Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Technology Handbook
1 Principles and Properties
Y. K Hui
EDITOR
VCH
VCH
VCH
Dr. Y. H. Hui
3006 4 4 S " Street
Eureka, California 95501
U.S.A.
PREFACE
Although there are many professional reference books on the science and technology
of processing dairy products, this 3-volume set is unique in its coverage (topics
selected, emphasis, and latest development) and its authors (experts with diversified
background and experience).
Volume I discusses four important properties and applications of milk and dairy
ingredients: chemistry and physics, analyses, sensory evaluation, and protein. Each
chapter is not a comprehensive treatment of the subject, since more than one reference book has been written on each of the four disciplines. Rather, each chapter
discusses the basic information in reasonable details that are supplemented by new
research data and advances. This assures that each chapter contributes new information not available in many reference books already published.
Volume II discusses the manufacture technology for yogurt, ice cream, cheese,
and dry and concentrated dairy products. The direction of each chapter is carefully
designed to provide two types of information. Each chapter details the currently
accepted procedures of manufacturing the product and then explores new advances
in technology and their potential impact on the processing of such products in the
future. The fifth chapter in this volume discusses microbiology and associated health
hazards for dairy products. The goal of this chapter is obvious, since there are so
much new information on this topic in the last few years. The authors have done an
excellent job in reviewing available data on this highly visible field.
Volume III is unique because it covers five topics not commonly found in professional reference books for dairy manufacture: quality assurance, biotechnology, computer application, equipment and supplies, and processing plant designs. The length
of each chapter is limited by the size of the book. As a result, I assume full responsibility for any missing details since I assigned a fixed length to each chapter.
The appendix to Volume I alphabetically lists products and services in the dairy
industry. Under each product or service, the appendix describes the names of companies that provide those products and services. In Volume III, the appendix provides
information for each company listed in Volume I. This includes contact data and the
types of products and services for each company. The appendixes for Volumes I and
III are not repeated in Volume II in order to assure a reasonable price for the books.
As for the expertise of the authors, you are the best judge since most of them are
known among scientists, technologists, and engineers in the dairy discipline.
This three-volume set is a reference book and will benefit dairy professionals in
government, industry, and academia. The information is useful to individuals engaged in research, manufacturing, and teaching. In general, the texts form an excellent background source for professionals who just enter the field. For expert dairy
professionals, these books serve as a subject review as well as a summary of what
is new. Any chapter in the three volumes can be used as a supplement material for
a class teaching a specific topic in or an overview of the science and technology of
processing diary products.
Y.H. Hui
October 1992
Contributors
Contributors
Marijana Caric, Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, 2100 Novi Sad,
Bulevar, Yugoslavia
Ramesh C. Chandan, James Ford Bell Technical Center, General Mills, Inc., 9000
Plymouth Avenue North, Minneapolis, MN 55427, U.S.A.
Maribeth A. Cousin, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN
47906, U.S.A.
Rafael Jimenez-Flores, Agricultural Bioprocessing Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801-4726, U.S.A.
Norman J. Klipfel, Baskin-Robbins International Company, Glendale, CA, U.S.A.
K. Rajinder Nath, Kraft General Foods, 801 Waukegan Road, Glenview, IL 60025,
U.S.A.
Khem Shahani, Department of Food Science and Technology, Food Industry Complex, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0919, U.S.A.
Joseph Tobias, Agricultural Bioprocessing Laboratory University of Illinois, Urbana,
IL 61801-4726, U.S.A.
P.C. Vasavada, Department of Animal and Food Science, University of Wisconsin,
River Falls, WI 54022
Contributors
Jeffrey R. Broadbent, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-8100, U.S.A.
Vance Caudill, Lockwood Greene Engineers, Inc., Spartanburg, SC 29304, U.S.A.
Thomas Gilmore, Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, 6245 Executive
Boulevard Drive, Rockville, MD 20852-3938, U.S.A.
Jeffrey K. Kondo, Marschall Products, Rhone-Poulenc, Inc., 601 Science Drive,
Madison, WI 53711, U.S.A.
Robert L. Olsen, Department of Research and Development, Schreiber Foods, Inc.,
Green Bay, WI 54307-9010, U.S.A.
Jim Shell, Consultant, Ellicott City, MD 21043, U.S.A.
John E. Stauffer, Stauffer Technology, 6 Pecksland Road, Greenwich, CT 06831,
U.S.A.
Contents
Preface .............................................................................
vii
ix
xi
1:1
1.1
Introduction ...................................................................
1:2
1.2
Composition .................................................................
1:5
1.2.1
Proteins .......................................................
1:9
1.2.2
Lipids ...........................................................
1:18
1.2.3
Lactose ........................................................
1:26
1.2.4
1:28
Structure .......................................................................
1:30
1.3.1
1:30
1.3.2
1:41
1:49
1.4.1
Density ........................................................
1:49
1.4.2
Viscosity ......................................................
1:50
1.4.3
1:52
1.3
1.4
vi
Contents
1.4.4
Electrochemistry ..........................................
1:54
1.4.5
1:56
1.4.6
1:57
1.4.7
1:60
1:60
1.5
Summary ......................................................................
1:61
1.6
1:62
1.7
References ...................................................................
1:62
Analyses ....................................................................
1:83
2.1
1:85
1.4.8
2.
Introduction ...................................................................
2.1.1
2.2
2.3
1:85
2.1.2
1:86
2.1.3
1:86
Sampling ......................................................................
1:86
2.2.1
1:86
2.2.2
1:87
2.2.3
1:88
2.2.4
1:88
2.2.5
1:88
1:89
2.3.1
Fat ...............................................................
1:89
2.3.2
1:96
2.3.3
Protein .........................................................
1:98
2.3.4
Lactose ........................................................
1:99
2.3.5
Ash ..............................................................
1:101
2.3.6
Vitamins .......................................................
1:101
2.3.7
Minerals .......................................................
1:102
Contents
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
1:102
2.4.1
1:102
2.4.2
1:105
2.4.3
Sediment .....................................................
1:106
2.4.4
Antibiotics ....................................................
1:107
2.4.5
1:112
2.4.6
1:113
2.4.7
Aflatoxins .....................................................
1:113
2.4.8
Pesticides ....................................................
1:114
1:115
2.5.1
1:115
2.5.2
1:116
2.5.3
1:117
1:120
2.6.1
1:121
2.6.2
1:126
2.6.3
1:131
2.6.4
1:135
1:139
2.7.1
2.8
vii
Assurance of Adequate
Pasteurization ..............................................
1:139
2.7.2
1:141
2.7.3
1:142
2.7.4
1:144
2.7.5
1:145
1:146
2.8.1
1:146
viii
Contents
2.9
3.
Summary ......................................................................
1:148
1:148
1:149
1:157
3.1
1:158
3.1.1
Introduction ..................................................
1:158
3.1.2
Taste ...........................................................
1:159
3.1.3
Smell ...........................................................
1:162
3.1.4
Sight ............................................................
1:163
3.1.5
Hearing ........................................................
1:165
3.1.6
Touch ..........................................................
1:166
1:166
3.2.1
Introduction ..................................................
1:166
3.2.2
1:168
3.2.3
1:170
3.2.4
1:171
1:174
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.4
3.5
1:175
1:175
3.4.1
1:175
3.4.2
1:185
3.4.3
Butter ...........................................................
1:198
3.4.4
1:214
3.4.5
Cheese ........................................................
1:229
3.4.6
1:243
3.4.7
Yogurt ..........................................................
1:254
3.4.8
1:267
References ...................................................................
1:274
Contents
4.
ix
1:277
4.1
Introduction ...................................................................
1:278
4.2
1:280
4.2.1
1:280
4.2.2
1:281
1:282
4.3.1
1:282
4.3.2
1:292
4.3.3
1:302
1:325
4.4.1
1:325
4.4.2
1:329
4.5
Conclusion ....................................................................
1:332
4.6
Acknowledgments ........................................................
1:333
4.7
References ...................................................................
1:334
1:355
1:355
1:385
4.3
4.4
Yogurt ........................................................................
2:1
1.1
Introduction ...................................................................
2:2
1.2
2:7
1.2.1
2:8
Contents
1.2.2
2:10
2:11
2:13
1.3.1
2:15
1.3.2
2:20
2:22
1.4.1
2:22
1.4.2
2:25
1.4.3
2:25
1.4.4
Homogenization ...........................................
2:27
1.4.5
Fermentation ...............................................
2:27
1.4.6
Packaging ....................................................
2:27
2:28
1.2.3
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.5.1
2:28
2:31
2:32
2:36
1.6.1
2:36
1.6.2
2:39
2:39
1.7.1
2:39
1.7.2
2:41
1.7.3
2:45
1.7.4
2:45
References ...................................................................
2:54
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.6
1.7
1.8
Contents
2.
xi
2:57
2.1
2:59
Introduction ...................................................................
2.1.1
2.2
2:59
2.1.2
2:60
2.1.3
2:60
2.1.4
2:61
2:61
2.2.1
2:62
2.2.2
2:63
2.2.3
2:67
2.2.4
2:67
2:69
2.2.6
2:73
2.2.7
2:73
2.2.8
2:74
2.2.9
2:74
2:75
2:75
2:76
2:79
2:80
2:81
2:82
2:82
2:87
2:90
2:92
2.2.5
xii
Contents
2.3
2:92
2:93
2:94
2:100
2:104
2.3.6
2:108
2.3.7
2:109
Formulation ..................................................................
2:110
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.4
2.4.1
2:112
2.4.2
2:113
2.4.3
2:114
2:114
2.4.5
2:115
2.4.6
2:116
2.4.7
2:117
2.4.8
2:117
2.4.9
2:118
2:119
2:119
2:120
2:121
2.5.1
2:121
2.4.4
2.5
2:92
Pasteurization ..............................................
Contents
xiii
2.5.2
Homogenization ...........................................
2:125
2.5.3
2:127
2:129
2.6.1
2:132
2.6.2
2:133
2.6.3
2:134
2.6.4
2:134
2.6.5
2:135
2:136
2.7.1
2:138
2.8
2:142
2.9
2:145
2.9.1
2:146
2.9.2
2:146
2.9.3
2:146
2.9.4
2:146
2.9.5
2:147
2.9.6
2:147
2.9.7
2:147
2.9.8
2:148
2:149
2:149
2:149
2:149
2:150
2:151
2:153
2:153
2.6
2.7
2.9.9
xiv
3.
Contents
2.11.2 Ice Cream Structure .....................................
2:155
2:156
2:157
Cheese ......................................................................
2:161
3.1
Introduction ...................................................................
2:163
3.1.1
Classification ...............................................
2:164
3.1.2
2:165
3.2
2:169
3.3
2:173
3.3.1
2:174
3.3.2
Leuconostoc ................................................
2:178
3.3.3
2:178
3.3.4
Lactobacilli ...................................................
2:179
3.3.5
2:179
3.3.6
Propionibacteria ...........................................
2:180
3.3.7
Pediococci ...................................................
2:180
3.3.8
Molds ...........................................................
2:181
2:182
3.4.1
2:182
2:187
3.5.1
2:188
2:191
3.6.1
History .........................................................
2:191
3.6.2
2:191
3.6.3
2:192
3.6.4
pH-Controlled Propagation of
Cultures .......................................................
2:194
3.4
3.5
3.6
Contents
xv
3.6.5
2:196
3.6.6
2:196
2:197
3.7.1
2:200
3.7.2
2:200
3.7.3
2:200
3.7.4
2:201
3.7.5
2:201
3.7.6
2:205
3.7.7
2:205
3.7.8
2:206
3.8
2:207
3.9
2:210
2:210
2:211
2:212
2:213
2:213
2:215
2:215
2:216
2:217
2:218
2:219
2:219
2:220
2:220
3.7
xvi
Contents
3.12.3 Eye Formation .............................................
2:221
2:222
2:222
2:222
2:223
2:223
2:224
2:224
2:224
2:224
2:224
2:226
2:227
2:227
2:227
2:228
2:229
2:229
2:231
2:231
2:231
2:234
2:234
2:235
Contents
4.
2:257
4.1
2:258
4.2
2:259
4.2.1
2:259
4.2.2
2:259
4.2.3
2:265
2:266
2:267
4.2.4
4.3
4.3.1
2:267
2:267
2:270
4.4
2:270
4.5
2:271
4.5.1
2:271
4.5.2
2:278
4.5.3
2:282
4.5.4
2:285
2:286
4.6.1
2:286
4.6.2
2:289
4.6.3
2:290
4.6.4
Lactose ........................................................
2:296
References ...................................................................
2:299
2:301
5.1
2:303
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.6
4.7
5.
xvii
Introduction ...................................................................
xviii
Contents
5.2
5.3
2:304
5.2.1
2:305
5.2.2
2:305
2:321
5.3.1
5.4
5.5
2:321
5.3.2
2:323
5.3.3
2:324
2:326
5.4.1
2:326
5.4.2
Lactoperoxidase ..........................................
2:327
5.4.3
Lactoferrin ...................................................
2:330
5.4.4
Lysozyme ....................................................
2:331
5.4.5
2:331
5.4.6
2:332
5.4.7
2:335
5.4.8
2:336
5.4.9
Removal of Microorganisms by
Physical Methods ........................................
2:336
Mastitis .........................................................................
2:338
5.5.1
2:338
5.5.2
2:338
5.5.3
2:339
5.5.4
2:341
5.5.5
2:341
2:341
5.5.6
Contents
5.6
5.7
2:342
5.6.1
2:344
5.6.2
2:346
5.6.3
2:346
5.6.4
2:347
5.6.5
2:347
5.6.6
2:348
5.6.7
2:348
5.6.8
2:349
2:350
5.7.1
2:351
2:355
5.7.3
2:356
5.7.4
2:358
2:359
5.8.1
Terminology .................................................
2:359
5.8.2
2:362
5.8.4
2:365
5.8.5
2:366
2:367
5.9.1
2:367
5.9.2
2:370
2:377
5.7.2
5.8
5.9
xix
5.9.3
xx
Contents
5.9.4
2:378
2:378
2:379
2:381
2:381
2:382
2:382
2:383
2:384
2:385
2:385
2:386
2:386
2:389
2:391
2:392
2:392
2:393
2:394
2:394
2:395
2:395
2:427
Contents
xxi
3:1
1.1
Introduction ...................................................................
3:3
1.1.1
3:3
1.1.2
3:3
3:4
3:4
1.2.1
3:4
1.2.2
3:5
1.2.3
3:8
1.2.4
Pasteurization ..............................................
3:12
1.2.5
3:20
1.2.6
3:23
1.2.7
3:25
1.2.8
3:27
3:30
1.1.3
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.4
3:30
1.3.2
3:33
1.3.3
3:33
1.3.4
3:35
1.3.5
3:37
1.3.6
3:39
3:40
1.4.1
3:40
1.4.2
Sanitation ....................................................
3:41
1.4.3
3:47
1.4.4
3:49
xxii
Contents
1.5
3:50
1.5.1
3:50
1.5.2
3:52
1.5.3
Fortification ..................................................
3:55
1.5.4
3:57
1.5.5
3:59
1.5.6
3:59
Packaging .....................................................................
3:60
1.6.1
3:60
1.6.2
3:62
1.6.3
3:63
1.6.4
3:63
1.6.5
3:64
Distribution ...................................................................
3:65
1.7.1
3:65
1.7.2
3:65
1.7.3
3:66
Summary ......................................................................
3:67
1.8.1
3:67
1.8.2
3:68
3:68
1.9.1
3:68
1.9.2
3:69
3:69
3:70
3:77
2.1
Introduction ...................................................................
3:77
2.2
3:78
2.2.1
3:79
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.9.3
2.
Contents
xxiii
2.2.2
3:80
2.2.3
3:83
2.2.4
3:84
3:85
2.3.1
3:85
2.3.2
3:88
Manufacture of Heterologous
Proteins .......................................................
3:91
2.4
3:92
2.5
Summary ......................................................................
3:95
2.6
References ...................................................................
3:95
3:105
3.1
3:106
2.3
2.3.3
3.
Introduction ...................................................................
3.1.1
3:106
Relationship to Traditional
Programming ...............................................
3:108
3:109
3.2.1
3:109
3.2.2
3:113
Uncertainty ..................................................
3:116
3:117
3.3.1
Feasibility ....................................................
3:117
3.3.2
3:118
3.3.3
3:120
3:121
3.4.1
3:121
3.1.2
3.2
3.2.3
3.3
3.4
xxiv
Contents
3.4.2
3:123
3.4.3
3:126
3:127
3:128
3.5.1
3:128
3.5.2
3:130
3:132
3:138
3.6.1
3:138
3.6.2
3:140
3.6.3
3:142
3:143
3.7.1
Simulation ....................................................
3:143
3.7.2
3:146
3.7.3
Training .......................................................
3:149
3.8
3:150
3.9
References ...................................................................
3:151
3:155
4.1
3:156
4.2
3:160
4.2.1
Tanks ...........................................................
3:160
4.2.2
3:171
4.2.3
Pumps .........................................................
3:179
4.2.4
3:195
4.2.5
Centrifuges ..................................................
3:203
4.2.6
Homogenizers .............................................
3:213
4.2.7
3:217
3.4.4
3.5
3.5.3
3.6
3.7
4.
Contents
4.3
5.
xxv
3:241
3:241
4.3.2
3:254
4.3.3
3:256
4.3.4
3:261
4.3.5
3:277
4.3.6
3:281
4.3.7
3:288
3:295
5.1
Introduction ...................................................................
3:296
5.2
3:296
5.2.1
3:297
5.2.2
3:303
3:307
5.3.1
3:307
5.3.2
3:309
5.3.3
3:310
5.3.4
3:316
5.3.5
3:318
5.3.6
3:319
3:320
5.4.1
3:320
5.4.2
3:321
Regulations ..................................................................
3:326
5.5.1
3:326
5.5.2
Product ........................................................
3:327
Summary ......................................................................
3:327
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
xxvi
Contents
5.7
3:327
5.8
References ...................................................................
3:328
3:331
3:331
3:356
3:385
Index ................................................................................
3:409
CHAPTER
1
Chemistry and Physics
H. D. GoffandA. R. Hill
1.1 Introduction, 2
1.2 Composition, 5
1.2.1 Proteins, 9
1.2.1.1 Caseins, 9
1.2.1.2 Whey Proteins, 14
1.2.1.3 Enzymes, 15
1.2.2 Lipids, 18
1.2.2.1 Chemical Properties, 18
1.2.2.2 Physical Properties, 19
1.2.2.3 Lipolysis, 22
1.2.2.4 Oxidation, 24
1.2.3 Lactose, 26
1.2.3.1 Biochemical Properties, 26
1.2.3.2 Physicochemical Properties, 26
1.2.4 Minor Components, 28
1.2.4.1 Vitamins, 28
1.2.4.2 Minerals, 29
1.3 Structure, 30
1.3.1 Casein Micelles, 30
1.3.1.1 Properties, 30
1.3.1.2 Stability, 35
1.3.1.3 Aggregation, 38
1.3.2 Fat Globules, 41
1.3.2.1 Native Fat Globule Membrane, 41
1.3.2.2 Recombined Membranes, 44
1.3.2.3 Stability, 46
1.3.2.4 Destabilization, 48
1.4 Physical Properties, 49
1.4.1 Density, 49
1.4.2 Viscosity, 50
1.4.3 Freezing Point, 52
1.4.4 Electrochemistry, 54
1.4.4.1 Electrical Conductivity, 54
1.4.4.2 Oxidation-Reduction Potentials, 55
1.1 Introduction
A characteristic unique to mammals is their ability to secrete milk as a source of
nutrients and immunological protection for their young. Milk from domesticated
species has also been recognized since prehistoric times as a food source for humans.1 Some of the properties of milk that are still under study today, such as its
ability to clot with chymosin and the ability to turn milk into products such as cheese
and butter, have been known to humans for centuries.2 Consequently, the applications of chemistry and physical chemistry to milk are probably among the oldest
scientific disciplines and are still recognized as very important and integral parts of
the field of food science.
Today, the majority of milk for human consumption is secreted by the domesticated cow, genus Bos, although milk from goats, buffaloes, and sheep, in addition
to human milk, is also consumed in significant quantity.
Milk is defined by the United States Code of Federal Regulations as "the lacteal
secretion, practically free from colostrum, obtained by the complete milking of one
or more healthy cows, which contains not less than 8.25% of milk solids-not-fat and
not less than 3.25% of milkfat".3 Reviews of the composition of goat's milk,4-5
ewe's milk,6 buffalo's milk,7 camel's milk,8 human milk,9 and the milk of other
species 1011 are available in the literature. This chapter is limited to a discussion of
cow's milk.
Milk is synthesized in the mammary gland. An average cow in North America
produces 5400 kg of milk in a 305-day lactation period.
The components of the mammary gland at various magnifications are shown in
Figure 1.1. The alveolus is the milk-producing unit within the gland. In the alveolus,
a single layer of epithelial secretory cells surrounds a central storage area, the lumen,
which is connected to a duct system. These secretory cells are, in turn, surrounded
by a layer of myoepithelial cells and blood capillaries. The raw materials for milk
production are transported via the bloodstream to the secretory cell. Within the cell,
components are synthesized mainly by the endoplasmic reticulum and its attached
ribosomes, which are supplied with energy from the mitochondria and then passed
along to the Golgi apparatus, which is responsible for their eventual movement out
of the cell. Vesicles containing many of the aqueous nonfat components are released
SECMETOW
TISSUE
ONt QUARTER
LOOD
VESSEL
CAMlAMES
CtSTEWf
CONNCCTlVg
TISSUE
touct
LARGE OUC f
VENOUS
BLOOO
OUCT
LUMEN
CAPILLARIES
MVOEPrrMEUAL
CELL
ARTEMAL
BLOOO
ALVEOLUS
LUMEN
I1WUTUN.
LMD
OtKWLET
MCtKMLU
^ytfrtl
- S W
NUCLEUS
MfTOCHQNOfOON
ENDOPIASMC
RETCULUM ,
SECRETORY CELL
Figure 1.1 Bovine mammary gland at various magnifications. (Reprinted from ref. 12,
p. 794, by courtesy of Marcel Dekker.)
by the Golgi apparatus, pass through the cytoplasm and the apical plasma membrane,
and are deposited in the lumen of the alveolus. Lipid droplets, synthesized by the
endoplasmic reticulum, also pass through the cytoplasm and the apical plasma membrane and are deposited in the lumen.
As is discussed further in Section 1.3.2.1, it is believed that the milk fat globule
membrane (FGM) is comprised of the apical plasma membrane of the secretory cell,
which continually envelops lipid droplets as they pass into the lumen. The apical
cell membrane is continually being replaced from endomembrane material synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and transported from the Golgi in the form of
vesicles containing aqueous nonfat components. The vesicle membrane fuses with
the apical cell membrane as the contents of the vesicle are released. Milk components
stored in the lumen of the alveolus are released into the duct system as a result of
hormonal stimulation. The duct systems within the mammary gland, a complex network, flow into the teat cistern from which they are milked. Further details of milk
biosynthesis and mammary physiology are beyond the scope of this chapter and
have been reviewed extensively elsewhere. 13 " 15
Milk is estimated to contain more than 100,000 molecular species. However, the
average gross composition of milk can be simplified to 4.1% fat, 3.6% protein (75%
casein protein and 25% whey protein), 4.9% lactose, and 0.7% ash, with the balance
Amount in 100 g
%RDAa in 250 ml
Protein
Vitamin A
Vitamin C
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B 6
Folacin
Vitamin B 12
Calcium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Iron
Zinc
3.29 g
31RE b
0.94 mg
0.038 mg
0.162 mg
0.85 NEC
0.042 mg
5 |xg
0.357 jig
119 mg
93 mg
13 mg
0.05 mg
0.38 mg
17.2
8.9
4.2
8.2
30.0
13.9
5.4
3.2
30.7
32.0
25.0
10.2
0.9
6.5
Average Recommended Dietary Allowances for all males and females above
age 11.
Retinol Equivalents: 1 u,g retinol or 6 u,g ^-carotene.
c
Niacin Equivalents: 1 mg niacin or 60 mg dietary tryptophan. Only 10% of the
NE in milk corresponds to niacin.
b
the tremendously growing fields of dairy chemistry and physics. Several very recent
excellent reviews and monographs of aspects of dairy chemistry are available and
recommended for those seeking more detail.16^23"28
1.2 Composition
The gross composition of milk is defined as the fat, protein, lactose, ash, and total
solids content. Gross composition for large numbers of samples is determined by
indirect methods calibrated against chemical methods.29 The most common chemical
methods for milkfat determination are gravimetric (solvent extraction by the Mojonnier or Roese-Gottlieb procedure) or volumetric (the Babcock or Gerber procedure).30 For raw milks, the Babcock procedure produces slightly higher results
(0.021% fat) than does the Mojonnier procedure and has significantly lower interand intralaboratory repeatability.30
Total protein is generally determined as Kjeldahl nitrogen multiplied by the factor
6.38. This factor is still in common use, although a more representative one is 6.34.31
It is also common to report protein as crude protein (total N X 6.38), which overestimates true protein content (protein N X 6.38) by about 4 to 8%.3 The most
Fat
Protein
Lactose
Ash
Total Solids
Holstein
Ayrshire
Guernsey
Jersey
Brown Swiss
3.54
3.95
4.72
5.13
3.99
3.29
3.48
3.75
3.98
3.64
4.68
4.60
4.71
4.83
4.94
0.72
0.72
0.76
0.77
0.74
12.16
12.77
14.04
14.42
13.08
Percent
Protein
Fat
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug.Sept.Oct. Nov. Dec.
1988
Figure 1.2 Seasonal variation of protein and fat content of Ontario milk. Primary standard
methods were Mojonnier for fat and semi-micro-Kjeldahl for protein. Protein is total nitrogen
X 6.38. Data represent means of 10,000 herds tested four times each month at the Ontario
Central Milk Testing Laboratory.
In the Northern Hemisphere, maximum annual fat contents occur during the winter months, usually peaking in November or December; minimum fat contents occur
in August as shown in Figure 1.2.51 Seasonal trends in protein contents follow a
similar trend, with some significant differences: the seasonal variation is not as great,
the minimum occurs in July, and the maximum occurs in October (Fig. 1.2).51 These
differences cause seasonal variation of the protein/fat ratio of milk, which is of
significant economic consequence, especially to cheese manufacturing.51 Small seasonal variations in lactose content have also been reported.52 Although there is some
evidence that climatic conditions affect milk composition, the principal effect of
climatic factors is on milk production.53 It is likely that the observed seasonal effects
on milk composition are primarily due to variations in feed and stage of lactation.3'54
Variations in feed and stage of lactation probably also account for most regional
variations in milk composition. Regional variations in the Ontario, Canada, milkfat
composition for the years 1978 to 1988 are shown in Figure 1.3. These data and
earlier unpublished data (Ontario Central Milk Testing Laboratory, Guelph) going
back to 1971 show a continual increase in average fat content of Ontario milk over
time, with little or no increase in protein content. The result is a significant decrease
in the protein/fat ratio of Ontario milk. There has also been a gradual increase in
average lactose content of Ontario producer milks, from 4.80% lactose monohydrate
(w/v) in 1970 to 5.2% (w/v) in 1988.
With respect to herd health, yield and compositional effects of greatest economic
Fat
%
WESTERN
SOUTHERN
NORTHERN
EASTERN
CENTRAL
ONTARIO
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
Year
Figure 1 3 Regional and annual variation of fat content of Ontario milk. Primary standard
method was Mojonnier. Data represent annual means within each region. Herds were tested
four times per month.
significance are due to mastitis.55 Average yield losses due to udder infection may
exceed 1 kg of milk per cow per day. 56 Somatic cell counts in excess of 300,000
indicate subclinical mastitis.57 In 1989, average somatic cell counts for all Ontario
producer milks were 350,000/mL. (Ontario Central Milk Testing Laboratory,
Guelph, Ontario, Canada). In the United Kingdom, the national average was 390,000/
mL. 58 Elevated somatic cell counts are correlated with reduced lactose content 52 and
a corresponding increase in mineral content to maintain osmotic equilibrium. Casein
content is reduced, but total protein content increases with increasing somatic cell
counts due to increased whey protein content.59 Modest levels of somatic cells may
affect cheese yield 60 due to increased proteolysis, 61 but effects of somatic cell counts
<2,000,000 ml" 1 on cheese texture and flavor are probably more significant than
yield effects. 58
Production aids may also affect milk composition. Supplementation of dairy rations with the antibiotic Flavomycin increases feed conversion efficiency, milk production, and the percent composition of both fat and protein. 62 Like other factors
affecting milk composition, the effect on fat content is greater than on protein content. Numerous authors have reported minimal or no effects of bovine somatotropin
(BST) on gross composition of milk. 63 " 66
1.2.1 Proteins
The nitrogen content of milk is distributed among caseins, whey proteins, and nonprotein nitrogen (NPN), excepting some minor proteins that are associated with the
FGM (Section 1.2.2).
Nitrogen distribution is normally determined by the classical Rowland fractionation,67 which separates caseins from whey nitrogen by precipitation at pH 4.6 and
separates total proteins from whey NPN by precipitation with sodium acetate and
acetic acid at pH 5.0. Based on this procedure, average milk nitrogen distribution is
about 76% casein, 18% whey protein, and 6% NPN. This operational classification
of proteins is still used for both research and process control. However, a classification system of milk proteins based on their amino acid sequences (Table 1.3) has
been developed by the American Dairy Science Association's (ADSA) Committee
on Milk Protein Nomenclature, Classification and Methodology.68 The amino acid
distributions of the principal milk proteins are summarized in Table 1.4.
1.2.1.1 Caseins
The casein content of milk is about 26 g/kg, representing about 80% of milk protein.
The principal casein fractions are asl-casein (10 g/kg), as2-casein (2.6 g/kg),
/3-casein (9.3 g/kg), y-casein (0.8 g/kg), and /c-casein (3.3 g/kg).16 These fractions
are all included in the pH 4.6 precipitate from milk, but y-caseins are now reclassified
as carboxyl terminal fragments of /3-casein. The corresponding N-terminal fragments,formerly classified as proteose-peptones70are also classified as casein
subfractions.68 These fractions result from cleavage of ^-casein by the milk protease,
plasmin. The carboxyl terminal fragments (y-caseins) remain associated with the
casein micelle and are recovered by rennet coagulation and by pH 4.6 precipitation.
The N-terminal fragments are hydrophilic and appear as heat-stable fractions in both
cheese whey and the pH 4.6 supernatant. Carboxyl terminal fragments correspond
to /3-casein subfractions 2, 3, and 4; and the N-terminal fractions correspond to
/3-casein subfractions 5 to 9, as listed in Table 1.3. The N-terminal fractions do not
contain aromatic amino acids (Table 1.4) and, therefore, show no absorbency at
280 nm.
The nomenclature used for the caseins consists of a Greek letter with or without
a numerical subscript to identify the family of proteins; and an uppercase Latin letter
to indicate the genetic variant. Post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation or formation of subfractions are indicated after the genetic variant.68 For example, the notation /3-casein B-5P (fl-105) indicates that the protein belongs to the
/3-family of caseins, is the B genetic variant, contains five phosphate groups, and
represents an N-terminal fragment of /3-casein B from amino acid residues 1 to 105.69
In most breeds of dairy cattle, a sl -casein is >90% variant B. Exceptions are
Guernsey and Jersey cattle, which produce about 75% variant B and 25% variant
C.71 The A variant of /3-casein occurs with nearly 100% frequency in most dairy
breeds, excepting Jersey and Brown Swiss, which produce significant levels of
/3-casein B. Significant effects of milk protein genetic variants on heat stability,72
TaWe 1.3 CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE MILK PROTEINSGENUS BOS (30-35 g/L)69
I. Caseins (24-28 g/L)
A. ctsl-Caseins (12-15 g/L)
1. asl-Casein Xa-8P (genetic variantsA, B, C, D-9P, and E)
2. ctsl-Casein Xa-9P (genetic variantsA, B, C, D-10P, and E)
3. asl-Casein fragments0
B. <xs2-Caseins (3-4 g/L)
1. ots2-Casein XMOP (genetic variantsA, B, C-9P, and D-7P)
2. as2-Casein X M l P (genetic variantsA, B, C-10P, and D-8P)
3. as2-Casein XM2P (genetic variantsA, B, C-IlP, and D-9P)
4. as2-Casein XM3P (genetic variantsA, B, C-12P, and D-10P)
C. P-Caseins(9-ll g/L)
1. P-Casein Xa-5P (genetic variantsA1, A 2 , A3, B, C-4P, D-4P, and E)
2. p-Casein XMP (f 29-209) (genetic variantsA1, A2, A3, and B)
3. p-Casein Xa-(f 106-209) (genetic variantsA2, A3, and B)
4. P-Casein Xa-(f 108-209) (genetic variantsA and B)
5. p-Casein Xa-4P (f l - 2 8 ) b
6. P-Casein Xa-5P (f l-105) b
7. P-Casein Xa-5P (f l-107) b
8. p-Casein XMP (f 29-105) b
9. p-Casein XMP (f 29-107) b
D. K-Caseins (2-4 g/L)
1. K-Casein XMP (genetic variantsA and B)
2. Minor K-Casein X M , -2, -3, etc. (genetic variantsA and B)
Whey proteins (5-7 g/L)
A. p-Lactoglobulins (2-4 g/L)
1. P-Lactoglobulins X a (genetic variantsA, B, C, D, Dr, E, F, and G)
B. ct-Lactalbumins (0.6-1.7 g/L)
1. a-Lactalbumin Xa (genetic variantsA and B)
2. Minor a-Lactalbumins
C. Bovine serum albumin (0.2-0.4 g/L)
n.
(Continued)
ture.71 However, it has been reported that specified secondary structure in K-caseins
is in the range of about 50 to 75%,79 and there is evidence that native micellar caseins
may have as much as 14% helical structure, 27% /3-structure, and 41% turns, leaving
only 18% unspecified.80 However, there is little evidence of tertiary structure of
caseins, which accounts for the stability of caseins against heat denaturation because
there is little tertiary structure to unfold. Lack of tertiary structure also requires
considerable exposure of hydrophobic residues to water. This accounts for the strong
association reactions of caseins and their insolubility in water.
Both as2-casein and K-casein contain two cysteine residues, but other caseins have
no cysteine. Disulfide linked polymers of K-casein monomers, ranging from trimers
to very large polymers, exist naturally.71 Some covalent dimers (disulfide linked) of
as2- caseins also exist.16 Caseins differ greatly in charge distribution (Fig. 1.4) and
can be distinguished by their sensitivity to calcium precipitation.
Acid
Asp
Asn
Thr
Ser
SerP
GIu
GIn
Pro
GIy
Ala
ViCys
VaI
Met
lie
Leu
Tyr
Phe
Trp
Lys
His
Arg
Pyr or GIu
Casein
A2
7r
Casein
A2
T2Casein
A2
4
5
9
11
5
18
21
35
5
5
0
19
6
10
22
4
9
1
11
5
4
0
4
3
8
10
1
11
21
34
4
5
0
17
6
7
19
4
9
1
10
5
2
0
2
1
4
7
0
4
11
21
2
2
0
10
4
3
14
3
5
1
4
4
2
0
<*s2"
K-
P-
Casein
B
Casein
A
Casein
B
7
8
5
8
8
24
15
17
9
9
0
11
5
11
17
10
8
2
14
5
4
14
15
6
11
25
15
10
2
8
2
14
4
11
13
12
6
2
24
3
6
0
4
7
14
12
1
12
14
20
2
15
2
11
2
13
8
9
4
1
9
3
5
1
6
0
P-
Ot-
Casein
A
Lactoglobulin
A
Lactalbumin
B
2
1
4
7
0
4
11
21
2
2
0
10
4
3
14
3
5
1
3
3
2
0
11
5
8
7
0
16
9
8
3
14
5
10
4
10
22
4
4
2
15
2
3
0
9
12
7
7
0
8
5
2
6
3
8
6
1
8
13
4
4
4
12
3
1
0
a si - en B
SS
as2-cn
p-cnA2
S
K-en B
milk also have a higher isoelectric point (about 5.2) than a sl -caseins (about 4.8),
which is important to the formation of acid gels (Section 1.3.1.3).81
Disulfide-linked polymers of K-casein further associate by noncovalent bonding
to form large polymers with molecular weights of 600,000 to 650,000. These polymers are very stable at physiological pH and cannot be dissociated by changes in
ionic strength or temperature.71 K-Casein is extremely resistant to calcium precipitation and is able to stabilize up to 10 times its own weight of a s - or /3-caseins
against calcium precipitation.16 This stabilizing ability is lost after rennet cleavage
of /c-casein at the Phe 1 0 5 -Met 1 0 6 bond, which results in the formation of a hydrophobic portion called para-K-casein (residues 1 to 105) and a hydrophilic portion
(residues 106 to 169). The hydrophilic fragment is referred to as K-casein glycomacropeptide (GMP), or caseinomacropeptide (CMP). The latter is a better term
because the predominant variants of K-casein are not glycosylated. 71 ' 82 CMP has an
apparent molecular weight of 33,000 by size exclusion chromatography, but dispersion and analysis of aggregates by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel elec-
S SH
P-IgB
SS
S S
a-Ia B
1.2.1.3 Enzymes
Milk contains both indigenous and exogenous enzymes, the latter being mainly bacterial. With respect to dairy processing, the most significant bacterial enzymes occurring in milk are heat-stable Upases and proteinases elaborated by psychrotrophic
bacteria.99"101 Indigenous enzymes of milk, the reactions they catalyze, and their
location in milk are summarized in Table 1.5.
With respect to dairy processing and quality control, the most significant enzymes
are several hydrolases, namely, lipoprotein lipase, plasmin, and alkaline phosphatase.
The functions and significance of these enzymes are briefly described in this section.
Properties and functions of other indigenous milk enzymes have been reviewed. 1 6 1 0 2
Most milk enzymes have pH and temperature optima near physiological values,
with the notable exceptions of alkaline phosphatase and phosphoprotein phosphatase,
which have pH optima of 9.8 and 4.0 to 5.5, respectively. 16 Alkaline phosphatase
activity is used to distinguish raw milk from pasteurized milk because its heat sta-
Table 1.5
ECNo.
1.1.1.27
Lactate dehydrogenase
1.1.1.37
Malate dehydrogenase
1.2.3.2
Xanthine oxidase
1.4.3.6
1.11.1.6
1.11.1.7
1.15.1.1
2.3.2.2
Superoxide dismutase
7-Glutamyl transferase
2.4.1.22
Lactose synthase
2.4.99.1
CMP-A^-acetylneuraminategalactosyl-glycoprotein
sialyl transferase
2.6.1.1
Aspartate aminotransferase
2.6.1.2
Alanine aminotransferase
2.7.1.26
2.7.1.30
Riboflavin kinase
Glycerol kinase
2.7.7.2
2.8.1.1
3.1.1.1
3.1.1.2
FMN adenyltransferase
Thiosulfate sulfur transferase
(Rhodanase)
Carboxylesterase (B-esterase)
Arylesterase (A-esterase)
3.1.1.7
Acetylcholine esterase
3.1.1.8
Cholinesterase
3.1.1.34
Lipoprotein lipase
3.1.3.1
3.1.3.2
Alkaline phosphatase
Acid phosphatase
1.6.4.3
1.6.99.3
1.8
Reaction
+
Location
Plasma
MFGM
MFGM
Serum
Leukocytes
Serum
MFGM
Serum
Plasma
MFGM
Serum
Casein
MFGM
MFGM
(Continued)
5'-Nucleotidase
3.1.3.9
Glucose-6-phosphatase
3.1.3.16
Phosphoprotein phosphatase
3.1.4.1
Phosphodiesterase
3.1.27.5
Ribonuclease (pancreatic)
3.2.1.1
a-Amylase
3.2.1.2
p-Amylase
3.2.1.17
Lysozyme
3.2.1.24
a-D Mannosidase
3.2.1.30
p-W-AcetylD-glucosaminidase
3.2.1.31
p-Glucuronidase
3.4.21.7
Plasmin
3.4
3.6.1.1
3.6.1.3
Acid protease
Inorganic pyrophosphatase
Adenosine triphosphatase
(Mg 2+ activated)
Nucleotide pyrophosphatase
3.6.1.9
4.1.2.13
Fructose-biphosphate
aldolase
4.2.1.1
Carbonic dehydratase
(carbonic anhydrase)
Glucose phosphate isomerase
5.3.1.9
Reaction
Enzyme
Location
MFGM
MFGM
Plasma
MFGM
Serum
Serum
Serum
Casein
MFGM
bility is similar to the minimum conditions used for milk pasteurization.103 Two
isozymes, a- and /3-phosphatase, occur in milk. The latter is more abundant and
occurs mainly in the fat globule membrane. Interference by the heat-stable acid
phosphatase is avoided by performing the assay at pH near 10. The /3-isozyme of
alkaline phosphatase is also subject to renaturation, especially in creams, where the
enzyme is more concentrated.16 Residual phosphatase can be distinguished from
reactivated phosphatase by increased activity of the latter in the presence of magnesium.104105 It was reported that heat inactivation of alkaline phosphatase was more
rapid in highly concentrated, ultrafiltered milk rententates.106
Milk lipoprotein lipase (LPL) has been well characterized.16'107"109 Milk LPL is
present mainly in the plasma in association with casein micelles. It does not attack
the fat globule unless the FGM has been damaged or if certain blood serum lipoproteins are present. These lipoproteins, acting as cofactors, enable LPL to attack
the lipoproteins of the FGM. Further discussion of lipolytic breakdown of dairy
products is presented in Section 1.2.2.3.
The principal milk protease is an alkaline serine protease, which is apparently
identical to blood plasmin.16'102 Plasmin is present mainly as plasminogen in fresh
milk, but, with time, it is converted to active plasmin. It has been indicated that the
plasmin content of milk is associated with the process of involution (i.e., the declining phase of milk production) and that administration of BST reduced levels of
plasmin and plasminogen in late lactation.61110 It is well known that increased proteolytic activity is associated with high somatic cell counts, 111112 but the protease
associated with somatic cells is apparently not plasmin.113 Plasmin attacks both
/3-casein and as2-casein. As indicated previously, protein fractions formerly known
as y-caseins and proteose-peptones are plasmin produced fragments of /3-casein.
Plasmin has optimal activity at slightly alkaline pH and 37C. The enzyme is extremely heat stable114 and is responsible for the development of bitterness in pasteurized and ultra-high-temperature processed milk. The distribution of plasmin between cheese and whey is dependent on the pH of whey separation; higher-running
pH causes increased retention of plasmin in the cheese.115
1.2.2 lipids
1.2.2.1 Chemical Properties
The milkfat of ruminants is very complex, due to the diversity of lipid species that
are produced by microbial activity in the rumen and are transported to the milk
secretory cells in the blood stream. 15116 " 118 Other lipids are produced by synthesis
in the secretory cells. 116119 Fatty acids found in milk fat include: (1) saturated even
and odd n-chain acids from 2 to 28; (2) at least 50 branched chain fatty acids; (3)
cis monoenoic fatty acids of 12 and 14 to 24 -chain acids; (4) trans 16 to 24 nchain fatty acids; (5) various positional and geometric isomers of dienes and trienes
of 18, 20, 22, and 24 -chain acids; and (6) small amounts of tetra- and pentanoic
acids (Tables 1.6 and 1.7).116 Short-chain fatty acids (butyric, caproic, caprylic, and
capric) comprise about 11 % by weight of total methyl esters. Quantitatively, the
Saturates
4
6
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
3.25
2.32
1.85
4.02
0.16
4.15
0.03
11.05
0.95
26.15
0.70
9.60
0.11
0.19
0.06
0.10
0.07
0.06
0.01
0.04
Branched
Monoenes
trans
Iso
Anteiso
0.01
0.08
0.23
0.32
0.33
0.15
0.06
0.04
Trace
Trace
Trace
Other
0.03
0.47
0.08
1.25
0.32
20.40
0.10
0.15
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.01
5.34
0.01
0.01
Trace
Trace
0.01
0.01
0.42
0.40
0.09
0.01
major fatty acids of milk fat are myristic (11%), palmitic (26%), stearic (10%), and
oleic (20%). Saturated fatty acids account for about two-thirds of milk fatty acids
(Table 1.8), with larger quantities of unsaturated fatty acids present during the summer months. The summer and winter mean iodine values of Finnish butter fat have
been reported as 36.1 and 27.6, respectively.120 Estimates of total trans fatty acids
vary widely within the range of 2 to 11%, expressed as elaidic acid {trans 18:1).121
The distribution in milk and some properties of the major milk lipids are summarized in Table 1.8. Triglycerides account for 98.3% of milkfat. It is not known
whether small amounts of free fatty acids occurring in fresh milk are secreted from
the epithelial cell or are the product of early lipolysis. Phospholipids comprise about
0.8% of milk lipids and are mainly associated with FGM. About 0.3% of milk lipid
is sterols, mainly cholesterol, which is located mostly in the core of the fat globule.
Dienes
Trienes
0.14
2.30
0.02
0.60
0.70
0.05
di-0.03
tri-0.01
0.03
Trace
0.01
0.13
0.02
0.04
Trace
0.06
0.02
Trace
0.01
0.03
0.02
Tetraenes
Pentaenes
20
Positional isomers
22
Positional isomers
0.10
0.02
0.02
0.02
24
Positional isomers
specific heat at 400C is about 2.1 kJ k g " 1 K" 1 ; electrical conductivity is <10~ 1 2
ohm" l cm" *; and the dielectric constant is about 3.1. 27 Crystallization of lipids and
the resulting effects on fat structure, melting range, and rheological properties have
been reviewed.122"124 The most complete review of the crystallization behavior of
milkfats is ref. 27. The following discussion is based largely on that reference.
The native mixture of milk lipids is solid at room temperature and is, therefore,
properly described as milk "fat" as opposed to "oil," which is liquid at room
temperature. The melting points of individual triglycerides in milk ranges from
75C for tributyric glycerol to 72C for tristearin. However, the final melting point
of milkfat is about 37C because higher melting triglycerides are dissolved in liquid
fat.16 Milkfat crystals occur in a, /3^, /3J and /3 forms, although for slowly cooled
fat, the least stable a form is too transient to be observed.125 Crystal behavior and
melting curves of milkfat are complicated by the diverse lipid composition: trans
unsaturation increases melting points; odd-numbered and branched chains decrease
melting points because they are unable to form dense crystal structures; and variations in chain length also contribute to softer fats. Typical melting curves for summer
and winter milkfat are shown in Figure 1.6. Crystal structure and properties are also
dependent on the state of dispersion, so globular fat behaves very differently from
bulk fat and the crystal behavior of globular fat is affected by globule size. Homogenized recombined milkfat behaves differently because of its uniform lipid composition as opposed to natural fat, which shows wide variation in lipid composition
Lipid Class
Neutral glycerides
Triglycerides
Diglycerides
Monoglycerides
Free fatty acids
Phospholipidsa
Lecithin
Ph. ethanolamineb
Ph. serineb
Ph. inositide6
Plasmalogens
Sphingomyelind
Cerebrosidescd
Gangliosidescd
Sterols
Cholesterol
Cholesteryl
esters
Carotenoids +
vitamin A
Alcohol
Residue
Other
Constituent
728
536
314
253
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Sphingosine
Sphingosine
Sphingosine
Cholesterol
MW
Phospho
group
Choline
Ethanolamine
Serine
Inositol
Choline6
Choline
Hexose
Hexose8
764
742
784
855
-700
770
770
-1600
387
642
Number
3
2
1
14.4
14.9
15.0
15.8
0.35
0.38
0.36
0.36
2
2
2
2
lf
1
1
1
17.2
17.9
17.8
0.60
1.00
0.80
19.0
20.0
0.20
0.20
16.0
0.40
Percentage
in
Milk Fat
(w/w)
98.7
98.3
0.3
0.03
0.1
0.8
0.26
0.28
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.16
0.1
0.01
0.32
0.30
0.02?
0.002
Percentage of
the Lipid In
Core
of
Globule
Globule
Membrane
-100
90?
10?
Milk
Plasma
+
60
10?
65
35
80
70
70?
10
30
30?
10
95?
5?
Solid Fat
(%)
Temperature ( 0 C )
Figure 1.6 Melting curves of milk fat, determined by dilatometry. 1, summer fat, slowly
cooled before the experiment; 2, the same fat, rapidly cooled; 3, winter fat, rapidly cooled.
(From ref. 27 with permission of Pudoc, Wageningen, the Netherlands.)
and melting ranges of individual globules. For example, fat dispersed in natural
globules has a lower mean melting point than bulk fat but, because of widely varying
composition between globules, some dispersed fat has a melting point that is much
higher than the final melting point of bulk fat. These effects are summarized in
Table 1.9.
1.2.2.3 Lipolysis
Hydrolysis of fatty acid esters by the action of lipases results in the common flavor
defect known as lipolytic or hydrolytic rancidity and is distinct from oxidative rancidity. A comprehensive review of flavor impairment of milk and milk products due
to lipolysis has been published by the International Dairy Federation.126
Lipases are unique among enzymes in that they are active at the lipidserum
interface. In milk, lipases are ineffective unless the FGM is damaged or weakened
in some way. Lipolysis may be caused by the lipoprotein lipase (LPL), which is
endogenous to milk, or by bacterial lipases. The principal bacterial lipases that occur
in milk are heat-stable exocellular lipases of psychotrophic bacteria.99'127 However,
the principal psychotrophic bacteria of milk, Pseudomonas sp., do not elaborate
significant quantities of proteases or lipases until cell counts exceed 106 to 108
mL~ ] . 128 In practice, this means that significant elaboration of Pseudomonas lipases
is unlikely to occur except in improperly cleaned raw-milk-handling equipment; and
psychotrophic lipases should not be a serious problem, except possibly in ultra-high-
Factors
Fat composition
Lower temp, of
crystallization
Rapid cooling
Cooling in steps
Preliminary cooling to
low temp.
Prolonged at not too
low temp.
Fat in natural globules
as compared to bulk
fat
Smaller globules
Melting Range
Crystallization
Characteristics
Yes
Main melting at lower
temp.
Main melting at higher
temp.
More than one melting
max.
Main melting at lower
temp.
More even
Yes
More
Usually more
Usually less
Smaller
Smaller
More
Often larger;
spherulites
Smaller
Usually more
Smaller; no networks
Smaller
temperature processed milk, where low levels of heat-stable proteases and lipases
may cause deterioration.129
Cow's milk contains sufficient total lipase activity (mainly LPL) to release about
2 /imol of free fatty acids (FFA) per minute at 37C, but the actual activity during
storage of raw milk at 4C may be as low as 0.002 /imol of FFA min~ l 13 The
following conditions affect the rate of lipolysis in fresh milk: the pH of milk (6.6 to
6.8) and the storage temperature of raw milk (normally <4C) are less than the LPL
optima of pH 8.3 and 37C; about 80% of milk LPL is bound to micellar casein, 10
to 20% is present in the serum, and only 0 to 10% is associated with the fat globule;
milk plasma contains at least two inhibitors of lipolysis; and a lipoprotein is present
in milk, which acts as a cofactor to increase LPL activity.130 The inhibitory effect
of milk plasma is probably due to its effect on the distribution of LPL and can be
reversed by addition of heparin, which causes dissociation of LPL from the casein
micelles.131-132
The properties of the FGM are most important to lipolysis. The observed lactation
effects may be due to reduced contents of phospholipids in the FGM in late lactation.107 Mastitis, which alters milk composition, also increases sensitivity of the fat
globule to lipolysis.133 The lipoprotein cofactor, which is derived from blood, apparently enables LPL to hydrolyse lipoproteins of the FGM and gives LPL access
to triglycerides in the fat globule.107 Other factors that destabilize the FGM, especially agitation and foaming, also promote lipolysis. Churned fat does not appear to
be a good substrate for LPL,134 but lipolysis is accelerated by the replacement of
the native membrane with surface active material (mainly casein micelles and whey
proteins) from the plasma.130 This effect is at least partly due to redistribution of
LPL from the plasma to the FGM and accounts for greatly increased lipolysis after
homogenization. Similarly, experiments with on-farm ultrafiltration demonstrate that
milk must be heated after ultrafiltration to inactivate LPL.135 Milking systems will
promote lipolysis to greater or lesser degrees, depending on the amount of agitation
and aeration that takes place during milking and milk transfer.130 Lipolysis can also
be induced in fresh milk by a temperature cycle of cooling to <5C, warming to 25
to 35C, and recooling to <10C. 107 Such an effect may occur if a large amount of
warm milk is added to a small amount of cooled milk.
About 20% of cows produce milk in which LPL is activated by cooling to < 15C
soon after milking. Lipolysis proceeds without subsequent thermal or mechanical
activation. This effect, frequently referred to as spontaneous lipolysis, is unlikely to
occur in herd milks or in pooled milks because it is prevented by mixing affected
milk with three to five times its volume of normal milk.136 The major conditions
that affect spontaneous lipolysis are: late-lactation milk is more susceptible than
early-lactation milk;137 fresh forage reduces the incidence of spontaneous lipolysis;
more lipolysis occurs during the winter months, but this effect may be related to
feed and lactation effects; and low-yielding cows are more likely to produce spontaneous milk. 107138139 Spontaneous vs. nonspontaneous milk may be determined by
differences in contents of lipolytic inhibitors and activators.
Sensory perception of lipolytic rancidity is strongly affected by the pH of the
product because, at low pH, more free fatty acids are present in the aqueous phase,
where they are more readily tasted.16 In fresh milk, sensory threshold values corresponded to acid degree values (ADV) of 4.1 to 4.5 mmol per 100 g of fat as
estimated by the Frankel and Tarassuk solvent extraction method and 1.85 to 2.05
as estimated by the Bureau of Dairy Industries (BDI) detergent extraction method.140
1.2.2.4 Oxidation
Oxidation of milk and other fats proceeds by the well-known autoxidation reaction124
in three stages: initiation, propagation, and termination. During propagation, antioxidant compounds such as tocopherols and ascorbic acid are depleted while peroxide
derivatives of fatty acids accumulate. Peroxides, which have little flavor, undergo
further reactions to form a variety of carbonyls, some of which are potent flavor
compounds, especially some ketones and aldehydes.
Most methods available to monitor lipid oxidation are unsuitable as an early index
of oxidized flavor development in milk: measurement of peroxides is not useful
because peroxides are unstable intermediates; tests based on colorimetric reaction of
thiobarbituric acid with malonaldehyde show some correlation to sensory values141
but are rather insensitive; and direct measurement of oxygen uptake is suitable only
for controlled experimental conditions.142
In milk, the initiation reactions involve phospholipids present in the FGM. Free
radicals formed from phospholipids are then able to initiate oxidation of triglycerides, especially in the presence of copper and proteins.16 During the winter months
(October to May), when cattle are on dry feed, the incidence of oxidized flavor in
raw producer milks in Ontario is about 20% as determined for 2- to 3-day-old milk
by expert graders (unpublished data). The following summary of conditions affecting
oxidation of lipids and the development of oxidized flavor in milk is based mainly
on several significant reviews.16-128'142"146
Although all milk probably requires some extrinsic factor such as added copper
or light to initiate lipid oxidation, the milk of some cows and herds is said to oxidize
spontaneously, implying that oxidation results from factors intrinsic to this milk
whereas lipid oxidation in normal milk requires activation by extrinsic factors. Significant intrinsic factors affecting milkfat oxidation include (1) metalloproteins such
as milk peroxidase and xanthine oxidase: (2) endogenous ascorbic acid, which acts
as a cocatalyst with copper to promote oxidation; (3) endogenous copper content;
and (4) endogenous antioxidants, mainly tocopherols. Fresh forage is well known to
control spontaneous oxidation, as indicated by obvious seasonal effects on the incidence of oxidized flavor. This effect is probably due to increased levels of endogenous antioxidants. However, attempts to supplement dry forage with tocopherols have had limited success because only about 2% of added tocopherol is
transmitted to the milk. 147148 Most managers, therefore, have concentrated on the
control of extrinsic factors to minimize the extent of oxidation.
Important extrinsic factors include contamination with metals, temperature of
storage, oxygen tension, heat treatment, agitation, light, and acidity. Both copper
and iron may catalyze lipid oxidation, but probably only copper is significant in
milk. Added copper is much more potent than natural copper because a significant
portion of added copper goes directly to the fat globule.16 In some milks, 5 /jig k g " 1
of added copper is sufficient to induce lipid oxidation. Fortification149 or
contamination150 of milk with iron is reported to induce oxidized flavor development.
This seems surprising because iron should be inactivated by proteins in milk.16
Autoxidation of fats is generally increased with higher temperatures; but in raw
milk and low pasteurized milk, this trend is reversed,128 in spite of copper migration
from the fat globule to the plasma at low temperatures.16 Effects of low temperature
on oxidation are normal for processed dairy products. Heating milk causes migration
of copper from the plasma to the fat globule, indicating that oxidation of butter can
be reduced by separating cream before heat treatment and by separating to high fat
contents.16 Heating can also denature metalloproteins and increase the availability
of metals to catalyze oxidation; however, high-heat treatments (in excess of 800C)
stabilize milk against both copper- and light-induced oxidation.151 This effect is
probably due to exposure of sulfhydryl groups of denatured proteins and the release
of hydrogen sulfide, which binds copper as cupric sulfide. The oxygen tension required to permit lipid oxidation in milk is low (0.1 atmosphere oxygen pressure),
and bacterial respiration in normal fresh milk is of no consequence in decreasing
oxidation.152 De-aeration significantly reduces oxidation of packaged whole milk
powder.153
Homogenization drastically reduces the sensitivity of milkfat to both copper- and
light-induced oxidation, probably because oxidation-sensitive membrane phospholipids are displaced. Ultrafiltered milks are also more resistant to oxidation.135
1.2.3 Lactose
1.2.3.1 Biochemical Properties
The lactose content of normal milk is relatively constant at 4.8 to 5.2% lactose
monohydrate. Lower levels occur in colostrum and mastitic milk to offset high mineral levels and maintain osmotic balance.159 Lactose comprises about 52% of milk
solids-not-fat, about 70% of whey solids, and >90% of the solids in milk ultrafiltrate.
Several reviews have appeared on the utilization of lactose.160"162 In addition to
lactose (4-O-/3-D-galactopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose), fresh milk contains other carbohydrates in small amounts, including glucose (1 mg/ml), galactose (1 mg/ml), and
oligosaccharides (0.1 mg/ml).163
Lactose is synthesized in the mammary gland, where the final step is the transfer
of D-galactose to D-glucose by galactosyltransferase in the presence of a-lactalbumin, which acts as an enzyme modifier.164 Lactose is a reducing sugar with the
aldehydic group on the glucose residue. It exists in both a and /3 forms, which are
indicated by interchanging the OH and H on the reducing group. Lactose is optically
active because of its asymmetry, and the a form can be distinguished from the /3
form by its greater rotation of polarized light in the dextro direction.163 Optical
activity is the basis for polarimetric determination of lactose in fresh, nonfermented
dairy products.165 Polarimetry is not useful for fermented products due to interference from lactic acid, which rotates light to the levo direction.
The most important function of lactose in milk and dairy products is its utilization
as a fermentation substrate. Lactose can be hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose by
/3-D-galactosidase (lactase). Elaboration of this enzyme gives lactic acid bacteria a
competitive advantage over many pathogenic and spoilage organisms. It is this property that makes naturally fermented milk a relatively safe product and is the basis
for controlled fermentations in the production of cultured dairy products. Enzymatic
hydrolysis of lactose is used to reduce lactose crystallization in certain products and
to produce lactose-reduced products for persons who do not possess sufficient
lactase.166'167
The a and /3 forms of lactose exist in solution in a temperature-dependent equilibrium, according to Eq. 1.1, where T is temperature in 0 C.
[/3]/[a] = 1.64 - 0.00277
(1.1)
Minerals
Sodium (mg)
Potassium (mg)
Chloride (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Iron (|xg)
Zinc (jig)
Copper (|xg)
Manganese (|xg)
Iodine (u,g)
Fluoride (|xg)
Selenium (|xg)
Cobalt ([Lg)
Chromium (|xg)
Molybdenum (jig)
Nickel (jLg)
Silicon ([ig)
Vanadium (jxg)
Tin (jig)
Arsenic (|xg)
350-900
1100-1700
900-1100
1100-1300
90-140
900-1000
300-600
2000-6000
100-600
20-50
260
30-220
5-67
0.5-1.3
8-13
18-120
0-50
750-7000
tr-310
40-500
20-60
3
10-85
3-50
34-104
1750
300
555
A (jig RE)
D(IU)
E(JJLg)
K(JJLg)
B 1 (jig)
B 2 (JJLg)
Niacin (jig)
B 6 (M^g)
Pantothenic acid (jxg)
Biotin (jig)
Folic acid (jxg)
B 12 (^g)
C(IiIg)
400
40
1000
50
450
1750
900
500
3500
35
55
4.5
20
NPN Compounds
Total NPN (mg)
Urea-N (mg)
Creatine N (mg)
Uric acid-N (mg)
Orotic acid N (mg)
Peptides N (mg)
Ammonia N (mg)
Amino acid N (mg)
Choline (mg)
Carnitine (mg)
Af-Acetylneuraminic acid (mg)
229-308
84-134
6-20
5-8
12-13
32
3-14
39-51
43-285
10-17
120-270
moisture is available, lactose glass forms a-hydrate crystals, which bind powder
particles together.
1.2.4.1 Vitamins
The physiological functions and the activity in milk of vitamins have been reviewed. 1 7 0 1 7 1 Milk contains fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K (Table 1.10). Milk
is an important source of dietary vitamin A; many Western countries require supplementation of skim milk to replace vitamin A removed with the cream. U.S. Government Regulations require 2000IU of vitamin A per quart (1 U.S. quart = 0.95 L).
The actual amounts, however, have been reported to be less and are extremely variable.172 Natural vitamin A activity is derived from retinol and /3-carotene and varies
with the season, due to seasonal variation in /3-carotene,170 which also accounts for
the seasonal variation in the color of milk fat. Vitamin D activity in milk is derived
from cholecalciferol (D3) and ergocalciferol (D2). Vitamin E occurs in milk as atocopherol, an important natural antioxidant. Activities of vitamins D and E in milk
vary with the season or, more directly, with type of forage. Milk contributes a rather
small proportion of the dietary vitamin K in Western diets.
Milk is an important dietary source of water-soluble vitamins B 1 (thiamine), B 2
(riboflavin), B 6 (pyridoxine), B 12 (cyanocobalamin), niacin (nicotinic acid), andpantothenic acid (Table 1.10). All the water-soluble vitamins are quite stable to milk
processing treatments, although riboflavin is extremely sensitive to degradation by
light of wavelengths <610 nm. Light-activated riboflavin is an agent in the development of sunlight flavor in milk (Section 1.2.2.4) and also catalyzes the photodegradation of ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid is the most heat-labile vitamin in milk,
but this is of little consequence because milk is not an important source of dietary
vitamin C.
1.2.4.2 Minerals
Twenty-two minerals are considered essential to human nutrition. All of these are
present in milk, confirming milk's nutritional excellence. 169173174 However, negative factors may also exist. In particular, there is currently concern about iodine
concentrations, which may be elevated by disinfectant iodophors.175"180 There have
also been numerous recent investigations on the presence of radionuclides in milk,
especially 90Sr and 131 L 3 ' 181
Three families of salt constituents may be considered in milk.159 The first includes
sodium (Na), potassium (K), and chloride (Cl), which exist almost entirely as free
ions in milk and are readily diffusible (i.e., are present in milk ultrafiltrate). The
concentrations of these three ions are negatively correlated to lactose, as required
to maintain osmotic equilibrium of milk with blood. Thus, as compared to midlactation, in early lactation, Na and Cl concentrations of milk are higher and lactose
concentration is lower.
A second family includes colloidal calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), inorganic
phosphorus (P1), and citrate. Total concentrations of Ca, Mg, P1, and citrate in milk
plasma are 30.3, 5.2, 21.4, and 9.5 mM, respectively, by calculation.159 On a molar
basis, about two-thirds of the calcium, one-third of the magnesium, one-half of the
inorganic phosphorus, and less than one-tenth of citrate in milk are colloidal (i.e.,
nondiffusible) and mainly present in the casein micelle (Section 1.3.1). Therefore,
concentrations of colloidal Ca, Mg, P1, and citrate are strongly correlated to the casein
content of milk.
Next Page
A third family includes salts, whose concentrations are affected by the natural pH
of milk, namely, diffusible Ca, diffusible Mg, diffusible citrate, Ca2+ , and HPO2TAbout 20 to 30% of diffusible Ca and Mg is present as free ions; the remainder
exists as citrate and phosphate salts. Diffusible Ca, Mg, and citrate concentrations
are positively correlated because Ca and Mg form strong complexes with citrate at
the pH of milk. A negative correlation between Ca 2+ concentration and pH and a
positive correlation between Ca 2+ and HPO 2 - relate to the solubility product of
micellar calcium phosphate. The degree of saturation of micellar calcium phosphate
and the concentration of H2POX are relatively constant. For example, increased
Ca 2+ causes formation of colloidal calcium phosphate, and the level of H2PO^ is
maintained by reaction of HPO2," with H + . Further discussion of acid-base equilibria is presented in Section 1.4.6.
1.3 Structure
1.3.1 Casein Micelles
1.3.1.1 Properties
In their classic monograph on dairy chemistry, Jenness and Patton in 1959 stated
that "Many of the problems of dairy technology revolve around the behaviour of
the (calcium caseinate-phosphate complex) and particularly the aggregation of the
particles by heat, salts, acid, and rennin. Therefore, a study of its composition and
properties is a most important phase of dairy chemistry".182 In the 30 years since
this statement was made, considerable effort has been put into studying the properties
of the casein micelle. The progress to date has recently been reviewed.183"185 The
intricacy of the micelles may be related to their biological functions in milkto
carry a large amount of highly insoluble calcium phosphate to the mammalian young
in liquid form, and to form a clot in the stomach for more efficient nutrition.16'184
The micelle is extremely stable under some conditions of processing, for example,
concentration, ultrafiltration, pelleting, drying,183 but very unstable under others, for
example, acid, chymosin.16 A manipulation of micelle stability gives rise to many
traditional and nontraditional dairy products.17 A summary of the properties and
structure of the casein micelle will be presented here.
About 75% of the proteins in milk are classified as casein protein, that which
precipitates at pH 4.6.68 Most, but not all, of this casein protein exists in a colloidal
particle known as the casein micelle, which contains other components as well as
casein, including calcium, phosphate, citrate, minor ions, lipase and plasmin enzymes, and entrapped milk serum.16 This particle is a calcium-caseinate-calciumphosphate complex, and not a true micelle in the colloidal sense.16 The principal
casein proteins have been identified as asl~, as2-, /3-, and K-casein.184 Their properties
and primary structure have been discussed in Section 1.2.1.1. The identification of
two classes of milk proteins, y-casein and part of the proteose peptone fraction, has
been determined from primary sequencing to be degradation products or incompletely synthesized precursors of /3-casein.68 The molar ratio of proteins within the
Previous Page
A third family includes salts, whose concentrations are affected by the natural pH
of milk, namely, diffusible Ca, diffusible Mg, diffusible citrate, Ca2+ , and HPO2TAbout 20 to 30% of diffusible Ca and Mg is present as free ions; the remainder
exists as citrate and phosphate salts. Diffusible Ca, Mg, and citrate concentrations
are positively correlated because Ca and Mg form strong complexes with citrate at
the pH of milk. A negative correlation between Ca 2+ concentration and pH and a
positive correlation between Ca 2+ and HPO 2 - relate to the solubility product of
micellar calcium phosphate. The degree of saturation of micellar calcium phosphate
and the concentration of H2POX are relatively constant. For example, increased
Ca 2+ causes formation of colloidal calcium phosphate, and the level of H2PO^ is
maintained by reaction of HPO2," with H + . Further discussion of acid-base equilibria is presented in Section 1.4.6.
1.3 Structure
1.3.1 Casein Micelles
1.3.1.1 Properties
In their classic monograph on dairy chemistry, Jenness and Patton in 1959 stated
that "Many of the problems of dairy technology revolve around the behaviour of
the (calcium caseinate-phosphate complex) and particularly the aggregation of the
particles by heat, salts, acid, and rennin. Therefore, a study of its composition and
properties is a most important phase of dairy chemistry".182 In the 30 years since
this statement was made, considerable effort has been put into studying the properties
of the casein micelle. The progress to date has recently been reviewed.183"185 The
intricacy of the micelles may be related to their biological functions in milkto
carry a large amount of highly insoluble calcium phosphate to the mammalian young
in liquid form, and to form a clot in the stomach for more efficient nutrition.16'184
The micelle is extremely stable under some conditions of processing, for example,
concentration, ultrafiltration, pelleting, drying,183 but very unstable under others, for
example, acid, chymosin.16 A manipulation of micelle stability gives rise to many
traditional and nontraditional dairy products.17 A summary of the properties and
structure of the casein micelle will be presented here.
About 75% of the proteins in milk are classified as casein protein, that which
precipitates at pH 4.6.68 Most, but not all, of this casein protein exists in a colloidal
particle known as the casein micelle, which contains other components as well as
casein, including calcium, phosphate, citrate, minor ions, lipase and plasmin enzymes, and entrapped milk serum.16 This particle is a calcium-caseinate-calciumphosphate complex, and not a true micelle in the colloidal sense.16 The principal
casein proteins have been identified as asl~, as2-, /3-, and K-casein.184 Their properties
and primary structure have been discussed in Section 1.2.1.1. The identification of
two classes of milk proteins, y-casein and part of the proteose peptone fraction, has
been determined from primary sequencing to be degradation products or incompletely synthesized precursors of /3-casein.68 The molar ratio of proteins within the
T a b l e 1.11
COMPOSITION OF CASEIN
MICELLES IN COW'S MILK AT
ROOM TEMPERATURE, g/100 g OF
MICELLES, DRY BASIS 183
Component
Content
a sr Casein
cts2-Casein
p-Casein
K-Casein
Casein fragments
Whole casein
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Inorganic phosphate (PO4)
Citrate
Total inorganic material
35.6
9.9
33.6
11.9
2.3
93.3
2.87
0.11
0.11
0.26
2.89
0.40
6.6
Number
frequency
(%)
N
Volume
V
frequency
(%)
Diameter (nm)
Figure 1.8 Examples of the size frequency distribution of casein micelles. Number (Af, lefthand ordinate) and volume frequency (V, right hand ordinate), both in percentage of total per
50-nm class width, against micelle diameter. (From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons.)
diameter has been reported as 25 nm,207 up to 140 run,184 and the volume surface
average diameter as 86 nm.207 The population may be bimodal with a volume surface
average diameter peak at 90 to 180 nm, with a lesser peak at >200 nm,205 although
results vary according to technique used. A small number of very large particles, up
to 800 nm in diameter, and a large number of small particles, maybe representing
submicelles, have been reported.16 The size distribution of the micelles may have
an impact on both nutritional and technological considerations.205'208
The molar ratios of the casein fractions of the micelle given above refer to the
micelle at the time of secretion. However, it has been recognized that some of the
casein fractions, particularly /3-casein, are able to migrate out of the micelle to the
serum phase in a reversible manner without causing collapse of the micellar structure. 209 " 212 This migration is temperature dependent.211 As much as 60% of the
/3-casein has been found in the serum phase after 48 h at 40C.210 This serum /3-casein
is free to interchange with micellar casein.211 These changes, however, are reversible
on rewarming to 37C. This cold dissociation phenomenon has pedagogical impact
on a model for the casein micelle, and also has technological impact, particularly on
the cheese industry, as cheesemaking parameters may be altered210 and enhanced
proteolysis of the /3-casein by plasmin and proteinases of the bacterial microflora
may occur in the serum phase211'213 and may lead to the formation of y-caseins.212
All of the above considerations have led to numerous proposed models for the
casein micelle. The earlier models have been reviewed183'184'192-214"218 and the relevant portions of each have been combined. The most accepted model seems to be
that elaborated by Schmidt. 183 " 185192 Casein micelles consist of a number of smaller
units, referred to as submicelles, which may be 8 to 20 nm in diameter.207'219"221
These have been differentiated by electron microscopy which shows the micelle to
have a "raspberry-like" structure. 183222 " 224 This is shown in Figure 1.9. The size
of the submicelles is not uniform but is governed by concentration, pH, ionic
strength, and temperature.220 They may contain between 15 and 25 casein molecules,185 with molecular weight 250,000 to 2,000,000. The submicelles contain
a hydrophobic core and are covered by a hydrophilic coat much less dense than
globular proteins,202 which is at least partly comprised of the polar moieties of
IOC
/c-casein.
The stoichiometric ratio of caseins as noted above at 37C, varies between
individual submicelles, some being rich in K-casein and others depleted in
/c-casein.226'227 The hydrophilic C-terminus end of /c-casein, the CMP, exists as a
flexible hair, behaving more or less as a random-coil polymer chain.16 The effective
thickness of the hairy layer is at least 7 nm.185 It must be recognized that this Kcasein probably exists as an oligomer of, on average, six molecules.185 Consequently,
steric repulsion would prohibit further aggregation of submicelles to the surface rich
in CMP.228 The recognition that /c-casein exists at the surface of the micelles implies
that submicelles rich in /c-casein occupy a surface position whereas those with less
K-casein are buried in the interior, although K-casein has been isolated from within
the micelle whereas a sl - and /3-casein are scattered throughout the micelle including
the surface. 190192196 ' 202 ' 229 Many hydrophobic patches probably exist on the surface
of the micelle.184
Figure 1.9 Casein micelles (A and B) from yogurt prepared by the fixation method of ref. 225
and examined by scanning electron microscopy with field emission. (Courtesy of A. Smith.)
B
hydrophobic core
GMP "hairy"
layer
K - casein enriched surface
cluster
Figure 1.10 Schematic representation of the casein micelle (A) and submicelle (B).16'183'184
Colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP), probably in the form of C a ^ P O ^ clusters,183 although this remains unclear, 185 ' 230231 acts to aggregate submicelles
into micelles 232 and thus plays a very important role in maintaining the integrity
of the micelles. The micelle may contain hundreds or even thousands of submicelles. 233 Micellar growth would come to an end when the whole surface consists
of K-casein.183'185 The high voluminosity of the micelles implies a loose spongelike
structure with much interstitial water and highly hydrated hydrophilic groups at the
surface,194*234 which probably allows for migration of /3-casein in and out of the
micelle as a function of temperature.211'212 This may also imply a structural role for
a s l - casein. 235 " 237 The model for the casein micelle based on the above discussion
is illustrated in Figure 1.10.
Association of submicelles may occur in the Golgi vesicles within the secretory
cell. Calcium and phosphate pass through the membrane into the Golgi vesicles and
when their concentration is sufficient to form Ca9(PO4)S clusters, micellar aggregation may occur. When the Golgi vesicles fuse to the apical plasma membrane,
micelles are emptied into the alveolar lumen. 183 Micellar growth may continue in
the lumen; micelles of 1 /urn diameter have been observed in this area.205
1.3.1.2 Stability
It should be recognized from the above discussion that a precise mechanism of
formation and ultrastructure of the casein micelle is still uncertain; nevertheless, a
great deal is known about this complex colloidal particle. A number of factors are
responsible for holding this micelle together and giving it stability, including the
role of colloidal calcium phosphate, disulfide bonding, hydrogen bonding, hydro-
phobic interactions, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, and steric
forces, 184 ' 185 - 217 ' 238 and these will be discussed here.
More than 90% of the calcium content of skim milk is either associated in some
way with other ions or found within the casein molecules. 184 There are two distinct
forms of ions associated with the casein micelle: an outer system, perhaps in the
form of a charged double layer, and an inner system not easily washed away. 184 An
amount of calcium approximately equivalent to the number of ester phosphate groups
appears to be bound to the casein monomers. 192 A small amount of calcium is bound
to micellar citrate. The balance of the calcium in the micelle may be in the form of
amorphous tertiary calcium phosphate, Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , found in clusters of Ca 9 (PO 4 )S. 183
It must be prevented from being transformed into a more stable form such as hydroxyapatite by the casein, although small ions such as magnesium, which has also
been isolated from the micelle, may play a role. 231 Casein may also prevent sedimentation of tertiary calcium phosphate.
The exact nature of the colloidal calcium phosphate complex in the micelle is
undetermined, yet its role in casein micelle stabilization is well documented. 185 ' 230
The removal of calcium ions from the micelle causes reversible dissociation of /3and /c-casein from the micelles without micellar disintegration, whereas the addition
of excess calcium favors micellar component aggregation. 232 ' 235 Mineral solubilization at low temperature may be responsible for the dissociation of /3-casein, which
indicates its responsibility for micelle stabilization. 209 ' 235 ' 239 The mineral complex
found in the micelle can be reproduced only when calcium, phosphate, and citrate
are present. 224
The nature of the binding between CCP and casein has been the subject of much
speculation. Various types of covalent bonding have been proposed. 183 The phosphoserine residues of the caseins are potential sites for interaction. Binding may also
be electrostatic, between the negatively charged ester phosphate group of casein and
the Ca 9 (POJ 6 clusters which, with the adsorption of two Ca 2 + ions, are positively
charged. 183 In addition to binding submicelles together, the CCP may be responsible
for a fairly rigid conformation of caseins within the submicelle. 201
Hydrogen bonding between casein monomers in the casein micelle may occur
and hydrogen bonding between ionizable side chains or residues and solvent, water,
exist within the micelle. 184 Many bioproteins, including the milk serum proteins,
exhibit considerable secondary and tertiary structure, in the form of a-helix or
j8-sheet configurations.71 These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds along
the primary backbone of the protein. Spectral investigations such as circular dichroism or infrared spectroscopy of the isolated caseins have shown that these proteins
possess little tertiaiy structure. Also, if a secondary structure is present, it is somewhat disorganized, possibly due to high levels of proline residues 16 which tend to
inhibit the formation of secondary and tertiary structure. It has been stated that at
least 75% of the three major caseins, a s l -, /3-, and K-, exist in an aperiodic conformation. 184 Because little periodic structure occurs in the individual components, the
degree of stabilization of the micelle by a-helix or jS-structure is probably quite low.
However, it has recently been demonstrated by Raman spectroscopy that 40% of
whole casein in submicellar form may have a /3-turn structure.202 The role of hy-
drogen bonding between the various casein components with the micelle is still
unclear.
Disulfide bonds between cysteine residues normally accounts for the development
of, or at least the stabilization of predeveloped, tertiary and possibly quaternary
structure within bioproteins. Both a sl - and /3-casein contain no cysteine residues and
therefore do not enter into disulfide bonding.16 However, as2- and K-casein contain
two cysteine residues each, and therefore the potential for disulfide bridges cannot
be excluded.16 Disulfide-linked aggregates of /c-casein have been isolated from the
micelle, and it is thought that many molecules of /c-casein must exist contiguous to
each other in the micelle in order to form such aggregates.184 It would appear,
however, that if disulfide bridges appear within the micelle, they are not the driving
force for micelle formation.
Hydrophobic interactions result from the presence of apolar amino acid residues
within a protein molecule. These residues are forced out of the solvent, water, and
into the interior of the protein molecule, where they can interact with other apolar
groups. A small gain in entropy and stabilization energy results. Hydrophobic interactions are highly temperature sensitive and are minimized at 5C or less. Hydrophobic interactions are also reduced by increased pressure.184 The caseins rank
among the most hydrophobic proteins71 and thus it should be expected that the
micelle is at least in part stabilized by hydrophobic interactions. Increased pressure
tends to dissociate casein and disrupt casein micelle structure.219'240 Low temperatures also have a disruptive effect on the micelle as evidenced by the cold dissociation
of /3-casein from the micelle212 and by its sensitivity to freezing.184 However, micelles are quite stable to moderate to high temperatures.185 These factors are evidence
for some role of hydrophobic interactions in the stability of the micelle.
Electrostatic interactions between amino acid side chains and ions in solution can
impart reasonable structural stability to a protein. The role of inter- and intramolecular ionic bonds among the casein in stabilization of the micelle is unclear; however,
there are a number of sites for potential ionic bonding within the casein molecules,
and these may play a role in subunit interactions.184 Both calcium and phosphate
are critical for micelle stability, as discussed above. Binding between colloidal calcium phosphate may be electrostatic in nature, as CCP is positively charged and the
casein is negatively charged.183 Due to the number of charged groups on casein
monomers, not all of them can exist at the surface. However, due to the open structure
generally recognized for the micelle, solvent may be available within the micelle
itself.184 Ethanol, for example, tends to decrease solvent interactions and is known
to lower the stability of the micelle.185
Van der Waals forces are always attractive and are formed from the establishment
of a dipole moment as a result of the fluctuating electron cloud about an atom or
molecule. The interaction falls off proportionally to an inverse power of the interparticle distance; however, the proportionality coefficient, the Hamaker constant, is
uncertain.16 The DLVO theory of interparticle stability for lyophobic colloids (after
Deiyagin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek) relates London-van der Waals attraction
to electrostatic double layer repulsion as a function of interparticle distance.241 Many
attempts have been made to relate DLVO theory to micelle stability and aggregation
with limited success.185'217'233 Although the casein micelles act in many cases as
lyophobic colloidal particles, their behavior deviates in other cases making stability
and aggregation of micelles very difficult to explain in terms of DLVO principles.233
Steric stabilization results from the presence of adsorbed macromolecules onto a
colloidal particle and the protrusion of molecular chains (called "hairs") from the
particle. This may interfere with interparticle approach through either compression
and thus restriction of freedom of motion and loss of conformational entropy or
through interpenetration of the hairs resulting in either osmotic repulsion or interparticle attraction, depending on the solvation properties and hydrophilic nature of
the hairs.241 As is noted in the preceding discussion, the role of /c-casein at the surface
of the micelle acts to give the micelle a hairy layer associated with the protrusion
of the caseinomacropeptide into solution. Thus it follows that much of the stability
of the micelle to flocculation must be associated with steric stabilization.*
The stability of the micelles usually correlates well with their voluminosity, corresponding to a more extensive hairiness and a stronger steric repulsion. However,
voluminosity also affects the Hamaker constant and consequently van der Waals
forces, and also the electrokinetic or ^-potential, which makes a precise determination of forces difficult.16 At cold temperatures, the dissociation of /3-casein from the
micelle212 may give rise to another source of hairiness and steric stability. This makes
it difficult to assess the relative role of hydrophobic versus steric forces in describing
the stability of the micelles to the action of various environmental factors including
a lack of aggregation by chymosin at cold temperatures.185'245 However, the reduction in hydrophobic bonds may be responsible for the release of the /3-casein from
the micelle, assuming that they play some role in holding the micelle together. The
importance of steric stabilization is discussed further in Section 1.3.1.3. with regard
to aggregation processes, particularly the action of chymosin on the micelle.
1.3.1.3 Aggregation
Although casein micelles are fairly stable, there are at least four technologically
significant ways in which aggregation of casein micelles can be made to occur.185
These include the action of the proteolytic enzyme chymosin on the micelle, such
as in the cheese industry; the aggregation of casein by acid, as in the manufacture
of some types of cheeses and fermented products; aggregation caused by heating;
and the age gelation of micelles, which is important in the preparation of sterilized,
shelf-stable milk products. Each of these will be discussed in some detail.
There are many commercially available milk-clotting enzymes. Of these, calf
rennet, whose active principle is chymosin, rennin (EC 3.4.23.4) is the most common. Also used are bovine pepsin, porcine pepsin, and microbial aspartic proteinases from Mucor miehei, M. pusillus, and Endothia parasitica.246 The milk clotting
ability of aspartic proteinases results from the cleavage of a specific linkage
(Phe105-Met106) of /c-casein.187'188'247 There are three distinct but overlapping stages
during the enzymatic coagulation of milk.217'248~250 Enzymatic cleavage of the
Refs. 185, 193-195, 197, 198, 200, 228, 242-244.
Phe 105 -Met 106 linkage of K-casein results in the formation of the soluble CMP which
diffuses away from the micelle and para-/c-casein, a distinctly hydrophobic peptide
that remains on the micelle.251 This is a relatively quick reaction, the turnover being
100 s~ l in milk, pH 6.7, 300C,16 and seems to be independent of micelle size.208
The loss of the CMP results in decreased steric stabilization of the paracasein,195
and may also result in a reduction in electrostatic repulsive forces and increased
micellar hydrophobicity,187 and leads to the formation of small aggregates and chains
consisting of destabilized paracasein micelles of various lengths, complexed with
calcium.252 Paracasein micelles have much reduced voluminosity and potential,
compared to native casein micelles, but otherwise are not disintegrated.208 The action
of the enzyme on the micelle is unclear.242253 It probably cleaves CMP molecules
fairly randomly,244 although it may cleave a patch or an entire micelle of CMP before
moving on. However, the formation of a reactive site or patch on the micelle is
necessary before aggregation of paracasein micelles can begin. This requires cleavage of > 85% of the CMP,187'188 although this is pH dependent.254-255 Enzymatic
cleavage of CMP through the use of immobilized enzymes has been very difficult
to achieve,256 probably due to the proximity of the Phe-Met bond to the micelle
surface and the orientation of the bond to the enzyme.185
The second stage involves coagulum or curd formation following enzymatic action.257 As a result, the lag time before clotting depends on both the time for enzyme
action and the production of appreciable concentrations of aggregatable material,
namely paracasein micelles.233 The forces of attraction between paracasein micelles
include van der Waals, possibly electrostatic interactions in the form of salt bridges
between positively and negatively charged regions of paracasein micelles, possibly
mediated by Ca 2 + ions or through CCP-like linkages,185 and possibly hydrophobic
bonding. It has been observed that renneted micelles will not aggregate at 5C and
this is often used as evidence for the importance of hydrophobic bonding, although
the temperature dependence of aggregation may also be related to /3-casein dissociation and resulting steric stabilization from /3-casein hairs (see Section 1.3.1.2).
The Ca 2+ concentration and the colloidal/soluble calcium phosphate balance are
critical, as calcium is needed for continued aggregation.245 Renneted micelles nearly
always lead to the formation of a gel rather than a precipitate due to the steric
retardation of the clotting as a result of a restricted number of reactive sites on the
micelle surface and thus a large number of unsuccessful collisions.233'258'259 This
must be related to the action of the enzyme in cleaving a portion of the CMP hairs.
This is illustrated in Figure 1.11.
The final stage in the clotting of milk is not well defined and includes syneresis
and firming of the curd,260""263 a loss of paracasein micelle identity, and nonspecific
proteolysis of caseins in the coagulum.187 The paracasein micelles fuse into larger
units as CCP rearranges throughout the micellar region,264'265 and may be analogous
to binding between submicelles in a casein micelle.266
Micelles can also be destabilized or aggregated by a reduction in pH,267 independent of enzymatic action, as in the manufacture of directly acidified cheeses or
in fermented products. The first consequence of a lowering of the pH below 6.7 is
partial dissolution of CCP and a decrease in micelle voluminosity.254'268 Dissolution
Figure 1.11 Clotting of casein micelles. (A) Surface completely reactive: all collisions will
lead to sticking. (B) Surface only partly reactive: unsuccessful collosion. (C) Surface only
partly reactive: successful collosion. (D) Total surface reactive: dense precipitate. (E) Surface
only partly reactive: loose network. (From ref. 233 with permission of Cambridge University
Press.)
of some of the micelles into submicelles may also occur and has been reported at
pH 5.6. 254 At pH < 5 . 5 , micelles may fuse as the surface potential is lowered. The
potential approaches zero at near pH 5.2. 16 Most of the CCP will be lost at this
pH. Near pH 4.8, nearly all of the CCP is dissolved, and at pH 4.6, the isoelectric
point, the solubility of casein is negligible. 71 - 186 Casein micelles have disintegrated
and casein precipitates.81 Aggregation occurs as a result of entropically driven hydrophobic interactions.268
A further method of micellar destabilization is through heating to temperatures
above the boiling point.269""271 Although casein is not denaturable, casein micelles
irreversibly aggregate. Chemical changes of the casein must occur because the addition of agents that break H bonds, reduce disulfide linkages, and dissolve calcium
phosphate leave the aggregates intact.16 The coagulation time is very pH dependent,
and two distinct behaviors for lots of milk have been shown. 272 Most samples of
milk require a maximum time for heat coagulation at 1400C when adjusted to pH
6.7 and a minimum time at pH 6.9 (type A behavior). However, some milk samples
fail to show minimum and maximum points but instead increase in coagulation time
directly from the apical cell membrane. 284 The compositional similarity between
milkfat globule membranes and apical cell membranes 286 and electron micrographs
illustrating this budding process within the secretory cell 281 - 284 are strong evidence
for this process. Therefore, the milk FGM is in part, or at least derived from, a lipid
bilayer membrane.
The fat globule may acquire an inner coat of adsorbed molecules as it passes
through the cell cytoplasm before it is enveloped in the cell membrane. 284 Two
principal components of this inner coat material are the enzyme xanthine oxidase
and the glycoprotein butyrophilin, which may have specific functions in the recognition and envelopment of lipid droplets in apical plasma membrane. 281 This tightly
bound inner coat has been observed by electron microscopy and is found as paracrystalline arrays covering only limited areas of and slightly pressed into the triglyceride core. 292 It is possible that other cytoplasmic molecules such as sterols,
phospholipids, gangliosides, and proteins may also be adsorbed to the triglyceride
core prior to envelopment by the cell membrane. 16
Considerable rearrangement of this membrane is thought to occur shortly after
its release into the lumen. 277 - 287 The lipid bilayer membrane of the cell was bordered
on each side by an aqueous environment; however, one side has now been brought
into close contact with the lipid droplet. Part of the more apolar substances of the
membrane may dissolve into the core. Polar substances may dissolve into the serum.
Amphiphilic substances from the milk plasma may adsorb onto the fat globule.
Enzymatic changes of both the lipid and protein portions of the membrane may also
occur. 16
Several methods are available for isolation of the milk FGM, and depending on
the procedure, compositional changes have been found to occur, making quantification of the membrane more difficult. 284 ' 293 - 294 Some authors have reported the
presence of a significant quantity of high melting point glycerides on the innermost
edge of the membrane that are closely associated with the membrane.27-278 This, in
addition to evidence of fat globule birefringence under a polarizing microscope, 295
has led to speculation as to the structural nature of the lipid core and the crystallization characteristics of the globule. 27 - 125 - 296 " 300 It appears that the high melting
glyceride (HMG) fraction and the possibility of a partially crystalline fat globule
existing as a solid shell of HMG and an inner liquid core may be artefacts of the
preparation procedure. 295 ' 301 " 305 On the outermost edge of the membrane, isolation
procedures can also lead to either adsorption of plasma material or desorption of
membrane material, leading to a high degree of variability in the reported composition of the FGM. 294 The estimated average composition of the natural FGM is
given in Table 1.12.
The composition of milk lipids has been discussed in Section 1.2.2.1. More than
95% of the total milk lipid is found in the globule fraction. Approximately 1% of
the total lipids of the globule are associated with the membrane, whereas the remainder are found in the core. The vast majority of the globule core, 98 to 99%, is
comprised of glycerides, mostly triglycerides. 284 The presence of diglycerides in the
core varies, and may be due to either incomplete triglyceride synthesis or to lipolytic
cleavage of fatty acid from the triglyceride.27 In addition to glycerides, the fat globule
mg per 100 g
Fat Globules
900
600
80
20
40
+
20?
+
0.04?
0.3
0.05
0.01
200?
>1860
mg per m2
Fat Surface
Percent of
Membrane
4.5
3.0
0.4
0.1
0.2
+
0.1
+
2 X 10" 4
15 X 10" 4
2 X 10" 14
0.5 X 10~ 4
1.0
48
33
4
1
2
?
1
7
>9.3
100
11
core contains some free fatty acids; sterols; phospholipids; glycolipids; carotenoids;
vitamins A, D, E, and K; water; and other miscellaneous components.16 It is highly
probable that these components, including a very large number of different triglycerides, are randomly distributed throughout the core. Crystallization of the globule
may cause a stratification of the HMG to an outer layer, but this is questionable.302*304
It may be that the adsorbed layer acts as the nucleating site for lipid crystallization
to begin.27'297 Some of the lipid in milk cannot be separated by centrifugation, and
this has been termed serum lipid.284 This may be due in part to the presence of very
small globules with dense membraneous layers of a density high enough to cause
them to sediment rather than cream during centrifugation.278
The FGM is responsible for giving the fat globule many of its characteristics in
milk. Consequently, its behavior during processing is of great interest.277 The conditions of the fat globule change greatly after milking, owing primarily to cooling
and crystallization of fat, and agitation. Cooling leads to a migration from fat globules to milk plasma of about 20% of its phospholipid content, and about 30% of its
copper, xanthine oxidase, and other substances.16 When membrane material is lost
due to damage, other amphiphilic molecules in the milk plasma become adsorbed
to the fat globule.16 Foaming can lead to considerable loss of membrane material as
it spreads over the air plasma interface. Action of bacterial enzymes, for example,
phospholipases, may also lead to changes in the membrane. The membrane is responsible for the separation of natural milk lipases from the lipids of the fat globule.
If it is damaged, lipase action can cause lipolytic rancidity to occur in milk. Disruption of globules leads to a greatly increased surface area, causing some desorption
of natural FGM, and considerable adsorption of plasma proteins. This is certainly
the case during homogenization of milk, as will be discussed in the next section.
Due to the amphiphilic nature of many of the membrane components, for example, proteins and phospholipids, isolated FGM material exhibits greatly increased
functional properties such as emulsification and foaming. 306 Dairy products that are
enhanced in membrane material are thus known to have improved functional characteristics. However, this material may oxidize rapidly under improper storage conditions. 307 In the churning of butter, for example, membrane material is lost to the
buttermilk,27 and buttermilk powder can greatly increase whipping and foaming
properties of foods to which it has been added, for example ice cream mix, 308 more
so than skim milk powder. Likewise, recombined milk from butter will be nearly
devoid of natural FGM material, and will form a much different adsorbed layer on
the fat globule as a result of homogenization. 309
Figure 1.12 Homogenized milkfat globules (F) prepared by transmission electron microscopy thin sectioning showing adsorbed casein micelles (P) and evidence of internal fat crystallization (arrow).
