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* Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays caused debate as to whether they were charged

particles or electromagnetic waves


In the late nineteenth century, a debate between scientists arose about the nature of cathode rays (a beam of electrons
emitted from the cathode of a high-vacuum tube) because it seemed to have both wave and particle properties. German
scientists including Heinrich Hertz, strongly believed that these cathode rays were indefinitely waves. On the other hand,
English scientists strongly supported particles being the nature for cathode rays.
Experiments conducted by English scientists showed that cathode rays were able to charge objects through negative
interventions. These experiments include the paddle wheel inside a cathode ray tube, the paddle wheel would spin when
electricity was turned on. This showed that cathode rays transferred and carried momentum suggesting these rays were
particles.
But Hertz mistakenly proved that cathode rays could not be deflected with the
influence of electric plates because he left a small amount of gas in his Cathode Ray
Tube. Also, rays were not being deflected, they could cast shadows and be diffracted
as well and cause fluorescence. This provided evidence waves could be the nature of
cathode rays.
Both groups were unable to provide strong evidence to support their theory leaving the debate unclear until 1897. The
debate was settled by a British scientist named J.J Thomson whom concluded that cathode rays were steams of negatively
charged particles. His famous experiment which consisted of a cathode ray tube at a high pressure proved this and was
able to measure the charge to mass ratio using the measurements. It consisted of placing a negatively and positively
charged plate inside the tube, the beam was noticed to be attracted to the positive plate confirming they were negatively
charged particles.
* Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of charged particles
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a highly evacuated glass tube containing 2
electrodes. In a cathode ray tube, the cathode is the negative electrode and
anode is the positive electrode. The pressure of the air is reduced because
electricity is less conductive in a state of vacuum as compared to normal levels
of air where it acts as an insulator.
A high voltage is applied across the two electrodes that cause the cathode
rays (stream of electrons) to flow from the cathode to the positive anode.
Cathode rays can be manipulated by:
The path of the charged particles can be altered by creating electric
fields (by fitting electric plates inside the tube) or a magnetic field
(applied through the glass from the outside).
Solid objects can be placed inside the tube to block the path of rays,
such as the Maltese cross.
A vacuum pump in the Cathode ray tube can vary the air pressure and
so different effects can be seen as the air pressure causes different bright effects in cathode ray tubes.
* Describe Hertzs observation of the effect of a radio wave on a receiver and the photoelectric effect he produced but
failed to investigate
In Hertz's initial apparatus, he used an induction coil with large metal plates separated by a small gap to create an
oscillating spark from an AC current. This is caused by one to be positive and the
other to be negative causing electricity to travel back and forth jumping across the
gap. From this, Hertz was able to observe that this spark emitted electromagnetic
waves as it jumped across the gap to the receiving terminal. Since there was no
physical contact between the loops, Hertz concluded that the spark in the transmitter
emitted electromagnetic waves. Which could be detected using his 'ring receiver'.
Hertz noticed that in the presence of Ultra Violet light (e.g. light), a stronger spark
could be created in the receiver coil. Therefore, he realized that light and electricity
must be related. This is known as the photoelectric effect, which is when electrons
are released from a metal surface when being exposed to electromagnetic radiation.
This is because the quanta of energy from the electromagnetic radiation gives the
electrons the energy needed to escape from the metal
Hertz was able to measure the speed, refraction, reflection and polarisation of
these waves demonstrating how they displayed similar characteristics of light. This

