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Knowledgemanagement
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Knowledgemanagement(KM)istheprocessofcapturing,developing,sharing,andeffectivelyusing
organizationalknowledge.[1]Itreferstoamultidisciplinaryapproachtoachievingorganizationalobjectivesby
makingthebestuseofknowledge.[2]
Anestablisheddisciplinesince1991,KMincludescoursestaughtinthefieldsofbusinessadministration,
informationsystems,management,library,andinformationsciences.[3][4]OtherfieldsmaycontributetoKM
research,includinginformationandmedia,computerscience,publichealth,andpublicpolicy.[5]Several
UniversitiesofferdedicatedMasterofSciencedegreesinKnowledgeManagement.
Manylargecompanies,publicinstitutions,andnonprofitorganisationshaveresourcesdedicatedtointernalKM
efforts,oftenasapartoftheirbusinessstrategy,informationtechnology,orhumanresourcemanagement
departments.[6]SeveralconsultingcompaniesprovideadviceregardingKMtotheseorganisations.[6]
Knowledgemanagementeffortstypicallyfocusonorganisationalobjectivessuchasimprovedperformance,
competitiveadvantage,innovation,thesharingoflessonslearned,integration,andcontinuousimprovementofthe
organisation.[7]Theseeffortsoverlapwithorganisationallearningandmaybedistinguishedfromthatbyagreater
focusonthemanagementofknowledgeasastrategicassetandafocusonencouragingthesharingof
knowledge.[2][8]KMisanenableroforganisationallearning.[9][10]

Contents
1 History
2 Research
2.1 Dimensions
2.2 Strategies
2.3 Motivations
3 KMtechnologies
4 Seealso
5 References
6 Externallinks

History
Knowledgemanagementeffortshavealonghistory,includingonthejobdiscussions,formalapprenticeship,
discussionforums,corporatelibraries,professionaltraining,andmentoringprograms.[2][10]Withincreaseduseof
computersinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,specificadaptationsoftechnologiessuchasknowledgebases,
expertsystems,knowledgerepositories,groupdecisionsupportsystems,intranets,andcomputersupported
cooperativeworkhavebeenintroducedtofurtherenhancesuchefforts.[2]
In1999,thetermpersonalknowledgemanagementwasintroduceditreferstothemanagementofknowledgeat
theindividuallevel.[11]
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Intheenterprise,earlycollectionsofcasestudiesrecognizedtheimportanceofknowledgemanagement
dimensionsofstrategy,process,andmeasurement.[12][13]Keylessonslearnedincludepeopleandthecultural
normswhichinfluencetheirbehaviorsarethemostcriticalresourcesforsuccessfulknowledgecreation,
dissemination,andapplicationcognitive,social,andorganizationallearningprocessesareessentialtothesuccess
ofaknowledgemanagementstrategyandmeasurement,benchmarking,andincentivesareessentialtoaccelerate
thelearningprocessandtodriveculturalchange.[13]Inshort,knowledgemanagementprogramscanyield
impressivebenefitstoindividualsandorganizationsiftheyarepurposeful,concrete,andactionorientated.

Research
KMemergedasascientificdisciplineintheearlier1990s.[14]Itwasinitiallysupportedsolelybypractitioners,
whenSkandiahiredLeifEdvinssonofSwedenastheworld'sfirstChiefKnowledgeOfficer(CKO).[15]Hubert
SaintOnge(formerlyofCIBC,Canada),startedinvestigatingKMlongbeforethat.[2]TheobjectiveofCKOsisto
manageandmaximizetheintangibleassetsoftheirorganisations.[2]Gradually,CKOsbecameinterestedin
practicalandtheoreticalaspectsofKM,andthenewresearchfieldwasformed.[16]DiscussionoftheKMideahas
beentakenupbyacademics,suchasIkujiroNonaka(HitotsubashiUniversity),HirotakaTakeuchi(Hitotsubashi
University),ThomasH.Davenport(BabsonCollege)andBaruchLev(NewYorkUniversity).[3][17]In2001,
ThomasA.Stewart,formereditoratFortunemagazineandsubsequentlytheeditorofHarvardBusinessReview,
publishedacoverstoryhighlightingtheimportanceofintellectualcapitalinorganisations.[18]Sinceits
establishment,theKMdisciplinehasbeengraduallymovingtowardsacademicmaturity.[2]First,thereisatrend
towardhighercooperationamongacademicsparticularly,therehasbeenadropinsingleauthoredpublications.
Second,theroleofpractitionershaschanged.[16]Theircontributiontoacademicresearchhasbeendramatically
decliningfrom30%ofoverallcontributionsupto2002,toonly10%by2009.[19]
AbroadrangeofthoughtsontheKMdisciplineexistapproachesvarybyauthorandschool.[16][20]Asthe
disciplinematures,academicdebateshaveincreasedregardingboththetheoryandpracticeofKM,toincludethe
followingperspectives:
Technocentricwithafocusontechnology,ideallythosethatenhanceknowledgesharingand
creation.[21][22]
Organisationalwithafocusonhowanorganisationcanbedesignedtofacilitateknowledgeprocesses
best.[6]
Ecologicalwithafocusontheinteractionofpeople,identity,knowledge,andenvironmentalfactorsasa
complexadaptivesystemakintoanaturalecosystem.[23][24]
Regardlessoftheschoolofthought,corecomponentsofKMroughlyincludepeople/culture,processes/structure
andtechnology.Thedetailsdependontheperspective.[25]DifferentKMschoolsofthoughtincludeperspectives
fromwhichKMcanbeviewedandexplained,toinclude:
communityofpractice[26]
socialnetworkanalysis[27]
intellectualcapital[28]
informationtheory[14][15]
complexityscience[29]
constructivism[30][31]