Surface excess is higher for smaller fat globules in milk plasma, for example,
15 mg/m 2 for globules of diameter 0.4 ^m, and 3 mg/m 2 for d ** 1.6 /x.m 3 1 4 3 1 9
Casein particles may be preferentially adsorbed over serum proteins. 317 Serum proteins have been reported to cover 25% of the globule surface of fat homogenized in
milk solids, but account for only 5% by weight of the membrane protein due to the
different molecular conformations of the two classes of proteins. 314317 This protein
adsorption is irreversible within a limited time frame (hours) but considerable rearrangement of the adsorbed layer occurs as molecules compete for surface space and
as surface denaturation occurs. 302 However, small molecule surfactants can displace
proteins readily from the surface, probably due to a lowering of the interfacial tension. 309 ' 320 ' 321
Heat can also affect the adsorbed layer of recombined fat globules. A higher
temperature during adsorption, up to about 70 0 C, causes a thinner protein layer, 10.7
mg/m 2 at 40 0 C versus 6.0 mg/m 2 at 60 0 C, probably due to a faster rate of casein
spreading.309 However, a heat treatment of the skim milk prior to homogenization
leads to a thicker adsorbed layer, 15 mg/m 2 at a preheating temperature of 95 0 C for
10 min. 309 A significant quantity of /3-lactoglobulin was recovered from the membranes of pasteurized cream. 316 UHT products also exhibited enhanced adsorption
of caseins and serum proteins, particularly /3-lactoglobulin.312 The adsorption of
higher levels of serum proteins after heating results from the partial denaturation of
the proteins87 and the association of serum proteins and caseins as a result of heat
treatments.71'275 Consequently, fat globules can be created with a variety of mem-
N
Number/ ml
(xlOexp-9)
% Lipid
Diameter (jim)
Figure 1.13 Size distribution of lipid globules in milk of a Holstein cow. The number of
globules (N) of various diameters and the percentage of the total lipid present in globules
at indicated diameters are plotted. (From ref. 27 with permission of Pudoc, Wageningen,
Netherlands.)
1.3.2.3 Stability
Milk is an emulsion of fat droplets, and no emulsion is thermodynamically stable. 306
Thus the stability of the fat emulsion is a kinetic time-dependent phenomenon. Milk
is known to separate or cream spontaneously and rapidly,302 and many processes
and products involve manipulation of the creaming phenomenon. Emulsion stability
is largely dependent on the size distribution of the globules. In raw milk, fat globules
range in size from 0.1 to 15.0 fjum. The milk emulsion has been found to contain
three distinct populations of fat globules. 323 " 325 These populations may be synthesized differently within the secretory cell. 16 About 75% of the number of globules
in milk are < 1 /nn in diameter, and represent only a small percentage of total milk
fat. Methods for determination of globule size distribution must account for this
population for accuracy of results. 326 A few globules, representing about 2 to 3% of
the fat, are > 12 fxm in diameter. These may arise by coalescence within the lumen
or mammary cistern. 16 Ninety percent of the fat is found in globules in the 1 to 8
/nm range. 284 The size distribution profile for Holstein milk is shown in Figure 1.13.
A calculation of the "average" diameter is difficult as a result of this trimodal
distribution, and many values have been reported. The volume surface average diameter, dvs, calculated as dvs = S N1 d]lX N1 dj, where N1 and dt represent number
of globules of diameter z, is about 3.4 /xm for milk from Holstein cattle.27 This value
relates the surface area of the fat to its volume. The surface area, A, in cm 2 /ml, can
then be calculated as A = 670 G/dvs, where G is the gravimetric fat percentage. The
relative standard deviation of the surface weighted distribution has been found to be
remarkably constant, around 0.5.302 Thus the fat emulsion for raw milk can generally
be characterized by two factors, the gravimetric fat percentage and the average globule diameter, dys. The main factors affecting globule size are breed, individual cow,
and stage of lactation. Milk from breeds with higher fat contents, Jerseys and Guernseys, has been found to have larger fat globules, dvs = 4.5 /xm, than milk from
animals with lower fat content, Holsteins.27 Average globule diameter is reduced as
lactation progresses.284
Stokes' Law predicts that fat globules will cream, due to the differences in densities, p, between the fat, / , and plasma, p, phases of milk (pf 920 kg/m3 at 25C,
pp ** 1030 kg/m3).16 However, the fat globules in cold, raw milk will cream much
faster than is predicted from Stokes' Law based on their size distribution alone.284'302
Sampling of milk for determination of fat content must take this into account. This
fast rate of rise results from the formation of fat globule clusters which may exceed
800 jjim in diameter.280 One of the immunoglobulins in milk, IgM, acts as an agglutinin, for example, flocculating bacteria. IgM forms a complex with lipoproteins
and possibly other components known as cryoglobulin that precipitates onto fat
globules to an increasing extent as temperature is lowered.16'280'302 Once flocculation
of fat globules as a result of cryoglobulin precipitation begins, the speed of globule
rise increases. Smaller globules are thus swept out of the milk plasma by these large
globule clusters whose speed of rising continues to increase.306 The cream layer
forms very rapidly, within 20 to 30 min, in cold milk.27'280 This can easily be redispersed, however, by agitation which causes the cryoglobulin to become associated
with individual globules.16 This agglutinin factor is inactivated by heat or homogenization.302
The stabilization of the fat emulsion in milk is principally achieved through homogenization, which causes the fat globules to become disrupted to form much
smaller globules. Homogenization is performed at temperatures that render the fat
globule completely liquid, a prerequisite for disruption.27 Lipid globules in homogenized milk typically have fat globule diameters of 1 /im or less, and the size
distribution profile is greatly narrowed, causing the speed of globule rise to be similar
for the majority of globules.310 In addition, the formation of the adsorbed layer onto
the nascent globule immediately after homogenization brings the density of the globule closer to that of the continuous phase, again slowing down of the rate of globule
rise.311-318
Creaming rate after pasteurization is much slower than would be predicted from
the Stokes equation. This results from the destruction of the IgM factor (which is
not considered in the Stokes equation), the enhanced adsorption of partially denatured serum proteins to the fat surface as discussed in the next section, and for other
reasons.325 Fat crystallization has also been shown to greatly affect the stability of
the fat globule.327 The coalescence stability of oil-in-water emulsions with crystals
in the disperse phase was decreased by six orders of magnitude over a noncry stalline
emulsion. It was hypothesized that the crystals were protruding into the aqueous
phase, causing surface distortion of the globule which led to rapid coalescence during
shear.328
1.3.2.4 Destabilization
The stability of the milkfat emulsion is an important criterion for the manufacture
of many dairy products. An emulsion is not in a thermodynamic equilibrium because
it is not at its lowest energy state, energy being stored at an interface.241 The forces
acting on a particle in solution include: electrostatic repulsion from the formation of
an electrical double layer around a charged particle; attraction forces, mainly van
der Waals; steric forces from adsorbed macromolecules; hydrophobic forces; and
applied external fields. These must all be accounted for in determining emulsion
stability.241 However, an activation energy for flocculation and coalescence must be
overcome.302 Flocculation generally refers to a reversible aggregation process in
which the individual identities of the particles have been maintained. Coalescence
is the flowing together of two emulsion droplets into one.
In such products as fluid milk or coffee cream, the emulsion must be very stable
and disruption of the natural emulsion through high-pressure homogenization is often
performed to add stability to the fat emulsion.16-329 On the other end of the scale,
flocculation and coalescence are necessary to bring about a complete churning or
separation of the fat phase necessary for butter making.27 The third group of products, represented by heavy cream for whipping or ice cream, requires an emulsion
that is stable in the liquid form but that will undergo flocculation, clumping, and
partial coalescence but not to the point of complete churning when a shear force is
applied.16'27-306'328 The applied force must be sufficient to cause the flocculation to
occur. This requires an input of energy to overcome thermodynamic repulsion between the globules. However, the applied force must not be large enough to complete
the phase inversion.
Different kinds of aggregates of fat globules are recognized. Floccules are easily
redispersed as the fat globules that flocculate keep their identity and are held together
only by weak forces. Fat floccules are formed, for example, in the creaming of raw
milk.328 Clusters are bound together by stronger forces, because the globules may
share part of their interfacial layers. They are more difficult to redisperse. Examples
are clusters that are formed during single-stage homogenization of a milkfat emulsion.330 Clumps of fat globules can form when partially solid/partially liquid globules
are brought into contact.328 If the globules were solid, they would not clump; if the
globules were liquid, they could coalesce into one larger droplet. Clumps of fat
globules are important in ice cream and whipped cream destabilization, and also in
the initial stages of coalescence during buttermaking.27 In all of these products,
a partially crystalline fat globule is necessary for successful manufacture of the
product.280
Three types of aggregation processes can occur: (1) weak attractive forces as
described, for example, by DLVO theory and that may play only a small role in
milkfat emulsion stability or instability, (2) polymer bridging where a macromolecule, such as a protein or polysaccharide, adsorbs onto more than one droplet to
form a particle-particle bridge, and (3) an aggregation process where any part of
the membrane material between two adjacent droplets is disrupted and the aggregate
becomes fat continuous at the site of membrane rupture.328 This clumping phenom-
enon is possible only in partially crystalline emulsions, 302 which accounts at least in
part for the role of temperature in aggregation processes. Polymer bridging via milk
proteins is common in fat protein aggregates found in many dairy products such as
homogenized milk where a casein micelle 330 or a composite of milk proteins 317 can
adsorb onto two or more fat globules simultaneously. Clustering of fat globules
subsequent to homogenization is increased as the fat surface area is increased, either
by an increased fat content as in cream, or by an increased homogenization pressure.27 Clustering is also increased if protein is limiting. 16 The third process is important in terms of milkfat destabilization in ice cream 331 or whipped cream 332 manufacture. Fat destabilization refers to the process of clustering and clumping of the
fat globules which leads to the development of a continuous internal fat network or
matrix or structure in the product.306
The interaction of partially crystalline fat globules with air bubbles is responsible
for the formation of structure in whipped cream and ice cream, for flotation churning
of fat in the manufacture of butter, and for the undesirable formation of a foaminduced fat layer in products such as cream. 16 ' 333 Liquid fat may be disrupted by the
presence of air as a result of spreading and subsequent rupture of the bubble. 16
Electron microscopy techniques have been used to study the whipping of heavy
cream 296 - 306 - 332334 " 337 and the destabilization process in ice cream. 308 ' 320
It was reported that the proteinaceous membrane that envelops the air bubble
during the whipping of heavy cream is penetrated by fat globules as the process
proceeds, and this fat penetration offers foam stability to the whipped product. 335
During the initial stages of whipping, air bubbles are stabilized primarily by /3-casein
and whey proteins with little involvement of fat. 338 ' 339 Adsorption of fat or fat crystals to air bubbles occurred when the fat globule membrane coalesced with the
air-water interface.332'337 Only rarely did fat spread at the air-water interface. The
final cream was stabilized by a cross-linking of fat globules surrounding each air
cell to adjacent air cells thus building an infrastructure in the foam. Fat destabilization
is responsible for the formation of the dryness and smoothness associated with ice
cream, 308 and is promoted by the presence of small molecule surfactants that displace
proteins from the surface of the fat globule, rendering them more susceptible to
flocculation and coalescence. 320 ' 331
where its density is 1.000 g ml" 1 (999.972 kg m"3). The density of milk at 200C
is on average about 1030 kg m~ 3 and normally varies within the range of 1027 to
1033 kg m~ 3 . 16
The density of milk is dependent on composition and can be calculated from the
density and mass fraction of individual components. The following equations have
been cited to approximate the density of milk, skim milk, creams, and concentrated
milks.16 Equation 1.2 can be used to estimate density of the product (P) given the
apparent density of each component (Px) and the mass fraction of each component
(mx). At 200C the densities of water, milk fat, protein, lactose, and other components
are 998.2, 918, 1400, 1780, and 1850 kg m"3, respectively.16 Equation 1.3 can be
used to estimate the density of concentrated products (P0) given the density of the
initial unconcentrated milk (P0), the density of water (Pw), and the concentration
ratio (R = total solids of concentrated milk/total solids initial milk).
(1.2)
(13)
The coefficient of thermal expansion of fresh milk of 4.0% fat and 8.95% solidsnot-fat is on average about 0.335 cm3/kg/C in the temperature range of 5 to 400C
but is dependent on temperature340 and temperature history. This value is similar to
the coefficient for water and, therefore, the specific gravity of milk is nearly constant
over this temperature range with a slight decrease in the order of 5 X 10 ~ 5 due to
greater coefficient of thermal expansion for fat than for water.16 At temperatures
>40C there is a slight increase in specific gravity.341 Milk density is also affected
by temperature history which determines the state of the fat. Complete solidification
of milkfat causes a contraction of 70 cm3/kg.16 Frequently, milk density is determined by warming to 400C and then cooling to the specified temperature. This results
in more liquid fat (due to super cooling) and, therefore, lower density values than if
the milk was warmed to the specified temperature.
Table 1.13 shows averages of empirically determined specific gravity values of
some common fluid milk products at several temperatures. The data represent 8000
raw and processed samples analyzed over a 12-month period. Included in Table 1.13
are regression coefficients and intercepts that have been calculated from these data
and can be used to calculate (approximate estimates only) the densities of milks and
creams at the specified temperature given the contents of fat and solids-not-fat in
the product.
1.4.2 Viscosity
Viscosity (or fluidity, which is the reciprocal of viscosity) is an important factor in
determining the rate of creaming, rates of mass and heat transfer, and flow conditions
in dairy processes. For example, recent calculations suggest that viscosity of ice
cream mix may be sufficiently high to maintain laminar flow conditions during
Product
Composition
Product
Fat (%)
SNF (%)
4.4C
1O0C
2O0C
38.90C
Producer milk
Homogenized milk
Skim milk, packaged
Fortified skim milk
Half and half
Half and half, fort.
Light cream
Heavy cream
Regression3
Intercept
Fat coefficient
SNF coefficient
4.00
3.60
0.02
0.02
12.25
11.30
20.00
36.60
8.95
8.60
8.90
10.15
7.75
8.90
7.20
5.55
1.035
1.033
1.036
1.041
1.027
1.031
1.021
1.008
1.033
1.032
1.035
1.040
1.025
1.030
1.018
1.005
1.030
1.029
1.033
1.038
1.020
1.024
1.012
0.994
1.023
1.022
1.026
1.031
1.010
1.014
1.000
0.978
1.0027
-0.00042
0.00373
0.9991
-0.00047
0.00403
1.0017
-0.00075
0.00351
0.9955
-0.00102
0.00348
Density = intercept + (fat coeff. X fat content) + (SNF coeff. X SNF content)
pasteurization with the result that heat transfer may be too slow to ensure adequate
heat treatment.343 The literature on the viscosity of milk has been reviewed.16'341
Viscosity (rf) is the ratio of shearing stress (T = force per unit area) to shear rate
(y = velocity difference divided by distance in reciprocal seconds) assuming laminar
flow with parallel stream lines. For reviews of the principles of viscosity and its
measurement see refs. 118, 344. The c.g.s. or metric unit for viscosity is the poise
(dynes s cm" 2 ) which is the force in dynes c m " 2 required to maintain a relative
velocity of 1 cm s " l between two parallel planes 1 cm apart. The SI unit for viscosity
is N s m~ 2 which is equivalent to Pa s. Ten N s m " 2 equals one poise. With respect
to dairy products, the most commonly used units are centipoise (poise X 10 ~ 2 ) and
mPa s.
Milk and skim milk, excepting cooled raw milk, exhibit Newtonian behavior. For
Newtonian fluids at constant temperature and pressure the viscosity is independent
of the rate of shear, and a plot of shearing stress versus shearing rate is a straight
line passing through the origin. The coefficient or slope of this line is the dynamic
viscosity or simply, viscosity. The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid containing particles
of diverse sizes is described by the Eilers equation345 and is a function of the hydrodynamic volume fraction of the dispersed particles, including all particles at least
an order of magnitude larger than water and the viscosity of the liquid in which the
particles are suspended. In milk the dispersed particles include lactose, whey proteins, casein micelles, and fat globules which are suspended in water with other
small molecules. See ref. 16 for a discussion of the hydrodynamic volumes of milk
components. There are many confounding interactions making generalizations difficult. For example, cooling from 30 to 5C causes increased viscosity of skim milk
(1.4)
Added water may also be estimated from changes in osmotic pressure as measured
by vapor pressure osmometry.356 Vapor pressure is measured as a function of dewpoint depression. A thermocouple detector senses the temperature of a milk sample
at vapor pressure equilibrium in a sample chamber headspace. The results expressed
as milliosmoles per kilogram of water are highly correlated to freezing points and
the procedure356 has been approved by the AOAC for the determination of added
water in milk. 355
The freezing point of milk is usually in the range of - 0 . 5 1 2 to - 0 . 5 5 0 0 C with
an average of about 0.522 0 C. 341 Freezing points of goat's and ewe's milk are
generally lower than that of cow's milk whereas the freezing point of buffalo milk
is similar to that of cow's milk. 350 If the freezing point of unwatered milk is known,
the relationship between added water and freezing point depression is given by Eq.
1.5. If the actual freezing point of the unwatered milk is not known a reference value
can be used.
(1.5)
where
W = percent (w/w) extraneous water in the suspect milk
C = actual or reference freezing point of genuine milk
D = freezing point of suspect milk
5 = the percent (w/w) of total solids in the suspect milk.
For routine added water determinations it is of course important to have a reliable
reference point. Based on a United Kingdom study, it was concluded that fewer than
1 in 1000 samples of genuine or authentic milk (i.e., milk produced under supervised
conditions and certified free of added water) will have a freezing point higher than
- 0 . 5 0 8 0 C and that samples with freezing points higher than this reference point
may be considered to contain added water. 350 The reference point recommended in
1970 by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists is - 0 . 5 0 5 0 C ( - 0 . 5 2 5
H). 3 5 4 This value is based on a North American study of genuine milks 357 and is
still used by most milk testing laboratories in North America. Freezing point results
obtained for Minnesota and Wisconsin herds from 1979 to 1988 showed that the
average freezing point had decreased significantly during this time. 358 The same
authors conducted a comprehensive freezing point survey of herds in Minnesota and
recommended that the reference point for that state should be decreased from the
AOAC value of - 0 . 5 0 5 0 C ( - 0 . 5 2 5 H) to - 0 . 5 1 2 0 C ( - 0 . 5 3 0 H). 3 5 9 In a study of
freezing points of milks in the Netherlands, it was suggested that the reference point
should not be fixed but should vary with season and region. 360
Correct interpretation of freezing point data with respect to added water depends
on a good understanding of the factors affecting freezing point depression. It is
frequently necessary to conduct repeat sampling and/or obtain genuine samples (supervised sampling) from herds showing freezing points near the reference point in
order to eliminate natural causes of abnormally high freezing points. If a repeat
sample has been taken from a herd within 48 h, the suspect milk should not be
considered to have contained added water unless the freezing point of the repeat
sample is at least 0.007 0 C lower than that of the suspect sample. 350 This difference
in freezing point depression corresponds to about 1.2% of added water for milk of
typical total solids content. Numerous references are available on factors affecting
freezing points. 341 ' 361 ' 362 The following summary of these factors is based mainly
on the discussion in ref. 361.
There are small differences in freezing points between breeds (in the order of
0.002 to 0.0070C), with Holstein milks generally having the lowest freezing points.
There is a slight tendency toward lower freezing points in late lactation but it is not
clear whether this effect is independent of feed effects. Similarly, seasonal differences in freezing points are probably due to feed effects. The freezing point of
morning milk tends to be 0.003 to 0.0070C lower than that of evening milk. Larger
differences may be observed if the cattle do not have free access to water at all times.
Variations in the proportions of grains to roughage and fresh versus dry forage have
significant but small effects on freezing point. Udder health (mastitis) also has slight
effects on freezing point. With respect to interpretation of freezing points for added
water determination, the most significant variables are the nutritional status of the
herd and the access to water. Under-feeding causes increased freezing points. Large
temporary increases in freezing point occur after consumption of large amounts of
water because milk is isoosmotic with blood.
The primary sources of nonintentional added water in milk are residual rinse water
and condensation in the milking system. Leaky coolers used to precool milk before
it enters the bulk tank may also be a problem. Recommended procedures to avoid
added water, to determine residual water in milking systems, and to obtain authentic
milk samples for interpretation of freezing points have been reported.350 Soured or
fermented milk is unsuitable for added water testing because the freezing point is
lowered by lactic acid and increased concentrations of soluble minerals. Several
reports suggest that heat treatment of milk, including UHT and retort sterilization,
causes little permanent effect on freezing points350 but it has also been suggested
that freezing points are not a reliable index of added water in processed milk.363
1.4.4 Electrochemistry
Eh, Eo (V)
raw mik
ascorbate
methylene blue
glutathione
riboflavin
cysteine
hydrogen electrode
Figure 1.14 The redox potential (h) of milk and the standard potentials () of various
systems in relation to pH. (From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.)
(1.6)
in Figure 1.14. The principles of oxidation-reduction systems and their measurement are described in many chemical texts and a monograph on oxidation-reduction
potentials of biological systems has been prepared.368 The redox potential of milk
is in the range of + 0.2 to + 0.3 V and is mainly determined by dissolved oxygen.341
Milk is essentially oxygen free when excreted but about 0.3 mM O 2 is present after
equilibrium with air is established. Removal of oxygen by nitrogen sweeping lowers
the E of milk to about 0.12 V.16 Decreased oxygen tension by bacterial respiration
is the basis of the methylene blue reduction test for milk bacterial quality.
The other redox systems of significance in milk are ascorbate (0.25 mEq L" 1 )
and riboflavin. Ascorbate in freshly drawn milk is all in the reduced form but during
refrigerated storage is reversibly oxidized to dehydroascorbate which is irreversibly
changed by hydrolysis of the lactone ring to 2,3-diketo-L-gulonate. Oxidation of
ascorbate in the presence of copper and oxygen produces superoxide anion which
in the presence of peroxide is converted to singlet oxygen. Singlet oxygen is probably
responsible for the initiation of lipid oxidation.16 (See also Section 1.2.2.4.) The
small quantity of riboflavin in milk contributes little to redox capacity but is important in photooxidation of milk. When excited to a triplet state by exposure to light
near 450 nM, riboflavin oxidizes the methioine residues in the whey proteins to
methional which is the principal component of "sunlight" flavor in milk. Excited
riboflavin can also oxidize ascorbate, and reduced riboflavin can react with triplet
oxygen to produce singlet oxygen.16
Heat treatment is well known to increase the reducing capacity of milk, mainly
due to activation of protein thiol groups and products of Maillard browning reactions.
Activated thiol groups cause cooked flavor which decreases as cysteine bonds reform
on standing.
16,369 (
S e e
8 0S e c t i o n
L3-2.)
Factors affecting the surface tension of milk, that is the interfacial tension between
milk and air, have been reviewed341 and there is little new information in the literature. The surface tension of milk is about 50 mN m~ l compared to water which is
72 mN m" 1 (Table 1.14). Surface tension is increased by about 10% in skim milk
and is reduced in cream. AU of the principal milk proteins are strong depressants
and are present in excess so that considerable dilution is necessary to significantly
reduce the surface tension of skim milk; the surface tension of rennet whey is similar
to that of skim milk. The gross composition of buttermilk is similar to skim milk
but its surface tension is decreased (Table 1.14) by higher levels of phospholipids.
7 (mN m l)
Water-air
22 mM Na laurate in water-air
0.3 mM stearate in water-air
/i-Octane-air
Water-rt-octane
Milk plasma-air
Sweet-cream buttermilk-air
Liquid milk fat-air
Liquid milk fat-water
Liquid milk fat-milk plasma
Liquid milk fat-protein solutions
Milk fat globule-milk plasma
Liquid fat-fat crystal (a modification)
72
43
43
22
51
48
40
34
20
15
10-15
2a
10
Lipolysis decreases surface tension due to the release of surface active free fatty
acids. Homogenization increases surface tension possibly due to adsorption of surface active substances onto the enlarged fat globule-plasma interface. Cold storage
of milk apparently activates some surface active substance in milk because it effectively lowers surface tension. Normal heat treatments of milk have no effect on
surface tension. The importance of interfacial tension in fat destabilization processes
has been discussed in Section 1.3.2.4.
Concentration
(mM)
Protein-bound residues
Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid
Histidine
Tyrosine
Lysine
Ester-phosphate
iV-acetylneuraminic acid
Terminal groups
19
50
6
12
20
7
0.5
1.5
Salts
Phosphate8
Citrate3
Phosphate esters3
Carbonate
Various carboxylic acids
Various amines
Lactic acid
21 b
9
2.5
2
2
1.5
50-120 c
4.1
4.6
6.5
9.7
10.5
2.0, 6?
5
3.7, 7.9
3.0, 5.8, 6.6
3.0,4.1,4.8
1.7, 5.9
6.4, 10.1
4.8
7.6?
3.95
The buffer capacity (dB/dpH) is the amount of strong acid or base in moles per liter
(strong meaning completely dissociated in the experimental pH range) required per
unit change in pH. Because pH is a dimensionless quantity the units of buffer index
are simply mol/L. When pH equals pK& the weak acid is half dissociated and the
buffer capacity is maximum. For species such as proteins which have numerous
acidic and basic groups, maximum buffering occurs in the region of isoelectric pH
(pi). The principles of pH and its measurement can be found in many chemistry
texts.
Titratable acidity is a measure of the total buffer capacity of milk for the pH range
between the pH of milk and the phenolphthalein end point (about 8.3). The pH of
milk at 25C normally varies within a relatively narrow range of 6.5 to 6.7.341 The
normal range for titratable acidity of herd milks is 13 to 20 mmol L~" *. This corresponds to 0.12 to 0.18% lactic acid but there is practically no lactic acid in fresh
milk and there is no good reason for the North American convention of reporting
titratable acidity as percent lactic acid. Because of the large inherent variation, the
measure of titratable acidity has little practical value except to measure changes in
acidity (e.g., during lactic fermentation) and even for this purpose, pH is a better
measurement.
mM
dpH
2
1
3
HCI
NaOH
PH
PH
Figure 1.15 Examples of titration curves (mAf HCl or NaOH needed to obtain a certain pH)
of milk (1), and of sweet whey (2) and ultrafiltrate (3) made from that milk; the same results
also expressed as buffer index dB/dpH (in mmol L~ l ). (From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission
of John Wiley & Sons.)
The major buffering groups of milk and their p a values are listed in Table 1.15
but the actual pKA values in milk are different due to interactions with other ions. 16
The two most important buffer components of milk are caseins (buffer maximum
near pH 4.6) and phosphate (buffer maximum near pH 7.0). The titration curve for
sweet whey (rennet whey with no culture) indicates a small buffer maximum due to
whey proteins in the range of pH 4.0 to 5.0 (Fig. 1.15). The morphologies of the
titration and buffer capacity curves of milk and milk products are dependent on the
rate of titration because of sluggish equilibrium reactions between colloidal and
dialyzable salts, especially phosphate salts. The rate of titration should, therefore, be
given when titration data are reported. In the region of the phosphate buffer maximum several days are required to obtain final equilibrium between dialyzable and
colloidal calcium phosphates. The most important effects are: (1) Formation of colloidal calcium phosphates greatly increases the buffer capacity of phosphates. (2)
The presence of citrate and caseins promotes the formation of tricalcium phosphates
at pH levels where mono- and dicalcium phosphates would otherwise predominate. 370 " 372 This broadens the phosphate buffer range by moving the calcium phosphate saturation point to higher pH levels. (3) Lactic acid has a pKa near 4.0 so that
fermented dairy products have a large buffer maximum near pH 4.0. (4) Formation
of colloidal calcium phosphates during concentration of milk causes the pH to decrease. This effect does not occur during concentration by ultrafiltration.373 (5) Heating also causes pH reduction due to formation of colloidal phosphate salts. The pH
of milk decreases by about 0.4 units over the range of 20 to 60 0 C. 3 4 1 (6) Concentration of milk salts during freezing causes pH to decrease. 341 (7) The acid-base
properties of cheese whey are largely determined by the pH at the time of draining. 374375 Greater amounts of calcium phosphates and larger calcium/phosphate ratios in acid wheys cause greater buffer capacity and a shift in the phosphate buffer
maximum to lower pH.
(1.9)
Allowing for variations in data reported by various workers, the heat capacity of
skim milk increases with fair linearity over the entire temperature range of 1 to
1400C. For example, extrapolation of the above equation to 200C gives an estimate
very close to the literature value of 3890 J kg" 1 K"1.16 Heat capacity decreases
with increasing total solids but normal variations in composition of skim milk should
not cause large differences.379
The variation of heat capacity of whole milk and cream with temperature is more
complex than skim milk because of the effect of milk fat. Milk fat has a heat capacity
of about 2177 J kg"J K"1 and a heat of fusion of about 8.37 Jg" 1 . Over the range
of 50 to 1400C where milk fat is liquid the heat capacity of milk can be estimated
approximately by Eq. IA(P79:
Heat capacity = 2.976 X temperature + 3692
(1.10)
Next Page
to appear turbid and opaque. Light scattering is maximal when the wavelength of
light is near the same magnitude as the particle. Thus, smaller particles scatter light
of shorter wavelengths.16-382"384 Skim milk appears slightly blue because casein
micelles scatter the shorter wavelengths of visible light (blue) more than the red.
The carotenoid precursor of vitamin A, /3-carotene, contained in milk fat, is responsible for the "creamy" color of milk. Riboflavin imparts a greenish color to whey
and its concentration can be measured in whey by its fluorescent emission at 530
nm when exposed to light at 440 to 500 nm.341
Refractive index (RI) is normally determined at 200C with the D line of the
sodium spectrum and is designated 7^0. The refractive index of milk is 1.3440 to
1.3485341 and can be used to estimate total solids (Chapter 3). Contributions of
plasma components to RI are additive. The RI of milk fat is 1.4537 to 1.4552 at
400C but fat globules do not contribute to RI because refraction occurs at the interface
between the air and the plasma.341'385
1.5 Summary
Milk is a very complex liquid consisting of over 100,000 different molecules. It
serves a biological function as the food of the infant mammal and particularly the
milk of the domesticated cow, genus Bos, serves an important role in human feeding
and nutrition. The gross composition of cow's milk is 4.1% fat; 3.6% protein; 4.9%
lactose; 0.7% miscellaneous components including minerals, vitamins, and gases;
and the balance in water. The fat in milk is comprised mainly of triglycerides containing a wide range of fatty acids, which in turn contain a relatively high proportion
of short-chain and saturated fatty acids. The melting range of the fat extends from
37C to -40 0 C. The fat exists in milk in the form of a globule of 3 to 8 /im in
diameter which is coated by a protective membrane. The origin of this membrane is
thought to be the apical cell membrane of the mammary secretory cell. In the raw
state, the membrane acts to protect the milk fat from deleterious reactions such as
the action of lipase enzymes in creating rancidity. However, during processing the
membrane is largely replaced by a layer of amphiphilic molecules that adsorb to the
fat surface. There are many dairy products that derive their structure from milkfat,
including whipped cream, ice cream, and butter.
There are two main categories of milk proteins: the caseins, about 75 to 80% of
the total, and the serum or whey proteins. The four principal casein proteins, a sl -,
a
s2~> -> and /c-casein, are found complexed with tertiary calcium phosphate in a
spherical particle 100 to 300 nm in diameter known as the casein micelle. These
proteins precipitate at pH 4.6. Interactions of micelles are responsible for the formation of structure in many dairy products such as cheeses or fermented products.
The whey proteins, including /3-lactoglobulin, a-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin,
immunoglobulins, numerous enzymes, and the proteose-peptone fraction (see Section 1.2.1.1), are found in the milk serum and are soluble at pH 4.6. Lactose, a
carbohydrate virtually unique to milk, is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. It
has two crystalline forms, a and /3. The a monohydrate form can cause problems in
Previous Page
to appear turbid and opaque. Light scattering is maximal when the wavelength of
light is near the same magnitude as the particle. Thus, smaller particles scatter light
of shorter wavelengths.16-382"384 Skim milk appears slightly blue because casein
micelles scatter the shorter wavelengths of visible light (blue) more than the red.
The carotenoid precursor of vitamin A, /3-carotene, contained in milk fat, is responsible for the "creamy" color of milk. Riboflavin imparts a greenish color to whey
and its concentration can be measured in whey by its fluorescent emission at 530
nm when exposed to light at 440 to 500 nm.341
Refractive index (RI) is normally determined at 200C with the D line of the
sodium spectrum and is designated 7^0. The refractive index of milk is 1.3440 to
1.3485341 and can be used to estimate total solids (Chapter 3). Contributions of
plasma components to RI are additive. The RI of milk fat is 1.4537 to 1.4552 at
400C but fat globules do not contribute to RI because refraction occurs at the interface
between the air and the plasma.341'385
1.5 Summary
Milk is a very complex liquid consisting of over 100,000 different molecules. It
serves a biological function as the food of the infant mammal and particularly the
milk of the domesticated cow, genus Bos, serves an important role in human feeding
and nutrition. The gross composition of cow's milk is 4.1% fat; 3.6% protein; 4.9%
lactose; 0.7% miscellaneous components including minerals, vitamins, and gases;
and the balance in water. The fat in milk is comprised mainly of triglycerides containing a wide range of fatty acids, which in turn contain a relatively high proportion
of short-chain and saturated fatty acids. The melting range of the fat extends from
37C to -40 0 C. The fat exists in milk in the form of a globule of 3 to 8 /im in
diameter which is coated by a protective membrane. The origin of this membrane is
thought to be the apical cell membrane of the mammary secretory cell. In the raw
state, the membrane acts to protect the milk fat from deleterious reactions such as
the action of lipase enzymes in creating rancidity. However, during processing the
membrane is largely replaced by a layer of amphiphilic molecules that adsorb to the
fat surface. There are many dairy products that derive their structure from milkfat,
including whipped cream, ice cream, and butter.
There are two main categories of milk proteins: the caseins, about 75 to 80% of
the total, and the serum or whey proteins. The four principal casein proteins, a sl -,
a
s2~> -> and /c-casein, are found complexed with tertiary calcium phosphate in a
spherical particle 100 to 300 nm in diameter known as the casein micelle. These
proteins precipitate at pH 4.6. Interactions of micelles are responsible for the formation of structure in many dairy products such as cheeses or fermented products.
The whey proteins, including /3-lactoglobulin, a-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin,
immunoglobulins, numerous enzymes, and the proteose-peptone fraction (see Section 1.2.1.1), are found in the milk serum and are soluble at pH 4.6. Lactose, a
carbohydrate virtually unique to milk, is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. It
has two crystalline forms, a and /3. The a monohydrate form can cause problems in
dairy products such as ice cream and condensed milk due to its relative insolubility.
Of the miscellaneous components, milk contains a number of minerals, including
Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cl, citrate, sulfate, phosphate, and bicarbonate; vitamins, mainly A,
the B vitamins, D, E, and K; and acids, including citrate, formate, acetate, lactate,
and oxalate.
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312. McPherson, A. V., M. C. Dash, and B. J. Kitchen. 1984. Isolation and composition of milk fat
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316. McPherson, A. V., M. C. Dash, and B. J. Kitchen. 1984. Isolation and composition of milk fat
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318. Henstra, S., and D. G. Schmidt. 1970. On the structure of the fat-protein complex in homogenized
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319. Dalgleish, D. G., and E. W. Robson. 1985. Centrifugal fractionation of homogenized milks. /. Dairy
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320. Goff, H. D., M. Liboff, W. K. Jordan, and J. E. Kinsella. 1987. The effects of Polysorbate 80 on
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322. Aguilera, J. M., and H. G. Kessler. 1988. Physico-chemical and Theological properties of milkfat
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323. Walstra, P. 1969. Studies on milkfat dispersion. II. The globule size distribution of cow's milk.
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324. Walstra, P. 1969. Studies on milkfat dispersion. HI. The distribution function of globule size in
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325. Walstra, P., and H. Oortwijn. 1975. Effect of globule size and concentration on creaming in pasteurized milk. Netherlands Milk Dairy J. 29:263-278.
326. Walstra, P., H. Oortwijn, and J. J. de Graaf. 1969. Studies on milkfat dispersion. I. Methods for
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327. van Boekel, M. A. J. S., and P. Walstra. 1981. Stability of oil-in-water emulsions with crystals in
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328. Darling, D. F. 1982. Recent advances in the destabilization of dairy emulsions. J. Dairy Res.
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329. Abrahamson, K., P. Frennborn, P. Dejmek, and W. Buchheim. 1988. Effects of homogenization
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330. Ogden, L. V., Walstra, P., and H. A. Morris. 1976. Homogenization induced clustering of fat
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331. Goff, H. D., and W. K. Jordan. 1989. Action of emulsifiers in promoting fat destabilization during
the manufacture of ice cream. / . Dairy Sci. 72:18-29.
332. Brooker, B. E., M. Anderson, and A. T. Andrews. 1986. The development of structure in whipped
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333. Anderson, M., B. E. Brooker, and E. C. Needs. 1987. The role of proteins in the stabilization/
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336. Buchheim, W., N. M. Barfod, and N. Krog. 1985. Relation between microstructure, destabilization
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339. Brooker, B. E. 1985. Observations on the air serum interface of milk foams. Food Microstruct.
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346. Phipps, L. W. 1969. The inter-relationship of the viscosity, fat content and temperature on cream
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349. Cabezas, L., A. Marcos, M. A. Esteban, J. Fernandez-Salguero, and M. Alcala. 1988. Improved
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353. Prentice, J. H. 1978. Freezing point data on aqueous solutions of sucrose and sodium chloride and
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354. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 1970. Methods of Analysis, 13th edit. Washington,
D.C.
355. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 1984. Methods of Analysis, 14th. edit. Washington,
D.C.
356. Richardson, G. H., M. S. Mortensen, and R. G. Crockett. 1978. Quantification of added water in
milk using vapour pressure osmometry. / . Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem. 61:1038-1040.
357. Henningson, R. W. 1969. Thermistor cryoscopic determination of the freezing point value of milk
produced in North America. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 52:142-151.
358. Packard, V., and R. Ginn. 1990. An evaluation of freezing point changes in raw milk analyzed by
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359. Packard, V., and R. Ginn. 1990. A 12-month study of freezing point of regional raw milk supplies
within the State of Minnesota. Dairy Food Environm. Sanit. 10:597-599.
360. Eisses, J., and B. Zee. 1980. The freezing point of authentic cow's milk and farm tank milk in the
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363. Buchberger, J. 1986. Stage-by-stage monitoring of addition of water to milk. Molkerei Zeitung
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364. Bradan, A. E. 1987. Milk conductivity and its use for detection of mastitis. Indian Vet. J.
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50:733-738.
375. Hill, A. R., D. H. Bullock, and D. M. Irvine. 1985. Composition of cheese whey: effect of pH and
temperature of dipping. Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. 18:53-57.
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24:51-67.
378. Watson, E. S., M. J. O'Neill, J. Justin, and N. Brenner. 1964. A differential scanning calorimeter
for quantitative differential thermal analysis. Anal. Chem. 36:1233-1237.
379. Bertsch, A. J. 1982. Specific heat capacity of whole and skim milk between 50 and 14O0C. Lait
62:265-275.
380. Peeples, M. L. 1962. Forced convection heat transfer characteristics of fluid milk products: a review.
/ . Dairy Sci. 45:297-302.
381. Woodams, E. E., and J. E. Nowrey. 1968. Literature values of thermal conductivities of foods.
Food Technol. 22:150-158.
382. Goulden, J. D. S. 1961. Quantitative analysis of milk and other emulsions by infra-red absorption.
Nature 191:905-906.
383. Walstra, P. 1965. Light scattering by milk fat globules. Netherlands Milk Dairy J. 19:93-109.
384. Sjaunja, L.-O., and J. Schaar. 1984. Determination of casein in milk by infra-red spectrophotometry.
Milchwissenschaft 39:288-290.
385. Goulden, J. D. S. 1963. Determination of SNF in milk and unsweetened condensed milk from
refractive index measurements. / . Dairy Res. 30:411-447.
CHAPTER
2
Analyses
Genevieve L Christen
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Introduction, 85
2.1.1 Purpose of Analysis of Dairy Products, 85
2.1.2 Sources of Additional Information, 86
2.1.3 Types of Analyses, 86
Sampling, 86
2.2.1 General Comments, 86
2.2.2 Sampling of Liquid Products, 87
2.2.3 Sampling of Dry Products, 88
2.2.4 Sampling of Butter, 88
2.2.5 Sampling of Cheese, 88
Tests for Milk Composition, 89
2.3.1 Fat, 89
2.3.1.1 Gravimetric Methods, 89
2.3.1.2 Volumetric Methods, 91
2.3.1.3 Automated Methods, 94
2.3.2 Total Solids, 96
2.3.2.1 Drying Methods, 96
2.3.2.2 Lactometer Method, 96
2.3.2.3 Automated Methods, 97
2.3.3 Protein, 98
2.3.3.1 Kjeldahl Method, 98
2.3.3.2 Dye-Binding Methods, 99
2.3.3.3 Automated Methods, 99
2.3.4 Lactose ,99
2.3.4.1 Polarimetric Method, 99
2.3.4.2 Gravimetric Method, 100
2.3.4.3 Enzymatic Method, 100
2.3.4.4 HPLC Method, 100
2.3.4.5 Automatic Method, 100
2.3.5 Ash, 101
2.3.6 Vitamins, 101
2.3.7 Minerals, 102
Tests for Milk Quality, 102
2.4.1 Titratable Acidity, 102
2.5
2.6
Laboratory safety and quality control cannot be ignored. However, detailed discussion of either is beyond the scope of this chapter. Information on both topics
should be gathered before attempting any analytical technique. This information,
along with method selection, are the responsibility of the analyst with the assistance
of management.
2.2 Sampling
2.2.1 General Comments
The results obtained from analysis of any sample are only as good as the quality of
the sample. Incorrect conclusions come from improperly collected or handled samples. Milk and its products are heterogeneous. Care must be taken to ensure adequate
mixing prior to extraction of the sample. Samples change with temperature fluctuations; care must be taken to ensure that the sample is taken at the appropriate temperature and remains at the appropriate temperature until test results are completed.
Sampling is the extraction of a larger approximate quantity of material representative of the whole. The sample usually must be further subdivided by partitioning
into a smaller exact quantity for analysis. The person charged with extraction of the
larger sample must carefully record the necessary information on the sample container, including identification of the sample and date taken. Frequently additional
information may be required including temperature at sampling time, name of person
taking sample, etc. These samples are then transferred to the point of analysis. This
may be as simple as carrying the samples to the laboratory, or as complicated as
storing the samples in appropriate containers and shipping them under appropriate
conditions to a laboratory at some distant point.
Sampling of dairy products is done for several different purposes. The sample
may be needed for chemical, microbiological, or sensory analysis. The end result
determines how the sample is to be taken. Frequently, all three types of tests will be
applied to a sample, so the most stringent specifications should be followed. For
chemical analysis, the container need only be clean and dry to ensure that the sample
is not contaminated with foreign compounds. For microbiological analysis, the container must be clean, dry, and sterile. Frequently, single-use, commercially available
containers are used. For sensory analysis, the container must be clean, dry, sanitized,
and free from odorous compounds.
Exact details on sampling of barrel cheese may be obtained from the National Cheese
Institute (888 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006).
Subsamples are taken following passage of the cheese through a food chopper
three times. Alternatively, the cheese may be cut or shred very finely and mixed.
High moisture cheese samples such as cottage cheese should be in original containers if feasible. Coliform bacteria decrease in number in acid environments so
tests for these organisms should be performed within 24 h after product manufacture.
Samples should always be protected from contamination and stored between 0 and
4.4C. Subsamples of soft cheese which are impossible to grind may be prepared by
homogenizing in a blender. Care should be taken to prevent the sample temperature
from exceeding 250C.
Figure 2.1 Flask, pipette, and drying dish used in the Mojonnier fat determination.
dissolve casein, and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added to help
visualize the interface between the aqueous and the solvent phase. Ethyl alcohol is
added to prevent gel formation when ethers are added. Ethyl ether and petroleum
ether are added separately to dissolve fat. Following addition of each reagent, the
mixture is shaken for a prescribed time in the Mojonnier flask. The flask and its
contents are centrifuged at approximately 600 rpm for at least 30 s to allow phase
separation. Alternatively, layers will separate if allowed to stand for sufficient time.
Once phases are separated, the upper solvent phase is carefully decanted into a
preweighed dish. The analyst must avoid pouring over any of the suspended solids
or aqueous phase. While the second extraction is being performed, the dish may be
placed on a hot plate at 1000C to evaporate the first ether layer. (CAUTION:
ETHER IS EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE. An effective volatile removal system
should be used throughout this procedure.) A second extraction is performed to
remove additional quantities of fat by adding more ethanol and ethers, and repeating
the previous steps. Some high fat products require a third extraction. With this extraction only ethers are added and the previous steps repeated. After the last extraction, the solvents are completely evaporated at <100C to avoid spattering. The
dishes containing the fat are dried completely in a vacuum oven at 70 to 75C under
<20 inches of vacuum until a constant weight is reached (usually slightly more than
7 min). The dishes may be dried in a forced air oven at 102 2C for a minimum
of 30 min. The dry dishes are removed from the oven and placed in a desiccator at
room temperature. Once equilbrated to room temperature, the fat is determined by
weight. Fat percentages are calculated by dividing the weight of the fat by the weight
of the sample and multiplying by 100. Reagent blanks should be run daily and
subtracted from the weight of the fat. Reagent blanks should be from 0 to 0.0020 g
and consistent within batches of reagent. If the blank is <0, errors have been made
and should be identified. If the blank is >0.0020 g, some reagent contains excessive
residue and should be identified and replaced. The same analyst should obtain duplicate results on the same sample within 0.03%. If greater than this, the test
should be repeated.
Figure 22 Babcock bottles commonly found in daily laboratories. (A) Whole milk test
bottle; (B) Skim milk test bottle; (C) Cream test bottle; (D) Paley test bottle.
impact the physical state of the fat. The test mixture should be equilibrated to 38
1C prior to sampling. Specially designed pipettes are used to transfer 17.60 0.05
ml of milk to the bottle with removal of the last drop using a slight air force. Eighteen
grams of milk are transferred based on the volume and the specific gravity of milk.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is added to break the oil-in-water emulsion and to provide
heat to dissolve the fat allowing it to separate by gravity. The specific gravity of the
sulfuric acid is important in controlling the acid/milk reaction temperature. Reference
4 should be consulted for specific instructions on how to adjust the specific gravity
to obtain the desired reaction temperature. If the acid is too weak, the reaction
temperature will be too low and incomplete freeing of the fat will occur, resulting
in low test results. If the acid is too strong, burning of the sample will occur from
too high a reaction temperature, and charred particles will be present in the fat
column that interfere with reading of the results. Other factors that impact the milk/
acid reaction temperature include the amount of acid added, the rate of acid addition
and subsequent swirling, and the temperature of the milk and acid. Person-to-person
differences in technique exist which make it essential to tailor the quantity of acid
added to the technician performing the test.
Following the addition of the acid, the sample and acid are carefully swirled until
the last traces of curd disappear. The samples are then shaken on a mechanical shaker
for at least 1 min after the last bottle is inserted in the shaker. [At this point it is
prudent to include a word of warning about the sulfuric acid. Just as the acid dissolves
the milk protein, it will dissolve human skin (as well as lab coats, shoes, and many
types of countertop materials). Care must be used in handling of the acid. Protective
garments should include rubber gloves, rubber lab apron, and goggles. Care should
be taken to point the bottle neck away from yourself and all others in the lab during
the swirling process. CAUTION: Acid should always be added to milk in the
bottle, not the reverse. Adding aqueous materials to concentrated sulfuric acid
will cause violent reactions which are dangerous.]
When the last sample has shaken a minimum of 1 min, the bottles are transferred
to a heated Babcock centrifuge (600C) where additional heat and centrifugal force
bring the fat to the top of the mixture. Sulfuric acid is much denser than the fat
(approximately 1.83 specific gravity vs. approximately 0.93 specific gravity). The
combined specific gravity of the mixture of sulfuric acid and aqueous components
is approximately 1.43, causing physical separation of the phases.6 Centrifugation
enhances the physical reaction. When the bottles are placed in the centrifuge they
must be counterbalanced. The centrifuge has two rows for bottle placement. Fill the
outer row first, placing the bottles opposite one another in the centrifuge. It has been
the experience of the author that when only two samples are centrifuged, if they are
placed in the inside holders, the necks of the bottles break during centrifugation,
leaving a lost test and a mess to clean. The first centrifugation is for 5 min, the
centrifuge stopped (carefully) and water (600C) added down the side of the bottle
so that it layers underneath the fat, raising it to within 0.6 cm of the base of the
bottle neck. Centrifugation is repeated for 2 min and additional hot water is added
to raise the fat column into the graduated portion of the bottle. The final centrifugation is for 1 min. The bottles are transferred into a water bath where the fat column
is adjusted to 57.5 1C and tempered a minimum of 5 min. The water level in
the bath should be slightly above the top of the fat column. The volume of fat is
determined using calipers placed at the top and the bottom meniscus of the fat column
and carefully transferred so that the lower point rests on the zero mark and the upper
point rests somewhere within the calibrations of the column. The fat content is read
directly in percentage to the nearest 0.05%.
Other fluid products are tested similarly to milk with some modifications. Products such as chocolate milk, ice cream mix, ice cream, and other frozen desserts that
are high in sugar must be handled differently due to the tendency to char.7 Ammonium hydroxide and normal butyl alcohol are incorporated into the reaction mixture
to improve the results. These reagents are also added to improve fat recovery with
cottage cheese samples. Skim milk, low-fat milk, buttermilk, and whey have normal
butyl alcohol included in the reagents to aid in obtaining a fat column free of charred
material. Roccal solution (a 50% concentrate of benzalkonium chloride, U.S.P.) may
serve as a wetting agent to prevent charring of chocolate milk, skim milk, buttermilk,
and whey samples.4
Although not as widely applied in the U.S. as the Babcock test, the Gerber fat
test method is an official alternative first action method of the AOAC5 as well as
being described in SMEDP.4 It is a volumetric test procedure and is applicable to
raw, pasteurized, homogenized, and composite milk samples. It is also used for low-
fat milk and skim milk and as an in-plant control test for frozen desserts.4 The Gerber
procedure is used on a much wider scale in the international community.
Figure 2 3 Equipment for the automatic determination of fat and protein in milk at the TN
DHIA Services Laboratory, Knoxville, TN.
methods. Triglycerides of differing numbers of carbons each have three ester linkages but have different weights. When carbon groups are measured, the variation in
weights is taken into account and the method better correlates with the gravimetric
procedure. The specific absorption of other components will be discussed under those
sections. Like the instrument for measuring fat by turbidity, calibration is the key to
successful results.
Energy of the desired wavelength is created by passing an IR beam through an
optical filter. The filtered beam passes through the milk sample and unabsorbed
energy passes on to the filter. The amount of energy absorbed is proportional to the
concentration of the component in the sample. The IR beam is also passed through
an optical filter which transmits energy at a wavelength where there is minimal
absorption by the component. This beam passes through the milk and on to the
detector. The two signals are compared at the detector and the concentration of the
component determined. Scattering by components in the milk impact the amount of
energy reaching the detector. Degree of homogenization of the sample, either before or during analysis, may impact the results due to variation in scattering by the
sample.4
It is essential that the interior of the instrument remain dry because moisture can
cause changes in optical zero and a shift in calibration.5 Desiccant should be changed
on a daily basis and 3 to 4 h prior to the next use. Calibration should be performed
with the type milk that is to be analyzed; mixtures of milk and cream should not be
used. Abnormal milks should also not be used for calibration. As with all procedures,
it is the analyst's responsibility to ensure that the instrument is working properly, as
malfunctions that affect calibration can cause large errors.5
pending on the solids-not-fat and the fat content. To determine total solids using a
lactometer, fat content must also be determined. The lactometer is a specially designed weighted instrument that is calibrated in specific gravity units. Reference 4
specifies two types of lactometers, large and small; the choice depends on the type
of milk being tested. The lactometer is allowed to float freely in the milk and specific
gravity is read at the top of the meniscus after the lactometer has come to rest.
Readings should be repeated to ensure accuracy by withdrawing the lactometer just
enough to wipe the stem then slowly immersing it. The cylinder containing the milk
should be of sufficient capacity to allow free movement of the lactometer and allow
it to float in the milk.
Specific gravity is affected by temperature. Therefore, the sample and the lactometer should be at a constant temperature. Cylinders containing the milk should be
equilibrated in a water bath held at 39 1C and deep enough to bring the water
level to within 5 cm of the top of the cylinder. Temperature of the milk should be
recorded at the time of specific gravity determination. The lactometer should be
maintained in the 39C bath (a minimum of 3 min) before immersion, removed just
prior to the test, and wiped dry.
The lactometer is read in increments of 0.2 or 0.5 units and values fall within the
range of 24 to 37. These values are converted to specific gravity by including 1.0
before the lactometer reading. For example, if the lactometer reading were 32.5, the
specific gravity would be 1.0325.
The lactometer degree value read directly from the lactometer is used along with
the percent fat from the Babcock test to calculate total solids using Eq. 2.1 for whole
milk or Eq. 2.2 for skim milk.
% total solids
(2.1)
% total solids
(2.2)
2.3.3 Protein
2.3.3.1 Kjeldahl Method
The Kjeldahl method of protein determination has been the standard method for
determining total nitrogen in foods and feeds since 1883.4 It remains the standard
method for determination of protein in milk and all other methods must correlate
with it. However, because of the time, expense, and skill required to perform Kjeldahl
analyses, it is not routinely done in dairy laboratories. It is essential that it be described here, though, due to its importance as a standard method.
All proteins contain nitrogen. Most food proteins contain 15.7 to 18% nitrogen
with 16% commonly given as the average.9 Analysis of nitrogen content can be
converted to give an estimate of percent protein. The Kjeldahl procedure cannot
differentiate between protein nitrogen and nonprotein nitrogen; thus, for samples
that are extensively proteolyzed, protein content will be overestimated. Nonprotein
nitrogen varies from farm to farm and ranges from 2 to 10% of the total nitrogen
content.10"12 AOAC has recently adopted a new method for determining true protein
in milk that accounts for the nonprotein nitrogen component.13
Traditionally, Kjeldahl nitrogen is determined by digestion of a weighed portion
of milk by heat and sulfuric acid. Mercury is used as a catalyst although alternative
catalysts posing less of a danger to the environment are under investigation. Carbon
and hydrogen in the sample are oxidized; protein nitrogen is reduced and transformed
to ammonium sulfate. Concentrated sodium hydroxide is added in the second step:
the distillation step. With heat, ammonium is liberated and collected as condensate
in a standard acid solution (boric acid). The quantity of nitrogen liberated is determined by back-titration using an acid-base indicator. Complete details for performance of the Kjeldahl method on milk are provided in ref. 4.
The Kjeldahl method is the official final action method for protein determination
accepted by IDF-ISO-AOAC.5 As mentioned previously, nonprotein nitrogen content is included in traditional protein determinations. True protein content is important to cheesemakers because nonprotein nitrogen is lost in whey. Milks high in
nonprotein nitrogen are less valuable to cheesemakers. Although few cheese laboratories perform Kjeldahl nitrogen tests, many now analyze milk for total composition using instrumental methods. Calibration of these instruments is very important.
If the instrument is calibrated to include nonprotein nitrogen, all test results will be
high. Therefore, use of a procedure that excludes nonprotein nitrogen in standardization of the instrument is appropriate. At the 104th AOAC Annual International
Meeting, a method was accepted as official first action in which trichloroacetic acid
precipitates protein nitrogen from milk.13 Nitrogen content of such a precipitate will
represent the true protein content of milk. At the time of the writing of this chapter,
this method was not officially accepted to be used for calibration of instruments,
although it appears that it may be in the future.
There are many adaptations of the Kjeldahl method available on the market speeding digestion, distillation, or titration. Any technique that enhances speed or im-
2.3.4 Lactose
mination of lactose by polarimetry has long been the official final method. 5 Other
components of the milk first must be removed via precipitation and filtration. Lactose, in a clear filtrate, is introduced in the polarimeter cell (two different sizes) and
degree of rotation is measured. The quantity of lactose is calculated from the rotation
of the two quantities by formula.4
2.3.5 Ash
The ash component of milk is small and is composed primarily of minerals. Ash is
the material that remains after the organic material is removed by very high heating.
Because the sample is exposed to very high heat (550 0 C) for an extended period
(12 to 18 h), choice of ashing crucible is important. AOAC 5 specifies platinum
crucibles for ash determination of milk. It is the best choice of materials, but expensive; thus should be handled with care. Platinum dishes can corrode, especially in
the presence of dirt-containing organic matter. Corrosion from heavy metals can lead
to pitting and hole formation. Platinum crucibles should be touched with platinumtipped tongs and placed, after ashing, on clean porcelain or marble surfaces.9 Care
should be taken in cleaning the crucibles and mechanical washing should be avoided.
In the ashing procedure, approximately 5 g of sample is weighed into a predried,
preweighed platinum dish to the nearest 0.0001 g. The sample is evaporated to
dryness on a steam bath. Once free moisture is removed, the crucible containing the
sample is transferred to an ashing oven at 550 0 C and ignited until the ash is completely free of carbon. The crucible containing the sample is cooled in a desiccator
and weighed. The percent ash is calculated as the weight of the ash divided by the
weight of the initial sample multiplied by 100. Total solids determination can be
combined with ash determination by heating for 3 h in a drying oven, cooling in a
desiccator, and recording the dry weight prior to transferring the sample to the ashing
oven. If the two procedures are combined, platinum dishes should be used for total
solids determination and a 5-g sample used.5
2.3.6 Vitamins
Milk serves as an important source for vitamins A and D. Although whole milk is
naturally adequate in vitamin A, vitamin D content is enhanced through addition at
time of processing. Low-fat milks are low in vitamin A and it must be restored to
original levels. Because these nutrients are added to milk, processors, regulators,
and consumers are concerned that they be present in the specified amount. Recent
changes in nutritional labeling laws require that the quantity of these and other
nutrients be specified on the label. Therefore, determination of these two vitamins
is important to the dairy analyst. The method of choice for determination is HPLC. 4
Equipment costs and ease of analysis are such that HPLC has become almost routine.
Vitamin A is extracted from room temperature milk using absolute ethanol and
hexane combined with centrifugation. Addition of water to the mixture helps in
separation of the aqueous and organic phases. On centrifugation, a hexane top layer
forms containing the vitamin A. An aliquot from this layer is injected into a HPLC
system equipped with a LiChrosorb Si 60 column. The eluting sample is detected
by an absorbance detector with an adjustable wavelength of 313 to 325 nm. Peaks
are recorded and quantified compared to a standard of retinyl palmitate in hexane.
Vitamins D 2 and D 3 can also be measured by HPLC although the procedure is
more complex. 4 The sample first must be saponified and any nonsaponifiable constituents extracted. Then cholesterol is removed from the sample by precipitation.
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2.3.7 Minerals
The ash content of milk serves as an approximation of the total mineral content of
milk. For quantitation of individual minerals in milk, atomic absorption spectrophotometry is the method of choice. Calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, sodium, and potassium may be determined on the same sample by changing
the wavelength and flame conditions.5 The sample is predried at 1000C, ashed at
525C for 3 to 5 h, and cooled. The ash should be white and free of carbon (grey
particles indicate the presence of carbon). Wet ashing is not recommended as potassium is lost in this process. The sample is diluted in nitric acid (1AO and analyzed
in the atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Calibration curves must be prepared for
each mineral. Blanks must be prepared for all reagents and glassware and carried
through the entire process as mineral contamination can occur at any point. Special
care must be given to the quality of water so as not to cause contamination. All
glassware must be cleaned by soaking overnight in 20% nitric acid and rinsed three
times with distilled-deionized water.
Chloride can be determined by titration with silver nitrate (Mohr method).4 Chloride meters are available commercially that automatically titrate chloride ions with
silver ions generated internally. When titration is complete, conductivity of the solution increases which can be sensed by electrodes causing the titration to stop. The
instrument uses the elapsed titration time to calculate the chloride content.4
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2.3.7 Minerals
The ash content of milk serves as an approximation of the total mineral content of
milk. For quantitation of individual minerals in milk, atomic absorption spectrophotometry is the method of choice. Calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, sodium, and potassium may be determined on the same sample by changing
the wavelength and flame conditions.5 The sample is predried at 1000C, ashed at
525C for 3 to 5 h, and cooled. The ash should be white and free of carbon (grey
particles indicate the presence of carbon). Wet ashing is not recommended as potassium is lost in this process. The sample is diluted in nitric acid (1AO and analyzed
in the atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Calibration curves must be prepared for
each mineral. Blanks must be prepared for all reagents and glassware and carried
through the entire process as mineral contamination can occur at any point. Special
care must be given to the quality of water so as not to cause contamination. All
glassware must be cleaned by soaking overnight in 20% nitric acid and rinsed three
times with distilled-deionized water.
Chloride can be determined by titration with silver nitrate (Mohr method).4 Chloride meters are available commercially that automatically titrate chloride ions with
silver ions generated internally. When titration is complete, conductivity of the solution increases which can be sensed by electrodes causing the titration to stop. The
instrument uses the elapsed titration time to calculate the chloride content.4
per milliliter are necessary to produce detectable developed acidity.6 Common spoilage organisms in today's milk supply, (psychrotrophic bacteria) do not produce lactic
acid, so will go undetected by this method.
Titratable acidity is useful in cultured product manufacturing, where acid development is encouraged, yet controlled. Specifications exist for titratable acidity values
expected during various stages of the cheese-making process. Although lactic acid
is not the only acid present in fermented milks, it predominates and is used as the
basis of calculation of acidity. Either a 9- or an 18-g sample is pipetted (using pipettes
calibrated to contain 9 or 18 g of milk) into a beaker or white-interior titration
casserole. Two volumes of water are used to rinse completely the pipette into the
container. Dry samples can be analyzed by weighing accurately the prescribed
amount of sample and suspending it in water. For most samples, phenolphthalein is
added (0.5 ml) and the sample titrated to the first permanent (30 s) color change to
pink with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide. The concentration of indicator will impact the
results, thus should be a constant amount. Also impacting the results are the amount
of dilution of the sample, the speed of titration, the amount of indicator, and the
temperature of the sample. Therefore, all samples should be titrated as quickly as
possible at room temperature using exact amounts of sample, diluent, and reagents.4
The normality of the sodium hydroxide must be determined exactly (0.1000 AO using
standard acid titration. Alternatively, prepared sodium hydroxide is available from
chemical supply houses. However, it is good lab practice to confirm the normality
of such products occasionally. Some sample may be too dark to accurately observe
the phenolphthalein endpoint. Such samples should be titrated to a pH of 8.3 using
a standardized pH meter and probe.
Formulas are available in ref. 4 for calculation of acidity expressed as percent
lactic acid for various products. Each milliliter of 0.1000 N sodium hydroxide used
in the titration is equivalent to 0.009 g of lactic acid. Specially designed titrators are
available that provide percent titratable acidity directly based on this relationship
(Fig. 2.4).
Sodium hydroxide tends to adsorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When
carbon dioxide is dissolved it produces an acid. Normality may decrease during
storage and should be verified periodically.
If more exact quantities of citric or lactic acid are desired, AOAC5 provides
methods for determination of each. Citric acid is determined by a gravimetric method
whereas lactic acid is determined by a colorimetric method. Both methods are quite
complicated and not applicable to routine analysis.
Titratable acidity is related to the pH of the product. Frequently pH measurements
are determined because the method is nondestructive and rapid. The most critical
part of pH determination is the condition of the pH-sensing electrode. Electrode tips
are made of special hydrogen-sensitive glass. If the tip is scratched or clogged,
improper results will be recorded. Standardization of the pH meter is also important.
Follow pH meter manufacturer's instructions for proper standardization. Standards
covering the range of pH values expected should be used daily to check and standardize the instrument. Preferably, premixed standard buffer solutions within code date
are used. Temperature causes changes in pH; therefore measurements should be at
Figure 2.4 Titration unit used for the determination of titratable acidity in milk and milk
products.
the same temperature as the standardizing buffer. Dairy products contain fat and
protein that clog the electrode. Care must be taken to clean carefully the electrode
as described by the manufacturer. Electrodes should be stored in potassium chloride
solution when not in use, unless it will be several months between uses, in which
case the electrode should be stored dry. Reference 4 gives an excellent description
of problems of and solutions to electrode maintenance.
Liquid samples can be measured directly; dry samples need to be rehydrated.
Cheese samples must be uniform, obtained by first blending or grinding. The sample
is packed into a small container to ensure good electrode contact. The pH of butter
is determined only on the serum (aqueous) phase, obtained by melting the butter and
sampling the lower phase.
and is recorded. The instrument must be standardized using 7 and 10% (w/v) sucrose
solutions which freeze at 0.406 and 0.5980C, respectively. Alternatively, sodium chloride solutions may be prepared. Salt solutions have an advantage over
sucrose because they are not as subject to microbial decomposition and are stable
for a longer period of time. However, freshly prepared sucrose solutions are the
preferred standards.
Percent added water can be estimated from the freezing point based on the commonly held relationship that for each 1% of water added to milk, the freezing point
increases above the baseline by 0.010C. This presumes that the true baseline temperature is known or can be determined. Generally, if the freezing point of a sample
of known origin differs from that of a suspect sample by ^0.0100C, the sample is
considered to be water-free.
Samples that fail to freeze may have a high solids content caused by high acid,
or they may be contaminated with cleaner or sanitizer.4 Samples high in bacteria or
somatic cells may continue to supercool.4
2.4.3 Sediment
Sediment is the insoluble portion of foreign material that gets into milk from cows,
equipment, or the environment. Because most foreign material is soluble, milk that
is found to be free of sediment is not necessarily "clean." Milk that contains a large
amount of sediment was most likely collected under unsanitary conditions. The
sediment test is usually performed in the laboratory on a known volume of milk. Inline procedures are available for qualitative assessment of sediment. The in-line
method is a screening test to be used during pumping of raw milk from farm bulk
tanks to raw milk transport tanks and not as a substitute for laboratory analysis on
a fixed volume of sample. Reference 5 gives a formula for preparation of coarse
standard sediment disks that combines cow manure, garden soil, and charcoal each
of specific mesh size and in specified proportions. Standard sediment disks are available from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Standardization Branch, Dairy Division or commercially.
Because sediment is insoluble, it is distributed heterogeneously and most tends
to settle to the bottom of the container. Sampling is extremely important to obtain
proper results. Choice of sampling method depends on container type. Off-bottom
samplers are available for 5- and 10-gal cans. For retail containers, the sample is
extracted after thoroughly mixing the container. One-pint or one-gallon samples are
used, again depending on the container size. Care should be observed not to introduce
extraneous material in the sampling process.
The sample is poured into the sediment testing apparatus containing a cotton
sediment pad. Vacuum (limited suction only) is applied below the sediment pad and
milk pulled through the pad. Flow rates vary depending on fat content or clumping,
previous heat treatment, high acidity, abnormal milk, freezing, and amount of sediment. If the sample does not need to be salvaged, it can be diluted with water to
speed filtration. While still wet, the pad is mounted on special-sized paper or stored
in individual, transparent, waxed envelopes. Amount of sediment is determined by
comparing to standards and character by microscopic examination.
Determination of sediment in cheese provides useful information on conditions
during production. However, simple preparation of a cheese slurry is not possible
because casein prevents passage through the filter pad. 18 Natural cheese samples are
ground and dispersed in sodium citrate solution whereas processed cheese samples
are dispersed in a solution of pepsin and phosphoric acid. Samples are heated for
1 h at <60C, as heat-coagulated protein will not pass through the filter pad.
2.4.4 Antibiotics
cillus subtilis was the organism of choice but in recent years, assays have been
developed that rely on Bacillus stearothermophilus inhibition. Growth inhibition can
be both qualitative and quantitative. These methods are specific for (J-lactams but
most have been collaboratively studied only for penicillin.19 The basis for microbial
inhibition procedures is the presence of clear zones on an agar plate medium to
which bacterial spores have been seeded. The sample to be assayed is placed on the
surface of the agar, either on filter paper disks or in stainless steel cylinders. After
incubation for the appropriate time, zones are measured (to the nearest 0.1 mm) with
calipers. For quantitative determinations, zones of known amount of penicillin are
determined and compared to the sample. Several samples are tested on the same agar
plate. The depth of the agar is important to the sensitivity and reproducibility of the
method. A thin layer is more sensitive than a thick layer. The plates must be allowed
to solidify on a perfectly flat surface so that the agar is the same thickness throughout.
Penicillinase ((i-lactamase) is an enzyme that specifically inactivates penicillin. It is
added to the sample to confirm the presence of penicillin. If a zone of inhibition is
present after the milk is heated to 82C for 2 min and treated with penicillinase,
another inhibitor and not penicillin is present.
In the qualitative B. stearothermophilus var calidolactis disc assay method a
control containing 0.008 IU penicillin/ml is tested on each agar plate, varying the
location on the plate. This reference gives a zone of inhibition of 16 to 20 mm. Plates
are incubated at 64 2C for about 2.5 h. If the zone of inhibition around the disc
containing untreated milk is <12.7 mm, the sample is presumed to be free of inhibitory substances. If the heated milk has a zone of > 12.7 mm but the penicillinasetreated milk has no zone, the milk is positive for penicillin. If the zone sizes are
equivalent from all sample treatments, inhibitors other than penicillin are present. If
penicillinase treatment reduces the zone of inhibition but does not reduce it to zero,
penicillin and other inhibitors are present. If there is no zone around the heat-treated
milk but a zone was present initially, a heat-labile inhibitor may be present. This
disk assay method has been used to successfully detect minimum penicillin G residues of 0.005-0.008 U/ml, as well as ampicillin, cephapirin, and cloxacillin.5 Agar
medium should not be kept more than 30 days at 0 to 4C after sterilization. Once
plates are poured, they should be used within 5 days and should be stored at 0 to
4C in the petri dish plastic sleeve so as to prevent desiccation.
Quantities of (J-lactam antibiotic residue within 0.003 IU/ml of a reference
standard containing 0.016 IU/ml can be quantified in a similar manner.5 The penicillin standard is prepared in inhibitor-free milk and both the sample and the reference are heat treated. It is essential that the standard reference milk sample and the
unknown sample be treated identically during heating. Plates must be incubated
immediately after introducing samples at 64 2C for exactly 2 h and 45 min.
Temperature and time are especially important for quantitative determination of inhibitor. Zones of inhibition between the reference and the sample are compared using
a t test. A t value of > 1.860 indicates with 95% confidence that the sample contains
more than 0.016 IU/ml of penicillin. If the t value is 1.860 or less, but there is a
zone of inhibition around the sample, it is reported to contain 0.016 IU/ml of
(5-lactam or less. If there is no zone of inhibition around the sample, the results are
reported as "(3-lactam negative."
The fact that B. stearothermophilus var. calidolactis produces acid during growth
is utilized in a commercially available procedure (Delvotest; GB Fermentation
Industries, Inc., Charlotte, NC).23'24 Bromcresol purple dye changes from purple to
yellow in the absence of p-lactam inhibitors. If inhibitors are present, the bacteria
do not grow and produce acid; there is no change in the indicator. Test kits are
available for individual samples or for multiple sample analyses. In the multiple test
kit, one plate contains 96 test wells. A plate can be subdivided by the analyst into
six blocks each with 16 cups. Positive (0.008 or 0.010 IU/ml) and negative controls
are prepared with inhibitor-free milk. Samples and controls are added to the ampule
or block of cups and incubated at 64 2C for exactly 2 h and 45 min. Colors are
read through the agar for individual ampules or from the bottom for multitest units.
Samples giving a purple color to all or part of the solid medium should be confirmed
to contain penicillin by heat-treating and penicillinase treatment. Each new lot of
ampules or test kits should be checked prior to use to determine the exact time of
incubation. Occasionally some kits require longer than 2.75 h for complete change
to yellow in the negative control or complete purple in the positive control. The
exact time required for each lot must be determined and used for all tests performed
with that lot. The multitest procedure does not work well with chocolate milk because
chocolate interferes with color reading.
A host of inhibitory substances may be detected with a commercially available
test kit called the BR TEST AS. This method combines agar diffusion and color
reduction techniques, utilizing B. stearothermophilus var. calidolactis spores.25 Drug
residues in excess of the detection limit of the method inhibit metabolism of bacteria
during incubation. When inhibitors are present, test color remains blue. During incubation of inhibitor-free milk, oxidation-reduction reactions within the mixture
cause a change from blue to yellow. The test is useful for raw or pasteurized fluid
milks.
The modified Sarcinia lutea cylinder plate method for detection of penicillin in
milk requires the creation of a standard curve with varying concentrations of penicillin diluted in inhibitor-free nonfat dry milk.19 The basis for the procedure is otherwise similar to the agar diffusion methods using B. stearothermophilus var. calidolactis. One primary difference is that the samples and controls are introduced to
the agar medium by pipetting into stainless steel cylinders resting on the surface of
the agar rather than on filter paper disks. This procedure is sensitive to 0.01 IU/ml
of penicillin.
Figure 2.5 Counting unit for the Charm competitive binding technique. Planchets are
pictured in front of the unit.
prove its sensitivity, accuracy, and expand its selectivity. It was accepted as a final
action procedure for assay of (3-lactams in milk in 1984. 5 The basis for this procedure
is that p-lactam residues have a specific, irreversible affinity for enzyme sites on the
cell wall of microorganisms. In the test procedure, 14C-labeled penicillin and Bacillus
stearothermophilus vegetative cells are combined with the sample. If penicillin is
present in the sample, it competes for binding sites on the bacterial cell wall and
more 14C-label is free in solution. If no penicillin is present in the sample, the labelled
penicillin binds with the cell wall and is removed from solution with centrifugation.
The supernatant fluid is decanted and the bacterial cells containing the bound penicillin are resuspended and transferred to a metal planchet. The planchet is dried and
radioactivity determined in an isotope counting device (Fig. 2.5). Positive and negative controls are prepared and the results from the sample compared to the controls.
Results are available within 15 min and the test is applicable to levels of 0.01 IU
penicillin/ml or p-lactam equivalent.
Many dairy laboratories have converted to the Charm II procedure. This test has
been collaboratively studied and is applicable as a screening procedure for seven
families of antimicrobial drugs. 26 Two different microorganisms are used to provide
necessary binding sites for the seven drug families. Antimicrobial families detected
are p-lactam, tetracyclines, macrolides, streptomycin, novobiocin, sulfonamides, and
chloramphenicol. The method detects biologically active drugs in about 8 min for
one or two families or 15 min for all seven families. Gentamicin can be detected in
a revised version of this procedure but it had not been collaboratively studied at this
time. The Charm II procedure uses a liquid scintillation counting device rather than
a dry sample counter to detect the labeled compound. Normal levels of radioactive
material stored in a testing lab are below the regulated levels for radioactive substances. Most labs do not need a special license to perform usual numbers of this
test. Labeled material may be safely disposed through municipal water treatment
systems with copious amounts of water. The analyst is responsible for ensuring that
levels maintained and disposed are below applicable local and state regulated levels.
A test is also available from Charm Sciences, Inc. that is designed for farm and
small plant testing.19 Reagents are in tablet form; single tests can be easily performed.
The procedure is sensitive to p-lactam antibiotics and all sulfa drugs in raw milk,
milk powder, and pasteurized milk. The equipment is contained within a case for
portability and operates on a 12-V battery.
Another competitive binding method involves the binding of DD-carboxypeptidase (an enzyme) to (3-lactam antibiotics.27 This test is available in a kit as the
Penzyme and Penzyme III procedures (SmithKline Animal Health Products, West
Chester, PA). Enzyme and sample are incubated 5 min at 47 1C, then substrate
[(R)-D-AIa-D-AIa)] is added. Any unbound enzyme is free to react with this substrate.
The substrate is contained in a tablet that produces a yellow color on dissolving.
The mixture is incubated for 15 min at 47 1C. Also contained in the tablet are
reagents necessary to cause the conversion of free D-alanine to pyruvate and H2O2
and produce a color reaction when H2O2 is oxidized. A pink color indicates a negative test, a yellow color indicates an inhibitor residue is present; an orange/yellow
color suggests the possibility of P-lactam residues and the sample should be retested
to verify the result. The test detects P-lactam residues at 0.01 IU/ml in raw milk.
Each new lot of kits should be checked prior to use with penicillin standards. Positive
and negative controls should be run along with all samples.
.13; p = .16). However, there was good correlation between ADV and the concentration of the major free fatty acids in the milks (r = .93; p = .0001) indicating
that ADV does measure fat hydrolysis. Therefore, ADV is a useful measure of
hydrolysis of milkfat but should not be used to predict whether or not the sample
will taste lipolyzed. At present, research is underway to develop a method that will
better correlate with sensory results. Until such method is found, laboratories should
use ADV with caution. Milks exhibiting high ADV have undergone fat hydrolysis
and reasons for hydrolysis should be determined. Actual lipolyzed flavor should be
determined by sensory evaluation.
Another frequently used method for determination of free fatty acids in milk is
the copper soap procedure.32'33 Correlation between the copper soap procedure and
flavor of laboratory-prepared samples was high (r = .82 to .83). The procedure also
compared with ADV with a correlation coefficient of .88 to .90. However, the copper
soap procedure is not sensitive to short-chain free fatty acids34 and may suffer from
the same limitations as ADV. The advantage of the copper soap procedure is that it
is a spectrophotometric method; results are not dependent on the perception of color
change by individual analysts.
2.4.7 Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins are carcinogenic compounds produced by the mold Aspergillusflavus and
other species. The first aflatoxin was'discovered in 1960. Aflatoxin B1 is produced
2.4.8 Pesticides
Pesticides are a necessary part of today's production agriculture. Without their judicious use, much of our food supply would be lost to insects, weeds, or rodents.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged with approval of pesticides
for specific applications at specific levels. Approved pesticides are published in the
Compendium of Registered Pesticides.40 If the compound leaves a residue on a food,
tolerances are established for maximum permissible levels. The Food and Drug Administration is charged with determination of residues in foods. A compilation of
the methods for detection is given in the Pesticide Analytical Manual41 and in Methods of Analysis42
Residues of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are more likely in dairy products
than are those of organophosphates. The hydrocarbon-based pesticides accumulate
in fat and are very slowly metabolized by the bovine. Exposure is cumulative and
residues may persist long after exposure. Organophosphates are metabolized by the
bovine and the metabolites appear in milk and excreta. They are not accumulated in
the fat of the animal. The metabolites are usually less toxic than the original pesticide.
Regulations permit only selected pesticides around dairy animals. Thus, limited contamination occurs and residues usually remain below detection limits of the methods.
Few laboratories performing routine dairy analyses are equipped to perform pesticide
residue determinations. Laboratories with interest in such information usually contract with specialized analytical laboratories. State and Federal regulatory laboratories are equipped to ensure that amounts remain below action levels.
AOAC provides detailed methodology for detection of 60 different pesticides in
foods and water.42 Both qualitative and quantitative determinations are described
based on chromatographic principles. Multiple residues may be detected simultaneously. Generally, the sample requires extraction and clean-up prior to column
chromatography by either gas or liquid techniques. Detection is frequently via mass
spectrometry for complete identification of pesticide residues at ppb levels.
and the milk and reagent mixed by gently rotating in a circular pattern for 10 s. The
reaction must be scored immediately because it changes over time. Between tests,
the paddle is rinsed with water and excess moisture shaken off. The test may vary
from a slight positive or trace amount when only a very slight precipitate forms and
disappears with continued movement of the fluid, to a strong positive when a gel
forms creating a mass that tends to adhere to the bottom of the cup. Reactions are
associated with somatic cell numbers: trace, 150,000 to 500,000; weak positive,
400,000 to 1,500,000; distinct positive, 800,000 to 5,000,000; and strong positive,
>5,000,000. Cell populations in excess of one million are considered abnormal. An
acid-base indicator allows for detection of alkaline or acid milk. Alkalinity frequently accompanies inflammation whereas acidity is rare.
Some precautions in the performance of CMT determinations include use of fresh
milk. Unrefrigerated milk over 12 h old or refrigerated milk in excess of 36 h old
gives unreliable test results. During storage, DNase hydrolyzes the DNA, making it
unavailable for reaction and leading to false-negative results. Mixing of bulk milk
prior to sampling is critical because somatic cells associate with milkfat. Timing is
critical in reading of test results. After 15 s, weak reactions fade. No more than four
tests should be performed simultaneously because it is impossible to make more than
four readings within 5 s. The CMT reagent may vary. Suppliers should be verified
and reagents used within the prescribed time. CMT results cannot be read in inadequate light. Weak precipitation is not evident if lighting is not sufficient.
and forth through the entire length of the tube, making 10 excursions within 8 to
10 s. Vigorous agitation is to be avoided. Temperature control is important and the
samples at the time of inversion should be 24 2C. Within 30 s of initiation of
mixing, the tubes are inverted in the rack. Timing is essential; tubes should be held
in a horizontal position while one waits for the clock to reach a convenient starting
point. The rack should be inverted rapidly but smoothly and held in vertical position
for 15 s. When inverted, the mixture will flow through the orifice in the tube cap.
After 15 s, the tubes are righted, caps removed, and reagent/milk mixture drained in
the tubes for at least 1 min. A measuring device is used to record the length of the
column remaining in each tube. Readings of 21 mm or higher are indicative of
abnormal milk and such tests should be confirmed. Normal milk does not gel but
flows rapidly out of the tube, giving low readings. The size of the orifice will impact
the results as will the size of the tubes. Both should be periodically checked and
tubes discarded if out of specification.
Figure 2.6 Electronic somatic cell counting equipment in use at the TN DHIA Services
Laboratory in Knoxville, TN.
lution of sodium chloride with 12.5 parts of 95% ethanol mixed with Triton X-IOO
(a detergent) and formalin (40% w/v formaldehyde). The mixture is buffered to pH
7.0 with tris-(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane and filtered. The solution is commercially available as Somaton (Coulter Electronics, Inc., Hialeah, FL). The somatic
cells are fixed initially with a solution of formalin containing eosine dye as a visible
indicator of fixation. Somafix is a commercially available fixing preparation (Coulter
Electronics, Inc.). The prepared samples are counted electronically in a calibrated
counting device. Calibration spheres are available commercially. In the automated
procedure, sample dilution, tempering, timing and mixing are incorporated within
the instrument.
There are a number of electronic somatic cell counting methods based on a fluorescent dye technique. The DNA in the cell nucleus reacts specifically with a dye
(ethidium bromide) that fluoresces when excited. The procedure may be automated,
semiautomated, or completely computer-controlled (Fig. 2.6) depending on the
equipment capabilities and funds available for equipment purchase. Regardless of
the degree of automation, each instrument must be calibrated periodically against
the DMSCC. Fresh samples do not give accurate results; therefore, unpreserved milk
must be held at 0 to 4.4C for 24 h but no longer than 72 h before examination.
Preserved milk must be held at least 8 h but not longer than 7 days prior to exami-
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nation. Ethidium bromide solution is very toxic as well as light sensitive. It should
be handled carefully and stored in a light-proof, air-tight bottle for not longer than
60 days. As with the Coulter counter method, fat must be removed using a buffered
detergent mixture. Individual cells are isolated within the instrument and excited by
light, causing the dye to fluoresce. The energy emitted by each nucleus is measured
as an electronic pulse which is then converted to a count representing the number
of somatic cells in the sample. Only somatic cell DNA reacts with the dye reagent
in sufficient quantity to be counted. Intact bacteria will not absorb dye. Dead and
partly degenerated bacteria absorb dye but produce signals of such low intensity as
to be included in the background noise of the instrument.
Factors that interfere with results are insufficient age of samples, inadequate mixing of samples, pipetting errors, loss of ability of cell to absorb dye, and/or degeneration of somatic cells. Cells lose the ability to absorb dye as they age or are exposed
to formalin. Cell degeneration due to bacterial growth, high storage temperatures,
excessive agitation, and freezing is the primary cause of error.
For all electronic cell counting methods, controls should be run at least every
hour during operation and at shutdown to ensure appropriate results. Control samples
are available commercially or may be prepared in the laboratory. They should cover
the entire range of somatic cell counts anticipated and counts should be verified by
DMSCC. Samples that have been previously heated should not be used as controls.43
Previous Page
nation. Ethidium bromide solution is very toxic as well as light sensitive. It should
be handled carefully and stored in a light-proof, air-tight bottle for not longer than
60 days. As with the Coulter counter method, fat must be removed using a buffered
detergent mixture. Individual cells are isolated within the instrument and excited by
light, causing the dye to fluoresce. The energy emitted by each nucleus is measured
as an electronic pulse which is then converted to a count representing the number
of somatic cells in the sample. Only somatic cell DNA reacts with the dye reagent
in sufficient quantity to be counted. Intact bacteria will not absorb dye. Dead and
partly degenerated bacteria absorb dye but produce signals of such low intensity as
to be included in the background noise of the instrument.
Factors that interfere with results are insufficient age of samples, inadequate mixing of samples, pipetting errors, loss of ability of cell to absorb dye, and/or degeneration of somatic cells. Cells lose the ability to absorb dye as they age or are exposed
to formalin. Cell degeneration due to bacterial growth, high storage temperatures,
excessive agitation, and freezing is the primary cause of error.
For all electronic cell counting methods, controls should be run at least every
hour during operation and at shutdown to ensure appropriate results. Control samples
are available commercially or may be prepared in the laboratory. They should cover
the entire range of somatic cell counts anticipated and counts should be verified by
DMSCC. Samples that have been previously heated should not be used as controls.43
B
1
A
2 3
D
4
E
G
Figure 2.7 Schematic of template for counting plates prepared by the spiral plating method.
ibration against SPC, the number counted is converted to bacteria/ml. Counts are
reported as Spiral Plate Count per milliliter (SPLPC/ml) or estimated SPLPC/ml.
If the count in the first segment exceeds 75 colonies, the total count is reported
to be >500,000/ml and is estimated. If the count in an entire wedge is <20, then
all colonies on the plate should be counted. If there are fewer than 20 colonies on
the entire plate, the count is estimated as <500/ml. Plates with irregular distribution
of bacteria should not be counted because this is indicative of a dispensing error.
Likewise, if spreading colonies cover the entire plate, it should not be counted. If
the spreader covers less than one-half of the plate, only the colonies on the welldistributed, spreader-free area should be counted.
The solution to be dispensed on the plate must be free from particles, as these
clog the dispensing stylus. If suspended material exists after blending, the solution
should settle prior to taking the sample. The depth of the agar plate is important and
must be uniform ( 2 mm throughout). The stylus tip touches the surface of the
agar as it moves across the plate and it must do so at a constant angle without digging
into the agar. The agar plates must be at room temperature when plating begins and
the surface free of water droplets but not dried or cracked. As with all techniques,
controls must be prepared to ensure the sterility of spiral plater and media.
the upper film carefully rolled into place, and the sample distributed with pressure
from a plastic spreader. The plates should be placed on a flat surface for even distribution of the sample. The sample is spread over approximately 20 cm2. The gelling
agent solidifies in minutes and the plates are incubated as with SPC. Plates may be
stacked up to 10 high during incubation with the clear side up. The top film helps
to eliminate spreading colonies. When bacteria grow, they reduce the tetrazolium
indicator with differing abilities, giving various shades of red. The film base has
approximately twenty 1-cm squares to aid in counting. Plates are counted and results
reported in a manner similar to SPC.
This method requires dilution of samples; however, laboratories can purchase
prepared dilution blanks, disposable pipettes, and the Petrifilm plates. Minimal
space is required and an autoclave is unnecessary. Petrifilm plates take up much
less space than do standard petri plates; thus incubator space is less, as is the volume
of material to be disposed following the test. The initial cost of the plates may be
higher, but if one considers labor savings, the final cost is less per sample.
hydrophobic lines in a grid pattern. The bacteria are filtered onto the membrane (0.45
jxm pore size) using vacuum. The membrane is transferred onto the surface of agar
medium and nutrients diffuse through the membrane, providing energy for bacterial
growth. The plates are incubated as with SPC and counted.
Samples containing paniculate material must be prefiltered. Raw milk and skim
milk may be diluted and filtered directly through the hydrophobic grid membrane.
Other fluid products must be pretreated with an enzyme solution to remove colloidal
material and allow for filtration.
Tryptic soy-fast green agar is dispensed in 18-ml portions into 100 X 15 mm
petri dishes. The surface of the medium must be dry when the membrane is applied.
The membrane is aseptically applied with a rolling motion to prevent the entrapment
of air bubbles between the agar and the filter.
Colonies on the surface of tryptic soy-fast green agar will be various shades of
green. Counts are made of the number of squares containing one or more colonies
rather than actual number of colonies present. Squares containing colonies are considered positive. The number of positive squares can be converted to a most probable
number by formula taking into account the dilution factor.50
microbial density is so low that the sample cannot be diluted, participate matter may
interfere with plating.67 MPN allows for direct measurement of large quantities of
undiluted paniculate samples. MPN results are less accurate than plating procedures
if pure cultures are used.
MPN is a multiple tube dilution technique. Subsamples of the product are distributed in three or five tubes, at three consecutive dilutions. Ideally, the tubes with
the larger portions will show growth while those with the lowest portion will not. 67
Coliform populations are expected to be low in milk. Therefore, an undiluted sample,
a 1:10 dilution, and a 1:100 dilution are commonly used. One-milliliter portions of
undiluted or diluted sample are placed in tubes containing lauryl sulfate tryptose
(LST) broth. In the bottom of the tubes are inverted durham tubes that will reveal
the presence of gas. The ratio of sample volume to medium volume should be maintained at one part sample to ten parts medium. Three tubes for each dilution are used
under normal conditions. However, when the average coliform count is 1/ml, the
distribution is such that about 37% of 1-ml portions will contain no coliforms. Three
tubes at each dilution may not be adequate under these conditions. If five portions
of the same sample are distributed, completely negative results may be expected
< 1 % of the time. 65 Five tubes are preferred when low numbers are expected. Tubes
are incubated for 24 2 h at 35 1C. Turbidity indicates growth; displacement
of liquid in the inverted durham tube indicates gas production. Tubes that are positive
after 24 h should be recorded and confirmatory tests begun. Negative tubes should
be incubated for another 24 2 h and examined. The total number of tubes at each
dilution showing growth after 48 3 h incubation at 35 1C are recorded.
Presumptive MPN is calculated from tables65 and reports expressed as "presumptive
coliform (MPN)*' per gram or milliliter. Coliform bacteria should be confirmed by
transferring a loopful from each positive LST broth tube to 2% brilliant green bile
broth tubes. Gas production after 48 3 h at 35 1C confirms the presence of
coliform bacteria. If required, the test may be completed by streaking on EMB agar
to confirm the presence of typical colony morphology and appearance. Gram stain
should show negative rods.
The VRB agar must be tempered to 44 to 46C prior to pouring plates. Hot VRB
agar may injure heat-sensitive coliforms.
The sample is placed in the center of a sterile petri dish, tempered VRB agar
poured, and the sample and agar mixed. No more than 20 min should elapse between
diluting the first sample and pouring the last plate. The VRB agar and sample mixture
should be allowed to solidify on a flat surface (5 to 10 min). An overlay of 3 to 4
ml of agar is poured on the top of the solidified medium and distributed evenly over
the surface. This overlay prevents the growth of colonies on the surface. Plates are
incubated in an inverted position for 24 2 h at 32 1C. Dark-red colonies
measuring 0.5 mm or more in diameter on uncrowded plates are counted. Preferably
only plates containing between 15 and 150 coliforms are counted. If colonies are
crowded or noncoliforms are suspected, confirmation of lactose fermentation may
be performed as described in the confirmed test under MPN techniques. The test
may be completed as described previously, if desired.
Frequently, processed dairy foods contain injured coliforms and these have difficulty growing under the inhibitory conditions of VRB agar. A modified procedure
may be employed using a pour-plate technique. The sample is first plated in about
10 ml of tryptic soy agar (a noninhibitory medium).65 After solidification, an overlay
of double strength VRB agar is applied (10 ml). The plates are incubated and counted
as previously described. Results are reported as from the modified VRB procedure.
2.6.2.6 Impedimetric
Methods
Coliforms may be determined instrumentally with the same equipment used for
impedimetric determination of total aerobic bacteria. The results are presumptive for
the presence of coliform organisms. The method has been evaluated for raw and
pasteurized milk, cream, and ice cream.72 The sample is initially mixed with coliform
broth medium73 and preincubated for 3 h at 35C. The mixture is shaken and 1.5 ml
transferred into each of two impedance modules. Impedance is monitored during
incubation in the instrument for 24 h at 35C. The broth medium is selective for
coliform growth. As the organisms grow, they produce metabolites that alter the
signal received by the instrument. The greater the number of coliforms present, the
more rapidly the instrument responds to a change in signals. Low coliform populations require longer impedance times. Results are reported as impedance coliform
count per milliliter or gram. Presence of coliforms should be confirmed.
Several hundred samples can be handled by the instrument simultaneously. The
instrument provides printed results that can be labelled as unacceptable, borderline,
or within specifications. When large numbers of samples are evaluated, the instrument is cost effective; the labor involved with counting plates is eliminated.
show gas formation and fluoresce under long-wavelength UV light are considered
positive.
Although Listeria monocytogenes is a psychrotrophic bacteria, it will not be detected by the techniques described above. Special procedures must be followed and
these will be described in the section on pathogenic bacteria.