was the first experiment that showed the existence of electromagnetic waves and also demonstrated the photoelectric
effect; however, Hertz did not pursue and investigate this further.
* Outline qualitatively Hertzs experiments in measuring the speed of radio waves and how they relate to light waves
Hertz showed that these waves behaved like light in his spark-gap coil experiment. He showed that, like light, radio
waves could reflect, refract, interfere, diffract, be polarised and travelled at the speed of light.
Hertz could infer the speed of radio waves by using the relationship that c = f. . The frequency of the emitted waves
was determined by the number of windings in the induction coil, and the voltage and current in the circuit. And the
wavelength could be determined by measuring the reflection of these waves on metal sheets which was placed in front of
the radio waves; an interference pattern would occur by constructively and destructively superimposing the waves over
each other. Hertz calculated the speed of light was the same as the speed of the EMR generated. This discovery verified
Maxwell's equations and therefore significant for further scientific research.
Hertz demonstrated that radio waves travel at the speed of light (and in fact, so do all electromagnetic waves). Another
observation made by Hertz during his experiment was that the intensity of the spark in the receiving coil faded
considerable when the receiving coil was placed inside a dark box. He verified his suspicions by illuminating a light on
the reviving coil, which produced a brighter spark. This was later to be called the photoelectric effect, where electrons are
freed from a metal lattice allowing them to flow across a gap.
* Identify Plancks hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a black
body cavity is quantized
A black body is any object that will absorb or emit 100% of radiation that hits it and
therefore is being absorbed. Absorbed energy will increase the temperature of the black body
until it cannot absorb more radiation, and therefore emits them out.
Classic physics predicted that, as a wavelength of radiation emitted becomes shorted, the
radiation intensity would increase. This increase in energy however, would increase without
limit and violate the principle of conservation of energy which states energy cannot be
destroyed nor created. This effect was known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. Experimental
observations from black body experiment showed that the radiation intensity corresponding
to a given temperature has a definite peak, passing through a maximum value then declining,
this could not be explained however.
It is this problem that led to the beginning of the quantum theory of physics
with Plank. Planck hypothesised that radiation (energy) is not emitted or absorbed
by a black body continuously as classical physics suggests so, but rather is emitted
or absorbed in little bursts or packets of energy quanta (or photons) of energy.
He showed that the energy of each quanta emitted was proportional to its frequency:
E = hf

The black body theory can be observed and tested against a black, fully sealed furnace in which burns a hot fire that can
monitored and a small cavity (hole) is drilled in the wall of the furnace. We know that the furnace will not be able to let
any radiation escape, however, the walls of the furnace will begin to absorb the radiation of the fire (such as ultraviolet
and infra-red electromagnetic radiation). From the small cavity in the wall, some external radiation will be able to enter
the furnace and be absorbed by the walls of the black furnace when that radiation hit it however; radiation must also be
emitted from the walls and therefore establishes an equilibrium state (input = output).

* Identify the relationship between photon energy, frequency, speed of light and wavelength
Planks Quantum Theory proposed that the amount of energy that is carried by a quantum of light, is related to the frequency of
the light:
E = h.f (Energy of photon)
Where:
- E = energy of each quantum of photon (joules) (J)
- h = Plancks constant (6.626 x 10-34Js)
- f = frequency of the radiation (Hertz) (Hz)
c = f. (Speed of light)
Where:
- c = the constant of speed of light (3x108m/s)
- f = frequency of the wave (Hertz) (Hz)
- = wavelength of the wave (meters) (m)
E = h.c/
* Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of band structures and relative
electrical resistance
The difference between conductors, semiconductors and insulators is their level of electrical resistance or conduction
due to the relative distance between their valence and conduction bands. The closer the valence and conduction bands are,
the better the substance is at allow electrons from the valence band (shell) to pass onto the conduction band and therefore
conduct electricity.
Valence Band: is the shell, or band, of outermost electrons which are used to determine the reactivity and conductivity
and bonding of a substance
Conduction Band: is the band which exists above the valence band and has no electrons in it. It is where electrons jump
to if they are to conduct.
The forbidden energy gap is the energy that is required to overcome from the valence band to the conduction band.
This is caused by the energy gap that is created between the valence band and conduction band.
Conductors (metals): the valence electrons for metal atoms are delocalised and shared. The electrons have a higher
energy and are able to move freely, hence they are able to conduct. Since these electrons are all part of the conduction
band, the valence band of a conductor is said to merge with the conduction implying the forbidden energy gap is nonexistent. A conductor has a very good electric conductivity. But as the temperature increases, its conductivity decreases as
the heat causes more vibrations leading to more collisions.
Insulators: the valence electrons on an insulator are locked in position within the lattice. The gap between the valance
band and the conduction band is very large indicating at room temperature the electrons will not have enough energy to
jump across. Therefore its conductivity is almost zero at room temperature and its resistance is infinite.
Semiconductors: the band structure is between that of a conductor and an insulator, with a small forbidden energy
gap. If thermal energy is increased, it causes electrons to move to levels in the conduction band from the valence band.
Once there, they are able to move freely with the influence of an electric field. Therefore the resistivity of a
semiconductor decreases as temperature increases.

* Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognise that both electrons and holes help to carry
current
In substances (elements) which have a nearly full outer-valence
shell, the absence of an electron is known as a hole. These elements,
such as Fluorine are often one electron short of completing their valence
shell and therefore are slightly positively charged. When a potential
difference is applied, it leaves a vacancy in the valance band. This
vacancy is known as a hole. The hole behaves as a positively charged
particle and moves in the opposite direction to the electron. The other
electrons in the valance bond move to fill the vacancy, but in doing so it
leaves behind another vacancy, resulting in the apparent motion of the
hole. It is this motion of electrons and holes that contribute to an electric
current.
Therefore, 'holes' in valence shells of atoms and electrons help the
flow and carry of current.
* Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use available evidence to assess the impact of the
invention of transistors on society with particular reference to their use in microchips and microprocessors and
communication in Australia.
Integrated circuits (microchips): is an assembly of electronic devices and their connections which are fabricated into a
single unit. These units are designed to conduct specific tasks.
Microprocessor: are types of microchips that contain complicated electronic devices and their connections to perform
arithmetic, logic and control operations.
A transistor is a solid state device that are made up of semi-conductor materials.
The invention of the transistor has allowed the effective use and implementation of microchips and microprocessors.
These microchips and processors have pushed society into a revolutionary information age; finding practical application
in many light, cheap technological devices including calculators, small computers and mobile phones.
Because the transistor are used in any device which needs to monitor and change the current of the entire circuit, then
transistors are also used in many other devices (including large computers and televisions) and these impact society in the
forms of information, entertainment and interaction with others for instance, without the invention of the transistor,
microprocessors could not have been invented and thud mobile phones would not exist/operate as well.
Impact on society:
-positive:
Use of microchips in household appliances has given path to home entertainment, CD players, video machines,
TV and radios.
Microchips and electronic circuitry have improved and advanced our method of communication such as internet,
mobile phones and GPS.
Small microchips have allowed robots to exist, they perform manufacturing tasks, hazardous and repetitive
activities quickly and efficiently.
-negative:
Robots have resulted in high unemployment rates.
Extensive use and development in electronics such as computers and the internet has resulted in negative social
impacts. It has reduced face to face social interactions for many users.
* Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical properties.
The doping of a semiconductor is the addition of a different of external atom to the pure crystal lattice of the
semiconductor. This different atom is known as a dopant atom and is defined by a different valence level which is
considered an impurity.
Doping assists the conduction of the semiconductor because there is an energy gap which allows for extra energy
levels to be formed and fill this gap between the valence and conduction gap. This means it is easier for these materials to
conduct because the energy difference between the valence and conduction bands for such dopant atoms is less.
Conductors which have been doped are known as extrinsic semiconductors.
Bibliography
Physics in Focus HSC textbook, accessed on 17-06-16
Jacaranda physics textbook, accessed on 18-06-16
KISS physics notes, accessed on 18-06-16
http://webs.mn.catholic.edu.au/physics/emery/hsc_ideas_implementation.htm, accessed on 17-06-16
http://dc.edu.au/dot-point-summary-ideas-to-implementation/, accessed on 17-06-16

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