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ThepracticalrelevanceofacademicresearchinKMhasbeenquestioned[32]withactionresearchsuggestedas
havingmorerelevance[33]andtheneedtotranslatethefindingspresentedinacademicjournalstoapractice.[12]

Dimensions
Differentframeworksfordistinguishingbetweendifferent'typesof'knowledgeexist.[10]Oneproposedframework
forcategorizingthedimensionsofknowledgedistinguishesbetweentacitknowledgeandexplicitknowledge.[29]
Tacitknowledgerepresentsinternalizedknowledgethatanindividualmaynotbeconsciouslyawareof,suchas
howheorsheaccomplishesparticulartasks.Attheoppositeendofthespectrum,explicitknowledgerepresents
knowledgethattheindividualholdsconsciouslyinmentalfocus,inaformthatcaneasilybecommunicatedto
others.[34][16]
IkujiroNonakaproposedamodel(SECIfor
Socialization,Externalization,Combination,
Internalization)whichconsidersaspiralingknowledge
processinteractionbetweenexplicitknowledgeand
tacitknowledge.[35]Inthismodel,knowledgefollowsa
cycleinwhichimplicitknowledgeis'extracted'to
becomeexplicitknowledge,andexplicitknowledgeis
'reinternalized'intoimplicitknowledge.[35]
Similarly,HayesandWalsham(2003)describecontent
andrelationalperspectivesofknowledgeand
TheKnowledgeSpiralasdescribedbyNonaka&Takeuchi.
knowledgemanagementastwofundamentallydifferent
epistemologicalperspectives.[36]Thecontent
perspectivesuggestthatknowledgeiseasilystoredbecauseitmaybecodified,whiletherelationalperspective
recognizesthecontextualandrelationalaspectsofknowledgewhichcanmakeknowledgedifficulttoshareoutside
ofthespecificlocationwheretheknowledgeisdeveloped.[36]
EarlyresearchsuggestedthatasuccessfulKMeffortneedstoconvertinternalizedtacitknowledgeintoexplicit
knowledgetoshareit,andthesameeffortmustpermitindividualstointernalizeandmakepersonallymeaningful
anycodifiedknowledgeretrievedfromtheKMeffort.[6][37]SubsequentresearchintoKMsuggestedthata
distinctionbetweentacitknowledgeandexplicitknowledgerepresentedanoversimplificationandthatthenotion
ofexplicitknowledgeisselfcontradictory.[11]Specifically,forknowledgetobemadeexplicit,itmustbetranslated
intoinformation(i.e.,symbolsoutsideofourheads).[38][11]Morerecently,togetherwithGeorgvonKroghand
SvenVoelpel,Nonakareturnedtohisearlierworkinanattempttomovethedebateaboutknowledgeconversion
forward.[39][4]
Asecondproposedframeworkforcategorizingthedimensionsofknowledgedistinguishesbetweenembedded
knowledgeofasystemoutsideofahumanindividual(e.g.,aninformationsystemmayhaveknowledgeembedded
intoitsdesign)andembodiedknowledgerepresentingalearnedcapabilityofahumanbody'snervousand
endocrinesystems.[40]
Athirdproposedframeworkforcategorizingthedimensionsofknowledgedistinguishesbetweentheexploratory
creationof"newknowledge"(i.e.,innovation)vs.thetransferorexploitationof"establishedknowledge"withina
group,organisation,orcommunity.[36][41]Collaborativeenvironmentssuchascommunitiesofpracticeortheuse
ofsocialcomputingtoolscanbeusedforbothknowledgecreationandtransfer.[41]