2.6.4.3 Salmonella
Salmonella are probably the most serious threat to consumers of milk and its products. Salmonella are commonly associated with raw milk but may also enter the milk
supply from human exposure and through contaminated water. Exposure to contamination by other warm-blooded animals, especially rodents and birds, may also serve
as a route of entry. The presence of Salmonella, even in low numbers, can lead to
illness or even death, especially in the very young or very old. Unlike S. aureus,
Salmonella cells cause illness. The cells are inactivated by pasteurization; their presence is indicative of incomplete pasteurization, mixing of raw and pasteurized milk,
or postpasteurization contamination. Like Listeria, Salmonella are difficult to detect
and preenrichment procedures must be used for isolation. Preenrichment generally
should not be performed in a food processing plant. Salmonella has been the subject
of intense study for many years. There is a tremendous body of literature regarding
methods of detection. If the reader is interested in more information than is provided
here, the IFT Food Microbiology Division presented an excellent symposium on the
subject.92
Current methodology for the isolation and identification of Salmonella from foods
consists of five basic steps.93 The first step is preenrichment. In this step, the food
sample is enriched in a nutritious, nonselective medium to allow for repair of injured
cells. For milk samples, preenrichment is usually done in a 1% aqueous solution of
brilliant green dye for 24 2 h at 35C. Brilliant green provides some inhibition.
Some batches of dye are especially toxic; each batch should be tested prior to use
to ensure satisfactory results. The second step is selective enrichment. Portions of
the preenriched sample are transferred to selenite cysteine broth and tetrathionate
broth and both incubated for 24 2 h at 35C. In this step, the sample is enriched
further in a growth-promoting medium containing selectively inhibitory reagents.
Salmonella grow under these conditions but growth of other bacteria is restricted.
The third step is selective plating on solid medium. Growth of bacteria other than
Salmonella is restricted and typical colonies of Salmonella may be identified. A
loopful of culture from each selective enrichment broth culture is transferred to each
of three selective solid media: xylose-lysine-desoxycholate (XLD) agar, Hektoen
enteric agar, and bismuth-sulfite agar. The plates are incubated for 24 2 h at
35C. Salmonella colonies appear differently on each of the selective medium. On
XLD agar, colonies are pink with black centers. Many have large, glossy black
centers or appear to be almost completely black. On Hektoen enteric agar, colonies
are blue-green to blue with or without black centers. On bismuth-sulfite agar, colonies are brown, gray, or black and frequently have a metallic sheen. The latter
medium should be examined at 24 and 48 h because it turns from brown to black
during incubation. The fourth step is biochemical screening. Commercially available
biochemical identification test kits may be used. This step is necessary td eliminate
most organisms other than Salmonella and provides tentative generic identification
of cultures. Finally, the cultures appearing to be Salmonella through the first four
steps are serologically identified to provide specific identification. The final step is
an immunological procedure using antisera to specific parts of the Salmonella organism. This entire procedure requires approximately 1 week to complete.
Because of the importance of Salmonella detection to the safety of foods, procedures that provide information more rapidly than 1 week have been developed.
There are several methods described in ref. 54 for screening samples for the presence
of Salmonella. Most still require preenrichment to achieve populations sufficient to
detect. The following methods were listed by AOAC54 at the time of this writing.
The fluorescent antibody screening method is a microscopic technique which
suggests that Salmonella may be present.94 However, other members of the family
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test is used. The original test for application to dairy products was introduced in
1933.103 It has undergone many subsequent changes for increased rapidity, sensitivity and accuracy. At present, three basic adaptations are popular and these will be
presented.
Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme found in milk naturally. The quantity varies
with season, breed of cow, stage of lactation, and milk yield.104 The enzyme is
inactivated at time and temperature combinations just above those necessary to inactivate non-spore-forming pathogenic microorganisms. The quantity of enzyme
present may be easily assayed using one of several colorimetric methods. Properly
pasteurized milk will be negative for phosphatase immediately following heat treatment. Reactivation of the enzyme has been observed in products stored at temperatures above 4.4C for extended periods. Certain microorganisms contaminating the
product postpasteurization also have been found to produce phosphatase. Previously
these were thought to be more heat resistant than milk phosphatase. However, heat
resistance of microbial phosphatase is variable depending on the type of microorganisms. Because of this variability, the alkaline phosphatase test has limited application in some cheeses where microbial phosphatase is present. Application of the
phosphatase test to cream and butter must be done with caution. Reactivated phosphatase is a particular problem in these products. Phosphatase is inactivated by the
acid environment of buttermilk and yogurt; hence, the method has limited usefulness
in such products.
Phosphatase cleaves ester linkage of phosphate-containing substrates when incubated at proper temperature and pH. Substrates have been found that produce a
color on hydrolysis. The amount of color is proportional to enzyme concentration.
At present three substrates are popularly used.
Disodium phenyl phosphate has been used for the longest period.105"107 When
alkaline phosphatase acts on this substrate at pH 9.8 0.2, phenol and sodium
phosphate are released. The phenol may be visualized by reacting with 2,6-dichloroquinone chloroimide and copper sulfate. Indophenol is produced; it is blue. This
reaction is the basis for the Scharer rapid phosphatase test.108 This test procedure is
very sensitive. Trace amounts of phenol from other sources will interfere with the
test results. All glassware, stoppers, and reagents must be phenol-free. Stoppers and
glass-washing detergent are primary sources of phenolic compounds. Glassware
must be thoroughly cleaned and rinsed. It should be protected from contamination
during storage.
A second substrate is dicyclohexylamine phenolphthalein monophosphate.109
When this substance reacts with alkaline phosphatase at pH 10.15, phenolphthalein
is released. At the pH of the reaction, phenolphthalein will be pink. This procedure
is commonly known as the Rutgers phosphatase test and is used for screening purposes only.
A third substrate is fluorophos R (Advanced Instruments, Inc., Needham, MA).
When reacted with alkaline phosphatase at pH 10.0 0.05, fluoroyellow is released.110'111 Fluoroyellow is highly fluorescent and its rate of production may be
monitored continuously over a short interval with a fluorometer (excitation at 439
nm; emission at 560 nm). The method is applicable to a wide variety of dairy products but each must be calibrated separately.
Positive and negative controls should be performed for all methods. Each may
be adapted- for measurement of microbial or reactivated phosphatase. For specific
details on methods, ref. 104 should be consulted.
% salt =
[(ml X Af AgNO
3) - (ml X W KSCN)] X 0.0355 X 100
E
grams of sample
(2.5)
in the titration curve115). Percent chloride is calculated using Eq. 2.7 and percent
sodium chloride (salt) is calculated using Eq. 2.8.
^ .,
HiIAgNO3 X WAgNOJ3 X 0.0355 X 100
% chloride =
^grams of sample
(2.7)
,
ml AgNO3 X N AgNO3 X 0.0585 X 100
% salt =
grams of sample
(2.8)
Chloride may also be titrated automatically with silver ions generated coulometrically from a silver electrode.4 When a constant direct current voltage is applied
across a pair of silver electrodes immersed in a dilute sample, silver ions are released.
Chloride ions in the sample precipitate as silver chloride. On titration of all chloride
ions, excess silver ions cause the conductivity of the mixture to rise. Electrodes sense
the rise in conductivity and stop the titration. Quantity of chloride ions present is
directly proportional to the elapsed titration time. As with previous methods, chloride
ions must be released from the cheese matrix with nitric acid. Moisture content of
the sample must be known because it contributes to the dilution volume. The instrument must be checked daily for accuracy in calibration using a known chloride
standard. Lack of reproducibility is most commonly due to dirty electrodes in the
instrument or inaccurate pipetting.4
sium dichromate in a boiling water bath. The tubes are cooled and thiobarbituric
acid is added. The tubes are returned to the boiling water bath. After 10 min, the
tubes are removed, cooled, and absorbance determined at 532 nm. Concentration of
sorbic acid is determined from a standard curve.
(2.9)
overrun % =
volume of ice cream (volume of mix + volume of flavor)
;
T^
;
TTt
10
(2.10)
overrun % =
volume of ice cream (volume of mix + volume of flavor)
volume of plain mix
(2.11)
overrun % =
overrun % =
weight of 1 gal flavored mix weight of 1 gal ice cream
weight of 1 gal ice cream
(2.13)
overrun % =
Equation 2.13 X
X 100
:
volume of plain mix
(2.14)
among the various components that give us the products we recognize. It is only
through sensory analysis that we can evaluate the many interactions among components. Sensory evaluation is the ultimate test for acceptance of milk and its products. Sensory evaluation cannot measure the amount of fat, although we can perceive
the richness of high fat milk, and the watery mouth-feel and bluish color of skim
milk. Neither can sensory evaluation determine the number of psychrotrophic microorganisms in the milk. We can, however, detect their activity by a bitter taste or
fruity odor. Quality may also be impacted by hidden characteristics such as vitamin
A content or presence of aflaxtoxin or pesticides. Again sensory evaluation cannot
provide us with much information regarding these characteristics. Sensory evaluation
is a category of food quality of its own merit. It provides the producer and processor
with a guide to the consumer acceptance of the food. Milk may meet regulations in
regard to fat content, be free of antibiotics and pesticides, and have low numbers of
bacteria, but if the cow has consumed onions prior to milking and that flavor transfers
into the milk, it will be unacceptable. At present, we have no better way to detect
defects such as this except by sensory evaluation.
Evaluation of sensory properties is affected by personal preference. Every individual does not respond to stimuli in the same manner. Complicating the matter even
further, every individual does not respond to the same stimuli in the same manner
on all occasions. With training and experience, individuals develop skills that help
to overcome variations. Sensory evaluation must be done in such a manner that the
results are statistically valid. Frequently, in the dairy industry we rely on evaluation
by someone who has always done the evaluation with no verification that they are
responding to the correct stimuli. Use of reference samples and participation in
training sessions with known samples is most useful to be certain that what one
person calls rancid, for example, is the result of the same reaction that some one
else calls rancid.
Problems with sensory evaluation procedures should not prevent the dairy industry from using sensory evaluation frequently at all levels of production, processing,
and distribution. It is the best tool we have to measure the final quality of our
products. However, we need to use the tool correctly to be certain that the results
produced are not misleading. One of the biggest problems with sensory evaluation
is bias. In training students for dairy products judging team, the author has experienced that all too often novices cannot perceive a defect until told it is there. This
same bias may enter into product evaluation if not careful. When looking for a defect,
it can frequently be found; or conversely, if we hope the defect is not there, it
probably will not be. For this reason, sample preparation should be so as to avoid
associating sample identification with a particular lot, producer, or production run.
Chapter 3 specifically addresses sensory evaluation of dairy products. The dairy
industry has a long history of product evaluation. Let it not forget that it is ultimately
the sensory characteristics that sell its products.
2.9 Summary
This chapter has addressed the many methods of analyzing milk and its products.
Every possible method has not been addressed. Methods most commonly found in
dairy laboratories have been addressed in some detail. The choice of method depends
on the desired results. The analyst, with the aid of management, is charged with the
responsibility of selecting the method best suited to their needs. Milk and its products
are analyzed for chemical composition, physical characteristics, microbiological
quality, and sensory characteristics. Each is a measure of the quality of the product.
Results obtained from any analysis are no better than the quality of the sample.
Sampling must be done so as to be representative of the whole.
Tests for milk composition include those for fat, total solids, protein, lactose, ash,
vitamins, and minerals. Traditional and automated procedures have been described.
Tests for milk quality include those for titratable acidity, added water, extraneous
material, antibiotics, acid degree value, sanitizers, and aflatoxins and pesticides.
Tests for abnormal milk include the California and Wisconsin mastitis tests and
somatic cell counts.
Microbiological quality may be evaluated by many different techniques. Total
aerobic plate count gives an indication of total microflora and is the standard of
acceptance for raw and pasteurized milks. Coliform bacteria give an indication of
sanitary quality of milk. Properly pasteurized milk should have a very low coliform
count. A variety of methods exist for determining coliforms in milk. Specific spoilage
microorganisms found in milk and its products include psychrotrophic bacteria, those
capable of growing in refrigerated milk; lipolytic bacteria, those that degrade milk
fat; and proteolytic bacteria, those that degrade milk protein. Yeasts and molds and
spore-forming bacteria may also cause spoilage of dairy products. Milk and its products are good vehicles for pathogenic microorganisms. Listeria, S. auerus, and SaImonella are often associated with raw milk. Each bacteria is heat sensitive; if found
in pasteurized product an error has occurred in processing. Volume II, Chapter 5,
provides additional information on the microbiology of milk and its products.
Several selected analytical techniques for dairy products were described. Tests
for assurance of adequate pasteurization are especially important given the growing
attention to food safety. Methods to quantify total solids and salt in butter and cheese
as well as sorbic acid in cheese were described. Standards for overrun in frozen
desserts are legally specified. Methods for determining overrun in the plant and on
finished product were described.
Finally, the relationship between sensory evaluation and chemical and microbiological tests was briefly discussed. Detailed information on sensory evaluation is
available in Chapter 3.
not as dramatic, during the next century. As we learn more about the molecular
structure of compounds, we will likely see increased use of DNA probes as tools to
analyze materials specifically of interest. Computer-integration of processing and
analytical results will likely increase. As increasing amounts of data become available, the only way it can be managed is with computers. Robotics have entered the
laboratory environment. This will likely continue, especially for repetitive actions.
Equipment will likely be down-sized as space becomes more valuable. Laboratories
will require more educated employees to handle the sophisticated equipment and
masses of computer-based data. Educational institutions need to prepare graduates
to meet the challenges of the future by developing logical thinking abilities and
computer skills, along with technical knowledge and scientific facts.
2.11 References
1. Grace, V., G. A. Houghtby, S. E. Barnard, and J. Lindamood. 1985. Sampling dairy and related
products Chapter 4. In G. H. Richardson, (ed.), Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy
Products, 15th edit., American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
2. Blattner, T. M., N. F. Olson, and D. W. Wichem. 1985. Sampling barrel cheese for moisture
analysis: comparison of methods. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 68:718-721.
3. Helrich, K., ed. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th edit. Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, Arlington, VA.
4. Bradley, R. L., Jr., E. Arnold Jr., D. M. Barbano, R. G. Semerad, D. E. Smith, and B. K. Vines.
1992. Chemical and physical methods. In R. T. Marshall (ed.), Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy Products, 16th edit., Chapter 15. American Public Health Association, Washington,
D.C.
5. Richardson, G. H. 1990. Dairy products. In K. Helrich (ed.), Official Methods of Analysis, 15th
edit., Chapter 33. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA.
6. Campbell, J. R., and R. T. Marshall. 1975. The Science of Providing Milk for Man. McGraw-Hill,
St. Louis, MO.
7. Arbuckle, W. S. 1986. Ice Cream, 4th edit. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
8. Atherton, H. V., and J. A. Newlander. 1977. Chemistry and Testing of Dairy Products, 4th edit.
AVI, Westport, CT.
9. Pomeranz, Y., and C. E. Meloan. 1987. Food Analysis Theory and Practice, 2nd edit. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
10. Szijarto, L., D. A. Biggs, and D. M. Irvine. 1973. Variability of casein, serum protein and nonprotein nitrogen in plant milk supplies in Ontario. / . Dairy Sci. 56:45-51.
11. Bruhn, J. C , and A. A. Franke. 1979. Regional differences in nitrogen fractions in California herd
milks. / . Dairy ScL 62:1326-1328.
12. Franke, A. A., J. C. Bruhn and C. H. Lawrence. 1988. Distribution of protein in California milk
in 1983. J. Dairy Sci. 71:2373-2383.
13. Barbano, D. M., J. M. Lynch, and J. R. Fleming. 1991. Direct and indirect determination of true
protein content of milk by Kjeldahl analysis: collaborative study. /. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem.
74:281-288.
14. Aurand, L. W., A. E. Woods, and M. R. Wells. 1987. Food Composition and Analysis. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
15. Kleyn, D. H., and J. R. Trout. 1984. Enzymatic-ultraviolet method for measuring lactose in milk:
collaborative study. / . Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 67:637-640.
16. Shipe, W. F. 1956. The use of thermistors for freezing point determinations. J. Dairy Sci. 39
(Abstr.): 916.
17. Pensiripun, K., E. C. Campbell, and G. H. Richardson. 1975. A vapor pressure osmometer for
determination of water in milk. J. Milk Food Technol. 38:204-207.
18. Spicer, D. W., and W. V. Price. 1938. A test for extraneous matter in cheese. / . Dairy Sci. 21:1-6.
19. Bishop, J. R., G. F. Senyk, and S. E. Duncan. 1992. Detection of antibiotic/drug residues in milk
and dairy products. In R. T. Marshall (ed.), Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy Products, 16th edit., Chapter 12. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
20. Abraham, E. P., E. Chain, C. M. Fletcher, H. W. Florey, A. D. Gardner, N. G. Heatley, and M. A.
Jennings. 1941. Further observations on pencillin. Lancet 241:177-189.
21. Loo, Y. H., P. S. Skell, H. H. Thomberry, J. Ehrlich, J. M. McGuire, G. M. Savage, and J. C.
Sylvester. 1945. Assay of streptomycin by the paper-disc plate method. / . Bacterioi 50:701-789.
22. Vincent, J. G., and H. W. Vincent. 1944. Filter paper disc modification of the Oxford cup penicillin
determination. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 55:162-164.
23. Kelley, W. N. 1982. Qualitative ampule and multitest for beta-lactam residues in fluid milk products: collaborative study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 65:1193-1207.
24. Pater, B. 1977. A collaborative study of the Delvotest-P method to detect low concentrations of
penicillin in milk. / . Food Prot. 40:23-24.
25. Muller, F. J. 1988. Sulfonamide residues in milk. Dtsche. Molkerei Zeitung 42:1322-1325.
26. Charm, S. E., and R. F. Chi. 1988. Microbial receptor assay for rapid detection and identification
of seven families of antimicrobial drugs in milk: collaborative study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem.
71:304-316.
27. Knight, A. H., N. Shapton, and G. A. Prentice. 1987. Collaborative trial of the Penzyme assay: a
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CHAPTER
3
Sensory Evaluation
of Dairy Products
Lynn V. Ogden
3.1 The Senses, 158
3.1.1 Introduction, 158
3.1.2 Taste, 159
3.1.3 Smell, 162
3.1.4 Sight, 163
3.1.5 Hearing, 165
3.1.6 Touch, 166
3.2 Sensory Evaluation Techniques, 166
3.2.1 Introduction, 166
3.2.2 Affective Testing, 168
3.2.3 Discrimination Testing, 170
3.2.4 Descriptive Analysis, 171
3.3 Application of Sensory Analysis to Dairy Products, 174
3.3.1 The Philosophy of Judging of Dairy Products, 175
3.4 Descriptive Sensory Defects of Dairy Products, 175
3.4.1 Fluid Milk and Cream, 175
3.4.2 Cottage Cheese, 185
3.4.3 Butter, 198
3.4.4 Ice Cream and Related Products, 214
3.4.5 Cheese, 229
3.4.6 Cultured Products, 243
3.4.7 Yogurt, 254
3.4.8 Dry Milk, 267
3.5 References, 274
Taste Pore
Epithet
Microvilti
Sensory cells
Synapse
Perigemmal
cell
Basal cell
Supporting
cell
Neural afferencies
id
Figure 3.1 A human taste bud and its structure and innervation. The microvilli of the sensory
cells protrude into a fluid-filled space in the taste pore. Only two afferent fibers are drawn,
while actually about 50 fibers branch within just one taste bud, which has its cells (about 40
to 70) assembled like the slices of an orange. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 7.)
nated as DL. The minimum amount of stimulus that results in correct recognition of
the quality of the stimulus is the recognition threshold. The magnitude of stimulus
above which increases in intensity are not detected is the terminal threshold.3 The
subjective measurements are the verbal or written information obtained from the
taster whereas the objective measurements are obtained by measuring the frequency
of action potentials of neurons. The RL is the weakest stimulus intensity that results
in a change in frequency of action potentials and the DL is amount of stimulus
change that produces a frequency change of the action potentials of a neuron.6
Taste and smell are chemical senses in that the organs that sense taste and smell
respond to chemical stimuli. Sight, hearing, and touch are physical senses responding
to physical stimulation such as electromagnetic radiation, sound waves, and contact
or pressure.
3.1.2 Taste
Taste receptors are flower-bud-shaped groups of 30 to 70 sensory cells at different
stages of maturity plus basal and supporting cells (Fig. 3.1) located on moist surfaces
in the oral cavity and pharynx. A fluid-filled pore is lined with microvilli that are
attached to the ends of the sensory cells. Each of the active sensory cells in the taste
bud have microvilli that are exposed to the pore. The cells of the taste bud are
Figure 3.2 Taste papillae on the human tongue from surface and sectioned view. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 9.)
innervated with about 50 afferent nerve fibers.7'8 Most of these taste buds are on the
tongue, usually on the surface of or in the folds around papillae (nipplelike protrusions) (Fig. 3.2). There are four types of papillae. The filiform papillae are most
numerous, with about 1000 on the surface of the tongue. No taste buds are associated
with them. About 7 to 14 vallate papillae each about 5 to 7 mm in diameter are
located in a V-shaped line between the anterior surface and the base of the tongue
(Fig. 3.3). As many as 200 taste buds are located in the vallated ditch around each
papillae. About a hundred fungiform papillae, 3 mm high and 0.3 to 2 mm in diameter, are located over the surface of the tongue except for an area in the center.
Fungiform papillae may have several taste buds on their surface but half of the
fungiform papillae have no taste buds associated with them. Foliate papillae are
located on the side edges of the tongue. Each person has 15 to 20 of these papillae
with about 10 taste buds each (Table 3.1). 10 A few taste buds not associated with
papillae are located on the soft palate, pharynx, and larynx embedded in the mucous
membrane.11
The four qualities that can be sensed by the taste receptors are sweet, sour, salt,
and bitter.5 Different areas of the tongue vary in sensitivity to these qualities. Bitter
is best sensed on the back of the tongue, the sides of the tongue are most sensitive
to the sour taste, and sweet and salty are best sensed on the tip of the tongue (Fig.
INNERVATED BY:
N. lingualis
(tngeminus. N. Y..
Chorda tympani.N.Ml
v.
SWEET
SALTY
fungiform papillae
SOUR
filiform
papillae
BITTER
foliate
papillae
vallate
papillae
"Tonsilla
lingualis"
I= bottom
or base of
the tongue I
N.glossopharyng.( N.IX)
N. vagus ( N. X. N. laryng. sup.)
Figure 3 3 Scheme of the tongue surface showing the distribution of the taste papillae, the
innervation, and the areas of maximal sensitivity for each taste quality. (Reproduced with
permission from ref. 10.)
Table 3.1
Circumvallate
(P. vallatae)
Foliate
Number of
Papillae
Taste Buds
per Papilla
Taste Buds in
AU Papillae
8-12
(7-14)
15-20
100-200
1000-1500
=-10
150-200
0-4
300-400
(P.foliatae)
Fungiform
-100
(P.fungiformes)
Filiform
(P. filiformes)
=-1000
Olfactory nerve
Trigeminal
nerve
Trigeminal
nerve
Figure 3.4 A representation of the lateral wall of the human nasal cavity showing the nasal
turbinates and distributions of olfactory and trigeminal nerves. (Reproduced with permission
from ref. 13.)
3.3). Taste receptors are able to sense multiple qualities but they are somewhat
specialized in that they respond better to some qualities than others.10
Some individuals are taste-blind to some qualities. Blakesly and Fox demonstrated that approximately 30% of subjects are blind to the bitter taste of phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and the lack of taste acuity for that quality is an inherited trait.12
They also demonstrated taste-blindness for other substances.
3.1.3 Smell
The sense of smell in man results from stimulation of chemoreceptors on the olfactory and trigeminal nerve systems. The olfactory epithelium is located in the dorsoposterior or upper rear of the nasal cavity (Fig. 3.4) and is yellow in color as
opposed to the pink color of the respiratory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is
covered with cilia that extend into the mucous layer. Four types of cells make up
the tissue: receptor neurons, microvillar cells, supporting cells, and basal cells (Fig.
3.5). A ciliated protrusion of the receptor neuron at the mucosal surface is called the
olfactory knob.15 The microvillar cells also appear to be sensory neurons with microvilli extending into the mucosal layer.14 The basal cells give rise to new receptor
cells. Bowman's glands below the olfactory epithelium secrete mucous through ducts
to the mucosal layer. The supporting cells also secrete fluid.16 Volatile odorant molecules smaller than 400 MW dissolve in the mucus before reacting with the receptor
Cilia
Mlcrovllli
Olfactory
knob
Mlcrovillar
ceil
Olfactory
receptor
neuron
Supporting
cell
Basal cell
Lamina
Axon
propria
Figure 3.5 A representation of the structure of the human olfactory epithelium. (Reproduced
with permission from ref. 14.)
cells.17'18 The axons of the olfactory receptor neurons from each nasal cavity travel
through the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb in the brain.19-20 This olfactory
system is very sensitive, responding to very low concentrations of some chemicals.
A typical threshold for allyl mercaptan is 107 molecules per milliliter. It is also very
discriminating. A trained perfumer can distinguish 150 to 200 odor qualities.21 Because the olfactory tissues are out of the mainstream of nasal airflow, odorants reach
them by turbulent eddies that are maximized by "sniffing." Odor sensations are not
noticed when the breath is held. To enhance the sense of smell, a subject must
" s n i f f air that has been in contact with the food. It also helps to move air out
through the nose while food is in the mouth.5
The trigeminal nerves respond to chemical irritants such as ammonia, ginger,
horseradish, onion, chili peppers, and menthol. Sensations experienced in the mucosa
of the mouth and nose include coolness, heat, and pungency. Usually the concentrations required are much higher than those required by the olfactory system, but it
is difficult for subjects to separate trigeminal sensations from olfactory and gustatory
ones.
3.1.4 Sight
Vision is an extremely important component of sensory perception of foods. Attractive appearance of dairy products enhances acceptability. Colors are almost inseparably associated with flavors. Coloring some flavors atypically makes recognition
difficult.
The eye is a complex instrument complete with a clear cornea to protect the iris
and lens, a clear liquid called the aqueous humor between the cornea and the lens,
an adjustable lens that focuses an image on the retina at the back of the orb, an iris
Optic array
. Fovea
Blind spot
Pupil
Cornea
Lens
Iris
Optic nerve
Retina
Retinal image
Rod
Retina
Cone
Light
Connective
cells
Figure 3.6 The eye, showing the lens, retina, blind spot, and optic nerve. The fovea is a
small region, central in the retina, that is highly sensitive to detail and consists entirely of
cones. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 22.)
to adjust the amount of light falling on the retina, and a clear liquid medium called
the vitreous humor through which the light passes from the lens to the retina (Fig.
3.6). The retina, which covers much of the back of the eye, contains rods which
detect 400 to 700 nm light and cones which are sensitive to the wavelength of light
enabling us to see color. When the rhodopsin pigment in the rods is exposed to light,
it produces a nerve impulse as it is chemically changed. Color vision of the cones
is explained by the Young-Von Helholtz theory that three types of receptors are
present each of which is sensitive to one of the primary colors. Stimulation of the
three receptors at different relative intensities results in color sensation. Impulses
from the rods and cones travel through the optic nerve to the brain where the sensation is perceived and interpreted.22"24 Cone vision is trichromic and the color of
any light can be matched by mixing red, green, and blue monochromatic primary
light in a suitable blend of intensities. 25 There is also an opposing mechanism in
which green is opposite red, blue is opposite yellow, and black is opposite white. 26
Modem colorimeters use these three coordinates to define the hue (color), value
(lightness), and chroma (saturation) of the light coming into the eye from an object. 27
The eye adapts to the level of light supplied by constriction or dilation of the pupil
and adjustment of the sensitivity of the retina.23 It also adapts to the wavelength.
When the eye is exposed to bright monochromatic light, sensitivity to that hue is
suppressed and it begins to appear more dull. When this occurs, a white surface will
appear momentarily to be the opposite hue. For example, after several seconds of
exposure to bright blue it will begin to appear more dull. At a glance, white will
momentarily appear to be yellow.
Appearance of objects will be affected by the extent to which objects transmit,
diffuse, or reflect light. Clear materials allow light to pass through them (water).
Auricle
Cartilage
Mastoid Ceils
Malleus
Semicircular
Canals
Incus
Vestibule
Vestibular N
Facial N
Cochlear N
Internal
Auditory
Canal
Cochlea
External
Auditory
Canal
Round
Window
Stapes
Drum
Membrane
Mastoid Tip
Cross Section of
Eustachian Tube
Figure 3.7 A semidiagrammatic drawing of the ear. (Reproduced with permission from ref.
29.)
Colored clear materials absorb some wavelengths of light and alter color (colored
gelatin dessert). Translucent materials allow the passage of light but diffuse it (fruit
juices) and opaque materials reflect diffused light (milk) and may absorb some wavelengths to alter color (cheese). Some light may be reflected to the eyes without
diffusion, resulting in highlights and giving a glossy appearance.79
3.1.5 Hearing
A diagram of the human ear is shown in Figure 3.7. Vibrations carried through air
or through the bones of the head cause the eardrum or tympanic membrane to vibrate,
and the vibrations are transmitted via the small bones in the middle ear to the inner
ear where the vibrations are converted to hydraulic motion in the fluid of the cochlea.
The spiral-shaped cochlea is divided along its length by the basilar membrane and
the vestibular membrane. Numerous hair cells are located along the basilar membrane. The vibrations cause the basilar membrane to move as a traveling wave. That
motion stimulates the hair cells, causing them to send impulses to the brain. The
impulses travel along the auditory nerve to the brain. In an adult the detectable
frequency range is 30 to 15,000 Hz but the most sensitive range is 500 to 4000
Hz. 30 ' 31
When crisp or crunchy foods are consumed, it is expected that the sounds that
are generated will be an important factor in texture perception of that food. Loudness
and discontinuity of the sound have been established as the two basic criteria for
distinguishing food sounds. "Loud," "snap," and "crackly" were shown to be
related to crispness. Loudness was closely associated with crispness but not so
closely associated with firmness.32 The sound is helpful but not essential to the
perception of crispness. Subjects had no difficulty in judging crispness when a blocking noise was used to mask the sounds and they were able to judge the crispness
accurately when listening to a recording of the sounds. Biting a crisp food gives
auditory and tactile sensations which can both be used to judge crispness.3334 Few
dairy products produce snapping or crunching noises as they are consumed so contributions of hearing to their sensory evaluation are probably minor. Experienced
judges can sometimes determine the number and size of eyes in Swiss cheese by
tapping the outside of the cheese and the amount of free water in "leaky" butter by
the "slushing" sound made as the plug is reinserted into the hole from which it was
drawn.5
3.1.6 Touch
A variety of types of nerve endings are responsible for the sensation of touch. Figure
3.8 shows the free nerve endings in the skin, epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous
tissue. They include the tactile discs, Meissner corpuscles, end bulbs of Krause,
Ruffini endings, Pacinian corpuscles, and the nerve endings around the hair follicle.
These nerve endings are responsible for the "somesthesis" sensations we call touch,
pressure, heat, cold, itching, and tickle. These nerves are sensitive in the mouth, lips,
and tongue, making detection of small forces and pressures easy during eating. Deep
pressure or "kinesthesis" is felt through the nerve fibers in the joints, tendons, and
muscles. They sense tension resistance and relaxation. These nerves in the hand,
tongue, and jaw are used to sense the pressure and tension used to manipulate,
deform, rupture, and masticate food. These nerves combined are very good at distinguishing particle size, crispness, hardness, elasticity, brittleness, fluid viscosity,
and temperature and are significant in our sensory perception of foods.30 The trigeminal nerves which have already been covered and are so important to our taste
and smell could properly be considered part of our sense of touch.
Meissner's corpuscle
Tactile discs Free nerve endings
Sebaceous gland Smooth
Dermis
Epidermis
muscle
Hair
End bulbs of Krause
Duct of Ruffini
ItNMt gland ending
Figure 3.8 Composite diagram of the skin in cross-section. Tactile sensations are transmitted
from the variety of nerve endings, for example, the free nerve endings and the tactile discs
in the epidermis, and the meissner corpuscles, end bulbs of Krause, Ruffini endings, and
pacinian corpuscles in the dermis. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 35.)
Swiss style strawberry yogurt were added. With the exception of a few war years,
the contest has been held annually. Fifty-nine schools have fielded teams with as
many as 33 participating in 1956. 5 ' 37 Several regional collegiate contests are also
held each year. At the high school level, the Future Farmers of America conducts
an annual state and national dairy foods evaluation contest. These have served to
give thousand of students training in the recognition of dairy product defects, their
causes, and control.
Many other food industries have developed their *'expert" tasters resources.
These experts obtained experience through the years and were charged wih the responsibility of determining the material blend or judging the quality of raw materials.
They also judge the quality of finished product and identify sources of problems and
suggestions for correction when the products are less than perfect. These experts
include the perfumers, flavorists, brew masters, wine makers, and coffee and tea
tasters. In most of these industries, such as the dairy industry, scorecards and point
systems have been developed to help set standards.38
With the growth of the food industry and the expansion of product lines within
companies, it has become almost impossible to have dependable expert judges of all
products. It has been necessary to develop sensory evaluation systems that are more
universally applicable. Sensory evaluation of foods in general with methodology
appropriate for either consensus or statistically sound evaluation of foods began to
develop in the 1940s and 1950s at the U.S. Army Quartermaster Food and Container
Institute in Chicago.39'40 Development began also in the private sector. The Arthur
D. Little Company pioneered descriptive analysis by developing a Flavor Profile
Method that uses a consensus of a small group of people who are trained to the
product in a way that is universally applicable. The single expert was replaced with
five or six trained people.41 The University of California at Davis began to offer
courses on sensory evaluation in the 1950s. The literature at that time reflects significant development in the application of sensory evaluation. Discrimination tests
were developed by Boggs and Hansen,42 Girardot et al.,43 and Peryam et al.39 Ranking and hedonic scales began to be used for consumer acceptance information. Committee E-18 of the American Society for Testing Materials, the Food and Agriculture
Section of the American Chemical Society, the European Chemoreception Organization, and the Sensory Evaluation Division of the Institute of Food Technologists
got involved by organizing activities focusing attention on sensory evaluation and
measurement of flavor and publishing information assisting the food industry in
application of the new techniques.40 These methods are all applicable to dairy product evaluation.
Like extremely
Like very much
Like moderately
Like slightly
Neither like nor dislike
Dislike slightly
Dislike moderately
Dislike very much
Dislike extremely
Figure 3.9 An example of the nine-point hedonic scale. The subjects indicate to what extent
they like or dislike the sample by checking a box by the most correct statement.
to rank more than two samples in order of preference. It is important that each sample
is tasted first and last its share of the time to avoid order bias. Analysis of the paired
comparison test utilizes binomial statistics. Tables are available giving the number
of subjects that must prefer one sample given a certain number of participants for
the preference to be significant.46 When ranking is used, tables and formulas are
available showing the rank sum difference required for significantly different ranking
given the number of samples compared and number of panelists used. 47
An effective tool to determine the ideality of easily understood attributes is the
Just-about-right scale. This is the three- or five-point scale with "Just about right"
being the middle response with balanced descriptors of the attribute extremes going
up and down from ideal (Fig. 3.10). Stone suggests two methods of analyzing the
data to determine if each product deviates significantly from ideal and one method
to determine if the samples deviate from one another in ideality.40 One involves
using the binomial table of Roessler et al. (p = 0.5, two-tailed) to determine if the
number of judgments on one side of ideal is more than can be explained by chance.46
The number of nonideal judgments is n and the number on one side of ideal is found
in the column under the appropriate confidence level.
The appropriate type of panelist for all affective tests is a "naive" consumer, one
who has no knowledge of the objective of the comparison or the technology involved
in making the products. The subjects may be screened to be representative of the
demographics of a certain target consumer group. Trained panelists who are used in
descriptive or discrimination tests should not be used because of their analytical
approach which may bias affective judgments.40
sample and two coded samples. One of the coded samples is the same as the reference
sample. The subject is asked to indicate which sample is the same as (or different
from) the reference. In variations of the test, the reference sample may be removed
after it is tasted to force the use of memory for comparison. Reliance on memory
decreases the sensitivity of the test. The same sample may be used as the reference
through the entire test, or each sample may take its turn as the reference. It is important that the order of tasting the two samples be rotated so that each sample is
tasted immediately after the reference with equal frequency. The data are evaluated
using the same formula and tables as for paired comparisons.46 The probability of
being correct on one decision is one in two (p = 0.5) and interest is in one tail
(being right more frequently than can be explained by chance).
The most frequently used discrimination test is the triangle test. It was initially
developed by a beer company.49 In this test, the panelist is presented three coded
samples. Two are the same and one is different. The panelist evaluates all three and
determines which one is different or which two are most alike. This test requires
more tasting than the others. Three pairs are compared in making the judgment.
Again binomial statistics are used to evaluate the results. The probability of being
right by chance (p) in one selection is one in three and it is a one-tailed test (the
probability of being wrong more frequently than is explained by chance is the tail
that is not of interest).40 The table and formula provided by Roessler et al. are used
to determine when the frequency of correct selection exceeds chance.46
Subjects for discrimination tests should like the product, be familiar with the test
procedure, have frequent practice with the test, have a record of exceeding chance
in choosing correctly in previous tests, and have no specific knowledge about the
samples.40 The number of panelists used should be no more than 40 and may be as
few as 12 to 15. Too many panelists will result in significant differences when the
differences are very subtle and of no practical importance. Too few will allow for a
large type II error (finding no difference when difference exists).30'48
It is important to guard against unintended differences. For example, it is easy to
have slight temperature, serving amount, piece shape or size, or color differences
that are not intended. Panelists are playing a game and will look for any clues that
will reveal the different sample. If a conclusion is reached, due to inadvertent hints
that samples are different when they are not, the results can be misleading and
expensive. Further development or costly consumer or descriptive testing may be
mandated.
them. Developing and proving a descriptive panel requires skill on the part of the
leaders, and dedication, time, patience, and attention to detail on the part of panel
leaders and panelists. 30 ' 40 Several methods of descriptive analysis have been developed. Three that represent the development of descriptive analysis and slightly different philosophies are the Flavor Profile, Texture Profile, and Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA).
The Flavor Profile method was developed by Arthur D. Little, Inc. in the late
1940s. A small panel of four to six trained judges analyze a product's perceived
aroma and flavor qualities, and their order of detection, intensity, and aftertaste. They
also assess the degree to which various flavor or aroma characteristics fit together
and their appropriateness in the product and call this characteristic amplitude.41'50
Prospective panelists are screened for their ability to detect and discriminate tastes
and odors. Their interest and availability and ability to work with a group are assessed in a personal interview. Selected panelists are trained with product examples
that represent the extremes of the different qualities that may be encountered. Product
is made with a variety of ingredients and processes to produce a wide variety of
product. In the actual evaluation session, trained panelists first evaluate a product
individually while seated together around a table. The results are reported to the
panel leader who leads a discussion that results in a consensus profile. More than
one sample can be profiled in a session but they are done one at a time without
tasting back and forth. Once a panel is trained, profiles can be obtained easily. 10 ' 40
General Foods developed the Texture Profile method to do for texture analysis
what the Flavor Profile method had done for flavor and aroma. 51 " 53 It was different
from flavor profiling in that the terminology for different texture qualities was
standardized (Table 3.2). The anchors used to standardize the scales were also predefined. Odd numbered categorical scales for each quality were developed. Later
quality descriptors were added for semisolid foods, beverages, 54 ' 55 and skin-feel
products.56 Prospective panelists are screened based on interest, availability, and
attitude. They are further selected on the basis of ability to discriminate known
textural differences in the product to be tested. They are introduced to the principles
involved in the product to be tested. An evaluation of a product after the panel is
trained involves independent evaluation by each panelist using one of a number of
possible scales, then the generation of a panel verdict. The verdict may be obtained
by discussion and group consensus similar to the method for obtaining a flavor profile
or by statistical analysis of the data.
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis was developed to overcome weaknesses in the
descriptive test previously described. It was designed to be responsive to flavor,
aroma, and texture simultaneously, to be applicable to a broad range of products, to
be quantitative in evaluation of panelists' qualifications and in development of profiles, to use a small number of panelists, and to have flexible panel-generated terminology. Subjects are qualified before participation. They must be available and be
users of the product class. They must demonstrate ability to perceive differences
within the class of products and to articulate those differences. The terms used to
describe qualities may be available from previous work. If so, the panel learns and
experiences the definitions of all the qualities. If not, the terms describing the qual-
Table 3,2
Primary Parameters
Hardness
Cohesiveness
Popular Terms
Secondary Parameters
Brittleness
Chewiness
Gumminess
Viscosity
Elasticity
Adhesiveness
Geometrical characteristics
Class
Examples
Primary Parameters
Moisture content
Fat content
Popular Terms
Secondary Parameters
Oiliness
Greasiness
Extremely
weak
Extremely
firm
Figure 3.11 An example of a horizontal line scale used by descriptive panelists to indicate
the strength of a particular flavor or aroma quality. The subjects marks the position of the line
that describes the intensity of the quality.
ities are selected and defined by the panelist as they train. Reference materials that
are examples of the qualities are used to aid in definition of qualities. When evaluating actual product, if new qualities are found, the panel reconvenes to define and
train on that quality. Scales used are horizontal lines of a consistent length with word
descriptors at or near the ends (Fig. 3.11). Intensity always increases from left to
right and the subject marks the line at a position that is appropriate for the intensity
of the quality. Evaluation during training and on actual product is done individually
Aftertaste
Bitterness
Aroma
Malt Flavor
Sweet
Crunch
(final)
Sour
Crunch
(initial)
Figure 3.12 Visual display of the sensory characteristics based on the results of a Quantitiative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) test. For each characteristic, the relative intensity increases
as it goes further from the center. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 40.)
Next Page
newer generally applicable tools are as useful for dairy products as they are for other
foods and are essential when sensory information needs to be quantified for research
purposes. Any treatment of sensory analysis of dairy products without their mention
would be incomplete. The remainder of this chapter, however, will focus on evaluation of dairy products for defects or judging of dairy products. This ability, although
not designed for statistical analysis or research, is still very useful to dairy product
manufacturers, enabling them to recognize defects, identify causes and take corrective action.
Previous Page
newer generally applicable tools are as useful for dairy products as they are for other
foods and are essential when sensory information needs to be quantified for research
purposes. Any treatment of sensory analysis of dairy products without their mention
would be incomplete. The remainder of this chapter, however, will focus on evaluation of dairy products for defects or judging of dairy products. This ability, although
not designed for statistical analysis or research, is still very useful to dairy product
manufacturers, enabling them to recognize defects, identify causes and take corrective action.
Table 3.4
Flavor Criticisms3
Acid
Bitter
Cooked
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
Garlic/onion
Lacks freshness
Light induced (oxidized)
Malty
Metallic (oxidized)
Rancid
Salty
Unclean
Slight
Definite
Pronounced
3
5
8
6
5
9
5
5
8
6
5
5
4
8
3
1
3
8
4
3
8
3
3
7
4
3
3
1
6
1
0b
1
6
1
1
7
1
1
6
1
1
1
0
4
0
points with 10 possible on flavor, three on sediment, five on package, five on bacteria
count, and two on temperature. The electronic score card now used in collegiate
competition in which only flavor is judged is shown in Figure 3.14. The flavor of
milk is usually judged after sediment, closure, and container are judged. This treatment will cover only flavor. For information on how the other factors are judged see
Bodyfelt.5 To best judge flavor, the milk or cream should be tempered to 12.8 to
18C. The judge should swirl the bottle and then smell the milk or cream. Swirling
serves to mix the sample and to spread a fine film on the inside of the container
which gives maximum opportunity for volatiles to fill the headspace. A small amount
of sample should be poured into a clean odorless container. Glass is preferred but
plastic or paper is acceptable. The judge should then take a sample into his or her
mouth, and move it around in the mouth making sure to coat all the surfaces of the
Date:
1
Flavor 10
No criticism
10
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-10
Sediment 3
Package 5
No criticism
5
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5
Bacteria
SAMPLE NO.
4
6
5
Criticism
Score
Acid
Astringent
Barny
Bitter
Cooked
Cowy
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
Garlic/onion
Lacks freshness
Malty
Oxidized light induced
Oxidized metal induced
Rancid
Salty
Unclean
Score
Score
Container bulging/distorted
Dented/defective
Dirty inside
Dirty outside
Leaky
Not full
Closure defective
Coating flaky/cracked
Heat seal defective
Illegiblejjrinting
Labeling/code incorrect
Lip chipped
Cover not waterproof
Unprotected
Score
Standard plate count
Coliform count
Keeping quality
Temperature 2
Temperature (0F or 0C)
Total score of
each sample
Desired
% Fat content (%)
Desired
% Solids not fat (%)
Under/over filled
Titratable acidity
Functional
and other
tests performe:d
on samples
Score
Score
Signatures of evaluators
Figure 3.13 A modified and expanded version of the ADSA milk score card. (Reproduced
from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
M
I PROPER
MARKS
PROPER
MARK
MILK
NCS Tm
i e-Opcti* MP30-73629-321 A2400
SAMPLE NUMBER
WTTER
NO
CRT
IC
IS
I M FEO
10
FLAT
NORMAL
RANGE
1-10
GARUC/0NI0N
MALTY
waomo - Mm*, Mouotft
SAtTY
BODY AND
TEXTURE
NO
CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
Figure 3.14 Collegiate contest milk score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission
of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
mouth from the front to deep in the back down to the throat, noting any off-flavors.
While the sample is in the mouth, airis moved up through the nose to enhance odor
detection. The sample should then be expectorated and a few moments allowed to
observe aftertaste. Aftertaste and aroma sensation are enhanced by exhaling slowly
through the nose. Swallowing sample is not advised. According to Bodyfelt,5 the
flavor of whole milk should be pleasant and sweet and with neither a foretaste nor
an aftertaste other than that imparted by the natural richness. A listing of flavor
criticisms with a scoring guide is shown in Table 3.4. A list of these defects, and
their verbal descriptions, causes, and methods of preparing training samples follows.
Astringent
Description. This sensory defect is actually a tactile sensation. Other descriptive
words used are mouth coating, dry, puckery, chalky, and powdery. It is classified
here with flavor because it is sensed when the product is taken into the mouth. It is
not a common defect in beverage milk. After expectoration, the lining of the mouth
may feel shriveled or puckered.
Cause. Not all the causes are known but it is usually associated with high heat
treatment of milk that has caused some aggregation of milk proteins. A specific
particle size of milk proteins or other milk constituents is thought to be responsible
for the sensation.
Training. Green persimmon or alum are extreme examples of astringency. They
may be used to demonstrate the sensation.
Barny
Description. The flavors ' 'cowy," ' 'barny," and * 'unclean'' seem to be quite alike
but differ in intensity and cause. The descriptive term "barny" is quite accurate,
Bitter
Description. Bitter is a taste sensation with no associated aroma. It is detected at
the base of the tongue. The reaction time is fairly slow so it is most strongly sensed
after the milk is expectorated. The intensity builds and it is hard to rinse away and
refresh the tongue. It seems to be a component of "rancid" and "soapy" flavors.5
Cause. It is generally acknowledged that some protein fragments taste bitter. These
fragments can be produced by enzymatic breakdown of milk proteins. Enzyme
sources in milk are likely psychrotrophic microorganisms that have grown in the
cool milk. Milk that is stored at temperatures at or slightly above 4C for several
days will become bitter if these contaminating organisms are present. Under those
conditions they will grow to large populations and release proteases. Certain weeds
consumed by the cow will also impart bitterness to the milk. Conditions that produce
rancidity may be to blame for bitterness that is a component of rancidity.
Preparation of Training Samples. Traces of quinine dihydrochloride or quinine
sulfate added to milk will give a clean bitter flavor. A 1 % stock milk or water solution
can be made and added at the rate of 1 to 2 ml per 600 ml of milk.5
Cooked
Description. Four kinds of heat-induced flavors have been recognized: sulfurous,
rich, caramelized, and scorched. All are easily identified.58 They are detected immediately as the sample is placed in the mouth and are usually considered to be
pleasant. The sulfurous and rich descriptors are common in milk. The detection of
a cooked egg white smell is characteristic of this defect.
Cause. The mild sulfurous flavor develops when milk reaches 76C to 78C.59 This
is slightly above HTST pasteurization temperatures. Its development is associated
with the breaking of disulfide bonds and the development of conditions that discourage oxidation. The more severe flavors of scorched and caramelized develop at
higher temperatures and by a different mechanism and are not normal in beverage
milk. The heated flavor is what remains after cooked milk is stored cold for a period
of time. Caramelized flavor frequently intensifies and becomes more objectionable
with age.5
Feed
Description. A "feed" flavor is aromatic and sometimes pleasant. After the milk
is expectorated a mild aftertaste of "cleanliness" can be present that disappears
rather quickly, leaving the mouth free of off flavors. Cowy, barny, and unclean
flavors by contrast persist with an accompanying unpleasant or "dirty" aftertaste.
Feed flavor varies with the type of feed consumed. The odor is characteristic of
the feed.5
Cause. High-volume roughage feeds consumed within 3 h of milking impart flavors
and aromas to the milk.5 Silage, some hays, and brewery waste are particularly
notable for this. A change of feed from dry hay to fresh green pasture often initiates
a strong feed flavor in the milk. If 3 h is allowed to pass between consumption and
milking, almost all feed flavors are absent from the milk.5
Preparation of Training Samples. An alfalfa flavor can be simulated by adding
and placing 2 to 3 g of alfalfa hay in 100 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized
milk and holding for 20 min. The milk is then strained through a cheesecloth or
paper towel and used as a stock solution. To 575 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized milk, add 20 to 35 ml of this stock milk solution. Grass or corn silage
can be used to prepare feed flavored milks in the same manner.5
Fermented/Fruity
Description. This defect is detected by its odor which resembles the odor of sauerkraut, vinegar, pineapple, or apple. There will also be an unpleasant flavor that will
linger long after the sample has been expectorated.
Cause. This flavor is often found in bulk raw milk after lengthy storage. Certain
microorganisms such as Pseudomonas fragi and other Pseudomonas species are
among those that produce aromatic fermentation products.60
Preparation of Training Samples. Bodyfelt suggests the preparation of a stock
solution of 1% ethyl hexanoate. About 1.0 to 1.25 ml of this solution is added to
600 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized milk.5
Flat
Description. Flat milk gives a watery sensation or a lack of flavor richness. No
aroma is associated with flat flavor but the lack of sweet and salty notes becomes
apparent immediately as the milk enters the mouth and the subtle thinner mouth feel
may also be notable.5
Cause. Flat flavor is generally caused by dilution with water. It can happen at the
farm or in the plant by allowing too much rinse water to pass into the milk before
it is diverted. Purposeful dilution with water is also possible.
Preparation of Training Samples. To prepare slightly flat samples add 75 to 100
ml of good quality tap water to 500 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized milk.
For definite flat use 110 to 120 ml of water to 485 ml of milk.5
Foreign
Description. The term *'foreign" is used to describe a number of flavors that are
imparted by addition of detergents, disinfectants, and sanitizers to milk. The flavor
is characteristic of the chemical that has been added. The flavors are atypical of milk
and do not develop in milk. In some cases the chemical may be detected by smell
but in others it may not be detected until it is tasted.
Cause. Adding milk to a vat or running milk through piping that has been washed
or sanitized but not rinsed can cause a foreign flavor especially if allowed to comingle
with a considerable amount of liquid containing the chemical. Other possible causes
include treating the udder with ointments or medication, contamination with insecticides, and drenching the cow with chemical treatments.
Preparation of Training Samples. Bodyfelt et al. suggests that a foreign flavor
may be created by adding 3 to 4 ml of twofold vanilla extract to 600 ml of milk and
that a foreign flavor caused by sanitizer can be produced by adding 1.0 ml of a 5%
sodium hyperchloride solution to 600 ml of good quality milk.5 Samples can be
made by adding traces of other nontoxic chemical cleaners and sanitizers to milk at
low concentrations.
Garlic/Onion (Weedy)
Description. These flavors are identified by their characteristic pungent flavor and
aroma and persistent after taste.
Cause. Milk is tainted with these flavors during the warm months when cows are
feeding in pastures that are infested with onion, garlic, or other weeds that impart
these flavors to the milk. They are especially strong when the cows consume these
plants shortly before they are milked.
Preparation of Training Samples. To produce a definite garlic/onion intensity, add
0.15 g of garlic or onion salt or two drops of extract to 600 ml of good quality
pasteurized and homogenized milk. Vary the amounts to get the desired flavor
strength.
Lacks Freshness
Description. This flavor lacks descriptive characteristics. It suggests the loss of
fine taste qualities typically noted in good milk. It is not as pleasantly sweet and
refreshing or as free of an aftertaste as is typically desired in milk. Frequently lowfat milks when compared with whole milk will exhibit this characteristic.
Cause. The ' 'lacks freshness" characteristic is often considered to be early stages
of the development of oxidized or rancid flavor or it could be the beginning of
degradation by psychrotrophic bacteria.
Preparation of Training Samples. This characteristic is often present in milk that
is approaching its pull date about a week and a half to two weeks after processing.
It can also be simulated by addition of 10 to 15 g nonfat dry milk powder to
600 ml of pasteurized and homogenized milk.5
Malty
Description. As is suggested by the descriptive term, this flavor is suggestive of
malt. Malt, which is grain (barley) softened by steeping and allowed to germinate,
has this characteristic flavor. This flavor can be detected by smelling or tasting the
milk and is often accompanied by or is the forerunner of an acid taste.5
Cause. This flavor in milk is usually caused by the growth of Streptococcus lactis
ssp. lactis var. maltigenes bacteria. They grow well when the temperature is allowed
to rise above 18.2C for 2 to 3 h.60
Preparation of Training Samples. This flavor can be easily transferred from malted
cereals to milk. A stock solution is made by soaking 15 g of Grape Nuts in 100 g
of milk for 30 min. The milk is filtered through cheesecloth or a napkin. Thirteen
milliliters of the stock solution is added to 590 ml of pasteurized and homogenized
milk to give a malty flavored milk of definite intensity.
Oxidized (Metal-Induced)
Description. This flavor is a result of lipid oxidation that is induced by catalytic
action of certain metals. Other synonymous terms are metallic, oily, cappy, cardboardy, stale, tallowy, painty, and fishy. It is characterized by an immediate taste
reaction on placing the sample in the mouth and a moderate aftertaste. A puckery
mouth feel characterizes high-intensity oxidized flavors. It is similar to the flavor of
metal foil, a rusty nail, or an old penny.5
Cause. The presence of this flavor usually means that some corrodible metal has
come in contact with the milk. It usually can be traced to a fitting or some piping
that is made of "white" metal. For years, dairy plants and equipment have been
made entirely of stainless steel to avoid the development of this defect. Oxidation
of the phospholipids that were originally in the fat globule membrane is blamed for
the majority of the flavor. Two oxidative products, 2-octenal and 2-nonenal, have
this characteristic flavor at <1 ppm.61
Oxidized (light-Induced)
Description. Synonymous descriptive terms that have been used for this flavor are
burnt, burnt protein, burnt feathers, cabbagey, and medicinal. Some synonymous
terms designating cause are light-activated and sunlight flavor.
Cause. Two reactions are involved in the development of this flavor which develops when milk is exposed to sunlight or fluorescent lights. One is produced by lipid
oxidation as described for metallic oxidized flavor, and the other by amino acid
degradation involving riboflavin. It is proposed that methionine is degraded to
3-methylthiopropanal (methional) by a Strecker degradationlike reaction yielding
ammonia and carbon dioxide.36'62 Methional has an odor similar to that of lightexposed milk. Without riboflavin methional does not develop.36
Preparation of Training Samples. Milk with the light-induced oxidized flavor can
be prepared by exposing milk in clear or translucent containers to bright direct
sunlight for 8 to 15 min. The shorter times will produce slight levels of the defect
and the longer time will give definite and pronounced levels.5 Similarly the flavor
can be produced by exposing milk to bright fluorescent light for 2 to 8 h. Overnight
exposure next to a 40-watt fluorescent light will produce pronounced flavor. Less
intense samples can be prepared by diluting strongly flavored samples.
Rancid
Description. There are several characteristics of rancid off-flavor. There is a characteristic odor derived from volatile fatty acids that have been hydrolyzed from the
fat. Immediately after putting the sample in the mouth, the objectionable flavor may
not be apparent but as the sample reaches the back of the mouth, soapy, bitter, and
possibly unclean flavors are perceived. The soapy and bitter notes reside long after
the sample is expectorated. A high percentage of prospective judges do not detect
or have a high threshold for the soapy and bitter notes.5
Cause. Rancid flavor is usually caused by disrupting the milk fat globule while
active lipase is present. The lipase enzyme, which catalyzes the deesterification of
the fatty acids from the glycerol, is able to get to its substrate when the fat globule
membrane is disturbed. This happens when raw milk is held static in a running
centrifugal pump, when raw milk is homogenized before it is pasteurized, or when
raw milk is inadvertently mixed with homogenized milk. It may also occur when
microorganisms, particularly psychrotrophs, produce and release Upases into homogenized milk.5
Preparation of Training Samples. Rancid milk can be prepared by adding equal
quantities of raw milk to freshly pasteurized and homogenized milk and holding
several hours cold while the flavor develops. Bodyfelt suggests mixing 100 ml of
raw milk with 100 ml of pasteurized and homogenized milk in a Waring blender or
a similar mixer for 2 min, then making it up to 600 ml with pasteurized and homogenized milk. He suggests making it up 2 to 3 days ahead and holding cold while
the flavor develops. In both cases, it is important to heat the milk to 700C for 5 to
10 min and cool after the flavor has developed.5
Salty
Description. The descriptive term "salty" is commonly known and a good term
to describe this flavor. It is perceived quickly on placing the sample in the mouth.
No aroma or odor accompanies the salty flavor. It lends a cleansing feeling to the
mouth.5 The author perceives the salty sensation as "warm" and lacking refreshing
character.
Cause. Cows in the advanced stages of lactation and cows that have clinical stages
of mastitis often have high salt content in their milk and a salty flavor. Comingled
milk seldom has an abnormal salt level nor a salty taste.
Preparation of Training Samples. Add a pinch of sodium chloride at a time to
pasteurized and homogenized milk while stirring to dissolve the salt until it is at the
desired strength.
Unclean
Description. Milk with an "unclean" flavor is readily noted when the sample
enters the mouth. The flavor and odor are offensive, suggesting extreme staleness,
mustiness, putrid, "dirty sock," or spoiled. The flavor fails to clean up after the
milk is expectorated.
Cause. This flavor develops in milk when psychotropic bacteria are allowed to
grow to high numbers in milk and particularly when held at temperatures above
7.2C. The presence of psychrotrophs is usually due to poor on-farm sanitation. High
numbers are generally due to poor bulk tank cooling.
Preparation of Training Samples. To find ' 'unclean'' flavored milk, examine several samples of milk that are beyond their pull date. If the flavor is not found, incubate
them for 4 to 12 h at room temperature and reexamine them. When an exemplary
sample is found, it may be maintained in the refrigerator and used as an inoculum
for production of future training samples.5
3.4.2./ Introduction
Cottage cheese is a curd that is formed by the acid coagulation of pasteurized skim
milk. The acid may be formed by lactic acid bacteria that are added to the milk
which consume lactose and convert it to lactic acid.63 In one successful method, part
of the acid is added to the milk as acid and the rest is added as an acid anhydride
which slowly converts to acid and drops the pH of the quiet skim milk to the isoelectric pH where the curd forms.64 The curd is cut into cubes, cooked to expel the
whey and firm the curd, washed to cool the curd and remove lactose, then salted
and creamed. The cream contains enough fat to bring the final fat content to the
desired level which is commonly 2% or 4%. It is sometimes cultured with lactic
acid fermenting and flavor producing bacteria to add flavor and extend shelf life.
Variations on the process will produce various curd sizes or a curd mass called
''baker's" cheese. These products are held below 40C throughout distribution and
consumed within 2 to 3 weeks.5
Good creamed cottage cheese should have a clean, slightly acidic flavor with a
slight cultured or "diacetyl" flavor. It should be slightly salty sufficient to give a
balanced flavor. The body should have a meaty consistency without being too firm
or rubbery. As the product is masticated, the texture should be smooth. The curd
particles should appear fairly uniform in size and shape without shattered curd. The
cream should adhere to the curd particles and give moderate but not excessive gloss
or sheen.
A listing of defects that can be found in cottage cheese and the resulting score
ranges is shown in Table 3.5. The ADSA contest score card is shown in Figure 3.15
and the Collegiate Contest Scorecard is shown in Figure 3.16.
Cooked
Description. A sulfurous aroma is detected as the product is smelled and may be
sensed soon after the sample is placed in the mouth. The flavor is usually considered
to be pleasant. The detection of a cooked egg white smell is characteristic of this
defect.
Definite
Pronounced
Flavor criticisms8
Acid (high)
Bitter
Diacetyl
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
High salt
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks freshness
Malty
Metallic
Musty
Oxidized
Rancid
Unclean
Yeasty
9
7
9
9
5
9
7
9
9
9
6
5
5
5
4
6
4
7
5
7
7
3
8
4
8
7
5
4
3
3
3
2
3
1
5
1
6
5
1
7
1
7
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
3
4
4
3
4
2
2
2
3
2
3
1
1
1
2
1
2
4
4
4
4
4
2
2
2
3
2
3
0b
1
1
2
1
2
0
Cause. This flavor can originate from high heat treatment of the skim milk before
cottage cheese is made for the creaming mixture that is added to the curd.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Wash the cream from cottage cheese curd
and replace it with half and half that has been heated sufficiently to 8O0C. Salt curd
and cream to taste.
Date:
Flavor
10
Contestant Score
Score
Grade
No criticism
10
Normal range
1-10
Body and
texture
5
Criticism
Acid (high)
Bitter
Diacetyl
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
High Salt
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks freshness
Malty
Metallic
Musty
Oxidized
Rancid
Unclean
Yeasty
Contestant score
Score
Grade
No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Appearance
and color 5
Criticism
Firm/rubbery
Gelatinous
Mealy/grainy
Pasty
Weak/soft
Contestant score
Score
Grade
No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Package
Score
Criticism
Free cream
Free whey
Lacks cream
Matted
Shattered curd
Slimy
Surface discolored
Translucent
Unnatural color
Allowed perfect
in contest
Total score of
each sample
Total grade
per sample
Final grade
Rank
Figure 3.15 The ADSA contest score card for the sensory evaluation of cottage cheese.
(Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
PRCONTESTANT NO DAU
MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
VM NO:TMNCIl <S*tVf
PROPER
M
I PROPER
MARK
MARKS
COTTAGE
CHEESE
COOKED
NO
CRITICISM
FEtO
10
RAT
NORMAL
HtGHACtD
RANGE
1-10
BODY A N D
TEXTURE
NO
OELATWOUS
CRITICISM
5
OVERSTABIUZED
KWJUgcfoTSl
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
A N D COLOR
NO
FREE WHEY
CRITICISM
5
MATTfO
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
Figure 3.16 Collegiate contest cottage cheese score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with
permission of the ADSA, Champaign, EL.)
Diacetyl
Description. Diacetyl is a pleasant and desirable ' 'buttery" flavor in cottage cheese
and cultured products. This description is for situations where the flavor overpowers
acidity and other flavor and aroma notes.
Cause. This results when Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis var. diacetylactis or Leuconostoc sp. has grown better or faster than the lactic culture so that excessive flavor
and aroma components have been produced.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Slight or definite cottage cheese can be
simulated by adding 0.1 or 0.2 ml of food grade diacetyl to 400 g of creamed cottage
cheese.5 A stock solution of diacetyl in milk can be made to make measurement
easier.
Feed
Description. Feed flavor in cottage cheese is a result of feed flavor in the milk
from which it is made or the milk from which the creaming solution was made. A
"feed" flavor is aromatic and sometimes pleasant. After the cottage cheese is expectorated a mild aftertaste of "cleanliness" can be present that disappears rather
quickly, leaving the mouth free of off-flavors. Feed flavor varies with the type of
feed consumed. The odor is characteristic of the feed.5
Cause. High-volume roughage feed within 3 h of milking impart aromas to the
milk. Silage, some hays, and brewery waste are particularly notable for this. A
change of feed from dry hay to fresh green pasture often initiates a strong feed flavor
in the milk. Almost all feed flavors disappear if 3 h is allowed to pass between
consumption and milking.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Half and half can be treated to have a feed
flavor as described in the section on milk and cream. The treated cream can be added
to creamed cottage cheese or to washed curd. A little salt may be needed to give a
typical salt flavor level.1
Fermented/Fruity
Description. A "whiff" of a freshly opened package of cottage cheese with this
defect will be suggestive of pineapple, apples, bananas, or strawberries. The taste
will confirm those qualities but coming on late may be an unpleasant, lingering
aftertaste.
Cause. Some psychrotrophic bacteria produce these characteristic aromatic compounds. The package will be near its sell-by date or will have been stored at slightly
elevated temperatures.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of 1 Vi tsp of banana or pineapple
yogurt to 400 g of cottage cheese will simulate fermented/fruity flavor. Addition of
1 to 11A ml of 1% aqueous solution of food grade ethyl hexanoate to 400 g of cheese
will give slight to definite levels of this flavor.65
Hat
Description. The absence of characteristic flavor and aroma is called "flat." The
absence of culture or diacetyl flavor and absence of salt gives that impression.
Cause. Insufficient flavor producing culture in the cream and insufficient salt will
give this flavor. The early stages of oxidized flavor may tend to give a flat taste and
aroma. The delayed flavor perception may give the impression of a metallic flavor.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. The flat flavor may be simulated by washing
the curd and replacing the cream with half and half. Salt may be added but less than
enough to give the optimum saltiness.
High Salt
Description. The "high salt" flavor is characterized by a sharp, biting sensation.
The reaction and adaptation time are both short. The initial piercing sensation subsides and it is replaced by copious flow of saliva.
Cause. High salt is a formulation error resulting from addition of excessive salt to
the creaming mixture or the curd or both. The proper amount is 0.6% to 1.0%.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Salty cottage cheese can be made by adding
an additional Vi to 1% additional salt to properly salted, good quality creamed cottage
cheese. Stir and allow to dissolve.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Half and half or milk may be soaked in
Grape Nuts for 30 min and then filtered through a paper towel. The filtrate is added
to and stirred into good flavored cottage cheese. Sufficient is added to give the level
of intensity desired.66
Musty
Description. This is a serious but seldom encountered defect that resembles the
aroma of a damp, poorly ventilated cellar.
Cause. This defect is due to the growth of a variety of microbial contaminants
including molds. The curd may have become contaminated with Pseudomonas taetrolens which are psychrotrophic bacteria. Poor plant sanitation is responsible for
allowing them into the product and marginal cooling temperatures are responsible
for allowing their outgrowth.5
Training. No method is suggested in the literature for preparation of samples.
Exemplary samples may be found among survey samples that have been held beyond
their pull date or held at slightly elevated temperatures.
Rancid
Description. "Rancidity" in cottage cheese as in milk may be described as an
astringent, puckery feeling at the base of the tongue and throat. A bitter and soapy
aftertaste may be associated with it. There is a slow response time to this flavor.
After expectoration it is difficult to clean the flavor out of the mouth.
Cause. This flavor is due to enzymatic action of lipase on milk fat. Ester bonds
are broken, leaving free fatty acids and mono- and diglycerides. The shorter free
fatty acids, particularly butyric, are flavorful. Mid-length fatty acids taste soapy. Raw
milk contains lipase and some psychrotrophs produce lipase. Conditions are ideal
for lipolytic action when these enzymes are present and when the fat is disturbed
and new interface is produced. Inadvertent mixing of raw and freshly homogenized
milk is such a case. Homogenized milk in which psychrotrophic organisms have
grown to great numbers is another. If the cottage cheese cream has been subjected
to those conditions, rancidity will probably occur.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Add rancid milk, prepared according to the
directions in the section on milk, to the creamed cottage cheese mixture. Be sure the
rancid milk has been laboratory pasteurized. Try 10 to 15 ml in 400 g of creamed
cottage cheese.
Unclean
Description. The terms "dirty" and "dirty sock" have been used to describe this
flavor. The flavor of limburger cheese has been used to simulate it. An "unclean"
flavor is readily noted when the sample enters the mouth. The flavor and odor are
offensive suggesting extreme staleness, mustiness, putrid, or spoiled. The flavor fails
to clean up after the cottage cheese is expectorated.
Cause. This flavor develops in cottage cheese when psychrotrophic bacteria are
allowed to grow to high numbers in milk and particularly when held at temperatures
above 7.2C. The presence of the psychrotrophs is usually due to poor on-farm
sanitation and the high numbers are generally due to poor bulk tank cooling.5
Preparation of Training Samples. To obtain product with this defect, screen several old cottage cheese samples for unclean flavor. If none are unclean, subject them
to 4 to 12 h at room temperature, then rescreen the samples looking for this defect.
Yeasty (Vinegarlike)
Description. The "yeasty" and "earthy" flavor and aroma reminiscent of rising
bread dough is a good demonstration of the "yeasty" flavor. It is often associated
with an acetic acid or "vinegar" flavor.
Cause. Growth of yeast is usually responsible for this flavor but it may be due to
bacterial fermentation. Certain kinds of psychrotrophic bacteria can be responsible
for this objectionable off-flavor. It is due to poor sanitation and lack of temperature
control.67-68
Preparation of Samples for Training. High-quality half and half could be purposely inoculated with yeast and sugar and allowed to ferment for a few hours at
room temperature until the flavor begins to develop. It could be lightly salted and
used to cream cottage cheese to give it this defect. This flavor and aroma can be
learned by smelling and tasting yeast leavened bread dough as it is rising.
Rrm/Rubbery
Description. Curd that is too firm will be overly resistant to deformation between
the roof of the mouth and the tongue. Resistance to mastication will also be noticed.
Cause. Firm curd may be due to use of too much rennet, curd cooking temperatures
that are too high, cooking the curd for too long, or pH too high at the time of setting
or cutting too soon.
Gelatinous
Description. Sticky or ' 'jellylike'' translucent curd is indicative of this defect. The
curd may resemble tapioca pudding. A bitter flavor may also be present.
Cause. This defect is usually due to growth of psychrotrophic bacteria in the cottage cheese. The product is often unpalatable and unsalable. An attempt to make a
cottage cheese product with rennet without sufficient acid will result in gelatinous,
translucent curd.5
Mealy/Grainy
Description. This very common defect can be detected by masticating the curd and
then pressing the curd against the roof of the mouth with the tongue and noticing
the presence of gritty or cornmeallike sensation. Another way to detect this defect
is to knead washed curd and smear it between the fingers. The kneaded curd should
be silky smooth. A rough gritty mass is indicative of this defect.5
Cause. This defect is caused by overdeveloping the acid during curd formation or
too low a moisture level in the curd. It can also be caused by nonuniform cutting of
the curd, uneven heating during cooking, cooking too fast, inadequate agitation during cooking, or allowing portions of the curd to come in contact with hot surfaces
during cooking.5
Overstabilized (Slick)
Description.
coating.
Cause. The use of too much stabilizer in the cottage cheese dressing is the cause
of this defect. Processors will often thicken the dressing excessively in an attempt
to minimize free cream or free whey. Reduction in the amount of stabilizer in the
cream will usually overcome this defect.
Pasty
Description. Other descriptors for this defect are sticky and doughy. This is closely
associated with and considered to be the advanced stages of soft and weak curd
(discussed next). The curd particles tend to stick together in clumps.5
Cause.
Weak/Soft (Mushy)
Description. Weak and soft curd is high in moisture. The curd offers too little
resistance to deformation when pressed between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth. Rather than the desired meaty texture, the curd has almost no body and
reduces to a liquid on minimal mastication.
Cause. Conditions that encourage excessive water to be retained in the curd thereby
giving a weak curd are excessively high pasteurization temperatures of the skim milk
which denatures the whey protein and predisposes them to bind more water, cutting
the curd too late after the curd is excessively firm and the pH is too low thereby
hindering expulsion of water during cooking, curd cooking temperatures too low,
and overdressing the curd.5
Free Whey
Description. No clear solution should be evident at the edges of the cream at the
base of a dollop of cottage cheese. Presence of a clear solution is evidence of this
defect and that destabilization of the cream has occurred.
Cause. Free whey can be caused by the following conditions: undercooked curd
that is retaining excessive amounts of whey, insufficient washing of the curd such
that excessive whey is still present in the curd, and cutting the curd at too high a
pH, making it unable to adsorb liquid.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Add sufficient whey from wheyed off buttermilk, yogurt, or even tap water to cottage cheese so that clear fluid appears at the
edge of the cream when a dollop of the product is placed on a plate.
Lacks Cream
Description. When insufficient cottage cheese cream is added to the curd, it will
appear dry and no cream at all will run to the bottom of a mound or scoop of cottage
cheese.
Cause. This problem is generally caused simply by under-creaming. It is often
done purposely for food service customers to avoid any free cream and to facilitate
a mound of cottage cheese that does not flow or flatten.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect may be staged by obtaining
some uncreamed curd and blending it with ideal product to give the appropriate
appearance. Dry curd may be obtained by rinsing cottage cheese curd free of cream
with warm water and then draining off the water.
Matted
Description. Ideally the curd particles in cottage cheese should be individual. Curd
exhibiting the matted defect will have curds tightly stuck together into large clumps.
Cause. Conditions that will cause matted curd are cutting of the curd at too high
a pH so that the curd will be sticky during the initial stages of cooking, insufficient
agitation during the first stages of cooking so that curd particles are allowed to matt,
or cooking the curd too rapidly so that high moisture curd will become sticky and
tend to clump.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect is so common that finding some
matted curd will be quite easy. Matted curd can be ' 'planted'' on a dollop of creamed
cottage cheese to demonstrate this defect.
Shattered Curd
Description. Ideal cottage cheese will have curd particles of uniform size with no
fine particles or "dust." These curd particles can be observed on the creamed surface
of the curd. Usually this defect is not called unless at least four or more curd dust
particles are present on each curd particle. They can also be seen on the back of a
spoon used to sample cottage cheese.5
Cause. Shattering of curd to cause these fine particles can be caused by the following conditions: excessive heat treatment of skim milk causing the curd to be
fragile, cutting at too low a pH when the curd mass has set to some extent making
it difficult to cut without shattering, low-solids milk producing fragile curd, overly
Next Page
severe agitation, excessive amounts of coagulator use, and rough handling of curd
during draining, creaming, pumping, and packaging.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect is also common. Examples of
this problem will probably be easy to find in commercial cottage cheese. The more
difficult task will be to find a sample that is free of this defect. Such a sample could
be made by washing curd free of cream on a sieve that allows the passage of curd
dust, then recreaming with half and half.
3.4.3 Butter
3.4.3.1 Introduction
Butter is made by agitating chilled cream to first form granules and then a butter
mass. The butter mass is drained of serum (buttermilk) and it may be washed. The
mass is worked to reduce the size of the water droplets, and to disperse and dissolve
salt. Butter may be made in a churn but most is made in continuous butter makers
that take in a steady stream of cream, perform all the operations, and produce a
steady stream of butter and buttermilk.
As defined in the Code of Federal Regulation, butter contains no less than 80%
milk fat and is made from pasteurized cream.20 The majority of the butter marketed
in the United States is sweet cream butter made from cream with a titratable acidity
of 0.20% or less. If acid has developed in the cream to higher acidities, then the
product is sour cream butter. Cultured butter is made by adding lactic cultures that
produce aromatic butter flavored compounds to the cream just before churning. Salt
is generally added to butter. Lightly salted butter contains about 1.5% salt.5 A number of spreads emulate butter. Margarine, butter-margarine blends, and reduced fat
spreads are currently available. Their sensory properties vary widely and, although
their defects are not treated here, they should be free of off-flavors and perform as
intended. Butter is the standard for these other spreads and the list of possible defects
that apply to butter can occur in them.
Butter is sampled with a curved bladed double-edged tool known as a trier that
is inserted into the block of butter, rotated 180, and removed. It extracts a cylinder
of butter for examination. The butter on the trier is passed slowly under the nose
while inhaling. The aroma is noted. The color uniformity is next evaluated. The
judge then examines the body and texture by pressing the ball of the thumb against
the sides of the butter cylinder until it breaks. The smoothness of the break is noted
as is the presence or absence of beads of water and the clarity of any water. The
judge then breaks off a piece of butter from the end of the plug, usually with a
spatula, and places it into the mouth. The sample is chewed while it melts in the
mouth. As it is melting, the presence of grit or undissolved salt is noted between the
teeth by biting down. It may be observed between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth. The melted sample is moved around in the mouth while noting flavors and
aromas. The sample is then expectorated. The judge then notices if any aftertaste or
off flavor persists. The trier is then cleaned with a soft cloth or paper towel.5
Previous Page
severe agitation, excessive amounts of coagulator use, and rough handling of curd
during draining, creaming, pumping, and packaging.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect is also common. Examples of
this problem will probably be easy to find in commercial cottage cheese. The more
difficult task will be to find a sample that is free of this defect. Such a sample could
be made by washing curd free of cream on a sieve that allows the passage of curd
dust, then recreaming with half and half.
3.4.3 Butter
3.4.3.1 Introduction
Butter is made by agitating chilled cream to first form granules and then a butter
mass. The butter mass is drained of serum (buttermilk) and it may be washed. The
mass is worked to reduce the size of the water droplets, and to disperse and dissolve
salt. Butter may be made in a churn but most is made in continuous butter makers
that take in a steady stream of cream, perform all the operations, and produce a
steady stream of butter and buttermilk.
As defined in the Code of Federal Regulation, butter contains no less than 80%
milk fat and is made from pasteurized cream.20 The majority of the butter marketed
in the United States is sweet cream butter made from cream with a titratable acidity
of 0.20% or less. If acid has developed in the cream to higher acidities, then the
product is sour cream butter. Cultured butter is made by adding lactic cultures that
produce aromatic butter flavored compounds to the cream just before churning. Salt
is generally added to butter. Lightly salted butter contains about 1.5% salt.5 A number of spreads emulate butter. Margarine, butter-margarine blends, and reduced fat
spreads are currently available. Their sensory properties vary widely and, although
their defects are not treated here, they should be free of off-flavors and perform as
intended. Butter is the standard for these other spreads and the list of possible defects
that apply to butter can occur in them.
Butter is sampled with a curved bladed double-edged tool known as a trier that
is inserted into the block of butter, rotated 180, and removed. It extracts a cylinder
of butter for examination. The butter on the trier is passed slowly under the nose
while inhaling. The aroma is noted. The color uniformity is next evaluated. The
judge then examines the body and texture by pressing the ball of the thumb against
the sides of the butter cylinder until it breaks. The smoothness of the break is noted
as is the presence or absence of beads of water and the clarity of any water. The
judge then breaks off a piece of butter from the end of the plug, usually with a
spatula, and places it into the mouth. The sample is chewed while it melts in the
mouth. As it is melting, the presence of grit or undissolved salt is noted between the
teeth by biting down. It may be observed between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth. The melted sample is moved around in the mouth while noting flavors and
aromas. The sample is then expectorated. The judge then notices if any aftertaste or
off flavor persists. The trier is then cleaned with a soft cloth or paper towel.5
Table 3.6
Identified Flavors
by Grading3
Feed
Cooked
Acid
Aged
Bitter
Coarse
Flat
Smothered
Storage
Malty
Musty
Neutralizer
Scorched
Utensil
Weed
Whey
Old cream
AA
Sc
D
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
D
D
D
D
D
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
D
The USDA grades much of the butter produced in the United States. Before 1977,
butter scoring was on a 100-point scale. Now only the letter designation is used. The
point system is still occasionally referenced. Grade AA butter scored 93 or more
points, A grade required 92 points, and B grade required a minimum of 90 points.
Table 3.6 shows flavor grades that are assigned based on flavors present and their
intensity. The only flavor defects allowed in Grade AA butter are slight feed and
cooked. Any other flavors result in downgrading. Table 3.7 shows how many derating points are assigned for body, color, and salt defects. Derating up to 1A total
points does not reduce the grade below the assigned flavor grade. Each 1A derated
point beyond that reduces the butter one additional grade.20
The American Dairy Science Association uses a 25-point system with 10 points
for flavor, 5 for body and texture, 5 for color and appearance, 3 for salt, and 2 for
the package. In collegiate contests only the flavor is judged. The ADSA Flavor
scoring guide is shown in Table 3.8 and a body and texture guide is shown in Table
3.9. A sensory scorecard using a 25-point system is shown in Figure 3.17 and the
Collegiate Contest Butter Score Card is shown in Figure 3.18.
Table 3.7
Butter
Characteristics
Body
Crumbly
Gummy
Leaky
Mealy or grainy
Short
Weak
Sticky
Ragged boring
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
Color
Wavy
Mottled
Streaked
Color specks
0.5
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
Salt
Sharp
Gritty
0.5
1
1
2
a
b
Table 3.8
flavor Criticisms3
Slight
Definite
Pronounced
Acid (sour)
Bitter
Cheesy
Coarse
Feed
Flat
Garlic/onion
Metallic
Musty
Neutralizer
Old cream
Oxidized
Rancid
Scorched
Storage
Unclean (utensil)
Whey
Yeasty
6
6
3
8
9
9
3
4
5
5
6
4
4
7
6
5
6
4
5
5
2
7
8
8
2
3
4
4
5
3
2
5
5
4
5
3
4
4
1
6
6
7
1
1
2
3
4
2
1
3
4
3
3
2
Bitter
Description. Bitterness is recognized by the sense of taste alone. Once the butter
sample has melted in the mouth, it can be best detected when the sample is moved
to the back center of the tongue where the taste buds are most sensitive to bitter.
Cause. Bitterness in butter may be caused by action of certain microorganisms or
enzymes, consumption of certain feeds or weeds by the cow, impurities in the salt
added to the butter, and inappropriate use of some neutralizes.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Quinine sulfate has strong, clean, bitter
flavor in very dilute concentrations. Addition of 1 to 2 ml or 1% quinine sulfate
solution to a pint of cream before churning will result in bitter butter. Alternatively,
quinine sulfate solution can be kneaded into butter. The level of bitterness can be
adjusted by kneading bitter and good butter together in appropriate ratios.
Cheesy
Description. Cheesy butter resembles cheddar cheese in flavor and aroma. The
flavor is noticed immediately after the sample is placed in the mouth. It also lingers
after the sample is expectorated. Clean up of the flavor is slow.
Moderate
Definite
Strong
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
0
0
3
3
4
0
4
2
0
0
2
2
3
0
3
1
0
0
1
1
2
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
Pronouncedc
oe
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cause. This flavor results when soured cream is held refrigerated and proteolytic
organisms are allowed to grow. When this cream is churned, cheesy butter results.
Tendency to develop this flavor is related to the curd content of the butter. Washing
the butter well as it is being churned is a precaution against cheesy flavor.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Cheesy flavored butter can be made by
adding cheddar cheese flavor to cream prior to churning or by kneading cheese flavor
solution into softened butter. It should be tried with a variety of cheese flavors to
ensure that one will have the desired flavor.
Coarse
Description. Coarse butter is one that lacks the pleasing, delicate flavor that is
typical of good quality fresh butter. It is really employed when the butter lacks the
typical flavor but no other criticism is appropriate. It can be considered the early
stages of the "old cream" or "storage" defects but no particular defect has developed, only a flavor that is off ideal.
Cause. Coarse butter generally results when cream that is a little old and perhaps
slightly acidic is churned. The defects are not strong enough to be criticized as old
cream, acid, or storage.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Blending a little slightly aged cream with
high quality cream and then churning may result in product that will be criticized
as coarse. This defect is quite prevalent among the products on the market. It should
not be hard to find product that has this defect.
Feed
Description. Feed flavors can usually be detected using the sense of smell, then
verified by tasting. They are flavors reminiscent of the feeds eaten by the cow.
Cause. Feed flavor in product is a result of consumption of feeds within 3 h of
milking. Some feeds are particularly potent. Fresh clover and alfalfa are potent in
this respect. The spring of the year when the cow goes on pasture is a vulnerable
time.
Preparation of Samples for Training. An alfalfa flavor can be simulated by adding
and holding 2 to 3 g of alfalfa hay to 100 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized
milk for 20 min. The milk is then strained through a cheesecloth or a paper towel
and used as a stock solution. To 575 ml of fresh pasteurized cream add 20 to 35 ml
of this stock milk solution. Grass or corn silage can be used to prepare feed flavored
milks in the same manner. The cream is then churned into butter which will have a
feed flavor corresponding to the material used.5
Flat
Description. When the full characteristic buttery flavor is lacking the flavor is
considered to be flat. It is noticed very soon after the sample has been placed in the
mouth and as the sample melts and is moved around in the mouth. It is not to be
confused with a low or unsalted flavor. It is possible for the salt to be absent but the
diacetyl and volatile acid flavor notes to be sufficiently present. Lack of salt does
suppress the butter flavor though.
Cause. Lack of diacetyl and volatile acids are the cause of flat butter. Excessive
washing of butter granules can result in flat tasting butter. Consumption of certain
feeds has been blamed for milk fat with a low level of volatile flavors. A slight
cooked flavor to the cream or culturing the cream are effective ways to give butter
some flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Flat butter can be prepared by kneading
good quality butter in cool clean water to remove some of the water-soluble flavor
components.
Garlic/Onion
Description. The distinctive odors and flavors characteristic of garlic or onion are
the trademarks of this defect. Both are quite odorous and similar in butter that has
Product:
SAMPLE NO.
1
Flavor 10
No criticism
10
Unsalable
0
Normal
range
1-10
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5
Salt 3
No criticism
3
Unsalable
0
Score
Crumbly
Greasy
Gummy
Leaky
Mealy/grainy
Ragged boring
Salvy
Sticky
Weak
Color and
appearance 5
No criticism
5
Score
Criticism
Acid/sour
Bitter
Cheesy
Coarse
Cooked
Feed
Fishy
Flat
Foreign
Garlic/onion
High salt
Malty
Metallic
Musty
Neutralizer
Old cream
Oxidized
Rancid
Storage (aged)
Tallowy
Unclean (utensil)
Weedy
Whey
Yeasty
Body and
texture
5
No criticism
5
Score
Color specks
Foreign material
Mold discoloration
Mottled
Streaky
Surface faded/high color
Unnatural
Wavy
Score
Excessive (too high)
Gritty
Uneven distribution
Figure 3.17 Suggested score card for the sensory evaluation of butter. Used with permission.5
Date:
SAMPLENO.
Package and
finish
2
No criticism
2
Unsalable
O
Total 25
Laboratory
parameters3
Score
Exposed product
Package and liner
Careless
Damaged
Dirty/Unsanitary
Not protective
Printing defective
Unattractive
Rough Finish
Total score of
Score
each sample
Fat content (%)
Weight (Ib)
Proteolytic count (per g)
Yeast and mold count (per g)
Coliform count (per g)
Free fatty acid
7-day (21C) keeping quality
Signature of evaluators:
a
The laboratory parameters are not scored; they provide information that helps determine
the legal status and company specifications of the product.
been warmed to body temperature in the mouth. The aftertaste is persistent and cleanup difficult.
Cause. Consumption of onion or garlic by the cow will result in milk with this
defect. Butter made from the resulting cream will likewise have the defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Garlic and onion flavored butter is easy to
prepare by kneading a little onion or/and garlic powder or salt into butter.
High Salt/Briny
Description. The acceptable range of saltiness in butter is broad. Calling this defect
is appropriate when the salt level is "beyond the range of acceptability." Government graders have a category for salt and call the defect "sharp salt." If salt is the
only flavor noticed on tasting a butter sample, then the defect may be called.5
Cause. The problem may be too much salt or poor distribution of the salt. The
normal range is extremely broad.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of salt above 3 to 4% may be
sufficient to produce this defect. The salt should be kneaded into a slightly wanned
butter mass until all the salt crystals dissolve.
PRCONTESTANT NO DATF
MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
UIHOJWNCILWtV ~
M
I PROPER
PROPER
MARK
MARKS
BUTTER
NO mrmm
CRT
IC
IS
I M COARSE
10
FLAT
NORMAL
RANGE
1-10
HIGH SALT
MUSTY
OLDCRSAM
RANCIO
STORAGE
WHEY
BODY AND
TEXTURE
NO
CRT
IC
IS
IM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRT
IC
IS
IM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
Figure 3.18 Collegiate contest butter score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission
of the ADSA, Champaign, DL.)
Metallic
Description. This flavor defect, as the name suggests, gives a slight puckery or
astringent feeling to the mouth interior similar to putting a nail in the mouth and
allowing the saliva to flow and contact it. The flavor is detected right after the butter
is placed in the mouth. Strength of the flavor becomes more intense as the sample
warms in the mouth. A bitter aftertaste may develop after the sample is expectorated.
Cause. This defect is caused by allowing cream to be in direct contact with copper
or corrodible metal. Contact need not be for an extended time. One corrodible metal
fitting in a system through which the cream is pumped may be sufficient to give the
cream and the resulting butter the flavor. Rusty cream cans or cans from which the
tin has been abraded can cause the defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Metallic butter can be made by developing
metallic cream and churning it to butter. Clean pennies may be soaked in cream until
the flavor intensity reaches the desired level, or 1 ml of a 1% stock solution of
CuSO4 can be added to 600 ml of cream. The cream is held refrigerated for 1 to 2
days for the flavor to develop. The cream is then churned into butter.5
Musty
Description. The musty off-flavor of butter resembles the odor of potatoes, a
swamp, or a poorly ventilated cellar. Hay that is put up a little damp will develop
this smell. It becomes evident after the sample has warmed in the mouth a while
and after the sample has been expectorated. The flavor lingers and is difficult to
clean out of the mouth.
Cause. Morgan attributed musty butter to the growth of Pseudomonas taetrolens
and the production of 2-methoxy-3-alkylpyrazine by it. Other causes are storing
cream in a poorly ventilated musty environment; consumption of musty feed, slough
grass, or stagnant water by the cow; or use of poorly cleaned equipment.60
Preparation of Samples for Training. It is not recommended that any of the above
media be added to cream or butter to produce this flavor. Screening a large number
of samples to find a musty sample is one possibility. The musty smell can be taught
by smelling musty feed or an enclosed musty cellar.
Neutralizer
Description. Different neutralizes have slightly different flavors. It is an alkaline,
baking soda, or soda cracker flavor. Bitterness is often part of the profile. It is best
detected after the sample has melted in the mouth or after the sample has been
expectorated and air is inhaled through the mouth. The aftertaste does not easily
clean up.
Cause. Neutralization of the acid in cream before churning used to be a common
practice and is still practiced to some extent. This defect is the result of adding
Old Cream
Description. ' 4OId cream" is a characteristic flavor of cream that has aged and lost
its fresh, sweet, clean flavor. Butter with this flavor has a characteristic staleness that
is reminiscent of the background smell in a creamery that does not practice the best
sanitation. The flavor of such a sample becomes evident after the sample begins to
melt in the mouth. It is noticeable after the sample is expectorated and the flavor
lingers in the mouth.
Cause. The descriptor "old cream" is indicative of the cause. The effect of age
may have been accelerated by poorly cleaned equipment or high storage temperatures.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Usually samples of butter can be found that
have this defect. Samples can be made by allowing cream to age and making butter
from the aging cream. The aging can be accelerated by storage at temperatures above
4C.
Oxidized
Description. This defect could be used to describe a whole family of flavor defects
that result from the oxidation of lipids in butter or cream. Other related descriptive
terms used are: oily, tallowy, painty, fishy, and storage. Generally fishy, tallowy,
metallic, and storage are used separately to describe different versions of these flavors. Oily butter is not seen much so the "oxidized" term here is used to describe
a cardboardlike flavor that develops as a result of metal-induced oxidation. It is also
used to describe a surface taint that develops on exposed surfaces. Because most
tasting is done on samples drawn from deep in the block, the latter is not often seen.
Cause. This defect develops on the oxidation of butter fat by free radical degradation that results in the production of short-chain aldehydes, ketones, and acids as
the fatty acids break down.
Preparation of Samples for Training. These samples are difficult to stage. A large
number of samples obtained from various sources could be stored in the refrigerator
and evaluated periodically. Some of them should develop exemplary oxidized flavor.
Rancid
Description. Flavor notes that are part of the rancid flavor are soapy, bitter, and
butyric acid. It is sensed at the back of the tongue and takes 10 to 20 s to reach full
impact. After the sample is expectorated, the aftertaste remains strong for several
minutes and requires rinsing and time to clean up.
Cause. Rancidity is the result of the enzymatic action of lipase on fat. Ester linkages
connecting fatty acids and glycerol are broken, forming fatty free acids and their
salts. These free fatty acids are very flavorful and are responsible for the soapy flavor.
Raw milk contains active lipase. Psychrotrophic growth also can produce lipase. The
fat surface is available for lipolytic action especially if the globules are disrupted as
happens in homogenization or in a centrifugal pump.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Adding fatty acids with carbon lengths of
4 to 10 in minute amounts to butter and kneading them into the butter mass will
produce this effect. Addition of lipase to butter in very small amounts and allowing
time for lipolysis will produce rancid butter. Butter made from raw cream will develop a rancid flavor. After the flavor develops, it should be pasteurized and allowed
to resolidify before it is tasted.
Scorched
Description. Scorched cream has a caramelized or burnt flavor. A caramelized or
toffee flavor is characteristic of this defect. It is an extreme version of the cooked
defect.
Cause. Scorched flavor is caused by pasteurization of cream at extremely high
temperatures or for too long a time in the presence of developed acidity. The problem
is aggravated by burn-on that may occur during the heating.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Scorched butter can be made by developing
some ripened cream with a pH of 6.0 to 6.4 and bringing it to a boil on the stove.
The cream is chilled for 12 h and churned into butter.
Storage
Description. Butter with this characteristic lacks the desirable sensory characteristics that are present in and associated with fresh butter. No one particular flavor
defect is evident but very low levels of several defects are probably involved. This
quality is a difficult one to describe.
