoma,121. This platform,
e fontane,
Pecchiai,Acquedotti
41, quotingSebas- vationofaboutnineteenmetersabovesea
level,is
tianoVaro, 1567.
todayboundedbyvia dei Cerchi,via di San Teo36. The prostitutes
wererelocatedfromTrastevere doro,and via del Velabro,and can be clearlyseen
to the Velabro area at the end of the previous in Italo Novelli,AtlasofRome(New York,1992),
"becausetheholypenitentMariaEgiziaca pl. 181.
century,
(a formerprostitute)was a worthyexample to
45. Cassio,Corso,1: 406 and 411.
return
themto an honestlife";Lanciani,Storia,4:
46. Ibid.,1: 286,"peruso dellepovereDonne,che
20.
non aveano [sic]dove lavarele Biancherie."
37. FerdinandGregorovius,
Historyof theCityof
diRoma(Rome,1945;
47. LuigiCallari,Le fontane
Romein theMiddleAges,trans.Mrs.GustavusW.
Hamilton(London,1902), 7: 761.
Rome, 1970), 77.
reprint,
Renaissance
Rome:A Portrait
38. PeterPartner,
ofa
Society(Berkeleyand Los Angeles,1976), 98.
et socialede
39. Jean Delumeau,Vie conomique
Romedans la secondemoitidu XVle sicle(Paris,
to
1957), 1: 424-25.PiusV alsoassignedprostitutes
anotherarea on the via Giulia.
et presun40. "Moltigiovaniinsolenti,
discorretti,
tuosi. . . non havendo riguardon alPhonorpublico,n al privatodi quelledonneche vi concorreno tanto zitelle come maritate";Pecchiai,
e fontane,
41-42.
Acquedotti

48. Blasi,Stradario,
226, mentionsthatwhenthe
laundryfountainwas demolishedin 1809-1814
laundresses
lived in the area.
professional
49. Publishedin Ludwigvon Pastor,SistoV: II
creatore
dellanuovaRoma(Rome, 1922), pl. 16.
50. See the articleby ElizabethS. Cohen and
ThomasV. Cohen in thisissue.
51. CarolynValone, "Women on the Quirinal
Hill,"ArtBulletin
76, no. 1 (March 1991): 128-46.
She describesthe populationand physicalconditionof the Quirinalat thistime.

57. "Qua lavet immundosmulierpauperculapannosfelicemSixtussuppeditavit


aquam."I amgratefulto JohnPetruccioneforhis translation
of this
inscription.
58. Fontana,Della trasportazione,
2: pl. 17 and preceding(facing)page [n.p.].
59. Ibid.,2: facingpl. 17.
60. Domenico Fontana,Della trasportazione
dell'
obeliscovaticanoet dellefabbriche
di NostroSignore
Papa SistoV, bk. 1 (Rome, 1590), 1: 102: "e le
donne star ivi sicureda ogni sortedi pericolo,
dentropernon
perchvi sono le partada serrarsi
essermolestateda alcuna sortedi persone."His
wordsrecallthe Papal Bull of 1590 when Sixtus
calls Rome, the centerof Christendom,
"a safe
place ofrefugeformenofeverynation."The Bull
is partiallytranslatedin von Pastor,History,
22:
216-18.
61. Valone,"Women,"134. Valone statesthatby
of the newlyre1602, because of the austerity
formedCisterciannuns,therewereonlya totalof
membersin the order.
fifty
professed
62. A frescoofSusannahand the Eldersin Santa
Susanna wouldremindthe womenof the danger
and other
wells,springs,
theyfacednearfountains,
watersources.
63. Sixtus himselfblessed Acqua Felice water
whenit was firstintroducedintothe city.Avviso,
9, 1589,Vat. Lat.,Urb. 1057,fol.549v.
September