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Strategies
Knowledgemaybeaccessedatthreestages:before,during,orafterKMrelatedactivities.[28]Organisationshave
triedknowledgecaptureincentives,includingmakingcontentsubmissionmandatoryandincorporatingrewards
intoperformancemeasurementplans.[42]Considerablecontroversyexistsoverwhetherincentivesworkornotin
thisfieldandnoconsensushasemerged.[7]
OnestrategytoKMinvolvesactivelymanagingknowledge(pushstrategy).[7][43]Insuchaninstance,individuals
strivetoexplicitlyencodetheirknowledgeintoasharedknowledgerepository,suchasadatabase,aswellas
retrievingknowledgetheyneedthatotherindividualshaveprovidedtotherepository.[43]Thisiscommonlyknown
astheCodificationapproachtoKM.[43]
AnotherstrategytoKMinvolvesindividualsmakingknowledgerequestsofexpertsassociatedwithaparticular
subjectonanadhocbasis(pullstrategy).[7][43]Insuchaninstance,expertindividual(s)canprovidetheirinsights
totheparticularpersonorpeopleneedingthis.[29]ThisiscommonlyknownasthePersonalisationapproachto
KM.
Hansenetal.proposeasimpleframework,distinguishingtwoopposingKMstrategies:codificationand
personalization.[44]Codificationfocusesoncollectingandstoringcodifiedknowledgeinpreviouslydesigned
electronicdatabasestomakeitaccessibletotheorganisation.[45]Codificationcanthereforerefertobothtacitand
explicitknowledge.[46]Incontrast,thepersonalizationstrategyaimsatencouragingindividualstosharetheir
knowledgedirectly.[45]Informationtechnologyplaysalessimportantrole,asitisonlysupposedtofacilitate
communicationandknowledgesharingamongmembersofanorganisation.
Otherknowledgemanagementstrategiesandinstrumentsforcompaniesinclude:[7][23][29]
KnowledgeSharing(fosteringaculturethatencouragesthesharingofinformation,basedontheconceptthat
knowledgeisnotirrevocableandshouldbesharedandupdatedtoremainrelevant)
Storytelling(asameansoftransferringtacitknowledge)
Crossprojectlearning
Afteractionreviews
Knowledgemapping(amapofknowledgerepositorieswithinacompanyaccessiblebyall)
Communitiesofpractice
Expertdirectories(toenableknowledgeseekertoreachtotheexperts)
ExpertSystems(knowledgeseekerrespondstooneormorespecificquestionstoreachknowledgeina
repository)
Bestpracticetransfer
Knowledgefairs
Competencemanagement(systematicevaluationandplanningofcompetencesofindividualorganisation
members)
Proximity&architecture(thephysicalsituationofemployeescanbeeitherconduciveorobstructiveto
knowledgesharing)
Masterapprenticerelationship
Collaborativesoftwaretechnologies(wikis,sharedbookmarking,blogs,socialsoftware,etc.)
Knowledgerepositories(databases,bookmarkingengines,etc.)
Measuringandreportingintellectualcapital(awayofmakingexplicitknowledgeforcompanies)
Knowledgebrokers(someorganisationalmemberstakeonresponsibilityforaspecific"field"andactasfirst
referenceonwhomtotalkaboutaspecificsubject)
Interprojectknowledgetransfer
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Motivations
ThereareanumberofclaimsastothemotivationleadingorganisationstoundertakeaKMeffort.[34]Typical
considerationsdrivingaKMeffortinclude:[29]
Makingavailableincreasedknowledgecontentinthedevelopmentandprovisionofproductsandservices
Achievingshorternewproductdevelopmentcycles
Facilitatingandmanaginginnovationandorganisationallearning
Leveragingtheexpertiseofpeopleacrosstheorganisation
Increasingnetworkconnectivitybetweeninternalandexternalindividuals
Managingbusinessenvironmentsandallowingemployeestoobtainrelevantinsightsandideasappropriate
totheirwork
Solvingintractableorwickedproblems
Managingintellectualcapitalandintellectualassetsintheworkforce(suchastheexpertiseandknowhow
possessedbykeyindividualsorstoredinrepositories)
DebateexistswhetherKMismorethanapassingfad,thoughincreasingamountofresearchinthisfieldmayhelp
toanswerthisquestion,aswellascreateconsensusonwhatelementsofKMhelpdeterminethesuccessorfailure
ofsuchefforts.[47]Knowledgesharingremainsachallengingissueforknowledgemanagement,whilethereisno
clearagreementbarriersmayincludetimeissuesforknowledgeworks,theleveloftrust,lackofeffectivesupport
technologiesandculture.[48]