Cause. Even the best butter, as it ages, will lose the delicate notes that are associated
with fresh butter. Low levels of several degradative processes are simultaneously at
work slowly and over a long period of time. The best butter will develop this flavor
more slowly than lower quality butter. It will develop more quickly at higher storage
temperatures than at below 4C.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A careful screening of commercial butter
samples will probably produce samples with this defect. A number of good quality
butter samples could be placed in storage and evaluated periodically. Given enough
time, one or more of the samples is likely to develop this characteristic.
Tallowy
Description. This is one of the lipid oxidation related defects. As the name suggests,
this flavor resembles the taste and odor of oxidized tallow. Generally it is on the
surface of the butter and can be detected by smelling the surface of the butter. The
tallowy aroma is quite noticeable in the mouth and nose immediately after the sample
has been expectorated.
Cause. The extensive degree of oxidative degradation of the unsaturated fatty acids
in milk fat is responsible for the tallowy off-flavor. It is developed in butter that is
held at high storage temperatures in the presence of light. Contamination with traces
of copper or iron will catalyze the development of the defect. Because it is a surface
effect, it is most often found in retail butter that is sold in pound or quarter pound
units where the surface to volume ratio is high.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Add 1.0 ml of 1% CuSO4 to 600 ml of
cream, then churn it to butter. Place that butter under lights and evaluate periodically
for intensity of tallowy flavor. Remove when the desired intensity is achieved.
Unclean/Utensil
Description. Other descriptive terms used to describe this flavor are "dishrag"
and *'dirty sock." Its odor is most unpleasant and its strength intensifies as it warms
up in the mouth. The flavor remains in the mouth after the sample is expectorated.
Characteristics described in milk as ' 'barny'' and' 'cowy'' are placed in this category
if found in butter.
Cause. Psychrotrophic growth in cream may cause this defect in butter made from
that cream. Poor handling and sanitation practices are responsible for their entry into
the cream. Elevated storage temperatures facilitate their growth.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Kneading a little limburger cheese into
butter can give a character similar to this. The smell of sour dishcloths or dirty socks
is a good way to begin to teach the flavor. Purposeful introduction of psychrotrophs
from various sources into good quality cream followed by holding at 5 to 100C until
flavors develop will produce a variety of defects in cream. Churning of one of these
that has developed this characteristic will produce an exemplary sample of butter.
Whey
Description. Whey flavor is somewhat similar to the combined coarse and acid
defects of butter. There is a moderate odor and aftertaste that is typical of cheese
whey.
Cause. Butter made from cream separated from whey will have this defect. It will
be more prevalent if it is poorly washed after it is churned. The flavor will be carried
into blends of whey cream butter and fresh cream butter. The amount that can be
blended into high quality butter without being detected is limited. The condition of
the whey affects the strength and character of the flavor. Cream taken immediately
from fresh whey will not have as pronounced a flavor defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A sample of whey cream can be obtained
and churned in a mixer to give whey cream butter that will exhibit the defect. Alternatively, whey can be added to cream before it is churned. Samples will be
stronger if the butter is not washed.
Yeasty
Description. The yeasty flavor and aroma is like the smell of yeast leavened bread
dough as it rises. It has a fruity, vinegary, flavor and a fragrant aroma. The flavor is
evident when the sample is first taken into the mouth but as the sample warms the
flavor becomes more evident.5
Cause. Yeasty butter is caused by byproducts of yeast fermentation that have occurred in abused cream.
Preparation of Samples for Training. High quality cream could be purposely
inoculated with yeast and sugar and allowed to ferment for a few hours at room
temperature, chilled, and churned into butter.
Gummy
Description. Gummy butter tends to stick to the roof of the mouth. It gives a
gumlike impression and resists melting as it warms up in the mouth.
Cause. Gumminess in butter is considered to be due to an abnormally high percentage of high-melting-point triglycerides causing a firmer than normal butter mass.
It is more prevalent where cottonseed products are fed as a protein supplement. It is
also more prevalent in the winter months when the melting range of butterfat is
naturally higher.5
Leaky
Description. Leaky butter exhibits droplets of moisture on the back of the trier and
on the newly cut surface of the butter immediately after the sample is removed.
Cause. Leaky butter is a result of insufficient working of the butter mass after
churning and washing. The working is necessary to reduce the size of the water
droplets sufficiently to retain them in the butter through cutting, kneading, and printing. Properly worked butter will have a waxy texture.5
Mealy or Grainy
Description. Mealy or grainy butter is detected by compressing a sample of partially melted butter between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. If it has a grainy
feel like corn meal mush it has this defect.
Cause. Mealy or grainy butter is caused by improperly neutralizing cream before
churning or by allowing fat to "oil off" during the butter making process. Oiling
off can occur during thawing of frozen cream or during remelting of butter rework
into heated cream.
Ragged Boring
Description. Butter that exhibits this defect cannot be easily drawn from a block
of butter with a trier. It seems to roll from the trier rather than the trier cutting a
distinctly formed plug. It is undesirable because of the anticipated problems that will
be encountered in cutting.
Cause. Ragged boring is caused by slow cooling after pasteurization, holding temperatures high for a long period of time prior to churning. Any process condition
that interferes with the formation of close knit waxy textured butter will contribute
to this defect.5
Short
Description. Short bodied butter lacks the desirable characteristics of plasticity and
waxiness. When pressure is placed on the plug with the thumb, the butter will tend
to break.
Cause. Short butter is caused by high-melting-point fats, an extremely low curd
content in the butter, manufacturing practices that cause some of the milk fat to be
melted during the process, and rapid cooling of recently made butter to extremely
low temperatures.
Sticky
Description. Sticky butter adheres to the trier and appears to be quite dry. When
a plug is drawn, it appears to be "rough." A cold trier aggravates the problem. It
generally goes together with a crumbly defect.
Cause. This defect occurs when the fat has a higher than usual melting range. It
therefore occurs in the fall and winter. It is a feed-related defect appearing when
cows are fed alfalfa. Churn temperatures and churn working conditions affect the
occurrence of the sticky defect.
Weak
Description. Weak butter has a quicker than usual meltdown and a softness of
body. It is difficult to get a good plug of weak butter. When pressure is applied to
the butter in the plug, there is no distinct breaking point.
Cause. Weak butter can be caused by incomplete fat crystallization. It may either
be a result of churning before cream has had a chance to completely crystallize or
a higher than usual level of low-melting-point triglycerides.
Unnatural Color
Description. Unnatural color is reserved for cases where the color of the butter is
not in the characteristic yellow window naturally expected for butter. Shades such
as a yellow-green or red would be criticized as unnatural.
Cause.
Use of colors other than yellow to color butter causes this defect.
the container is examined. Container type, condition, and defects are observed. The
color of the ice cream is then noted. The intensity and hue should be natural and
typical of the flavor. A sample of the ice cream is then collected with a dipper. The
way the product cuts and feels as the dipper moves through the product is noted.
The heaviness or fluffiness is noted. The scoop of product is placed on a small plate.
Very little aroma is released from the cold product so smelling the product contributes little. A small sample is placed in the mouth with a spoon. Metal or plastic
spoons are preferred because of their neutral taste. A large sample will remove too
much heat from the mouth and delay the recovery from the temporary cold-induced
numbness. Examinations of the body, texture, and flavor take place simultaneously
and rapidly. The judge bites down on the sample and notes the presence and size of
ice crystals. A bit of ice cream is pressed against the roof of the mouth, melting the
sample quickly while the judge notes the smoothness, coarseness, coldness, and the
presence and absence of sandiness. As the mouth warms, flavors will begin to
brighten as the numbness leaves. First the fundamental tastes of sweet, salt, and sour
will appear, followed by aromas. The sample is then expectorated and the rapidity
with which the flavor "cleans up" is observed. The urge to swallow product should
be resisted. Perception is soon lost when one starts to consume product. The melting
quality should now be noted by observing the melting sample in the petri dish. The
judge should notice if the form and original size of the scoop of ice cream has been
maintained, and whether melted liquified product appears creamy, curdled, foamy,
or watery.5
In competition, vanilla ice cream is judged. Being the mildest flavor, defects can
be most easily detected in it. Most of the defects not specific to vanilla will be present
but perhaps less detectable in ice cream of other flavors made with the same mix.
A complete scorecard based on a 20-point scale with 10 points for flavor; 5 for
body and texture; 5 for color, appearance, and package; 3 for melting quality; and
2 for bacterial count, is shown in Figure 3.19. A flavor and body scoring guide is
given in Table 3.10, and an appearance scoring guide is given in Table 3.11. The
Collegiate Contest Ice Cream Score Card is shown in Figure 3.20. Only flavor, body,
and texture are judged in the Collegiate Contest.
Product:
Flavor:
Criticism
Flavor
10
Score
Flavoring system
No criticism
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks flavoring
= 10
Too high flavor
Unnatural flavor
Sweetners
Lacks sweetness
Unsalable
Too sweet
= 0
Syrup flavor
Processing
Cooked
Normal range
Dairy ingredients
= 1-10
Acid
Salty
Lacks freshness
Old ingredient
Oxidized
Metallic
Rancid
Whey
Others
Storage (absorbed)
Stabilizer/emulsifiei
Neutralizer
Foreign
10
5 Score
Body and texture
Coarse/icy
No
Crumbly
criticism
Fluffy
= 10
Gummy
Unsalable
Sandy
= 0
Soggy
Normal range
Weak
= 1-5
Figure 3.19 A modified version of the ADSA ice cream score card. (Reproduced from ref.
5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
cream mix and then freezing it in a batch or home freezer. It may be packaged and
hardened, then tempered before use.
Cooked
Description. Cooked ice cream is very common. It has a rich custard or scalded
milk flavor. It may have the flavor of condensed milk. More intense versions are
scorched, caramel, or burnt.
Cause. Cooked flavor can result from any of the milk ingredients having received
a high or long heat treatment or from high heat treatment of the mix itself. Double
Product:
Flavor:
SAMPLENO.
Criticisms
10
Color, appearance
Score
and package
No
Dull color
criticism Non-uniform color
= 10
Too high color
Unsalable Too j?ale color
= 0
Unnatural color
Damaged container
Normal
Defective seal
range
Ill-shaped container
= 1-10
Soiled container (dirt)
Soiled container (product)
Underfilled
Over filled
Score
Melting quality 3
Curdy
No
criticism Does not melt
Flaky
= 3
Unsalable Foamy
Watery
= 0
Wheyed off
Normal
range
= 1-5
Bacterial content 2 Score
Standard plate count
Coliform count
Total
25
Total Score
of each sample
Total solids (%)
Fat content (%)
Net weight (lbs/gal)
Overrun (%)
Signatures of evaluator(s):
pasteurization of the dairy ingredients will cause a cooked flavor to develop. Some
processors purposely give the mix a high heat treatment for the rich "old fashioned"
flavor that it gives.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A cooked flavored ice cream can be simulated by reheating a commercial mix to 85C for 30 min on the stove with vigorous
stirring. After chilling, it can be frozen in a batch or home freezer.
Table 3.10
Definite
Pronounced
4
9
2
7
0b
5
8
9
8
9
8
6
6
6
4
8
7
6
8
6
8
7
4
4
4
2
7
6
4
7
4
7
6
2
2
1
0
5
4
9
9
9
7
8
8
7
6
7
7
5
4
4
4
3
4
2
4
4
2
3
2
2
1
3
2
1
2
1
1
0
2
1
51
Flavor criticism
Acid (sour)
Cooked
Flavoring:
Lacks flavoring
Too high
Unnatural
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks freshness
Metallic
Old ingredient
Oxidized
Rancid
Salty
Storage
Sweetener:
Lacks
Too high
Syrup flavor
Whey
Body and texturec
Course/Icy
Crumbly (brittle, friable)
Fluffy (foamy)
Gummy (pasty, sticky)
Sandy
Soggy (heavy)
Weak (watery)
vanilla flavor may be a little off. This is a catch-all last resort descriptor that is used
only for minor shortcomings if none of the other terms will describe the problem.5
Cause. The causes are as varied as the reasons for the less-than-ideal flavor possibilities. The most likely cause will be a slightly deficient vanilla blend.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Screening vanilla flavorings for one that is
slightly deficient and using that flavoring at the recommended level is a possible
way to stage this flavor. Blending some imitation and high quality flavor in various
Slight5
Moderate
Definite
Strong
Dull color
Nonuniform color
Too high color
Too pale color
Unnatural color
Soiled container
Product on container
Underfill/overfill
Damaged container
Defective seal
Ill-shaped containers
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
3
2
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
1
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
0
2
Pronounced0
d
d
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
d
0
0
0
0
proportions and freezing mixes with each will give a good range of samples from
which to choose. It will also afford a variety of qualities of flavors for demonstration.
Lacks Flavoring
Description. This descriptor is for ice cream that is flat or deficient in the amount
of flavoring. The ice cream may be sweet and free from any off-flavors but it lacks
the characteristic delicate flavor of an excellent vanilla at the desired intensity.5
Cause. The most probable cause of ice cream that lacks flavoring is inadequate
amount of vanilla or flavoring. It could also be caused by inferior vanilla.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Vanilla ice cream that lacks flavoring can
be made by adding half the recommended amount of top quality flavor to a good
commercial mix and freezing in a batch or home freezer.
Lacks Freshness
Description. This is a moderate general off-flavor in ice cream or frozen desserts
that can have various characteristics but principally takes the edge off the fresh
perfect taste of the product.
Cause. This defect can be caused by a little slightly stale powdered milk, slightly
stale whey, some slightly old cream, or some milk with the lacks freshness defect.
Products that show stronger intensities of these defects are criticized for "old ingredient."5
CONTFSTANT M
I O DATE
MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
Vmt NO. 3 HNCIt ONLV
IMPROPER
MARKS
PROPER
MARK
ICE CREAM
ERASE C H A N G E S C L E A N L Y A N D
COMPLETELY
D O N O T M A K E A N Y STRAY M A R K S
CRITICISMS
NCSTrM-OpcitMP3O-73533-321 A2400
SAMPLE NUMBER
FLAVOR
COOKtD
NO
CRITICISM
LACKS FLAVORJMG
10
LACKSSVWtTWESS
NORMAL
OLD INGREDIENT
RANGE
1-10
RANCID
STORAGE
TOOMKiHFLAVCW
WNATURALaAVW
BODY AND
TEXTURE
NO
CRUMStY
CRITICISM
5
GUMMY
SOGGY
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
Figure 3.20 Collegiate contest ice cream score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
Preparation of Samples for Training. Dissolve some slightly stale powdered milk
at the rate of about 1 to 5% in some good quality commercial ice cream mix. Freeze
in a batch or home freezer and harden.
Lacks Sweetness
Description. The name of this defect is very descriptive. It is noted quickly on
putting the sample in the mouth as a flat or bland taste. An adequate amount of
sweetener would bring out the full flavor.
Cause. The cause of this defect is obvious. Either the formula or formulator is in
error in making a sweetener deficient mix. When developing formulas, it is important
to realize that different sweeteners have different relative sweetness per unit of
weight. One of the sweetest nutritive sweeteners is fructose and some of the least
sweet are lactose and corn syrup solids.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A simple mix can be formulated from
scratch as follows: 560 g or 36% fat cream, 1200 g of milk, 125 g of fresh powdered
milk, and 115 g of sucrose. The mix should be pasteurized, chilled, and then frozen
in a batch or home freezer. As this sample is for flavor only, ingredients to modify
the texture are not used. This sample may or may not be homogenized.
Metallic
Description. This flavor is characterized by a puckery mouth feel or a flavor similar
to a rusty nail or an old penny.
Cause. The mix or one of its dairy ingredients most probably came in contact with
copper or iron. These ions catalyzed a free radical lipid oxidation. Dairy plant equipment that comes in contact with dairy products is free of copper and corrodible metal
because of the potential for this defect.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A 2000-ml aliquot of ice cream mix can be
treated with 3 ml of a 1% CuSO4 solution and held for 1 to 2 days while the flavor
develops before freezing in a batch or home ice cream freezer.
Old Ingredient
Description. Old ingredient flavors are many. Most common are a stale protein
flavor or old milk or old cream flavors.
Cause. This defect descriptor is reserved for off-flavors brought to the mix from
the ingredients. Among the causes of old ingredient flavor are stale milk powder,
stale whey powder, or stale or oxidized stabilizer from extended storage; old cream
or old milk from age or psychrotrophic growth; and fermented syrup.
Preparation of Samples for Training. The stale ingredient flavors can be simulated
by dissolving a few percent of a stale milk or whey powder into a good commercial
ice cream mix. A stale emulsifier or stabilizer could be dry blended with a little
sugar and added to a commercial mixer at half the recommended level. Old cream
also could be added to a finished mix at about 20% of the weight of the mix. Another
approach would be to make simple mixes using aged ingredients with the aged or
stale flavors that are needed. All these small batches can be frozen in a batch or
home freezer.
Oxidized
Description. Some synonymous terms are cardboard or papery, cappy, tallowy,
and painty, representing variations of related flavors that are given the same descriptor. Metallic oxidized is listed separately but is related and considered to be one of
this group of related flavors.5
Cause. Exposure of ingredient milk or finished mix to sunlight or fluorescent lights
will produce the cardboard flavor. Use of fat products in which the butterfat has
undergone autoxidation produces tallowy and painty flavors.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Mix or milk from which mix will be made
can be placed under fluorescent light for 12 to 24 h prior to freezing. Oxidized butter
oil can be made by spiking it with a little rancid soy oil and allowing the flavor to
develop for a few days before the oxidized oil is emulsified into a mix.
Rancid
Description. Rancid ice cream, like milk, will have a delayed reaction. It comes
on late and is detected on the back of the tongue. It is a very objectionable flavor,
tasting soapy and unclean with some bitter notes. It is somewhat masked in ice cream
by the sweetness and flavoring but the lingering aftertaste and slow clean up will be
evident.5
Cause. Rancidity in any dairy product is caused by the action of lipase on butterfat
which releases soapy tasting free fatty acids and their salts. It occurs when lipase,
from either raw milk or psychrotrophic growth, comes in contact with a new fat
surface. The fat surface is created by homogenization or violent agitation as in a
centrifugal pump.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Rancid milk can be made by mixing raw
and freshly pasteurized milk and allowing lipolysis to proceed for a day or so. That
milk is laboratory pasteurized and used to make a small sample of mix that is subsequently frozen.
Salty
Description. The term salty is recognizable as one of the basic tastes. It is detected
quickly on the tip of the tongue as the product is placed in the mouth. There is no
aroma associated with the salty taste. The sensation is "warm" as opposed to refreshing. It cleans up quickly after the ice cream is expectorated.
Cause. Salty ice cream has, as the descriptor implies, too much salt in the mix. It
may be coming from salted butter when it is used as the butterfat source; from high
levels of concentrated whey, whey solids, or milk solids; or there could be just too
much salt in the formula.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Salty ice cream can be made easily by
adding extra salt to a mix before freezing, or by working a little extra salt into
softened ice cream prior to tasting.
Storage
Description. This descriptor is used for a family of defects so it is not a response
to one flavor. One description is the lack of fresh, bright, refreshing flavor with no
particular defects obvious. In this definition it is quite similar to "lacks freshness"
except that this is for more severe cases. Another is the presence of flavors that have
been absorbed from the environment such as ammonia, smoke, or chemicals.
Cause. The term storage refers to flavors that develop during storage of mix or ice
cream. The loss of bright refreshing flavor due to extended storage is one cause.
Another is the presence of aromatic materials in the freezer with the ice cream which
are absorbed into the ice cream.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. The best source of this flavor would be a
good sample of ice cream that has been stored for a year or two. If several samples
are put away for the future and evaluated a year or two later, it is likely that some
good examples of storage flavor will be among them.
Syrup Flavor
Description. Descriptive synonyms for the syrup are marshmallow, molasseslike,
and malty. It has been described as a low level of burnt sugar taste. It is often
associated with a gummy body.5
Cause. Sucrose gives a clean sweet taste free of any side flavors. Corn syrups bring
with them other flavors. Modest levels of com syrup can be used in normal practice
without this defect being evident, but it becomes evident when high levels are used.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This flavor can be simulated by dissolving
an extra 5% of 36 or 42 DE corn syrup solids into a good commercial mix prior to
freezing.
Too Sweet
Description. Ice cream that is too sweet is recognized by the candylike taste. The
sweetness overpowers the flavor and fails to achieve an ideal blend of flavors. Excessive sweetness detracts from the refreshing quality of a good ice cream.5
Cause.
mix.
When ice cream is too sweet, excessive sweetener has been added to the
Unnatural Flavor
Description. There are two types of unnatural flavor. One is a taste that is not in
agreement with the label. If it is labeled vanilla but has a hint of butterscotch, unnatural flavor would be the appropriate criticism. The other is presence of flavor
notes that are out of balance with the blend of flavors. Sometimes when imitation
vanilla is used to boost and extend real vanilla, there will be an initial sharp, piercing,
burning sensation on the tongue that is not present with good quality vanilla.
Cause. The cause for misflavored ice cream is usually error on the part of the ice
cream maker either in adding the wrong flavor or in misjudging the change over
point between flavors as it is being frozen and trying to save too much ice cream
near the change over. The cause of poorly balanced unnatural flavor is the less than
ideal flavor blend that is used to flavor the ice cream. It occurs more frequently in
Category 2 and 3 vanilla ice creams.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Both types of unnatural flavored ice cream
can be simulated. The misbranded type can be achieved by blending some of another
flavor into the vanilla while the ice cream is softened. Creating the poorly balanced
flavor involves making several batches of vanilla using selected blends of flavors
and choosing those that have flavors with examples of the defect.
Whey
Description. The whey flavor in vanilla ice cream is similar to the flavor of graham
crackers or stale condensed milk usually accompanied by a slightly salty taste.70
Cause. Federal standards limit the maximum concentration of whey solids in ice
cream to 25% of the MSNF.69 That amount may not hurt the quality of product
when good quality whey is used, but lesser amounts will be detected when the
concentrated or dried whey is of poor quality.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Dissolve 2 to 4% dried whey into commercial ice cream mix before freezing in a batch or home ice cream freezer.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A small continuous freezer is the best equipment for making fluffy samples because of overrun control capability. While running
regular vanilla, increase the overrun to above 100%, preferably to 150%, or just long
enough to collect samples, then return it to normal overrun.
Gummy
Description. Gummy body is sometimes called pasty, sticky, or elastic. It is the
opposite of crumbly. The ice cream holds together so well that it resembles taffy.
As the scoop is pulled across the surface, the ice cream tends to "curl" behind the
scoop. It should be criticized only when the stickiness will interfere with the dipping
of the product. If corn syrup is the cause, it will be accompanied by a syrup flavor.5
Cause. This defect is caused by excessive use of stabilizers or corn syrup solids
in the ice cream mix.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect can be caused by the addition
of about 5% extra 36 or 42 DE corn syrup solids to a commercial ice cream mix
prior to freezing in a batch or home ice cream freezer.
Sandy
Description. Sandy or gritty ice cream has a lack of smoothness and a grittiness
that remains on the tongue long after the ice cream has melted and been expectorated.
The grittiness feels like fine grains of sand that resist being dissolved.
Cause. Crystals of lactose account for the grainy, slow dissolving particles. The
form with the lactose content of the mix is high usually due to the high level of use
of whey solids in the mix coupled with elevated storage temperatures or cycling
storage temperatures that encourage the growth of the lactose crystals.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Very fine lactose crystals can be blended
into softened ice cream to simulate the texture of sandy ice cream.
Soggy
Description. Soggy ice cream has a heavy, doughy, puddinglike body. A given
volume of ice cream seems heavier than expected. In the mouth it feels colder than
normal.5
Cause. This defect can be caused by too high a solids content in the mix, too much
stabilizer, or too low an overrun.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of 5% extra nonfat milk solids,
5% corn syrup solids, or reducing the overrun to 20 to 30% will tend to give ice
cream with the soggy defect.
Weak
Description. Weak or watery ice cream melts unusually quickly to an uncharacteristically thin fluid. It disappears in the mouth much more quickly than is expected.
Low solid mix or unstabilized mix will tend to result in weak ice cream.
Nonuniform Color
Description. Nonuniform color is the variation in color shade from one portion of
the sample to another. For example, the cream color of vanilla ice cream may change
in shade from the bottom to the top of the carton.
Cause. This defect is usually associated with product age.5 Bleaching effects can
also cause this effect where a portion of the surface is exposed to light.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Two ice cream samples with different shades
of color can be softened and blended together with very little stirring.
Unnatural Color
Description. Unnatural color is a color that is not characteristic of the flavor of the
ice cream.5 For example, purple cherry ice cream or vanilla with a red tint would
be unnatural color.
Cause. Unnatural colored ice cream is caused by the addition of a color that is not
characteristic of the flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of tumeric or caramel color to
vanilla ice cream prior to freezing would result in unnatural colored vanilla ice
cream.
Curdy
Description. Ice cream that has a curdy melt down will separate into small distinct
pieces rather than a smooth uniform white liquid. The surface may appear to have
dry, irregular shaped curd particles.5
Cause. Curdy appearing ice cream can be caused by one or more of the following
conditions that has destabilized the protein: high acid, high temperature-time, unfavorable salt balance, and certain emulsifiers or stabilizers.5
Next Page
Cause. Slow melting ice cream can be caused by certain stabilizers and emulsifiers,
high overrun, old ice cream, and several other processing and ingredient interactions
that promote gelation of the body of ice cream.
Foamy
Description. Foamy or frothy meltdown is noticed as a mass of large stable air
bubbles when the sample is completely melted.
Cause. Foamy ice cream can be caused by high overrun and by emulsifiers that
effectively stabilize foam.5
Watery
Description. This melting defect is a low resistance to melting with the melted mix
being of a thin and watery consistency.
Cause. Watery or fast melting ice cream is associated with low solids mixes and
coarse, weak bodied ice cream or ice milk.
Wheyed Off
Description. Ice cream with this defect will develop a ring of clear greenish or
bluish fluid collecting around the edges of the scoop of ice cream early in the meltdown test. It may be observable in the mix before freezing.5
Cause. This is a common problem in concentrated mixes and mixes that are stored
for long periods before use. It is more common in mixes that have been abused
(excessive stirring, aerated, old).
3.4.5 Cheese
3.4.5.1 Introduction
There are at least 400 varieties of cheese with as many as 2000 names. A general
definition that applies to all these varieties is a dairy product made by coagulation
of milk, with or without its full complement of fat, removing the soluble portion
known as whey, and concentrating the insoluble portion into a semisolid cheese
mass known as curd. The whey is composed of water, lactose, proteins that are
soluble under the conditions of coagulation, and soluble minerals or ash. Some fat
usually is present also. The curd is composed primarily of casein and milk fat. It
also contains minor amounts of water-soluble materials dissolved in the water portion
of the curd. Variations that result in so many different types of cheese include type
of milk, method of coagulation (acid or enzyme), culture characteristics, amount of
water retained in the curd, method of cutting and handling the curd, fresh consumption versus ripening, and presence or absence of surface ripening organisms. Specific
definitions for several types of cheese are given in the Code of Federal Regulations,
Title 21 Part 133.71
Previous Page
Cause. Slow melting ice cream can be caused by certain stabilizers and emulsifiers,
high overrun, old ice cream, and several other processing and ingredient interactions
that promote gelation of the body of ice cream.
Foamy
Description. Foamy or frothy meltdown is noticed as a mass of large stable air
bubbles when the sample is completely melted.
Cause. Foamy ice cream can be caused by high overrun and by emulsifiers that
effectively stabilize foam.5
Watery
Description. This melting defect is a low resistance to melting with the melted mix
being of a thin and watery consistency.
Cause. Watery or fast melting ice cream is associated with low solids mixes and
coarse, weak bodied ice cream or ice milk.
Wheyed Off
Description. Ice cream with this defect will develop a ring of clear greenish or
bluish fluid collecting around the edges of the scoop of ice cream early in the meltdown test. It may be observable in the mix before freezing.5
Cause. This is a common problem in concentrated mixes and mixes that are stored
for long periods before use. It is more common in mixes that have been abused
(excessive stirring, aerated, old).
3.4.5 Cheese
3.4.5.1 Introduction
There are at least 400 varieties of cheese with as many as 2000 names. A general
definition that applies to all these varieties is a dairy product made by coagulation
of milk, with or without its full complement of fat, removing the soluble portion
known as whey, and concentrating the insoluble portion into a semisolid cheese
mass known as curd. The whey is composed of water, lactose, proteins that are
soluble under the conditions of coagulation, and soluble minerals or ash. Some fat
usually is present also. The curd is composed primarily of casein and milk fat. It
also contains minor amounts of water-soluble materials dissolved in the water portion
of the curd. Variations that result in so many different types of cheese include type
of milk, method of coagulation (acid or enzyme), culture characteristics, amount of
water retained in the curd, method of cutting and handling the curd, fresh consumption versus ripening, and presence or absence of surface ripening organisms. Specific
definitions for several types of cheese are given in the Code of Federal Regulations,
Title 21 Part 133.71
This treatment will use cheddar and closely related cheese as the standard. Cheddar is the most common type of cheese produced in the United States. It is usually
made from pasteurized cow's milk by adjusting the temperature to about 32C and
adding a lactic culture (usually Lactococcus lactus spp. lactus or Lactococcus lactus
spp. cremorus and chymosin or a related milk coagulant. Annatto color may be added
to give deeper orange color. When the milk gel forms, it is cut into small pieces and
warmed to drive the water out of the curd. During cooking the acid begins to develop.
When some acidity has developed, the whey is drained and the curd is allowed to
matt. Matted curd is cut into slabs that are moved and piled as more acid develops.
The slabs of curd stretch and flatten under the weight of curd above. The oriented
protein fibers give a "chicken breast" texture to the curd. This process is called
cheddaring. In an alternative process the curd is not allowed to matt but is stirred
continually as the acid develops. That method lends itself to mechanical handling.
When sufficient acid has developed the slabs are milled into cubes, salted, placed in
hoops, and pressed into blocks. Stirred curd is already in small pieces, so it is salted,
hooped, and pressed. Blocks of cheese are sealed in plastic or wax to exclude air
and prevent mold growth and aged for a time varying from a few months to a few
years depending on the sharpness desired in the cheese.
A skilled cheese maker knows how to manipulate the process to achieve the target
composition and character. He knows how to avoid phage build up as the culture is
developing acid, and he knows the value of and uses good sanitation practices as
the cheese is being made.
Before examining and grading cheese, the sample is tempered to 10 to 15.5C.
Proper tempering is critical for observation of some attributes. The first procedure
is visual examination of the cheese and packaging materials. The judge notes whether
the sample is neat, attractive, clean, and symmetrical. He looks for evidence of mold
growth where air may have had access to the cheese surface. A sample of cheese is
removed from the block with a trier similar to the one described in butter judging.
The trier is a double-edged curved blade that is pushed into the block, turned 180,
and removed bringing with it a tapered cylinder of cheese. The sample is preferably
taken from the top and about halfway to the center from the sides. The plug is passed
under the nose and the judge notes any aroma. The top 1 to 2 inches is then broken
off the pushed into the hole to partially protect the block from mold growth, drying,
and cracking. The judge examines the cheese cylinder for clean cut surfaces or
featherlike edges as if it were cut with a dull knife. Color is then observed. It should
be bright, clear, and uniform, free from faded areas or mottling, dark or light seams.
It should be somewhat translucent rather than opaque. The judge then looks for
mechanical openings. Their shape and the inside appearance should be noted. A
rounded glossy inner surface is indicative of gas while rough irregular inner surfaces
indicate poor pressing and curd knitting. The judge then takes the ends of the plug
by the tips of the fingers and bends it until it breaks. The plug may show shortness
which is resistance to bending followed by an abrupt break, or weakness when it
will bend until the ends nearly touch. The judge now takes a piece of cheese from
the plug and applies pressure on it between the thumb and forefinger followed by
manipulation into a uniform ball. The thumb is then pushed into the ball and re-
moved, noting adherence to the thumb or stickiness. If the ball tends to fall apart
under the thumb's pressure, it is crumbly or curdy. The warm molded cheese is now
ready for a second pass at aroma detection. The ball should be placed under the nose
and smelled. A small unworked portion of the plug is placed in the mouth for tasting.
It is chewed, rolling it around in the mouth while observing the taste and aroma
sensations, until a semiliquid state is achieved. The judge then expectorates the
sample and observes the aftertaste. The trier is cleaned with a soft cloth or a paper
towel prior to evaluation of another sample. The judge may freshen his mouth with
ambient temperature salt water, grapes, or an apple. He may wish to retaste the best
sample in the lot to standardize his tongue on * ideal." Experienced judges learn
enough from looking at the sample and evaluating its body and texture that tasting
is just reinforcing what they have already learned.5
A scoring guide for flavor and body/texture defects is shown in Table 3.12. The
ASDA cheddar cheese score card is shown in Figure 3.21 and the Collegiate Contest
Score Card is shown in Figure 3.22. Appearance and color are not judged in the
collegiate contest.
Much of the cheese sold in the United States is sold and priced based on government grade. Graders employed by the Dairy Grading Branch of the Poultry and
Dairy Quality Division, Food Safety and Inspection Service of the USDA assign
letter grades based on guidelines summarized in Table 3.13.
Fermented/Fruity
Description. The fruity off-flavor resembles the flavor of overripe pineapples or
apples. This sweet aromatic flavor intensifies as the cheese gets older and may evolve
into an unclean off flavor. The fermented flavor is suggestive of acetic acid or
vinegar.5
Definite
Pronounced
Flavor criticism
Bitter
Fermented/fruity
Flat, lacks flavor
Garlic, onion, weedy
Heated, cooked
High acid, sour
Moldy, musty
Rancid, lipase, putrid
Sulfide, skunky
Unclean, dirty
Whey taint, sour whey
Yeasty
9
8
9
6
9
9
7
6
9
8
8
6
7
6
8
4
8
7
5
4
7
6
7
4
4
5
7
1
7
5
3
1
4
5
5
1
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
Cause. This flavor defect is sometimes but not always associated with high moisture, pasty, weak-bodied cheese. The fruity flavor is thought to be due to the presence
of ethanol-forming microorganisms in the cheese milk or in the culture. Esters
formed from the ethanol combining with organic acids are responsible for the fruity
note and acetic acid generated is responsible for the fermented note.71"73-83 Low
acid or low salt also encourage the development of this flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Fermented/fruity cheese can usually be
found in a survey of a large number of samples. The flavor can be simulated in milk
by the addition of a small amount of pineapple juice. A small amount of processed
cheese can also be spiked with pineapple juice just before cooling to simulate this
Date:
Flavor
10
Criticisms
Contestant Score
SAMPLE NO.
3
4
6
5
TOTAL
GRADES
7
Score
Grade
No criticism
= 10
Normal range
= 1-10
Body and
texture
5
Criticism
Acid
Bitter
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat/lacks flavor
Garlic/onion
Heated
Moldy
Rancid
Sulfide
Unclean
Whey taint
Yeasty
Contestant score
Score
Grade
No criticism
5
Normal
range
1-5
Criticism
Corky
Crumbly
Curdy
Gassy
Mealy
Open
Pasty
Short
Weak
Allowed perfect
in contest
Allowed perfect
Finish
in contest
Total score
Total
in each sample
Total grade
per sample
Source: American Dairy Science Association (1987)
Color
Final grade
Rank
Figure 3.21 The ADSA contest cheddar cheese score card for sensory defects. (Reproduced
from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
!CONTESTANT NO
MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
X W H O 3 MWCIL
M
I PROPER
MARKS
DATE
6KlY-
PROPER
MARK
CHEDDAR
CHEESE
FEEO
NO
MOtOY
SUtFIDC
VWiYTAWT
BODY AMD
TEXTURE
NO
CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
Figure 3.22 Collegiate contest cheddar cheese score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with
permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
Flat/Lacks Flavor
Description. The descriptive term is accurate. Lack of flavor is noticed soon after
the sample is placed in the mouth. Odor and flavor are hardly detected either.
Cause. It is common for young cheese to have this defect because time is required
for cheese flavor to develop. The full flavor of cheese is due to the presence of acid
together with products of microbial and enzymatic breakdown products of the fat
and protein in the cheese. Some causes of the defect are lack of acid production, use
of low fat milk to make cheese, excessively high cooking temperatures that destroy
enzymes, curing at too cold a temperature, or too short a curing period.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Flat cheese has to be found by surveying
product that is available on the market or in the plant. A sample can generally be
found.
Garlic/Onion
Description. This flavor resembles that of garlic, onions, or leeks and usually has
a characteristic odor. The flavor builds up in the mouth and is very hard to wash out
after the sample has been expectorated.
Cause. Cheese will have the onion/garlic defect when it is made with milk that
has the defect. Milk is tainted with these flavors during the warm months when cows
are feeding in pastures that are infested with onion, garlic, or other weeds that impart
these flavors to the milk. They are especially strong when the cows consume these
plants shortly before they are milked.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Samples with this defect can be produced
by making a small experimental batch of cheese from milk with the actual or simulated defect. Alternatively a small batch of processed cheese can be made by melting
800 g of cheese with 16 g of sodium citrate and a small amount of onion or garlic
powder.
Heated
Description. The heated or cooked cheese flavor is different from the clean cooked
flavor of milk. It resembles the odor of spoiled milk or the odor of melted Bakelite
plastic. It is suggestive of the unclean odor and of heated whey.
High Acid
Description. Lactic acid is one of the normal flavor notes in cheddar cheese. Only
when the strength of the acid flavor overpowers the other flavor notes of the cheese
is it considered a defect. The normal pH range of cheddar cheese is 5.15 to 5.45. At
pH values below 5.15 the acid defect may be evident. The acid or sour flavor is
Grade
AA
Flavor:
Fine, highly pleasing very slight feed flavor permitted.
Body and texture:
Firm, solid, smooth, compact, close, translucent, few small mechanical
or sweet holes permitted, no gas holes.
Color:
Uniform, tiny white specks if aged and very slight seaminess permitted.
Finish:
Sound rind well-protected and smooth, even-shaped.
Flavor:
Pleasing, may possess limited feed, or acid or bitter flavor (if aged).
Body and texture:
Reasonably solid, compact, close and translucent, few mechanical holes
not large or connected, limited to two sweet holes per plug, no gas
holes.
Color:
Slight white lines or seams. May be very slightly wavy.
Finish:
Sound firm rind, well protected but may possess to a very slight degree
a soiled surface or mold growth; may be slightly lopsided, have high
edges or rough, irregular surface.
Flavor:
May possess certain limited undesirable flavors according to age.
Body and texture:
Texture may be loose and open and have numerous sweet holes,
scattered yeast and other scattered gas holes, pinny gas holes not
permitted.
Color:
May possess about the same defects as Grade A except to a greater
degree.
Finish:
Rind sound, may be slightly weak, but free from soft spots, rind rot,
cracks, or openings, bandage may be uneven, wrinkled but sound,
surface may be rough, unattractive, but have good protective coating;
paraffin may be scaly or blistered; no indication that mold has entered
the cheese; may be huffed, lopsided, or have high edges.
Approximate
Score or
Score Rangea
93 or above
92
90-91
characterized by a sharp tingling sensation on the tip or top of the tongue accompanied by a clean refreshing mouth feel.5
Cause. The acid flavor can be caused by the development of excessive lactic acid
during the making of the cheese, excessive retention of moisture that encourages
(Continued)
continued bacterial growth, retention of whey and lactose in the curd that provides
lactose for the production of lactic acid, the use of excessive starter, and the lack of
enough salt in the finished curd.5
Table 3.13
C
(Continued)
Flavor:
May possess somewhat objectionable flavors and odors with a certain
increase in tolerance according to age and degree of curing.
Body and texture:
May be loose with large connecting mechanical openings; have various
gas holes and body defects with limitations varying with the degree of
curing; must be sufficiently compact to permit drawing a full plug.
Color:
May possess various defects, but not to the extent that the color is
unattractive.
Finish:
Rind may be weak, have soft spots, rind rot, cracks, and openings, with
certain limitations varying with degree of curing. Bandage may be
uneven, wrinkled, but not torn; may have rough unattractive
appearance, paraffin scaly or blistered; mold permitted, but not evidence
that mold has entered the cheese; may be huffed, lopsided, and have
pronounced high edges.
Preparation of Samples for Training. High acid cheese is such a common defect
that good training samples will generally be found in a screening of products obtained from the market or the plant.
Moldy
Description. A moldy or musty flavor will resemble the smell of a damp potato
cellar that is poorly ventilated. The slightly unclean flavor tends to persist after the
sample has been expectorated.5
Cause. The most frequent cause is mold growth on the surface of the cheese due
to the availability of air at that surface during prolonged storage. Cheese packaging
is designed to exclude air at the surface of the cheese but if pinholes in the package
allow entry of oxygen, mold growth is inevitable.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Moldy cheese is easy to find or make. A
block of cheese loosely wrapped in plastic can be placed in the refrigerator for several
weeks. After a lawn of mold has grown on the cheese, cut off that mold and a thin
layer of cheese under it. The cheese under that is likely to have a moldy flavor.
Rancid
Description. A rancid flavor in cheese is characterized by a short reaction time, a
prominent odor that persists after expectoration, and an unpleasant, persistent, soapy,
bitter aftertaste. The volatile short-chain fatty acids can usually be smelled.5 A very
small amount of this flavor is part of a good cheese flavor, but amounts over and
above that are very disagreeable and indicative of problems.
Cause. Rancid cheese is a result of lipase enzyme action on milk fat. The lipase
may be from the raw milk or from psychrotrophic organisms growing in the milk.
Breaking up of the fat globules exposes new fat surfaces on which the lipase can
act. Inadvertent homogenization of raw milk or excessive agitation of raw milk in a
pump or tank can cause rancidity in the milk and resultant cheese. Late lactation or
mastitic milk can also become rancid.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A small lot of rancid cheese can be made
from milk that was homogenized several hours before pasteurization.
Sulfide
Description. Sulfide, skunky, or spoiled egg flavored cheese has a characteristic
flavor similar to water with a high sulfur content. The sulfury odor is noticed in the
nasal cavity when the air is slowly exhaled through the nose while working the
cheese in the mouth. The flavor is often accompanied by a sticky, pasty body.5
Cause. Release of the sulfur from the proteins in the cheese during aging is normal
and is part of the normal cheese flavor profile. Excessive release of sulfur due to
unbalanced microbial and enzymatic breakdown is the cause of the sulfide flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Incorporation of a trace of sodium bisulfide
into a small batch of processed cheese will simulate this flavor. It could also be
incorporated into grated or ground cheese and molded into a cold pressed mass. Be
careful not to allow asthmatic judges to taste the sample as some asthmatics may
have sensitivities to sodium bisulfate.
Unclean
Description. The unclean defect lacks a definitive sensory description. Unclean
flavored cheese will have a dirty, lingering, unpleasant aftertaste that persists long
after the sample has been expectorated. It is difficult to get the mouth to taste clean
again. It may occur in conjunction with high acid, bitter, and whey taint. It has been
described as a "dirty sock" taste.
Cause. Poor quality or old milk used for cheese manufacture is the cause of unclean
cheese. Proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes from the psychrotrophic bacterial growth
are responsible for the undesirable fermentations that occur during the aging of the
cheese.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A small lot of cheese can be made from
unclean milk to produce cheese that will have this defect. Alternatively a small
amount of limburger cheese may be added to a small batch of process cheese or
grated cheddar cheese to simulate the defect.
Whey Taint
Description. Whey taint has been described as a slightly sweet, slightly dirty, sour
whey flavor with a taste and odor characteristic of fermented whey. Some judges
Yeasty
Description. Yeasty flavor is characterized by a sour bread dough, earthy taste, and
the aroma of rising bread dough. Yeasty flavor is noticed immediately as the sample
is placed in the mouth. It is often accompanied by a gassy body in the cheese.
Numerous holes in the cheese with regular spherical shape and shiny inside surfaces
are evidence of gas production and yeast.5
Cause. Yeasty flavor cheese is caused by yeast contamination and yeast growth in
the cheese. The yeast may have been introduced into the milk after pasteurization or
into the cheese curd during manufacture due to uncleanliness of workers or equipment.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Exposing trainees to the flavor and aroma
of rising bread dough is a good demonstration of the flavors and aromas that will
be found in yeasty cheese, A small batch of yeasty cheese can be purposely made
by contaminating the milk with yeast prior to the cheesemaking process. A small
amount of sucrose may be added to provide food for the yeast.
Crumbly
Description. Crumbly or friable cheese tends to fall apart when sliced. Thin slices
are very difficult to cut without breaking. A plug of such cheese tends to break easily.
It is often accompanied by a mealy texture and acid cut and white seam color defects.
Cause. This body tends to develop in high acid and aged cheese. It also occurs in
cheese that has been frozen.5
Curdy
Description. Curdy cheese has the properties of fresh cheese curd. It is firm and
elastic and, when deformed by finger pressure, tends to spring back into its original
shape. It is accompanied by a flat undeveloped flavor.
Cause. This is a common body characteristic of *'green" cheese. Normally as
proteolysis occurs and the cheese ages, this characteristic will disappear.
Gassy
Description. Gassy cheese will contain regularly distributed holes about the size
of a pinhead with shiny internal surfaces. Usually the holes are concentrated near
the center of the block of cheese. They are often accompanied by a fruity flavor.5
Cause. Gassy cheese is caused by growth of gas-producing organisms in the
cheese. Lactococcus lactis spp. lactis var. diacetylactus or Leuconostoc sp. bacteria
will cause gassiness. Coliforms introduced into the cheese due to unsanitary practices
may also cause this defect. In some types of cheese this characteristic is encouraged
and the cultures are selected to accomplish gas and flavor production.5
Mealy
Description. When mealy cheese is worked between the thumb and forefingers
there is a lack of uniform smoothness. The body is interrupted with hard grains of
cheese and it spreads in irregular patches over the forefingers. It is also felt in the
mouth as the cheese is worked into a paste and rubbed against the roof of the mouth
with the tongue. It is generally accompanied by a dry texture with less than the usual
elasticity and a sharp flavor. White particles may be visible.5
Open
Description. Open cheese has mechanical openings throughout the body. These
openings are irregular in shape and occur at the curd interface. The inside surfaces
of these openings are dull in appearance, unlike the shiny inside surface of gassy
cheese. This defect is not accompanied by any particular flavor defect.5
Cause. Open cheese is the result of unfavorable pressing conditions that prevent
the cheese curds from completely knitting and closing. Press pressures that are too
low or curd temperatures that are too cool at pressing will cause this defect.
Pasty
Description. It is difficult to get a full, well rounded plug of pasty cheese. The
shape is easily distorted by pressure on the plug by the thumb. There is almost no
elasticity. When worked between the thumb and forefingers, it breaks down too
easily into a pasty sticky mass that adheres to the fingers.
Cause. High acid or high moisture cheese is often pasty. Contamination with atypical microorganisms may also be responsible for the unusually fast and complete
breakdown of the cheese body causing the defect. It is often accompanied by a
fermented/fruity flavor.5
Short
Description. A plug of cheese with a short texture shows a lack of elasticity. Rather
than flexing when it is bent, it breaks easily. It is often accompanied by high acid
flavor or a dry or open texture.5
Cause. Shortness can be caused by openness in the body that weakens the curd or
dryness that makes the cheese less flexible. It may also be caused by incomplete
development and aging of the body.
Weak
Description. Weak-bodied cheese offers little resistance as the cheese plug is cut
and drawn. Very little thumb pressure on the plug of cheese will break the curd. It
is often accompanied by whey taint, unclean, or fermented/fruity flavor.
Cause. Weak cheese is caused by retention of too much moisture or whey in the
curd as it was made. The high moisture encourages the growth of unwanted organisms in the cheese, giving the unclean or fermented/fruity flavors.5
of undissolved annatto can be present if the color solution has been destabilized. A
little residual calcium chloride solution in the container to which annatto is added
will cause coagulation of the color that may carry through to the finished cheese.
Light Seams
Description. Cheese with the light seam or wavy defect is interlaced with lightcolored lines around each original piece of curd. It is most noticeable on a freshly
cut surface. This defect may be accompanied by short body or crumbly texture.
Cause. This defect is a result of physically altered curd surfaces before hooping.
The surface may be covered by free fat due to too warm a temperature or excessive
forking. The curds may be dried due to moisture evaporation, or may be unevenly
salted due to poor dissolution of salt locally.5
Dark Seams
Description. Unlike the light seamed cheese, cheese with this defect has a darkened
band of color between the curd particles. The dark band appears to be wider than
the seam itself and is very obvious on freshly cut cheese surfaces.80
Cause. The reason for the dark appearance of the cheese in the seam is not known.
Seamy cheese results when milk is warmed to cheesemaking temperatures in the cheese
vat. It is avoided by bringing the milk into the vat at cheesemaking temperatures.80
White Specks
Description. Cheese with this characteristic has distinct white specks interspersed
throughout the mass of the cheese. The specks vary in size and may be so small that
close examination is necessary to detect them. The larger specks may be detected in
the mouth. The presence of these specks is associated with a fully developed flavor.5
Cause. White specks are indicative of mature cheese. They generally contain calcium lactate and tyrosine. The accumulation of tyrosine is indicative of the breakdown to protein associated with the aging process. Colder storage temperatures favor
the growth of these particles.5
Lopsided, Misshapen
Description. Cheese with this defect has nonparallel sides and ends as a result of
uneven distribution in the hoops coupled with nonuniform pressure across the hoop.
Part of such a block may be undepressed and have a weak body and open texture.5
Uneven Sizes
Description. Cheese blocks should be uniform in size and well within tolerances for
that style of cheese. This defect is called when the size variation becomes large.
Carelessness in uniformly filling the hoops is the cause of this defect. Blocks of uneven size result in excessive trim loss when the blocks are cut to uniform retail sizes.5
3.4.6.1 Introduction
Through the ages a natural way to preserve milk was to allow lactose-fermenting
organisms to grow in the milk, producing lactic acid and sometimes alcohol. With
the pH reduced, spoilage organism growth was discouraged. A variety of products
resulted from the various starting materials and treatments applied. In many cultures,
these fermented dairy products are preferred over fresh milk. The souring process
thickens the body and generated desirable and interesting flavors in addition to offering extended shelf life and improved safety. Consumption of cultured products is
growing in progressive countries where fresh fluid milk is preferred, due to health
philosopies, trends toward ethnic foods, and changing tastes.5
Products in this class include starter cultures, buttermilk, cultured skim milk, and
sour cream. Yogurt is considered a cultured product, but it is so different in character
that it is treated separately. Judging of these cultured products is not very well
developed. This is partly due to the lack of popularity of the products and the wide
variety of cultured products and opinions about what their characteristics ought to
be. The USDA does not grade cultured products and they are not (except for yogurt)
judged in competitive situations. Before shaking, the body of cultures to be used for
the manufacture of cultured products should be firm and show only a minimal
amount of whey. When the container is tilted, the product should break away cleanly
from the side and reveal an intact "liverlike" body. When stirred, it should break
down to a smooth body. It should have enough body to mound when held in a spoon.
When spread thinly, it should be free of lumps. The flavor blend should include acid
and diacetyl (buttery) notes and it should clean up nicely after expectoration. No
foreign or atypical flavor notes should be present.5 Cultured buttermilk should have
the same features as starter culture. Culture organisms used include Streptococcus
lactis ssp. lactis, or Streptococcus lactus ssp. cremorous or Lactococcus lactis ssp.
lactis var. diacetyllactis with Leuconostoc citrovorum or Leuconstoc dextranicum.
Cultured sour cream has similar properties except that it is more viscous due to the
18% or more milk fat content. Milk or cream for either is pasteurized with extra
heat treatment to improve water-holding capacity. Cream may be single-stage homogenized warm after pasteurization but before the culture is added. This clusters
the fat globules and gives body to the product.5
A suggested score card complete with defect terminology appropriate for the
range of cultured products is shown in Figure 3.23. A scoring guide is shown in
Table 3.14.
Bitter
Description. The bitter off-flavor is detected after the sample has been in the mouth
for some time and then expectorated. The bitter flavor need not be accompanied by
any unusual aroma.
Cause. Contaminating organisms are the expected cause of bitterness in cultured
products. Breakdown of proteins into bitter peptides by these proteolytic organisms
is usually responsible.5
Date:
Place:
Flavor
10
Normal range
1-10
No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Criticisms
Score
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Cheesy
Coarse (harsh)
Cooked
Fermented
Foreign
Green (Acetaldehyde)
High acid (sour)
Lacks acid (flat)
Lacks culture flavor
Lacks freshness
Metallic/oxidized
Rancid
Salty (too high)
Sauerkraut-like
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Unclean
Vinegar-like
Yeasty
No criticism
10
Body and
texture
Score
Curdy
Gassy
Grainy/gritty
Lumpy
Too firm (Over-stabilized)
Too thin (weak)
Figure 3,23 A suggested score card for the sensory evaluation of cultured milk products.
(Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission).
(Continued)
Cheesy
Description. Cheese cultures lack the typical cultured flavor and generally have a
proteolytic flavor note and a slightly bitter aftertaste.5 The flavor and aroma are
similar to that of Cheddar cheese.
Cause. This flavor also is a result of contamination of the culture with proteolytic
microorganisms and a breakdown of the protein and fat into components that give
the cheese flavor.
Appearance
5
Score
Churned fat
Dull (Lacks gloss)
Lacks uniformity
Unnatural color
Wheyed-off (Syneresis)
No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Product
Acidity
Score
% Titratable acidity
PH
Container and
3
Closure
Score
Short-fill
Over-fill
Soiled
Dusty
Total
Score
25
Score
per Sample
Evaluators:
Coarse
Description. This descriptor is one that has a broad meaning and multiple causes.
It refers to a general lack of delicate appeal, flavor balance, or bouquet that constitutes a well balanced cultured flavor. It may have excessive acid or just be lacking
in some of the volatile compounds that are needed for good balance.5
Cause. Culture strains that lack the ability to produce some of the important flavor
compounds may be the cause of coarse flavor. That may be due to improper culture
selection inappropriate propagation methods. It may also be due to overripening and
be accompanied by high titratable acidity.5
Fermented
Description. The fermented flavor describes a culture or cultured product that has
an acetic acid or vinegar flavor note.
Cause. Organisms that produce acetic acid in considerable quantities are responsible for the fermented flavor of cultures or cultured products.5
Foreign
Description. The term foreign is used to describe a number of flavors that are
imparted by addition of detergents, disinfectants, and sanitizers to milk or products
made from milk. The flavor is characteristic of the chemical that has been added.
The flavors are atypical of dairy products and do not develop in them. In some cases
the chemical may be detected by smell but in others it may not be detected until it
is tasted.5
Cause. Adding milk or milk product to a vat or running milk through piping that
has been washed or sanitized but not rinsed can cause a foreign flavor especially if
allowed to comingle with a considerable amount of liquid containing the chemical.
Other possible causes include treating the udder with ointments or medication, contamination with insecticides, and drenching the cow with chemical treatments.5
Green
Description. Green or acetaldehyde flavored cultures or cultured products have the
flavor of green apples. Acetaldehyde is a normal product of cultures and a normal
note in the flavor profile of cultures and cultured products, especially yogurt. When
the flavor is unbalanced because of the intensity of the green apple flavor it is said
to be green.5
Cause. Green flavor is caused by inappropriate cultures or cultures that have produced excessive amounts of acetaldehyde.
High Acid
Description. A sharp acid taste in cultured products is common and expected in
cultures and cultured products. It is detected by a sharp tingling sensation on the tip
of the tongue almost immediately after the product is placed in the mouth. It can be
accompanied by a lack or an excess of cultured flavor. Only if it is out of balance
and excessive for the product is it considered a defect.
Cause. The acid flavor is caused by the conversion of lactose to lactic acid by the
culture organisms. It becomes excessive by allowing the culture or product to
overripen before it is cooled. In a product, if the acid is excessive relative to the
other flavors, citrate may be necessary to assist in production of other flavors, the
inoculation rate of the lactic acid fermenter may be excessive, or the incubation time
too long.5
Definite
Pronounced0
Flavor defects3
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Coarse (harsh)
Cooked
Fermented (vinegary)
Foreign41
Green (acetaldehyde)
High acid (sour)
Lacks acid (flat)
Lacks freshness
Metallic/oxidized
Rancid
Salty (too high)
Sauerkraut-like
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Unclean
Yeasty
7
8
8
8
9
7
6
8
9
9
8
6
4
9
7
8
4
5
5
5
5
6
8
5
3
7
8
8
7
4
2
8
6
7
2
3
3
2
2
4
6
2
(f
6
7
7
6
2
0
6
5
5
0
0
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(Continued)
temperatures either too high or too low for the specific culture involved.5 Inactive
culture can be due to sanitizers that have residual activity such as quarternary ammonia, phage specific to the culture, or a culture with poor viability. It can also be
due to lack of nutrients in the media to support growth.
4
4
4
1
4
4
3
3
3
0
3
3
2
2
2
0
2
2
Product acidity8
PH
% Titratable acidity
Container and closureh
flavor producing strains. If acid is being produced then the problem is with the flavor
producing organisms.5
Metallic/Oxidized
Description. The first impression when tasting metallic or oxidized culture or cultured product may be that the sample is flat but as the sample is held in the mouth,
a sort of puckery cardboard, papery off-flavor may become evident.5 The flavor is
similar to that of a copper coin. It tends to remain in the mouth after the sample has
been expectorated.
Cause. This flavor is due to autoxidation in the milk used to produce culture or
cultured products. It can be catalyzed by traces of copper or corrodible metal that
has come in contact with the product.
Rancid
Description. There are several characteristics of rancid off-flavor. There is a characteristic odor derived from volatile fatty acids that have deesterified from the fat.
Immediately after putting the sample in the mouth, the objectionable flavor may not
be apparent but as the sample reaches the back of the mouth, soapy, bitter, and
possibly unclean flavors are perceived. The soapy and bitter notes reside long after
the sample is expectorated. A high percentage of prospective judges do not detect
or have a high threshold for the soapy and bitter notes.5
Cause. Rancid flavor is usually caused by disrupting the milk fat globule while
active lipase is present. The lipase enzyme, which catalyzes the deesterification of
the fatty acids from the glycerol, is able to get to its substrate when the fat globule
membrane is disturbed. This happens when raw milk is held static in a running
centrifugal pump, when raw milk is homogenized before it is pasteurized, or when
raw milk is inadvertently mixed with homogenized milk. It may also occur when
microorganisms, particularly psychrotrophs, produce and release Upases into milk
or cultured products from which it is made.5
Salty
Description. The descriptive term "salty" is commonly known and is a good term
to describe this flavor. It is perceived quickly on placing the sample in the mouth.
No aroma or odor necessarily accompanies the salty flavor. It lends a cleansing
feeling to the mouth.5
Cause. Salty flavor can come from the milk but in cultured product is most often
due to excessive salt added to the product.
Unclean
Description. The unclean defect lacks a definitive sensory description. Unclean
flavored culture or cultured product will have a dirty, lingering, unpleasant aftertaste
that persists long after the sample has been expectorated. It is difficult to get the
mouth to taste clean again. It may occur in conjunction with bitter flavor. It has been
described as a "dirty sock" taste.
Cause. Poor quality or old milk used for cultured product manufacture is the cause
of unclean cultured product. Proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes from the psychrotropic bacterial growth are responsible for the undesirable fermentations that occur
during culturing or storage.
Yeasty (Cultured)
Description. The "yeasty" and "earthy" flavor and aroma reminiscent of rising
bread dough is a good demonstration of the "yeasty" flavor. It is often associated
with an acetic acid or "vinegar" flavor.
Cause. Growth of yeast is usually responsible for this flavor but it may be due to
bacterial fermentation by certain kinds of psychrotrophic bacteria. It is due to poor
sanitation and lack of temperature control.67
of the sample and are also obvious when a small portion of the product is diluted
with water. Visible curd particles settle to the bottom of the container. The curdy
defect is associated with a thin body.5
Cause. Curdy texture is a result of low level of milk solids in the product base,
movement or agitation of the coagulum during incubation, or inappropriate cultures
for the product.
Gassy
Description. When cultures and cultured products that should be free of gas have
this defect, there are excessive bubbles in the broken curd or streaks in unbroken
coagulum where gas is escaping. If whey has separated, it will collect under or in
the middle of the buoyant curd. The product will develop carbonation flavor. These
characteristics are normal in buttermilk. It is a defect when it is found in sour cream
and most other cultured products.5
Cause. Some cultures are gas producers. Those in buttermilk that produce flavor
components are also gas producers, so gassiness is normal in buttermilk. It is not
desirable in most cultures and cultured products. When it is out of place, it is usually
due to contamination with gas-producing contaminant organisms such as coliforms
or yeast. Unclean, fermented/fruity, yeasty, or earthy flavor defects will usually
accompany microbial contamination. Gassiness can also be due to the selection of
inappropriate starters.5
Grainy/Gritty
Description. Gritty and grainy sour cream is detected in the mouth. Small particles
in the body of sour cream are detected by pressing the top of the tongue against the
roof of the mouth and noting a mealy feel.
Cause. A grainy defect in cultures or cultured products is often due to incompletely
dissolved dry ingredients in the product base.5
Lumpy
Description. Lumpy cultures or cultured products have large lumps of firm curd
interspersed throughout the product. The body may otherwise be normal.
Cause. Lumpiness is an aggravated case of the curdy defect caused by premature
agitation of the product as it is being incubated. Low solids in the product mix favors
the curdy and lumpy defect.5
Ropy
Description. Ropy cultures and cultured product tends to string out as the product
is poured or spooned. When product is poured, a continuous string of the product
stretches from the container to the product below like thin syrup or mucus. It does
not plop and break. When a spoon full is lifted from the surface as it is poured the
same effect is observed.
Cause. Ropy defect is usually due to polysaccharide producing bacteria in the
culture. In some cultured products this internal stabilization system is desirable.
Dutch yogurt is famous for its ropy characteristics and some types of domestic yogurt
utilize this type of culture. It is considered a defect when it is excessive or unwanted
and is likely due to contamination with inappropriate gum-producing organisms.5 It
can also be due to partially broken down stabilizers. Some types of starch, for example, are stringy or can be made to be so by excessive shear.
Too Finn
Description. Product is too firm when it has excessive viscosity and resists pouring.
In the case of sour cream it refers to the inability to stir it with a brittle, lightweight
plastic spoon without breaking the spoon. Another way to judge sour cream in the
original container is to insert a spoon or small spatula near the edge of the product
and twist it. If the entire contents of the container turns with the spoon, it is too firm.
The product may appear dull and lack the usual sheen.5
Cause. Product that is too firm is generally due to excessive use cf stabilizers or
excessive solids levels in the product mix.
Too Thin
Description. Weak-bodied cultures and buttermilk are observed by tilting the intact
coagulum to a 45 angle. If the product breaks and flows, it is too weak. The broken
agitated curd will break and flow too readily when it has lower than typical viscosity.
Low culture titratable acidity ^0.75 often accompanies this defect. Weak buttermilk
drips and splashes similar to water and exhibits a dull appearance. It is quite subject
to wheying off. Weak sour cream is too thin to spoon onto a potato and once there
will not mound and stay in place. It is too thin to have a generous amount cling to
a chip when used as a dip.
Cause. Thin cultured products can be due to understabilization or too low a solids
level in the product mix. It can also be caused by heat treatment of the mix insufficient to denature the whey proteins and potentiate their natural stabilizing ability.
Other possible causes are impaired culture activity or excessive proteolytic activity.5
Next Page
Lacks Uniformity
Description.
appearance.
Surface Growth
Description. This defect is easily observed. When colonies or microbial growth
are observed on the undisturbed surface of the coagulum or in the headspace of a
cultured product, this defect is called. It is found only in product that has been stored
refrigerated for weeks.
Cause. Product with this defect has been contaminated due to unsanitary practices
after processing and prior to or at the filler. The surface of the product serves as the
growth medium and air in the headspace supports the growth of the aerobic yeasts
and molds. Consumer product can develop this defect when product is opened and
partially used, then recovered and placed back in the refrigerator and forgotten.
Unnatural Color
Description. This is a rare defect. It may be present in sour cream as a snowy white
appearance lacking the usual cream color. It may be present in buttermilk-containing
butter granules that are too light in color to have the necessary contrast. Any time
the color of the product is not within the normal range, it is appropriate to assign
this defect.
Cause. White sour cream and pale butter granules are caused by lack of carotene
in the butterfat. The carotene content is low in the winter when the cows are in the
feed lot. Other cases of off color may be due to inadvertent inappropriate coloring
of the product.5
Wheyed-Off
Description. This defect is observed in unbroken coagulum as a shrunken coagulum with free whey around the edges or pooled on areas on the top of the curd.
In buttermilk the whey may be found under the floating curd.
Cause. This defect is caused either by understabilization or by inability of the milk
proteins to hold the water. Selection of appropriate stabilizers and stabilizer levels
will help discourage syneresis. Proteins can be made to hold a maximum amount of
water by increasing the pasteurization temperatures or holding times to denature the
whey proteins.5
Previous Page
3.4.7 Yogurt
3.4.7.1 Introduction
Yogurt is the oldest known fermented milk product dating back to at least 5000 B.C.
It has been a staple for people in eastern Mediterranean countries and has been known
by at least 13 different names. It grew in popularity in Europe in the early 1900s
after claims that it would prolong life were circulated. It was successfully introduced
into the United States in 1939 on the east coast.5 Flavored, fruited, and sweetened
varieties have grown in popularity throughout the United States.
Two bacteria, Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus salaverious ssp. thermophilous, work together in warm (29 to 45C) milk to produce
this acidic "green apple" flavored product. Body varies from thin and drinkable to
thick and custardlike.5-81'82 Traditionally the milk used had been boiled to increase
the solids, add body, and prevent syneresis. The same effects are now achieved by
fortification with powder, condensation by vacuum or membrane, then applying a
heat treatment to the mix to denature the whey proteins to improve water binding
and prevent syneresis.5'63'74 The federal definition of yogurt specifies the cultures,
sets the minimum fat, solids, and acidity levels, and allows pasteurization after culturing.75 It also lists allowable sweeteners. Recently, aspartame was approved for
use in yogurt.76
Yogurt is a comparatively new product in the United States, so procedures for its
evaluation are new and not yet as uniform as for the other products. The USDA does
not grade yogurt and collegiate judging of strawberry prestirred yogurt began in 1977.
As a rule, 6- or 8-oz. single serving units are evaluated. The cartons are covered or
placed inside another carton to conceal their identity. Temperature of evaluation is
between 1.7 and 100C to standardize the effect of temperature on body. Before the
sample is disturbed, the top of the sample is examined for surface growth, shrinkage
away from the sides of the container, and wheying off. Color and overall appearance
are observed in the undisturbed sample. Some product is then spooned onto a plate.
With the spoon full of sample, it is held up to eye level and examined. A moderate
mounding is desired. The spoonful of product is examined for several color, appearance, body, and texture qualities. The aroma is observed and the sample is placed in
the mouth. In the mouth, the yogurt is manipulated while observing several body,
texture, and flavor qualities. Initial, midpoint, and delayed taste sensations are noted.
The basic tastes are observed first, then the aromatic flavors emerge as the product
warms. The sample is expectorated and aftertaste and' * clean up" are noted.5
The ADSA score card for Swiss-style flavored yogurt is shown as Figure 3.24,
the scoring guide is shown in Table 3.15, and the Collegiate Contest Yogurt Score
Card is shown as Figure 3.25.
Flavor
Costumer No.
A.D.S.A.
10
No criticism
10
Normal range
1-10
Body and
texture
5
Criticisms
Contestant
Score
Score
Grade
Criticisms
Acetaldehyde (coarse)
Bitter
Cooked
Foreign
High acid
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks flavoring
Lacks freshness
Lacks sweetness
Low acid
Old ingredient
Oxidized
Rancid
Too high flavoring
Too sweet
Unnatural flavoring
Unclean
SAMPLE NO.
4
5
6
Total
Grades
Contestant
score
Score
Grade
No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Appearance 5
Criticisms
Gel-like
Grainy
Ropy
Too firm
Weak
Contestant score
Score
Grade
No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Criticisms
Atypical color
Color leaching
Excess fruit
Free whey
Lacks fruit
Lumpy
Shrunken
Surface growth
Total score of
each sample
Total grade
per sample
Source: American Dairy Science Association (1987)
Total
Final grade
Rank
Figure 3.24 The ADSA contest score card for swiss-style yogurt. (Reproduced from ref. 5,
with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
Table 3.15
Definite
Pronounced
Flavor criticisms
Acetaldehyde (green)
Acid (too high)
Acid (too low)
Bitter
Cooked
Foreign
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks flavoring
Lacks freshness
Lacks sweetness
Old ingredient
Oxidized/metallic
Rancid
Too high flavoring
Too sweet
Unclean
Unnatural flavoring
Yeasty
9
9
9
9
9
8
9
9
8
9
7
6
4
9
9
6
8
6
7
7
8
7
8
7
7
8
7
8
5
4
2
8
8
4
6
4
5
5
6
5
6
6
5
7
6
7
3
1
0b
7
7
1
4
2
4
4
3
4
4
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
1
2
2
Appearance criticisms0
Atypical color
Color leaching
Excess fruit
Free whey
Lacks fruit
Lumpy
Shrunken
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
unwosHNca^y
PROPER
M
I PROPER
MARK
MARKS
ERASE CHANGES CLEANLY AND
COMPLETELY
DO NOT MAKE ANY STRAY MARKS
CRITICISMS
FLAVOR
PRCOMTESTANT NO DATE
SWISS STYLE
YOGURT
R(TTEB
NO
CRITICISM FOREKSN
10
NORMAL
RANGE
1-10
LQWACID
OXlOiXCO
TOO HKSsK $UWORlNG
MNWAfUWAt n>VQ8*6
ViASTV
BODY A N D
TEXTURE
NO
GRAtNY
CRITICISM
5
TOOFWM
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
A N D COLOR
NO
COLOR LEACHiMO
CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
EXCtSSFRUtT
L A C K S FRUIT
SHRUNKEN
1-5
Figure 3.25 Collegiate contest swiss style yogurt score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with
permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
flavor but when it overpowers the other flavor note, it is a defect. The characterizing
flavor should predominate with acid, acetaldehyde, and sweetness filling in.
Cause. Acetaldehyde is produced by the Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus
culture organisms at incubation temperatures above 37.8C. In plain yogurt, typical
acetaldehyde levels are 5 to 40 ppm. The threshold is about 12 ppm. Overripening
at higher incubation temperatures may produce excessive amounts of acetaldehyde
and produce this defect. Lack of sweetener will also allow the acetaldehyde flavor
to come through too strongly.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Demonstration samples can be prepared by
adding acetaldehyde at about 30 to 60 ppm into strawberry-prestirred yogurt. A little
stock solution can be made in milk which is added to the yogurt dropwise while
stirring until the flavor is at a desired level.
Bitter
Description. Bitter is one of the basic taste sensations that does not necessarily
have an associated aroma. It is detected at the base of the tongue. The reaction time
is fairly slow so it is most strongly sensed after the yogurt is expectorated. The
intensity builds and it is hard to rinse away and refresh the tongue.
Cause. Bitter yogurt results from contaminated yogurt cultures, poor quality milk
ingredients that have been contaminated with psychrotrophic microorganisms, or
extremely poor quality fruit or flavoring.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Solutions of 1% quinine sulfate may be
added to yogurt. Add 2 ml for a slight and 4 for definite.5
Cooked
Description. A mild sulfur-like, slightly nutty, cooked egg white flavor may occasionally be encountered in yogurt. Yogurt and fruit flavors are effective masking
media so the cooked defect has to be strong to be noticed. It is objectionable only
when definite or pronounced. It may detract from the intended refreshing characteristic of the yogurt. It is most easily detected when the yogurt lacks acid or lacks
flavoring.
Cause. Yogurt mix is usually given a severe heat treatment to denature the whey
proteins and give syneresis resistance and body to the product. This treatment develops a cooked flavor. The strength of the competing and covering flavors determines whether or not the cooked flavor will be noticed.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Yogurt mix can be heated to 900C and held
for 30 min prior to cooling and culturing. It can be broken and cooled at pH 4.5,
lightly flavored, and lightly sweetened prior to tasting.
Foreign
Description. An off-flavor that is entirely unlike any off flavor that might be anticipated to develop in yogurt. This descriptor is reserved for the flavors introduced
High Acid
Description. Yogurt is a tart product normally. This defect refers to cases where
the tartness is overpowering the other flavors in the system. The high acid defect is
often confused with the '' green apple" o r ' ' acetaldehyde'' defect. High acid flavored
yogurt is usually below pH of 3.8. It usually dissipates quickly and leaves a refreshed
feeling in the mouth.
Cause. High acid yogurt is caused by an extended incubation period, high incubation temperatures, or insufficient cooling at the end of the incubation and flavoring
process. Other acids in the fruit flavoring can contribute to the excessive acid defect.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. High acid is a common defect in yogurt.
Food training samples are probably available on the retail shelf. If samples need to
be generated, it can be done by making a small batch of yogurt and incubating until
the pH drops well below 3.8. It can also be made by adding citric, malic, or lactic
acid to a sample of good quality yogurt sufficient to reduce the pH into that range.
Lacks Flavoring
Description. This defect is characterized by a weak characterizing flavor impact.
Sweetness, acid, and acetaldehyde flavor overpower the characterizing flavor.5
Cause. The cause of this defect is obviousthe use of too little flavor either purposefully or accidentally. Because good fruit is expensive, the temptation is to minimize the amount that is added. Carrying this too far will result in yogurt that lacks
flavoring.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect can be simulated by blending a
good quality yogurt with plain yogurt and sweetening to the appropriate level. The
proportions blended will depend on the flavor intensity of the good yogurt and the
degree of this defect desired.
Lacks Freshness
Description. Yogurt with this defect is characterized by a stale aftertaste. The flavor
of aged milk powder or whey powder is evident in the finished product. This flavor
comes on late after the product has been in the mouth a while. The stale aftertaste
remains in the mouth after the sample has been expectorated. When the flavor becomes
so strong that it is no longer a background flavor, the term old ingredient is used.
Cause. The cause of the lacks freshness defect is usually the use of old stale
powdered milk or condensed milk to build the solids of the yogurt mix. It can also
be due to the use of old stale fruit in the flavoring system.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. If a sample demonstrating this defect cannot
be found on the market, one can be made by formulating a small batch of yogurt at
home or in the laboratory and purposely using stale powdered milk to build the body
to about 12 to 14% milk solids. Another quicker method is to incorporate stale
ingredients into finished yogurt. Stirring a small amount of powder into good flavored yogurt may make a reasonably representative sample. The amount of stale
powder used is adjusted to achieve the desired intensity of flavor. The powder is
worked to a paste in a small portion of the yogurt and then mixed into the sample.
Lacks Sweetness
Description. There is a broad range of sweetness that is acceptable in flavored
yogurt. Usually 4% to 12% sucrose is needed to balance the acid and the intensity
of the characterizing flavor. When the amount of sweetener is insufficient, this defect
is called. It is one of the more confusing yogurt flavors because experts and consumers are not necessarily in agreement as to what is an appropriate level of
sweetener.
Cause. The lack sweetness defect is caused by insufficient sweetener in the flavored
yogurt to balance and enhance the other flavors of yogurt.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect can be simulated by blending
an ideal yogurt with plain unsweetened yogurt and then adding flavors sufficient to
give a good characterizing flavor and not adding additional sweetener.
Low Acid
Description, Yogurt that has a low acid defect lacks the tart, refreshing character
of normal yogurt. It tends to taste more like a neutral pudding than yogurt. The pH
of low acid product will be above 4.5.
Cause. Low acid yogurt may be caused by imbalanced yogurt culture with a scarcity of acid-loving Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus organisms, underactive
cultures due to an inhibitor, insufficient heat treatment of the base, or excessive
sweetener level.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Demonstration product can be made by
formulating a small laboratory or home batch and purposefully cutting short the
incubation by breaking, flavoring, and cooling as soon as the coagulum is formed
at around pH 4.6. It can be accentuated by adding a little excess sweetener.
Old Ingredient
Description. Old ingredient is an extension of the lacks freshness defect. When the
stale flavor becomes very obvious and predominates over the acid, acetaldehyde,
and characterizing flavors and the sweetness, this descriptor is applied. The stale
flavor masks the expected refreshing flavor of the yogurt.
Cause. Use of stale milk powder, whey powder, or condensed milk in the yogurt
mix is probably the cause of old ingredient defects. It is occasionally caused by stale
stabilizer or emulsifier.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A sample demonstrating this defect can be
made by making a small batch or yogurt at home or in the laboratory and purposely
using stale powdered milk to build the body to about 12 to 14% milk solids. Another
quicker method is to incorporate stale ingredients into finished yogurt. Stirring 2 to
4% stale powder into good flavored yogurt may make a reasonably representative
sample. The powder is worked to a paste in a small portion of the yogurt and then
mixed into the sample.
Oxidized
Description. Oxidized yogurt has cardboard, tallow, or metallic flavors. It is very
uncommonly noticed because of the masking effect of the strong yogurt flavor.
Cause. Oxidized yogurt is caused by the use of ingredients in the mix that have
developed the defect. The metallic oxidized defect is caused by the presence of
corrodible metal in the lines or tanks that come in contact with the mix. These metal
ions catalyze lipid oxidation. The sunlight oxidized flavor is caused by exposure of
milk to sunlight or fluorescent lights, causing a reaction that involves the riboflavin
and causing the cardboard or burnt feathers flavor. That flavor is common in retail
milk.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Oxidized yogurt can be made by generating
oxidized milk either by exposure to sunlight or exposure to copper or CuSO4
followed by a period for development of the flavor, and then using that milk to make
a small batch of yogurt. An alternate method would be to add about 10 to 20% of
intensely oxidized milk to good quality yogurt.
Rancid
Description. There are several characteristics of rancid off-flavor. There is a characteristic odor derived from volatile fatty acids that have deesterified from the fat.
Immediately after putting the sample in the mouth, the objectionable flavor may not
be apparent but as the sample reaches the back of the mouth, soapy, bitter, and
possibly unclean flavors are perceived. The soapy and bitter notes reside long after
the sample is expectorated. A high percentage of prospective judges do not detect
or have a high threshold for the soapy and bitter notes.5
Cause. Rancid flavor is usually caused by disrupting the milk fat globule while
active lipase is present. The lipase enzyme, which catalyzes the deesterification of
the fatty acids from the glycerol, is able to get to its substrate when the fat globule
membrane is disturbed. This happens when raw milk or product mix is held static
in a running centrifugal pump, when raw milk is homogenized before it is pasteurized, or when raw milk is inadvertently mixed with homogenized milk which is
subsequently used as an ingredient for yogurt. In making yogurt it is quite possible
that raw and homogenized ingredients are mixed inadvertently. It may also occur
when microorganisms, particularly psychotrophs, produce and release lipases into
dairy ingredients used to make yogurt.5
Preparation of Training Samples. Rancid milk can be prepared by adding equal
quantities of raw milk to freshly pastuerized and homogenized milk and holding
several hours cold while the flavor develops.5 The rancid milk can either be used as
an ingredient to make a small batch of yogurt normally or pasteurized rancid milk
can be blended into good quality finished yogurt at the rate of 10 to 20%.
Too Sweet
Description. When the sweetness of the yogurt is so strong that it overpowers the
flavor system and the acid, it is criticized for this defect. The sweetness should be
just enough to complement the berry or fruit flavors and balance the acid but not
strong enough to cover it.
Cause. This is a common defect of yogurt in the United States. Our sweet tooth
encourages many yogurt makers to add excessive sweetener, thinking that the consumer finds it more acceptable. It may also be caused by formulation error.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Ideal yogurt can be made to exemplify this
defect by adding an additional 5% sucrose and stirring until it is dissolved.
Unnatural Flavoring
Description. Yogurt is unnaturally flavored when the character of the flavor does
not agree with the flavor on the label.5 For example, when the strawberry yogurt
tastes like cherry or when banana flavor has found its way into the vanilla yogurt it
is unnaturally flavored. The flavor may not be identifiable but also not characteristic
of the labeled flavor.
Cause. Unnatural flavoring can be caused by inadequacies in the flavor source or
use of uncharacteristic flavor enhancers or other natural flavors (WONF) that are
intended to extend the flavor but succeed only in changing its character. Another
cause is lack of control or changes in the process will alter the flavor and cause this
defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. There are a lot of possible variations of this
defect. A good judge would need to be able to recognize departures from normal
flavor. One could obtain a good set of characterizing flavor systems without fruit
from flavor houses and add traces to good quality yogurt to give uncharacteristic
flavor notes. With a little more effort, fruit and color systems without flavor could
be made or obtained. Addition of a fruit and color system of one character and a
flavor system of another would result in good training samples.
Unclean
Description. Unclean flavored yogurt is noticeable, unpleasant, and serious. The
judge will note a dirty flavor or unpleasant aftertaste that lingers after the sample
has been expectorated. It discourages a consumer or a judge from taking a second
taste. A "dirty sock" or limburger flavor would be classified as unclean.
Cause. The unclean flavor is due to the proteolysis of proteins producing volatile
products. Some of the amines such as putricine or cadaverine produced are particularly offensive.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Working a little limburger cheese into a
thin paste and blending it into the yogurt will give product with an unclean character.
Yeasty
Description. The "yeasty" and "earthy" flavor and aroma reminiscent of rising
bread dough is a good demonstration of the "yeasty" flavor. It is often associated
with an acetic acid or "vinegar" flavor.5
Cause. Growth of yeast is usually responsible for this flavor but it may be due to
bacterial fermentation. Certain kinds of psychotrophic bacteria can be responsible
for this objectional off flavor. It is due to poor sanitation and lack of temperature
control.67-68
Preparation of Samples for Training. Having students smell and taste rising bread
dough will acquaint them with the flavor and aroma of products that have this
character.
Grainy
Description. The grainy defect is best detected in the mouth. Small hard grains
will be evident in the body of the yogurt as the tongue is pressed and rubbed against
the roof of the mouth.
Cause. Grainy yogurt can be caused by incomplete hydration of dry ingredients
into the mix, acid development that is too rapid or excessive, incubation temperature
too high, homogenization at too high a temperature, excessive amounts of culture,
inappropriate stabilization system, or improperly blended yogurt base with fruit.5
Ropy
Description. Ropy yogurt tends to string out as the product is poured or spooned.
When product is poured, a continuous string stretches from the container to the
product below like thin syrup or mucus. It does not plop and break. When a spoon
is immersed and lifted 5 to 8 cm above the yogurt surface, the yogurt strings and
stretches like taffy or glue.
Cause. Ropy defect is usually due to polysaccharide producing Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus strains in the culture.5 In some yogurt products this internal
stabilization system is desirable. Dutch yogurt is famous for its ropy characteristics
and some types of domestic yogurt utilize this type of culture for stabilization. It is
considered a defect when it is excessive or unwanted and is likely due to contamination with inappropriate gum-producing organisms. It can also be due to partially
broken down stabilizers. Some types of starch, for example, are stringy or can be
made to be so by excessive shear.
Too Firm
Description. When yogurt exceeds the consistency of a light custard it is too firm.
A spoonful of yogurt viewed from the side at eye level will appear rounded and
mounded high. In the mouth it gives the impression of heavy pudding and does not
give the refreshing feeling of the ligher bodied product.
Cause. Yogurt that is too firm is generally due to excessive use of stabilizers or
excessive solids levels in the product mix.5
Weak
Description. Weak yogurt has a thin consistency. When a spoonful is viewed from
a side profile, the product is not mounded in the spoon and the surface is flat. Some
of the spoon's contents may spill over the edge of the spoon. When spooned or
poured out into a dish or on a plate it flattens and does not mound at all.
Cause. Causes of weak yogurt are understabilization, low levels of milk solids in
the mix, under-incubation such that the product has not fully ripened, or too low a
pasteurization temperature to convert the protein system into a good water binder.5
Color Leaching
Description. The color-leaching defect applies to flavors that have piece integrity
when the color in the pieces migrates to the yogurt. It becomes obvious when the
yogurt is spooned and the color from the pieces streaks across the cut surface of the
yogurt.
Cause. Leaching color is difficult to prevent and is most obvious when the fruit is
highly colored. It is aggravated by large fruit and berry pieces, colors that are not
acid stable in the pH range of 3.8 to 4.3, and incomplete blending of the fruit with
the yogurt base before the filling operation.5
Excess Fruit
Description. Since the fruit portion of yogurt is very expensive, this defect is not
encountered often. When it does occur, the yogurt will have an excessive show of
fruit. The cut surface of the yogurt will have more than the typical number of fruit
pieces and it will likely be accompanied by a higher level of color. The body may
be somewhat weak due to the dilution of the yogurt with excessive fruit.5
Cause. The cause for excess fruit is usually operator error. Rarely does a manufacturer purposely load the product down with excessive fruit. It may also occur due
to incomplete blending of fruit and yogurt so that the fruit is concentrated in portions
of the yogurt.
Free Whey
Description. The free whey defect refers to the expulsion of a clear fluid (whey)
from the curd. An undisturbed cup of yogurt exhibiting this defect will have clear
fluid around the edges or/and a puddle of whey on the top of the gel. When the cup
is tipped, it will run to one side and be more easily seen. In disturbed product it will
puddle in the depressions where the product has been spooned out. In the collegiate
contest, this judgment is made in an undisturbed cup.
Cause. Tendency for yogurt to syneresis or whey off is aggravated by excess or
insufficient acid development, disruption of the yogurt by shaking or inverting the
carton, low milk solids, or insufficient heat and holding time during pasteurization
to give needed water binding character to the protein system.5
Lacks Fruit
Description. In berry or fruit flavored yogurt, there is expected to be a certain show
of fruit. When the product is spooned or cut, a number of pieces are exposed on the
surface to give the impression that a reasonable amount of fruit was used in the
flavoring. A scarcity of fruit or berry pieces on that cut surface is indicative of this
defect. It is common to have a good flavor impact but very little fruit.
Cause. This defect is generally caused by economizing on fruit and using too little
flavoring material or too few pieces in the flavoring material. It may also be caused
by incomplete blending of the flavoring material with the ripened yogurt mix before
the filling process began yielding portions of yogurt that were not sufficiently
fruited.5
Lumpy
Description. Lumpy yogurt is characterized by its resistance to stirring to a smooth
texture. Instead, it forms individual lumps resist breaking up and smoothing out. It
is usually accompanied by a gellike body.
Cause. Lumpy appearance in yogurt and gelled body often go together and have
similar causes. They are caused by excessive use of gelatin or other gel-forming
stabilizers. It is often done purposely to give the product stability and resistance to
syneresis through distribution.5
Shrunken
Description. This defect is characterized by the pulling away of the coagulum from
the sides of the cup due to the contracting of the coagulum mass. It looks like the
product has been reduced in volume. It is usually accompanied by the collection of
free whey in the space that is created.
Cause. Tendency for yogurt to shrink is caused by some of the factors that cause
free whey to develop. It is aggravated by excess acid development and by low milk
solids in the mix.5
3.4.8.10 Introduction
Removal of water is an effective way of preserving dairy products. The low water
activity arrests the growth of spoilage organisms. Drying minimizes the weight and
volume making shipping and storage more efficient. Drying also makes possible
addition of dairy products to formulated dry or concentrated mixes. Baking mixes,
baby formulas, and drink mixes are examples of products that contain dried dairy
products and only dried products would do.
Several drying processes are available. Drum drying, spray drying, and freeze
drying are examples. By far the most commonly practiced is spray drying. A concentrated (vacuum evaporated) mixture is pumped through an atomizer which finely
divides the liquid into droplets that are ejected into a down draft of hot dry air. With
the large surface area per unit volume and high temperatures, the water evaporates
in seconds. Before the droplet hits the wall of the dryer, it is dry enough that it will
not stick to surfaces. The dry particles are separated from the air by gravity and by
centrifugal force in cyclones. The residual is removed by porus bags through which
the air flows and in which the powder collects. Temperatures of air-powder mixtures
in the dryer are reduced by evaporative cooling so that the final dry powder need
not be very hot in a well balanced system.
Some dried products may tend to ball up when water is added, making it difficult
to rehydrate. Powders may be instantized to overcome this difficulty.77'78 The commonly used method involves exposing cascading powder to steam or a fine water
mist. The particles are partially rewetted and as they fall to the bottom of the
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight
Definite
Definite
Definite
Definite
Slight
Slight
Definite
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight
chamber, they stick to one another and pile up in a loosely packed porus layer. This
material is redried and ground. The more open structure and the crystalline lactose
facilitates controlled, complete, and rapid rehydration.
Some commonly dried milk products are skim milk, milk with varying fat contents, buttermilk, whey, yogurt, and cheese. Standards of Identity for dry whole milk
and nonfat dry milk are found in The Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. 5 7 Grading
standards for dried milk, cream, and whey are found in Title 7.28 Two grades are
established, Extra and Standard. Beverage nonfat dried milk must meet the standards
for Extra Grade. The flavor and appearance criteria for the two grades of nonfat
dried milk are shown in Table 3.16 and Table 3.17 respectively. In addition to the
flavor and appearance criteria, there are compositional and microbiological criteria.
These criteria vary only slightly for dried whole milk.
A suggested dry milk products score card is shown in Figure 3.26 and a scoring
guide is shown in Table 3.18. The flavor and appearance defects not already covered
in other products are described below.
Very slight0
Slight
Slight
Very slight
Slight
Slight
Definite
Slight
Slight
Slight
too long. It is often accompanied by the presence of scorched particles and darkening
of the color. It is more commonly associated with roller dried powder than spray
dried powder.5
Stale
Description. Stale powders are the source of stale flavors in so many other dairy
products in which milk powders are used. Other descriptors used are lacks freshness,
glue like, storage. It is a very distinctive flavor that gets meaning and definition at
the first taste of reconstituted stale milk powder. A darkening of the powder follows
the development of stale flavor. The stale flavor will be noted before any darkening
occurs.
Cause. Oxidation of the milk proteins and the milk fat in powders is difficult to
prevent because of the vast surface area and the intimate contact with oxygen in the
air. This flavor develops even in nitrogen-packed powders because of the presence
of some oxygen. If the solution to this problem was found, the acceptability of dried
products would take a giant leap forward.5
Chalky
Description. Chalky milk powder refers to powder that, when rehydrated, has the
feel of fine insoluble chalk particles. It is as much an objectionable mouth feel
Product:
SAMPLE NO.
1
Flavor
No criticism
10
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5
No criticism
5
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5
Package
Score
Dry product:
Caked
Dark particles
Lumpy
Unnatural color
Reconstituted
Product:
Churned particles
Dark particles
Grainy
Undispersed lumps
Score
No criticism
5
Unsalable 0
Normal range
1-5
Score
Criticism
Acid
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Cooked
Feed
Fermented
Flat
Foreign
Gluey^
Metallic
Neutralizer
Oxidized/tallowy
Rancid (lipolysis)
Salty
Scorched
Stale
Storage
Unclean/utensil
Weedy
10
Physical
appearance
Ruptured vapor
Barrier
Soiled
Unsealed
Figure 3.26 A suggested dry milk products score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)
Date:
1
Laboratory
tests
5
No criticism
5
Unsalable 0
Score
Fat (%)
Moisture (%)
Titratable acidity
(% Lactic acid)
Solubility index (ml)
Bacterial estimate
(per gram)
Coliform (per gram)
Direct microscopic
Clump count (per g)
Scorched particles (mg)
Dispersibility (modified
Moats-dabbah method, %]
Phosphatase test
Micrograms phenol/ml
Undenatured whey protein
Nitrogen (mg/g)
Oxygen content {%)
Copper (ppm)
Iron (ppm)
Vitamin A (i.u.)
Vitamin D (i.u.)
Alkalinity of ash
(ml/lOOg)
Protein content (%)
Mesh (screen %)
Ash, phosphorus fixed (%)
Lead (ppm)
Yeast and mold (per 0.1 g)
Thermophiles (per g)
Reducing sugars (as
lactose %)
Staphylococcus
(coagulase positive)
Salmonella (in 100 g)
Signatures:
SAMPLE NO.
4
5
6
Table 3.18 A SUGGESTED SCORING GUIDE FOR THE FLAVOR OF DRY MILK
(RELIQUIHED BASIS)
Scores for a Given Intensity3
Defect
Acid
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Cooked
Feed
Fermented
Rat
Foreign*1
Gluey
Metallic
Neutralize/
Oxidized/tallowy8
Rancid (lipolysis)
Salty
Scorched
Stale
Storage
Unclean/utensil
Weedy
Slight5
Moderate
Definite
Strong
2
8
6
8
9
8
6
9
2
2
4
0
4
5
7
4
4
7
5
3
1
7
5
7
8
7
5
8
1
1
3
0
3
4
6
3
3
6
4
2
0
6
4
6
7
6
4
7
0
0
2
0
2
3
5
2
2
5
3
1
0
5
3
5
6
5
3
6
0
0
1
0
1
2
4
1
1
4
2
0
Pronounced0
0
0-4
0-2
0-4
5
0-4
0-2
e
0
0
0
0
0
0-1
0-3
0
0
0-3
0-1
0
Neutralizer
Description. Different neutralizes have slightly different flavors. It is an alkaline,
baking soda, or soda cracker flavor. Bitterness is often part of the profile. It is best
detected after the sample has been in the mouth a while or after the sample has been
expectorated and air is inhaled through the mouth. The aftertaste does not easily
clean up.
Cause. Neutralizes are legal to add to whey to bring the pH to neutral before
drying. It is not legal to add to other dairy products prior to drying. These alkaline
neutralizes have a characteristic flavor that is detectable in the finished product.
where the traces of product might ride around the drum several cycles then be scraped
into the product.5 In other drying processes, any hot surface could collect and darken
product which later falls into the final product. Dark particles could also be introduced in other ways.
3.5 References
1. Brown, E. L., and K. Deffenbacher. 1979. Perception and the Senses, p. 57. Oxford University
Press. New York.
2. Coren, S., C. Porac, and L. M. Ward. 1978. Sensation and Perception, p. 112. Academic Press, New
York.