64- Gregory
Martin,RomaSancta(London,1581),
ed. George BrunerParks(Rome, 1969), 145-46.
41. Rome,ArchivioStoricoCapitolino,credenza
52. Domenico Fontana,Della trasportazione
dell' See specificallythe section titled "Harlots and
I, 33: fol. 172r and v, Sept. 7, 1637, cited in
obeliscovaticanoet dellefabbriche
di NostroSignore Courtesans."
88. The floodof Febd'Onofrio,Acquee fontane,
Fata SistoV, bk. 2 (Naples,1603), 2: facingpl. 17.
ruary22, 1637, rose to 17.55 metersabove sea
65. JohannesA. F. Orbaan,"La Roma di SistoV
level.
53. Beata di Gaddo, Le fontanedi Roma (Genoa,
negli' Avissi,"Archiviodell R. SocietRomanadi
e fontane), StoriaPatria33 (1910): 306. He quotesan entryin
1964), 59 (quotingPecchiai,Acquedotti
42. Di Martinoand Belati,Tevere,147. The flood
of 22.34 cm to equal one
gives a measurement
an unnamedcollectionof bandifromthe Vatican
ofNovember5, 1660,roseto 17.11 metersabove
palmo.
Archives(Misc. Arm.V., vol. 210). I have been
sea level.WhenevertheTiberflooded,the recedunableto findthisbandoin orderto establishthe
ing waterswould have filledthe wash site with 54. "SIXTUS.PP.V.PAUPERUM.COMMODIdate.
alluvialsoil and debris.
TATI.MULIERUM.EXTRULFECIT.A.M.DII
XXX Vili," in Fontana,Della trasportazione,
2: pl.
66. Theremayhavebeena laundry
in thePiazzadi
"Il
lavatore
anche
ma
diruto
43.
esiste,
[sic] 17.
quale
San Silvestroby 1586. The Trevi basin thatape guasto,ripienodi sassie ricoperto
d'erbe";Giopearsin thecityplansof1575byDu Perac(printed
vanniAngeloMaffei,
55. Von Pastor,History,
22: 297.
Acquee
quotedin d'Onofrio,
in 1577), of 1593 by Tempesta,and of 1625 by
88, n. 16.
fontane,
56. Tod Marder,"Sixtus V and the Quirinal," Maggi mayhave been used forlaundry.In 1640
to regularize
the area in frontof Journal
Historians
BerniniremodeledtheTreviFountainand shifted
44. In an effort
37,
oftheSocietyofArchitectural
the Pantheon,AlexanderVII had the earthre- no. 4 (December1978): 286. Marderdescribesthe it to the positionit now occupiesin the piazza,
movedfromthe Piazzadella Rotundaon Septem- plans of SixtusV forthe entirequarter.The re- facingsouth, ratherthan west. See d'Onofrio,
ber 20, 1663. RodolfoLanciani,Rotondae terme centlycompletedAcqua Felice allowedSixtusto
531-36. A laundrywas built in
Acque e fontane,
ofthe initiatehis far-reaching
Agrippa(Rome,1882), 37. The marginality
plans,and,as Mardersug- 1614 near the JewishSynagogue;it used Acqua
Velabroarea mayexplainwhyit tookso long to
the Quirinalwas to fertilize
[his] Paola water.See AntonioNibby,Romanel anno
gests,"to irrigate
restorethesiteafterthe 1660 flood,or Alexander investments."
1838 (Rome, 1841), 4: 72.

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60

Studiesin theDecorative
all-Winter
2001-2002
Arts/F

67. See RodolfoAmedeo Lanciarli,FormaUrbis


Romae(Rome, 1893-1901;reprint,
Rome, 1990),
sheet16, withthe aqueductroute.
68. Carlo Fea, Esame storico-legale-idraulico
dei sifoni impiegatinei condottidell' Acqua Paola (Rome,

1830), 31-33, 112-16.


69. Editto,
"Che le Fontanedell'Acqua Verginesi
rimettanoa livello,e li lavatorisi levino dalle
Cantine,"Camera Apostolica,June14, 1608, in
93.
d'Onofrio,
Acquee fontane,

72. See RichardIngersoll,


"The RitualUse ofPublic Space in RenaissanceRome"(Ph.D. diss.,UniofCalifornia,
1985), fora discusversity
Berkeley,
sion of the various processionalactivitiesand
routes.
Trevi,70,statesthatthe
73. Schiavo,La fontana
wasin useuntil1735.
GugliemodellaPortalavatoio

74. Blasi,Stradano,226, stateswithoutdocumentationthatSixtusV sponsoreda laundryfountain


on via del Lavatore.If that is so, it mighthave
displaced
70. Numerousavvisiand editti
from1587 to 1749 been intendedforthe use of laundresses
wereallowedto
attestto the continualharassment
of laundresses. fromtheTreviwhenwoolworkers
See nn. 69 and 71, and "Edittosoprala conserva- workthereafter1586. The basindoes not appear
on thecityplan of 1593byTempestanortheplan
zione,e puliziadelle Fontanepublichedi Roma,"
of 1625 by Maggi,however,unlikethe lavatoioat
and
another
editto
from
the
Camera
June23, 1744,
the Piazzadel Popolo.
Apostolica,December6, 1749,bothin the library
oftheGettyResearchInstitute,
forspecificpenal75. Rome,Archiviodi Stato,busta744,fols.171,
ties.
731.
71. An avvisoof April 15, 1587, e.g., in Orbaan,
"SistoV," 294,orderedwomento takedowncords 76. ForMartinV, see von Pastor,History,
1: 215fordryinglaundry
19; forSixtusIV, see ibid.,4: 453-55.
strungbetweenbuildings.

to live
77. In 1556 Paul IV forcedJewishresidents
in a gatedghettoalongthe TiberRiver.See von
17: 395-400,406-8,fora seriesof
Pastor,History,
bandiand avvisiissuedby Pius V concerning"the
ofmorals"in 1566-1567,and foravvisi
purification
from1568-1569thataddresstherelocationofprostitutesto theirown ghettos.
etsociale,1: 421-22.
78. Delumeau,Vieconomique
Renaissance
79. Partner,
Rome,48.
80. See Waddy,Seventeenth-Century
RomanPalaces,27-28,fortheexampleofCostanzaMagalotti
sister-in-law
ofUrbanVIII.
Barberini,
81. See Delumeau,Vie conomique
et sociale,1:
forprostitutes
in Venice
425, forpopulationfigures
and Rome duringthe seicento.
82. Von Pastor,History,
17: 396. For 1527 census
see ItaloInsolera,Roma,immagini
e realit
statistics,
dalXalXX secolo(Rome,1980;seconded.,Rome,
1985), 83.
83. Cassio,Corso,pt. 1: 317.

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