KMtechnologies
Knowledgemanagement(KM)technologycanbedividedintothefollowinggeneralcategories:
Groupware
Groupwarereferstotechnologiesthatfacilitatecollaborationandsharingoforganizational
information.OneoftheearliestverysuccessfulproductsinthiscategorywasLotusNotes.Notes
providedtoolsforthreadeddiscussions,sharingofdocuments,organizationwideuniformemail,etc.
Workflow
Workflowtoolsallowtherepresentationofprocessesassociatedwiththecreation,use,and
maintenanceoforganizationalknowledge.Forexampletheprocesstocreateandutilizeformsand
documentswithinanorganization.Forexample,aworkflowsystemcandothingssuchassend
notificationstoappropriatesupervisorswhenanewdocumenthasbeenproducedandiswaitingtheir
approval.
Content/DocumentManagement
Content/DocumentManagementsystemsaresystemsdesignedtoautomatetheprocessofcreating
webcontentand/ordocumentswithinanorganization.Thevariousrolesrequiredsuchaseditors,
graphicdesigners,writers,andproducerscanbeexplicitlymodeledalongwiththevarioustasksinthe
processandvalidationcriteriaformovingfromonesteptoanother.Allthisinformationcanbeusedto
automateandcontroltheprocess.Commercialvendorsofthesetoolsstartedtostarteitherastoolsto
primarilysupportdocuments(e.g.,Documentum)orastoolsdesignedtosupportwebcontent(e.g.,
Interwoven)butastheInternetgrewthesefunctionsmergedandmostvendorsnowperformboth
functions,managementofwebcontentandofdocuments.AsInternetstandardsbecameadopted
withinmostorganizationIntranetsandExtranetsthedistinctionbetweenthetwoessentiallywent
away.
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EnterprisePortals
EnterprisePortalsarewebsitesthataggregateinformationacrosstheentireorganizationorforgroups
withintheorganizationsuchasprojectteams.
eLearning
eLearningtechnologyenablesorganizationstocreatecustomizedtrainingandeducationsoftware.
Thiscanincludelessonplans,monitoringprogressagainstlearninggoals,onlineclasses,etc.
eLearningtechnologyenablesorganizationstosignificantlyreducethecostoftrainingandeducating
theirmembers.AswithmostKMtechnologyinthebusinessworldthiswasmostusefulfor
companiesthatemployknowledgeworkershighlytrainedstaffwithareasofdeepexpertisesuchas
thestaffofaconsultingfirm.Suchfirmsspendasignificantamountonthecontinuingeducationof
theiremployeesandevenhavetheirowninternalfulltimeschoolsandinternaleducationstaff.
Schedulingandplanning
Schedulingandplanningtoolsautomatethecreationandmaintenanceofanorganization'sschedule:
schedulingmeetings,notifyingpeopleofameeting,etc.Anexampleofawellknownschedulingtool
isMicrosoftOutlook.Theplanningaspectcanintegratewithprojectmanagementtoolssuchas
MicrosoftProject.SomeoftheearliestsuccessfulusesofKMtechnologyinthebusinessworldwere
thedevelopmentofthefollwingtypesoftools:onlineversionsofcorporate"yellowpages"with
listingofcontactinfo,relevantknowledge,andworkhistory.[21]
Telepresence
Telepresencetechnologyenablesindividualstohavevirtualmeetingsratherthanhavingtobeinthe
sameplace.Videoconferencingisthemostobviousexample.
Thesecategoriesareneitherrigidlydefinednorexhaustive.Workflowforexampleisasignificantaspectofa
contentordocumentmanagementsystemandmostcontentanddocumentmanagementsystemshavetoolsfor
developingenterpriseportals.[7][49]
OneofthemostimportanttrendsinKMtechnologywastheadoptionofInternetstandards.OriginalKM
technologyproductssuchasLotusNotesdefinedtheirownproprietaryformatsforemail,documents,forms,etc.
TheexplosivegrowthoftheInternetdrovemostvendorstoabandonproprietaryformatsandadoptInternet
formatssuchasHTML,HTTP,andXML.Inaddition,opensourceandfreewaretoolsforthecreationofblogsand
wikisnowenablecapabilitiesthatusedtorequireexpensivecommercialtoolstobeavailableforlittleorno
cost.[33][50]
OneofthemostimportantongoingdevelopmentsinKMtechnologyisadoptionoftoolsthatenableorganizations
toworkatthesemanticlevel.[51]ManyofthesetoolsarebeingdevelopedaspartoftheSemanticWeb.[52]One,for
example,istheStanfordProtegeOntologyEditor.

Seealso
Customerknowledge
ElectronicJournalofKnowledgeManagement
Ignorancemanagement
Informationmanagement
Informationgovernance
JournalofKnowledgeManagement
JournalofKnowledgeManagementPractice
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Journals
Knowledgecafe
Knowledgecommunity
Knowledgeecosystem
Knowledgeengineering
Knowledgemanagementsoftware
Knowledgemodeling
Knowledgetransfer
Knowledgetranslation
Legalcasemanagement

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