3. Amerine, M. A., R. M. Pangbom, and E. B. Roessler. 1965. Principles of Sensory Evaluation of
Food. Academic Press. New York, 602 pp.
4. Dudel, J. 1981. General sensory physiology, psychophysics. In R. F. Schmidt (ed.), Fundamentals
of Sensory Physiology, pp. 1-30. Springer- Verlag, New York.
5. Bodyfelt, F. W., J. Tobias, and G. M. Trout. 1988. The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products, pp.
11-478. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
6. Zimmerman, M. 1981. Neurophysiology of sensory systems. In R. F. Schmidt (ed.), Fundamentals
of Sensory Physiology, pp. 31-80. Springer-Verlag. New York.
7. Altner, H. 1981. Physiology of taste. In R. F. Schmidt (ed.), Fundamentals of Sensory Physiology,
pp. 220-227. Springer-Verlag, New York.
8. Murray, R. G., and Murray, A. 1967. The fine structure of the taste buds of rhesus and cynomolgus
monkeys. Anat. Rec. 19:327-353.
9. Rohen, J. W. 1978. Funkionelle Anatomie des Nervensystems, p. 380. F. H. Schattauer, Stuttgart.
10. Plattig, K. H. 1988. The sense of taste. In J. R. Piggott (ed.), Sensory Analysis of Foods pp. 2 - 3 ,
11-15. Elsevier, New York.
11. Fabman, S. I. 1967. Structure of chemoreceptors. In H. W. Schultz, E. A. Day, and L. M. Libbey
(eds.), Chemistry and Physiology of Flavors, pp. 25-51. AVI, Westport, CT.
12. Blakeslee, A. F., and A. L. Fox. 1932. Our different taste worlds. / . Hered. 23:96-110.
13. Maruniak, J. A. 1988. The sense of smell. In J. R. Piggott (ed.), Sensory Analysis of Foods, pp. 2 - 3 ,
11-15. Elsevier, New York.
14. Moran, D. T., J. C. Rowley, and B. W. Jafec. 1982b. Electron microscopy of human olfactory
epithelium reveals a new cell type: the microvillar cell. Brain Res. 253:39-46.
15. Graziadei, P. P. C. 1971. The olfactory mucosa of vertebrates. In L. M. Beidler (ed.), Handbook of
Sensory Physiology, Chemical Senses I, pp. 27-58. Springer-Verlag, New York.
16. Getchell, M. L., B. Zielinski, J. L. DeSimone, and T. V. Getchell. 1987. Odorant stimulation of
secretory and neural processes in salamander olfactory mucosa, / . Comp. PhysioL A 160:155-168.
17. Moncrieff, R. W. 1967. The Chemical Senses. Chemical Rubber Co. Press, Cleveland, OH.
18. Getchell, M. L., G. L. Heck, J. A. DeSimone, and S. Price. 1980. The location of olfactory receptor
sites: inferences from latency measurements. Biophys. J. 29:397-412.
19. Allison, A. C, and R. T. Warwick. 1949. Quantitative observations on the olfactory system of the
rabbit. Brain 72:186-197.
20. Code of Federal Regulations. 1991. Title 7, Part 58, Subpart P, Paragraphs 58.2621-582635. U.S.
Standards for Grades of Butter. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C.
21. Harper, R. 1972. Human Senses in Action, pp. 238, 250, and 255. Churchill-Livingstone, London.
22. Hochberger, J. E. 1964. Perception. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
23. McNamara, B. P. 1968. Vision. In Basic Principles of Sensory Evaluation, ASTM STP 433, pp.
19-23. American Society for Testing Materials.
24. Brown, J. L. 1965. The structure of the visual system. In C. H. Graham (ed.), Vision and Visual
Perception. J. Wiley & Sons, New York.
25. Stiles, W. S. 1978. Mechanism of Colour Vision. Academic Press, London.
CHAPTER
4
Functional Properties
of Milk Proteins
Olivier Robin, Sylvie Turgeon, and Paul Paquin
4.1 Introduction, 278
4.2 Composition and Principal Physicochemical Properties of Major Milk
Proteins, 280
4.2.1 Major Protein Components in Milk, 280
4.2.2 Principal Physicochemical Properties of Milk Proteins, 281
4.3 Major Functional Properties of Milk Proteins, 282
4.3.1 Water-Protein Interactions, 282
4.3.1.1 Hydration/Rehydration Properties, 284
4.3.1.2 Solubility, 289
4.3.2 Protein-Protein Interactions, 292
4.3.2.1 Rheological Behavior of Protein Dispersions, 292
4.3.2.2 Gelling Properties of Globular Proteins, 297
4.3.3 Protein-Surface Interactions, 302
4.3.3.1 Interfacial Properties of Milk Proteins, 303
4.3.3.2 Dispersed Systems: Emulsions and Foams, 309
4.3.3.3 Flavor Binding, 324
4.4 Some Selected Processing Effects on the Functional Properties of Major Milk
Proteins, 325
4.4.1 Effects of Heat Treatments, 325
4.4.1.1 Effects on Caseins, 325
4.4.1.2 Effects on Whey Proteins, 328
4.4.2 Membrane Separation Processes, 329
4.4.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO), 330
4.4.2.2 Nanofiltration (NF), 330
4.4.2.3 Ultrafiltration (UF), 331
4.5 Conclusion, 332
4.6 Acknowledgments, 333
4.7 References, 334
4.1 Introduction
Dairy quotas, prospects for dairy product prices, enormous stockpiles of skim milk
powder and butter, the new eating habits of Occidental consumers, and ever stricter
environmental laws have resulted in an increasing demand for versatile ingredients,
principally proteins, possessing appropriate functional properties.1'2 Proteins, and
specifically milk proteins, are important, not only because they possess a wide range
of dynamic functional properties, but also because they are easily isolated from raw
milk, provide essential amino acids, show versatility during processing, and possess
the capacity to form network structures and stabilize emulsions and foams.3-4 A better
understanding of the functional properties of milk proteins has led to or contributed
to the development of new prospects for meeting consumer expectations (light products), and those of health (body, pharmacological, infant nutrition, enteral, or parenteral products) and beauty professionals (cosmetic products), or simply for a better
management of the raw product.1'5"7
The use of milk proteins to give food desirable organoleptic or textural properties
is strongly influenced by their functional properties. Functionality is defined as "any
property of a food, or a food ingredient, except its nutritional ones, that affect its
utilization."8 Cheftel et al.,9 and Lorient10 propose a more accurate definition by
classifying functional properties of proteins into three major groups:
1. Properties depending on the behavior of proteins in water: water-protein interactions which include water adsorption, hydration, wetting, solubility, and viscosity.
2. Properties depending on interactions between macromolecules: protein-protein
interactions, which include structural properties, and covalent or ionic intermolecular associations.
3. Properties depending on interactions with amphiphilic molecules or with a gas
phase: protein-surface interactions which include emulsifying and foaming properties, and flavor binding.
If this classification has the merit of being succinct and reasonably complete,
these three categories are not, however, mutually independent: gelation involves not
only protein-protein interactions but also protein-water interactions.3
Because of the diversified nature of milk proteins (amino acid composition, tridimensional structure), the study of the functional properties of proteins cannot be
dissociated from the study of the physicochemical properties of proteins and of the
relationships between structure and functional properties in food systems, that is,
taking into consideration the importance of various inter-/intramolecular forces/
interactions (e.g. covalent, electrostatic, hydrogen, hydrophobic) which ultimately determine the functional properties of proteins as they do for any other molecule.11'13
Furthermore, these inter-/intra-molecular forces/interactions, and consequently functional properties, are closely related to the environmental conditions (e.g., pH, temperature, ionic strength, salt composition and species, presence of other solutes, etc.)
and the modifications due to processing that are involved in obtaining and utilizing
a protein ingredient (thermal, physical, chemical, and biological treatments).14
Examples of
Milk Protein
Ingredient Used
Emulsification, stabilization,
resistance to feathering
Sodium caseinate
Sodium caseinate
Sodium caseinate
Water/fat holding,
emulsification, foaming, texture,
appearance
Cake
Cookies
Whey
Lactic casein
Chocolate drinks
Red wine (Cabernet)
Whey
Casein
Confectionery
Emulsification, dispersibility,
stabilization
Marshmallow
Meringue
Casein
Whey
Dairy products
Emulsification, foaming,
viscosity, gelification,
coagulation, fat/flavor binding
Ice-cream
Fruit yoghurt
Processed cheese
Sodium caseinate
Sodium casemate
Casein
Meat products
Emulsification, gelation,
cohesiveness, water/fat holding
Ham products
Sausage
Whey
Casein
Food System
Group
Analogue of
dairy products
Bakery
Beverages
Functional Properties
Therefore, depending on the protein itself and various environmental and processing factors, the functional properties of proteins can induce a wide variety of
physical states on the foods in which they are contained (e.g., liquid, solid, gelled,
emulsified, dispersed, etc.), as well as confering characteristic organoleptic properties
and determining shelf-life.
The functional behavior of caseinate and whey concentrates and relationships
between functionality and structure in aqueous solutions or in model systems are
generally well known and have been the subject of many comprehensive and detailed
reviews: Kinsella,15 de Wit,16 Cheftel and Lorient,17 Fox and Mulvihill,18'19 de Wit,20
Kinsella,14 Cheftel et al.,9 Kinsella and Fox,21 Modler,22-23 Morr,24 Leman and Kinsella,25 Vuillemard et al.,26 Paquin and Dickinson,27 Tornberg et a/.,28 Lorient et
al.29 Various symposia and books have also been devoted more specifically to the
functional properties of macromolecules and proteins: Pour-El,30 Cherry,31'32 Dickinson and Stainsby,33'34 Mitchell and Ledward,35 Brash and Horbett,36 Fox,37 Lorient
et a/.,38 Kinsella and Soucie,39 Parris and Barford,40 Harris,41 Larsson and Frieberg.42
The abundance of references in this field is explained in great part by the fact
that the primary and tridimensional structures of the six major milk proteins
(a s l - as2-, /3-, and K-caseins, /3-lactoglobulin, and a-lactalbumin) are known.43"48
Although there is great difficulty in determining the relationship between simple
solution functionality and complex food system functionality, many different protein
ingredients are used in a wide range of foods. Table 4.1 shows a number of food
applications where milk protein ingredients are used.49'51 It is well known that in all
these food systems (e.g., cheese, cream, ice cream, etc.) interactions will occur between the milk proteins and other components naturally present in the formulation.
To be able to develop and to increase the utilization of milk proteins, a better knowledge of molecular behavior in mixtures is necessary. Such a basic understanding
would not only lead to the development of better processing techniques so as to
retain or improve the functional properties of proteins but would also lead to the
development of the functional properties of underutilized food proteins.
In this chapter, we emphasize a nonmathematical, molecular description of milk
protein functionality. Some equations have nevertheless been used. Although they
describe approximate phenomena, they have been used to illustrate the chapter and
to clarify some concepts. A more basic detailed, and necessarily mathematical account of the underlying basic concepts, is given by Franks,52-53 Dickinson and
Stainsby,33 Becher,54-55 and Bird et al.56
After a succinct review of the various physicochemical properties of milk proteins, basic principles underlying their functional properties, in relation to their environment, will be evoked on the basis of the numerous studies previously mentioned, and on recent work discussing interactions between proteins and nonprotein
molecules. Due to the interests of the authors, particular attention will be paid to
protein-surface interactions. Then, in a third section, the effect of some physical
processes on the functional properties of milk proteins will be briefly discussed.
Finally, some present and future trends in the field of research and development
involving the functional properties of milk proteins will be presented. It is not intended that this chapter should be an exhaustive review of the extensive literature
on the functional properties of milk proteins. There has consequently been a conscious attempt at selection, although it is hoped that no important aspects of this
large subject have been ignored.
Protein Type
Protein or Polypeptide
Casein
asl-Casein
as2-Casein
/3-Casein
K-Casein
y-Casein
Whey protein
/3-Lactoglobulin
a-Lactalbumin
Bovine serum albumin
Immunoglobulins
Proteoses peptones
Weight Contribution
(g/L)
24-28
12-15
3-4
9-11
3-4
1-2
5-7
2-4
1-1.5
0.1-0.4
0.6-1.0
0.6-1.8
Adaptedfromref. 9.
Whey proteins represent 14 to 24% of milk proteins and are in solution in the
serum phase of the milk, normally in monomer or dimer form. In milk, the ratio of
whey proteins to casein micelles is about 1500:1.16 The major whey proteins
(Table 4.2) are jS-lactoglobulin (/3-Ig), a-lactalbumin (a-la), bovine serum albumin
(BSA), immunoglobulins (Ig-G, Ig-A, Ig-M), and proteose peptones (PP-3, PP-5,
PP-8 fast, PP-8 slow).45'60 There are several minor proteins including lactotransferrin, lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, glycoprotein, and serum transferrin, as well as casein
degradation products.44'45
Protein Type
Casein
Whey proteins
FromRef. 51.
Whey proteins are a much more diverse group than the caseins. They are much
more structured than caseins due to a more uniform distribution of amino acid types
along their peptide chains and the presence of disulfide bridges (higher quantities of
cysteine), and are not greatly affected by pH and salts. Their compact structure gives
to them the ability to form thick and sticky interfacial films (especially at pi 5.2 for
/3-lg) even if their ability to adsorb to interfaces is lower than that of caseins;25 this
results in good emulsifying and foaming properties at all pH values.29 As do most
globular proteins, whey proteins, and particularly /3-lg, gel easily with heat due to a
modification of the spatial structure (hydrophobic interactions, disulphide bridge
exchange).62"64
Properties
Whey Proteins
Hydration
Solubility
Insoluble at pi
Viscosity
Gelation
Emulsifying
properties
Foaming
properties
Flavor
binding
man,66 Chou and Morr,67 Rockland and Stewart,68 Damodaran and Kinsella,69 Kinsella,14 Simatos and Multon,70 Kinsella and Fox,21 Franks,71 Hardman,72 Morr,73
and Kneifel et al?A
Water, the major constituent of milk (87%), is not only a solvent but also plays
a key role in determining the three-dimensional structure of proteins as well as
determining many of the functional properties of proteins in foods. These properties
come into play during processing (rehydration of protein ingredients normally preserved dry, emulsification, foaming, cheese processes, etc.) and when the food product is consumed.15'75 The dominant role played by water is principally due to its
many unique properties, related to its structure (two areas of positive charge and an
equal one of negative charge in a tetrahedral arrangement). Compared to other molecules of similar molecular weight, water has larger values of heat capacity, melting
and boiling point, surface tension, heats of fusion, vaporization, and sublimation
than would be expected from its components.71 The higher values are related to the
extra energy needed to break the intermolecular hydrogen bonds between water
molecules.76
Under the general term hydration, Kinsella,15 includes some other practical functions performed by milk proteins such as wettability, water adsorption, voluminosity,
swelling, dispersibility, and solubility. Water-protein interactions also affect other
functional properties of proteins such as rheological behavior, thickening, gelling,
emulsifying, and foaming properties, dough formation, etc.21 Therefore, depending
on the affinity of a protein for water, a polymer will either be readily soluble or form
a viscous solution, a colloidal suspension, a precipitate, a coagulum, or a gel. Finally,
aw
0.1-0.3
>0.99
0.91-0.93
0.77-0.85
0.86-0.87
0.96-0.98
0.98-0.99
>0.99
0.97-0.98
0.98-0.99
0.97-0.99
0.996
because the number and the type of polar or ionized groups and conformational
factors necessarily affect water-protein interactions, any environmental factor that
will affect either polarity or conformation may also affect water-protein interactions.77
in!
Il
WATER ACTIVITY (a w )
Figure 4.1 Generalized water sorption showing water uptake of a protein as a function of
equilibrium relative humidity or water activity (aw). Region I is a region of adsorption and
highly bound water, region II contains adsorbed and some multilayer water, and region III
contains these plus physically entrapped bulk water. (From Ref. 21.)
isotherms of many products are described in the literature, but there are often important differences between isotherms proposed for the same product. This results
essentially from an insufficient standardization of the methods used, and from a great
sensibility to the preparation of the tested products (pH, salts, product structure, etc.).
In sorption isotherms three zones are generally distinguished (Fig. 4.1)21: (1) in
region I, water fixes to the most hydrophilic groups of proteins; (2) the second one
corresponds to the hydration of uncharged polar groups; and (3) in region III where
interaction forces between water and dry materials are lower than in the previous
two, water is essentially retained by capillary forces.
At low water activity (0 < aw < 0.3), 0.04 to 0.09 g of K2OJg of protein are
adsorbed. In the case of caseinates and /3-lg, approximately 0.06 and 0.07 g of H2OZg
of protein respectively are adsorbed.21 At higher water activity (aw = 0.92), globular
proteins bind approximately 0.5 g of H2O/g of protein. Sodium caseinate and /3-lg
follow this trend with 0.4 and 0.3 g of H2OZg of protein respectively, whereas casein
micelles bind larger amounts of water, that is, 2 to 4 g of H2OZg of protein.21'73 This
larger amount of water is due to the mechanical entrapment of water in the micellar
matrix (via calcium phosphate) and to the binding of water by the hydrophilic part
that protrudes from the surface of the micelle.73
A large number of equations (more than 75 according to van der Berg and Bruin79)
have been proposed to describe water activity and its estimation in food systems:
While each model has its advantages for particular systems, none provides accurate
predictions of moisture sorption data over the complete range of #w. The Guggenheim, Anderson, de Boer (GAB) equation has been suggested as the best describing
the region II moisture sorption isotherm for most foods.79-81 This equation is considered as the most satisfactory by many authors.82 In addition, this term correlates
well with the rate of many degradative reactions and is used as an indicator of food
perishability.9
Complementary information on the immobilization states of water with respect
to proteins has been provided by Chou and Morr67 who divided the three previous
regions into six states. Definitions of these various forms of water-protein associations with the corresponding a w are given in Table 4.6.21 The first is structural water
in which hydrogen bonding to the protein stabilizes the native three-dimensional
conformation. This water is not available for chemical reactions. The second type
of water is monolayer water which fills the first adsorbed layer around the protein.
Monolayer water is attached to specific water-binding sites through hydrogen bonds
or electrostatic interactions. This water is also not available as a solvent, but may be
available for certain reactions. The third type of bound water is unfreezable water
which represents the total water clustered around each polar group. This water may
include both structural and monolayer water. The remaining three types of water
associated with proteins are not as well defined as the first three. The fourth type of
water is that which is associated with proteins via hydrophobic hydration. This type
of water has been described as clathrate-type or ice-like structured water, but the
real nature of this water is not entirely clear.71 A fifth type is capillary water which
is held physically or by surface forces and which acts as a solvent; this water is
available for chemical reactions. It is the main type of water found in cheese curd.75
The sixth type of water is called hydrodynamic water. This water, which is transported along with protein molecules, has the physical properties of normal water.
Trying to define and categorize the types of water associated with proteins is necessary but difficult because it implies a sharp demarcation between different states
of *'bound" water associated with the protein which have unusual physical properties and "normal" water loosely associated with the protein. Furthermore, this
problem of definition is also a methodological one, because the numerous methods
used to study the interactions of water with proteins often describe different types
of bound water. One should not loose sight of the fact that water associated with
proteins is a continual transition from highly-structured monolayer water molecules
bound to specific groups to the unordered liquid water at the periphery of the multilayers, and that it is difficult to know where one type of water ends and another
begins.21-71'75 Consequently, at the present time, there is no uniform set of definitions
to describe these states: water molecules interact with each other and with proteins
in many ways.83 Other researchers76'84 define only three types of water: constitutional, interfacial, and bulk phase water. Constitutional water corresponds to structural water; interfacial water is made up of vicinal water (the first one or two molecules adjacent to proteins), and multilayer water (the next few layers of water
molecules). Interfacial water would correspond to monolayer, unfreezable, and hydrophobic hydration water.75 Bulk phase water, which is the remaining water as-
Monolayer water:
(0.05 < aw < 0.2)
Unfreezable water:
(0 < aw < 0.9)
This includes all water that does not freeze at normal temperature (0.3 to
0.5 g of H2O/g of protein); amounts varies with polar amino acid content and
includes some water available for chemical reactions
Hydrophobic
hydration water:
(0.1 < aw < 0.25)
Capillary water:
(0.5 < aw < 0.95)
Hydrodynamic
hydration water:
(flw > 0.99)
Water "loosely" surrounding the protein and that is transported with the
protein during diffusion (centrifugation); properties of normal water
sociated with proteins, constitutes the major type of water. It may be physically free
as in diluted protein dispersions or entrapped as in gels. More recently, Kneifel et
al.14 proposed dividing the water held in a protein into two main types: (1) that
bound to the molecule and no longer available as a solvent, and (2) that entrapped
in the protein matrix or in a corresponding comatrix (fat, polysaccharide). The first
type can be regarded as adsorbed water and the second as retained water.
amino acid residues (aliphatic and aromatic side chains) which show a low affinity
for water molecules are preferentially buried in the interior of the protein molecule
and are not available for interactions with the solvent. 3 ' 86
The amount of water bound by ionized or polar groups is affected by the steric
availability of hydration sites. The unfolding of a protein molecule from a globular
conformation to a random coil results in an increase of the net area surface and thus
in an increase of availability of extra hydration sites due to the exposure of more
ionized or polar amino acid residues and peptide bonds.3 Practically, protein unfolding has relatively little effect on the amount of water bound by a protein. Usually,
there is an increase of 0.02 to 0.1 g of H2CVg of protein.21 Depending on the extent
of unfolding, it may also result in a decrease of hydration capacity because of increasing protein-protein interactions.21
Another important parameter that affects the amount of water associated with a
protein is the net charge on the protein molecule. These charges that give rise to
electrostatic repulsions (the concept of electrical diffuse double layers) may provide
a driving force to stabilize particles in solution or in colloidal dispersion (see ProteinSurface Interactions).
pH is a factor that affects the net charge on a protein. At the isoelectric point (pi),
the number of positive and negative charges is equal; that is, the net surface charge
equals zero, and therefore the hydration capacity is lower. Moreover, this decrease
in repulsive forces and in the hydration shell favors attractive forces leading to
protein-protein interactions.
The nature and the concentration of salts also affect the hydration properties of
proteins by their effects on electrostatic interactions. At low electrolyte concentrations, the amount of water bound to proteins increases with increasing electrolyte
concentration. For high electrolyte concentrations, the amount of water bound decreases because of the suppression of the electrical double layer surrounding the
protein molecule; this is directly related to the hydration of the ion and hence to its
ability to separate water molecules from the protein molecules: ions with smaller
unhydrated radii (larger charge density) have larger hydrated radii and thereby
produce a greater degree of dehydration of the protein (Hofmeister or lyotropic
series). 21 ' 69
Temperature has a major effect on hydration properties because, from a thermodynamic standpoint, in nearly all dairy products water absorption is an exothermal
process; that is, the partial molal enthalpy of mixing has a negative sign. 79 ' 87 Therefore, a decrease in temperature causes an increase in equilibrium water content and
thereby in hydration properties.80 So, as expected, heating of proteins in most studies
decreases hydration.88'89 Bech, 90 however, reported enhanced water-holding capacity
by whey proteins after severe heat treatment. Preheating of the base milk prior to
the manufacture of sodium caseinate leads to a concomitant adsorption of whey
proteins onto caseins, increasing the water-holding capacity of the product. This
effect was thought to be due to the thermal denaturation of the whey proteins, creating a spongelike surface on the casein, which retains more water than a caseinate
powder produced from unheated milk. However, skim milk powder subjected to
varied heat treatments did not show different a water-holding capacity.78
4.3A.2 Solubility
Definition and General Considerations
Solubility in aqueous systems is a valuable predictor of other functional properties
of dairy protein-containing ingredients. Solubility is related to the dispersibility of
protein ingredients in water, and to environmental conditions. Solubility can also be
used to provide information on protein denaturation (e.g., at pH 4.6 for whey proteins) caused by processing and storage and thereby to predict the usefulness of the
powder in food applications (beverages, yogurt, emulsions, foams, etc.).14'50 Solubility itself, however, is no guarantee of useful functionality. Indeed, foaming may
be best exhibited by proteins at their isoelectric point, where they are also least likely
to remain in solution.93 Practically, solubility (g of dry protein/100 g of H2O) is the
amount of protein in a sample that goes into solution or into colloidal dispersion
under specified conditions and is not sedimented by low centrifugal forces.3
Examples of
Tested Products
Reference
94
Bauman apparatus
Whey protein
concentrate
Farinographic
techniques
Milk powder,
casemates,
coprecipitates
Rehydration test
Milk proteins
95
Casein
96
Viscosimetry
Milk protein
concentrate
97
Centrifugation test
Caseinate,
whey protein
concentrates
98
Differential scanning
calorimetry
Whey protein
concentrate
88
Filtration procedure
Sodium
caseinates
78
Casein micelles
99
Sorption isotherms
NMR
89
Solubility Measurements
The various techniques used to determine the solubility of milk proteins and milk
protein ingredients have been summarized by Fox and Mulvihill.18 However, because solubility is an important functional property in the evaluation of proteins,
standard methods are needed. Patel and Fry93 reported that two standard methods
exist for determining solubility, namely the Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI)104 and
the Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI).105 The International Dairy Federation (IDF)
has accepted a procedure for the determination of the NSI for use as an international
standardized technique for all milk protein ingredients.
In fact, both methods give an indication of protein dispersibility rather than true
solubility.93 The PDI method involves high-shear blending for mixing proteins with
water whereas the NSI procedure employs more gentle mixing. In both techniques
dispersion is followed by low-speed centrifugation to remove insoluble solids. In
the NSI and PDI methods, the protein content of the sample, and of the "soluble"
fraction, is estimated by determining the Kjeldahl nitrogen content, and the solubility
is expressed as a simple percentage.
SIZE
Molecular weight
Hydration
HYDRODYNAMIC
VOLUME
SHAPE
Conformation
RHEOLOGY
OF
PROTEINS
PACKING
INTERACTIONS
Disulfide linkage
Electrostatic force
Van der Waals force
Hydrogen bond
Hydrophobic interaction
Steric hindrance
ASSOCIATION
DISSOCIATION
DEFORMATION
Figure 4.2 Influence of various factors on the rheology of proteins. (From Ref. 106.)
DILUTE REGIME
INTRINSIC VISCOSITY
REGIME
Tl r = 1 + [ T l ] C
CONCENTRATED
REGIME
(C[Tl])
V V C [ T l ] , C/[CJ)
Cch
'Or
MINIMUM
"Interactive volume"
Concentration (C)
[T|] Z hydrodynamic
volume
Reduced viscosity
MAXIMUM
"Interactive volume"
Concentration (C)
Concentration (C)
Figure 4.3 Descriptive model of rheological behaviour of proteins. (From Ref. 108.)
or rod, = 2.5 for a spherical uncharged particle), and (f> is the volume fraction of
the protein in solution.
The intrinsic viscosity [rf], is defined as the viscosity that exists when the molecules are completely isolated, that is, when the concentration of the protein approaches zero.
(4.3)
and is an indication of the hydrodynamic shape and size of the protein in solution.106
Consequently intrinsic viscosities of isolated proteins have been widely studied as a
means of establishing their molecular dimensions. Mulvihill and Fox77 collated some
values of [rf] for individual milk proteins under various environmental conditions.
2. When protein concentration increases, deviations from Einstein's equation are
observed: they translate the change from dilute to semiconcentrated systems, and
are due to the presence of hydrodynamic interactions between protein molecules.
These deviations occur above a particular protein concentration, defined as the charateristic concentration (cch) which is estimated from:
(4.4)
For /3-lg, on the basis of 1/[Ty], Pradipasena and Rha112 have estimated that the
semiconcentrated region began above 10%. Above cch, the zero shear rate viscosity
no longer increases linearly but increases exponentially with protein concentration
(Fig. 4.3). The relative viscosity r)T of spherical particles in the semiconcentrated
region may be represented by a series expansion:
(4.5)
where It1 is the second virial coefficient.
3. The viscosity of concentrated protein solutions is governed by the excluded
volume and by interactions between suspended particles. This region starts at a socalled critical concentration (ccr), at which the zero shear rate viscosity approaches
infinity (Le., a yield stress is observed). The value of c cr can be estimated from a
modified Mooney equation113 using concentration instead of volume concentration
and replacing the shape factor by the intrinsic viscosity.
(4.6)
The critical concentration is equivalent to # m , the maximum packing fraction in the
Mooney equation.108 For /3-lg, Pradipasena and Rha112 have estimated that the concentrated region corresponds to levels above 30%. The advantage of using the parameters cch and cCT is that they provide information about the nature of the protein
and the extent of the intermolecular interactions in solutions over a wide range of
concentrations.50-106
At concentrations > ~ 1 5 % casemates form highly viscous solutions, and at concentrations >~~20%, even at high temperature, the viscosity of solutions is so high
that it is difficult to process them.77 In contrast, undenaturated whey proteins, due
to their compact globular shapes, form much less viscous solutions.50-77 For protein
dispersions (caseinate and whey) containing < 12%, Hermansson,114 and Towler115
have shown that their behavior is Newtonian, that is, that a linear relationship is
observed between the shear stress (T) and the rate of shear strain (s):
(4.7)
At higher concentrations, above 12% and 18 to 20% for caseinates and whey proteins, respectively, dispersions show a more pseudoplastic Theological behavior.
Flow properties are better described by a power law,
(4.8)
where K is the consistency index and n is the behavior index (0 < n < 1). The
consistency index increases strongly with concentration.
sions; in caseins containing more carboxylic and phosphate groups than amine
groups, the net positive charge in acidic solution is lower than the net negative charge
in basic solution. Consequently, the probability of aggregate formation is higher in
acidic solution, thus resulting in a higher viscosity of these solutions.
Moreover, casemate viscosity increases with ionic strength.117 The addition of
sodium chloride leads to a strong increase in viscosity, but only for sodium caseinate
concentrations > 10%.114 Colas117 reported the existence of a patent120 using soluble
aluminum salts to increase viscosity. Indeed, the addition of 1.5% hydrated aluminum sulfate multiplies the viscosity of a 12% sodium caseinate solution by 100; this
trivalent cation probably allows a larger reticulation of the protein by the formation
of ionic bridges.117
The viscosity of casein and caseinate solutions decreases as the temperature increases.116 However, the magnitude of this classic phenomenon is strongly affected
by the pH and by the presence of Ca 2 + ions. In the case of sodium caseinate, at
pH 7, the Andrade relation is confirmed: a linear relationship exists between log
viscosity and the reciprocal of absolute temperature.115-118121'122 The decrease in
viscosity correlates with a decrease in hydration capacity.123 This relation is not,
however, confirmed when calcium is added to the solution:121 viscosity decreases
quickly when the temperature increases from 30 to 38C, then stays constant to 570C
where a gel forms. At acidic pH (2.4 to 2.9), the situation is slightly different:123 the
viscosity of solutions decreases when the temperature increases from 25 to 600C,
and the hydration capacity remains practically unchanged; between 60 and 800C,
viscosity and hydration capacity increase. As previously mentioned, this increase
can be explained by a decrease in the net charge of proteins at pH values lower than
the pi; moreover, hydrophobic interactions increase with temperature. These two
phenomena contribute to the formation of aggregates, and an increase in viscosity.117
The viscosity of whey concentrates in the range from 25% to 40% depends strongly
on the composition and preheat treatment of the whey.50 This appears to be caused
mainly by the rate of crystallization of the lactose in the concentrates.124
Limited proteolysis by proteinases such as plasmin 125126 or treatment with disulfide reducing or sulfydryl blocking agents127 can also markedly reduce the viscosity of caseinates.
Poiseuille-type rheometers in which the shearing movement is due to the application, at the ends of a cylindrical tube containing the sample, of a pressure differential. In most cases, this pressure differential is given by the action of gravity.
Viscosimeters with falling or rolling spheres whose applications are limited (they
allow only the study of rigorously Newtonian liquids), but the are very well known
and relatively widely used.
2. Rheometers that work under transitory conditions which allow the study of
the viscoelastic properties of material. They are essentially two types of transitory
rheometers:
Creep compliance rheometers. In creep compliance testing, a small constant stress
(r) is applied to the sample, and the resulting strain (s) is followed with time.
Stress relaxation rheometers. In a stress relaxation experiment, a small constant
strain (e) is applied to a given sample, and the resulting stress (T) is followed over
time.
3. Dynamic rheometers. In dynamic testing, conditions are used that will not
alter the structure of a material and will satisfy the requirements of a linear viscoelasticity theory based on infinitesimal strains and strain rates where the ratio of
stress to strain is a function of time (frequency) alone, and not of stress magnitude.116
From the curves obtained for a given sample, the elastic and viscous components
known as the dynamic shear storage modulus (G', which describes the elastic nature
of the material) and the dynamic shear loss modulus (G", which describes the viscous nature of the material) can be determined. Two other parameters can also be
evaluated, the loss tangent expressed as tang S = G "/G' and the dynamic viscosity
tf = GVw, where co is the oscillatory frequency. Generally, two types of devices
are used according to whether or not the movement is conserved:
Rheometers with forced oscillations which can function over a large range of
frequencies or at a particular frequency.
Rheometers with free oscillations which allow the measurement of low viscosities
by studying the breaking point.
These latter two sets of rheometers (2 and 3) are also particularly well adapted
to studying the rheological behavior of viscoelastic foods such as gels.
In addition, some rheometers can operate under stationary, transitory, or dynamic
conditions, if optional equipment is also used.
body with a low modulus of elasticity. Flow may occur, but only above a finite yield
stress.33
The gel structure usually takes one of the following two forms:33'77
1. Polymer network. The gel structure is provided by a well-ordered, three dimensional cross-linked macromolecular network, or matrix made up of cagelike unit
structures of uncoiled polypeptide segments that interact at specific points and
are able to retain large amounts of water due to specific intermolecular forces
(covalent, hydrogen, and hydrophobic). Gels of this type are formed by globular
proteins, and polysaccharides.
2. Aggregated dispersion. The gel structure consists of a highly aggregated dispersion of colloidal particles. Intuitively, it is reasonable to think that aggregation
tends to occur more frequently when concentrations are high and pH is in the
isoelectric range. Clotting of milk is an example of this type of gelation.
A clear distinction between these two types of gels is rather difficult however,
especially when hydrocolloids are implicated in the gelation process.33 To define
more clearly the gelation process, de Gennes130 has proposed distinguishing two
types of Theological behavior: (1) strong gelation, and (2) weak gelation.
If crosslinks, once formed, remain intact for a finite time under stress, gelation is
considered to be strong. In contrast, when crosslinks are not strong enough to resist
a small stress, the system is said to exhibit weak gelation.
The gelation process of globular proteins can be caused by heat denaturation or
by any other process (changes of pH, addition of salts, action of enzymes, etc.) that
converts proteins to a state that favors intermolecular protein interactions.
The next section is restricted to heat induced gelation of globular whey proteins.62'63'131"134
From statistical theories of gelation129'135'136 the process of gelation is described
as the formation of an infinite network of trifunctional and bifunctional units
(Fig. 4.4). If initially there are f reactive sites per molecule, when a critical fraction
ac of these have reacted the weight-average molecular weight diverges to infinity:
this is the gel point. If the aggregation process is random, theory predicts that f and
ac are related by the equation:129
(4.9)
At this stage, a gel fraction and a sol fraction coexist. However, the sol fraction
decreases as the gel fraction increases beyond a c . Moreover, the sol fraction can
disappear, and the gel rigidity can eventually increase with time if crosslinking proceeds far enough.62
Heat induced gelation of globular proteins is a two-step process involving:137
(1) an activation (or denaturation) step, and (2) an association step
heat
A
B
A
A
Linear Chain
Branching point
BA
B
.A
AB
AB
BB
BB
BA
BA
A
B
AB
BA
Gel matrix
Figure 4.4 Formation of an infinite gel matrix. (Adapted from Ref. 129.)
where x is the number of protein molecules, P N is the native protein, and P D is the
denatured protein.
The initial stage corresponds to a conformational alteration or unfolding of the
secondary and tertiary structures due to a decrease in intermolecular forces. This
unfolding is induced by an increase in temperature. The denaturation temperature or
gelling point (T d ) is the point at which the extent of the reaction is equal to 0.5 and
[PNI = [PD]- 1 3 8 Th e magnitude of this unfolding is a function of temperature as well
as of environmental factors. The unfolding increases, in general, the exposition of
hydrophobic (favoring aggregation) and thiol residues, and favors formation or exchange of disulfide bridges (irreversible gels).
The subsequent polymerization process is affected by the capacity of the protein
surface for intermolecular interactions and requires a balance between proteinprotein interactions, protein-solvent interactions, and attractive/repulsive forces between adjacent polypeptidic chains.133 Hydrophobic interactions (favored at high
temperature), bridges with Ca 2 + or other divalent salts, hydrogen bonds (favored
during cooling) and disulfide bridges represent attractive forces. Electrostatic repulsions, principally at pHs higher than pi, and protein-water interactions, act to keep
polypeptide chains separated.9 If protein-protein interactions are too weak (repulsive
forces predominate), viscosity will increase, but the fluid can always flow: a gel,
strictly speaking, cannot form. In contrast, if protein-protein interactions are too
strong (attractive forces predominate), the network will collapse and water will be
expelled from the structure.139
The functional properties of gelling proteins such as gelation time and the rigidity
modulus are related to several factors:133'140 (1) the nature of the protein, the lowest
concentration of protein required to form a gel and desired gel texture, (2) the conditions required for gelation (temperature pH, ions), and (3) matrix geometry, flexibility of the polymer, and strength of the junctions (chemical nature and extent of
protein-protein interactions).
Experimentally, protein concentration determines both the likelihood of gel formation and also the characteristics of the gel that forms. If the protein solution is
heated below a concentration sometimes designated as the critical concentration,62
and which varies according to the protein utilized, gelation will not occur. Indeed,
when the protein concentration is too low, a protein network is difficult to establish:
protein-protein interactions tend to be intramolecular rather than intermolecular and
a gel network cannot be established. As protein content increases, the likelihood of
intermolecular interactions increases, and at the critical concentration proteins form
a coagulum or at the temperature that initiates the gelation process (generally between 70 and 85C), or during cooling.63-137139
The firmness of gels and the gelation speed increase with the protein content and
the heating temperature up to i20C102'141-142 due to a higher probability of proteinprotein interactions. The temperature at which gelation begins decreases as the protein concentration increases; solutions containing 3 or 9% of j3-lg (pH 6.6, 1% of
NaCl) begin to gel at 82 and 75C, respectively. Solutions containing 1 or 5% of
BSA (pH 6.6, 1% of NaCl) gel at 82 and 77C, respectively.143 Under the same
conditions of pH and ionic strength, a-la does not form a gel, even at a concentration
of 20%. 143
of pH, in the acid zone, from 5.0 to 4.0 leads to a decrease in the temperature at
which gelation begins, from 700C to 500C. However, the observed increase in viscosity may be due to aggregation rather than real gelation.16'94'146
An increase in NaCl concentration to 0.5 M leads to an increase in viscosity,147
or in gel firmness (10% whey proteins, pH 7.0, 80C/30 min or 100C/15 min respectively),145 but generally leads to a decrease in water-holding capacity as soon
as the NaCl concentration goes above 0.3 M.148 The presence of 1 or 2 M NaCl
increases the temperature at which gelation begins (10% whey proteins, pH 7.0,
85C/30 min).147 After heating of /3-lg solutions (9%, pH 2.5, 90C/30 min), in the
presence of NaCl 0.2 M, Harwalkar and Kalab149 obtained gels with a regular matrix
and particles of small size. At higher ionic strength (0.4 M NaCl), the presence of
voluminous aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm) can be detected by electronic microscopy.149
The addition of CaCl2 leads to an increase in gel firmness (10% whey proteins, pH
7.0, 100C/15 min) up to a concentration of 0.04 M (with a maximum at 0.011 M),
but is associated with a decrease in the elasticity and water-holding capacity of the
gel.150 When the protein concentrate is dialysed, the gels obtained are firmer, more
elastic, and more translucid than those prepared with the nondialyzed protein concentrate.148
The presence of reducing agents inhibits gelation.151 With a series of whey protein
concentrates, a positive correlation has been established between the gelifying power
on the one hand and the sulfhydric group content and protein solubility at pH 4.5
on the other.151 The addition of cysteine to a concentration of 40 mM decreases gel
quality (10% proteins, pH 7.0, 100C/15 min):150 gel firmness is maximum at a
cysteine concentration of 9.7 mM, but the cohesiveness, the elasticity, and the waterholding capacity of the gel decrease.
The addition of sucrose delays gelation and increases the temperature at which
gelation begins; however, gels with a smooth texture, similar to a baked custard, can
be obtained in the presence of 30% sucrose (5% ultrafiltered and diafiltered whey
proteins, 115C/5 min). 152153
The presence of other milk proteins can modify the gel quality obtained; for
example, gels prepared from whey protein concentrates (10%, pH 7.0, 85C/10 min)
are more opaque and less elastic than those obtained from purified /3-lg.63 Under the
effect of heat, /3-lg can form complexes with other milk proteins. Doi et al.154 have
obtained a gel by heating a solution containing 5% /3-lg and 5% /c-casein (pH 7.1,
70 mM KCl, 90C/10 min), but separate solutions of /3-lg and of a-casein do not
gel under the same conditions. Similarly, these authors155 have obtained a gel from
a solution containing 2.5% a-la and 2.5% /c-casein (pH 7.6,0.4 NaCl, 90C/30 min),
but a solution of a-la alone, under the same conditions, does not gel.
Next Page
merits and techniques have been developed for measuring Theological and textural
properties.56-156'157 Furthermore, texture profile measurements as defined by
Szczesniak158-159 have so far served as bridge between fundamental rheological principles and popular nomenclature. Various techniques can in general be separated in
the analyses using small, nondestructive strains (i.e., sample deformation) and destructive techniques (i.e., sample rupture).133
In the first case, rheological characteristics using small, nondestructive strains
allows a dynamic measurement of rheological transitions. Changes in rigidity or
shear modulus (stress/strain), storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G") can be
measured as a function of time or temperature. These rheological characteristics of
a viscoelastic body are independent of size and shape, and can be determined by a
large variety of methods.133-160
gas (foams).
It is a matter of everyday experience that two immiscible liquids rapidly separate
into two distinct phases and consequently the adage, "like oil and water." The reason
why oil and water alone, after being mixed by shaking, separate so quickly is that
this intense agitation, by inducing the dispersion of one phase (dispersed phase)
under droplet form in the other (continuous phase), also induces an extensive increase
of the interfacial surface and therefore of the free energy of the system. In following
symbols, if y is the force per unit of length tending to contract such a surface or
interfacial tension, and if S, T, P, V, A, //,, and n refer respectively to entropy,
absolute temperature, pressure, volume, surface area, chemical potential, and number
of moles in the system, then
(4.10)
where G represents the total Gibbs free energy of the system. At constant temperature
and pressure and for a given number of moles in the system, this reduces to
(4.11)
As interfaces between phases necessarily have a positive free energy, the variation
of the free energy of the system is reduced by coalescence (4.11). Coalescence is
an irreversible phenomenon because the surface area of the new droplets is less than
the sum of the surface areas of the two colliding droplets. The effects of Brownian
motion, arising from the distribution of thermal energy between the molecules of
the system, combined in real systems, to the movements caused by density differences (sedimentation or creaming), which put droplets into contact, and to van
Previous Page
merits and techniques have been developed for measuring Theological and textural
properties.56-156'157 Furthermore, texture profile measurements as defined by
Szczesniak158-159 have so far served as bridge between fundamental rheological principles and popular nomenclature. Various techniques can in general be separated in
the analyses using small, nondestructive strains (i.e., sample deformation) and destructive techniques (i.e., sample rupture).133
In the first case, rheological characteristics using small, nondestructive strains
allows a dynamic measurement of rheological transitions. Changes in rigidity or
shear modulus (stress/strain), storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G") can be
measured as a function of time or temperature. These rheological characteristics of
a viscoelastic body are independent of size and shape, and can be determined by a
large variety of methods.133-160
gas (foams).
It is a matter of everyday experience that two immiscible liquids rapidly separate
into two distinct phases and consequently the adage, "like oil and water." The reason
why oil and water alone, after being mixed by shaking, separate so quickly is that
this intense agitation, by inducing the dispersion of one phase (dispersed phase)
under droplet form in the other (continuous phase), also induces an extensive increase
of the interfacial surface and therefore of the free energy of the system. In following
symbols, if y is the force per unit of length tending to contract such a surface or
interfacial tension, and if S, T, P, V, A, //,, and n refer respectively to entropy,
absolute temperature, pressure, volume, surface area, chemical potential, and number
of moles in the system, then
(4.10)
where G represents the total Gibbs free energy of the system. At constant temperature
and pressure and for a given number of moles in the system, this reduces to
(4.11)
As interfaces between phases necessarily have a positive free energy, the variation
of the free energy of the system is reduced by coalescence (4.11). Coalescence is
an irreversible phenomenon because the surface area of the new droplets is less than
the sum of the surface areas of the two colliding droplets. The effects of Brownian
motion, arising from the distribution of thermal energy between the molecules of
the system, combined in real systems, to the movements caused by density differences (sedimentation or creaming), which put droplets into contact, and to van
der Waals forces of attraction which pull droplets together, causing them to
coalescence.162
NATIVE
DENATURED
Tail
Train
OIL
WATER
Loops
Figure 4.5 Orientation of proteins at an interface. Schematic representation of nonpolar (O),
polar ( ) , and neutral (@) residues of protein. (From Ref. 165.)
where yo and y are the interfacial tensions in the absence and in the presence of
emulsifier.167 Fig. 4.6 168 gives typical results and shows the changes in Hand Ffor
/3-casein and &gg white lysozyme (which is almost homologous with a-la) at the air/
water (A/ W) interface, at room temperature. For the disordered and flexible /3-casein,
changes in TI and Tare closely coupled (Fig. 4.6a). However, with lysozyme which
is a very rigid globular protein, the J7-t curve shows an initial period of "induction",
and moreover /7 is still increasing significantly when F has attained its steady state
value (Fig. 4.6b). The presence of the induction period in the /T-t curve has been
observed by others 169 in dilute solutions, and is not entirely clear in terms of molecular behavior. 170 One explanation assumes that this induction time corresponds
to an accumulation of protein segments near the interfacial region before the adsorption occurs. 171
According to Cumper and Alexander, 172 and MacRitchie, 173 the increase of TI
with time can be attributed to three molecular processes: (1) the diffusion of protein
n(mNnr 1 )
r(mgnr 2 )
(a)
t(h)
n(mNm" 1 )
r(mgm" 2 )
(a)
(b)
t(h)
(b)
Figure 4.6 Adsorption of ^-casein and lysozyme at the A/W interface. The surface concentration F (O) and the surface pressure II () are plotted against the time (t) for protein
adsorption at 200C, pH 7, and ionic strength = 0.1 mol dm"3, (a) (3-casein, initial concentration = 7.3 X 10"4 kg m~3. (b) lysozyme, initial concentration = 7.6 X 10~4 kg m~3.
(From Ref. 168.)
molecules to the surface, (2) the spreading or unfolding of adsorbed protein molecules, and (3) the conformational rearrangement of adsorbed protein molecules.
At the outset, protein chains must arrive at an interface by simple molecular
diffusion. De Feijter and Benjamins171 have shown that this statement is true only
for the very early stages of the process, that is, when JT ^ 1 mNm" 1 . They also
drew the conclusion that this diffusion-controlled period coincides with the induction
period. Benjamins et al.174 reported diffusion coefficients ranging from 3.3 to 0.7
X 10" 1 0 m 2 ^ " 1 for several proteins, with 0-casein being adsorbed much more
rapidly than /c-casein or BSA.
For adsorption to occur, only a small section of the macromolecule needs to enter
the interfacial region. In addition, the area of contact that is needed is very small
(1.0 to 1.75 nm2) and is not related to the total size or molecular conformation.175
(a)
(b)
(C)
Figure 4.7 Schematic representation of the protein adsorption at liquid interfaces: (a)
P-casein at ATW interface: (1) T < 1 mg m~ 2 , (2) Tsat > T > 1 mg m" 2 , (3) T = T8^,
(4) T > T5^. (b) p-casein at O/W interface: (1) - (4) as in (a), (c) lysozyme at AAV interface:
(1) T < 2 mg m" 2 , (2) T > 3 mg m" 2 , (3) T = Tsat, (4) T > Tsat. Tsat = surface concentration
at primary layer saturation. (From Ref. 178.)
Although protein adsorption is a thermodynamically favorable process, the attainment of an equilibrium state, that is, of an equilibrium interfacial conformation, can
take time; Kim and Kinsella 176 who studied the ability of BSA to lower the superficial tension, reported that the equilibrium surface pressure was attained only after
24 h. Castle et a!.177 reported that very slow but continuous structural changes, as
indicated by surface rheological parameters, take place in adsorbed protein films
over a period of several days. If flexible proteins arrive at their equilibrium conformation quickly, it is not generally the case for globular proteins. Films, and principally concentrated ones, can contain protein chains with different degrees of unfolding (Fig. 4.7). 178 Consequently, films are not in an equilibrium state and
rearrangements of proteins with individual trains desorbing and others adsorbing
occur to obtain the lowest energy state. 179 Moreover, adsorbing proteins are affected
by the already adsorbed proteins. The latter exert an energy barrier made up of a
physical barrier due to dynamic rearrangements of loops and tails on the aqueous
side and an electrical barrier, unless the system is very close to the pi. 164 This effect
is probably related to multilayer formation. However, further "adsorption" may
occur, but solely through protein-protein interactions, as shown schematically in Fig.
4.7d.178 An issue that has been under much debate is whether protein adsorption is
irreversible at the interface.170 Cohen Stuart et a/.180"182 have proposed a theoretical
model; MacRitchie183 has shown experimentally the reversibility of protein adsorption. Norde et al.1S4 reported BSA, adsorbed on various adsorbents, could be removed, totally or in part, by adjusting the pH or ionic strength, or by adding a
displacer. For rigid proteins, where the conformational changes on adsorption are
small, this is a matter to consider during the experiments. However, for more unfolded proteins with many attachments at the interface, the energy requirements for
desorption are very unfavorable. Thus, within the time limits of most experiments,
protein adsorption can be regarded as irreversible.2833
T = 4C). The a- and /c-caseins are similar in activity, whereas /3-casein gives rise
to a quicker and larger surface tension. Britten et aL189 have also shown similar
properties of interfacial measurements of casein micelles and their fractions.
The surface Theological properties of adsorbed films of milk proteins are sensitive
to pH. Dickinson,27 studying time-dependent surface viscosities for casemate films
adsorbed at the O/W interface from 10 ~ 3 wt% buffered protein solutions at pH 3
and 7, reported that the surface viscosity under acidic conditions is an order of
magnitude higher than that measured at neutral pH. These results, consistent with
bulk Theological measurements,97190 showed that, at similar concentrations, acidic
casein solutions are much more viscous than neutral sodium casemate solutions.
In practice, however, it is rare that only one type of protein is involved in real
systems. One can imagine that a competition for the various adsorption sites exists
between the various sources of food macromolecules. Musselwithe191 reported the
preferential adsorption of caseins at the O/W interface, at 44C, from an aqueous
solution containing, in the same proportion, two disordered macromolecules: gelatin
and casein; the surface pressure isotherm being close to that of the casein alone.
Recently, Dickinson et al.192 have confirmed Musselwithe's work. Murray,193 by
studying the behavior of 50:50 mixtures containing /3-lg and another milk protein
(/3-, K-casein or a-la) has reported that the isotherms for the mixed films cannot be
simply related to the isotherms of the individual proteins. With the /3-lg H- /3-casein
mixture, it was suggested that /3-casein prevents the unfolding of /3-lg at the interface.
Dickinson et al.,192 studying the adsorption of a sl , /3-caseins and various casemates
onto polystyrene lattices, have shown that the more hydrophobic /3-casein is more
surface active than asl-casein and that caseinates have surface properties intermediate between these two. This suggests that these components adsorb independently
and not competitively. Recently, Dalgleish and coworkers 194195 have provided information on possible conformations of milk proteins (/3-casein and /3-lg) when
adsorbed onto polystyrene lattices. If many studies have been carried out with milk
proteins, alone or in mixture, relatively less work has been done with proteins and
low molecular weight lipophilic emulsifiers. Paquin et al.,196 and Laliberte et al}91
have investigated the behavior of mixed films of monoglycerides (GSM)/sodium
caseinates and GMS/casein at the A/W interface. Results exhibited a high surface
pressure region dominated by GMS, and in areas where there was only a small
contribution from proteins. This contribution arises from the hydrophobic portion of
the casein molecules which stick into the lipophilic (GMS) matrix at high surface
pressure. This model is consistent with the interpretation of results obtained by Courthaudon et al. (1991, personal communication) on a model emulsion system containing
casemate + C12E2 at the n-tetradecane/W interface.
The alternative to competition is cooperation. Larichev et a/.198 found that complexes of BSA with dextran sulfate produced more stable decane/W emulsions than
BSA alone.
The ring of du Noiiy and the capillary rise methods seem unsatisfactory for timedependent solutions. 187 For studying the adsorption of proteins at interfaces, the
Wilhelmy plate technique is the most commonly used method 1 6 8 ' 1 7 1 1 7 6 - 1 7 8 1 8 6 1 8 9 ' 1 9 9
and, operates on the following principle. A very thin plate is attached to an arm of
a balance and the additional pull on the plate, when it becomes partly immersed, is
equal to the product of the perimeter and the surface tension. 161 Compared to the
pendant drop and the drop volume method, one of the advantages is that continuous
measurements can be performed as a function of time. 28 The pendant drop and the
drop volume method, respectively based on the shape of the drop and on the volume
(or weight) of a liquid drop that detaches itself from the tip of a vertical tube are
less often used. 188 ' 200 ' 201 Tornberg187 has adjusted the drop volume technique to be
able to follow the time dependence of the lowering of surface tension by proteins.
Another set of methods mainly represented by the Langmuir film balance are also
widely used to study adsorption from solutions or the spreading of monolayers. This
technique involves measuring the film pressure surface directly, rather than calculating it from surface tension differences (4.12). The Langmuir balance is composed
of a trough of inert material whose surface is swept by barriers to clean the surface
and to compress monolayers. By means of this arrangement, it is possible to vary
the area of a spread monolayer and directly measure the corresponding film pressure.
However, althouth the Langmuir is quite a simple device, obtaining unambiguous
results is far from simple. Anyone interested in considering this type of experiment
should consult the more detailed description given by Games. 202
ELECTROSTATIC
REPULSION
Primary minimum
Primary maximum
Secondary
minimum
VANDERWAALS
ATTRACTION
between the individual atoms making up the particles, calculated the attractive potential VA between two spheres of equal radius (a):
(4.13)
if h < < a where AH is the Hamaker constant which depends on the density and the
polarisability of the material making up the particles.208 In principle, this constant
can be calculated, but in practice the estimation of this constraint is fraught with
considerable uncertainty, especially as the structures of the particles become more
complex.204'209*210 Although not exact, this equation indicates the character of the
attractive force which increases more and more rapidly as the droplets approach one
another (Fig. 4.8).162 A more accurate theory was developed 20 years later by Lifshitz and coworkers211'212 which described the van der Waals forces as originating
from spontaneous electromagnetic fluctuations. This theory, in contrast to the
Hamaker and de Boer approach, takes into account many body effects, temperature
dependence, and effects due to the finite speed of light, and to continuous medium.
It turns out that the van der Waals forces between identical particles are always
attractive, whereas such forces, according the latter theory, may be repulsive between
particles having different chemical compositions.163 In practice however, this theory
remains quite difficult to apply. The range of van der Waals forces of attraction in
an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions is of the order of 20 nm; at greater distances, the
effects of van der Waals potential would be roughly countered by Brownian motion
of the particles.163
To impart stability to colloidal systems, it is necessary to have repulsive forces
between dispersed particles as strong as, and comparable in range to, the everpresent
van der Waals forces. In dispersed systems, this may be achieved by acquiring an
electric layer through the ionization of characteristic groups of adsorbed proteins
(e.g., -CO 2 " and -NH 4 + groups) or through the adsorption or dissolution of small
ions.33 Electroneutrality of the whole system requires that the net charge on the
dispersed particles be balanced by oppositively charged ions (counterions) whose
concentration decreases as one moves away from the charged surface; ions of the
same charge (coions) are repelled near the surface. The region of unequal counterand coions surrounding the charged surface is called the electrical double layer. This
double layer can be regarded as consisting of two regions (Stern theory): an inner
region of strongly adsorbing ions, and an outer region where charges are diffusely
distributed according to a balance between electrical forces and random thermal
motions.11-33 Since all proteins carry some net charge, it is certain that adsorption
of proteins to an interface will lead to the formation of double layers around the
emulsion or foam droplets. It is the interaction of these double layers, as two such
particles approach, which leads to a mutual repulsion. This mutual repulsion can
also be understood as an osmotic pressure effect: the excess concentration of counterions in the space between the double layers produces a local osmotic pressure
difference between the interacting layers and the bulk solution.213 The range of the
electrostatic forces is of the order of the ' 'thickness" of the electrical double layer
which is usually characterized by the Debye-Hiickel length (1/K):
(4.14)
where s r and e o are the permitivities of the vacuum and the continuous phase, respectively. K the Boltzmann constant; T is the absolute temperature; e is the electronic charge; and c and Z are the concentration and charge number of the ions in
the continuous phases, respectively.167 Calculations of the energy of the electrostatic
repulsions require numerous assumptions about the conditions at the surface of the
particles when they interact, but Derjaguin and Landau,214 and Verwey and
Overbeek213 have demonstrated that it is possible to roughly estimate solutions for
the energy of electrostatic interactions between two charged particles by considering
either particles which are large and have thin double layers (that is, where Ka > >
1), or which are small and have large double layers (that is, KQ.
1). In the case
of protein-stabilized emulsions, it is clear that the first of these cases is applicable,215
and so one of the best known solutions, only valid for low surface potentials (if/ <
25 mV), derived by Derjaguin and Landau214 is given by:
(4.15)
where is ip the surface potential. Verwey and Overbeek213 have published tables of
VR using more exact solutions valid for higher surface potentials. This equation,
however, indicates that the electrostatic repulsion falls off exponentially with distance (Fig. 4.8). The range is very sensitive to the ionic strength of the continuous
phase since K is proportional to the square root of the electrolyte concentration.
Typically, l//c would fall from 100 nm at 10~ 5 M to 1 nm at 10" ] M for a univalent
electrolyte.
The total interaction energy VT between colloidal particles can be calculated by
adding the van der Waals attractive forces and the double-layer repulsive potentials
(4.13 and 4.15). This theory, independently derived by Derjaguin and Landau,214
and by Verwey and Overbeek,213 and known as the DLVO Theory, is undoubtedly
one of the greatest steps forward in understanding the stability of colloidal system.
Schematic results such as those in Fig. 4.8 162 show how the forms of the functions
for VA and VR combine to give a maximum repulsive potential so that particles are
prevented from coalescing. From equations (4.13) to (4.15), it is clear that the stability of electrostatically stabilized droplets depends on the height of the primary
maximum (Fig. 4.8) which in turn depends on the surface potential (#), the range
of the double layer (K), and the Hamaker constant (AH). As a rough rule, if the
primary maximum exceeds approximately 15 kT (kT is the average energy expected
from local thermal fluctuations), a dispersion is "absolutely" stable with respect to
coagulation into the primary minimum.33 Furthermore, if the secondary minimum
(Fig. 4.8) is sufficiently deep, 2 kT or more, then when the droplets come together
they will form aggregates with a lifetime dependent on the depth.162 These aggregates of droplets are generally easily dispersed by agitation.179 If the DLVO Theory
has the merit to be entirely quantitative, it unfortunately can rarely explain emulsion
stability in many food emulsions because double-layer forces are not very important.216 Typical food emulsions stabilized by proteins or hydrocolloids have small
surface charge densities corresponding to low zeta potentials, normally between 1
and 20 mV.203 Also, in many food emulsions the electrolyte concentration is rather
high, which reduces the Debye-Hiickel length and consequently the electrostatic
repulsion.179
The third major mechanism by which the stability of colloidal systems can be
influenced is due to the presence of flexible polymers {i.e. disordered or denatured
proteins) on particle surfaces or in solutions which affect forces acting between these
particles. These steric forces can be strong enough to provide a metastable thermodynamic equilibrium and prevent droplets from approaching closely enough for
the attractive van der Waals interactions to be sufficiently powerful to permit coagulation.215 Models describing the interaction between irreversibly adsorbed flexible polymers have been described by Flory,217 de Gennes,205'218 and by Scheutjens
and Fleer.219"221 The interactions between polymer/polymer segments of adsorbed
macromolecules may generate a repulsive effect due to an entropic contribution to
the free energy, rather than being a true repulsive potential, for two reasons. Firstly,
the approach of two interacting droplets may compress the surface layers of adsorbed
macromolecules. This compression, by diminishing the volume available to the
macromolecule, produces a loss of configurational entropy {i.e. macromolecules are
Emulsifying Properties
Definition and Formation of Emulsions. Emulsions as well as foams are dispersed
systems; they contain two distinct phases. According to the traditional definition,235
Electrostatic Repulsion
Steric Repulsion
*
*
(*)
(*)
*
*
*
(*)
*
where sip is the energy density per unit mass and 77/p is the kinematic viscosity of
the continuous phase. Taking dmax as the largest droplet diameter remaining unbroken, it follows that:
(4.17)
if Cl0141x > I0 and Re high. This equation is not exact because uncertainties exist in
the value of the constant C, depending on the homogenizer used. This equation
indicates the dependence of the droplet size on the energy density, and once again,
on the importance of the interfacial tension.
3. Cavitation is the phenomenon of formation and collapse of small vapor bubbles in a liquid.238 A high velocity fluid may produce a local negative pressure which
leads to the formation of a cavity. As the cavity implodes, it produces a microscopic
shock wave. If the collapsing cavity is in the vicinity of a large droplet, part of the
dispersed phase is sucked toward the shrinking void.33 The cavitation mechanism
is particularly important in ultrasonic emulsification,229238 and during microfluidization.239'240
The occurrence of these different types of flow is dependent on the size of the
emulsifying device and emulsifying intensity (s). Moreover, the adsorption process
of an emulsifier such as a protein in a classic emulsifying device such as the homogenizer probably occurs in less than a millisecond.229 This implies that: (1) much
of the protein emulsifier is transported to the O/W interface by convection rather
than diffusion, and (2) it is very unlikely that an adsorption equilibrium is obtained.
Walstra and Oortwijn241 have quantified the kinetics of adsorption of milk proteins during homogenization. In contrast to diffusion-controlled adsorption, the convective mass transport rate increases with the size of the protein molecule or aggregate (e.g., micelle). Consequently, it is difficult to extrapolate the behavior of protein
components as measured in diffusion-controlled experiments to that in real emulsions or foams.
Stability and Environmental Effects on Emulsion Stability. Despite the adsorption
of emulsifiers at interfaces, emulsions as well as foams are inherently thermodynamically unstable. Consequently, emulsion stability should be considered as a kinetic concept: the "stability" being obtained when the number and the arrangement
of droplets change very slowly with time.242 Loss of stability has several possible
manifestations in emulsions. One may identify five major distinct phenomena which
are creaming, flocculation, coalescence, Oswald ripening, and phase inversion.
Ostwald ripening is the growth of larger droplets at the expense of smaller ones due
to mass transport of small dispersed particles through the continuous phase. Small
particles have a greater solubility than larger ones due to the effect of the particle
curvature on the surface free energy.33'234 However, Ostwald ripening is usually
insignificant in food emulsions due to the extremely low mutual solubilities of triglycerides and water. Phase inversion is the abrupt change in state from an O/W
emulsion to a W/0 emulsion. If emulsion phase inversion can sometimes be expected
(e.g., butter making), it differs from the other phenomena in requiring large amounts
Mizrahi247 have proposed an equation which fits experimental data for a wide range
of systems.
2. Flocculation. Flocculation is the aggregation of dispersed droplets to form
small or large flocculates with no associated change in the individual droplet size.242
This phenomenon may occur if the interaction free energy between two droplets is
negative at certain separation distance: the lower the potential energy minimum
(secondary minimum, Fig. 4.8), the more stable the flocculates once formed.244 Flocculates are generally readily redispersed by gentle agitation. Flocculation may occur
for several possible reasons, including bridging of droplets by emulsifiers, aggregation of proteins initially adsorbed on different droplets, inadequate or excessive
homogenization.242-248 The flocculation rate can be roughly estimated from the product of a frequency factor (i.e., How often do the particles encounter one another?),
and a probability factor (i.e., How long do they stay together?).234 If the first factor
is easily predicted for some simple cases (e.g., Brownian motion, simple
flows),249'250 the second factor, being a function of the total interaction energy, is as
was previously mentioned, more difficult and often impossible to estimate if the
composition of the surface layer is unknown. Consequently, at present, there is no
way to quantify reliably the extent of flocculation in food emulsions.
3. Coalescence. Coalescence is the coming together of creamed or flocculated
droplets to form larger droplets. The limiting situation is a complete breakdown of
the emulsion into two partly immiscible liquid phases.242 Coalescence can be distinguished from flocculation by its irreversibility with respect to dilution, stirring,
change of pH, and so on. According to classical theories, the coalescence process is
initiated by the formation of a small hole in the thin film between a pair of droplets
in close proximity and the Laplace pressure then causes the pair to flow quickly
together.244 Coalescence in a concentrated emulsion, or a creamed layer is greatly
increased by fat crystallisation, especially in the presence of agitation.251'252 In relation to shelf life, coalescence is usually totally unacceptable when seen by the
consumer as release of free fat; however, during eating, coalescence has a positive
role in ensuring the desirable release of flavor components in the mouth (e.g., the
perception of butter saltiness).
Walstra234 has designated a separate category of instability that he called partial
coalescence. This type of instability can occur in emulsions containing fat crystals
which tend to aggregate into nonspherical clumps, held together by "necks" of
liquid fat, rather than flowing together into larger spherical droplets. Partial coalescence, by forming nonspherical aggregates and semi-solid networks, is accompanied
by large changes in emulsion rheology. This phenomenon is readily induced by
subjecting a concentrated suspension of semicrystalline fat globules to shear flow,
that is, during churning of cream. On heating a partially coalesced emulsion, the
crystals melt, and the clumps become large spherical droplets.
These various changes, namely creaming, flocculation, and coalescence, affect
one another as schematically shown in Fig. 4.9.243 Creaming may be enhanced by
any of the others. Coalescence rarely occurs unless the particles are creamed or
flocculated. Creaming may enhance the rate of flocculation. Stirring disturbs creaming, but enhances the rate of flocculation.234
COARSER DISPERSION
Rapid creaming
Coalescence
Rapid creaming
Flocculation
FINER
EMULSION
(MILK)
Coalescence
Flocculation
increased
Slow creaming
Disruption
SEPARATION OF PHASES
Figure 4.9 Schematic representation of the main destabilization processes of emulsions. The
case of milk. Fat is grey. (From Ref. 243.)
Droplet size
Droplet size distribution
Volume fraction of dispersed phase
Density difference between phases
Viscosity (rheology) of continuous phase
Viscosity (rheology) of adsorbed layer
Thickness of adsorbed layer
Electrostatic interaction between droplets
Macromolecular interaction between droplets
Fat crystallization
Liquid crystalline phases
Creaming
Flocculation
Coalescence
***
***
***
***
***
**
**
***
***
**
**
***
***
**
***
***
**
**
***
**
Finally, the composition of the oil phase in food emulsions sometimes produces
fat crystals consisting of oil, water, and low molecular weight emulsifier, in the
interfacial region. There is some evidence that these ordered layers, by influencing
the van der Waals interactions between droplets, can stabilize O/W and W/O emulsions,253 and also that stability is correlated with mesophases in the oil-wateremulsifier phase diagram.254 However, according to Darling and Birkett,255 the
mechanism probably does not operate in most food systems because the lipid emulsifier concentration (e.g., mono-, di-glyceride, etc.) is far too low for lipid crystals
to develop at the O/W interface.
Factors Affecting Emulsion Stability. Numerous studies on emulsions has allowed identification of the main physical factors affecting emulsion stability. Table
4.9 242 summarizes the main ones with their relative importance to creaming, flocculation, and coalescence.
Another important aspect of protein stabilized emulsions is that their behavior is
pH-dependent. Particularly at the pi, proteins having no net charge, the charge-based
contributions to repulsion will be minimal. Consequently, proteins tend to coagulate,
and therefore it is expected that their surface Theological parameters will be maximal.256 Steric stabilization will also be minimized at the pi, because the proteins will
be in their most compact form.215 Some authors such as Nielsen et al.257 using
gelatin, and Biswas and Haydon258 using BSA, have nevertheless demonstrated the
contrary, that is, that emulsion stability could be higher at the pi. It is thought that
the higher surface coverage or protein load at the pi and the structure of proteins
give cohesive films that enhance stability.215 At lower pH values, proteins may show
a distinct dependence on pH. BSA shows increasing emulsifying activity as the pH
is increased from 4 to 9, and then decreases sharply as the protein conformation
changes.259"261 However, according to Waniska et al.,261 /3-lg in the range of pH
3-8 does not undergo a change in its emulsifying capacity, although it does undergo
conformational changes.
The protein hydrophobicity of whey proteins can vary with pH, in that their
surfaces become less hydrophobic as the pH increased.262
Finally, proteins are susceptible to change with the ionic strength of the solution:
increasing the ionic strength diminishes charge-based interactions between proteins
and consequently produces the same effect as changing the pH towards the pi. 263 ' 264
Measurement of Emulsifying Properties. The tests used for the evaluation of
the emulsifying properties of proteins can be separated into two categories. The first
provide direct information on emulsifying potential. The second provide estimations
of the effects of proteins on the stability of protein-stabilized emulsions (ES). However, a "complete" characterization of the emulsifying properties of proteins requires both of these approaches. In the first category of methods, one can include
(1) the emulsifying capacity (EC) and (2) the emulsifying activity index (EAI).
1. The EC measurement is probably the most popular test;28 the maximum amount
of fat emulsified by a protein dispersion just prior to the inversion point is determined. The EC method originally developed by Swift et ai,265 has been widely
used, although it has been modified in certain respects. Comparisons between
results from different laboratories are difficult to make due to the fact that this
type of test is greatly affected by the type of stirrer used, stirring rate, rate of fat
addition, types of fat or oil, and emulsifying temperature. Hailing256 has critically
reviewed this method. Vuillemard et al.266 have proposed a standardized procedure to measure the EC max .
2. The EAI, as presented by Pearce and Kinsella260 is a rough estimate of the dispersed particle size of the emulsion, based on the interfacial area (calculated via
turbidity) per unit of protein. The EAI measures the ability of the protein to help
in dispersing the oil phase.
In the second set of methods, emulsion stability (ES) can be evaluated by measuring of the rate at which an emulsion creams or breaks. The rates of these changes
can be measured by determining (1) the distribution of oil droplets, and (2) by an
estimation of the fat or water content in the upper or lower part of the emulsions.
1. The droplet particle size distribution can be determined in various ways such as
optical and electron microscopy,267'268, optical imaging,269 centrifugal sedimentation, Coulter counter,270-271 spectroturbidimetric techniques,260'270'272 and photon correlation spectroscopy.273
2. Direct estimation of the emulsion instability by following the degree of fat separation can also be determined by a vast range of procedures.274"278
Other methods measuring the dielectic constant of the upper part of the emulsion,279 or the electrical conductivity of emulsions280 have also been proposed.
Finally, numerous methods for accelerating the separation process by centrifugation, heating, etc., have been proposed to evaluate the long term stability of emulsions.274""277'281"283 However, these methods must be used with caution because, as
Table 4.10
Property
Particle diameter (m)
Particle volume fraction
Density difference (kg m"3)
Compressibility of dispersed phase (N" ] m2)
Interfacial tension (Nm" 1 )
Laplace pressure (Nm" 2 )
Solubility of dispersed phase in continuous phase
Value in foams
Value in emulsions
2 X 10" 7 to 10" 5
0.01 to 0.8
10 to 100
5 X 10-l0
10" 3 to 10" 2
e.g., 104
0(O/W)
0.15 vol% (W/O)
Foaming Properties
Definition and Formation of Foams. Various aspects of foams including physical
chemistry, production, investigation techniques, as well as some food examples can
be found in Akers.288 More recently a very comprehensive and detailed review on
foam stability has been published by Prins.289
What foams and emulsions have in common is that both are dispersions of one
fluid into another. However, from a physical point of view, there are several quantitative differences between the two (Table 4.10).234 All these differences, including
the fact that foam bubbles can be easily deformed, have important consequences for
the relative rates of instability phenomena in the two types of dispersions.289
Foams, as emulsions, are dispersed systems and depending on the volume ratio
of gas to liquid, one can distinguish between (1) a concentrated polyhedric foam and
(2) a dilute bubbly foam.
1. In a polyhedric foam, the volume ratio is so large that bubbles are deformed and
press against each other to form a kind of honeycomb structure (e.g., beer foam).
2. In a bubbly foam, however, the amount of gas is so small that bubbles can retain
their spherical shape (e.g., ice cream and chocolate mousse).
Furthermore, foams can be produced essentially according to three main processes
by: (1) agitation of a given amount of liquid in an unlimited amount of air;
(2) agitation of a mixture of a gas and liquid in which both volumes are determined,
and (3) allowing gas to penetrate the liquid in the foam of bubbles.
In the first process, the amount of air is, in principle, unlimited. Air is introduced
into the liquid in the form of large bubbles which are diminished in size as the result
of mechanical agitation (e.g., whipping egg white or cream).
In the food industry, aeration in a continuous process (type 2) is often performed
by first injecting the required amount of gas into a given amount of liquid. Bubbles
are formed at an orifice, and they leave the orifice with a size that is determined,
among other things, by the viscous forces exerted on them and by the streaming
liquid. Later, in the same apparatus, these bubbles are diminished in size by means
of a pin tiner, a whipping rod, or a static mixer. Chocolate mousse and ice cream
are examples of foods produced in this way.
Gas bubbles may be formed in a type (1) process using two different procedures: *
(a) gas is generated in situ in the liquid, which means that the liquid has to be
saturated with gas. Bread baking is an example of this type of gas bubble production
where carbon dioxide is generated by yeast cells; (b) the liquid is not saturated with
gas, and the bubbles are created by heterogeneous nucleation. Foam production in
beer and other carbonated beverages are examples of this type of gas production.
What all the above processes have in common is that, under dynamic conditions,
the system is not at equilibrium. Therefore, the bubble surfaces and the films between
the bubbles are not in equilibrium. Consequently, the behavior of the bubbles and
the films can be understood only in the context of a dynamic system. In foams, an
important parameter is the dilational viscosity which measures the ability of a liquid
surface to resist disturbance:
(4.19)
where r)s is the surface viscosity, Ay is the increase in interfacial tension, and
dlnA / dt is the relative rate of the surface area.
It should be pointed out here that T]S is not constant. A decrease in its value has
a corresponding decrease in lnA/dt for liquid foodstuffs such as beer or milk.289
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Table 4.11
Processing Variables
Thermal treatment
Forewarming
Milk pasteurization
Milk sterilization
Evaporation and concentration
Dehydration
Pretreatment before fractionation
Lipid removal
pH adjustment
Fractionation and isolation
Technique used
Miscellaneous factors (pumping, storage, etc.)
Cheese processing
Starter used
Coagulant used
Process modifications (cooking temperature,
calcium chloride, water washing, etc.)
Storage factors
Casein or whey storage conditions
Casein or whey protein product storage
conditions
Sanitation factors
Microbiological load
Antimicrobial agent added
Direct
(a)
Indirect
(b)
+
+
+
+
+
Direct
(a)
Indirect
+
+
+
+
(+)
(+)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
+
+
+
+
(b)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Modifications
Caseins
Dephosphorylation
Proteolysis
Covalent bond formation
Micellar structure
Zeta-potential
Hydration changes
Association-dissociation
Whey proteins
Unfolding-aggregation
Disulfide interchange
lation, (2) proteolysis, (3) covalent bond formation, and (4) changes in casein micellar structures, etc. (Table 4.12) which differ only in rate and not in nature.312
1. Casein is completely dephosphorylated in 5 h at 1200C and approximately
50% dephosphorylation occurs within 1 h.317 Milk concentration increases the rate
of dephosphorylation; preheating has no effect on the rate of dephosphorylation of
unconcentrated milk but reduces the rate for concentrated milk.318 Dephosphorylation, which reduces protein charge, might be expected to affect the heat stability of
milk but its specific contribution has not been quantified.313
2. Although the nature of the proteolysis products formed on heating has not
been studied in detail,312 some authors have reported the appearance of glycopeptides
in milk heated at temperatures >50C, 319 and of peptides similar to the glycomacropeptide after a treatment at 1200C for 20 minutes.320 Furthermore, formation
of nonprotein nitrogen from milk proteins at temperatures >100C is almost linear
with time; 10 to 20% of total nitrogen is solubilized after 5 h at 1200C317 or 60
minutes at 135C.321
3. During heat treatment of proteins, reactions can occur between reactive side
chains of some amino acids, such as Iysine and cysteine, and other amino acid
residues, carbohydrates, or lipids. The browning that occurs when milk is heated at
temperatures > 1000C is a consequence of the Maillard reaction between the carbonyl
group of lactose and the e-amino group of lysine.
4. Heating milk causes a number of changes in casein micelles such as the aggregation of casein micelles during UHT sterilization.322""324 This increase in casein
micelle size probably results from the combined effects of the heat denaturation of
whey proteins and their deposition onto micellar surfaces and from the increase in
micellar calcium which may lead to calcium bridges between micelles.324 The increase in micelle size during heating is also accompanied by a large increase in the
number of very small particles.325'326 These particles may be formed by the breaking
up of casein micelles327"329 due to the removal of colloidal calcium by soluble citrate.
The citrate is normally neutralized by soluble calcium but calcium phosphate precipitates when the milk is heated. Finally, at normal pH, milk coagulation occurs at
14O0C after about 20 minutes. The heat stability of milk, which is considerable
economic importance, is influenced by many compositional factors as well as processing effects.313-330-331 In the case of pH, Rose 332 ' 333 showed that the heat coagulation time-pH profile of most milks (type A) showed a maximum at approximately
6.7 and a minimum at 6.9. The pH effect in milk coagulation is a function of
K-casein concentration on micelle surfaces and the /3-lg concentration in the milk
serum. The minimum appears to be due to the dissociation of K-casein from the
casein micelles at pH >6.9 while the maximum is related to the presence of /3-lg.
Some milk samples from individual cows fail to show minimum and maximum
points on the curve, but instead coagulation time increases as the pH increases from
6.2 to 7.4: such milk is referred to as "type B " . Tessier and Rose 334 eliminated the
minimum in the curve of type A milk by adding K-casein, thus converting it to type
B. They also converted type B milk to type A by salting out some K-casein or by
adding /3-lg.
A large variety of heat treatments have been studied to increase the utilization of
whey proteins17'23'26'342"344 as well as the impact of heat treatments inherent to the
processing of milk such as pasteurization. Indeed, even mild heat treatments such
as standard pasteurization have been shown to affect the functionality of whey protein concentrates.345-346 Morr345 reported that pasteurization (72C for 15 seconds)
of cheese whey increased the foaming of a cheese whey concentrate at both pH 4.5
and pH 9.0, whereas the pasteurization of acid whey decreased the foaming of an
acid whey protein concentrate. Mangino et ai346 studying these same products,
found that the binding of alkanes by whey protein concentrates was increased by the
pasteurization of both types of whey.
Lorient et al.29 have studied the emulsifying and foaming properties of purified
a-la and /3-lg as a function of heat treatment and pH. The two proteins show improved emulsifying activity when heated at 700C for 30 minutes at acid or neutral
pH; the activity of /3-lg is always higher. When heated at 900C for 60 minutes,
emulsifying activity is only improved at acid pH. As for foaming properties, the
combined effects of pH and heat treatment appear to be different for the two proteins;
a positive effect when heated at basic, neutral or isoelectric pH for /3-lg, and an
negative effect a-la (especially at pH 2). Conversely, the foaming properties of
a-la are improved at pH 2-5.
Particle Size
(Hin)
Approx. Molecular
Weight (D)
io !
Particle
Characteristics
Approx. Flux
(L/m2h)
Approx. Operating
Pressure (Bar)
Relative size of
milk systems
components
io' 3
io'<
Ionic
io 3
30
40
30
Ions
io!O5
10*
Molecular
Macromolecular
100
1000
Microparticular
Cellular
300
1
20
Vitamins
Bacteria
Whey Protein Aggregates, Cheese Fines
UF
NF
Yeasts, Molds
Fat Globules
Casein Micelles
Salts
RO
10
510 5
Whey Proteins
Lactose/Derivat.
Process for
Separation
io- !
Traditional Filtration
MF
Figure 4.10 Spectrum of application of membrane separation processes in the dairy industry.
(Adapted from Ref. 348.)
an increased yield due to a better recovery of fat and protein. However, if in most
cases UF technology allows substantially better yields, in some cases there has been
no yield improvement over traditional cheesemaking.366 Apart from extra yield, UF
technology has other potential advantages compared to thermoseparation technology.
The UF process is simple, allows on accurately control total solid content, and is
less sensitive to pH variations.369
The important factor is the kind of cheese being made and the amount of syneresis
that must take place in the cheesemaking process after UF is complete. Cheesemaking parameters such as calcium and lactose concentration have to be considered when
UF milk is used. Cheeses made from precheese normally possess a stronger buffering
power than that associated with traditional cheese of the same type, making it more
difficult to attain the optimum low pH which controls texture, quality, and spoilage
bacteria.358
UF can also be used to concentrate the milk to total protein concentration ratios
not exceeding 2:1, after which cheesemaking proceeds in the traditional manner. The
resulting cheeses usually satisfy existing standards of identity, but yield increases
are modest.
3. Ultrafiltration of whey. Whey is ultrafiltered to concentrate the native whey
proteins to obtain powders with varying protein content. Although whey protein
concentrates have been produced since 70, their full potential has not been realized
due to variations in functional properties.379"383 A recent survey of commercial whey
protein concentrates (WPC) and whey protein isolates (WPI), confirmed a high degree of variability in gross composition, individual protein composition, physicochemical properties, and flavor of WPC.385 A number of whey pretreatment methods
have been developed to improve UF membrane flux rates and increase overall recovery. Some pretreatments have led to real improvement such as (1) the clarification
procedure for acid and sweet wheys developed by de Wit et a/.379'384 involving the
precipitation of bacteria and lipids at pH 4.6; (2) microfiltration prior to UF to clarify
and remove the fouling components;386'387 and (3) delipidation by thermocalcic aggregation.341-388'389 Pretreatments are important because they can modify the protein
retention ratio and consequently the composition and the functional properties of the
WPC.389 WPC composition is also altered by the concentration factor reached during
the UF and the diafiltration step which lowers the lactose/protein and salt/protein
ratios.
For whey protein concentrates produced by UF processes, pretreatment processes
induce protein/calcium interactions, and storage can induce changes in protein
conformation due to differences in the functionality of whey protein products.309
Mangino et at.346 found that ultrafiltration increased the hydrophobicity of the whey
protein concentrates as measured by alkane binding. Harris et al.390 reported that
ultrafiltration caused a slight increase in surface hydrophobicity.
4.5 Conclusion
Certain techniques that can be used to modify the functional properties of dairy
proteins such as cross-linking with transglutaminase, succinylation, phosphorylation,
amidation and esterification, thiolation, glycosylation, etc.,261-391 396 will not be discussed because, as far as we know, they have not gone beyond the experimental
stage.26-308
Chemical treatments can be used to substantially modify the functional properties
of milk proteins.397 However, there is some doubt as to the negative effects on
nutritional value as well as to the presence of trace amounts of the chemicals remaining after the treatment which limits the use of chemically modified proteins for
the present.
The development of physical treatments for the concentration and separation of
milk proteins will allow the industrial-scale production of enriched protein fractions
that are relatively pure and that have specific nutritional properties. The physiological
or functional properties of certain sequences,5'6'396'398"403 and the infinite possibilities for generating new sequences by enzymatic hydrolysis makes it possible to
envisage significant advances in high value-added industries (parapharmaceutical,
cosmetic).7-404 The transformation of milk proteins into a wide range of food ingredients will allow the use of previously surplus protein, will meet the requirements
of the food industry in terms of functionally specific ingredients and will allow the
dairy industry to compete a better footing with other protein sources. Competition
from vegetable proteins has become very stiff, with proteins from vegetable sources
already in a dominant position for many food ingredients:26 it is primordial that the
dairy industry will be able to provide ingredients with superior functional properties
to once again become the principal source of ingredients for the food industry.405
Consequently, to optimize the use of milk protein as a food ingredient, more
research is still needed on:
1. Investigation of individual functional properties and factors affecting them;
2. Obtaining a better understanding of the manner in which protein/ingredient interactions affect the properties of foods that contain milk protein products;
3. Standardization of methods for testing functionality both in aqueous systems and
in model food systems, with more attention to standardization of model food
systems in the future; and
4. Processing-induced effects on functionality, with emphasis on fractionation, concentration, drying, and storage.
4.6 Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Dr. Michel Britten, Dr. Sylvie Gauthier, Dr. Yves Pouliot,
and Dr. Jean-Christophe Vuillemard for reading the manuscript and for their helpful
comments. Their excellent advice, however, was not always followed and we must,
therefore, accept full responsibility for any remaining errors and shortcomings. We
would also like to thank Mrs. Raymonde Gosselin for typing the manuscript and
Mr. Gene Bourgeau for editorial assistance. Finally, we also thank editors and authors who have given permission to copy tables and figures from published works.
Furthermore, although this chapter was a team effort, we would like to underline
more specifically that, under the supervision of Paul Paquin (Director of the Dairy
Sciences Research Center, Universite Laval, Quebec), Olivier Robin was responsible
for the section dealing with "Protein-Protein and Protein-Surface Interactions," and
Dr. Sylvie Turgeon for the section dealing with "Some Processing Effects."
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338. Bemal, V., and P. Jelen. 1985. Effect of calcium binding on thermal denaturation of bovine
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339. Pearce, R. J. 1983. Thermal separation of /3-lactoglobulin and a-lactalbumin in bovine Cheddar
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340. Pearce, R. J. 1987. Fractionation of whey proteins. IDF Bulletin 212:150-153.
341. Pierre, A. and J. Fauquant. 1986. Industrial process for production of purified proteins from whey.
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342. Nakai, S. and E. LiChan. 1985. Structure modification and functionality of whey proteins: quantitative structure-activity relationship approach. / . Dairy Sci. 68:2763-2772.
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345. Morr, C. V. 1987. Effect of HTST pasteurization of milk, cheese whey, and cheese whey UF
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346. Mangino, M. E., L. M. Huffmann, and G. O. Regester. 1988. Changes in hydrophobicity and
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347. Novak, A. 1992. Milk protein concentrate. IDF Special Issue 9201:51-66.
348. Jelen, P. 1992. Pressure-driven membrane processes: principles and definitions. IDF Special Issue
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349. Cheryan, M. 1986. Ultrafiltration Handbook. Technomics Publishers Co., Lancaster.
350. Rousseau, R. W. (ed.). 1987. Handbook of Separation Process Technology. John Wiley & Sons,
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351. Schweitzer, P. A. (ed.). 1988. Handbook of Separation Techniques for Chemical Engineers, 2nd
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352. Porter, M. C. (ed.). 1990. Handbook of Industrial Membrane Technology. Noyes Publishers, Park
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353. Olesen, N., and F. Jensen. 1989. Microfiltration: the influence of operating parameters on the
process. Milchwissenschaft 44:476-479.
354. Pedersen, P. J. 1992. Microfiltration for the reduction of bacteria in milk and brine. IDF Special
Issue 9201:33-50.
355. Pearce, R. J., S. C. Marshall, and J. A. Dunkerley. 1992. Reduction of lipids in whey protein
concentrates by microfiltration: effect on functional properties. IDF Special Issue 9201:118-129.
356. Mohr, C. M., D. E. Engelgau, S. A. Leeper, and B. L. Charboneau. 1989. Membrane Applications
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357. de Boer, R., J. and Hiddink. 1980. Membrane processes in the dairy industry. Desalination
35:169-192.
358. Kosikowski, F. V. 1986. Membrane separation in food processing. In W. C. McGregor (ed.),
Membrane Separations in Biotechnology, pp. 201-254. Marcel Dekker, New York.
359. Gregory, A. G. Desalination of sweet-type whey salt drippings for whey solids recovery. IDF
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360. Roy, D., J. Francoeur, L. Blanchette, and D. Minier. 1990. Demineralization d'un lactose*rum
de'prote'ine' par ultra-osmose. Brief Comm. & Abstr. Posters. Proc. XXII International Dairy Congress, p. 485, Montreal.
361. Jelen, P. 1978. Physico-chemical properties of milk and whey in membrane processing. / . Dairy
Sci. 62:1343-1351.
362. Kelly, P. M., B. S. Horton, and H. Burling. 1992. Partial demineralization of whey by nanofiltration.
IDF Special Issue 9201:130-140.
363. Puham, Z. 1992. Standardization of milk protein content by membrane processes for product manufacture. IDF Special Issue 9201:23-32.
364. Maubois, J.-L., and G. Mocquot. 1971. Preparation du fromage a partir de pre*-fromage liquide
obtenu par ultracentrifugation du lait. Le Lait 51:495-534.
365. Mahaut, M., J.-L. Maubois, A. Zink, R. Pannetier, and R. Veyre. 1982. Elements de fabrication de
fromage frais par ultrafiltration sur membrane de coagulum de lait. Technique Laitiire 961:9-13.
366. Emstrom, C. A., and S. K. Anis. 1986. Properties of products from ultrafiltered whole milk. Proc.
IDF Seminar, pp. 21-30. Atlanta.
367. Lelievre, J. and R. C. Lawrence. 1988. Manufacture of cheese from milk concentrated by ultrafiltration. J. Dairy Res. 55:465-478.
368. Lawrence, R. C. 1989. The use of ultrafiltration technology in cheesemaking. IDF Bulletin
240:1-15.
369. Pedersen, P. J. and N. Ottosen. 1992. Manufacture of fresh cheese by ultrafiltration. IDF Special
Issue 9201:67-76.
370. de Boer, R., and J. P. J. M. Koenraads. 1992. Incorporation of liquid ultrafiltrationwhey retentates
in dairy desserts and yogurts. IDF Special Issue 9201:109-117.
371. Green, M. L., K. J. Scott, M. Anderson, M. C. A. Griffin, and F. A. Glover. 1984. Chemical
characterization of milk concentrated by ultrafiltration. / . Dairy Res. 51:267-278.
372. Srilaorkul, S., L. Ozimek, B. Ooraikul, D. Hadziyev, F. Wolfe. 1991. Effect of ultrafiltration of
skim milk on casein micelle size distribution in retentate. / . Dairy Sci. 74:50-57.
373. Schmidt, D. G. 1980. Colloidal aspect of casein. Neth. Milk Dairy J. 34:42-64.
374. Hallstrom, M., and P. Djemek. 1988. Rheological properties of ultrafiltered skim milk. 1. Effects
of pH, temperature and heat pretreatment. Milchwissenschaft 43:31-34.
375. Mistry, V. V. 1989. Thermal inactivation characteristics of alkaline phosphatase in ultrafiltered
milk. /. Dairy ScL 72:1112-1117.
376. Renner, E. and M. H. Abd El-Salam. 1991. Application of Ultrafiltration in the Dairy Industry.
Elsevier Applied Science, London.
377. Korolczuk, J., J.-L. Maubois, and J. Fauquant. 1986. In Milk, The Vital Force, pp. 123-153. XXII
Int. Dairy Congress, The Hague.
378. Mortensen, B. K. 1985. Recent developments in the utilization of milk proteins in dairy products.
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379. de Wit, J. N., G. Klarenbeek, and E. Hontelez-Backx. 1983. Evaluation of functional properties of
whey protein concentrates and whey protein isolates. 1. Isolation and characterization. Neth. Milk
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380. de Wit, J. N., G. Klarenbeek, and M. Adamse. 1986. Evaluation of functional properties of whey
protein concentrates and whey protein isolates. 2. Effects of processing, history, and composition.
Neth. Milk Dairy J. 40:41-56.
381. de Wit, J. N., E. Hontelez-Backx, and M. Adamse. 1988. Evaluation of functional properties of
whey protein concentrates and whey protein isolates. 3. Functional properties in aqueous solution.
Neth. Milk Dairy J. 42:155-172.
382. Hugunin, A. G. 1987. Applications of UF whey proteins: developing new markets. IDF Bulletin
212:134-144.
383. Morr, C. V. 1992. Improving the texture and functionality of whey protein concentrate. Food
Technol. 46(1):110-113.
384. Morr, C. V., and E. A. Foegeding. 1990. Composition and functionality of commercial whey and
milk protein concentrates and isolated: a status report. Food Technol. 44(4): 100-112.
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387. Piot, M., J. C. Vachot, M. Veaux, J.-L. Maubois, and G. E. Brinkman. 1987. Ecre"mage et e*puration
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388. Maubois, J.-L., G. Brule", and P. Gourdon. 1981. Ultrafiltration of whey: optimization of technology
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389. Fauquant, J., A. Pierre, and G. Brule. 1985. Clarification of acid casein whey. Technique Laitiere
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APPENDIX
Product Listing
This appendix lists alphabetically those products and services most commonly used
by the dairy and food industries. Under each product or service, this appendix provides the names of companies that provide those products and services. The address
and a description of each company are provided in the Appendix of Volume III.
The data have been reproduced from the 1992/1993 Directory of Membership
Products and Services, copyrighted by the Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, Inc. Reproduced with permission.
Advertising: Alimentos Procesados
Magazine; The Cheese Reporter Pub. Co.,
Inc.; Putman Food Group; Food
Engineering Magazine; Food Products &
Equipment Mag.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Your Favorite Producers, Inc.
Air Curtains: Heritage Equipment Co.;
The King Company; Spraying Systems Co.;
Superior Industries of Nebraska; Westcoast
Engineering Co.
Air Eliminators: Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; The Clark Reliance
Corporation; Marlen Research Corporation;
Sani-Matic Systems; Scherping Systems;
The Schlueter Company
Boilers: INDEECO/HYNES;
International Dairy Equipment; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Miura Boiler
Co., Ltd.
Bottled W a t e r : D & L Manufacturing
Co., Inc.; Hess Machine Co.
Bottles
Carriers/Handles: Anchor Glass
Container Corp.
Glass: Anchor Glass Container Corp.;
Owens-Illinois, Inc.
Buildings
Storage: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Harnischfeger Engineers,
Inc.; Hertel, Johnson, Eipper & Stopa;
Hixson Architects/Engineers; Process
Dynamics, Inc.; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Tecton Contracting Corp.;
Webber/Smith Associates, Inc.
Cabinets
Display/Frozen: Catta 27 S.R.L.;
Excellence Commercial Products;
Frigidaire Commercial Products Co.;
Gram Equipment of America, Inc.;
Master-Bilt Products; SaniServ; Silver
King Division; Sun Industries, Inc.;
Universal Marketing, Inc.
Inc.
Display/Refrigerated: Catta 27
B r u s h e s : Dairy Industry, Inc.; Midwest
Dairy Supply; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;
Remco Products Corporation; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Sparta Brush Co., Inc.;
Special Products, Inc.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; Weber Scientific
Carton/Form/Load/Close/Seal:
ACCU-TECH Machinery Company, Inc.;
ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.; Benz &
Hilgers GmbH; DESCORP/Dairy Equip. &
Service; Hayes Machine Company, Inc.;
Mead Packaging; Moen Industries; Sasib
Corporation of America; Wolf Packaging
Ltd.
Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals: Alconox, Inc.; Diversey
Corp.; DuBois USA; Alex C. Fergusson
Construction
Materials: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; Chem-Pruf Door Company, Inc.;
Chemgrate Corp.; Dimetrics, Inc./Talley
Industries; Drehmann Paving & Flooring
Co.; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Jones
Environmental, Inc.; Mead & Hunt;
Sauereisen Cements Company; Stogsdill
Tile Company; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Tecton Contracting Corp.;
Tufco International, Inc.; United
Engineers & Constructors
Plant: Advanced Insulation Concepts,
Inc.; Big-D Construction Corporation;
Consultants
Education/Seminars: Barclay &
Associates; The Creative Factory, Inc.;
Data Specialists, Inc.; Data Specifics
Corporation
Finance: Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Rhawn
Enterprises, Inc.
Management: The Foxboro Company;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Arthur D. Little,
Inc.; The Omega Company; Tom Sloan
& Associates, Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation
Marketing: The Cheese Reporter Pub.
Co., Inc.; DCA Food Industries, Inc.;
Heinz Nutrition Products; Horton
International, Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.;
Arthur D. Little, Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company; Putman Food Group (A);
Sealright Co., Inc.; Tom Sloan &
Associates, Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates
PR/Advertising: The Cheese Reporter
Pub. Co., Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company; Putman Food Group (A)
Packaging: Astec; Custom-Made
Packaging, Inc.; Dover Brook
Containers
Composite: Sealright Co., Inc.; Tetra
Pak Inc.
Cups & Lids: Cardinal Packaging;
Champion International Corp.; Fleming
Packaging Corp.; Genpak Canada; Label
Makers Inc.; Letica Corp.; Louisiana
Plastics, Inc.; Raymond Morin USA,
Inc.; Polytainers, Inc.; Portion Packaging,
Inc.; Purity Packaging, Ltd.; Quality
Closures & Packaging Div.; Sealright
Co., Inc.; Solo Cup Company;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.; Virginia
Design Packaging Corp.
Insulated: Bonar Plastics, Inc.; Polar
Industries; Polar Tech Industries; Solo
Cup Company
Metal: Alloy Products Corp.; Kosempel
Mfg. Company; Langer Manufacturing
Company; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Spartanburg Steel Products,
Inc.; Walter Stocklin AG; Thielmann
Container Systeme GmbH
Control/Control Systems
Automation: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.;
Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group;
Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; Custom
Control Products, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Data Specialists, Inc.;
Electrol Specialties Co.; ESE Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Foss Food
Technology Corp.; The Foxboro
Company; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); Gelber Industries; Hartel
Cookers/Kettles
Batch: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; Cherry-Burrell
Process Eqpmt. Div.; Chester-Jensen
Company, Inc.; GOAVEC; Groen; Paul
Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.; Millerbernd
Trunion: Groen
Vacuum: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; Feldmeier
Equipment, Inc.; GOAVEC; Groen;
Heerema Company; International Dairy
Equipment; Kosempel Mfg. Company;
Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Rossi & Catelli SPA;
Scherping Systems; Scott Turbon Mixer,
Inc.; Sine Pump Div.; Stephan
Machinery Corp.; Terlet N.V.; The Van
Tone Company; Viatec - Process Storage
Systems; Walker Stainless Equip. Co.
Inc.
Custom Development
Food: American Fruit Processors;
Burghof Engineering & Mfg. Co.; Diehl
Specialties International; The Foote &
Jenks Corporation; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; Grain Processing
Corp.; Integrated Ingredients; Interbake
Foods; The National Food Laboratory,
Inc.; The OmegaSource Corporation;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.; Vrymeer
Cocoa & Chocolates, Div. of; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.
Drying Equipment
Continuous Vacuum: Industrial
Accessories
Conveyor/Convection: Carrier
Vibrating Equipment Inc.; FrigoTech;
Industrial Accessories; C. E. Rogers
Company
Drum/Rotary: Kosempel Mfg.
Company; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication
Fluid Bed: APV Crepaco, Inc.; Carrier
Vibrating Equipment Inc.; Damrow
Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies: Bevco Conveying
Systems; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Bran & Luebbe, Inc.; Dover
Brook Associates; DSI Process Systems;
Duensing Engineering Group, Inc.; Eden
Systems, Inc.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; Global Stainless Ltd.; Grenco
Process Technology B.V.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; Horton
International, Inc.; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; J A I Engineers; Jones
Environmental, Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Lizardos
Environmental Control
Aseptic Air: ACUair Air Systems;
Aquionics, Inc.; Astec; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; The King
Company; Lizardos Engineering
Equipment
Leasing: Bevco Conveying Systems;
Dimetrics, Inc./Talley Industries; Len E.
Ivarson, Inc.; NuTemp, Inc.; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Tindall Packaging, Inc.; Wolf
Packaging Ltd.
Remanufactured: ACCU-TECH
Machinery Company, Inc.; Automation
Packaging, Inc.; Edmeyer, Inc.; Frontier
Technology, Inc.; Heritage Equipment
Co.; Int'l Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Len
E. Ivarson, Inc.; Stan Keck Company;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; NuTemp,
Inc.; Osgood Industries Inc.; C. E.
Rogers Company; Separators, Inc.;
Sharon Manufacturing Co., Inc.;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.; Tindall
Packaging, Inc.; Venjex Corp.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Wolf Packaging
Ltd.
Repair: Anderson Instrument Co, Inc.;
Automation Packaging, Inc.; Edmeyer,
Filters
Air: ACUair Air Systems; Anbroco,
Inc.; APEX Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.;
Astec; Balston, Inc.; Industrial
Accessories; King Engineering Corp.;
MicroPure Filtration; Nu-Con
Equipment; Osmonics, Inc.; Pall
Corporation; Swagelok Company; TriClover, Inc.; Zander Filter Systems, Inc.
Liquid: Anbroco, Inc.; Balston, Inc.;
Frontier Technology, Inc.; Gelber
Industries; Harry Holland & Son Inc.;
Flow Meters
Flow Control: Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; Anbroco, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; EXAC
Corporation; Fischer & Porter Company;
Flowdata, Inc.; G/H Products Corp.;
Gelber Industries; Harry Holland & Son,
Inc.; Honeywell, Inc.; Invalco; K-Patents;
Masterleo, Inc.; Micro Motion, Inc.;
Midwest Dairy Supply; Milltronics, Inc.;
Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; The
Partlow Corp.; Process Dynamics, Inc.;
Rosemount Incorporated; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Scherping Systems;
Schlumberger Industries; Special
Products, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; Zajac Equipment Supply
Freezers
Batch: SaniServ; Emery Thompson
Machine & Supply Co.
Continuous: FrigoTech; Niro Hudson,
Inc.; Northfield Freezing Systems, Inc.
Ice Cream: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Catta
27 S.R.L.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; FrigoTech; Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; Greerco Corp.; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; O. G. Hoyer A/S;
Intec, Inc.; International Dairy
Frozen Dessert
Mixes: Frostline Foods
Frozen Desserts/Novelty
Equipment
Cakes/Fancy/Molded Catta27 SRL.
Cone, Cup, Tube: Autoprod Inc.;
Catta 27 S.R.L.; DCA Food Industries,
Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp. Gram Equipment
of America, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S;
Milliken Packaging; Mondomix Holland
B. V.; Osgood Industries Inc.; Portion
Packaging, Inc.; Processing Machinery &
Slice/Sandwich: S. H. Bates
Company; Gram Equipment of America,
Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; Interbake Foods;
Popsicle Industries Ltd.; Processing
Machinery & Supply; Straight-O-Matic
Gaskets & Seals: APEX Packing &
Rubber Co. Inc.; G/H Products Corp.; The
Haynes Manufacturing Co.; IMEX;
Industrial Accessories; Jensen Fittings
Corporation; Midwest Dairy Supply;
Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Newman Sanitary
Gasket Company; Robert-James Sales, Inc.;
Sani-Tech Incorporated; Sharon
Manufcturing Co., Inc.; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Stainless Products, Inc.;
L. C. Thomsen, Inc.; Top Line Process
Equipment Corp.; Tri-Clover, Inc.; WCR
Incorporated; Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.;
Zajac Equipment Supply
Heat Exchangers
Infusion: APV Crepaco, Inc.; The
Clark Reliance Corporation; DASI
Industries, Inc.; GEA Wiegand; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Wolf Packaging Ltd.
Injection: APV Crepaco, Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; The Clark
Reliance Corporation; FR Manufcturing
Corp. (FranRica); GEA Wiegand; Kusel
Equipment Company; Marlen Research
Corporation; Penberthy; Pick Heaters,
Inc.; Sani-Matic Systems; T & S Brass
And Bronze Works, Inc.
Plate: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group;
Anbroco, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Catta
27, S.R.L.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; Chester-Jensen Company,
Inc.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Dole Refrigerating Company; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; GEA
Wiegand; GOAVEC; Heerema
Company; Heritage Equipment Co.;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; International
Dairy Equipment; Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co.,
Ltd.; Kold-Hold Div. of Tranter, Inc.;
Kusel Equipment Company; Paul
Mueller Company; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Oakes & Burger Of
Ohio, Inc.; On-Line Instrumentation,
Inc.; Sanchelima International Inc.; R. D.
Smith Company, Inc.; Special Products,
Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; WCR Incorporated; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply
Scraped Surface: Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; Anbroco, Inc.; APV
Crepaco, Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); GOAVEC; Groen; Heritage
Equipment Co.; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.;
Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.; Lake
Process Systems, Inc.; Mondomix
Holland B. V.; M. G. Newell Company,
Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Rossi & Catelli
SPA; Sine Pump Div.; Special Products,
Inc.; Terlet N.V.; Venjex Corp.; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.
Tubular: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Allegheny Bradford Corporation;
Circulation: INDEECO/HYNES
Electric: INDEECO/HYNES
Immersion: INDEECO/HYNES
Heaters
Welding, Inc.
Ingredients
Antioxidents: Hydrite Chemical Co.;
Lucas Meyer, Inc.; Odenberg
Engineering Inc.
Baked ProductsCookies: S. H.
Bates Company; Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Hesco
Inc.; Interbake Foods; Leaf, Inc.; The
NutraSweet Company; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Sunshine Biscuits, Inc.;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.
Baked ProductsWafers: S. H.
Bates Company; Interbake Foods;
Popsicle Industries Ltd.; Sunshine
Biscuits, Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.
CoatingsChocolate: Ambrosia
Chocolate; Blommer Chocolate
Company; Creative Flavors, Inc.; DCA
Food Industries, Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp.;
Fantasy-BlankeBear Corporation; Food
Producers International; Golden Select
CoatingsConfection: Ambrosia
Chocolate; S. H. Bates Company;
Blommer Chocolate Company; Creative
Flavors, Inc.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; Golden Select Foods
Company; Leaf, Inc.; The Masterson
Company, Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
Popsicle Industries Ltd.; John B.
Sanfilippo & Son, Inc.; Shade Foods,
Inc.; C. J. Van Houton & Zoon, Inc.;
Van Leer Chocolate Corp.; Vrymeer
Cocoa & Chocolates; Wilbur Chocolate
Co.
Flavor AgentsNatural/Essential
Oil: Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.;
Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Caulkins
Indiantown Citrus Co.; Consolidated
Flavor Corp.; Crest Foods Co., Inc.;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation; The
Foote & Jenks Corporation; Green Spot
Company; Indian River Foods, Inc.; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kraus &
Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Orange-co of
Florida, Inc.; Popsicle Industries Ltd.;
Quest International Flavors, Inc.;
Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Silver Springs Citrus;
Sunkist Growers, Inc.; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.; H.B. Taylor Company;
Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.; Virginia
Dare Extract Co., Inc.; The Zipp
Manufacturing Company
Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts:
American Fruit Processors; Beck
Flavors; Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Golden Gem Growers, Inc.;
Green Spot Company; Guernsey Dell,
Inc.; Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert
Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus; The
Masterson Company, Inc.; McCormick
Flavor Group; David Michael & Co.,
Inc.; Nielsen-Massey Vanillas, Inc.;
Flavor AgentsNatural/Spices:
Beck Flavors; Bell Flavors & Fragrances,
Inc.; Cargill, Inc.; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Golden Gem Growers, Inc.;
Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kraus
& Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
Lyons-Magnus; McCormick Flavor
Group; David Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.; H.B. Taylor Company;
Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.
Flavor AgentsProcess/Reaction
Flavor: Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos
S.A.; Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
The Foote & Jenks Corporation; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kraus &
Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
FlavorsAppl. Confectionary:
Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Flavors From
Florida, Inc.; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Green Spot Company;
Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'l. Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Leaf, Inc.;
Limpert Brothers, Inc.; McCormick
Flavor Group; David Michael & Co.,
Inc.; Nielsen-Massey Vanillas, Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Star Blends
Division; Star Kay White, Inc.; H.B.
Taylor Company; Universal Flavors Int'l.
Inc.; Van Leer Chocolate Corp.; Vanlab
Corporation; Virginia Dare Extract Co.,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates;
Edgar A. Weber & Company
FlavorsAppl. Purees/Toppings:
Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Bunge
Foods; Consolidated Flavor Corp.;
Creative Flavors, Inc.; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; International
Fruit, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert
Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
Pecan Deluxe Candy Company Inc.;
Next Page
Inc.; National Stabilizers, Inc.; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Quest Int'L, Byproducts
Group; Ramsey Laboratories, Inc.;
Rhone Poulenc/Marschall Products;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Stabilized
Products, Inc.; A. E. Staley Mfg.
Company; Star Blends Division; J.M.
Swank Company, Inc.; The Van Tone
Company
SweetenersNon-Nutritive: DCA
Food Industries, Inc.; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; McNeil Specialty
Products Co.; National Stabilizers, Inc.;
The NutraSweet Company; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.
SweetenersNutritive: American
Fruit Processors; American MaizeProducts Co.; DCA Food Industries, Inc.;
Grain Processing Corp.; The NutraSweet
Company; A. E. Staley Mfg. Company;
J.M. Swank Company, Inc.
Synergists: Germantown
Manufacturing Co.
Texturizers: American Maize-Products
Co.; Controlled Food Systems, Inc.;
FMC Corporation; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; Grain Processing
Corp.; National Stabilizers, Inc.; Sanofi
Bio-Industries, Inc.
Instantizers/Agglomerators: Lucas
Meyer, Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Star Blends
Division; Stork Food Machinery, Inc.
Previous Page
Instruments
Analytical: ABB Kent-Taylor;
Advanced Instruments, Inc.; Balston,
Inc.; Bentley Instruments, Inc.;
bioMerieux Vitek, Inc.; Bran & Luebbe,
Inc.; CEM Corporation; Charm Sciences
Inc.; Data Specifics Corporation; Escort
Instruments Of America, Inc.; Fischer &
Porter Company; Flockton Analytical
Management Inc.; Foss Food Technology
Corp.; The Foxboro Company; Ingold
Electrodes, Inc.; Ionics, Inc.; K-Patents;
Katrina, Inc.; Stan Keck Company;
Liquid Solids Control, Inc.; Maselli
Measurements, Inc.; MicroLog; Moisture
Systems Corp.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;
North Atlantic Equipment Sales; Perten
Instruments N. America, Inc.; Promega
Corp.; Rosemount Incorporated;
Sartorius Instruments; Span Instruments,
Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Trebor Industries,
Inc.; Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.;
VICAM SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY;
Weber Scientific
Lighting
Non-Protective: Trojan, Inc.; Daniel
Woodhead Company
Meters
Fluid: Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Flowdata,
Inc.; Fowler Products Co.; The Foxboro
Company; Gelber Industries; Honeywell,
Inc.; Invalco; K-Patents; Micro Motion,
Inc.; Rosemount Incorporated; S. J.
Controls, Inc.; Schlumberger Industries
Sanitary: Accurate Metering Systems,
Inc.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Flowdata,
Inc.; Fowler Products Co.; The Foxboro
Company; Heerema Company;
Honeywell, Inc.; Invalco; K-Patents;
Micro Motion, Inc.; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Rosemount Incorporated;
S. J. Controls, Inc.; Schlumberger
Industries; R. D. Smith Company, Inc.;
W. M. Sprinkman Corp.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply
Mixers
Batch: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
Amer. Ingredients/Breddo Likwifier;
APV Crepaco, Inc.; APV Gaulin, Inc.;
Art's Welding, Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.;
Catta 27 S.R.L.; Chemicolloid
Laboratories Inc.; Chemineer Kenics;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; DCI,
Inc.; Falco Stainless Steel Equipment;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; Fowler
Products Co.; Gelber Industries;
GOAVEC; Heerema Company; O. G.
Molds
Cheese Hoops/Molds: Crellin, Inc.;
Damrow Company, Inc.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; Stoelting, Inc.
Panels
Building: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; FreesTech International Ltd.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Superior
Industries of Nebraska; Techniserv, Inc.;
Tecton Contracting Corp.; Tufco
International, Inc.; Zer-O-Loc, Inc.; ZeroTemp, Inc.
Structural: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; FreesTech International Ltd.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Master-Bilt
Products; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Tecton Contracting Corp.;
Zer-O-Loc, Inc.; Zero-Temp, Inc.
Pasteurizers
Batch: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
ACCU-TECH Machinery Company, Inc.;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; GOAVEC; Heritage
Equipment Co.; International Dairy
Equipment; Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.;
Paul Mueller Company; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Scherping Systems;
Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; Stephan
Machinery Corp.; Stork Food Machinery,
Inc.; The Van Tone Company; Zajac
Equipment Supply
Dairy: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
GOAVEC; The NutraSweet Company;
Walker Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.
HTST/Continuous: A & B Process
Systems Corp.; Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; APV Crepaco, Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; ChesterJensen Company, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Falco
Pest Control
Devices: Westcoast Engineering Co.
Pharmaceutical Equipment
Packaging: Fords-Holmatic, Inc.;
Girton Manufacturing Co.; Hassia
U.S.A., Inc.; Spartanburg Steel Products,
Inc.; TMCI Industries, Inc.
Processing: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Anbroco, Inc.; Carrier Vibrating
Equipment Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; Girton Manufacturing Co.;
Kistler-Morse Corp.; Paul Krohnert
Manuf. Ltd.; M. G. Newell Company,
Inc.; Nu-Con Equipment; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; U.S. Filter; Membrane
Products Grp.; VNE Corporation; W R H
Industries, Ltd.; Walker Stainless Equip.
Co. Inc.
Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures: Cardinal
Packaging; Deco Coatings Corp.; Ferro
Pumps
Centrifugal: Ampco Pumps Company
L.P.; Anbroco, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.;
C & R, Inc.; Dairy Industry, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); Fristam
Pumps, Inc.; G/H Products Corp.; Gelber
Industries; Heritage Equipment Co.;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Hovap
International (Holland); HydroCal, Inc.;
International Dairy Equipment; Len E.
Ivasat, Inc.; Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Midwest
Dairy Supply; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio,
Recycling Equipment
Refrigeration
Buildings: Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; FreesTech International Ltd.;
Heerema Company; Hertel, Johnson,
Eipper & Stopa; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Master-Bilt Products;
Mead & Hunt; NuTemp, Inc.;
Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; SimonsConkey; Superior Industries of Nebraska;
Webber/Smith Associates, Inc.; ZeroTemp, Inc.
Cold Rooms: Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; FreesTech International Ltd.;
Grand Rapids Cabinet Company;
Heerema Company; Hertel, Johnson,
Eipper & Stopa; The King Company;
Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC;
Master-Bilt Products; Mead & Hunt;
NuTemp, Inc.; Shambaugh and Son, Inc.;
Superior Industries of Nebraska; Webber/
Smith Associates, Inc.; Zero-Temp, Inc.
Mechanical: Anbroco, Inc.; APEX
Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.; Babson
Bros. Co.; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Continental Equipment
Corp.; Douglas & Lomason Co.;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; FreesTech
International Ltd.; FrigoTech; Girton
Storage
Frozen: Advanced Insulation Concepts,
Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries, Inc.;
AWA Advanced Wrhse. Automation
Inc.; Edward A. Bonelli & Associates;
Catta 27 S.R.L.; Excellence Commercial
Products; FreesTech International Ltd.;
Gram Equipment of America, Inc.;
Grand Rapids Cabinet Company;
Greerco Corp.; Harnischfeger Engineers,
Tanks
Balance/Surge: A & B Process
Systems Corp.; ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Art's Welding, Inc.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; C & R, Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; ChesterJensen Company, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; DCI, Inc.; Electrol
Specialties Co.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.;
GOAVEC; Hartel Corp.; HydroCal, Inc.;
Kusel Equipment Company; Lake
Process Systems, Inc.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Northland Process
Piping; Relco Unisystems Corporation;
C. E. Rogers Company; Scherping
Systems; The Schlueter Company; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; TCI-BRETCO, Inc.;
Tremcar, Inc.; Viatec - Process Storage
Systems; Walker Stainless Equip. Co.
Inc.
Tapes, Fabrics
Industrial: Lanmar Associates, Inc.
Temperature Alarms/Monitors:
Brandstedt Controls Corp.
Thermometers
Non-Recording: Anderson Instrument
Co., Inc.; Brandstedt Controls Corp.;
COX Recorders; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
K-Patents; Masterleo, Inc.; MicroLog;
Midwest Dairy Supply; Nelson-Jameson,
Inc.; Palmer Instruments, Inc.; The
Partlow Corp.; Samco Sportswear
Company; Special Products, Inc.; Weber
Scientific
Recording: ABB Kent-Taylor;
Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.; APEX
Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.; Babson
Bros. Co.; Brandstedt Controls Corp.;
COX Recorders; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
Escort Instruments of America, Inc.; The
Foxboro Company; Heerema Company;
K-Patents; Masterleo, Inc.; MicroLog;
Midwest Dairy Supply; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Palmer Instruments, Inc.;
The Partlow Corp.; Samco Sportswear
Company; R. D. Smith Company, Inc.;
Special Products, Inc.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; The Van Tone
Company; Zajac Equipment Supply
rubing/Pipe
Flexible: APEX Packing & Rubber Co.
Inc.; Dayco Products, Inc.; Global
Stainless Ltd.; Harry Holland & Son
Inc.; Midwest Dairy Supply; SalemRepublic Rubber Company; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Swagelok Company; Texas
Rubber Supply, Inc.; Titan Industries;
Top Line Process Equipment Corp.;
Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.
Metal: Babson Bros. Co.; Industrial
Accessories; Robert-James Sales, Inc.;
Tubesales; Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.
Transportation
Services: FreesTech International Ltd.;
Len E. Ivarson, Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.;
Ryder Truck Rental, Inc.; Silver Springs
Citrus; United Indian River Transport
Co.
Software: FreesTech International Ltd.;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; MicroLog
Truck
Bodies & Trailers: Douglas &
Lomason Co.; Hackney Brothers, Inc.;
Valves
Automatic: Applied Dynamics Corp.;
C & R, Inc.; Cashco, Inc.; Cipriani, Inc.
- Tassalini S.P.A.; Custom Fabricating &
Repair, Inc.; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
Defontaine, Inc.; The Foxboro Company;
G/H Products Corp.; GEA Wiegand;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Honeywell,
Inc.; Hovap International (Holland);
Industrial Accessories; Jensen Fittings
Corporation; Lake Process Systems, Inc.;
Lumaco; Nu-Con Equipment; On-Line
Instrumentation, Inc.; Robert-James
Sales, Inc.; Sani-Tech Incorporated; The
Schlueter Company; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Stainless Products, Inc.;
Strahman Valves, Inc.; T & S Brass And
Bronze Works, Inc.; L. C. Thomsen,
Inc.; Top Line Process Equipment Corp.;
Tremcar, Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.;
Tubesales; Tuchenhagen North America,
Inc.; Valvinox, Inc.; VNE Corporation;
Waukesha Fluid Handling
Ultraviolet Disinfection
E q u i p m e n t : Anbroco, Inc.; Dover
Brook Associates; The Schlueter Company
Washers
Bottle: Bevco Conveying Systems;
D & L Manufacturing Co., Inc.; G. E.
Plastics; Girton Manufacturing Co.;
Spraying Systems Co.
C a n : Girton Manufacturing Co.; SaniMatic Systems; Spraying Systems Co.
Carton: Continental Equipment Corp.;
Girton Manufacturing Co.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Sani-Matic
Systems; Tuchenhagen North America,
Inc.
Case: Continental Equipment Corp.;
D & L Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Girton
Manufacturing Co.; Kusel Equipment
Company; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio,
Inc.; Sani-Matic Systems; The Schlueter
Company; Tuchenhagen North America,
Inc.
Equipment: Cannon Equipment;
Continental Equipment Corp.; Girton
Manufacturing Co.; Millerbernd Design
& Fabrication; Penberthy; Sani-Matic
Systems; The Schlueter Company; Spray
Master Technologies; Strahman Valves,
Inc.
W a s t e T r e a t m e n t : ABB Kent-Taylor;
ADI Systems Inc.; Chemineer Kenics;
Dober Chemical Corporation; DuBois USA;
Fischer & Porter Company; Frontier
Technology, Inc.; Hixson Architects/
Engineers; Horton International, Inc.;
HydroCal, Inc.; Jones Environmental, Inc.;
Lumenite Electronic; Mead & Hunt;
Membrane System Specialists; The Omega
Company; Osmonics, Inc.; Process
Dynamics, Inc.; Rio Linda Chemical; The
Wrapping Material
Films: AEP Industries, Inc.; Creative
Flavors, Inc.; Curwood, Inc.; CustomMade Packaging, Inc.; DuPont Canada
Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp.; Fabricon
Products; General Films, Inc.; Jefferson
Smurfit Corporation; Minigrip/Zip-Pak
Inc.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Sealright Co.,
Inc.; TamaNet (USA), Inc.; Viskase
CHAPTER
1
Yogurt
Ramesh C. Chandan and Khem M. Shahani
1.1 Introduction, 2
1.2 Definition of Yogurt, 7
1.2.1 Standard of Identity and Regulatory Aspects of Yogurt, 8
1.2.1.1 Yogurt, 8
1.2.1.2 Low-Fat Yogurt, 9
1.2.1.3 Nonfat Yogurt, 10
1.2.2 National Yogurt Association Criteria for Live and Active Culture
Yogurt, 10
1.2.3 Frozen Yogurt, 11
1.2.3.1 Frozen Yogurt, 12
1.2.3.2 Frozen Low-Fat Yogurt, 13
1.2.3.3 Frozen Nonfat Yogurt, 13
1.3 Yogurt Starters, 13
1.3.1 Taxonomy of Yogurt Bacteria, 15
1.3.1.1 Streptococcus salivarius Subsp. thermophilus, 15
1.3.1.2 Lactobacillus delbruechii Subsp. bulgaricus, 15
1.3.1.3 Collaborative Growth of ST and LB, 16
1.3.1.4 Inhibiting Factors, 18
1.3.2 Production of Yogurt Starters, 20
1.4 General Principles of Manufacture, 22
1.4.1 Ingredients and Equipment, 22
1.4.2 Mix Preparation, 25
1.4.3 Heat Treatment, 25
1.4.4 Homogenization, 27
1.4.5 Fermentation, 27
1.4.6 Packaging, 27
1.5 Yogurt Production, 28
1.5.1 Yogurt Ingredients and Flavor, Texture, and Rheological Aspects, 28
1.5.1.1 Dairy Ingredients, 28
1.5.1.2 Sweeteners, 28
1.5.1.3 Stabilizers, 28
1.5.1.4 Fruit Preparations for Flavoring Yogurt, 28
1.5.2 Yogurt Starter and Its Contribution to Texture and Flavor, 31
1.5.3 Manufacturing Procedures, 32
Ll Introduction
Yogurt has emerged as a significant dairy product of modern times. Historically,
fermented milks have constituted a vital component of the human diet in many
regions of the world. The main objective of fermenting milk has been to preserve
the precious fluid milk which otherwise would deteriorate rapidly under the high
Table 1.1
Country
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany (West)
Hungary
Iceland
India
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
USA
USSR
Source:
Yogurt
Yogurt
3.6
9.8
8.4
42.2
3.3
6.6
14.8
39.0
15.2
11.2
3.0
23.0
4.3
3.3
22.1
3.7
8.0
6.8
18.9
15.3
1.8
3.6
7.9
29.1
16.9
3.9
3.6
7.2
6.9
42.2
3.3
3.2
7.8
11.4
60.8
73.6
83.6
379.0
86.6
102.8
75.7
192.8
846.6
690.0
31.7
5.7
3410.0
11.6
98.0
210.2
520.0
2.5
278.5
64.3
70.0
105.9
297.7
245.5
114.0
220.0
60.8
54.2
68.3
379.0
86.6
49.3
39.8
56.3
10.8
1.5
8.6
4.3
3.3
9.4
2.4
3.8
18.9
4.3
1.6
7.9
6.8
16.9
3.9
2.1
278.5
18.0
47.2
297.7
188.4
114.0
220.0
517.9
2250
7.9
638.0
15.9
2.1
3410.0
11.6
41.8
135.0
465.0
ambient temperatures of the Middle East, where it is likely to have originated. Conversion of milk to yogurt with a distinctive thicker consistency, smooth texture, and
unmistakable flavor has added safety, portability, and novelty to the nutrition of milk
for the consumer.
The objective of this chapter is to furnish basic information, including recent
trends, on various aspects of the yogurt industry. It is not intended to serve as a
treatise on yogurt science and technology. For detailed information, the reader is
referred to various books and chapters on the subject.1"3 Vedamuthu,4 in a series of
articles, has reviewed various technological aspects of yogurt manufacture.
Yogurt and other fermented milks have been particularly popular in countries
located in the Mediterranean region; in central, southern, and southwestern Asia;
and in central and eastern Europe. Table 1.1 shows the per capita consumption of
Total Sales
(Millions of pounds)
1972
1977
1982
1987
1988
1989
281
533
613
1094
1142
1030
1.3
2.4
2.6
4.5
4.6
4.2
Source:
yogurt and yogurtlike products. In many parts of the world yogurt is still made at
home by traditional kitchen recipes involving milk of various mammals, mainly
cows, water buffaloes, goats, sheep, mare, or camel. The milk is boiled, cooled, and
inoculated with yogurt left over from the previous day and incubated at ambient
temperature for 4 to 6 h until it acquires a thick consistency. It is then utilized for
consumption in the fresh state as a snack, as an accompaniment as a salad containing
fresh vegetables (carrots, cucumber, boiled potatoes, etc.), as a sweet or savory drink,
or as a dessert containing sugar and fresh sliced banana and other seasonal fruits.
In the United States the past two decades have witnessed a dramatic rise in the
annual yogurt consumption from nearly 1 Ib to 4.2 Ib per capita. The increase in
yogurt consumption may be attributed to its perceived natural and healthy image,
providing to the consumer convenience, taste, and wholesomeness attributes. Table
1.2 summarizes recent trends in consumption of refrigerated yogurt in the United
States.
The popularity of yogurt consumption is also related to sophisticated marketing
techniques in response to consumer demand. Figure 1.1 illustrates the point. Diversification of the yogurt category has created niches to fill the needs of various
consumer segments (Table 1.3). The total yogurt market (refrigerated and frozen) in
the United States has grown sixfold during the last 20 years. Total sales for refrigerated yogurt alone are over 1 billion dollars. Frozen yogurt sales are estimated to
reach 2 billion dollars in 1991. According to the USDA,7 sales of frozen yogurt in
1989 reached almost 83 million gallons. In 1990, the sales increased 45%. The frozen
yogurt market comprises soft-serve yogurt and hard-pack yogurt. All the major segments of the yogurt market are expected to grow moderately in the future.
The success of yogurt in the market place can be attributed to various factors,
including4:
Scientific evidence is mounting to corroborate consumer perception of yogurt's
good-for-you image. Indeed, clinical studies have established that yogurt is well
tolerated by lactose-intolerant individuals who generally have distressing symptoms of flatulence and diarrhea associated with the maldigestion of milk sugar
Fruit
RBed Yogurt
Health
Snack
Breakfast
Yogurt
B-A
Yogurt
Mild
Fa
l vor
Yogurt
Drn
ik
Sugar
Fruit
Nuts
Gran
is
Low
Calorie
Light
Yogurt
Sugar
Fruits
Flavors
Aerated
Yogurt
Mousse
Incorporate
.Acidophilus &
Bifidus
" Culture
PLAiNYOGURT
Rirtar
FmH Juice
& Fa
l vors
Desserts
,Condm
i ents
Ic* MIk Mxi
Flavors
Ultra High
Temp.
Pasteurization
Long
Life
Yogurt
Soft
Serve
Freezer
Soft
Frozen
Yogurt
ce
Cream
Freezer
Toppn
i gs/
Desserts
Hard
Frozen
Yogurt &
Novelties
Table 1.3
TRENDS IN YOGURT STYLE AND PACKAGE SIZE IN THE UNITED STATES (PERCENT OF TOTAL PRODUCTION)
Style
Fat Content
Package Size
Year
8 oz
5.1-6.0 oz
Other
Full Fat
Low Fat
Nonfat
FruitonBottom
1984
1987
59.8
17.3
22.9
30
17
66
73
10
41
28
Swiss
French
Plain
Breakfast
Other
28
50
16
10
13
0.2
2
5
Plain
Constituent (per 10Og)
Skim
Milk
Full Fat
Low Fat
Nonfat
Full Fat
Low Fat
Nonfat
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Lactose (g)
Galactose (g)
Total carbohydrate (g)
Lactic acid (g)
Citric acid (g)
Sodium (g)
Potassium (g)
Calcium (g)
Phosphorus (g)
Chloride (g)
Energy value (KJ)
(calories)
Bacterial mass (g)
3.50
0.10
5.00
0.00
5.00
0.00
0.20
0.05
0.15
0.12
0.10
0.10
150
38
0
3.88
3.50
3.9
1.50
5.42
1.00
0.30
0.07
0.20
0.18
0.14
0.12
307
73
0.15
3.55
1.60
4.10
1.50
5.60
1.00
0.30
0.07
0.20
0.18
0.14
0.12
221
53
0.15
4.35
0.1
4.20
1.50
5.70
1.00
0.30
0.07
0.20
0.17
0.12
0.12
165
39
0.15
3.90
2.62
3.08
1.20
15.50
1.00
3.60
1.33
3.11
1.20
13.51
1.00
3.80
0.11
2.98
1.20
12.83
1.00
0.05
0.16
0.13
0.10
0.10
432
103
0.15
0.05
0.16
0.15
0.10
0.10
343
82
0.15
0.06
0.18
0.17
0.10
0.10
289
69
0.15
Source:
fermentation further distinguish yogurt from milk. Fat content is standardized commensurate with consumer demand of lowfat to fat-free foods.
1.2.1.1 Yogurt
Description
Yogurt is the food produced by culturing one or more of the optional dairy ingredients specified below with a characterizing bacterial culture that contains the lactic
acid-producing bactera, Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus.
One or more of the other optional ingredients described below may also be added.
All ingredients used are safe and suitable. Yogurt, before the addition of bulky
flavors, contains not less than 3.25% milkfat and not less than 8.25% milk-solidsnot-fat, and has a titratable acidity of not less than 0.9%, expressed as lactic acid.
In a subsequent action, the FDA stayed the titratable acidity requirement. The food
may be homogenized and shall be pasteurized or ultrapasteurized prior to the addition
of the bacterial culture. Flavoring ingredients may be added after pasteurization or
ultrapasteurization. To extend the shelf life of the food, yogurt may be heat-treated
after culturing is completed, to destroy viable microorganisms.
Optional Ingredients
Vitamins. (1) If added, Vitamin A shall be present in such quantity that each 946 ml
(quart) of the food contains not less than 2000 International Units thereof, within
limits of current good manufacturing practice. (2) If added, Vitamin D shall be
present in such quantity that each 946 ml (quart) of the food contains 400 International Units thereof, within limits of current good manufacturing practice.
Dairy Ingredients. Cream, milk, partially skimmed milk, or skim milk, used alone
or in combination.
Other Optional Ingredients. (1) Concentrated skim milk, nonfat dry milk, buttermilk, whey, lactose, lactalbumins, lactoglobulins, or whey modified by partial or
complete removal of lactose and/or minerals, to increase the nonfat solids content
of the food, provided that the ratio of protein to total nonfat solids of the food and
the protein efficiency ratio of all protein present shall not be decreased as a result
of adding such ingredients. (2) Nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners. Sugar (sucrose),
beet or cane; invert sugar (in paste or syrup form); brown sugar, refiner's syrup;
molasses (other than blackstrap); high-fructose corn syrup; fructose; fructose syrup;
maltose; maltose syrup, dried maltose syrup; malt extract, dried malt extract; malt
syrup, dried malt syrup; honey; maple sugar, except table syrup. (3) Flavoring ingredients. (4) Color additives. (5) Stabilizers.
Methods of Analysis
The following referenced methods of analysis are from Official Methods of Analysis
of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 13th edit. (1980), which is incorporated by reference. Copies are available from the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, 2200 Wilson Blvd., Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201-3301, or available
for inspection at the Office of the Federal Register, 1100 L St. NW, Washington,
D.C. 20408. (1) Milkfat contentas determined by the method prescribed in Section
16.059 "Roese-Gottlieb Method (Reference Method) (ll)-Official Final Action,"
under the heading "Fat." (2) Milk solids-not-fat contentcalculated by subtracting
the milkfat content from the total solids content as determined by the method prescribed in Section 16.032, "Method IOfficial Final Action," under the heading
"Total Solids." (3) Titratable acidityas determined by the method prescribed in
Section 16.023, "Acidity (2)Official Final Action," or by an equivalent potentiometric method.
Nomenclature
The name of the food is "yogurt." The name of the food shall be accompanied by
a declaration indicating the presence of any characterizing flavoring. (1) The following terms shall accompany the name of the food wherever it appears on the principal
display panel or panels of the label in letters not less than one-half of the height of
the letters used in such name: (a) The word "sweetened" if nutritive carbohydrate
sweetener is added without the addition of characterizing flavor, (b) The parenthetical phrase "(heat-treated after culturing)" shall follow the name of the food if the
dairy ingredients have been heat-treated after culturing. (c) The phrase "Vitamin
A" or "Vitamin A added," or "Vitamin D " or "vitamin D added," or "Vitamins
A and D added," as appropriate. The word "vitamin" may be abbreviated "vit."
(2) The term "homogenized" may appear on the label if the dairy ingredients used
are homogenized.
Label Declaration
Each of the ingredients used in the food shall be declared on the label as required
by the applicable sections of Part 101.
culture in accordance with the FDA standards of identity for yogurt (21 C.F.R. S
131.200), lowfat yogurt (21 C.F.R. S 131.203), and nonfat yogurt (21 C.F.R. S
131.206). In addition to the use of the bacterial cultures required by the referenced
federal standards of identity and by these National Yogurt Association criteria, live
and active culture yogurt may contain other safe and suitable food grade bacterial
cultures. Declaration of the presence of cultures on the label of live and active culture
yogurt is optional.
Heat treatment of live and active yogurt is inconsistent with the maintenance of
live active cultures in the product; accordingly, heat treatment that is intended to kill
the live and active organisms shall not be undertaken after fermentation. Likewise,
manufacturers of live and active culture yogurt should undertake their best efforts
to ensure that distribution practices, code dates, and handling instructions are conducive to the maintenance of living and active cultures.
In order to meet these criteria, live and active culture yogurt must satisfy each of
these requirements:
1. The product must be fermented with both L. delbruechii subsp. bulgaricus and
S. thermophilus.
2. The cultures must be active at the end of the stated shelf life as determined by
the activity test described in item 3. Compliance with this requirement shall be
determined by conducting an activity test on a representative sample of yogurt
that has been stored at temperatures between 32 and 45F for refrigerated cup
yogurt and at temperatures of 0 0 F, or colder for frozen yogurt for the entire stated
shelf life of the product.
3. The activity test is carried out by pasteurizing 12% solids nonfat dry milk
(NFDMS) at 92C (198F) for 7 min, cooling to 1100F, adding 3% inoculum of
the material under test, and fermenting at 110 0 F for 4 h. The total organisms are
to be enumerated in the test material both before and after fermentation by IDF
methodology. 14 The activity test is met if there is an increase of 1 log or more
during fermentation.
4. a. In the case of refrigerated cup yogurt, the total population of organisms in live
and active culture yogurt must be at least 10 8 per gram at the time of manufacture,
b. In the case of frozen yogurt, the total population of organisms in live and
active culture yogurt must be at least 10 7 at the time of manufacture. (It is anticipated that if proper distribution practices and handling instructions are followed,
the total organisms in both refrigerated cup and frozen live and active culture
yogurt at the time of consumption will be at least 10 7 .
5. The product shall have a total titratable acidity expressed as lactic acid at least
0.3% at all times. At least 0.15% of total acidity must be obtained by fermentation. This is confirmed by demonstrating the presence of both D-( ) and L-( + )
forms of lactic acid.
Nomenclature
The name of the food is " frozen yogurt.'' The name of the food shall be accompanied
by a declaration indicating the presence of any characterizing flavoring.
Label Declaration
(1) Each of the ingredients used in the food shall be declared on the label as required
by the applicable sections of part 101 of the CFR chapter. (2) If the food purports
to be or is represented for special dietary use, it shall be labeled in accordance with
the requirements of part 105 of the CFR chapter.
Nomenclature
The name of the food is "frozen low-fat yogurt" or, alternatively, "low-fat frozen
yogurt."
Nomenclature
The name of the food is "frozen nonfat yogurt" or, alternatively, "nonfat frozen
yogurt."
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Lactobacillus casei
Lactobacillus helveticus
Lactobacillus jugurti
Lactobacillus lactis
Bifidobacterium longum
Bifidobacterium bifidum
Bifidobacterium infantis
Source:
starter. Nevertheless, product characteristics, especially flavor, are significantly altered from traditional yogurt flavor when yogurt culture is supplemented with optional bacteria.
Commercial production of yogurt relies heavily on fermentation ability and characteristics imparted by the starter. Sellars8 stated the criteria essential for commercial
success for a starter are:
Strain selection
Maintenance of desirable ST and LB ratios
Survival and viability during manufacture of starter, preservation, storage, and
distribution.
The starter performance factors are:
chains of spherical coccal shape. Under stressed condition of nutrition and age (old
cells, cells exposed to excessive acid, solid media colonies, inhibitor containing
milk), the cells appear oblong in straight chains, somewhat resembling rods. The
acid producing ability is measured by pH drop and titratable acidity rise in 12%
reconstituted nonfat dry milk medium (sterilized at 116C/18 min) incubated at 400C
for 8 h. A ratio of 3 parts of ST and 1 part of LB gives a pH of 4.20 and % TA of
1.058 under these conditions.
Microbiological specifications of commercial cultures are also outlined by SeIlars.8 In general, counts of mesophilic lactics, yeasts and molds, coliforms, anaerobic
sporeformers, and salt-tolerant micrococci should not exceed 10 colony-forming
units (cfu)/g. E. coli, S. faecium, and coagulase-positive staphylococci should be
<1 cfu/g. The culture must be free of salmonella, listeria, and other pathogenic
contaminants.
Characteristic
Ovid-spherical
0.7-0.9 |xm diameter
Pairs/long chains.
Long chains in acidic medium
and at higher temperature of
growth
Shape
Lactobacillus delbruechii
ssp. bulgaricus
Slender rods, 0.8-1.0 jim wide,
4 - 6 pm long.
Single/chains.
Aged culture shows granules and
long chains.
+
Gram reaction
+
Catalase
Fermentation
Homolactic
Granules
Growth at:
Below 200C
Above 45C
Growth in:
2% NaCl
4% NaCl
Homolactic
+ (2.5)%
+
Urease
Arginine
Milk % TA
0
1.8
0.7-1.0
0
Survives 60 C (140 F)
for 30 min.
Acid from:
Glucose
Galactose
Lactose
Sucrose
Maltose
Lactic acid isomer
+
+
+
+
L-( + )
D-(-)
Mucopolysaccharide
MoI. % G + C of the
DNA
40
49-51
Source:
Table 1.7
Growth Temperature
Minimum
Maximum
Optimum
Source:
QF
ST
LB
20 (68)
50 (122)
39-46(102-115)
>15 (59)
50-52(122-125)
40-47(104-117)
Reinbold (1989).18
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Streptococcus thermophilus
Amino
Acids
Peptides
Protein
NH3
Milk
Urea
C02
Formic
Acid
Heated
Milk
Figure 1.2 Symbiosis of yogurt bacteria. (From ref. 21.)
metabolites to effect remarkable efficiency in acid production. Figure 1.2 illustrates
this. In general, LB has significantly more cell-bound proteolytic enzyme activity,
producing stimulatory peptides and amino acids for ST. The relatively high aminopeptidase and cell-free and cell-bound dipeptidase activity of ST is complementary
to strong proteinase and a low peptidase activity of LB. Urease activity of ST produces CO 2 which stimulates LB growth. Concomitant with CO2 production, urease
liberates ammonia which acts as a weak buffer. Consequently, milk cultured by ST
alone exhibits considerably low TA or high pH of coagulated mass. Formic acid
formed by ST as well as by heat treatment of milk accelerates LB growth.
% Titratable Acidity
Mean acidity
from
mixed cultures
Mean total of
acidity from pun)
L. bulgaricus and
S. thermophilus
culture
O
Temperature C
Figure 1.3 Comparison of acid production by mixed S. thermophilus and L. bulgaricus by
the corresponding pure cultures.
The rate of acid production by yogurt starter containing both ST and LB is considerably higher than that by either of the two organisms grown separately. This is
illustrated in Figure 1.3
Yogurt organisms are microaerophilic in nature. Heat treatment of milk drives
out oxygen. It also wipes out competitive flora. Furthermore, heat-produced sulfhydryl compounds tend to generate reducing conditions in the medium. Accordingly,
rate of acid production in high-heat-treated milk is considerably higher than in raw
or pasteurized milk.
LB
0.004-0.010 IU
0.380 IU
12.5-21.OjJLg
0.130-0.500 |xg
0.060-1.000 u,g
0.400 IU
0.040-0.120 IU
0.300-1.300 mg
0.800-13.000 mg
0.02-0.100 IU
0.380 IU
6.6 M>g
0.34-2.000 p.g
0.060-1.000 M-g
0.700 IU
0.040-0.100 IU
0.070-1.300 mg
O.8OO-13.OOO mg
0.01 IU
1.00 IU
100
50-100
50-2500
>250
>1000
>2000
>500-1000
Mixed Culture
ST
Inhibitor
60
1.00 IU
0.10 IU
0.40 IU
0.04 IU
0.10 IU
0.50 IU
200
20
1000
10-100
10-100
10
10
10
Antibiotics
Antibiotic residues in milk and entry of sanitation chemicals (quaternary compounds,
iodophors, hypochlorites, hydrogen peroxide) have a profound inhibitory impact on
the growth of yogurt starter.
Table 1.8 summarizes the degree of sensitivity of yogurt bacteria to residual
quantities of various inhibitors.
Sweeteners
Yogurt mixes designed for manufacture of refrigerated or frozen yogurt may contain
appreciable quantities of sucrose, high fructose corn syrup, dextrose, and various
dextrose equivalent (DE) corn syrups. The sweeteners exert osmotic pressure in the
system, leading to progressive inhibition and decline in the rate of acid production
by the culture. Being a colligative property, the osmotic based inhibitory effect would
be directly proportional to concentration of the sweetener and inversely related to
the molecular weight of the solute. In this regard, solutes inherently present in milksolids-not-fat part of yogurt mix accruing from starting milk and added milk solids
and whey products would also contribute toward the total potential inhibitory effect
on yogurt culture growth.
Acid producing ability of yogurt culture has been reported in mixes containing
4.0% sucrose.4 Commercial strains that are relatively osmotolerant may allow higher
usage levels without interruption in acid production during yogurt manufacture.
Bacteriophages
Phage infections and accompanying loss in rate of acid production by lactic cultures
results in flavor and texture defects as well as major product losses in fermented
dairy products. Serious economic losses have been attributed to phage attack in the
cheese industry. So far, thermophilic starters have not been threatened as much as
mesophilic starters used largely in cheese production. However, production volumes
for mozzarella cheese, Swiss cheese, and yogurt have more recently escalated in
response to consumer demand with a concomitant appearance of a number of reports
of phage inhibition in recent literature.22 It is known that specific phages affect ST
and LB, and that ST is relatively more susceptible than LB.
Yogurt fermentation process is relatively fast (3 to 4 h). It is improbable that both
ST and LB would be simultaneously attacked by phages specific for the two organisms. In the likelihood of a phage attack on ST, acid production may be carried on
by LB, causing little or no interruption in production schedule. In fact, lytic phage
may lyse ST cells, spilling cellular contents in the medium, which could conceivably
supply stimulants for LB growth. This rationale may explain partially why the yogurt
industry has experienced a low incidence of phage problems. Nonetheless, most
commercial strains of yogurt cultures have been phage typed. Specific phage sensitivity has been determined to facilitate starter rotation procedures as a practical
way to avoid phage threats in yogurt plants. Reinbold18 reported that ST phage is
destroyed by heat treatment of 74C for 23 s. This phage proliferates much faster at
pH 6.0 than at 6.5 or 7.0. Methods used for phage detection include plaque assay,
inhibition of acid production (litmus color change), enzyme immunoassay, ATP
assay by bioluminescence, and changes in impedance and conductance measurement.
Phage problem in yogurt plants cannot be ignored. Accordingly, adherence to
strict sanitation procedures would ensure prevention of phage attack.
Amount
Protein (N X 6.38) %
Lactose (milk sugar) %
Fat%
Moisture %
Minerals (ash) %
Calcium %
Phosphorus %
Vitamin A (IU/lb)
Riboflavin (mg/lb)
Thiamine (mg/lb)
Niacin (mg/lb)
Niacin equivalents3 (mg/lb)
Pantothenic acid (mg/lb)
Pyridoxine (mg/lb)
Biotin (mg/lb)
Choline (mg/lb)
Energy (calories/lb)
36.0
51.0
0.7
3.0
8.2
1.3
1.0
165.0
9.2
1.6
4.2
42.2
15.0
2.0
0.2
500.0
1630.0
Source:
a
The starter is the most crucial component in the production of yogurt of high
quality and uniformity of consumer attributes. Culture preparation room should be
separate from the rest of plant activities. An effective sanitation program including
filtered air and positive pressure in the culture and fermentation area should significantly control airborne contamination. The result would be controlled fermentation
time and consistently high-quality product.
The medium for bulk starter production in most yogurt plants is antibiotic-free,
nonfat dry milk reconstituted in water at 10 to 12% solids level. Pretesting for the
absence of inhibitory principles (antibiotics, sanitizers) is advisable to ensure desirable growth of the starter in the medium. Other quality attributes associated with the
nonfat dry milk are low heat powder with not less than 6.0 mg of whey protein
nitrogen/g of powder. Typical composition of nonfat dry milk is shown in Table 1.9.
The standards for Extra Grade spray-dried nonfat dry milk are given in Table 1.10.
The starter medium is not generally fortified with growth activators such as yeast
extract, beef extract, and protein hydrolysates because they tend to impart undesirable flavor to the starter and eventually yogurt. Following reconstitution of nonfat
dry milk in water, the medium is heated to 90 to 95C and held for 30 to 60 min.
Then the medium is cooled to 1100F in the vat. During cooling, the air drawn into
the vat should be free of airborne contaminants (phages, bacteria, yeast, and mold
spores). Accordingly, use of proper filters (e.g., High Efficiency Paniculate Air) on
the tanks to filter-sterilize incoming air is desirable.
1.25%
4.0%
0.15%
1.25 ml
50,000 per g
Disc B (15.0 mg)
The next step is inoculation of frozen bulk culture. Instruction for handling the
frozen culture as prescribed by the supplier should be followed carefully. The frozen
can is thawed by placing the can in cold or lukewarm water containing a low level
of sanitizer until the contents are partially thawed. The culture cans are emptied into
the starter vat as aseptically as possible and bulk starter medium is pumped over the
partially thawed culture to facilitate mixing and achieving uniformity of dispersion.
The incubation period for yogurt bulk starter ranges from 4 to 6 h and the temperature of 43C is maintained by holding hot water in the jacket of the tank. The
fermentation must be quiescent (lack of agitation and vibrations) to avoid phase
separation in the starter following incubation. The progress of fermentation is monitored by titratable acidity measurements at regular intervals. When the TA is 0.85
to 0.90%, the fermentation is terminated by turning the agitators on and replacing
warm water in the jacket with ice water. Circulating ice water drops the temperature
of starter to 4 to 5C. The starter is now ready to use following a satisfactory microscopic examination of methylene blue-stained slide of the starter. Morphological
view helps to ensure healthy cells in the starter and maintenance of desirable ST/LB
ratio. In the earlier literature, a ratio of 1:1 was considered desirable, but a more
recent trend is in favor of ST predomination (60 to 80%). An organoleptic examination is also helpful to detect unwanted flavors in the starter. Figure 1.4 shows the
steps involved in bulk starter production.
Water
Reconstitute
{10-12% Solids)
O
Heat Treat at 90 C
and Hold for 60 min.
o
Cool to 43 C.
Frozen Bulk Starter
10 11
CFU: 10-10 /g
Inoculate
in 500-1000 liters
70 ml
Ferment to 0.9%
Titratable Acidity
Bulk Starter
e 9
CFU 10 -10/g
o
Cool to 4 C
Mammal
Fat
(%)
Caseins
(%)
Whey
Proteins
(%)
Lactose
(%)
Ash
(%)
Cow
Water buffalo
Goat
Sheep
Mare
Sow
3.7
7.4
4.5
7.4
1.9
6.8
2.8
3.2
2.5
4.6
1.3
2.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.9
1.2
2.0
4.8
4.8
4.1
4.8
6.2
5.5
0.7
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.5
Source:
Total
Solids
(%)
12.7
17.2
13.2
19.3
11.2
18.8
Chandan (1982).2
water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), goat (Capra hircus), sheep (Ocis aries), mare
(Equus cabalus), and sow (Sus scrofa). The composition of these milks is summarized in Table 1.11. Because the total solids in milk of various species range from
11.2 to 19.3%, the cultured products derived from them vary in consistency from a
fluid to a custardlike gel. The range in casein content also contributes to the gel
Raw Milk
Skim Milk
Cream
Cottage Cheese
Curd
Condensed
Skim MO
ic
Dressing
Nonfst
Dry Milk
LowfatMiflc
Standardized Milk
Cream Cheese
Cultured Cream
Creamed Cottage
Cheese
Buttermilk
Yogurt
Figure 1.5 Dairy ingredients and their derivatives used in cultured dairy foods.
formation because on souring this class of proteins coagulates at its isoelectric point
of pH 4.6. The whey proteins are considerably denatured and insolubilized by heat
treatments prior to culturing. The denatured whey proteins are also precipitated along
with caseins to exert an effect on the water binding capacity of the gel.
In the United States, bovine milk is practically the only milk employed in the
industrial manufacture of cultured dairy products. Figure 1.5 shows the relationship
among various forms of milk raw materials used in yogurt and other cultured dairy
foods. For optimum culture growth, the raw materials must be free from culture
inhibitors such as antibiotics, sanitizing chemicals, mastitis milk, colostrum, and
rancid milk. Microbiological quality should be excellent for developing the delicate
and clean flavor associated with top quality yogurt. The raw materials generally
include whole milk, skim milk, condensed skim milk, nonfat dry milk, and cream.
In addition, other food materials such as sweeteners, stabilizers, flavors, fruit preparations, etc. are required as components of yogurt mix. These materials are blended
together in proportions to obtain a standardized mix conforming to the particular
product to be manufactured.
A yogurt plant requires a special design to minimize contamination of the products with phage and spoilage organisms. Filtered air is useful in this regard. The
plant is generally equipped with a receiving room to receive, meter or weigh, and
store milk and other raw materials. In addition, a culture propagation room along
with a control laboratory, a dry storage area, a refrigerated storage area, a mix proc-
essing room, a fermentation room, and a packaging room form the backbone of the
plant. The mix processing room contains equipment for standardizing and separating
milk, pasteurizing and heating, and homogenizing along with the necessary pipelines,
fittings, pumps, valves, and controls. The fermentation room housing fermentation
tanks is isolated from the rest of the plant. Filtered air under positive pressure is
supplied to the room to generate clean room conditions. A control laboratory is
generally set aside where culture preparation, process control, product composition,
and shelf life tests may be carried out to ensure adherence to regulatory and company
standards. Also, a quality control program is established by laboratory personnel. A
utility room is required for maintenance and engineering services needed by the
plant. The refrigerated storage area is used for holding fruit, finished products, and
other heat-labile materials. A dry storage area at ambient temperature is primarily
utilized for temperature-stable raw materials and packaging supplies.
The sequence of stages of processing in a yogurt plant is given in Table 1.12.
Table 1.12
Step
Salient Feature
1. Milk procurement
4.
5.
Mix preparation
Heat treatment
6. Homogenization
1.4.4 Homogenization
The homogenizer is a high-pressure pump forcing the mix through extremely small
orifices. It includes a bypass for safety of operation. The process is usually conducted
by applying pressure in two stages. The first stage pressure, of the order of 2000 psi,
reduces the average milkfat globule diameter size from approx. 4 jxm (range 0.1 to
16 |xm) to <1 |xm. The second stage uses 500 psi and is designed to break the
clusters of fat globules apart with the objective of inhibiting creaming in milk. Homogenization aids in texture development and additionally it alleviates the surface
creaming and wheying off problems. Ionic salt balance in milk is also involved in
the wheying off problem.
1.4.5 Fermentation
Fermentation tanks for the production of cultured dairy products are generally designed with a cone bottom to facilitate draining of relatively viscous fluids after
incubation.
For temperature maintenance during the incubation period, the fermentation vat
is provided with a jacket for circulating hot or cold water or steam located adjacent
to the inner vat containing the mix. This jacket is usually insulated and covered with
an outermost surface made of stainless steel. The vat is equipped with a heavy-duty,
multispeed agitation system, a manhole containing a sight glass, and appropriate
spray balls for CIP. The agitator is often of swept surface type for optimum agitation
of relatively viscous cultured dairy products. For efficient cooling after culturing,
plate or triple-tube heat exchangers are used.
The fermentation vat is designed only for temperature maintenance. Therefore,
efficient use of energy requires that the mix not be heat treated in the culturing vat.
1.4.6 Packaging
Most plants attempt to synchronize the packaging lines with the termination of the
incubation period. Generally, textural defects in yogurt products are caused by ex-
Next Page
cessive shear during pumping or agitation. Therefore, positive drive pumps are preferred over centrifugal pumps for moving the product after culturing or ripening.
For incorporation of fruit, it is advantageous to use a fruit feeder system adapted
from the frozen dessert industry.24 Various packaging machines of suitable speeds
(up to 400 cups per minute) are available to package various kinds and sizes of
yogurt products.
1.5.1.2 Sweeteners
Nutritive carbohydrates used in yogurt manufacture are similar to the sweeteners
used in ice cream and other frozen desserts described by Arbuckle.24 Sucrose is the
major sweetener used in yogurt production. Sometimes corn sweeteners may also
be used, especially in frozen yogurt mixes. The level of sucrose in yogurt mix appears
to affect the production of lactic acid and flavor by yogurt culture. A decrease in
characteristic flavor compound (acetaldehyde) production has been reported at 8%
or higher concentration of sucrose.1 Sucrose may be added in a dry, granulated, freeflowing, crystalline form or as a liquid sugar containing 67% sucrose. Liquid sugar
is preferred for its handling convenience in large operations. However, storage ca-
Previous Page
cessive shear during pumping or agitation. Therefore, positive drive pumps are preferred over centrifugal pumps for moving the product after culturing or ripening.
For incorporation of fruit, it is advantageous to use a fruit feeder system adapted
from the frozen dessert industry.24 Various packaging machines of suitable speeds
(up to 400 cups per minute) are available to package various kinds and sizes of
yogurt products.
1.5.1.2 Sweeteners
Nutritive carbohydrates used in yogurt manufacture are similar to the sweeteners
used in ice cream and other frozen desserts described by Arbuckle.24 Sucrose is the
major sweetener used in yogurt production. Sometimes corn sweeteners may also
be used, especially in frozen yogurt mixes. The level of sucrose in yogurt mix appears
to affect the production of lactic acid and flavor by yogurt culture. A decrease in
characteristic flavor compound (acetaldehyde) production has been reported at 8%
or higher concentration of sucrose.1 Sucrose may be added in a dry, granulated, freeflowing, crystalline form or as a liquid sugar containing 67% sucrose. Liquid sugar
is preferred for its handling convenience in large operations. However, storage ca-
pability in sugar tanks along with heaters, pumps, strainers, and meters is required.
The corn sweeteners, primarily glucose, usually enter yogurt via the processed fruit
flavor in which they are extensively used for their flavor enhancing characteristics.
Up to 6% corn syrup solids are used in frozen yogurt. High-intensity sweeteners
(e.g., aspartame) have been used to produce a "light" product containing about 60%
of the calories of normal sweetened yogurt.
Commercial yogurts have an average of 4.06% lactose, 1.85% galactose, 0.05%
glucose, and pH of 4.40.
1.5.1.3 Stabilizers
The primary purpose of using a stabilizer in yogurt is to produce smoothness in body
and texture, impart gel structure, and reduce wheying off or syneresis. The stabilizer
increases shelf life and provides a reasonable degree of uniformity of the product.
Stabilizers function through their ability to form gel structures in water, thereby
leaving less free water for syneresis. In addition, some stabilizers complex with
casein. A good yogurt stabilizer should not impart any flavor, should be effective at
low pH values, and should be easily dispersed in the normal working temperatures
in a dairy plant. The stabilizers generally used in yogurt are gelatin; vegetable gums
such as carboxymethyl cellulose, locust bean, and Guar; and seaweed gums such as
alginates and carrageenans.
Gelatin is derived by irreversible hydrolysis of the proteins collagen and ossein.
It is used at a level of 0.3 to 0.5% to get a smooth shiny appearance in refrigerated
yogurt. Gelatin is a good stabilizer for frozen yogurt. The term Bloom refers to the
gel strength as determined by a Bloom gelometer under standard conditions. Gelatin
of a Bloom strength of 225 or 250 is commonly used. The gelatin level should be
geared to the consistency standards for yogurt. Amounts above 0.35% tend to give
yogurt of relatively high milk solids a curdy appearance on stirring. At temperatures
below 100C, the yogurt acquires a puddinglike consistency. Gelatin tends to degrade
during processing at ultrahigh temperatures and its activity is temperature dependent.
The yogurt gel is considerably weakened by a rise in temperature.
The seaweed gums impart a desirable viscosity as well as gel structure to yogurt.
Algin and sodium alginate are derived from giant sea kelp. Carrageenan is made
from Irish moss and compares with 250 Bloom gelatin in stabilizing value. These
stabilizers are heat stable and promote stabilization of the yogurt gel by complex
formation with Ca2+ and casein.
Among the seed gums, locust beam gum or carob gum is derived from the seeds
of a leguminous tree. Carob gum is quite effective at low pH levels. Guar gum is
also obtained from seeds and is a good stabilizer for yogurt. Guar gum is readily
soluble in cold water and is not affected by high temperatures used in the pasteurization of yogurt mix. Carboxymethyl cellulose is a cellulose product and is effective
at high processing temperatures.
The stabilizer system used in yogurt mix preparations is generally a combination
of various vegetable stabilizers to which gelatin may or may not be added. Their
ratios as well as the final concentration (generally 0.5 to 0.7%) in the product are
carefully controlled to get desirable effects. More recently, whey protein concentrate
is being used as a stabilizer, exploiting the water binding property of denatured whey
proteins.
For detailed descriptions of various industrial gums, the reader is referred to
Tamime and Robinson.3
0.1
1.25
0.01 or to* specification
0.1
CaCl2 and certain food-grade phosphates are also used in several fruit preparations.
The soluble solids range from 60 to 65% and viscosity is standardized to 5 1.5
Bostwick units (cm), 30 s reading at 24C. Standard plate counts on the fruit bases
are generally <500/g. Coliform count, yeast, and mold counts of nonaseptic fruit
preparations are <10/g. The fruit flavors vary in popularity in different parts of the
country and during different times of the year. In general, more popular fruits are
strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, peach, cherry, orange, lemons, purple plum, boysenberry, spiced apple, apricot, and pineapple. Blends of these fruits are also popular.
Fruits used in yogurt base manufacture may be frozen, canned, dried, or combinations thereof. Among the frozen fruits are strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, apple
peach, orange, lemon, cherry, purple plum, blackberry, and cranberry. Canned fruits
are pineapple, peach, mandarin orange, lemon, purple plum, and maraschino cherry.
The dried fruit category included apricot, apple, and prune. Fruit juices and syrups
are also incorporated in the bases. Sugar in the fruit base functions in protecting fruit
flavor against loss by volatilization and oxidation. It also balances the fruit and the
yogurt flavor. The pH control of the base is important for fruit color retention. The
color of yogurt should represent the fruit color in intensity, hue, and shade. The base
should be stored under refrigeration to obtain optimum flavor and extend shelf life.
The current trend is to use aseptically packaged sterilized fruit preparations.
The following types of yogurts are marketed in the United States.
1. Fruit-on-the-bottom style yogurt. In this type, typically, 59 ml (2 oz) of fruit
preserves or special fruit preparations are layered at the bottom followed by 177
ml (6 oz) of inoculated yogurt mix on the top. The top layer may consist of
yogurt mix containing stabilizers, sweeteners, and the flavor and color indicative
of the fruit on the bottom. After lids are placed on the cups, incubation and setting
of the yogurt takes place in the cups. When a desirable pH of 4.2 to 4.4 is attained,
the cups are placed in refrigerated rooms for rapid cooling. For consumption, the
fruit and yogurt layers are mixed by the consumer. If used, fruit preserves have
a standard of identity. A fruit preserve consists of 55% sugar and a minimum of
45% fruit which is cooked until the final soluble solids content is 68% or higher
(65% in the case of certain fruits). Frozen fruits and juices are the usual raw
materials. Commercial pectin, 150 grade, is normally utilized at a level of 0.5%
in preserves and the pH is adjusted to 3.0 to 3.5 with a food-grade acid such as
citric during manufacturing of the preserves.
2. Stirred style yogurt. Also known as Continental, French, and Swiss yogurt, the
fruit preparaton is thoroughly blended in yogurt after culturing. Stabilizers are
commonly used in this form of yogurt unless milk-solids-not-fat levels are relatively high (14 to 16%). In this style, cups are filled with a blended mixture of
yogurt and fruit. On refrigerated storage for 48 h, the clot is reformed to exhibit
a fine body and texture. Overstabilized yogurt possesses a solidlike consistency
and lacks a refreshing character. Spoonable yogurt should not have the consistency of a drink. It should melt in the mouth without chewing.
further lowering of the pH to 3.8 to 4.4 Attempts have been made to improve the
viscosity and to prevent synerisis of yogurt by including a slime-producing strain.
The texture of yogurt tends to be coarse or grainy if it is allowed to develop firmness
prior to stirring or if it is disturbed at pH values higher than 4.6. Incomplete blending
of mix ingredients is an additional cause of a coarse smooth texture. Homogenization
treatment and high fat content tend to favor smooth texture. Gassiness in yogurt may
be attributed to defects in starters or contamination with sporeforming Bacillus species, coliform, or yeast, producing excessive CO 2 and hydrogen. In comparison with
plate heat exchangers, cooling with tube type heat exchangers causes less damage
to yogurt structure. Further, loss of viscosity of yogurt may be minimized by welldesigned booster pumps, metering units, and valves involved in yogurt packaging.
The pH of yogurt during refrigerated storage continues to drop. Higher temperature of storage accelerates the drop in pH.
Lowfat Milk
Cream
Skim MHk
Nonfat Dry Milk
Pasteurize at
95<te for 30 min.
O
Homogenize at 60 C
1500 psi Cool to 45C
Mix in holding vat
43 <t
Stabilizer
Pasteurize at 95C
for 30 min.
Homogenize at 60 C
1500 psi
Yogurt
bulk starter
Culture vat
hold o
to pH 4.5 at 43 C
Cool to <15 C
Package in containers
Incubate containers at
43CtopH 4.5
Blast Cool to
<15C
Package in containers
Refrigerated Distribution
Refrigerated Distribution
Stirred Style
Plain Yogurt
Set Style
[Plain Yogurt
Figure 1.6 A flow sheet outline for the manufacture of plain yogurt.
Skim Milk
Lowfat Milk
Cream
Nonfat Dry Milk
Sugar
Stabilizer
Standardize yogurt mix
Milkfat 1-2%
MSNF 10-12%
Stabilizer 0.7%
o
Pasteurize at 95 C
for 30 min.
Homogenize at 6(P C
(1500 psi)
Cooling &
Storage (4C)
Cooling
4C
W
[Starter Cufturel
(1-5%)
Batch
Inoculation
In-line
inoculation
Inoculation
Inoculation
Storage
Heatj
ng
450C
Flavoring
Fruit
Preparation
Filling
Ferm. Tank
(430C)
Fermentation
Rm (43 C)
Sfl5
Falvon
rig
Fruit
Preparation
Filling
Blast pooling
(15C)
Blast Cooling
(40C)
Refrigerated
Cold
Storane
Refngerated
Cold
Storaoe
Refrigerated
Distribution
Refrigerated
Distribution
Set
Style
Yogurt
Stirred
Style
Yogun
Figure 1.7 A flow sheet outline for the manufacture of fruit-flavored yogurt. [Adapted from
Chandan (1982),1 Larsen (1988).25]
destroys the "live" nature of yogurt, which may be a desirable consumer attribute
to retain. Federal Standards of Identity for refrigerated yogurt permit the thermal
destruction of viable organisms with the objective of shelf life extension, but the
parenthetical phrase "heat treated after culturing" must show on the package following the yogurt labeling. The postripening heat treatment may be designed to (1)
ensure destruction of starter bacteria, contaminating organisms, and enzymes; and
(2) redevelop the texture and body of the yogurt by appropriate stabilizer and homogenization processes.
Component
Milkfat
Milk-solids-not-fat
Sucrose
Com syrup solids, 36 DE
Maltodextrin, 10 DE
Stabilizer
Total solids
Titratable acidity
PH
Source:
Hard-Pack (%)
Stream 1
(20%)
Stream 2
(80%)
Blended
Final
Mix
Stream 1
(20%)
Stream 2
(80%)
Blended
Final
Mix
0
11
0
0
0
0
11
1.15
4.4
0
11
16.25
7.50
2.5
1.5
38.75
0.15
6.7
0
11
12
6
2
1.2
32.2
0.35
5.5
0
13
0
0
0
0
13
1.15
4.4
0
13
16.25
7.5
2.5
1.5
40.75
0.16
6.7
0
13
13
6
2
1.2
35.20
0.35
5.5
Condensed
Skm
i Milk
Sugar
Com Syrup
Solids
MHk
MaHodextrn
is
Stabilizer
Mxi Preparation
(Blending)
Pasteurizing
6ffC/30 rvmJ
180F/25 sec.
HO
D
IOQQ niZI HQ
Yogurt
Starter
O
Cool to 45 C
Fermentation tank
hold to desired
titratable acidity
Fruits & Nuts
Flavor
Cool to 4 C
Package &
Freeze lor
Distribution
Thaw to 5C
Ice Cream
Freezer-60C
Hard Pack
Frozen Yogurt
Hardening
-40C
Storage -30C
mix (Table 1.13). In certain instances, the blend is pasteurized to ensure destruction
of newly emerging pathogens, including listeria and campylobacter in the resulting
low-acid food. To provide live and active yogurt culture in the finished product,
frozen culture concentrate is blended with the pasteurized product. Alternatively,
some processes are boosting the yogurt culture count by adding frozen culture concentrates to the fermented base. Figures 1.8 and 1.9 illustrates process suggested by
Germantown Manufacturing Co. 2 6 for making frozen yogurt. Details of manufacture
of soft frozen and hard pack mixes and frozen desserts are given by Arbuckle. 24
Maltodexirins
Stabilizer
Stream Il
Condensed Skim
Milk
Sugar
Nonfat
Dry Milk
Milk
Blending
Heat Treating
90oC/10 min.
Pasteurizing
68X/30 min.
Homogenize
Homogenizing
Fermentation
Tank 450C
Cool to
50C
Flavor
Water
Titratable
Acidity 1.1%
-80%
-20%
Cool
to
50C
Ice Cream
Freezer-60C
Soft Serve
Freezer
Packaging
Soft Serve
Yogurt
Wrapping
0
Hardening -40 C
Figure 1.9 Flow chart for frozen yogurt (two-stream blending process).
Storage -30C
Hard Pack
Frozen Yogurt
quality ensure good flavor. Product standards of fats, solids, viscosity, pH (or titratable acidity), and organoleptic characteristics should be strictly adhered to. Wheying
off or appearance of watery layer on the surface of yogurt is undesirable and can be
controlled by judicious selection of effective stabilizers and by following proper
processing conditions.
Milk
Homogenizer
Nonfat
Dry Milk
Heat Exchanger
Fermentation
Tank
430C
Filler
Refrigerated
Storage
Cooler
Distribution &
Grocery Stores
Consumer
Figure 1.10 Key steps in yogurt processing related to major transformation of milk components. (From ref. 21.)
siderably higher than that of milk. Specific gravity changes from 1.03 to 1.04 g/ml
at 20 0 C. Addition of stabilizers (gelatin, starch, pectin, agar, alginates, gums, and
carrageenans) and sweeteners further impacts physical properties.
1.7A.3 Homogenization
Homogenization treatment reduces the fat globules to an average of <1 |xm in
diameter. Consequently, no distinct creamy layer (crust) is observed on the surface
of yogurt produced from homogenized mix. In general, homogenized milk produces
soft coagulum in the stomach, which may enhance digestibility.
1.7.2.1 Carbohydrates
Lactose content of yogurt mix is generally around 6%. During fermentation lactose
is the primary carbon source, resulting in approximately 30% reduction. However,
a significant level of lactose (4.2%) survives in yogurt. One mole of lactose gives
rise to 1 mole of galactose, 2 moles of lactic acid, and energy for bacterial growth
by the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway (Fig. 1.11).
Some strains of ST exhibit both p-galactosidase and phospho-p-D-galactosidase
activity. Therefore, these strains also use a phosphoenolypyruvate-phosphotransferase system. Lactose is converted to lactose phosphate which is hydrolyzed by phospho-|3-D-galactosidase to galactose-6-phosphate and glucose which on glycolysis
gives lactic acid.
Although lactose is in large excess in the fermentation medium, lactic acid build
up beyond 1.5% acts progressively as an inhibitor for further growth of yogurt
bacteria. Normally, the fermentation period is terminated by a temperature drop to
4C. At this temperature, the culture is live but its activity is drastically limited to
allow fairly controlled flavor in marketing channels.
Lactic acid produced by ST is the L-( + ) isomer which physiologically is more
digestible than the D-( ) isomer produced by LB. Yogurt contains both isomers.
The L-( + ) isomer is normally 50 to 70% of the total lactic acid. Normal consumption
levels of yogurt do not pose a hazard from D-( ) lactic acid, relatively large doses
of which have been implicated in toxicity problems in small infants.
Lactic acid production results in coagulation of milk beginning at pH below 5.0
and completing at 4.6. Texture, body, and acid flavor of yogurt owe their origin to
lactic acid produced during fermentation.
Small quantities of organoleptic moieties are generated through carbohydrate catabolism, via volatile fatty acids, ethanol, acetoin, acetic acid, butanone, diacetyl,
and acetaldehyde. Homolactic fermentation in yogurt yields lactic acid as 95% of
the fermentation output. Lactic acid acts as a preservative.
Galactos*
Lactose
2H
Lactose
Galactose
Lac S
bermeasi
Lac S
[permeasd
Galactosd
DermeasJ
Cell Membrane
Lactose
ADP
ATP
2H+
-H
B-galactosidase
Galaetose
Galactokinase
ATP
ADP
Galactose-I-P UDP-Glucose
GaI-I-P uridyl transferasee
Glucose-l-phosphate
UDP-galactose
UDP-glucose-4-epimerase
Glucose
ATP
ADP
HexoKinase
Glucose I-P
lsomerase
UTP
Fructose-6-P
UDP-Glucose
PPI
LELOIR PATHWAY
ATP
ADP
Fructose-l,6-DiP
AJdolase
Glyceraktehyde-3-P
Dihydroxyacetone
Phosphoenolpyruvate
ADP
Pyruvate kinase
ATP
NADH+H +
NAD+
Pyruvate
Lactate dehydrogenase
LACTIC ACID
Figure 1.11 Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway for lactic acid production in yogurt. (From
ref. 20.)
1.7.2.2 Proteins
Hydrolysis of milk proteins is easily measured by liberation of - N H 2 groups during
fermentation. In his review, Loones 21 reported that free amino groups double in
yogurt after 24 h. The proteolysis continues during the shelf life of yogurt, with the
free amino group doubling again in 21 days of storage at 7C. The major amino
acids liberated are proline and glycine. The essential amino acids liberated increase
3.8- to 3.9-fold during storage of yogurt, indicating that various proteolytic enzymes
and peptidases remain active throughout the shelf life of yogurt. The proteolytic
activity of the two yogurt bacteria is moderate but is quite significant in relation to
symbiotic growth of the culture and production of flavor compounds.
1.7.2.3 Lipids
A weak lipase activity results in the liberation of minor amounts of free fatty acids,
particularly stearic and oleic acids. Individual esterases and lipases of yogurt bacteria
appear to be more active toward short-chain fatty acid glycerides than toward longchain substrates. As nonfat and lowfat yogurts comprise the majority of yogurt marketed in the United States, lipid hydrolysis contributes little to the product attributes.
weight is of the order of 0.5 to 1 million. Intrinsic viscosity range of 1.5 to 4.7 dl g l
has been reported for exopolysaccharides of ST and LB.20 The polysaccharides form
a network of filaments visible under the scanning electron microscope. The bacterial
cells are covered by part of the polysaccharide and the filaments bind the cells and
milk proteins. On shear treatment, the filaments rupture off from the cells, but maintain links with casein micelles. Ropy strains of ST and LB are commercially available. They are especially appropriate for stirred yogurt production.
It is conceivable that some of the exopolysaccharides exert a physiological role
in human nutrition because of their chemical structure resembling fiber of grains and
vegetables.
1.7.2.8 Minerals
Yogurt is an excellent dietary source of calcium phosphorus, magnesium, and zinc
in human nutrition. Research has shown that bioavilability of the minerals from
yogurt is essentially equal to that from milk. Because yogurt is a low pH product
compared to milk, most of calcium and magnesium occurs in ionic form.
The complete conversion from colloidal form in milk to ionic from in yogurt may
have some bearing on the physiological efficiency of utilization of the minerals.
1.7.2.9 Vitamins
Yogurt bacteria during and after fermentation affect the B-vitamin content of yogurt.
The processing parameters and subsequent storage conditions affect the vitamin
content at the time of consumption of the products. Incubation temperature and
fermentation time exert significant balance between vitamin synthesis and utilization
by the culture. In general, there is a decrease of Vitamin B12, biotin, and pantothenic
acid and an increase of folic acid during yogurt production. Nevertheless, yogurt is
still an excellent source of vitamins inherent to milk.
Comments
Bourlioux and Pochart,32 Driesen and DeBoer,33 and Hitchins and McDonough.34
of putrefactive bacteria in the human intestine. This conclusion was based on his
study of inhabitants of the Balkans, who consumed a rather large quantity of Bulgarian buttermilk in their diets and displayed extraordinary vigor and longevity.
This section summarizes state-of-the-art information related to health attributes
of yogurt. Prophylaxis signifies protection or prevention against diseases whereas
therapeutic aspects relate to cure following illness. Detailed information on health
related effects of yogurt is available in recent literature. 1 ' 28 ' 31
Table 1.14 lists possible therapeutic usage of fermented milk including yogurt.
The list includes suggested applications which are not necessarily supported by scientific data. The possible mode of nutritional and health benefits of yogurt consumption are outlined in Figure 1.12.
Yogurt
Health
Benefits
Nutritional
Benefits
Proteins
Energy
Minerals
Vitamins
Cell Walls
Enzymes
B-galactosidase
Lactose digestion
by lactase
non-persistent
individuals
Immune
modulation
system
Detoxification of
harmful products
lngesttonof
intact ceils
Restoration of
ecological balance
of intestinal flora
Reduction in
liberation of
carcinogenic
end products
Suppression of
foodborne
pathogens
Figure 1.12 Possible mode of nutritional and health benefits via yogurt intake.
1.7.4.1 Antibiosis
The primary prophylactic and therapeutic properties of yogurt seem to be related to
the antibiosis of yogurt attributed to fermentation products and bacterial enzymes.
The antibiosis due to fermentation products include organic acids, oxidation-reduction (OR) potential, bacteriocins, and antibiotic substances (Table 1.15). The antibiosis due to bacterial enzymes includes bacterial deconjugation of bile salts. More
than one factor may be responsible for antibiosis.
Antibiosis due to organic (e.g., acetic, lactic, and propionic) acids is possibly the
most important. During growth, as organic acids are produced the acidity increases
and pH decreases. The pH is a function of the acid dissociation constant. Organic
acids dissociate weakly and the undissociated acidic species is detrimental to foodborne pathogens. The undissociated acidic species can penetrate into the bacterial
cell. S. enteritidis and E. coli are reportedly inhibited by undissociated lactic acid.
Also, acidophilus yogurt and traditional yogurt are bacteriocidal to Yersinia
Compound
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Acidolin
Acidophilin
Lactocidin
Lactacin B
Protein
Unnamed
Lactobacillin
Lactobrevin
Bulgarican
Unnamed
Bacteriocin
Lactacin 27
Helvetican J
Lactolin
Nisin
Pediocin AcH
Bacteriocin
Bacteriocin
Bacteriocin
Unnamed
Unnamed
Unnamed
Lactobacillus brevis
Lactobacillus delbruechii ssp. bulgaricus
Lactobacillus fermenti 466
Lactobacillus helveticus LP21
481
Lactobacillus plantarum
Lactococcus lactis
Pediococcus acidilactici H
PAClO
Pediococcus pentosaceus FBB61
L7230
Streptococcus thermophilus
enterocolitca, and the effect is attributed to undissociated lactic acid. Antibiosis due
to undissociated acid is efficacious in yogurt in vitro, but may be extremely weak
in the gastrointestinal tract, as the high pH would neutralize the acid to its salt form.
Fermentation products produced during growth of yogurt culture lower the oxidation-reduction potential ( h ). A positive Eh favors aerobes whereas a negative Eh
favors anaerobes. Some lactic acid bacteria produce hydrogen peroxide in small
quantity. Because the gastrointestinal tract is anaerobic, it is doubtful if hydrogen
peroxide per se would significantly lower the OR potential. However, hydrogen
peroxide may be effective through the lactoperoxidase-thiocyanate system. The
hydrogen peroxide oxidizes the thiocyanate to toxic oxidation products that are detrimental to foodbome pathogens.
The antibiosis due to bacteriocins and antibiotic substances may be greater in the
gastrointestinal tract than in food systems. Lactobacilli produce bacteriocins with
significant bacteriocidal effect toward foodborne pathogens. Although the effect has
been elucidated in the in vitro food system its prophylactic role in the gastrointestinal
tract has to be proven conclusively. Skepticism has been expressed regarding the
antibiosis effect of bacteriocins in the gastrointestinal tract, which functionally
abounds with proteolytic enzymes.
Clinical results related to cholesterol reduction from human studies have been
controversial. McNamara et al.36 found no changes in serum cholesterol levels in
young normolipidemic male subjects consuming low-fat yogurt as a part of an American Heart Association diet (low fat, low cholesterol). The controversial data in the
literature may be related to factors such as strains of cultures, lipidemic status of the
subjects, exercise-diet relationships, etc.
stearothermophilus and yogurt bacteria were detected in the duodenal tract following
ingestion. The B. stearothermophilus count was reduced by 1 log cycle, probably
due to a dilution effect, whereas the LAB count was reduced by 5 log cycles due to
dilution or cellular death. The lactase activity was also detected in the duodenal tract,
but the activity was significantly lower after 90 min. This experiment provides the
direct evidence for the presence of yogurt organisms and lactase in the gastrointestinal tract.
In a recent article, Marteau et al.39 reported results of an in vivo study in lactase
nonpersistent humans. They fed the subjects yogurt, heated yogurt, and milk to
determine lactose absorption patterns. They confirmed that 18 g of lactose fed in
yogurt was better absorbed from yogurt (1.7 g of 18 g or 10% of lactose unabsorbed)
than from heated yogurt (2.8 g of 18 g or 15% of lactose unabsorbed) or from milk.
Using an intestinal perfusion technique, they found a significantly lower amount of
intact lactose in the ileum when yogurt was in the diet as compared to heated yogurt
or milk. They indicated that >90% of the lactose in yogurt is digested in the small
intestine of lactase nonpersistent subjects. They suggested that lactase activity contained in the yogurt culture and a slow oro-cecal transit time associated with yogurt
ingestion are both involved in the excellent absorption of the lactose from yogurt.
subjects consuming yogurt containing live and active cultures was observed. This
effect was not noticed in subjects consuming yogurt containing heat-inactivated culture. No negative side-effects were found in the haemotological and blood chemistry
values as a result of high levels of consumption of yogurt. In contrast, the researchers
found that yogurt consumption resulted in potentially beneficial increases in serum
ionized calcium levels.
1.8 References
1. Chandan, R. C. (1982). Chapter 5. Other fermented dairy products. In G. Reed (ed.), Prescott and
Dunn's Industrial Microbiology, 4th edit., pp. 113-184. AVI, Westport, CT.
2. Rasic, J. L. and J. A. Kurmann, (1978). Yogurt: Scientific Grounds, Technology Manufacture and
Preparations. Technical Dairy Publishing House, Copenhagen, Denmark.
3. Tamime, A. Y., and R. K. Robinson, (1985). Yogurt Science and Technology. Pergamon Press, New
York.
4. Vedamuthu, E. R. (1991). The yogurt storypast, present and future. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit.
11:202-203, 265-276, 371-374, 513-514.
5. International Dairy Federation (1990). Consumption Statistics for Milk and Dairy Products (1988).
Bulletin No. 246/1990. Brussels, Belgium.
6. Milk Industry Foundation. (1990). Milk Facts. Washington, D.C.
7. United States Department of Agriculture. (1991). Dairy Situation and Outlook Yearbook. USDA
Economic Research Service, D5-431. August, 1991, p. 7.
8. Sellars, R. L. (1989). Health Properties of Yogurt In R. C. Chandan (ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and
Health Properties, pp. 115-144. National Yogurt Association, McLean, VA.
9. Souci, S. W., W. Fachmann, and H. Kraut. (1989-90). Food Composition and Nutrition Tables, pp.
51-59. Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft MbH, Stuttgart.
10. Grandstrand, D. T. (1989). Yogurt and the regulatory challenge in the U.S.Current and future. In
R. C. Chandan (ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 1-10. National Yogurt Association, McLean, VA.
11. FDA. (1991) Code of Federal Regulation, Title 21, Sections 131.200,131.203,131.206. p. 177-181.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
12. Mareschi, J.-P, and A. Cueff. (1989). Essential characteristics of yogurt and its regulations around
the world. In R. C. Chandan (ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 11-28. National
Yogurt Association, McLean, VA.
13. International Dairy Federation (1988a). Fermented Milks: Science and Technology. Bulletin No.
277/1988. Brussels, Belgium.
14. International Dairy Federation. (1988b). Yogurt: Enumeration of Characteristic Organisms: Colony
Count Technique at 37C. IDF Standard No. 117A: 1988. Brussels, Belgium.
15. FDA. (1991). 21 CFR Parts 131 and 135. Yogurt Products: Frozen Yogurt, Frozen Lowfat Yogurt,
and Frozen Nonfat Yogurt; Petitions to Establish Standards of Identity and to Amend the Existing
Standards. Federal Register, Vol. 56, No. 105, May 31, 1991.
16. Ming, X., J. W. Ayres, and W. E. Sandine. (1989). Effect of yogurt bacteria on enteric pathogens.
In R. C. Chandan (ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 161-178. National Yogurt
Association, McLean, VA.
17. Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th edit. (1986). William & Wilkins, Baltimore.
18. Reinbold, G. W. (1989). Spare the Rod (or Coccus) and Spoil and Cheese. Dialogue 4(1). Chr.
Hansen's Laboratory, Inc., Milwaukee, WI.
19. OrIa-Jensen, S. (1919). The Lactic Acid Bacteria. A. F. Host & Sons, Copenhagen.
20. Zourari, A., J.-P. Accolas, and M. J. Desmazeaud. (1992). Metabolism and biochemical characteristics of yogurt bacteriaa review. Le Lait 72(1): 1-34.
21. Loones, A. (1989). Transformation of milk components during yogurt fermentation. In R. C. Chandan (ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 95-114. National Yogurt Association,
McLean, VA.
22. Sanders, M. E. (1989). Bacteriophage resistance and its applications to yogurt flora. In R. C. Chandan
(ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 57-67. National Yogurt Association, McLean,
VA.
23. American Dairy Products Institute. (1990). Standards for Grades of Dry Milk. Bulletin 916, Chicago,
DL.
24. Arbuckle, W. S. (1986). Ice Cream, 4th ed. AVI, Westport, CT.
25. Larsen, N. E. (1988). Production of Yogurt. APV Pasilac AS, Aarhus C, Denmark.
26. Germantown Manufacturing Co. (1991). Pioneer Stabilizer/Emulsifer in No-Fat Frozen Yogurt.
G-813. Broomall,PA.
27. Metchnikoff, E. (1908). The Prolongation of Life. G. P. Putnam and Sons, The Knickerbocker Press,
NY.
28. International Dairy Federation (1991). Cultured Dairy Products in Human Nutrition. Bulletin No.
255/1991. Brussels, Belgium.
29. Netherlands Institute for Dairy Research. (1989). Fermented Milks and Health. Nizo, Arnhem, The
Netherlands.
30. Robinson, R. K. (edit.) (1991). Therapeutic Properties of Fermented Milks. Elsevier Applied Science, New York.
31. Syndifrais. (1989). Fermented Milks: Current Research. John Libbey Eurotext, Paris, France.
32. Bourlioux, P., and P. Pochart. (1988). Nutritional and Health Properties of Yogurt. World Rev. Nutr.
Diet. 56:217-258.
33. Driessen, F. M. and R. DeBoer. (1989). Fermented milks with selected intestinal bacteria. A healthy
trend in new products. Netherlands Milk Dairy J. 43:367-387.
34. Hitchins, A. D., and F. E. McDonough. (1989). Prophylactic and therapeutic aspects of fermented
milk. Am. J. CHn. Nutr. 49:675-684.
35. Femandes, C. F., and K. M. Shahani. (1989). Modulation of antibiosis by lactobacilli and yogurt
and its healthful and beneficial significance. In R. C. Chandan (ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and Health
Properties, pp. 145-159. National Yogurt Association, McLean, VA.
36. McNamara, D. J., A. E. Lowell, and J. E Sabb. (1989). Effect of yogurt intake on plasma lipid and
lipoprotein levels in normal lipidemic males. Atherosclerosis 79:167-171.
37. Savaiano, D. J. (1989). Lactose intolerance: dietary management with yogurt. In R. C. Chandan
(ed.), Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 215-223. National Yogurt Association,
McLean, VA.
38. Pochart, P., O. Dewit, J. F. Desjeax, and P. Bourlioux. (1989). Viable starter culture, (3-galactosidase
activity and lactose in duodenum after yogurt ingestion in lactase-deficient humans. Am. J. CHn.
Nutr. 49:828-831.
39. Marteau, P., B. Flourie, P. Pochart, C. Chastang, J. F. Desjeax, and J.-C. Rambaud. (1990). Effect
of microbial lactase (EC 3.2.1.23) activity in yogurt on the intestinal absorption of lactose: an in
vivo study in lactase-deficient humans. Br. J. Nutr. 64:71-79.
40. DeSimone, C , B. B. Salvadori, E. Jirillo, L. Baldinelli, F. Bitonti, and R. Vesely. (1989). Modulation
of immune activities in humans and animals by dietary lactic acid bacteria. In R. C. Chandan (ed.),
Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 201-213. National Yogurt Association, McLean,
VA.
41. Halpern, G. M., K. G. Vruwink, J. Van de Water, C. L. Keen, and M. E. Gershwin. (1991). Influence
of long-term yoghurt consumption in young adults. International J. Immunotherapy 7(4):205-210.
CHAPTER
2
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.1 Introduction
The historical aspects of the development of ice cream and the ice cream manufacturing industry will not be discussed here, as that information is available from other
sources, particularly earlier books on the subject of ice cream.1"13 Suffice it to say
that the manufacture of ice cream has progressed from a homemaker's art to a
sophisticated factory operation; from a largely manual to a more or less automated
process; and from a product of variable composition to one whose composition is
carefully selected and precisely monitored. From a limited number of options, the
ice cream industry has engendered a whole family of products distinguished by a
variety of shapes, flavors and flavor combinations, composition, packages, and consistency at serving time.
Exceptions include products such as water ices and sorbets that contain no dairy
ingredients, nonfat frozen desserts, and some "natural" products that contain no
stabilizer or emulsifier. All ingredients must satisfy the safety and purity requirements of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), but there is a wide choice of
appropriate products from which to choose. The major reasons for selecting specific
ingredients may be summarized as follows:
Cost
Availability
Quality
Desired product characteristics (flavor, body and texture, color etc.)
Consumer preference
Protection against heat shock
Desired freezing point
Desire to label as "natural"
Type of finished product (e.g., nonfat, soft-serve, sherbet, etc.)
Economy grade vs. premium product
Handling capability (e.g., availability of liquid storage vats)
Quality of service and technical support
Personal preference of managers
A product that physically resembles ice cream can be made with any number of
ingredients, with or without dairy products. However, milkfat, milk-solids-not-fat,
sugar with or without other sweeteners, and stabilizers (the traditional ingredients
or components of ice cream) impart certain intrinsic properties to the taste and
mouthfeel that cannot be easily duplicated by substitution with other ingredients.
Thus, the success of new products that depart from the traditional composition depends on either how closely they approach the familiar ice cream properties, or how
readily the consumer is willing to accept the new ones.
All of the ice cream components impart certain properties to ice cream. A summary is presented in Table 2.1. In-depth impact of flavoring components was not
included in Table 2.1 because this extremely important subject will be addressed
separately, later.
Table 2.1
Precautions
Milkfat
Sucrose
When used in excess, product becomes too sweet and possibly too
soft; the opposite is true when sugar
level is too low.
Dextrose (glucose
or corn sugar)
Component
(Continued)
Functions
Precautions
Stabilizers
Emulsifiers
By "controlled" deemulsification,
they promote a drier appearing product at the freezer outlet and a sensation of "richness." Smaller air cells
and improved whipping properties
can also be observed. Additional details are presented in Table 2.7,
(Continued)
Functions
Precautions
Bulking agents
(maltodextrins,
polydextrose, sorbitol, etc.)
Used in special applications to replace conventional solids (e.g., artificially sweetened products)
Artificial sweeteners
Stabilizing salts
(largely food
grade complex
phosphates)
Each flavor has specific requirements that must be carefully monitored; standards of identity address
compositional requirements for
bulky flavors; body and texture is
adversely affected when overrun of
the mix portion is very high to compensate for weight of added flavoring substances.
Air (overrun)
Flavoring
a
b
Properties of constituents are also susceptible to the consequences of quality variation and lack of uniformity.
Ice cream properties are also affected by variables in mix processing, freezing, packaging, hardening, and storage.
Table 2.2 APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF MILK-SOLIDSNOT-FAT (MSNF) AND SWEET WHEY SOLIDS
(WS)ab
MSNF
Component
Protein0
Caseind
Whey proteins
Lactose
Ash
Calcium
Potassium
Phosphorus
Sodium
Magnesium
(%)
37.6
(30.1)
(7.5)
54.1
8.2
(1.31)
(1.87)
(1.01)
(0.56)
(0.11)
WS
(%)
13.5
(13.5)
77.8
8.7
(0.83)
(2.17)
(0.97)
(1.12)
(0.18)
Values were calculated from Nutritional Data, Agricultural Handbook 8-1, 1976, U.S.
Department of Agriculture. All calculations are on a moisture- and fat-free basis.
b
Both MSNF and WS contain varying amounts of additional ash constituents and of the
water-soluble vitamins ascorbic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, B 6 , folacin,
and B 12 .
c
Protein determined as N X 6.38 and includes nonprotein nitrogen.
d
80% of total protein is assumed to be casein, 20% whey protein.
Table 2.3
Ingredient
Milk
Skim milk
Cream
Fat
(%)
MSNF
(%)
3.25
3.5
3.75
4.0
0.1
0.07
0.1
20.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
50.0
80.0
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3
8.5
7.5
10.0
80.5
99.9
26.0
1.0
1.0
5.0
8.35
8.5
8.65
8.8
8.8
9.23
8.6
7.05
6.2
5.7
5.3
4.4
1.75
29.7
31.7
33.6
35.6
29.7
21.5
18.0
25.0
0.75
Sweetener
(%)
42.0
42.0
72.0
96.0
96.0
92.0
67.5
76.5
79.6
62.5
51.0
8-30
Total
Solids
(%)
88.4
88.0
87.6
87.2
91.1
90.7
91.3
72.95
63.8
59.3
54.7
45.6
18.25
70.0
68.0
66.0
64.0
28.0
28.0
74.5
65.0
18.75
0.1
2.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
32.5
23.5
20.1
6.0
5.0
5.0
11.6
12.0
12.4
12.8
8.9
9.3
8.7
27.05
36.2
40.7
45.3
54.4
81.75
30.0
32.0
34.0
36.0
72.0
72.0
25.5
35.0
81.25
99.9
98.0
97.0
97.0
97.0
67.5
76.5
79.9
94.0
95.0
95.0
Density15
(lb/gal)
8.59
8.59
8.6
8.61
8.63
8.64
8.62
8.44
8.35
8.3
8.26
8.17
7.92
9.39
9.47
9.54
9.62
11.4
10.86
8.9
9.13
11.10
11.58
11.81
8.34
100
% all other solids
0.93 +
L601
Density (lbs/gal) = specific gravity X 8.34
c
Water
(%)
% water
+
Density at 1000F.
Approximate composition of egg yolk is 51 % H2O, 33% fat, 15% protein, and 1 % ash. Frozen egg yolk is commonly
supplied in sweetened form (e.g., 10% sugar). Egg whites contain approximately 85% H2O, 12% protein, and small
quantities of fat, sugar, and minerals.
e
For definitions and ingredient listing see CFR in the Appendix.
d
by the quality of the milk from which it was separated and by the level of adherence
to good manufacturing practices during its processing and storage.
Condensed skim milk, when available and made from high quality skim milk, is
an excellent source of MSNF. Properly separated skim milk yields a condensed
product with a negligible amount of fat and 30 to 35% MSNF. The product is made
by concentrating skim milk under vacuum until the desired concentration of solids
is reached. The limit of concentration is about 35% if the danger of lactose (milk
sugar) crystallization is to be avoided. The increased concentration of solids does
not render the product less perishable than nonconcentrated skim milk. Therefore,
it must be refrigerated and continuously checked for any signs of deterioration.
A related product is superheated condensed skim milk, which is equally perishable
but has enhanced water binding properties that may be beneficial for the body and
texture of the ice cream. An increased mix viscosity is immediately apparent when
this ingredient is used. Superheating is accomplished by heating the condensed skim
milk to a temperature of 180 to 1900F and holding until the desired "livery" body
develops. Cooling must follow immediately and very rapidly to prevent a complete
breakdown into protein and whey. The preheating temperature prior to concentration
of the skim milk affects the rapidity of the subsequent superheating effort. Preheating
temperatures above 1500F may slow or inhibit the viscosity buildup. The flavor
imparted by this ingredient may be expected to be somewhat cooked or "custardy,"
but that does not necessarily presage a problem in acceptance. Although cooked
flavor is technically considered a flavor defect in ice cream, it is the "burnt,"
"scorched," or "caramelized" variety of the off-flavor that is much more offensive.
Many years ago, superheated condensed skim milk was in common use by ice cream
makers, but its popularity has declined over the years. Lack of ready availability is
one of the problems, but history frequently repeats itself and this product may be
"rediscovered."
Condensed products can also be made with partially skimmed milk in which case
they contribute some fat in addition to the MSNF. From the point of view of the
technologist, there are no special concerns over the presence of fat providing there
is no difference in quality. However, if the ingredient is to be used in the manufacture
of a nonfat frozen dessert, only skim milk products can satisfy the formulation
requirements.
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight
Definite
Definite
Definite
Definite
Slight
Slight
Definite
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight
Very slight
Slight
Slight
Very slight
Slight
Slight
Definite
Slight
Slight
Slight
(Continued)
summarized in Tables 2.4 and 2.5, respectively. It can be seen that the U.S. Grades
refer to both spray- and roller-dried products. In general, the powder made by the
roller drying process may be expected to have a more intense cooked or scorched
flavor, be somewhat less soluble, and contain more scorched particles. The sprayprocess product is the ingredient of choice. Flavor is obviously a key consideration
but the importance of solubility should not be overlooked, particularly when the high
temperature-short time system of mix pasteurization is employed. In this process
the powder is dispersed in the cold and undissolved particles could pose a problem
by adhering to heating surfaces or damaging the homogenizer valves.
As seen in the footnote to Table 2.4, the U.S. Grade classification also recognizes
three classes based on heat treatment, namely U.S. high heat, U.S. low heat, and
U.S. medium heat. A chemical test for the amount of undenatured whey proteins
(whey proteins are progressively denatured when exposed to heat) provides an objective measure on which the classification is based.14 High heat powder may be
slightly less soluble, as shown by the higher solubility index, but it is the product
preferred by bakers because of its favorable effect on loaf volume. The low heat
50,000
30,000
1.25
100,000
4.0
5.0
15.0
22.5
22.5
32.5
1.2
2.0
15.0
1.0
0.15
2.0
2.5
15.0
1.5
0.17
10
85
In general, the flavor shall be sweet, pleasing, and desirable; the dry product shall be white or light cream in color,
and the intensity of indicated defects or characteristics shall not be exceeded.
All numbers represent permissible maxima except that for dispersibility which is a minimum value.
c
For more detailed information consult Title 7, Part and section 2858.2601, Subpart 0, Code of Federal Regulations.
d
product is preferred by the cottage cheese maker. Any of the products may be used
in ice cream providing their quality is acceptable and the sensory characteristics that
they impart to the ice cream conform to the "design" intended for it. High quality
medium heat NDM is usually a good choice.
Instant NDM is easily dispersed in the cold and has more rigorous U.S. Grade
requirements than noninstantized powders. Although there are no technological reasons why this product could not be used in ice cream, its increased cost generally
prevents its consideration.
As seen in Table 2.2, the major constituents of MSNF are lactose, protein, and
milk salts. Because NDM contains moisture and a small amount of fat, it is not quite
a pure concentrated source of MSNF. In addition to any differences due to the
moisture and fat content, the composition of the milk from which the skim milk was
obtained provides another variable. A 36% protein content in NDM is typical but
indications are that the range may be from 32 to 38% protein. This would obviously
Basis
Flavor
Physical appearance
Bacterial estimate
Coliform
Milkfat content
Moisture content
Optional tests:
Protein content (N X 6.38)
For more detailed information consult Title 7, Part and section 2858.2601, Subpart 0, Code of Federal Regulations.
and cool storage facilities; and freedom from such pests as insects, rodents, birds,
and other animals.
When procuring NDM, the following are important factors to consider: composition; color (very close to white and no brown pigmentation); free-flowing and free
of lumps and dark particles; flavor, appearance, and laboratory tests should comply
with or exceed requirements for U.S. Extra Grade; freedom from pathogenic bacteria
including but not limited to Salmonella and Listeria, and functional properties when
incorporated into the ice cream. Shortages in the supply of NDM in recent years
have caused some anxiety, but usually NDM of excellent quality is available. Even
Grade A milk powder may be purchased when desired or local regulations require it.
shops where a "home style" ice cream is made and sold. A cooked, custardlike
flavor is typical in ice cream made with evaporated milk.
Liquid oils, depending on the concentration used, affect the consistency (hardness)
as well as whipping ability of the finished product. The literature16 indicates that
their globular structure is unstable during freezing as evidenced by the lack of fat
globules when examined by electron microscopy. The flavor of the nondairy fat used
should be bland, free of absorbed soapy and oxidized flavors, and it must not contribute to a greasy mouthfeel in the finished product. Close cooperation with a reputable supplier of fat should lead to identifying a product that satisfies both functional
and quality requirements.
When nonmilk products are desired in place of MSNF, a good deal of developmental work should precede introduction of the product to ensure that consumer
acceptance criteria are met with regard to flavor, body, and texture of the frozen
analog. The flavor concerns address both the flavor of the ingredient, for example,
soy protein isolate, and the compatibility of the flavoring used. A few products of
this type may be found in the marketplace and the quality of some has been rated
by the authors as very good.
Table 2.6
Sweetener
Sucrosec
Dextrose0
Fructosed
High-fructose corn syrup (42%)
High-fructose corn syrup (55%)
Maltodextrins
Corn syrupd
Corn syrupd
Corn syrupd
Corn syrup
High-maltose corn syrup
High-maltose com syrup
Invert syrup
Lactose
NutraSweet
Polydextrose
a
Sweetening8
Power in
Ice Cream
(%)
100
75
115
100
110
0-10
25
45
50
70
55
55
110
20
(150-200)e
Theoreticalb
Freezing Point
Reduction
Factor
1.9
1.9
1.77
1.85
<0.31
0.49
0.61
0.77
1.18
0.8
0.92
1.9
Meanb
Molecular
Weight
342
180
180
193
185
>1100
700
557
447
289
430
374
180
342
DE
Total
Solids
(%)
77
71
77
<l-<20
26
36
42
64
42
50
77.5
80
80.3
81.6
80.4
80.7
76.5
Dextrose
0.5
50
41
0.3-1.6
5
13
19
37
9
10
50
Maltose
Higher
Triose
saccharides
(% dry basis)
1.5
trace
0.1-6
0.2-8
11
11
13
9
24
22
10
14
29
34
42
5
4
remainder
76
66
54
25
33
26
Fructose
99.5
42
55
50
0.6-0.75
On dry matter basis, but approximate. Sweetening power may not be the same in different applications. Complications encountered in determining the sweetening power are discussed in
the text.
b
Mean molecular weight and the theoretical freezing point reduction factor are a function of the actual concentration of the saccharides. The theoretical freezing point reduction factor may
be somewhat more complex than indicated. More refined values for specific products may be available from the products' suppliers.
c
Also available in syrup form.
6
Also available in dry form.
e
Sweetness intensity is 150-200 times that of sucrose.
f
Analytical data on com derived sweeteners courtesy of A. E. Staley Mfg. Co. Decatur, IL 62525.
straight and branched, of simple sugars (monosaccharides). Invert sugar is the name
applied to the mixture of dextrose and fructose that is formed by the hydrolysis of
sucrose.
Corn starch is a polysaccharide which when completely broken down to its building blocks yields only dextrose. Both anhydrous and monohydrate dextrose are commercially made by the complete hydrolysis of starch. Other corn sweeteners, which
include maltodextrins and various corn syrups, are products of incomplete hydrolysis
of starch. Depending on the actual process, they contain varying proportions of
dextrose and its oligosaccharides; maltose (a disaccharide), maltotriose (a trisaccharide), and a number of higher saccharides (sometimes called dextrins). To obtain
the different saccharide combinations, a solution of the starch is treated with acid,
enzyme or both to catalyze the hydrolysis. The extent of hydrolysis in a given syrup
is expressed as its dextrose equivalent (DE), which is a measure of the total reducing
sugars calculated as dextrose and expressed as a percentage on a dry basis. Anhydrous dextrose has a DE of 100; the hydrated form has a DE of 92. A high DE
signifies a substantial conversion to dextrose and maltose and a relatively low conversion to the seven or higher unit oligosaccharides (maltoheptaose, -octaose, etc.).
By the use of selected enzymes, com syrups are manufactured that have a specifically
designed composition of saccharides. High-maltose syrup, for instance, may have
40% of its saccharides in the form of maltose, but be designated as having a relatively
low 42 DE because its dextrose content is significantly lower (e.g., 8% as opposed
to 20%). High-fructose corn syrup is made from either dextrose or a very high DE
syrup by the action of a specific enzyme, isomerase. The enzyme catalyzes the
conversion of dextrose into fructose, a process called isomerization.
Although theoretically possible, corn syrups are seldom used as the sole source
of sweetness in ice cream. Under circumstances of a severe sugar shortage and high
sugar prices, as was experienced during war years, corn sweeteners would certainly
be used as a replacement for more or all of the sugar. Some combination of low-DE
syrup and high-fructose or high-dextrose syrup can be designed to provide satisfactory freezing properties and sweetness level. Under normal circumstances, corn syrups commonly contribute 20 to 50% of the ice creams' sweetening solids. This is
the case for essentially all members of the frozen dessert family except for some
high-butterfat products and products that already have a high solids content. Sucrose
is usually the sole sweetening agents in such products.
2.2.13 Sucrose
In general parlance, the word sugar has come to mean the common table sweeteners,
cane and beet sugar. In their pure, refined form, both are chemically identical and
identified by the name sucrose. The highly refined, standard white sugar is the common type of sucrose used in dry form. The substance can be expected to be very
pure and contain 99.9% solids. Dry, granulated sugar is principally used by small
ice cream plants and those in locations where liquid sugar is not available.
Sweetness is the only sensory response to sucrose. In pure form, it is odorless
and devoid of any other taste. It complements the flavorings commonly used in ice
cream products very well. Being a disaccharide, it lowers the freezing point to a
lesser extent than monosaccharides but more than some of the low-DE corn syrups.
These are the favorable properties that make sucrose an efficacious sweetening agent.
Other properties are summarized in Tables 2.1 and 2.6.
A typical liquid sucrose may test 67.5 Brix, weigh 11.104 lbs/gal at 200C, and
contain 7.495 lbs of sugar per gallon. Degree Brix is merely a measure of percent
sucrose; 7.495 is 67.5% of 11.104. Additional criteria addressed by specifications
are color, ash content, heavy metal content, yeasts and molds, pH, maximum invert
sugar present, and flavor. The invert sugar limit is important because an ice cream
formulated to contain a certain concentration of sucrose can acquire different characteristics in the presence of significant quantities of monosaccharides (e.g., effect
on freezing point, browning, sweetness etc.). Liquid sugars may also be obtained as
blends of sucrose and dextrose or sucrose and one of the corn syrups. The desired
proportion of each is a matter of choice and should reflect the actual ratio of the
sweeteners in the frozen product. However, one should also consider flexibility in
the use of sweeteners for all of the products made and their requirements when
deciding on blends versus separate syrup supplies. The sweeteners needed for sherbet, premium ice cream, soft-serve, etc. may differ in amount, type of corn syrup,
or proportion of sucrose to corn syrup.
Because sucrose is commonly used in combination with other sweeteners, it is
difficult to define its level of usage precisely. It may be stated that plain ice cream
(e.g., vanilla) generally contains the sweetness equivalent of 13 to 16% sucrose. The
desired sweetness level also varies with the type of flavoring used. A chocolate ice
cream may contain 17 to 19% of sucrose. The actual level chosen may be dictated
by economic considerations, but should also be a function of consumer preference
and acceptance. In any case, excessive as well as inadequate sweetness are flavor
defects worthy of management considerations.
2.2.14 Dextrose
The sweetening power of dextrose is 60 to 80% that of sucrose and, theoretically,
one should be able to use somewhat more of it to increase the solids content without
imparting excessive sweetness. However, because of its effect on the freezing point,
the practical limit is defined by the stiffness of the ice cream at the usual freezer
discharge and storage temperature. The use of dextrose by itself would yield a very
soft product. In combination with sucrose, some ratio, probably in the 10 to 20%
range, of sucrose replacement for ice cream, sherbets, and ices is possible. The
replacement level may be higher in products that are purposely designed to be softer,
such as some gelatos served in the "traditional" way.
Although the sweet taste imparted by dextrose is similar to that of sucrose, dextrose is not a common sweetener in ice cream. In the usual case, ice cream makers
are looking to sucrose replacers as a means of improving the body and texture and
heat shock resistance. On comparison, corn syrups prove to be more effective in this
regard and, therefore, have come into general use. However, dextrose is an optional
sweetener, especially when circumstances preclude the use of other sources.
action of fat and additional benefits may need to be derived from other ingredients.
Unfortunately, the sources of food solids that could be appropriately used in this
role are rather limited. Of the sweeteners, only very low DE corn syrups and maltodextrins are helpful. Because of the wide range of maltodextrin DEs, the selection
of the desired type should be given careful consideration (see Table 2.1).
The DE designation is not employed for identifying high-fructose corn syrups.
The products are largely a mixture of dextrose and fructose with only small percentages of maltose and higher sugars. The proportion of fructose in different syrups
may range from about 40% to nearly 100%. Fructose is sweeter than sucrose, but
the sweetening power of the selected syrup should be determined in the frozen dessert
at the intended concentration. The actual sweetening power and the character of the
sweetness may be found to vary at different levels. With regard to its effect on body
and texture, much of what has been said about dextrose also applies to fructose. The
syrup does not contain the higher saccharides that possess the water binding properties and because it is made up largely of monosaccharides, it depresses the freezing
point to a greater extent than sucrose. When the proportion of dextrose to fructose
approaches 50/50, the product becomes similar to invert sugar, a sweetener resulting
from the complete hydrolysis of sucrose, which has the same proportion of monosaccharides. Obviously, the effects on sweetening, body and texture, and freezing
point depression would also be similar.
2.2.16 Honey
Although not commonly used, honey is both a sweetener and a flavoring agent. The
sweetening power is due largely to invert sugar (dextrose and fructose) which may
constitute nearly 75% of the honey (as is). The taste and composition vary between
different varieties of honey but many types, particularly the light-colored ones, impart a pleasant flavor to ice cream. Because of its high monosaccharide content,
honey has a similar effect on lowering of the freezing point and softening of the ice
cream as dextrose and fructose. To impart a honey flavor to ice cream, a concentration of 8 to 10% honey (as is) is needed, which also accounts for approximately
50% of the desired sweetness. The remaining sweetness can be supplied by sweeteners other than monosaccharides so as to minimize the softening effect.
2.2.17 Stabilizers
In physical and chemical terms ice cream stabilizers are colloidal substances called
hydrocolloids or simply colloids. They are not soluble in water in the strict chemical
sense, but at the same time, they remain dispersed in a stable colloidal (larger than
molecular) suspension and thus appear to be dissolved. This is not a unique property
of stabilizers; milk proteins and milkfat are also dispersed in a colloidal suspension
both in milk and in ice cream. Ice cream has a very complex structure consisting of
two liquid phases (water and lipid), each containing soluble substances (particularly
the water phase); a colloidal dispersion of lipid in water (but may also include some
water in lipid dispersion, especially when shear-induced churning occurs); colloidal
dispersion of solids such as proteins, minerals (e.g., calcium phosphate), and stabilizers; and dispersed air. The literature on fundamental aspects of food emulsions,
colloidal chemistry, rheology, and the physical and chemical properties of gums is
quite extensive.17"24 Current research reports may be found in food and chemistry
journals and any specialized journals such as the following: Food Hydrocolloids; J.
Colloid Interface Science; KolloidZ.; J. Texture Studies; Rheologica Acta; J. Rheology; Food Microstructure; and Colloid and Polymer Sci.
With the exception of gelatin, which is a protein derived from the connective
tissues of skin and bone (collagen), organic substances used as ice cream stabilizers
are specific forms of polysaccharides. Chemically, they differ from each other in
internal structure; the identity or proportion of the monosaccharide units; the presence, type, and number of acidic groups along the chain; and the presence of inorganic components. A food grade form of calcium sulfate, an inorganic compound,
also has stabilizing properties. Several components of commercial stabilizers are
described in Table 2.7.
As the name implies, the most important function of these substances is to "stabilize" (i.e., protect against deterioration) the texture of ice cream during storage
and distribution. The need for some form of stabilizing action was recognized by
early ice cream makers as witnessed by the inclusion of arrowroot flour in ice cream
recipes dating to the 18th century.13 Home recipes included starch in the past and
some homemakers may still be using it. Over the years, substances that are more
effective at a much lower concentration than starch have been developed. They
provide a means for both "shaping" the type of body envisioned for the ice cream
and for contributing to the stability of the body and texture under the detrimental
effect of heat shock.
It is possible to make an ice cream without stabilizers, but unless its total solids
content is quite high (e.g., high fat content), its body is commonly characterized as
lacking resistance, being quick to melt, or lacking "chewiness." Of course, the
degree to which these characteristics manifest themselves also depends on how much
overrun (incorporated air) the ice cream contains. Some manufacturers may purposely refrain from using stabilizers because they desire a light bodied ice cream or
when they cannot justify the inclusion of these substances in products designated as
"all natural." In any case, without stabilizers, the ice cream is more vulnerable to
becoming coarse-textured on storage and especially when heat shocked.
Stabilizers used in present day ice cream manufacture are commonly proprietary
blends of two or more stabilizing components along with one or more emulsifiers.
Although some stabilizing components are less expensive than others, economy
should not be the principal guide in the selection of a commercial stabilizer. Generally, a stabilizer should assist in producing and maintaining an ice cream with a
smooth texture, but additional criteria should also be considered. An additional objective is to impart a body (which refers to such properties as firmness, resistance to
bite, and cohesiveness) that the ice cream manufacturer perceives as approaching
the "ideal" within the constraints of such fixed parameters as composition and
overrun of the frozen dessert. The fixed parameters may be dictated by economics
or market positioning of the product. A combination of gums may provide the desired
Table 2.7
Stabilizer
or
Emulsifier
Gelatin
CMC
Algin
Carrageenan
Properties
Comments
A mixed polymer of anhydro-Dmannuronic acid with anhydro-Lguluronic acid; used as sodium alginate or as an ester alginate; the
esterified form does not gel; phosphate helps control reaction of sodium alginate with calcium (gelation); obtained from ocean kelp.
(Continued)
Guar gum
Calcium sulfate
Properties
Comments
Similar to locust bean gum, but hydrates better in the cold; the polymer contains a higher proportion of
galactose to mannose (~-1-2) than
locust bean gum (1-4); of vegetable origin.
Microcrystalline
cellulose
Xanthan gum
(Continued)
Properties
Comments
Polyoxyethylene
(20) sorbitan
monooleate (Tween
80 or Polysorbate
80)
Polyoxyethylene
(20) sorbitan tristearate (Tween 65
or Polysorbate 65)
Lecithin
physical and chemical properties, and freedom from extraneous matter, their quality
assurance program should include appropriate tests to monitor the functional properties and sensory qualities of the individual gums used in their blends.
Commercial stabilizer blends are available m a number of combinations of gums,
with or without emulsifiers, with different levels of dispersing agents (e.g., dextrose)
which makes them more or less concentrated, and with varying ease of dispersibility
in the cold (for application in high temperature-short time pasteurization). Single
components are also available. Some blends may be designed for specific application,
such as in sherbets (acid compatibility), soft-serve, etc. A given plant is likely to
have on hand a number of stabilizers to be used in different products. Obviously,
care must be exercised that the right stabilizer is used in the right proportion. Because
stabilizers deteriorate on storage, opened containers should be resealed to avoid
contamination and to protect the contents from the effects of moisture and high
humidity. Prominent labeling and good warehousing practices should help in avoiding some of the problems. The use of stabilizers that have become old and, therefore,
could be in a deteriorated condition may be unwise and prove to be false economy.
Table 2.8
2000F
System Stabilizer
Water
5% Lactose
15% Sucrose
Milk salts6
Skim milk
12% MSNF
16% MSNF
20% MSNF
11% MSNF + 28% sucrose
Milk
Ice milk mix
Ice cream mix
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
None
1.7
2.6
1.6
3.1
3.8
6.3
8.5
14.7
3.6
13.7
19.8
LBGM
CMC^
7.5
7.2
10.3
6.4
14.0
14.4
15.5
21.8
9.6
10.6
13.2
18.4
19.9
13.9
31.6
39.1
24.0
12.7
37.8
44.6
None
1.8
2.7
1.6
3.1
3.9
6.5
9.3
13.8
3.6
13.8
18.7
26O0F
LBG
CMC
8.4
8.6
11.6
7.4
13.8
14.1
15.8
22.2
10.2
U.5
17.2
21.7
20.2
14.3
32.2
40.5
26.7
12.8
37.8
47.9
None
1.7
2.7
1.6
3.1
4.0
6.9
9.5
14.0
3.7
18.2
26.4
29O0F
LBG
CMC
8.4
8.8
12.4
7.3
14.2
14.1
15.5
22.5
10.0
11.9
19.7
26.0
24.9
14.7
39.5
45.3
25.1
13.3
43.0
49.0
None
1.6
2.7
1.6
3.2
4.1
7.7
11.2
16.7
4.3
25.4
31.5
LBG
CMC
8.0
9.6
12.9
7.6
15.4
13.9
15.3
22.6
10.2
12.1
24.8
39.5
36.2
16.6
53.0
51.3
25.4
14.3
54.4
53.9
Heated in a small tube heat exchanger (Mallory heater) with a 6-s heat-up time and no holding time.
LBG, locust bean gum.
CMC, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose.
Concentration of the stabilizer in the water portion was the same in all samples.
A simulated solution having approximately the same composition as milk salts.
Any structure was broken down by passage through a hand emulsifier.
Viscosities were determined at 400F, 24 h after heating.
Data taken from a thesis submitted by G. A. Muck to the Graduate College at the University of Illinois in partial fulfillment of the requirements fot the MS degree (1961).
with Guar gum, and, depending on total gum level, higher viscosity or a gel with
locust bean gum26; they hydrate at different rates; and some do not form a gel but
act as effective thickening agents (e.g., Guar gum).
The gums used in ice cream also differ in their effect on rheological properties
of the mix such as pseudoplasticity (thinning with increase in shear, followed by
recovery when the shearing action is reduced or discontinued); thixotropy (timerelated viscosity reduction after shear stress); yield value (minimum shear stress
before flow is initiated); maximum viscosity production; rate of viscosity development; etc.
Ice cream manufacturers generally rely on their stabilizer suppliers for a product
that has been optimized in functional properties for their specific application. Along
with actual product trials, rheological tests find practical application in formulating
the needed blends of gums that help meet the users' criteria.
The manner in which gums contribute to the sensory perception of body in the
frozen ice cream could be related to their molecular structure and orientation as well
as their gel forming or viscosity development capability. However, it is difficult to
extrapolate results from model solutions to ice cream because the gums in ice cream
perform their function at a very low temperature, in a highly concentrated solution
with respect to salts, sugars, and oligosaccharides all interacting with other macromolecules.
The body of ice cream may also be modified by the inclusion of emulsifying
agents into the blend of gums. The properties of emulsifiers, however, should be
understood and will be discussed in the following section.
2.2.19 Emulsifiers
In a physical and chemical sense, an emulsion is a suspension of small particles or
globules of one liquid in another liquid. The suspension of milkfat globules in milk
is an example of a natural emulsion. To produce a stable emulsion requires the
presence of an emulsifying agent that orients (positions) itself at the interface of the
two liquids in question and is partially soluble in both. The molecule of the emulsifier
is said to have a hydrophilic (water loving) portion and a hydrophobic (water hating,
or in this case lipophilic or fat loving) portion. The stability of an emulsion is also
affected by the size of the globules. In milk, the emulsion is stable, but because of
a difference in specific gravity and other physical and chemical forces, the globules
rise and become concentrated in a cream layer. When the milk is homogenized, the
size of the globules is reduced and additional protein is deposited on the surface of
the globule. Because the specific gravity of protein is much higher than that of fat,
the new smaller globule no longer experiences the strong forces of gravity and cream
does not separate in homogenized milk.
The naturally occurring emulsifying agent in milk is actually a class of substances
called phospholipids (also referred to as lecithin, one of the major components).
These substances are widely distributed in both plant and animal matter. Lecithin of
plant origin finds use as an emulsifier in a number of foods. By using eggs, early
ice cream makers discovered the beneficial effects of emulsifiers indirectly. Egg
yolks have had a long history as an ingredient in ice cream due both to the flavor
that they impart and their emulsifying properties. They are rich in phospholipids.
The benefits derived or hoped for from the use of emulsifiers include the following:
A dry appearing product as it emerges from the freezer
Improved whipping properties
Improved body and texture
Richer mouthfeel sensation
Smaller air cells
Improved heat shock resistance
In the presence of added emulsifiers, ice cream appears drier when it is drawn from
the ice cream freezer as compared to an identical ice cream at the same drawing
temperature but without added emulsifier. The dryness appears to be the result of an
induced fat globule clustering phenomenon at the liquid-air interphase. With proper
conditions, these changes are observable under the microscope. A dry, stiff product
is essential in the manufacture of extruded novelty items such as sandwiches and
stickless bars. Packaging of all types of products is facilitated by a dry ice cream
that does not drip as it is filled into containers, especially if the ice cream has to be
pumped some distance to the packaging equipment. A dry appearance at the freezer
is also associated with desirable effects on body and texture and resistance to heat
shock. Soft-serve products usually have a low overrun but should have a dry appearance to maintain the shape of the serving and prevent drippage even on a hot
summer day.
Some effects of emulsifiers are predictable from the known properties of emulsifying agents. Because they are surface-active agents that measurably reduce the
surface tension, one would expect them to improve whipping properties and promote
the development of smaller but more numerous air cells. More air cells provide more
surface with a finite quantity of available liquid. This should promote a drier appearance because the liquid is spread over a larger area. However, this is not the
only mechanism, and possibly not the predominant one, for the drying effect of
emulsifiers.
Attention must be given to both the concentration of the emulsifier and the fat
content. As their concentration is increased, emulsifiers acquire a measure of deemulsifying properties displayed by fat (butter) separation in the freezer and a greasy
mouthfeel when tasted. As the fat content increases, the deemulsification action is
magnified. The objective is to achieve a certain degree of deemulsification because
that is how the desired drying effect is produced. However, one should not use more
emulsifier than needed to provide just the correct amount of incipient ''churning."
Thus, less emulsifier is needed in high-fat than in low-fat products. The actual
amount of the emulsifier also depends on the specific type of emulsifier used. Emulsifier molecules with a large hydrophilic component promote churning to a greater
extent than those with a large fat-soluble component. This fact must be considered
when formulating special products such as high- and low-fat ice cream and in softserve items. Prolonged agitation in the soft-serve freezer by the action of the dasher
tends to promote churning by itself and an improper choice of emulsifier only ag-
Next Page
gravates the problem. Close cooperation with the supplier of this ingredient should
help in identifying the right emulsifier or, as is commonly the case, a combination
of emulsifiers for specific purposes. Several emulsifiers are described in Table 2.7.
Additional discussion is presented in Section 2.11.1.
Previous Page
gravates the problem. Close cooperation with the supplier of this ingredient should
help in identifying the right emulsifier or, as is commonly the case, a combination
of emulsifiers for specific purposes. Several emulsifiers are described in Table 2.7.
Additional discussion is presented in Section 2.11.1.
To illustrate the process, let us assume that we have 100 lbs of milk containing
3.5% fat and 8.5% MSNF. Therefore 100 lbs of milk contains 3.5 lbs of fat and
8.5 lbs MSNF. Because all of the MSNF are contained in the nonfat portion of the
milk, 100 lbs of milk minus 3.5 lbs of fat = 96.5 lbs nonfat portion and 8.5 lbs
MSNF divided by 96.5 X 100 = 8.8% MSNF.
The nonfat portion of milk is actually skim milk, although in practice, skim milk
contains 0.05 to 0.09% fat as determined by ether extraction or 0.01 to 0.03% as
determined by the Babcock test. A fat content higher than this reflects a reduced
efficiency of separation. In this example, the skim milk obtained from this particular
milk supply may be assumed to contain 8.8% MSNF.
To calculate the MSNF content of cream, we must know the fat content. As an
illustration, let us consider a cream made from the same milk supply as the skim
milk in the above example and standardized to contain 40% fat. One hundred pounds
of the cream can be visualized as containing 100 lbs cream = 40 lbs fat + 60 lbs
skim milk. As this particular skim milk contains 8.8% MSNF, 0.088 X 60 = 5.28
lbs MSNF in 100 lbs of cream, which is another way of saying that this cream
contains 5.28% MSNF.
Ingredients
12% Fat
11 % MSNF
15% Sugar
0.35% Stabilizer/emulsifier
One approach is to calculate the requirements for 100 lbs of mix and then use
multiples to obtain the desired weight.
100 lbs of mix must contain:
12 lbs Fat
11 lbs MSNF
15 lbs Sugar
0.35 lbs Stabilizer/emulsifier
Pounds of cream needed to supply 12 lbs of fat:
12
- = 34.3 lbs 35% cream
The weight of MSNF provided by the cream is obtained by multiplying the weight
of the cream by the determined MSNF content of the cream, in this example 5.72%:
Fat
MSNF
Sugar
(lbs)
Stabilizer/Emulsifier
34.3
9.32
22.2
0.35
33.81
12.0
0
0
0
0
1.96
9.04
0
0
0
0
0
15
0
0
0
0
0
0.35
0
Total
100.00
12.0
11.00
15.0
0.35
Desired
100.00
12.0
11.00
15.0
0.35
Ingredients
Cream
NDM
Liquid sugar
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Water
Table 2.10
EXAMPLE 2
Weight
Fat
MSNF
(lbs)
Sugar
Stabilizer
27.84
36.28
21.38
14.00
0.35
1.11
10.88
0
0
0
2.35
2.23
6.41
0
0
0
0
0
14.00
0
0
0
0
0
0.35
Total
100.00
11.99
10.99
14.00
0.35
Desired
100.00
12.00
11.00
14.00
0.35
Ingredient
Milk
Cream
Condensed skim milk
Sugar
Stabilizer
2. Calculate the serum in 100 lbs of mix. Serum is defined as the sum of the weights
of MSNF and water contributed by the dairy products. [100 (wt nondairy
ingredients -f wt fat)]
3. Calculate the required weight of the concentrated MSNF ingredient to supply the
shortage between MSNF needed and the normal MSNF in the serum. The percent
normal MSNF is equivalent to the percent MSNF in the skim milk obtained from
the available milk supply. In this illustration it is assumed to be 8.8%.
For 100 lbs of mix, the weight of the concentrated MSNF ingredient may be
calculated by the following equation:
Wt concentrated _
MSNF ingredient ~
4. Add the weights of nondairy and the concentrated MSNF ingredients and subtract
from 100 to get the weight of milk and cream needed.
5. Calculate the percent fat of the mixture of milk and cream as follows:
% Fat =
6. Calculate the weight of milk and cream individually by the Pearson Square or
other appropriate method.
7. The process is illustrated in Example 2 and proof is presented in Table 2.10.
Example 2
Desired composition
Ingredients
12% Fat
11% MSNF
14% Sugar
0.5% Stabilizer
11.29
(30-18.71)
14.71
26.00
(18.71 - 4)
(11.29+ 14.71)
18.71
30
Note: The Pearson Square results indicate that a mixture of 11.29 lbs of 4% milk
and 14.71 lbs of 30% cream will yield 26.00 lbs of an 18.71% fat mixture. Since
in this example we need 64.12 lbs of the mixture, we can calculate each needed
amount by proportion.
Weight of cream needed = (14.71 X 64.12)/26 = 36.28 lbs
Weight of milk needed = 64.12 - 36.28 = 27.84 lbs
The weight of milk and cream needed can also be calculated by one of two
alternate methods. Illustrated below is an algebraic procedure and a formula derived
from the algebraic method.
Algebraic solution:
x = lbs of cream
y = lbs of milk
Fat equation
O.3JC 4- 0.04? = 12
Weight equation
_ . .
Solving:
x +
y = 64.12
x = 36.29 lbs of cream
J==27.831bsofmilk
Formula method:
.,
, ,
% fat cream
(lbs milk and cream needed X
)
10
lbs fat needed
% fat cream
% fat milk
100
100
(64.12 X ^ )
- 12
Too ~ loo
Weight of cream needed = 64.12 - 27.83 = 36.29 lbs cream
The procedure for calculating the required ingredient quantities when liquid
sweeteners are used is illustrated in Example 3, and the proof is presented in
Table 2.11.
Fat
MSNF
45.85
20.99
5.21
15.15
12.5
0.3
1.60
8.40
0
0
0
0
3.89
1.11
5.00
0
0
0
Total
100.00
10.00
Desired
100.00
10.00
Sugar
Ingredient
Milk
Cream
NDM
Liquid sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier
CSS
(lbs)
Stabilizer/Emulsifier
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
10.00
10.00
10.00
0.3
10.00
10.00
10.00
0.3
Example 3
Desired composition
Ingredients
10% Fat
10% MSNF
10% Sucrose
10% Corn syrup solids (CSS)
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier
_ ^
[%
m)]
Weight of milk and cream needed = 100 - (27.95 + 5.21) = 66.84 lbs
Percent fat in mixture of milk and cream = 10/66.84 X 100 = 14.96
By Pearson Square:
40
11.64
14.96
3.5
25.04
36.5
Example 4
Desired composition
Ingredients
10% Fat
10% MSNF
12% Sugar
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier
- 16.33 lbs
Weight of liquid sugar needed = 17.91 - 16.33 = 1.58 lbs
Weight of water that must be added to compensate for the amount not added
by the syrup = 16.33 - 10.94 = 5.39 lbs
Table 2.12
EXAMPLE 4
Weight
Fat
MSNF
44.69
16.24
24.3
1.58
7.5
0.3
5.39
1.56
6.5
1.94
0
0
0
0
3.79
0.86
5.35
0
0
0
0
0
0
10.94
1.06
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
0
Total
100.00
10.00
10.00
12.00
6.00
0.3
Desired
100.00
10.00
10.00
12.00
6.00
0.3
Ingredient
Milk
Cream
Sweet condensed milk
Liquid sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Water
Stabilizer/Emulsifier
CSS
Sugar
(lbs)
Ingredients
Cream, 36% fat, 5.7% MSNF
Milk, 3.5% fat, 8.8% MSNF
Condensed skim milk, 30% MSNF
Granulated sugar
Stabilizer/emulsifier
x = lbs of cream
y = lbs of milk
z = lbs of condensed skim milk
(1) Fat equation
(2) MSNF equation
(3) Milk products equation
36JC
600
5.1x
30x
+ 8.8?
+30?
+ 30z
+3Oz
=
=
1200
2595
24.3;c
+ 21.2?
+ 0
1395
36JC
600
85.05*
3.5?
6
12
86.5
763.20JC
+ 74.2?
+74.2?
+ 0
+ 0
= 4882.5
= 12,720.0
678.15x
+ 0
+ 0
7837.5
Table 2.13
EXAMPLE 5
Sugar
(lbs)
Stabilizer/Emulsifier
Weight
Fat
MSNF
52.52
11.56
22.42
13.00
0.5
1.84
4.16
0
0
0
4.62
0.66
6.72
0
0
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
0.5
Total
100.00
6.00
12.00
13
0.5
Desired
100.00
6.00
12.00
13
0.5
Ingredient
Milk
Cream
Condensed skim milk
Sugar
Stabilizer/emulsifier
7 837 5
x = = 11.56 lbs of cream
(12) Substitute 11.56 for x in Eq. (4)
3.5j = 600 - (36 X 11.56) = 600 - 416.16 = 183.84
y
= i^jl
Ingredients
10% Fat
8.5% MSNF
1.5% Whey solids
8.5% Sucrose
8.5% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier
Weight of dry whey needed in 100 lbs of mix = 1.5/0.97 = 1.55 lbs
Weight of liquid sugar in 100 lbs of mix = 8.5/0.675 = 12.59 lbs
Weight of corn syrup in 100 lbs of mix = 8.5/0.8 = 10.63 lbs
x = lbs cream
y = lbs skim milk
z = lbs condensed skim milk
Table 2.14
EXAMPLE 6
Sucrose
(lbs)
CSS
Stabilizer/Emulsifier
0
0
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
8.5
1.5
8.5
8.5
0.3
8.5
1.5
8.5
8.5
0.3
MSNF WS
Weight
Fat
32.17
28.57
14.19
1.55
12.59
10.63
0.3
0
10.00
0
0
0
0
0
2.73
1.51
4.26
0
0
0
0
Total
100.00
10.00
Desired
100.00
10.00
Ingredient
Skim milk
Cream
Condensed skim milk
Dry whey
Liquid sugar
Com syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier
0.35JC
0.0527JC
10
z =
4- 0.3z
= 8.5 - 1.51 = 6.99
+
z = 74.93 - 28.57 = 46.36
+ 0.3z
= 6.99
+ 0.085z = 3.94
0.215z = 3.05
3.05
Ingredients
10% Fat
12% MSNF
13% Sucrose
4% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer
x = lbs cream
y = lbs skim milk
z = lbs sweetened condensed skim milk. Only 58% of it is a milk
product as seen in the third equation.
Stabilizer
0
0
10.02
2.98
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.3
12.00
13.00
4.00
0.3
12.00
13.00
4.00
0.3
Weight
Fat
MSNF
39.30
28.57
23.85
2.98
5.00
0.3
0
10.0
0
0
0
0
3.34
1.51
7.15
0
0
0
Total
100.00
10.00
Desired
100.00
10.00
Ingredient
Skim milk
Cream
Sweet condensed skim
Sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer
Sucrose
(lbs)
Note: The sugar contributed by the sweetened condensed skim milk is determined by multiplying its weight by 42%.
23.85 X 0.42 = 10.02. The balance of the needed sugar is supplied by the granulated sugar.
0.35*
+ 0.085? +
JC Hy +
x = 28.57
y = 39.30
z = 23.85
0.0527JC
= 10
0.3z = 12
0.58z = 100 - (13 + 5 + 0.3) = 81.7
lbs cream
lbs skim milk
lbs sweet condensed skim milk
Occasions may arise when small quantities of certain ingredients are to be used
up. Since the weights and compositions of these materials are known, they can be
easily accommodated in the calculations. A simple problem has been designed as an
illustration:
Example 8
Desired
composition
10% Fat
11.5% MSNF
13% Sucrose
4% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer
Ingredients
4000 lbs
150 lbs 20% cream provides 30 lbs fat and 10.8 lbs MSNF
500 lbs milk provides 20 lbs fat and 45 lbs MSNF
50 lbs condensed skim milk provides 15 lbs MSNF
Table 2.16
EXAMPLE 8
Stabilizer
Weight
Fat
MSNF
Sugar
(lbs)
20% Cream
4% Milk
Condensed skim milk
35% Cream
NDM
Skim milk
Sugar
Com syrup solids
Stabilizer
150.00
500.00
50.00
1000.00
212.05
1395.95
520.00
160.00
12.00
30.00
20.00
0
350.00
0
0
0
0
0
10.80
45.00
15.00
60.00
203.57
125.63
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
520.00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
160.00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
Total
4000.00
400.00
460.00
520.00
160.00
12.00
Desired
4000.00
400.00
460.00
520.00
160.00
12.00
Ingredient
CSS
= 400
50 =
350
0.06JC
Note: Total fat supplied by the miscellaneous ingredients (50 lbs) was subtracted from the total needed in Eq. (1). The same was done in the case
of MSNF and total weight. [The 680 in Eq. (3) is the sum of sugar and
dry corn syrup solids, and 12 is the weight of stabilizer.]
position. An old axiom in chemistry holds that the results of an analysis are reliable
only if a representative sample was correctly analyzed. Paraphrased into an ice cream
maker's language, it simply says that the samples of ingredients and the mix must
be representative and that a mix cannot be accurately formulated if the ingredients
are not of a known and uniform composition. Unfortunately, even with all precautions seemingly in place, there may be instances when the mix composition is sufficiently off to require restandardization.
The process of restandardization must comply with all existing regulations and
dictates of appropriate enforcement agencies. Compositional imperfections discovered by tests performed right after all ingredients have been thoroughly blended can
be corrected prior to pasteurization. This is the most opportune time to make such
adjustments. Should restandardization of a pasteurized mix be required, the process
becomes more complex. Additional mix with a composition calculated to correct the
deficiency needs to be prepared (pasteurized, homogenized, and cooled in an approved manner) and combined with the original mix. The capacity of the available
equipment (pasteurizer, storage tank, etc.) will affect the minimum batch size that
can be effectively processed for this purpose. Restandardization is a sufficiently
sensitive operation that all precautions must be taken to protect the public health
qualities of the product. Advance consultation with enforcement agencies on procedures should help in avoiding unpleasantness.
There are several possible scenaria that may necessitate restandardization of the
mix. In all cases it may be prudent to recheck the accuracy of the composition and
weights, because if these are in error, restandardization may still not accomplish a
full correction. Besides, the analysis furnished by the plant laboratory is likely to
show only the percent fat and percent total solids. If the weights of the sweeteners
is incorrect, the estimate of the MSNF would also be incorrect [MSNF = total solids
(fat + sweeteners + stabilizer)]. These facts point to the necessity of accurate
record keeping for every batch of mix made in a format that makes a recheck of all
data possible. Following are the various situations that may be encountered:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mix
Mix
Mix
Mix
Mix
Mix
Generally, whenever the fat content is found to be too high, correction is made
by determining how much additional mix could be made with the excess fat. For
this additional weight, the needed quantities of stabilizer, sweeteners, MSNF (including any that may be deficient in the original mix), and water are calculated to
provide the same composition as the original mix was supposed to have. When the
fat and MSNF are both high, the MSNF in surplus are subtracted from the total
needed in the additional mix. The process is illustrated in Example 9 and the answers
are confirmed in Table 2.17.
Table 2.17
EXAMPLE 9
Weight
Fat
MSNF
Sugar
(lbs)
Original mix
NDM
Liquid sugar
Com syrup
Stabilizer
Water
4500.00
9.38
36.3
15.4
0.61
142.81
517.5
508.5
9.00
540.00
Total
4704.50
517.5
517.5
564.5
282.3
14.11
Desired
4704.50
517.5
517.5
564.5
282.3
14.11
Ingredient
CSS
Stabilizer
270.00
13.5
24.5
12.3
0.61
Example 9
Desired
Ingredients
11 % Fat
11 % MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer
11.5% Fat
11.3% MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer
Fat
MSNF
Original mix
Cream
Condensed skim
milk
67.5 Brix sucrose
Corn syrup
Stabilizer
Water
5000.00
157.14
21.2
475.00
55.00
515.00
8.64
6.36
Total
5300.00
530.00
530.00
636.00
318.00
15.9
Desired
5300.00
530.00
530.00
636.00
318.00
15.9
Ingredient
53.33
22.5
0.9
44.93
Sugar
(lbs)
CSS
Stabilizer
300.00
15.00
600.00
36.00
18.00
0.9
Example 10
Desired
Ingredients
10% Fat
10% MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer
9.5% Fat
10.3% MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer
For the arithmetic solution, the ingredients needed for an additional 300 lbs of mix
will be calculated with cream and condensed skim milk as the dairy ingredients.
Shortage of fat in original mix = 5000 X 0.5% = 25 lbs
Weight of fat needed in 300 lbs of additional mix = 300 X 10% = 30 lbs
Total weight of fat needed in 300 lbs of additional mix = 25 + 30 = 55 lbs
Weight of cream needed to supply 55 lbs of fat = 55 -s- 0.35 = 157.14 lbs
Surplus weight of MSNF in original mix = 5000 X 0.3% = 15 lbs
Weight of MSNF needed in 300 lbs of additional mix = 300 X 10% =
30 lbs
Additional weight of MSNF needed = 30 - 15 = 15 lbs
Weight of MSNF contributed by the cream = 157.14 X 0.055 = 8.64 lbs
Weight of MSNF to be supplied by condensed skim milk = 15 - 8.64 =
6.36 lbs
Weight of condensed skim milk needed = 6.36 ^- 0.3 = 21.2 lbs
Weight of liquid sugar needed = 300 X 0.12 ^- 0.675 = 53.33 lbs
Weight of corn syrup needed = 300 X 0.06 -* 0.8 = 22.5 lbs
Weight of stabilizer needed = 300 X 0.003 = 0.9 lbs
For the algebraic solution, the cream will be needed to make up the deficiency in
fat, but since the MSNF are high, skim milk should be the appropriate choice of
MSNF.
Fat
MSNF
Original mix
Cream
Skim milk
67.5 Brix sucrose
Corn syrup
Stabilizer
5000.00
152.50
58.66
50.44
21.28
0.85
475.00
53.37
515.00
8.39
4.98
Total
5283.73
528.37
528.37
634.05
317.02
15.85
Desired
5283.73
528.37
528.37
634.05
317.02
15.85
Ingredient
Sugar
(lbs)
CSS
Stabilizer
300.00
15.00
600.00
34.05
17.02
0.85
Example 11
The same ingredients and the same mix as in Example 10.
x = new weight of the mix after correction
y = lbs of cream
z = lbs of skim milk
Fat equation
475
+ 0.35y
= 0.1*
MSNF equation
515
+ 0.055? + O.O85z = OAx
Milk products Eq. 0.7442 X 5000 4y
+
z
= 0.7442JC
Note:
475 = lbs fat in original mix (5000 X 0.095)
515 = lbs MSNF in original mix (5000 X 0.103)
0.7442 is the percentage of milk products in the mix, obtained by subtracting the weights of nondairy ingredients needed in 100 lbs from 100.
In this example, 17.78 lbs of 67.5 Brix liquid sugar would be needed to
supply the required 12 lbs of sugar; 7.5 lbs of corn syrup would supply
the needed 6 lbs CSS; and 0.3 lbs of stabilizer must be provided. 17.78
+ 7.5 4- 0.3 = 25.58. 100 - 25.58 = 74.42. Therefore, the mix contains 74.42% milk products.
When the three simultaneous equations are solved employing the normal rules of
algebra, the following results are obtained:
x = 5283.73 lbs (the new weight of the mix)
y = 152.50 lbs (weight of additional cream)
z =
58.66 lbs (weight of additional skim milk)
Weight
Fat
MSNF
Milk
Cream
Sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier
106.02
17.97
10.00
12.50
0.30
3.17
6.29
9.01
0.99
Total
146.79*
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
0.3
Desired
100.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
0.3
Ingredient
Sugar
CSS
(lbs)
10.00
10.00
0.3
Ingredients
10% Fat
10% MSNF
10% Sucrose
10% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier
x = lbs cream
y = lbs milk
Fat: MSNF = 10:10
Fat equation
0.35JC + 0.035? = 10
MSNF equation 0.055JC 4- 0.085v = 10
x = 17.97 lbs cream
y = 106.02 lbs milk
The results indicate that for every 106.02 lbs of milk, 17.97 lbs of cream, 10 lbs
of granulated sugar, 12.5 lbs of corn syrup (10 -r- 0.8), and 0.3 lbs of stabilizer/
emulsifier must be added. When the sum of these ingredients is concentrated to 100
lbs, the resultant product will have the desired composition. The calculations are
confirmed in Table 2.20.
.^
o
SpeClflC
100
% remaining solids
L601
.
*
% water
1
O<*A
834
Be
60 F
< > =
0
145
J4_
0.93
100
252_
1.601
=
+
6O8
1
145
- T ^ T i = 1219
The actual weight per gallon and 0Be should be determined by physical measurement at the temperature of interest after the mix has been analyzed and found to
be of the correct composition. The corrected readings can be used in subsequent
runs.
2.4 Formulation
In formulating ice cream mixes, the principal objective is to create a product with
physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics perceived by the manufacturer as
desirable based on favorable consumer acceptance. Compliance with legal requirements and standards of identity is essential, but within these constraints, the manufacturer is allowed considerable latitude in the choice of formulation. Following is
a list of some criteria that may affect the adoption of a particular formulation:
1. Lowest possible price
2. Product and price positioning
3. Competitiveness against market leader
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Fat
MSNF
Total solids
Sweetness level (expressed as sucrose)
Stabilizer/emulsifier.
The basic formulas for the various frozen desserts must be considered by product
type because of existing standards of identity. In the case of ice cream, the minimum
fat and total milk solids content is predetermined by the standard of identity as 10%
and 20%, respectively. However, the number of possible formulations with the restricted fat content of 10% is exceedingly high. Some of the possibilities are illustrated in Table 2.21.
Among further variations of the formulations presented in Table 2.21 are: intermediate levels (between 0 and 25% of the MSNF) of whey solids; different percentages of sucrose replacement by corn syrup solids; corn syrups of higher or lower
DE; the inclusion of microcrystalline cellulose into formulations other than those
indicated; the inclusion of egg yolk solids at different concentration levels (below
1.4% to avoid requirement of labeling the product as frozen custard); inclusion of
Constituent
Fat
MSNF
Wheya
Sucrose
CSSb
Fructose0
Microcrystalline cellulose
Stabilizer/emulsified
Egg yolk solids
Total solids
10
10
15
10
7.5
2.5
15
10
10
10
10
10
8
2
10
10
11
12
6
10
9
2
13
4
10
7.5
2.5
11.5
10
12
15
15
10
10
8
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.25
35.3
35.3
40.2
35.3
39.25
0.25
0.25
38.5
0.3
0.3
0.3
38.3
37.1
1
38
a
Up to 25% of the MSNF may be in the form of whey solids or solids from one of the approved modified whey
products.
b
The CSS were assumed to possess 50% of the sweetening value of sucrose.
c
High-fructose com syrup with a sweetening value of at least that of sucrose.
d
The actual concentration depends on the particular proprietary product used. The supplier's directions should be
followed.
egg yolk solids into formulations other than the one indicated; use of stabilizers and
emulsifiers made up of different components, etc. Although not all variations produce
significant changes, differences in ice cream properties may certainly be brought
about by varying the formulations. Products resulting from the illustrated compositions would vary in body and texture, in the freezing point and hardness at any
given temperature, in resistance to heat shock, in ingredient cost, in the perception
of being "all natural," and possibly in flavor and flavor release. The properties
affecting the body and texture of the ice cream can be further modified by the manner
of processing and freezing of the mix, the amount of overrun incorporated, the
manner in which the flavors are added, and the speed of hardening. The great variety
of possibilities testifies to the fact that our federal standards are not a "recipe"
forcing everyone to make the same product.
The suggested formulas presented in subsequent pages are intended as starting
points in helping ice cream makers to develop formulations with their own specific
requirements.
that is difficult to emulate with substitutes. Thus a high fat content is compatible
with premium eating quality. The visual impact of flavoring is expected to be immediate and positive. This implies that the fruit, nuts, candy, variegating syrups, etc.
be distributed in a pattern that is pleasing both for its uniformity and correct quantity.
Finally, packaging must receive its due emphasis in conveying the "premium"
image. The important criterion of packaging address both attractiveness (eye appeal)
and product protection. In summary, a premium or superpremium product may be
distinguished from the ordinary product by one or more of the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
10
20-22
13-15
37-40
14
12
16
20-24
20-23
22-25
14-16
14-16
13-15
Depending on proprietary product used
40-41
38-40
39-41
18
24-26
14-16
40-42
without any processing. Thus, ice cream may approach the natural state only when
it is made up of ingredients that are perceived as natural.
When rendering judgment on whether an ingredient may appropriately be designated as natural, the following criteria may be considered: degree of processing;
chemical modifications during processing of the ingredient; is it a synthetic ingredient; is it used for cosmetic reasons (e.g., colors); and does it contain chemical
additives and preservatives (e.g., in flavoring substances). These points emphasize
that the natural designation is a function of ingredient selection rather than formulation. A natural product may be high or low in fat, high or low in total solids, and
high or low in overrun.
11
11
12
12
8.75-10 8.88-10 9.25-10
18-20
18-20
19-20 19-20
17.5-19 17.76-19 18.5-19
17-18
17-18
17-18
17-18 17-18
17-18
17-18
3.5
5-5.5
3
5-6
3-4
5
0
1
0
1-1.5
0
1.5
0
3
Depending on proprietary product used
40.5-42 40-41.5
39-40 40-42.5 40-42.5 41-44 41-43.5
milkfat mix contains 8.75 lbs milkfat. Therefore, this particular mix must contain as
a minimum 8.75% milkfat. The milk solids reduction is obtained in a similar way
and the new minimum turns out to be 17.5%. In no instance can the milkfat and
total milk solids content be reduced below 8% and 16%, respectively. Formulations
are given in Table 2.23.
2-3
15-17
13
30-32
Hard Frozen51
4-7
2-3
18-19
15-17
15
13
Depending on proprietary product used
32-34
35-36
4-7
17-19
15
36-38
Depending on the desired results, the formulation may include microcrystalline cellulose in the stabilizer system and
bulking agents such as very low DE com syrups as components of the sweetener solids.
The peach flavoring contains (1/3.5) X 100 = 28.6% sucrose and yields 30 X
0.286 = 8.57 lbs sucrose. Therefore, 70 lbs of mix must contain:
9 lbs fat or 12.86% fat
9 lbs MSNF or 12.86% MSNF
17 - 8.57 = 8.43 Ib sweetener or 12.04% sweetness as sucrose
0.3 lbs stabilizer/emulsifier or 0.43% stabilizer/emulsifier.
The peach flavoring must be uniformly distributed and in the correct proportion
to yield the targeted composition in the ice cream. The desired sweetness level may
be affected by the sensory characteristics of the fruit preparation actually used. Fruit
flavors are often complemented by a somewhat higher sweetness level than is usual
in vanilla ice cream. Attention should be focused on the stabilizer used to guard
against an excessive mix viscosity which could create processing problems. In the
freezing process, applicable regulations such as those pertaining to weight per gallon
of finished product and the weight of total solids in a gallon of ice cream should not
be overlooked.
Milkfat
Total milk solids
Sucrose
Corn syrup solidsb
Total sweetness as sucrose
Flavor0
Stabilizer*1
Citric acidc
Sherbets3
(%)
Ices
1-2
2-5
20-23
7-11
26-28
0
0
23-25
7-11
27-29
(%)
Nonfruit sherbets have a similar composition except for the absence of an acidulant and possibly a lower
total sweetness level (more com syrup and less sucrose). All must contain not less than 1% MSNF. See CFR
in Appendix.
b
The choice of com syrup to provide these solids is a matter of preference. Criteria to be considered are
flavor release, desired sweetness level, total solids content, and hardness when frozen.
c
The standards of identity specify the following minimum quantities of fruit flavoring on a weight basis:
2% for citrus flavors; 6% for berries; and 10% for all other fruits. Fruit flavoring obtained from proprietary
sources should comply with these and other requirements imposed by the standards.
d
The stabilizer and emulsifier should be appropriate for use in sherbets or ices. The concentration needed
depends on the specific product used.
e
To prevent curdling of the milk solids, the citric acid solution is best added to the cold mix in the flavor
tank just before freezing. The standards of identity for fruit sherbets and ices require that enough acid be
used to give a titratable acidity of at least 0.35% expressed as lactic acid.
that is stable and effective in an acid solution. Sherbets and ices that are not fruit
flavored may now be manufactured without added acid. Most commonly, however,
sherbets and ices are fruit flavored and acidified to an acidity between pH 3 and
pH 4 (titratable acidity of 0.4 to 0.6% expressed as lactic acid). The amount of
acidulant, usually 50% citric acid solution, depends on the concentration of milk
solids and the tartness of the fruit flavoring. A taste test should confirm that the
appropriate quantity of acid has been selected or added (roughly 8 to 10 oz of 50%
citric acid solution per 10 gal, but must be fine tuned). Formulations are given in
Table 2.25.
2-4
2-4
10-12
10-14
9-11
7-9
0-4
0-4
1-1.75
0
Depending on proprietary product used
25-30
23-27
Milk fat
MSNF
Sucrose
Corn sweetener
Cocoa
Stabilizer
Total solids
Table 2.27
Milkfat
MSNF
Sucrose
CSS
Sweetness (as sucrose)
Stabilizer
Total solids
Acidity
Soft-Serve (%)
0-2
0-3.5
10-14
10-14
9-10
9-11
6-8
9-12
13-14
15
Depending on proprietary product used
34-36
30-31
As required by existing regulations or higher,
if desired
for the source of fat, the formulation for Mellorine is essentially the same as that for
an all-dairy product frozen dessert of the same composition (e.g., 6% fat). The quality, flavor, and melting point of the substitute fat have a strong effect on the flavor
and consistency of the frozen product. See CFR in the Appendix.
dispersing medium. When all of the ingredients are finally assembled in the batching
tank and after sufficient agitation, which from experience has been shown to provide
a uniform composition, a sample is taken for analysis to determine if restandardization is necessary. Other means for dispersing ingredients may also be found effective under specific local conditions. A funnel pump may be used to assist in
dispersing dry ingredients. A presolution tank may be a heated liquifier (blender) or
a small capacity heated and agitated vat in which materials that are very difficult to
disperse are "presolubilized." A good example is chocolate liquor and some stabilizers.
Obviously, the system that is selected must accommodate specific requirements
as to the size of batches, number of different mixes made, and ingredients used.
Based on consideration of these requirements, a determination is made as to the type
and size of equipment and the number of batching tanks needed for most efficient
operation. There are some quality considerations that may be affected by this step
of mix processing. Severe agitation in the presence of raw dairy ingredients may
cause the development of a rancid flavor. This danger is magnified if any of the
other ingredients have been homogenized (e.g., reprocessed mix). Under some conditions, the sum of the times needed to assemble and disperse the ingredients and
hold them for test results may be sufficient for rancid flavor development. Rancidity
is also promoted by foam formation. Air incorporation should be kept to a minimum
even when only pasteurized dairy ingredients are used in the mix. During heating
any collapsing foam may be a contributing factor to burn-on on the heating surfaces.
In addition to causing possible operating and cleaning difficulties, burn-on may also
contribute to the development of a scorched flavor. Air interferes with effective
homogenization later in the process and may contribute to whey separation in the
mix and finished product after melting.
2.5.1.2 Pasteurization
Pasteurization requirements may vary in different localities, but the minimum time-temperature combination employed should coincide with (or exceed) the conditions specified in 21 CFR Part 135.3. The requirements set forth there are:
155F for 30 min
175F for 25 s
This section also includes the statement "or other time-temperature relationship
which has been demonstrated to be equivalent thereto in microbial destruction." A
check with a regional office of the Food and Drug Administration27 has revealed
that in the opinion of the FDA, the following time-temperature relationships are
equivalent for the pasteurization of frozen desserts:
1800F for 15 s
191F for 1 s
212F for 0.01 s
There are additional requirements that address the design, installation, and operation of the equipment. All time-temperature relationships listed may be considered as minimum requirements, so that a higher temperature or a longer holding
time may be employed as long as both minimum conditions have been met. The
main purpose of pasteurization is the protection of human health, the importance of
which certainly warrants the requirement that each installation of a pasteurizer be
thoroughly checked out by competent regulatory authorities.
2.5.2 Homogenization
The mix is homogenized to prevent churning of the fat in the freezer. When the size
of all but a few of the fat globules is reduced to between <1 and 2 /im and the
globules are evenly distributed without clumping, the tendency to churn is drastically
reduced. The efficiency of the homogenizer should be checked by examining a diluted sample of the mix under a microscope. Some of the factors that affect homogenization and its efficiency are condition of the homogenizing valve; condition
of suction and discharge valves; temperature of homogenization; homogenization
pressure; type of homogenizing valve; number of pistons; single- versus two-stage
homogenization; fat-to-protein ratio; salt balance; location of the homogenizer relative to the pasteurization system; presence of air in the mix; etc.
There is no conflict between the functions of homogenization and the deemulsification properties of emulsifiers, as may appear at first glance. The fat destabilizing
effect of emulsifiers should be accomplished under controlled conditions to avoid
excessive churning with such consequences as progressive buildup of fat in the
freezer, a greasy mouth coating sensation when the product is consumed, and poor
meltdown characteristics of the ice cream. The fat in unhomogenized mixes would
be very apt to separate or chum in the ice cream freezer. Faulty homogenization,
due to such conditions as defective or poorly fitting valves and fluctuating pressures,
provides an opportunity for some of the fat globules to escape homogenization and
hence to be more susceptible to churning. Thus, a measure of control is provided by
the fat globules which have been reduced in size by homogenization and stabilized
by their newly acquired membrane.
displacement pump may be used as the timing pump. Because it would be extremely
difficult to operate two positive pumps at exactly the same rate, the design of the
system must provide for a relief mechanism that meets both engineering and public
health requirements.
The several possible locations for the homogenizer in the HTST system include:
between the raw regenerator and the heater; after the heater but before the holding
tube; and between the end of the holding tube and the pasteurized regenerator. Some
units may be equipped with a split regenerator. In this case, the mix could be homogenized between the first and the second pasteurized regenerator section.
When the mix enters the homogenizer, it is desirable to have all of its constituents
fully in solution to avoid damage to the homogenizer valves by hard crystalline
materials. This consideration implies that it may be wise to locate the homogenizer
at some point after the final heating section. Whether it is installed before or after
the holding tube depends on whether or not the homogenizer is used as the timing
pump. The temperature of the mix increases as it passes through the homogenizer.
With the homogenizer located just ahead of the holding tube, the increase in temperature may constitute a part of the heating process as the mix will be held at this
final temperature in the holding tube. A prediction of which arrangement will provide
the best results is difficult to render without carefully weighing all locally applicable
conditions. A reasonably safe general statement is that the homogenizer should be
located as far downstream as is necessary to ensure that the fat and emulsifiers are
melted; to control mix viscosity; to obtain full hydration of the stabilizer(s); to provide complete solution of all crystalline materials (e.g., lactose); and to ensure the
least emulsion destabilizing effect by subsequent flow through the system.
fat mixes also have a lower protein content which may contribute to clustering of
fat globules. The problem may be further compounded by an unfavorable salt balance
due to season or origin of the milk solids.
Homogenizer
Difficulties that are traceable to homogenization are very often due to wear and
pitting of the homogenizer valves and the suction and discharge valves. Periodic
inspection of the valves should be a routine procedure. The equipment manufacturer
can be consulted for specific guidance. When homogenization problems due to defective valves are encountered, increasing the homogenization pressure may do little
to correct the difficulty. Entrained air in the product or leakage on the suction side
of the homogenizer will cause the pressure to fluctuate and the homogenizer to
''move around." Subsequent problems may be encountered in whey separation and
freezing. When problems are encountered, the equipment manufacturer may be requested to validate the accuracy of the readings on the pressure gauges.
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The chemical constituents responsible for the aroma portion (which is the principal portion) of flavor in a given food are present in minute quantities (parts per
million and parts per billion). A concentrate of these flavor imparting compounds
may be known as an essential oil (e.g., an essential oil of orange). An alcoholic
solution of the essential oil becomes an extract, in this example, an orange extract.
Water dispersions of the essential oils can also be prepared and are available under
the name of flavor emulsions. The chemical compounds of flavor significance in the
essential oils vary from one specific flavor to another but generally include organic
compounds of the types known as ketones, acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, lactones, etc. Many of the specific flavors have an "impact constituent," which is a
compound that makes the major contribution to that particular flavor. This constituent also may be the principal component of an artificial flavor simulating the natural
one. A familiar example is vanillin, the main flavor component of vanilla extract.
Imitation vanilla usually contains methyl vanillin. However, the natural vanilla flavor
also contains other compounds that complement the flavor and, therefore, an imitation vanilla cannot be expected to fully emulate true vanilla.
Besides the most popular flavoring, vanilla, the large variety of frozen dessert
flavors includes those derived from sugar caramelization; the browning (Maillard)
reaction (the flavor of chocolate, coffee, tea, nutmeats, maple, and baked goods
produced by the action of heat, i.e., boiling, roasting, or baking); fruits; candy;
ground spices; liqueurs; etc. The manner in which some flavorings are used is rather
straightforward. When the label of the product identifies it as strawberry ice cream,
for instance, there is a reasonable expectation that the flavor be recognizable in a
blindfold test and that it be reminiscent of high-quality strawberries (and not be overor underflavored). The visual impact of fruit particles is also significant, although
some of the best looking berries may be severely lacking in strawberry flavor. Other
flavors may require a considered judgment on how they should be presented. In
chocolate chip ice cream, for instance, how large should the chips be and should
they be sweet, semisweet, or bitter? How large should the pieces of nutmeats be?
What percent weight of candy, nuts, fruit pieces, variegating syrups, etc. should be
incorporated? What should be the background flavor in products such as butter pecan
and how strong should it be? It may appear that there are more questions than
answers, but actually there are more answers than questions because ice cream manufacturers may solve each problem in their own way. There obviously are some
wrong answers, but there are also several correct answers to each question. As always, consumers, right or wrong, exercise the ultimate authority by determining the
degree of the product's acceptance.
With few if any exceptions, at least some components of the total flavorings are
added to the pasteurized mix in the flavor tank just before freezing. The potential of
product contamination by bacteria and foreign substances must be dealt with by rigid
sanitation, hygienic personal habits, and good housekeeping. Whether added to the
flavor tank or later in the process, the flavorings must not serve as a vehicle for
contamination. Nothing should be left to chance and specifications for flavoring
materials should include both flavor quality criteria and criteria addressing bacterial
content and product purity. There can be cases when sanitary considerations will
preclude the use of an otherwise desirable flavoring. For example, frozen fruit packs
can be an excellent source of fruit flavor, but in some cases their bacterial and
coliform count may make their use unwise or illegal. Flavor extracts and solutions
of colors may also be a source of bacterial contamination.
Some flavors may be incorporated entirely in the flavor tank; others require addition in part both before and after freezing. Materials that are incorporated into the
flavor tank must be completely dispersible and contain no particulate matter of the
type that would cause wear to parts of the continuous freezer. Concentrated flavors
added in small quantity must be agitated sufficiently to ensure uniform distribution.
Particulate materials that are intended to make a "showing" in the ice cream (and
those unsuitable to run through the freezer) are fed through a fruit or ingredient
feeder directly into the ice cream as it exits the freezer. Syrups for variegating are
introduced into the exiting ice cream by means of a syrup pump.
When the flavoring is added directly to the mix, both the mix and the bulk of the
flavoring can incorporate air during the freezing process. The whipped-in air is
uniformly distributed throughout the ice cream. This is not the case with flavorings
that are introduced as the ice cream leaves the freezer. In the latter case all of the
air is contained in the mix portion. An example will illustrate the achieved overrun
in the mix portion when the ice cream is drawn at 4.5 lbs/gal and the same amount
of flavoring is added either before or after freezing.
Assume: weight of mix 9 lbs/gal
Weight of flavoring 10.7 lbs/gal
Weight of ice cream 4.5 lbs/gal
Flavoring added at the rate of 20% by weight
4.5 lbs of ice cream contains
80% X 4.5 = 3.6 lbs mix and
20% X 4.5 = 0.9 lbs flavoring
Case I Flavoring added directly to the mix
3.6 lbs of mix occupies a volume of 3.6/9 = 0.4 gal
0.9 lbs of flavor occupies a volume of 0.9/10.7 = 0.084 gal
Total volume occupied by 4.5 lbs = 0.4 + 0.084 = 0.484 gala
Weight per gallon of flavored mix = 4.5/0.484 = 9.3 lbs/gal
^ ^
wt of 1 gal mix wt of 1 gal ice cream X 100
% Overrun =
wt of 1 gal of ice cream
=
93
:
X 100
Volume of mix
091^04
0.4
The same answer can be obtained by using the weight formula for overrun as
long as the weights are for the same volume product.
Weight of ice cream minus flavor = 3 . 6 lbs/0.916 gal
Weight of mix/0.916 gal = 9 X 0.916 = 8.244
8.244 - 3.6
% Overrun =
X 100 = 129%
3.6
The results show that when the flavor is added after freezing, the ice cream portion
carries a disproportionate amount of the air. At 4.5 lbs/gal, which is the minimum
weight permitted for ice cream, the overrun on the unflavored portion of the product
in this example is certainly high enough to cause some concern. One should be on
the alert for body and texture problems and stability toward heat shock.
flavorings. For different fruits, the actual fruit content, not including the added sugar,
may be in the range of from 2 to 20% (consult applicable CFR in the Appendix for
permissible minima and labeling requirements). As pointed out earlier, the composition of the mix affects the dilution limit with flavoring; the aim is not to dip below
the minimum permissible fat and milk solids content. Some proprietary flavorings
used at a relatively high level may be stabilized to help prevent iciness and improve
heat shock resistance. Nuts may be added at levels from 2 to 10%; variegating syrups
at 5 to 20% depending on type and whether or not they are the sole flavoring source;
other added materials including candy (e.g., chocolate chip) can be used at the rate
of 5 to 10% of the weight of the mix. Confections with a honeycomb structure,
making them light in weight, may be added at a lower rate. Because of their high
flavor impact, the quantity of concentrated flavorings should be near the supplier's
recommended level based on a standardized strength of the extract. When the concentrate is used in conjunction with the actual fruit, each will furnish a percentage
of the total flavor. The desirability of all flavored products should be confirmed by
taste test.
combined to prepare a favorite beverage that was subsequently introduced to Europeans. Since then, vanilla has made it on its own and in the United States has become
the most popular flavor of ice cream.
The ice cream manufacturer usually obtains vanilla flavoring in the form of an
alcoholic extract which, when in single strength, contains the soluble extractives of
one-tenth its weight of vanilla beans (13.35 oz/gal). More concentrated extracts, twoup to tenfold, are also available and proportionately contain the extractives of larger
weights of the beans. The impact-producing component in the extract is vanillin but
a chromatographic analysis reveals the presence of other components that contribute
to the flavor character. Some vanilla extracts are fortified with synthetic vanillin. For
this purpose, one ounce of vanillin per gallon is considered equivalent in intensity
(not flavor character) to a single -fold of pure vanilla extract. Thus a single strength
extract with 1 oz of vanillin is roughly equivalent to a twofold extract. The fortified
extracts impart a less delicate vanilla bouquet but one that makes a more immediate
and stronger impact. The flavor release, although not of the same character as that
of pure vanilla, is less hindered by the flavor of the ingredients in the background.
For high-quality vanilla ice cream, both the flavor of the unflavored mix and that
of the vanilla extract should be free of criticism. Vanilla flavoring does not "cover
up" any off-flavors that may be present in the mix due to poor-quality ingredients.
Flavoring extracts have their own quality criteria. Those made from Tahiti vanilla
beans have a completely different flavor, which may or may not be desired. A large
proportion of the vanilla extracts are made from Bourbon vanilla beans grown in
Madagascar, although Bourbon beans are also grown in Indonesia and other places.
The quality of the beans is best assessed by the quality of the extract made from
them. The technology employed in making the extract and subsequent aging and
handling may also affect quality. The extract that is used should contain the desired
typical components in the proper proportion, it should impart the desired intensity
of flavor, and should not have any "fermented" or other types of off-flavors. Labeling of the ice cream must conform to the required language when vanilla alone,
vanilla-vanillin mixtures, or vanillin alone is used for flavoring (21 CFR).
beans have been dehulled and degermed and the remaining "nibs" have been finely
ground. It contains about 50% cocoa butter. Under pressure, some of the cocoa butter
can be removed from the liquor and the residue becomes cocoa. Its fat content may
vary roughly between 10 and 25%. The bulk of the chocolate flavor is contained in
the cocoa but there are some delicate, complementary, fat-soluble flavor notes that
are retained by the cocoa butter. Thus, the flavor character of cocoas may vary with
the fat content of the cocoa.
Basically, the chocolate flavoring may be made by one of two processes, the
natural or the Dutch process. Treatment with alkali in the Dutch process yields a
darker chocolate with an altered flavor. There are still other variables in the flavor
of chocolate. As is true with any food commodity, the quality of cocoa beans varies
depending on the source of the beans, growing conditions, and handling procedures
including the important fermentation step carried out in the area of the beans' origin.
The intensity of the roasting process is also related to flavor characteristics.
After this brief review of chocolate basics, the emerging conclusion is that there
are many variants of chocolate flavor. The ice cream maker must decide on the types
of cocoa, liquor, or cocoa-liquor combinations, level of usage, light or dark, with
or without modifying flavor, and other variables that affect the chocolate flavor
character. An opportunity exists to "individualize" a flavor by blending several
types of cocoa or liquor products to obtain a unique combination. For soft-serve
application, a low-fat cocoa may be desirable to prevent separation of dark, flaky
granules during the freezing process. If the chocolate mix is to be sterilized, the
chocolate flavoring should be checked for highly heat-resistant bacterial spores,
sometimes present, that could survive the heating process.
what to expect from each freezer, so that, when he notes an unusual behavior he
must initiate immediate corrective action by whatever procedures have been established for the purpose. This does not apply only to major problems, such as a shutdown, but to any deviation from the norm, even subtle day-to-day changes. The
appearance of the product as it leaves the freezer may be wetter or shinier than
expected; the product may be softer; gauge readings may be erratic or abnormal;
adjustments may not produce the desired response; there may be excessive overrun
fluctuation; etc. Some of the problems may relate to compositional errors (e.g., incorrect quantity of stabilizer/emulsifier); processing errors (e.g., mix not properly
homogenized); incorrect assembly of freezer parts; breakdown in freezer maintenance (e.g., worn, damaged, or improperly sharpened blades; worn or damaged
pumps; worn shaft bushings); oil deposit in the refrigerant side of the freezer barrel;
insufficient refrigeration; overcrowding the freezer; faulty gauges; etc. The freezer
may still be turning out a product but the deviations from norm presage a definite
possibility that profits, legal weight of product, or product quality in this particular
run are in jeopardy. Training of freezer operators must include this aspect of their
responsibilities. Other workers who handle the freezer, including the clean-up crew,
also must be aware of the serious consequences of mishandling or dropping freezer
parts, particularly the pumps and blades. Failure to recognize the need for timely
maintenance, early, can have an immediate effect on the quality of product and lead
to expensive repairs later.
The batch freezer is a less complicated machine, at present used mainly in small
plants and product development laboratories. The drawing temperature is somewhat
higher (23 to 25F) and depends on when the proper overrun has been attained.
Typically, the overrun goes up rather rapidly when freezing begins but as the product
becomes stiff, some of the overrun is lost. At this point, the refrigeration is turned
off and the ice cream is allowed to whip to the desired overrun as its temperature
increases slightly. The temperature at which the desired overrun is attained, the
maximum overrun attainable, and the time required to obtain it are a function of mix
composition, particularly the emulsifier content, all other factors being equal. Ice
cream made in the batch freezer is generally somewhat coarser textured than that
produced in a continuous freezer. This is because of the higher drawing temperature
and slower freezing rate. The frozen ice cream must be removed from the batch
freezer rapidly because the dasher continues its beating action, causing the overrun
to fluctuate. Some variation during discharge is unavoidable. Depending on the type,
flavoring may be added directly to the freezer at the beginning of the run or later as
the product is being discharged to preserve particle identification. Some flavorings
may also be stirred into the ice cream after discharge from the freezer. Excessive
warm-up of the product must be avoided and sound sanitary precautions must be
taken to avoid contamination. Large containers may be filled directly from the freezer
discharge. Unless filled manually after discharge from the freezer (watch sanitation
and product warm-up!), small containers may be filled by a packaging machine of
sanitary construction fed through a hopper.
The soft-serve and shake freezers normally dispense their product in individual
serving sizes on demand, which may be in rapid succession or at a very slow rate
depending on business volume. On slow days, the product may remain in the freezer
barrel for a long period of time and be subjected to agitation during successive
refrigeration cycles (well insulated freezer design can keep these cycles to a minimum). The mix must be formulated and processed to help it stand up under these
unfavorable conditions. Some of the common difficulties are churning (emulsifier
system and homogenization) and progressive softening with the product temperature
actually going down. This is probably due to emulsion and protein destabilization
or freeing of bound water. Churning problems increase with higher fat content but
the softening phenomenon can occur with any mix. When churning has progressed
to the point of being troublesome, the only available option to the freezer operator
is to empty the freezer, clean and sanitize it, and start all over again with fresh mix.
Under certain conditions, lactose crystallization can also occur over a period of time
in the freezer barrel. Soft-serve products are usually drawn at a temperature of 19F
and shakes at 27F, but in both cases, the actual drawing temperature depends on
the freezing point of the mix.
Some stick novelties are frozen without agitation in molds that are partially immersed in a refrigerated brine bath. In this case, the complete freezing process occurs
here and the finished product only needs to be stored at a sufficiently low temperature
to maintain its quality ( - 15 to 25F). For other stick novelties which are frozen
under agitation and with air incorporation, the product exits an ice cream freezer
and from there is filled into molds for hardening in a brine tank. To ensure a complete
fill of the molds, the product has to be on the soft side when the molds are being
filled.
When the frozen dessert is discharged from the continuous ice cream freezer, it
may flow through an ingredient feeder for the incorporation of fruits, nuts, or candy.
Variegating syrups may also be introduced downstream in addition to, or in the
absence of, other paniculate flavor ingredients, and the flow of the product is then
directed to the filling machine. The distance of the flow from the freezer to the filler
should be as short as conditions permit to hold down temperature increases and
minimize the back pressure against which the freezer must operate. Some freezers
may have difficulty handling the back pressure. During startup and changeovers,
provisions must be made for the sanitary handling of any sound but unusable product
for refreezing or reprocessing. (The product may be too soft, wrong overrun, a
mixture of two products, or good product wasted while adjustments were being made
on the packaging machine.) The final overrun (after packaging) should be checked
by weight. With all systems operating properly, the variation in weights should be
in the range of 1 to 3% (not exceed 1A oz to 3A oz for */2-gal containers).
It corresponds to the lowest temperature at which no ice is present. As the temperature is lowered, ice begins to form but under commercial conditions, it is unlikely
that all of the water is ever frozen, even after hardening. A method for calculating
the amount of frozen water in ice cream at various temperatures was developed by
researchers at the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the 1920s.34 Results obtained
by this calculation are quite useful, although some assumptions must be recognized.
The calculation of the freezing point and the method for estimating the amount of
frozen water at any temperature are carried out in the following steps:
1. The percent lactose in MSNF is obtained by assuming that 54.5% of the MSNF
is lactose. The actual percent lactose should be used if it is known.
2. The percent lactose in whey solids (WS) is obtained by assuming that 76.5% of
the WS is lactose. The actual percent lactose should be used if known.
3. Calculate the sucrose equivalent (SE) of lactose and all sweeteners used in the
formula. The assumption here is that all sweeteners respond in relation of their
molecular weight to that of sucrose. This obviously ignores all interactions between sweeteners and between sweeteners and other mix constituents. Other complicating effects are hydration and changes in bound water occasioned by the
mediating effect of processing (heat treatment, homogenization). However, a useful approximation is obtained as follows: percent each sweetener in the formula
X MW factor from Table 2.6.
4. Calculate total percent SE by summing percent SEs of all sweeteners:
Total % SE = % lactose + % sucrose
+ SE of all other sweeteners used
5. Calculate percent SE in the aqueous portion of the mix
% SE =
T tal % S E
be constructed from which the percent frozen or unfrozen water may be estimated
at different temperatures.
The calculations will be illustrated for a mix of the following composition:
10% Fat
8% MSNF
2.5% WS
12% Sucrose
7% 36 DE com syrup solids
0.3% Stabilizer
39.8% Total solids
60.2% Water
At 0% water frozen:
1. % Lactose - (8 X 0.545) + (2.5 X 0.765)
2. % Sucrose
3. % SE of 36 DE corn syrup solids (7 X 0.61)
Total % SE (step 4)
4. % SE in aqueous portion of mix (step 5)
6O.2T22.54
X 10
"
= 6.27
= 12.00
= 4.27
= 22.54
2? 24%
-or"x
4.14F
9/5 x 2 37
0.740F
4.88F
Other points on the freezing curve of this mix are obtained in the same manner
except that the percent unfrozen water in steps 5 and 7 is reduced. Assuming that
10% of the water is frozen, then 90% of the original 60.2% would remain unfrozen.
The freezing point is calculated using 90% of 60.2 or 54.18 as the percentage of
unfrozen water. Additional calculations are made for 80% of 60.2, 70%, etc. The
freezing points so obtained are plotted on a graph as temperature against percent
water frozen and the points when connected become the freezing curve of this particular mix. Examples of freezing curves are shown in Figure 2.1.
There are several different ways of interpreting the freezing point data. From the
information now available one can determine the percent unfrozen water, percent
ice, and percent solids in the unfrozen water at the drawing temperature and any
other temperature of interest. To assess the potential seriousness of heat shock, the
amount of water that actually melts and refreezes when the storage temperature
Freezing Point
Depression (0F)
0.22
0.42
0.67
0.91
1.18
1.47
1.78
2.10
2.40
2.78
3.14
3.51
3.87
4.31
4.79
5.28
5.85
6.46
7.12
7.89
8.64
9.51
Percent SE
in Water
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
52.5
53
54
55
56
56.5
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
64.5
Freezing Point
Depression (0F)
10.55
11.00
11.50
12.17
12.79
13.48
14.22
14.45
14.81
15.7
16.45
17.3
17.69
18.05
18.95
19.72
20.54
21.40
22.55
23.45
24.40
24.84
Original data by Pickering,19 not shown. Values were interpolated from Keeney and Kroger,9 where the original data
were quoted. Interpolation may result in some error because the slope of the data when plotted is not uniform.
fluctuates may be calculated (e.g., between 0 and 100F). The data in Table 2.29
illustrate some of these relationships. Note that at the drawing temperature of 210F,
ice cream B has essentially the same solids in unfrozen water as ice cream A, but
the latter has considerably more ice frozen due to a lower total solids content and
higher freezing point. The same is true at 5F. The higher total solids content, nearly
the same proportion of unfrozen water, and the water binding properties of the
sweetener type used, tend to favor ice cream B over A from the standpoint of body
and texture and resistance to heat shock. Ice creams C and D would be progressively
softer. Although consistency can be modified by stabilizers, ice cream D would
probably be too soft for most purposes. Freezing point data do not provide all the
answers, but they contribute an important element to the total picture.
Bulky flavors added directly to the mix may affect the freezing point as well as
the drawing temperature and appearance at draw. If their sugar content is very high,
they may cause the ice cream to be softer at any given temperature than its vanilla
counterpart.
% WATER FROZEN
F
Figure 2.1 Examples of ice cream freezing curves. Composition of the mixes is given in
Table 2.29 as a footnote.
Table 2.29
Ice Creamb
Temperature
CF)
Solids (%)
Unfrozen
Water (%)
Ice (%)
Solids in
Unfrozen Water (%)
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
21
21
21
21
5
5
5
5
36.3
38.3
38.3
36.3
36.3
38.3
38.3
36.3
27.4
29.0
35.8
43.9
12.4
13.3
16.0
19.8
36.3
32.7
25.9
19.8
51.3
48.4
45.7
43.9
57.0
56.9
51.7
45.2
74.5
74.3
70.5
64.8
F
Termocouple
Termocouple
HOURS
Figure. 2.2 Rate of convection hardening as observed under conditions existing in one
commercial plant. Air temperatures was - 300F (velocity was not measured). When bundled,
as illustrated, a brown paper overwrap was used. Thermocouples were located in the center
of the containers as indicated.
when subjected to one system of air convection hardening. Local conditions at other
plants may yield better or worse cooling rates depending on hardening room design
and some of the factors enumerated above.
The size of the container makes a significant difference on how fast the product
hardens. Very small containers harden quickly (assuming there is adequate air movement), but they also warm up quickly when removed from the freezing temperatures.
For that reason, they suffer severe body and texture damage as a result of heat shock.
This also applies to novelties (stick bars, small cups etc.) and constitutes one of their
most serious quality problems. Large containers (e.g., 3 gal size) harden much slower
in the interior (where cooling is largely by conduction) and must be given ample
time to reach 00F in the interior (the actual time obviously depends on the hardening
room temperature). If containers are stacked before they are adequately hardened,
deformation may occur and some overrun may be squeezed out causing surface
discoloration.
Direct refrigerated contact plate hardening provides very effective heat transfer
but requires that all containers be of the same size and geometry. Because square
half-gallon containers constitute a major portion of the volume in many plants, the
contact plate hardeners can be dedicated to this line of products, while the remainder
of the production is hardened by some other systems.
Hardening of the half-gallon containers to a temperature of 00F at the core (center
of container) may be accomplished within a period of 1 to 2 h, but not necessarily
with all hardening systems. Figure 2.2, for which the data were collected in a commercial setting, provides one illustration of this. It can be seen that in the bundled
units of four containers, those on the inside hardened much slower. They required
about 7 h to reach 00F at core as opposed to about 3 h for the unbundled half-gallon
containers. In this particular plant the results were acceptable as judged by existing
production and quality criteria, and actually represented a substantial improvement
over previous hardening performance. Obviously, further improvements would be
possible if deemed necessary. The introduction of fast hardening systems constitutes
one of the most significant improvements in ice cream technology.
After the ice cream has been hardened, subsequent steps are dictated by local
requirements. The containers may be palletized and stacked according to a plan
designed to facilitate load-out operations. In some cases, the fully hardened ice cream
may be loaded directly onto trucks for transfer to distribution points. Whether during
warehousing or the transportation and transfer phase, a constant and low temperature
(in the range of 15 to 25F) should be maintained to minimize heat shock.
Maintaining a frost-free environment is also important and should not be disregarded
just because it presents a challenge.
Good inventory control should include products coded to reveal date of production, location in storage, and destination in shipment. Maximum storage time which
does not inflict an unacceptable degree of quality deterioration obviously depends
on local conditions and the management's concept of what constitutes unacceptable
quality. Invariably, there are some items that move rather slowly, but for one reason
or another must be kept in the inventory. These items may stay in storage longer
than desired. The production and storage of faster moving items should be so syn-
chronized that they are still at the peak of their quality when they are moved out.
Sensory evaluation should provide an indication of an acceptable storage time for
every item manufactured.
Vehicles used for transporting ice cream must be maintained and monitored so
they will not become a source of heat shock. Ideally, a vehicle is used only for rapid
transport, not for hardening or storing of the product. Several trips on a truck can
be very damaging to the product.
it was made. An old ice cream or one that has been highly stabilized tends to melt
slower. Stabilizers and emulsifiers also affect the appearance of the meltdown, which
may be curdy, foamy, or actually separated into clear whey. A "buttery" meltdown
may result when the ice cream has churned in the freezer. Whey separation may also
be observed in the undisturbed mix due to the same causes and when air has been
incorporated during processing. The addition of approved food grade protein stabilizing salts (various citrates and phosphates) may affect the meltdown.
ipate and, hopefully, prevent potential problems. Among the process control steps
that should be monitored are the following:
Temperature going into the hopper
Bar temperature
Coating temperature
Dwell times
Product weight before and after enrobing
Volume of bar
Overrun
End of day inventory
Specific gravity of brine
Formulation of productcomposition
Coliform counts and other bacterial tests
Sensory properties of ingredients and finished product
Temperature monitoring to prevent heat shock
Product rotation
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
i. Maintenance of up-to-date diagrams and flowsheets of all piping and equipment used in processing, cleaning, and sanitizing
Environmental: air, water, waste, and noise management
Product line
a. Maintenance of core business line
b. Modifications to existing products
c. Introduction of new products
d. Competitive planning
Pricing: price-value relationship
Packaging
a. Sizing
b. Single vs. bundling and type of overwrap
c. Package graphics and coding
d. Case coding, product identification, and tracking
Quality assurance
a. Raw material specifications
b. Finished goods product specifications
c. Laboratory procedures including tests contracted to outside laboratories
d. Plant sanitation procedures
e. Testing requirements including critical control point surveillance
f. Housekeeping procedures
g. Uniforms and personal hygiene requirements
h. Product recall management
i. Handling of product to be reprocessed
j . Handling of returns
k. Temperature control from ingredient to finished product
1. Records and documentation
Production planning and scheduling
a. Purchasing
b. Inventory controlraw materials
c. Inventory controlfinished goods
d. Coordination with sales and marketing
e. Production scheduling
Production
a. Trained personnel
b. Proper equipment
c. Properly maintained, cleaned, and sanitized equipment ready for use
d. Adequate supply of raw materials
e. Adequate supply of packaging material
f. A production plan
g. Production records
Storage (dry and cold)
a. Suitable space and location for edible and nonedible materials
b. Humidity and temperature control
c. An inventory control system
restaurants). The principal unit operations directly relevant to the ice cream mix are
pasteurization, homogenization, and aging.
The applicable areas of research include studies addressing development of the
emulsion structure, identification of the mechanism of emulsifier and stabilizer action, and investigations into the nature of molecular interactions between stabilizers
and other ice cream components.
The formation of a new fat globule membrane as a result of homogenization and
its subsequent reactions have been studied in great detail. Oortwijn and Walstra36
studied the properties of cream by combining milkfat with different sources of protein. The amount of protein available, the composition of the membrane, and fat
crystallization were important factors in controlling the stability of the emulsions.
The nature of the proteins involved in the process of fat globule membrane formation
has been found to have implications on the tactile properties in frozen dairy products.
For example, increasing concentrations of whey proteins were found by Goff et al.37
to have fat destabilization properties. However, they were not able to provide guidelines for conclusive predictions, partly due to the diverse processing conditions
encountered.
Better understanding of the function and performance of emulsifiers in ice cream
has been provided recently by a number of studies. 1630 ' 38 " 42 As pointed out in
Section 2.2.19, emulsifiers are not needed in ice cream mix to stabilize the fat emulsion. There are many components, mainly proteins, available in the ice cream mix
to perform this function. In ice cream mixes homogenized without emulsifiers, the
new fat globule membrane will be formed by caseins and whey proteins. However,
the surface-active character of emulsifiers, when present in the mix, allows them to
be preferentially adsorbed at the surface of the fat globule replacing the proteins. As
the interfacial tension is lowered due to the action of the adsorbed emulsifiers, the
fat globules are more readily destabilized. Due to their size and structure, proteins
at the interface form a more complex membrane than one made up of emulsifiers.30
Incorporation of air into the mix results in the adsorption of fat globules at the air/
serum interface due to a differential in the created surface forces. The shear forces
resulting from freezing concentration, agitation, and whipping in the freezer barrel
cause the emulsion to partially destabilize with the formation of clusters of fat globules and with possibly some coalescence. Both aggregation and coalescence of globules is facilitated by the creation of the weaker emulsifier-containing membranes.
These clusters and possibly some free fat are responsible for stabilizing the air cells
and creating a matrix throughout the product. Matrix formation, partially coalesced
fat globules at the air-cell interfaces, and stable air cells result in a dry appearance,
smooth texture, and resistance to melting.
Not all of the emulsifiers work in a similar manner. An excellent review on
emulsion stability is presented by Friberg et al.43 They describe two methods for
classifying emulsifiers. In the first, the surfactant per se is characterized by a value
for the hydrophilic and lipophilic balance (HLB) of the molecule (water loving and
lipid loving parts of the molecule). The second approach combines the surfactant
with oil and water and the whole system is characterized by a number. Generally,
emulsifiers with a higher HLB number have a higher affinity for water, and are more
practical, sensory data. Kokini presented a model for testing the melting action of
ice cream in the mouth and how it generates a layer of lubricant between the solid
ice cream and the mouth.49 This model suggests that the shear stress on the tongue
is the mechanism of texture perception even in the presence of a melting layer.
Another interesting model correlated viscosity of a solution to taste intensity. In
summary, it can be said that in ice cream, as well as in other foods, considerable
work is being done to relate textural attributes to physical quantities from a basic
understanding of perception mechanisms.
unfrozen serum, thereby increasing the viscosity of the serum phase surrounding the
ice crystals to above the viscosity corresponding to Tg'. This would result in the
physical resistance to recrystallization and structural collapse. Future research should
provide the answers.
Viscosity in the serum can also be modified by the interaction between partially
denatured proteins, or between proteins with extremely different isoelectric points.54
Poole et al.55 have found that basic proteins such as lysozyme (with isoelectric point
pi = 10.7) or clupeine (pi = 1 2 ) enhance the surface activity of acidic proteins
such as whey proteins (pi ~~ 5) resulting in extremely stiff foams after whipping.
Sucrose was found to further enhance the interaction between the proteins. One
may speculate that further studies may be designed to uncover appropriate
protein-protein and protein-carbohydrate interactions which may be useful in the
substitution of fat in ice cream.
To conclude this section, it can be said that much of what can be learned about
the ice cream making process is highly dependent on the theoretical tools and equipment used. However, as more studies come to light, it may be possible to establish
some general principles on which to base technological advancement. Empirical
experiments (trial and error) in product development and improvement have been
historically very important. Hopefully they may be supplemented in the future by
scientific knowledge that will provide a predictable basis for further advances in ice
cream technology.
2.12 References
1. Anonymous. 1951. 1851-1951. Ice cream centennial. Ice Cream Trade J. 47:222.
2. Anonymous. 1955. A 50 year history of the ice cream industry. Ice Cream Trade J. 51:1-270.
3. Arbuckle, W. S., 1986. Ice Cream, 4th edit. AVI, Westport, CT.
4. Burke, A. D. 1947. Practical Ice Cream Making. Olsen, Milwaukee, WI.
5. Fisk, W. W. 1919. The Book of Ice Cream. Macmillan, New York.
6. Frandsen, J. H., and E. A. Markham. 1915. The Manufacture of Ice Creams and Ices. Orange Judd,
New York.
7. Frandsen, J. H., and D. H. Nelson. 1950. Ice Cream and Other Frozen Desserts. Frandsen, Amherst,
MA.
8. Keeney, P. G. 1960. Commercial Ice Cream and Other Frozen Desserts, p. 50. The Pennsylvania
State University, College of Agriculture, Extension Service.
9. Keeney, P. G., and M. Kroger. 1974. Frozen dairy products. In B. H. Webb, A. H. Johnson, and
J. A. Alford (eds.), Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry. AVI, Westport, CT.
10. Lucas, P. S. 1956. Ice Cream Manufacture (commemorating 50 years of progress). / . Dairy Sci.
39:833.
11. Sommer, H. H. 1951. Theory and Practice of Ice Cream Making. Sommer, Madison, WI.
12. Tobias, J., and G. A. Muck. 1985. Ice cream and frozen desserts. J. Dairy Sci. 64:1077.
13. Tumbow, G. D., P. H. Tracy, and L. A. Raffeto. 1956. The Ice Cream Industry. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
14. American Dry Milk Institute. 1971. Standards for Grades of Dry Milk including Methods of Analysis.
Vol. Bulletin 916 (Revised). American Dry Milk Institute, Chicago, EL
15. Hunziker, O. F. 1946. Condensed Milk and Milk Powder. Hunziker, La Grange, IL.
16. Berger, K. G. 1990. Ice Cream. In K. Larsson and S. Friberg (eds.), Food Emulsions, pp. 367-444.
Marcel Dekker, New York.
17. Sherman, P. 1978. Food Texture and Rheology. Vol. UFST Symposium. Academic Press, New
York.
18. Larsson, K., and S. E. Friberg. 1990. Food Emulsions, 2nd edit. Marcel Dekker, New York.
19. Pickering, S. V. 1891. The freezing point relationship of cane sugar. Berichte Deutsch. Chem.
Gensellschaft, 24:333.
20. Okos, M. R. 1986. Physical and Chemical Properties of Food. American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
21. Whistler, R. L., and J. R. Daniel. 1985. Carbohydrates. In O. Fennema (ed.), Food Chemistry,
pp. 69-137. Marcel Dekker, New York.
22. Whistler, R. L. 1973. Industrial Gums: Polysaccharides and Their Derivatives. Academic Press,
New York.
23. Dikinson, E., and G. Stainsby. 1982. Colloid in Food. Elsevier London.
24. Dickinson, E. 1987. Food Emulsions and Foams. Royal Society of Chemistry, London.
25. Nickerson, T. A. 1962. Lactose crystallization in ice cream. IV. Factors responsible for reduced
incidence of sandiness. / . Dairy Sci. 45:354.
26. Schappner, H. R. 1986. British Patent GB-1,108,376.
27. Price, C. 1990. Time-Temperature Requirements for Ice Cream Mix. Midwest Region, Public Health
Service, Office of the Regional Food and Drug Director, Chicago, IL.
28. Muck, G. A., and Tobias, J. 1962. Effect of high heat treatment on the viscosity of model milk
systems. J. Dairy Sci. 45:481-485.
29. Tobias, J., M. Whitney, and P. H. Tracy. 1952. Electrophoretic properties of milk proteins II; Effect
of heating to 3000F by means of the Mallory small-tube heat exchanger on skimmilk proteins.
/. Dairy ScL 35:1036-1045.
30. Walstra, P., and R. Jenness. 1984. Dairy Chemistry and Physics. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
31. Buchheim, W. 1978. Mikrostruktur von geshlagenem Rahm. Microstructure of whipped cream.
Gordian, 78:184-188.
32. Brooker, B. E., M. Anderson, and A. T. Andrews. 1986. The development of structure in whipped
cream. Food Microstruct. 5:277-285.
33. Goff, H. D., Liboff, M., Jordan, W. K., Kinsella, J. E. 1987. The effects of Polysorbate 80 on the
fat emulsion in ice cream mix: evidence from transmission electron microscopy studies. Food Microstruct. 6:193 -198.
34. Leighton, A. 1927. On the calculation of the freezing point of ice cream mixes and of the quantities
of ice separated during the freezing process. J. Dairy Sci. 10:300.
35. Bodyfelt, F. S., J. Tobias, and G. M. Trout. 1988. The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
36. Oortwijn, H., and P. Walstra. 1982. The membranes of recombined fat globules 4. Effects on properties of the recombined milks. Netherlands Milk Dairy /., 36:279-290.
37. Goff, H. D., J. E. Kinsella, and W. K. Jordan. 1989. Influence of various milk protein isolates on
ice cream emulsion stability. / . Dairy Sci. 72:385-397.
38. Buchheim, W., and Dejmeck, P. 1990. Milk and Dairy-Type Emulsions, pp. 203-246. In K. Larsson
and S. Friberg (eds.), Food Emulsion Marcel Dekker, New York.
39. Goff, H. D. 1988. Emulsifiers in ice cream: How do they work? Modern Dairy 67:15-16.
40. Goff, H. D., and W. K. Jordan. 1989. Action of emulsifiers promoting fat destabilization during the
manufacture of ice cream. J. Dairy Sci. 72:18-29.
41. Keeney, P. G. 1982. Development of frozen emulsions. Food Technol. 36:65.
42. Lin, P. M., and J. G. Leeder. 1974. Mechanism of emulsifier action in an ice cream system. / . Food
ScL 39:108.
43. Friberg, S. E., R. F. Goubran, and I. K. Kayali. 1990. Emulsion Stability. In K. Larson and S. E.
Friberg (eds.), Food Emulsions. Marcel Dekker, New York.
44. Berger, K. G., Bullimore, B. K., White, G. W., Wright, W. B. 1972. The structure of ice cream.
Dairy Industries 37:419, 493.
45. Brooker, B. E. 1985. Observations on the air serum interface of milk foams. Food Microstruct.
4:289.
46. Goff, H. D., and K. B. Caldwell. 1991. Stabilizers in ice cream: How do they work? Modern Dairy
70:14-15.
47. Caldwell, K. B., H. D. Goff, and D. W. Stanley. 1992. A low-temperature SEM study of ice cream.
II. Influence of selected ingredients and processes. Food Struct. 2: (in press).
48. Rau, D. C , and V. A. Parsegian. 1990. Direct measurement of forces between linear polysaccharides
Xantan and Schizophyllan. Science 249:1278-1281.
49. Kokini, J. L. 1987. The physical basis of liquid food texture and texture-taste interactions. / . Food
Engin. 6:51-81.
50. Budiaman, E. R., and O. Fenema. 1987. Linear rate of water crystallization as influenced by viscosity
of hydrocolloid suspensions. / . Dairy Sci. 70:547.
51. Eisenberg, A. 1984. The glassy state and the glass transition. In J. E. Mark et al. (eds.), Physical
Properties of Polymers. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.
52. Levine, H., and L. Slade. 1988. Principles of cryo-stabilization technology from structure property
relationships of carbohydrate/water systems. A review. Cryo-Lett. 9:21-63.
53. Levine, H., and L. Slade. 1990. Cryostabilization technology: thermoanalytical evaluation of food
ingredients and systems. In C. Y. Ma and V. R. Harlwaker (eds.), Thermal Analysis of Foods.
Elsevier Applied Science, London.
54. Dickinson, E., and G. Stainsby. 1987. Progress in the formulation of food emulsions and foams.
Food Technol 41:74-81.
55. Poole, S., S. I. West, and J. C. Fry. 1986. Lipid tolerant protein foaming systems. FoodHydrocolloids
1:45.
Note: In order to provide the most recent standards for frozen desserts, this legal document is reproduced
as an appendix to this volume instead of this chapter.
CHAPTER
3
Cheese
K. RajinderNath
3.1 Introduction, 163
3.1.1 Classification, 164
3.1.1.1 Ripened, 164
3.1.1.2 Fresh, 165
3.1.2 Cheese Production and Composition, 165
3.2 Heat Treatment of Milk for Cheesemaking, 169
3.3 Cheese Starter Cultures, 173
3.3.1 Types of Cultures, 174
3.3.2 Leuconostoc, 178
3.3.3 Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus, 178
3.3.4 Lactobacilli, 179
3.3.5 Lactobacilli Found During Cheese Ripening, 179
3.3.6 Propionibacteria, 180
3.3.7 Pediococci, 180
3.3.8 Molds, 181
3.3.8.1 PenicilliumRoqueforti, 181
3.3.8.2 Penicillium Camemberti, 181
3.4 Growth of Starter Bacteria in Milk, 182
3.4.1 Inhibitors of Starter Bacteria, 182
3.4.1.1 Bacteriocins, 182
3.4.1.2 Lipolysis, 182
3.4.1.3 Hydrogen Peroxide, 183
3.4.1.4 Lactoperoxidase/Thiocyanate/H2O2 System, 183
3.4.1.5 Heat Treatment, 185
3.4.1.6 Agglutination, 185
3.4.1.7 Antibiotics, 186
3.4.1.8 pH, 186
3.5 Starter Culture Systems, 187
3.5.1 Culture Systems, 188
3.6 Culture Production and Bulk Starter Propagation, 191
3.6.1 History, 191
3.6.2 Concentrated Cultures, 191
3.6.3 Bulk Starter Propagation, 192
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.1 Introduction
Cheese is one of mankind's oldest foodstuffs. It is nutritious. It was Clifton Fadimanepic (and Epicurean) worksmithwho coined the phrase that best describes
cheese as "milk's leap to immortality."1 The first use of cheese as food is not known,
although it is very likely that cheese originated accidentally. References to cheeses
throughout history are widespread: * 'Cheese is an art that predates the biblical era." 2
The origin of cheese has been dated to 6000 to 7000 B.C. The worldwide number of
cheese varieties has been estimated at 500, with an annual production of more than
12 million tons growing at a rate of about 4%.3
Cheesemaking is a process of dehydration by which milk is preserved. There are
at least three constants in cheesemaking: milk, coagulant, and culture. By introducing
heating and salting steps in cheesemaking, a potential for numerous varieties has
been realized.
The techniques employed by early cheesemakers varied geographically. A cheese
made in a given region with the available milk and prevailing procedures acquired
its own distinctive characteristics. Cheese made in another locality under different
conditions developed other properties. In this way specific varieties of cheese origi-
nated, many of which were named according to the town where produced, for example, Cheddar, England. Although varieties of cheese are known by more than
2000 names, many differ only slightly, if at all, in their characteristics.4
About 1900, the following five developments in cheese technology contributed
to the rapid growth of commercial cheesemaking4:
The use of titratable acidity measurements to control acidities
The introduction of bacterial cultures as "starters"
The pasteurization of milk used in cheesemaking which destroys harmful microogranisms
Refrigerated ripening
The appearance of processed cheese
3.1.1 Classification
Cheeses have been classified in several ways. Several attempts to classify the varieties of cheese have been made. One suggestion consists of a scheme that divides
cheeses into the following superfamilies based on the coagulating agent.3
1.
2.
3.
4.
3.1.1.1 Ripened
Cheeses can be ripened by adding selected enzymes or microorganisms (bacteria or
molds) to the starting milk, to the newly made cheese curds, or to the surface of a
finished cheese. The cheese is then ripened (cured) under conditions controlled by
one or more of the following elements: temperature, humidity, salt, and time.
Depending on the style of cheese, the ripening can be principally carried out on
the cheese surface or the interior. The selection of organisms, the appropriate enzymes, and ripening regime determine the texture and flavor of each cheese type.
Distinctive Characteristics
Cheddar
Colby, Monterey
Swiss (large eyes), Samsoe,
Edam, Gouda (small eyes)
Parmesan, Romano
Provolone, Caciocavallo,
Mozzarella
Blue, Roquefort, Stilton,
Gorgonzola
Close texture means no mechanical holes within the cheese; open texture means considerable mechanical holes.
In contrast to ripening by bacteria throughout interior without eye formation.
In contrast to coagulation by acid and coagulating enzymes, or in whey cheese, by acid and high heat.
3.1.1.2 Fresh
These cheeses do not undergo curing and are generally the result of acid coagulation
of the milk. The composition, as well as processing steps, provide the specific product texture, while the bacteria used to provide the acid usually generate the characteristic flavor of the cheese.
Total
($, Millions)
Annual Percent
Change
1,751.8
3,094.6
3,644.4
4,504.7
4,900.5
5,764.1
6,073.6
6,688.5
7,903.6
9,415.9
10,188.0
10,170.0
10,561.7
10,492.1
10,707.5
11,378.3
11,232.5
11,388.8
17,644.8
12.1a
17.8
23.6
8.8
17.6
5.4
10.1
18.2
19.1
8.2
-0.2
3.9
-0.7
2.1
6.3
-1.3
1.4
4.6a
1967
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988b
1997C
Source: Ref. 5.
a
b
c
erned by the definitions and standards of identity developed, promulgated, and revised by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of United States Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare. Cheese regulations assure the consumer of constant
cheese characteristics and uniform minimum composition.4 Federal standards of
identity concerning cheese and cheese products6 where established are given in Table
3.4. Typical analysis of cheeses7 is given in Table 3.5.
Cheesemaking, as an artform, has been around for thousands of years. In earlier
times cheese had been less than uniform and often with blemishes. The cheesemakers
of the past worked diligently to learn intuitively the causes of and ways to avoid
cheese failures. The discovery in 1935 by Whitehead in New Zealand, that bacteriophage(s) caused the milk acidification problem and gassy cheese,8 was the first
step toward more uniform and mechanized cheesemaking. The intervening 57 years
of intensive research on milk and its conversion to cheese has brought a great deal
of understanding and knowledge of milk compositionproteins, fat, lactose, and
mineralsand their interaction as it affects cheesemaking. A great deal is being
learned about the causes and metabolic behavior of starter organisms and their proteinases and peptidases, and their ability to cope with bacteriophages in the environment. There is considerable information in the published literature that has been
recently arranged and compiled into reviews and books.9"11
Table 3.3
Natural Cheese
1967
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988C
1997d
Source:
a
b
c
d
Sales
($, Millions)
Percent
Change
Sales
($, Millions)
Percent
Change
Sales
($, Millions)
829.2
1,400.0
1,705.9
2,458.7
2,668.7
3,267.9
2,727.2
3,104.1
3,949.3
4,821.1
5,225.6
5,625.6
5,824.0
5,617.3
5,664.6
6,289.8
6,208.0
6,294.9
9,826.9
11.0"
21.9
44.1
8.5
22.5
-16.5
13.8
27.2
22.1
8.4
7.7
3.5
-3.5
0.8
11.0
-1.3
1.4
4.7b
562.5
1,134.1
1,363.5
1,496.6
1,654.4
1,859.7
2,518.5
2,681.4
2,822.0
3,303.4
3,567.9
3,194.3
3,325.4
3,390.1
3,552.6
3,548.9
3,463.7
3,529.5
5,482.8
15.1 b
20.2
9.8
10.5
12.4
35.4
6.5
5.2
17.1
8.0
-10.5
4.1
1.9
4.8
-0.1
-2.4
1.9
4.7b
218.0
340.9
405.6
456.0
508.7
530.7
545.6
588.5
729.3
840.9
856.5
683.2
693.8
748.3
738.3
725.1
731.6
722.8
1,083.9
Ref. 5.
Other Cheese8
Cottage Cheese
Percent
Change
9.4b
19.0
12.4
11.6
4.3
2.8
7.9
23.9
15.3
1.9
-20.2
1.6
7.9
-1.3
-1.8
0.9
-1.2
3.9b
Sales
($, Millions)
142.1
219.6
169.4
93.4
68.7
105.8
282.3
314.5
403.0
450.5
538.0
666.9
719.5
736.4
752.0
814.5
829.2
841.6
1,251.2
Percent
Change
9.1b
-22.9
-44.9
-26.4
54.0
66.8
11.4
28.1
11.8
19.4
24.0
7.9
2.3
2.1
8.3
1.8
1.5
4.2b
Table 3.4
Cheese Type
Asiago fresh
Asiago soft
Asiago medium
Asiago old
Blue cheese
Brick cheese
Caciocavello Siciliano
Cheddar
Low-sodium Cheddar
Colby
Low-sodium Colby
Cottage cheese (curd)
Cream cheese
Washed curd
Edam
Gammelost
Gorganzola
Gouda
Granular-stirred curd
Hard grating
Hard cheese
Gruyere
Limburger
Monterey Jack
High-moisture Monterey Jack
Mozzarella and Scamorza
Low-moisture Mozzarella and
Scamorza
Part-skim Mozzarella and
Scamorza
Low-moisture, part-skim
Mozzarella
Muenster
Neufchatel
Nuworld
Parmesan and Reggiano
Provolone
Soft-ripened cheese
Romano
Roquefort (sheep's milk)
Samsoe
Sapsago
Semisoft cheese
Semisoft, part-skim cheese
Skim-milk cheese for
manufacturing
Swiss and Emmentaler
Source: Ref. 6.
Legal Maximum
Moisture, %
45
50
45
50
35
45
32
42
46
50
44
50
40
42
39
50
(Same as Cheddar but less than 96 mg of
sodium per pound of cheese)
40
50
(Same as cheddar but less than 96 mg of
sodium per pound of cheese)
80
0.5
55
33
42
50
45
40
52
(skim milk)
42
50
45
46
39
50
34
32
39
50
39
45
50
50
44
50
44-50
50
52-60
45
45-52
45
52-60
30-45
45-52
30-45
46
65
46
32
45
34
45
41
38
39-50
50
50
50
20-33
50
32
45
50
38
50
45
(skim milk)
50
45-50
(skim milk)
41
43
Legal Minimum
Age
60 days
60 days
6 months
1 year
60 days
90 days
90 days
6 months
90 days
60 days
10 months
5 months
60 days
60 days
5 months
60 days
In this chapter, effort is made to select and interpret information that is current
and germane to the topic of cheese. Milk composition, cheese yield, starter proteinases and peptidases, and bacteriophage are not discussed because of space limitation.
The subjects of fresh cheese, cheese defects, and pathogens in cheese are also not
discussed. Some aspects of milk composition and casein micelle assembly and rennet
coagulation are discussed in Chapter 1.
Although much is known about in vitro chymosin-induced proteolysis of casein(s)
little is truly understood about the augment of changes and microbiological shifts in
vivo that occur in cheese as a result. The efforts to accelerate cheese curing and to
harness ultrafiltration of milk to produce superior Cheddar cheese and Swiss cheese
have largely failed, indicating the lacuna in our understanding of cheese as an entity.
It is ironic that most studies dealing with starter organisms and rennet reactions deal
with optimum conditions, but most of cheesemaking and cheese curing is done under
suboptimal conditions as they relate to starter or adventitious bacteria found in
cheese. Wherever applicable, comments are made to provoke thinking in the unexplored facets of cheesemaking, curing, and longevity of cheese as a good food.
Table 3.5
Type
Cheese
Total
Total
Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Fat in
Dry
Matter
(%)
Ash
(%)
Calcium
(%)
Phosphorus
(%)
Sodium
(%)
Potassium
(%)
2.1
21.4
28.5
0.7
1.4
0.03
0.08
1.2
1.5
3.8
3.5
3.7
2.7
5.2
0.10
0.13
0.35
0.35
0.10
0.13
0.39
0.25
0.35
0.19
0.34
0.01
0.40
75.4
62.0
52.8
58.3
50.3
53.7
47.5
55.5
0.03
0.06
0.30
0.30
0.08
0.07
0.49
0.30
0.39
0.18
0.49
0.29
0.39
0.80
0.11
0.11
0.13
0.84
0.63
1.12
0.19
0.15
0.06
79.8
79.0
72.0
59.0
53.7
62.2
48.4
52.0
51.8
48.4
55.2
55.0
17.3
12.5
18.0
19.0
7.5
10.0
20.0
16.5
19.8
20.7
14.2
20.5
0.42
4.5
8.0
18.0
34.9
23.4
27.2
28.0
24.3
27.7
21.3
25.0
1.8
2.7
3.0
3.0
2.7
2.9
0.49
0
0.5
0.4
4.1
41.1
41.8
23.3
23.4
29.7
30.0
2.8
1.1
50.4
51.6
3.2
3.7
0.67
0.72
0.45
0.47
0.56
0.63
0.14
0.13
42.4
39.4
36.0
36.7
38.2
37.2
41.4
41.5
21.4
21.5
26.0
24.9
23.8
28.4
25.0
25.0
28.7
30.6
32.0
33.1
32.1
27.4
27.8
27.4
2.3
2.0
49.9
50.5
50.0
52.4
52.0
43.7
47.6
46.9
5.1
6.4
5.0
3.9
3.4
3.5
4.2
3.9
0.53
0.66
0.39
0.39
1.39
1.81
0.26
0.09
0.72
0.68
0.96
0.73
0.70
0.51
0.46
0.60
0.54
0.55
0.62
0.60
0.26
0.96
0.82
0.09
0.13
0.11
0.19
0.12
1.3
2.6
3.4
1.4
2.2
(Continued)
Parmesan (hard)
Romano
Provolone
Mozzarella
Euda
Sapsago
Ricotta
Primost
American pasteurized processed
cheese
American cheese food, cold pack
American pasteurized processed
cheese spread
Pimento pasteurized processed
cheese
Swiss pasteurized processed
cheese
Swiss pasteurized processed
cheese food
29.2
30.9
40.9
54.1
56.5
37.0
71.7
13.8
35.7
31.8
25.6
19.4
30.0
41.0
11.3
10.9
25.8
26.9
26.6
21.6
6.5
7.4
13.0
30.2
3.2
3.6
2.1
2.2
1.0
36.5
39.0
45.1
47.1
6.0
6.7
4.7
2.6
1.18
1.06
0.76
0.52
0.69
0.76
0.50
0.37
1.60
1.20
0.88
0.37
0.09
3.0
36.6
45.9
35.0
1.0
0.21
0.16
0.08
0.10
39.2
43.1
22.1
19.7
31.2
24.5
1.6
8.3
51.4
43.0
5.8
0.62
0.50
0.74
0.40
1.43
0.97
0.16
0.36
47.6
16.4
21.2
8.7
40.5
0.56
0.71
1.34
0.24
0.61
0.74
1.42
0.16
0.77
0.76
1.37
0.22
0.72
0.53
1.55
0.28
4.4
6.0
39.1
22.1
31.2
1.7
51.2
5.8
42.3
24.7
25.0
2.1
43.3
5.8
43.7
21.9
24 A
4.5
42.8
5.8
Source:
Source:
0.14
0.067
Table 3.6
TYPES OF AEROBIC MESOPHILIC MICROORGANISMS IN FRESH RAW MILK AND FORMING COLONIES ON MILK
COUNTAGARS
Streptococci
Micrococci
Micrococcus
Staphylococcus
Enterococcus
(cfecal)
Group N
Mastitis streptococci
S. agalactiae
S. dysgalactiae
S. uberis
Asporogenous
Gram + Rods
Microbacterium
Corynebacterium
Arthrobacter
Kurthia
Sporeformers
Bacillus (spores or
vegetative cells)
Gram - Rods
Pseudomonas
Acinetobacter
Flavobacterium
Enterobacter
Klebsiella
Aerobacter
Escherichia
Serratia
Alcaligenes
Miscellaneous
Streptomycetes
Yeasts
Molds
.
and cer,a,n
ficulty of developing the full typical flavor in some cheeses such as Cheddar,
Swiss, and hard Italian type cheeses. 4 4 5
Higher than normal pasteurization temperatures were evaluated in Danish danbo
cheese. The protein recovery ratios were 73.5%, 77.5%, and 78.5% when the milk
was pasteurized at 66.7C, 87.2C, and 95C respectively. The advantages of greater
protein recovery and cheese yield by higher heat treatment were tempered by the
lower quality of cheese made from milks heated at the two higher temperatures. Eye
formation was not typical compared to the control cheese, and flavor and body
defects were more prevalent in cheeses made from milk heated at 95C. 16
When cheese was made from milk pasteurized for 16 s at 73.3C, 75.5C, and
77.75C, no significant differences in flavor preference or intensity of off-flavors
were noted between the cheeses during ripening, although differences in body characteristics were evident. As the pasteurization temperature increased, the resulting
cheeses were firmer and more rubbery and did not break down as readily when
chewed. 17
In another study, it was demonstrated that during aging, Cheddar cheese from
pasteurized milk showed decreased proteolysis of a s - and P-casein and production
of 12% trichloracetic acid (TCA)-soluble nitrogen compared to the raw milk cheese.
It is explained that the pasteurization of milk caused heat-induced interaction of
whey proteins with casein and resulted in greater than normal retention of whey
proteins in cheese. It is suggested that heat-denatured whey proteins affect the accessibility of caseins to proteases during aging. 18 The concentration of sulfhydryl
(-SH) groups in cheese decreased as the temperature of milk heat treatment was
increased. Kristoffersen believed that the concentration of - S H groups ran parallel
to the intensity of characteristic Cheddar cheese aroma.19"21
The use of heat-treated milk is preferred for ripened cheeses such as Cheddar,
Swiss, and Provolone to preserve a more typical cheese flavor.4 Heat-treated milk
is usually heated to 63.9 to 67.8C for 16 to 18 s.
The heat treatment of raw milk can exert a significant role in producing microbiologically safe cheese. Recent thorough research has affirmed that milk heat treatment at 65.0 to 65.6C for 16 to 18 s will destroy virtually all pathogenic microorganisms that are major threats to the safety of cheese. 13 - 22 " 24 For further discussion
on heat treatment of milk for cheesemaking the reader should consult an excellent
three-part review by Johnson et al.13*15t25
flavor of Brick cheese is due to Brevibacterium linens. Blue cheese and Brie cheese
derive their characteristics from the added blue and white molds, respectively.
Acidification of cheese milk is one of the essentials of cheesemaking. Acidification of milk is realized by the addition of selected strains of bacteria that can
ferment lactose to lactic acid. Both the extent of acid production and the rate of acid
production are important in directed cheese manufacture.26 Mesophilic cultures (lactococci) are used in cheese where curd is not cooked to more than 400C, for example,
Cheddar cheese. Those cheese types that are cooked to 50 to 56C (Swiss and Parmesan) use thermophilic cultures.
Acid production is the major function of the starter bacteria. During cheesemaking
starter bacteria increase in numbers from about 2 X 107 cfu/g to 2 X 109 cfu/g in
the curd at pressing.27 During cheese ripening the added starter bacteria die off,28
releasing their intracellular enzymes in the curd matrix which continue to act on
components of the curd to develop desirable flavor, body, and textural changes.
There are other incidental changes in milk and cheese and they come about as a
result of acid production by lactic acid bacteria.
Lactic acid producing bacteria have several functions3:
1. Acid production and coagulation of milk.
2. Acid gives firmness to the coagulum which affects cheese yield.
3. Developed acidity determines the residual amount of animal rennet affecting
cheese ripening; more acid curd binds more rennet.
4. The rate of acid development affects dissociation of colloidal calcium phosphate
which in turn impacts proteolysis during manufacture and affects Theological
properties of cheese.
5. Acid development and production of other antimicrobials control the growth of
certain nonstarter bacteria and pathogens in cheese.
6. Acid development contributes to proteolysis and flavor production in cheese.
7. Growth of lactic acid bacteria produces the low oxidation-reduction potential
(Eh) necessary for the production of reduced sulfur compounds (methanethiol,
which may contribute to the aroma of Cheddar cheese).
Table 3.7
Old Name
Streptococcus
lactis
Streptococcus
cremoris
Streptococcus
diacetylactis
New Name
Lactococcus
lactis
subsp.
lactis
Lactococcus
lactis
subsp.
cremoris
3O0C
300C
Leuconostoc
lactis
Leuconostoc
cremoris
Lactococcus
lactis
subsp. lactis
biovar
diacelylactis
Leuconostoc
lactis
Leuconostoc
mesentroides
subsp.
cremoris
300C
300C
300C
+
+ /+
0.8
Nisina
0.8
Diplococcina
0.4-0.8
0.2
0.2
+
+
+
+
Refs. 29-31.
Table 3.8
L. delbrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus
L. delbrueckii subsp.
lactis
L. helveticus
L. casei subsp. casei
L. casei subsp.
pseudoplantarum
L. casei subsp.
rhamnosus
L. plantarwn
L. curvatus
L. fermentumA
L. brevisA
L. buchneriA
L. bifermentansAB
Growth
Percent
Lactic Acid
in Milk
Lactic
Acid
Isomer
1.8
1.8
3.0
0.8
D
DL
+
+
15C
450C
Sensitivity
to Salt
500C
DL
DL
DL
+
+
8% + a,
10%
-a
6% + a ,
8%
-a
+ a,
+ a,
+ a,
+ a,
10%
8%
10%
6%
-a
-a
-a
-a
8%
6%
8%
4%
+
C
DL
Lactose
Bacteriocin
<2%
<2%
DL
DL
Galactose
<2%
L
DL
Glucose
Ammonia
from
Arginine
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-4-
+
+
Cheddar, Colby
Swiss
Parmesan, Romano
Mozzarella, Provolone
Gorgonzola
Camembert
Lactococcus culture
Penicillium camemberti
Brick, Limburger
Muenster
Gouda and Edam
Cream cheese
Cottage cheese
Nisin is active against Clostridum botulinum spores and several other Grampositive organisms. Many of the isolates of L. lactis subsp. lactis from raw milk
produce a malty odor. These strains metabolize leucine to produce 3-methylbutanol
which is highly undesirable,36 and as little as 0.5 ppm is sufficient to give milk this
malty defect.
Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris also belongs to Lancefield group N. To date
it has not been isolated from raw milk and its origin is not known. Some strains
produce a narrow range bacteriocin diplococcin.37"39 These organisms do not grow
at 400C and are more sensitive to salt. Many commercial cultures contain predominantly strain(s) of this specie.
Mixtures of these two lactococci are used as starters for Cheddar, Colby, and
cottage cheese, where gas production in cheese and open texture are undesirable.
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis is used in combination with
other starters to produce mold-ripened cheese, soft ripened cheese, Edam, Gouda,
and cream cheese. It is capable of producing CO 2 , diacetyl, acetoin, and some acetate
from citrate in milk.40
3.3.2 Leuconostoc
The leuconostocs are heterofermentative, and ferment glucose with the production
of D-( )-lactic acid, ethanol, and CO2. Leuconostocs are found in starter cultures
and are considered important in flavor formation due to their ability to break down
citrate, forming diacetyl from the pyruvate produced. The leuconostocs are less active than Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis, attacking citrate only in
acidic media.29 Leuconostoc form only 5 to 10% of the culture population. Addition
of a larger inoculum does not change their proportion of the population in a mixed
lactic culture.41 When the lactococci culture contains leuconostoc as a flavor producer, the mixed culture is called B or L type. When the flavor component is Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis, it is called D type. The cultures designated as BD or DL contain both the leuconostocs and the L. lactis subsp. lactis
var. diacetylactis. The lactococci without flavor components are called N or O type.42
L. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus cultures, only one combination was less proteolytic (92.6 jxg of tyrosine/ml) than the corresponding L. bulgaricus strain in pure
culture (125 jxg of tyrosine/ml).
3.3.4 Lactobacilli
The lactobacilli are Gram-positive, catalase-negative, anaerobic/aerotolerant organisms. Lactobacillus helveticus, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, and L. delrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus and homofermentative thermophiles are used in combination with S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus as starter culture for Swiss type cheeses, Parmesan, and
Mozzarella. The phenotypic properties of these along with other lactobacilli commonly found in ripening cheese are given in Table 3.8. Premi et al. (1972)45 screened
strains of a number of species and found 3-gal to be the dominant enzyme in
L. helveticus, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus.
Lactobacillus casei did not have (5-gal, but some P-P-gal activity was recorded,
and no galactosidase was found in L. buchnerii, which does not ferment lactose.
There are several implications of this fermentation pattern to cheese quality. Cultures
with P-gal use the glucose moiety of lactose and release galactose in the medium.
An excess of galactose in Mozzarella can cause browning of cheese pizza, or galactose may serve as an energy source for undesirable fermentations by resident
populations in cheese. It is recommended that L. helveticus, which is able to ferment
galactose, be used in conjunction with S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus.46 A symbiotic relationship exists between L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and S. salivarius
subsp. thermophilus47; CO 2 , formate, peptides, and amino acids are involved. In a
mixed culture, associative growth of rod-coccus cultures results in greater acid
production and flavor development than using single culture growth.48-49 It has been
established that numerous amino acids liberated from casein by proteases from lactobacillus bulgaricus stimulate growth of 5. thermophilus.50'51 In turn, S. thermophilus produces CO2 and formate which stimulates L. bulgaricus51'54 During the
early part of the incubation 5. thermophilus grows faster and removes excess oxygen
and produces the said stimulants. After the growth of 5. thermophilus has slowed
because of increasing concentrations of lactic acid, the more acid-tolerant L. bulgaricus increases in numbers.55-56 For a one-to-one ratio of rod and coccus, inoculum
level, time, and temperature of incubation must be controlled and bulk starter should
be cooled promptly. Many strains L. bulgaricus continue to produce acid when in
the cold and it is likely that some degree of population imbalance will occur.
3.3.6 Propionibacteria
Propionibacteria are Gram-positive, catalase-positive anaerobic/aerotolerant organisms.31 The cell can be coccoid, bifid, or even branched. Four speciesP. freudenreichii, P. jensenii, P. thoenii, and P. acidipropioniciare associated with milk
and Swiss cheese. Fermentation products include large quantities of propionic acid,
acetic acid, and CO2. These organisms can tolerate 125F or higher temperatures in
Swiss cheese manufacture. P. thoenii and P. acidipropionici can cause red, brown,
and orange-yellow pigmentation in cheese which is not desirable. Some strains form
curd in milk without digestion. Glucose, galactose, and glycerol are utilized by all
species, and lactose utilization is not universal. These can grow in 20% bile. Glucose
is fermented according to the following reaction29:
3 Glucose - 2 Acetate + 4 Proprionate + 2 CO2 + 4 H2O
3.3.7 Pediococci
Pediococci are associated with plant materials. These are Gram-positive, catalasenegative, or weakly positive, grow in 6.5% salt, grow at 45C, and produce ammonia
from arginine. These can be confused with micrococci. Pediococci are not used in
any dairy cultures, though they may grow in some maturing cheese and ferment
residual lactose over a long period. Only two species, P. pentosaceus and P. acidilactici, are found in dairy products; neither ferments lactose actively.29
Pediococci were first reported in New Zealand60'61 and later in English cheese62'63
and were thought to enhance flavor. They produce DL-lactate from lactose and
racemize L-lactate. Their effect is negligible until the population exceeds 106 to
107 cfu/g. Their growth in cheese is temperature dependent.64
Pediococci occur in very insignificant numbers in Canadian Cheddar65 and in
Cheddar cheese or other cheeses in the United States (personal observations). There
is a renewed interest in pediococci because some strains possess antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridiwn perfringens.66 In an examination of 49 strains of P. pentosaceus, valine and leucine
amino peptidases, weak lipase or esterase, a-glucosidase, P-glucosidase, and
Af-acetyl-P-glucosamidase were found in all strains.
These studies were done with the API ZYM system.67 In a more thorough investigation, Bhowmik and Marth68 found intracellular aminopeptidase, protease, dipeptidase, and dipeptidyl aminopeptidase in six strains of P pentosaceus and two
of P. acidilactici. They also noted that purified a s l - and p-casein fractions as well
as skim milk were hydrolyzed. These authors could not detect esterase activity in
any of the P. acidilactici strains studied.69
Utilization of lactose is poor in these organisms and varies from strain to strain.69
Recently it was demonstrated that all strains of P. pentosaceus and P. acidilactici
had intercellular p-galactosidase which was greater in cells grown in the presence
of lactose rather than glucose, indicating the inducible nature of P-gal synthesis.69
The enzyme was induced fully by galactose and lactose. Glucose failed to induce
the enzyme in the strain (P. pentosaceus ATCC. 25745). Although these organisms
are considered homolactic with the production of lactate, production of ethanol and
acetate was observed when P. pentosaceus PC 39 was grown on different hexoses
and pentoses.70 The molar ratios of lactate and acetate were higher with ribose as
substrate.
3.3.8 Molds
3.3.8.1 Penicillium
Roqueforti4371
It is used in the manufacture of Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and other blueveined cheeses, and usually produces blue-green spreading colonies changing to a
dark green. A white mutant of this mold was developed for use in Nuworld cheese.
These mutants form white rather than blue mycelia, but otherwise the mold produces
a cheese of typical flavor. Spore preparations, dried form or suspension in saline
solution, are added either to the vat milk or sprayed onto the curd. Air passages must
be provided in cheese to permit aeration of the cheese and growth of the mold.
Strains of Penicillium roqueforti can grow in an atmosphere containing 5% oxygen
and 8% salt, although slowly.71-72
Its optimum temperature is 20 to 25C with a range from 5 to 35C. Production
of mycelium is abundant at pH from 4.5 to 7.5, although it can tolerate pH 3.0 to
10.5.72 Five strains isolated from cheeses and cultures showed differences in their
salt tolerance.71 The germination of spores of all five strains was inhibited by > 3 %
NaCl in water and agar. In cheese, P. roqueforti could tolerate 6 to 10% salt.71
3.3.8.2 Penicillium
Camemberti7^74
This grows on the surface of Brie and Camembert cheese. Due to its biochemical
activity in conjunction with other flora on the cheese surface the mold produces its
typical aroma and taste. P. caseicolum is a white mutant of P. camembertP that
forms a fluffy mycelium that turns gray-green in color from the center outward with
aging. The white mutants may have short "hair," rapid growth with white, dense,
close-napped mycelium. Another white mutant has long hair and grows more slowly,
producing a tall mycelium with loose nap. The Neufchatel form grows vigorously,
producing a thick white-yellow mycelium. It has stronger lipolytic and proteolytic
activities; only the white forms of the mutant are used as starters.
It has been shown that spores of P. camemberti do not grow well at the pH (4.7 to
4.9) and salt content present at the surface of fresh Camembert.75 Maximum development of mold takes place in 10 to 12 days. P. camemberti possesses aspartate
proteinases (acid proteinases) with a pH optimum of 5.5 on casein.74'76
3.4. Ll Bacteriocins
Bacteriological quality of milk and the length of storage before it is used is important.
Milk always contains organisms that can grow and utilize the amino acids and peptides in milk and produce inhibitors (bacteriocins) that can be inhibitory at very low
concentration.82
Mattick and Hirsch83 isolated an inhibitor, nisin, from S. lactis, that was active
against Gram-positive organisms including starters, lactobacilli, and sporeformers.
Oxford84 isolated a bacteriocin from S. cremoris and called it diplococcin. Diplococcin has a very narrow spectrum of activity.38
3.4.1.2 Lipolysis
In stored raw milk psychrotrophs can grow and can cause lipolysis if the population
exceeds 106 to 107 cfu/ml. Fatty acid C 4 to C 12 and sorbic acid in cheese are inhibitory to starter bacteria. Cells accumulate free fatty acids on the cell surface and
are not metabolized.85"89 Resting cells of Group N lactococci at pH 4.5 metabolized
pyruvate with the formation of acetate (volatile acids) acetoin 4- diacetyl and CO2.
In the presence of oelic acid the utilization of pyruvate was maximal at pH 6.5 and
completely inhibited at pH 4.5.^
NAD+
NAD+
Milk is agitated during filling of the vat and addition of starter and during addition
of rennet in the course of cheese manufacture, and sufficient hydrogen peroxide can
be formed in milk. Addition of trace amounts of H2O2 had a deleterious effect on
the rate of acid production by lactococci.92 In milk, cultures of lactococci and lactobacilli produced hydrogen peroxide in the early period of acid production, followed
by a drastic reduction in the accumulation of H2O2 as the acid production increased.
Addition of ferrous sulfate and catalase prevented or reduced the accumulation of
H2O2 and stimulated the rate of acid production.93 Addition of a capsular preparation
from a Micrococcus94 and the addition of Micrococcus reduced the amount of H 2 O 2
in the medium and stimulated acid production through multiple effects.
Uctoperoxidas
OSCN- + H2O2
O 2 SCN" + H2O2
LP
LP
S OSCN- + H2O
The end products of the oxidation of thiocyanate are CO2, NH^, SO 2 ", which are
inert but the intermediate oxidation product (OSCN") is inhibitory to Gram-positive
organisms (starter organism) and bacteriocidal to coliform, pseudomonads, salmonellae, and other Gram-negative organisms. Under aerobic conditions OSCN" affects the inner membrane and other cell wall components.95
Wright and Tramer noted that some starter cultures show inhibition by the presence of milk peroxidase which can be prevented by the addition of cysteine or
Whey from
press
Press
Curd milled
Cheddaring
Pitch
Whey drawing
finish
1 h later
Max. Scald
Cut
Rennet
Milk
TA
Time, min
Figure 3.1 Lactic acid development in Cheddar cheese made with peroxidase/SCN-sensitive starter in the presence of SCN" and after removal from milk by ion-exchange treatment.
( ) , SCN" removed from milk; (O O ) , untreated milk; ( - - - ) , control (lactic
acid production with peroxidase resistant starter Strep, cremoris 803).
Source: Ref. 97 (This figure is reproduced by kind permission of the Society of Dairy Technology, Crossley House, 72
Ermine Street, Huntington, Cambs PEl8 6EZ, UK and is taken from a paper 'Some Thoughts on Cheese Starter' by
Bruno Reiter published in the Society's Journal VoI 26 no. 1, January 1973.)
3.4.1.6 Agglutination
The inhibitory property of agglutinating antibodies is of minor importance in bulk
starters as the heat treatment employed or by the formation of rennet coagulum
during cheesemaking destroys this inhibition.108"110 However, agglutinins are important and impact negatively in cottage cheese production where a sludge is formed
at the bottom of the vat and culture activity is slowed.
Bulk-Starter Sample
PH
Plate Count
per ml
Control 104
104 + 0.025 IU penicillin ml
104 + 0.05 IU penicillin ml
104 + 0.1 IU penicillin ml
4.45
4.44
4.55
4.60
5.9
4.3
1.2
2.5
X
X
X
X
108
108
108
107
5.18
5.49
5.87
6.39
Control 134
134 + 0.025 IU penicillin ml
134 + 0.05 IU penicillin ml
134 + 0.1 IU penicillin ml
4.48
4.44
4.46
4.57
8.7
6.2
6.2
6.2
X
X
X
X
108
108
108
108
5.85
5.85
5.88
6.30
Source:
a
b
3.4.1.7 Antibiotics
The presence of a low level of antibiotics can cause slow culture activity and cheesemaking to be more difficult. Heap111 demonstrated that given time, lactococci could
grow and produce acid in reconstituted skim milk containing different levels of
penicillin; acid production looked normal but the culture had poor activity. The data
are shown in Table 3.10. Starter culture activity must be performed to verify culture
activity. Sensitivity of cheese and dairy-related organisms to antibiotics is presented112 in Table 3.11.
3.4.1.8 pH
One of the common causes of observed variation in starter activity in the cheese vat
is the difference in the ability of the culture to retain activity when held for long
periods in the high acid concentrations existing in overripe bulk starters.113 Olson114
demonstrated that fully ripened starter cultures survive better under less acid conditions; addition of calcium carbonate increased the survival. When lactococci were
allowed to grow below pH 5.0, cells were damaged and a period of growth above
pH 5.0 was required to correct this damage.115 Growth at low pH could result in
direct inactivation of a number of enzymes or in loss of control of the differential
rates of synthesis of individual enzymes. The cells stopped growing when the pH
reached 4.9, even though lactic acid continued to be produced until the pH had fallen
to about 4.6. Neutralization of the acid permitted resumption of growth and glycolysis by the cell.116
Of all the factors studied, bacteriophages are the most important enemy of cheese
starter bacteria. These will be discussed in a later section.
Bacteria
S. cremoris
S. lactis
Streptococci starter
S. thermophilus
S. faecalis
L. bulgaricus
L. acidophilus
L. casei
L. lactis
L. helveticus
L. citrovorum
Proprionibacterium shermanii
Penicillin Concentration
Significantly Inhibiting Growth
(IU per ml)
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.30
0.10
0.01-0.05
0.30
0.30-0.60
0.30-0.60
0.30-0.60
0.25-0.50
0.25-0.50
0.05-0.10
0.05-0.10
Source: Compiled from K. E. Thome\ Refresher Course on Cheese. Poligny, France, 1952; Overby, A. J.
/ . Dairy ScL Abstr, 16:2-23, 1954; and F. V. Kosikowski, Unpublished, 1954.
Source: Ref. 112. Reproduced with permission of FAO of the United Nations.
by aeration and liberated into the culture, where they would multiply and inhibit
acid production.
In 1943 Whitehead introduced a 4-day rotation of non-phage-related single starters.120 Subsequently, single strains were paired as a precaution against failure of one
of the members. Pairing also tended to even out differences in the rate of acid
production and any tendency to produce bitter flavors by the individual members.
Lawrence and Pearce121 noted good flavor cheese made with slower starters. However, the use of slower starters took longer for cheesemaking. This was overcome
by pairing a "slower" starter with a "fast" starter in a ratio of about 2:1. It was
also noted that a combination of slow and fast strains not only improved the quality
of cheese but also reduced the number of phage particles produced; faster acid producing strains propagated phage to the highest level. Perhaps the level of lysin (cell
wall degrading enzyme) produced by phaged out starter was also reduced, thereby
helping the viability of the bulk starter. It was emphasized that stock cultures must
be replaced regularly with strict observance to procedures.122 In 1976 Heap and
Lawrence published a test procedure where a projected viability of a new strain in
a plant environment could be established.123 It involved growing the culture for
successive growth cycles in the presence of bulked plant whey. Any difference in
5-h pH between successive growth cycles was an indication of phage against the
strain. Only strains that were not attacked by phage in at least ten growth cycles
were used. Based on the above selection criteria, a multiple starter consisting of six
carefully selected strains was introduced for continued use in cheese factories.124
Whey samples were monitored using the strains as host. Strains showing high levels
of phage were replaced with less sensitive strains. This seemed to have worked well.
The multiple starter concept is only an extension of the paired starter system, as the
single strains are not mixed until the mother culture stage.125 Suitability criteria of
a strain for use in multiple starter is given in Table 3.12. In the past few years, the
number of strains in the starter has been reduced from six strains to two without any
reported problems.126
to the component strain balance. The cultures may be concentrated and then frozen.
Many small factories and some large factories use these cultures with rotation recommendations from culture suppliers.
Because most cultures sold are mixed, phage profiling is not practicable, and the
recommended rotations are useless because plants use cultures from different suppliers which may use strains of the same phage type. Many plants have suffered
considerable lack of milk acidification and cheese quality losses.127
3. Bacteriophage-carrying starter cultures are widely used in the Netherlands. 130131 The cultures are called P-(Practice) cultures. These cultures are in equilibrium with the phages in their environment and normally contain phages that do
not affect culture activity. When a phage emerges against the dominant strain, a
slight weakness in culture activity may be noticed but the culture activity recovers
quickly due to the presence of a large phage-insensitive population. The Netherlands
Institute of Dairy Research maintains a supply of P-starters that it had collected and
preserved in a concentrated frozen state. These cultures are provided to the plants.
This system appears to work almost flawlessly. When the P-starters are propagated
in the laboratory without phage contamination (L-starter), they become sensitive to
phages. This is attributed to the domination of one or of a small number of strains
in the so called L-starters.
4. Direct-to-vat (DVS) set cultures had become popular in the late 1970s. These
are highly concentrated (1011 cfu/g)132'133 cell suspensions of defined strains in milk
along with cryoprotective agents such as glycerol or lactose, 134 quick frozen in liquid
nitrogen, and held frozen at 196C. For the shipping to plants, frozen culture
containers are packed in dry ice in Styrofoam boxes.
One culture container is added to 5000 lbs of cheese milk which is roughly
equivalent to 1.0% bulk starter addition.135 DVS cultures are mixtures of three or
four defined strains propagated mixed together or propagated separately and blended
in a proprietary manner.
Use of these cultures is supposed to eliminate phage infection related problems
associated with bulk starter propagation and make cheesemaking easier.
Several advantages are claimed 136 :
1. Convenience. The cultures can eliminate the need for bulk starter facilities including tanks, laboratory, and expensive sterile air systems. They can supplement
the conventional system at weekends or during holidays and can be used as a
backup in the event of a bulk starter failure.
2. Culture reliability. Because the cultures are pretested for activity, the cheesemaker can standardize the cheese make for each blend used.
3. Improved daily performance. The pretested cultures afford the same strain balance day after day and should result in a more uniform cheese production.
4. Improved cheese yield.
Disadvantages:
a. Use of DVS cultures necessitates a large dependable freezer. The cost of a
freezer is claimed to be offset by savings in labor and starter preparation in
antibiotic-free milk.
b. Due to lower acid development at the time of setting, some coagulants containing porcine pepsin may have to be used at a higher level. To increase
firmness of the curd, vats need to be set at 90 to 91F instead of 86F. 136
Although DVS cultures are still in use, many of the claims made a few years ago
are not fully realized for the following reasons:
1. Lack of enough strains with discretely different phage types to support a large
cheese factory reliably.
2. Many strains are difficult to concentrate 50- to 80-fold by centrifugation.
3. Activity of the frozen cultures inoculated in vat milk is slow 132 - 137 during the
cutting and cooking stages of cheese. Cheesemaking steps had to be modified to
accommodate slow wet-acid production and fast acid development in dry state
(cheddaring).
4. DVS culture cost to cheese is high; this view is not without opposition.
5. Due to availability of easy-to-maintain electronics and automation, plant propagation of starter cultures with internal pH control was introduced in the United
States in the last decade. In this propagation, the cell concentration is 10 to 15
times higher than the conventional bulk starter cultures. Now many of the well
maintained large cheese plants have adopted pH-controlled propagation of defined strains with exellent success.
Next Page
Richardson et al. were largely responsible for bringing external pH-controlled starters to cheese factories, 138 recommending a whey-based medium for greatest economic return because of high cheese yield and a lower medium cost, one third the
cost of internal pH-control-buffered media. 139
Previous Page
Richardson et al. were largely responsible for bringing external pH-controlled starters to cheese factories, 138 recommending a whey-based medium for greatest economic return because of high cheese yield and a lower medium cost, one third the
cost of internal pH-control-buffered media. 139
Aseptic technique
Specially designed starter vessels to prevent phage entry from without
Phage inhibitory media that prevent phage multiplication in the medium
DVS culturesfrozen or freeze-dried
The Lewis system requires a pressurized starter vessel; no air enters or leaves the
vessel during heating and cooling. This system is detailed in a recent book.150
phosphate, yeast extract, and electrodialyzed whey could prevent the growth of most
phages while permitting culture growth. These media were called phage inhibitory
media (PIM) or phage-resistant media (PRM). Numerous such media were made
available in the marketplace and contain milk solids, carbohydrate, growth promoting factor(s), and buffering agents such as phosphate and citrate. However, it was
noticed that all phage active against lactococci were not restricted in Ca 2+ -reduced
media. 160 In a comprehensive study, seven commercial PIM were compared for their
buffering capacity, ability to support lactococci growth, and extent of suppression
of bacteriophage replication.161 Only two of the seven media were adequate in preventing phage proliferation; the effectiveness was linked to the buffering capacity.
Such media contained sufficient nutrients to overcome the effects of high phosphate
or citrate concentrations which depressed growth. The most effective media also
contained citrate buffer and cereal hydrolyzate as a stimulant. Ledford and Speck 162
clearly demonstrated that PIM caused metabolic injury to starter bacteria and their
proteinase activity was diminished. Addition of 1 or 2% phosphate to reconstituted
nonfat dry milk reduced about 30% of proteinase activity as measured by tyrosine
release.
The development of PIM was an important step and brought some relief from
phage-mediated lack of milk acidification. These media serve a useful function where
physical protection against phage, that is, proper bulk tank design, provision of
pressurization with sterile air, and inoculation and other general procedures, are not
adequate. However, these media are not suitable for cultures containing
lauconostocs 163 ' 164 because they promote culture imbalance, which may lead to flavor defects in products. Also, these media add substantially to the cost of cheese
production and counteract addition of C a 2 + to cheesemilk to aid rennet coagulation.
LaGrange and Reinbold in 1968 documented that the cost of PIM was 10 to 150Ab
more than the low-heat NFDM which cost 20 to 250/lb and that the starter media
cost was 70% of the cost of starter.165 Many changes and developments have come
about in starter cultures handling and culture media in the last 20 years. In a later
study, 166 LaGrange found that starter costs per 100 lbs of milk converted to cheese
ranged from 13.660 for DVS to 3.47 to 6.090 for external pH control systems used
by four large plants.
1OC
APA remaining (%)
*C
10C
300C
Time (h)
Figure 3.2 Effect of temperature and holding time on the activity of liquid fermenter cultures. After growth had ceased (zero time), cultures of S. cremoris 134 were held at various
temperatures in the lactose-depleted medium and APAs (acid producing abilities) determined
at intervals (
) , 300C; ( O
O), 22C; (Z* ^ ) , 100C; ( C D ) , TC.
Source: Ref. 149 (reproduced with permission).
5. Ensure that air, water, people, and product movement through the plant are
known and recognized as potential channels in phage attack.
6. The starter room should be away and completely separated from the cheesemaking room and from whey separators. As the phage-laden whey droplets
dissipate in air, phage is concentrated in the atmosphere.
7. The starter room should have 15 to 20 air changes of 100% fresh air that
is HEPA filtered. The sterile starter tanks should be pressurized with sterile
air (.015 /urn depth filters) when under operation so that contamination cannot
get in.
8. Avoid opening the tank after it has been heat processed.
9. All affluent and washings from the tanks should be piped to the closed drains.
10. The person dedicated to starter making should not do other chores in the plant
and no other plant personnel should be allowed in the starter room.
11. It is imperative that plant personnel thoroughly understand and conceptualize
the phage phenomenon and be obsessive in hygiene and the production disciplines associated with starter production and usage.
12. Much attention should be given to the cheese vat layout with respect to air
movement and flow pattern and their location with respect to the whey side.
13. Source and quality of incoming air are important and should be critically
planned.
6. At the end of the ripening period, a milk coagulant is added to milk to effect a
coagulum in 25 to 30 min.
The coagulant (70 to 90 ml/1000 lbs of milk) is diluted (1:40) with clean
water and evenly distributed throughout milk by stirring milk for 3 to 5 min.
Calcium chloride may be added to milk to accelerate coagulation and to increase
curd firmness. Its addition to milk should not exceed 0.02%.
Distinct differences in texture and physical characteristics can be affected by
variations in the coagulating temperature. The combination of the temperature
of coagulation, the starter culture, the coagulating enzyme, and the acid produced affect the rate of formation; the firmness, elasticity, and other physical
properties of the resulting curd; and the degree of whey expulsion.
The curd produced by acid and a coagulating enzyme is a gel. Variations in
the manner in which the curd is treated primarily affects the moisture and secondarily the body and texture which ascertain the characteristics of the finished
cheese.
7. When the coagulum is firm enough to be cut, a horizontal-wired stainless steel
knife is drawn through the cord followed by a vertical knife in a rectangular
vat. If an automatic enclosed circular vat is used, the cutting is programmed to
ensure a curd size range by the speed and timing of the automatic knives. The
purpose of this step is to increase the surface area of the curd particles which
in turn permits whey expulsion and more uniformly thorough heating of the
equal sized smaller curd. Cutting the curd into comparatively small cubes reduces the curd moisture. The curd particles should be cut to the similar size.
8. After the curd is cut, it is allowed to sit undisturbed for 5 to 15 min. This period
is called "heal time." This allows the newly cut surface to form new intramolecular linkages and firm up the curd while expelling whey. To help make a
firm, low-moisture cheese, the curd should be stirred for 30 min after cutting
before heat is applied. This also prevents formation of tough skin around the
curd cube.
9. Following the ' 'heal" period, heat is applied to the jacket of the vat and gradual
stirring is initiated. For most ripened cheeses the curds are cooked in whey until
the temperature of the curds and whey reaches 37 to 410C, depending on the
variety. For Parmesan and Swiss cheese, the cooking temperature of curd may
be as high as 53C.
The temperature should be raised slowly to the desired cooking temperature,
taking from 30 to 40 min but never less than 30 min for Cheddar cheese. The
temperature of the whey should be raised slowly at first and then more rapidly
as cooking progresses. The cooking should accompany stirring slowly when
curd is fragile and more vigorously when curd firms up. Fresh cheeses, such as
cottage, cream, and Neufchatel, are cooked at temperatures as high as 51.5 to
600C to promote syneresis and provide product stability.
10. Generally, when the cook temperature is reached, a 45 to 60 min period for
"stir out" is allowed. During this period, contents of the vat are agitated somewhat vigorously.
For a historic perspective on automation of cheese making see ref. 182. From this
point the whey is drained and the new curd is treated differently depending on the
nature of the final product.
the whey and curd temperature is 26.7 to 32C. Stir the vat for about 15 min. Drain
the watered whey and stir the curd vigorously for about 20 min. Salt the curd when
curd has a titratable acidity of 0.19 to 0.24%. Salt and hoop the curds as in the
regular Cheddar cheese described. Colby and Monterey Jack cheeses are not placed
under vacuum to preserve a sight open texture.
Table 3.13
No.
Step in the
Manufacture of
Cheese
Temp.
Duration of
Process
Sa
Flash heating of
cheese milk
Eb
Sa
Eb
147
6.6/
6.6/
0.16
0.16
Held for 16 s
2
Ripening of milk
after addition of 1%
starter
"Setting"addition
of rennet and
allowing milk to
coagulate
Cutting of curd
20-30
(preferably 30)
min
30-40 mind
"Dipping" or
drainage of whey
86
6.6/
0.16
6.5/
0.17
86
86
6.5/
0.17
6.4/
0.12
86
86
6.4/
0.12
6.4/
0.12
86
104
6.4/
0.12
6.2/
0.13
104
101
6.2/
0.15
6.2/
0.16
Cooking with
agitation
86
60 min
10min
pH/Acidity
Table 3.13
(Continued)
Tacking"matting
of curd
15 min
"Cheddaring"
turning and piling of
cheese curd slabs
101
101
6.1/
0.16
6.1/
0.18
-0.22
99
97
6.1/
0.18
-0.22
5.3/
0.55
"Milling"cutting
curd into small 2" X
1" X W strips
10 min
97
95
10
Salting (2.5% by
weight of raw curd)
20 min
95
92
11
HoopingFilling
milled, salted curd
into molds
15 min
92
90
12
Dressing, etc.
5.1/
0.55
5AF
5AF
5Ar
5.1/ 6
Time (min)
Fill stainless
Vat
Add starter
Ripening
Rennetting
Cutting
Foreworking
Cooking
Stir-out
Dipping
Pressing
Brine salting
Drying
12-18h
1-2 days
up to 1 day
Wrapping
Cold room
Warm room
Finished cooler
0-10 days
2-7 wk
until sold
Source:
0-30
25-30
15-20
30-60
30-40
30-70
Temperature (0C)
pH
31.1-35
31.1-35
31.1-35
31.1-35
31.1-35
48.9-52.8
slight decrease
47.2-51.1 +
22.2-25.5 room
7.2-14.4 tank
7.2-12.7 room
35 drying tunnel
6.5-6.7
6.5-6.6
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.4-6.5
6.4
6.3-6.4
5.15-5.4
7.2-12.7 room
21.1-25.5 room
2.2-12.7 room
5.2 5.5
5.5 5.7
5.5 5.7
Ref. 184.
l77l89l9
Blue cheese contains not more than 46% moisture, 29.5 to 30.5% fat, 20 to 21%
protein, and 4.5 to 5% salt. Blue cheese may be made from homogenized milk (Iowa
method) or unhomogenized milk (Minnesota method).190
Raw or pasteurized milk is homogenized at 2000 psi at 32.0 to 43.3C. A mesophilic lactic culture containing Lactococcw lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis
is added to milk at 0.5% level at 32.2C. Mold spores may be added to milk in the
vat just before adding rennet at the rate of 4 oz/1000 lbs of milk. The rennet coagulum
is cut with V^-inch wire knives. The curd is allowed to heal for 5 min and then stirred
gently once every 5 min. Stirring is continued for 60 min while the temperature
remains at 31.1 to 32.2C. The acidity of whey should rise to 0.11 to 0.14%. Just
before draining the whey, the temperature is raised to 33.3C and held for 2 min.
All the whey is drained and the curds trenched. If the mold spores were not added
to the milk, these can be added to the curd at this time. Two pounds of coarse salt
and 1 oz of spore powder per 100 Ib curd are mixed and applied to the curd with
thorough stirring. The curd is scooped to perforated stainless steel circular molds
placed on drainage mats. The hoops are turned every 15 min for the first 2 h and
then left on drainage mats overnight at room temperature at about 22.2C. The cheese
is removed and dry salted liberally. The cheese is placed on its side in a cradle in a
room at 15.6C with 85% relative humidity. Salt is applied four more times, once
every day. After the cheese salting is complete, it is pierced with needles Vz inch
thick on both sides. It is then placed in a room at 10 to 12.8C with 95% relative
humidity. The cheese is turned on its side one quarter every 4 days and wiped with
a clean cloth. This process continues for 20 days. Cheese is then wrapped in foil or
other appropriate wrapping material and cured at 2 to 4C for 3 to 4 months.
3.7.8.2
CamembertCheese4^43186
The Camembert and brie style cheeses are most characteristic of the white soft mold
cheeses. Penicillium camemberti and the probable biotypes P. caseioculum and
P. candidum are used to ripen the cheese by external growth of the mold.
Whole pasteurized milk at 29 to 33.5C is ripened with mesophilic lactococci and
the mold spores. When the acidity of milk reaches 0.22%, rennet is added and the
coagulum cut with !/2-inch wire knives. Curd temperature is maintained around
32.2C and no cooking of the curd is exercised. The curd and whey are transferred
to perforated 8-oz stainless steel round molds placed on drainage mats. The curd is
allowed to drain at room temperature, 22.2C for 3 to 4 h. The curds are now firm
enough for turning. The curds are turned three to four times at 30-min intervals. If
mold is not inoculated in milk, it can be applied to the cheese now. The small wheels
are allowed to stay on draining mat for an additional 5 to 6 h. At this time the cheese
pH is around 4.6. The rate and extent of acid production are critical for product
attributes and product stability.
The cheese is dry-salted on all sides and left at room temperature overnight. The
next morning the cheese is transferred to rooms at 10 to 13C with relative humidity
of 95 to 98%. Cheese lies there undisturbed for about a week when white mold
emerges on the surface; the cheese is turned over once. After about 14 days in the
curing room, the cheese is wrapped and left at 100C and 95% relative humidity for
an additional 7 days. The cheese is now transferred to (4.4C) and is ready for
distribution.
As the cheese ripens, the pH increases rapidly to about 7.2 due to deamination
of amino acids and the texture and palatability can begin to change. The detection
of a pronounced ammonia aroma indicates that cheese is overripe; also, the white
cottony mold starts to turn brown on the surface of cheese.
through as permeate and larger species are retained and concentrated as retentate. In
ultrafiltration of milk, nonprotein nitrogen and soluble components such as lactose,
salts, and some vitamins pass through the membrane, whereas milk fat, protein, and
insoluble salts are retained by the membrane.191
During the past 20 years, the use of UF-retentate for cheesemaking has attracted
considerable attention. The "precheese" technology known as the Maubois, Macquot, and Vassal (MMV) process is used in many dairies in the world to produce
cheese varieties such as Camembert, Feta, Brie, cream, Cheddar, Havarti, Colby,
Domiati, Brick, and Mozzarella.191"194
The principle is that the milk is concentrated by ultrafiltration to a composition
very close to the chemical composition of the cheese in question. Then the retentate
is coagulated by starter culture and rennet.
The main advantages of this method are:
1. Substantial increase in yield due to whey protein and minerals inclusion.192
2. Simple, continuous process open to almost complete automation.194
3. Reduction in cheese cost due to reduction in costs of energy, equipment, and
labor.191
4. The process uses substantially less salt and rennet.195
The main disadvantages are194:
1. Cheese becomes very homogeneous and has a high bulk density.
2. The acidification is slow due to high buffer capacity; therefore minimum pH
might be difficult to obtain.
3. Very viscous retentate is difficult to mix with starter and rennet, etc. and cannot
be cooled without solidification.
4. Cheese does not correspond to its definition in properties.
The general conclusion is that the MMV process is not suitable for making cheese
of traditional quality. To overcome these problems, Alfa-Laval194 and others have
tried and developed methods for using UF retentate in the production of variety of
cheese types.195"205
When milk is ultrafiltered and Cheddar-type cheese is made from the retentate
(40% total solids) by a modification of conventional cheesemaking procedures, considerable quantities of whey proteins are lost in whey during syneresis of the curd.
Heat treatment of retentate before coagulation with rennet has been found to reduce
the loss of whey protein and so increase cheese yield.204-205 Heat treatment
(90C/15 s) of retentate reduced the rate of whey loss and slightly improved the curd
structure but did not affect fat losses.204 Light homogenization slightly reduced heat
denaturation of whey protein and fat loss. The structure of the curd from the heated
concentrated milks was coarser than those of the control and the curd particles fused
poorly. This appeared partly responsible for the crumbly texture in the cheeses from
the heated concentrates. The texture was not improved by the addition of a bacterial
proteinase.205
When Cheddar cheese was made from reconstituted retentates, the pH of cheese
rose from 5.2 to 6.0 when cured at 100C and developed eyes and had a flavor
reminiscent of Gouda or Swiss cheese.197 Bush et al.200 prepared satisfactory Colby
but not Brick cheese from creamed skim milk retentate; reductions in cooking temperature and milk-clotting enzyme and elimination of curd-washing were helpful. A
satisfactory Cheddar cheese was made from milk concentrated twofold by ultrafiltration with the following modifications203: (1) Use lower setting, cooking, and cheddaring temperatures. (2) Offset the effect of increased buffer capacity of the UF milk
by the addition of higher amounts (2%) of starter culture. (3) Overcome the slow
ripening rate and flavor development by adding rennet on the basis of the original
amount of milk.
A commercial process called "Siro curd process" for cheese manufacture was
developed at CSIRO and commercialized with the help of APV Bell Bryant, APV
International, Ltd. and the Milk Marketing Board for England and Wales.195 The
process claims a number of benefits and advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
significant deviations from set practices. The following pairs of cheeses represent
good examples: Edam and Gouda, Brick and Limburger, Mozzarella and Provolone,
and Cheddar and Colby.215
Lactic starter cultures are added to vat milk to give about 106 to 107 cfu/ml. The
amount and type of starter may vary significantly depending on the type of cheese
and characteristics of cheese desired. In most cheese types an overnight pH range is
4.95 to 5.3. The primary biochemical changes involve glycolysis, proteolysis, and
lipolysis. These changes are followed and overlapped by a number of secondary
catabolic changes including deamination, amination, decarboxylation, transamination, desulfurization, /3-oxidation, and some anabolic changes, such as esterification
3,216,217
The number of starter bacteria decline in cheese during ripening. In ripened Cheddar cheese the lactococci constituted only 13% of the total number of bacteria218
while other Gram-positive bacteria from milk formed the majority of the flora. This
indicates large changes in the microflora during ripening.
Proteolysis is critical to the conversion of curd to a well ripened cheese. Casein
degradation in cheese can come from residual microbial proteinases (starter and
nonstarter) and milk proteinases.219"221 Proteolysis is probably the most important
biochemical event during the ripening of most cheese varieties.222 During cheese
manufacture, early proteolysis and coagulation of milk results from rennet cleavage
of Phe 105 -Met 106 of /c-casein.223 This is followed by a general proteolysis in which
the caseins are slowly degraded.
70C than at 2C. Headspace volatiles from cold-stored raw milk and bacterial populations increased in parallel. 274 In the study of aroma compounds in Swiss Gruyere
cheese 275 " 277 it was found that some compounds (benzaldehyde, limonene, camphor,
ketoalcohols, ketones, nitrogen-containing volatiles) were found in much higher concentration in the outer zone whereas esters and lactones were found in the middle
or central zone of the cheese.
What characterizes a given variety of cheese is not yet fully clear. Some of this
is perhaps due to differences in the chemical composition and microbiological flora
of milk, and the manufacturing and ripening of cheese. On top of these differences
are the data from the varied methodologies (distillation, dialysis, and solvent extraction) used for isolation of cheese flavor compounds. In a recent investigation,
techniques of distillation, solvent extraction, and membrane dialysis were compared
on three sets of cheeses. 277 The solvent extraction (acetonitrile) method was the
fastest, cheapest, and gave the most characteristic flavor isolate. Eighty-six odoractive components were detected while one was characterized as cheesy but could
not be identified.277
After many studies and chemical constituent measurements and identifications, a
single compound or a few compounds characteristic of Cheddar flavor have not been
identified. On the contrary, a number of groups of compounds provide correlations
with Cheddar cheese flavor scores of a similar magnitude. This reinforces Mulder's
theory that Cheddar flavor may result from the contribution of many compounds,
which in the correct ratio produce a good flavor.277-278-280
Cheddar cheese showed 1.03 to 1.6 g of lactic acid, 72 to 479 mg of lactose, 0.4 to
11 mg of glucose, 2 to 147 mg of galactose, and 0 to 19 mg of succinic acid per
100 g.280 Turner and Thomas64 noticed that lactose utilization and L-lactate production in cheese by starter bacteria was a function of salt-in-moisture (S/M) levels
between 4% and 6%. In a cheese with low S/M levels (about 4%), lactose was
completely utilized in about 8 days and L-lactate was the major end product. In
contrast, with high S/M levels (about 6%) lactose concentrations were high after
several weeks. This residual lactose was utilized by nonstarter bacteria and D-lactate
was a major end product. It is believed that the quality of the resulting cheese may
be determined by the "fate" of this residual lactose, as there is the potential for the
formation of high concentrations of various end products. A greater role of adventitious nonstarter bacteria in cheese flavor production is recognized than previously
acknowledged.64 In another study281 low-lactose cheeses developed most flavor after
1 month, whereas high-lactose cheeses developed most flavor after 3 months. The
high-lactose and control cheeses had a higher and sharper flavor than low-lactose
cheese. The low-lactose cheese with the greatest decrease in lactate contained the
highest concentrations of -SH groups and had the highest pH during curing. The
authors hypothesized that the hydrogen released by lactate dehydrogenation to pyruvate could be used to reduce - S S - to -SH and thus be detected as an increase in
reactive sulfydryls.
brevis, whereas sera of 4- to 6-month old cheese supported its growth.296 Peptides
from mature Edam cheese were stimulatory to L. casei?91 Recent studies indicate
that cheeseborne lactobacilli possess significant proteinase and peptidase activities.257 >298'299 Perhaps these activities are needed to cope with large concentrations
of protein and peptide fractions present in a carbohydrate-depleted cheese matrix
held at low temperature. Nath and Ledford235 demonstrated that aqueous fractions
from 120-day- and 180-day-old cheese were stimulatory to L. casei growing in milk.
In younger cheese there were inhibitory and stimulatory fractions. Evidence was also
presented that the stimulatory peptides came from as-casein. Other than peptides,
common compounds found in the stimulatory fractions were Af-acetylhexosamine,
glutamic acid, and riboflavin. However, riboflavin added to milk was not stimulatory.
The essential amino acids are utilized more efficiently from peptides containing them
than from an equivalent amount of the essential amino acids in free form.299"301
Carbohydrates bound to proteins,302 citrate,303 and glycerol304 can serve as a carbon
source for lactobacilli in cheese. Thomas246 showed evidence that dying starter bacteria present in cheese can also serve as carbon source for emerging lactobacilli in
cheese. The intracellular contents of starter bacteria may provide small molecular
weight (somewhat heat stable) growth promoting substance(s) for lactobacilli.305
There is a great deal of interest in shortening the ripening period of cheese by the
use of added nonstarter mesophilic lactobacilli.306"309 It was concluded that even
among the homofermentative lactobacilli, only a few, two out of 22, were found
suitable for accelerated aged cheese ripening. Strains of L. casei subsp. casei and L.
casei subsp. pseudoplantarum yielded high quality cheese whereas other strains
caused some off-flavors.307 Strains of L. casei subsp. rhamnosus contributed to high
acidity and low pH. All amino acids increased during ripening and were higher in
the Lactobacillus-zdded cheeses than in the control cheese. Glutamic acid, leucine,
phenylalanine, valine, and lysine were detected in large quantities. The proteolytic
process and accumulation of higher concentrations of free amino acids were affected
by higher ripening temperature.306 In these experiments, hetero- and homofermentative lactobacilli produced similar proteolytic breakdown, but the former resulted
in off-flavors and gassy cheese.306 High levels of y-amino acid butyrate (0.3 to 19.4
mg/g) were associated with poor quality aged cheese.310
crobial activity whereas other volatile fatty acids increase in cheese due to the weak
esterase and lipase activities of the milk and the starter bacteria.316 It was shown that
mesophilic starters hydrolyzed mono- and diglycerides but their activity on triglycerides was very weak. Volatile fatty acids can also arise from amino acids via oxidative demination activity of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacety lactis,317
but this activity is considered uncertain in cheese.318 It is widely believed that lipolytic and esterolytic activities of lactic acid bacteria are limited, but the search for
these enzymes in lactococci and lactobacilli is continuing,245-247'319 perhaps to find
a suitable replacement for glottal tissues and enzymes320 which are added to cheese
for rapid and increased flavor development.
The propionibacteria added to cheese milk do not show measurable growth during
cheese manufacture. Growth of these organisms starts after the whey is drained and
the population may reach 106 cfu/g in 24 h.
During the hot room curing, the number of lactic starter bacteria decline by a log
or more to 106 cfu/g or less whereas the propionibacteria reach a population in excess
of 5 X 108 cfu/g.327 During the hot room curing, growth of enterococci (Group D
streptococci) and homofermentative and heterofermentative lactobacilli also takes
place. A typical Swiss cheese made from milk heat treated at 64.5C/18 s contained
propionbacteria (6 X 108), total lactobacilli (2 X 108), L. fermentum (4 X 107),
enterococci (5 X 105), aerobic sporeformers (5 X 102), and presumptive anaerobic
sporeformers (~10 3 ) per gram of cheese at 60 days. The lactobacilli population
consisted of L. casei subsp. casei, L. casei subsp. alactosus, L. plantarum, and
L. fermentum. At this point no starter lactic acid bacteria were detected at 10 ~ 3
dilution.329
It has been noted that instead of production of 2:1 propionate to acetate ratio from
lactate, 1.16:1.00 to 2.15:100 occurred in cheese. 331 Crow and Turner334 attempted
to explain this discrepancy by taking into consideration the production of succinate
in Swiss cheese as follows.
The succinate is formed at the expense of an equivalent concentration of propionate and CO 2 which are formed from lactate or carbohydrate. The quantity of
acetate produced from lactate is unaffected by succinate formation due to this CO 2
fixation step. Citric acid, malic acid, and fumaric acid are also metabolized to succinic acid. 335 Acetate is also produced from citric acid and lactate by cheese lactobacilli. 336 Aspartic acid is converted to succinate during lactate fermentation by
strains of Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii.337 This resulted in a
greater proportion of the lactate being fermented to acetate and CO 2 rather than to
propionate. The CO 2 fixation and aspartate pathways in propionibacteria, although
both producing succinate, give rise respectively to a decrease and an increase in CO 2
production from lactate. 334 It was postulated that eye formation in Swiss cheese
would be affected by the contribution of both these pathways to succinate production.
Experiments with propionibacteria suggest that carbohydrates, when present in
cheese, may be used directly by the propionibacteria along with aspartate and lactate. 334 In another study, 337 it was shown that aspartate was cometabolized with
lactate by propionibacteria. After lactate exhaustion, alanine was one of the two
amino acids to be metabolized according to the following equation338:
3 Alanine > 2 Propionate 4- 1 Acetate 4- CO 2 + 3 Ammonia
Studies with resting cell suspensions of propionibacteria in an amino acid mixture
showed that amino acids were potential sources of CO 2 production in Swiss cheese
during long-term storage, possibly causing secondary fermentation and split defect
in cheese. 339
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volume occurred at the same time as the gas diffusion. This observation opposes the
generally accepted hypothesis that CO2 saturates the cheese before diffusion and
forms the eyes at the same time that its release is restrained by the rind.330 It is
believed that CO2 diffusion, eye formation, and dissolution in the cheese are simultaneous. A scanning electron microscope study of Emmental cheese revealed that
casein micelles compacted during manufacturing and ripening. The fat globules lost
their integrity and appeared as large masses with diverse forms. A few junctions in
the grain and the formation of gas microbubbles were observed which may be responsible for eye formation.342
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volume occurred at the same time as the gas diffusion. This observation opposes the
generally accepted hypothesis that CO2 saturates the cheese before diffusion and
forms the eyes at the same time that its release is restrained by the rind.330 It is
believed that CO2 diffusion, eye formation, and dissolution in the cheese are simultaneous. A scanning electron microscope study of Emmental cheese revealed that
casein micelles compacted during manufacturing and ripening. The fat globules lost
their integrity and appeared as large masses with diverse forms. A few junctions in
the grain and the formation of gas microbubbles were observed which may be responsible for eye formation.342
For these cheese types, acid development is slow and the curd mass is not
pressed.190 This promotes an open texture necessary for the CO2 to escape and
oxygen to gain access.
Cheese is ripened at 8 to 120C with relative humidity of 95%. Due to high acid
and salt, the starter lactococci decline rapidly in 2 to 3 weeks.279 After salting the
surface flora mostly consists of yeast and micrococci.359 The yeasts start to grow
and deacidify the curd on the surface.
In 2 to 3 weeks Brevibacterium linens appears on the surface of cheese.360 Growth
of mold in cheese is evident in 8 to 10 days and development is complete in 30 to
90 days. Lactobacilli (L. casei varieties and L. plantarum) are also present in the
cheese.
Due to deacidification of the cheese and extensive proteolysis, the cheese pH rises
from 4.5 to 4.7 at 24 h to a maximum of 6.0 to 7.0 at 16 to 18 weeks. The increase
is more rapid and pronounced on the surface. Molds are both proteolytic and lipolytic, resulting in extensive proteolysis and lipolysis of cheese.361 In Blue cheese
both a 5l - and /3-casein are degraded.329 There is a large accumulation of free amino
acids due to extracellular acidic and alkaline endopeptidases.362-363 Maximum proteolytic activity in cheese occurs during the first few weeks when mycelium has
attained full growth.364 Sodium chloride and free fatty acids depress proteinase activity and prevent excessive proteolysis.361 The contribution of plasmin,363 Geotrichum candidum365 yeast, and B. linens366 in proteolysis and flavor production in
mold-ripened cheeses is well recognized. The occurrence of citrulline, ornithine,
y-aminobutyric acid, histamine, tyramine, and tryptamine reflects amino acid breakdown products.362 Amino acid breakdown products can also generate ammonia,
aldehyde, acids, alcohols, amine, and methanethiol.362 Amino acids also enhance
methyl ketone production.361
The quality of Blue cheese flavor critically depends on the metabolism of lipid
substrate in cheese. The unique and dominating flavor of mold-ripened cheeses
comes from methyl ketones which are predominantly derived from partial oxidation
of FFAs resulting in a ketone with one less carbon atom.367 Activity of lipase to
liberate FFAs is important in the production of methyl ketones.361 Homogenization
of milk promotes lipolysis. Also, there is evidence that some strains of P. camemberti
possess mono- and diacylglycerol lipase.368 The enzyme was separated into two
forms, A and B. B enzyme was the predominant form and was specific for monoand diacylglycerol and preferred long-chain monoacylglycerols in the a-position. Of
the various methyl ketones, 2-heptanone is usually the most abundant followed by
2-nonanone, 2-pentanone, and 2-undecanone.361 /8-Decarboxylase activity was
shown to be present in resting spores, germinated spores, and mycelium; /3-ketolaurate was actively decarboxylated to 2-undecanone.369 Activity of the enzyme was
in the order of mycelium > germinating spores > resting spores. Of various /3ketoacid substrates, /3-ketolaurate was the preferred substrate for mold decarboxylase.370 It is believed that in later stages of cheese ripening, spore metabolism is
favored where spores can continue to generate methyl ketones in the presence of
high fatty acid concentration and at relatively high CO2 levels.361 Methyl ketones
(2-alkanones) are easily reduced to their corresponding secondary alcohols
2.4% has little effect.188 Lower concentrations of salt cause softening and a high
level of salt promotes firmness. As the moisture and FDB (fat on dry basis) of cheese
increases, the cheese becomes soft and less shredable.389 Cheese made with a mixture
of mesophilic starter and S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus starter tends to have a
greater protein and fat hydrolysis during storage. Such cheese is difficult to shred
and has atypical flavor when aged. The molded cheese is brinned. Cheese should
have pH 5.2 (range pH 5.1 to 5.4) as it ensures sufficient removal of calcium from
the caseins to effect proper stretch.390 When cheese was made with proteinasedeficient and proteinase-positive single strains of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus,
cheese from proteinase-deficient strains lost its ability to stretch after 7 days. With
time stretchability decreased for all cheese.188
Cheese made with proteinase-deficient strains melted more easily than cheese
made with proteinase-positive cultures. These differences were not dramatic after 28
days of storage.188 Cheese made with normal starter composed of rod and coccus
melted better and was more brown on cooking than proteinase-deficient pairs. It was
noticed that as stretch decreased with time, melt increased.188 asl-Casein is proteolyzed to a lesser degree by rennet enzymes compared to other cheese types, whereas
j3-casein is largely intact. This level of rennet proteolysis of milk protein appears
sufficient to give the melt and stretch characteristics to cheese during hot water
kneading at about 570C. Creamer391 suggested that stretching properties may be
related to higher concentrations of intact casein and large peptides in the cheese.
There is little lipolysis and fatty acid liberation in traditional Mozzarella
cheese.392
Mozzarella and Provolone are manufactured in a similar manner. The former is
consumed fresh while the latter may be ripened at 12.5C for 3 to 4 weeks and then
stored at 4.5C for 6 to 12 months for grating.43 The ripened cheeses have mainly
L. casei and its subspecies. Provolone has more lipolytic flavors than Mozzarella.
Provolone may be molded in pear, cylindrical, or salami shapes. Smoked Provolone
is also popular in trade.
Process cheeses were prepared as early as 1895 in Europe, but the use of emulsifying salts was not widely practiced until 1911 when Gerber and Co. of Switzerland
invented process cheese. A patent issued to J. L. Kraft in 1916 marked the origin of
the process cheese industry in America and describes the method of heating natural
cheese and its emulsification with alkaline salts.215
Process cheeses in the United States generally fall in one of the following categories.215'396
1. Pasteurized blended cheese. Must conform to the standard of identity and is
subject to the requirements prescribed by pasteurized process cheese except:
a. A mixture of two or more cheeses may include cream or Neufchatel.
b. None of the ingredients prescribed or permitted for pasteurized process cheese
is used.
c. The moisture content is not more than the arithmetic average of the maximum
moisture prescribed by the definitions of the standards of identity for the
varieties of cheeses blended.
d. The word process is replaced by the word blended.
2. Pasteurized process cheese.
a. Must be heated at no less than 65.5C for no less than 30 s. If a single variety
is used the moisture content can be no more than 1% greater than that prescribed by the definition of that variety, but in no case greater than 43%,
except for special provisions for Swiss, Gruyere, or Limburger.
b. The fat content must not be less than that prescribed for the variety used or
in no case less than 47% except for special provisions for Swiss or Gruyere.
c. Further requirements refer to minimum percentages of the cheeses used.
3. Pasteurized process cheese food.
a. Required heat treatment minimum is the same as pasteurized process cheese.
b. Moisture maximum is 44%; fat minimum is 23%.
c. A variety of percentages are prescribed.
d. Optional dairy ingredients may be used, such as cream, milk, skim milk,
buttermilk, and cheese whey.
e. May contain any approved emulsifying agent.
f. The weight of the cheese ingredient is not less than 51% of the weight of the
finished product.
4. Pasteurized process cheese spread.
a. Moisture is more than 44% but less than 60%.
b. Fat minimum is 20%
c. Is a blend of cheeses and optional dairy ingredients and is spreadable at 21C.
d. Has the same heat treatment minimum as pasteurized process cheese.
e. Cheese ingredients must constitute at least 51%.
f. A variety of percentages are prescribed.
3.19.2 Processing
Steps in processing involve397:
It is important that cheese with rancid, putrid, and severe microbiological defect be
not included in the process cheese blend. The age and proportion of the cheese in
the blend depends on the characteristics of the process cheese desired. For the production of slices, 75% of cheese up to 3 months old can be blended with about 25%
well-ripened cheese 6 to 12 months old.178 Generally, young cheese with elastic
unhydrolyzed casein lends smooth texture and firm body and good slicing properties.
Mature, older cheese tends to give higher flavor and grainy texture. For cheese
spreads, slightly larger portions of higher acid cheese and older cheese can be used
in the blend.178
3.19.3 Emulsifiers
A good emulsifier system should consist of monovalent cations and polyvalent anions. Some salts are better emulsifiers and have poor calcium binding capacity. The
ability to sequester calcium is one of the most important functions of the emulsifying
agents. Emulsifying agents supplement the emulsifying capacity of cheese proteins
to provide unique properties to process cheese. Following are some functions of the
emulsifying salts 397398 :
1. Removing calcium from the protein system
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Formula
2Na3C6H5O7- 11
H2O
Na3C6H5O7 2
H2O
Disodium phosphate
Na2HPO4
Trisodium phosphate
Na3PO4
Sodium hexametaphosphate
(Graham's salt)
Tetrasodium disphosphate
(Na PO3)6
Polyphosphates
Na4P2O7
Characteristics
Versatile; produces firm cheese with
good melting properties; inexpensive;
best qualities.
Good firming, buffering, and melting
properties; poor creaming properties.
Least expensive.
Highly alkaline; improves sliceability
when used in combination with other
emulsifiers; good buffering ability;
used at low concentrations.
Produces tartish flavor and a very firm
body; product does not melt easily;
least soluble of all; bacteriostatic.
Good creaming properties; strong
buffering capacity; high protein
solubility; excellent ion exchange;
tartish flavor.
phosphate and 1.0% trisodium citrate plus 1.5% polyphosphate, respectively. Electron microscopy of these samples revealed that soft type process cheese had mostly
single particles in the protein matrix (20 to 25 nm in diameter), whereas the hard
type showed pronounced networklike structures of longer protein strands.408
The search for new types of emulsification system(s) for process cheese continues.
In Yugoslavia, new emulsifiers, KSS-4 (pH 6) and KSS-11 (pH 11), produced good
quality process cheese.409 In Egypt, Cremodan SE 30 proved to be the best emulsifier
as regards organoleptics and texture stability during storage.410 Japanese workers
produced process cheese without emulsifying salts. They used Cheddar cheese of
different moisture contents (35.4 to 38.9%) and a twin-screw extruder with screw
rotation speeds ranging from 50 to 150 rpm. Continuous emulsification by extrusion
heating was demonstrated and a finer emulsion in cheese was produced at faster
rotation speed.411 Studies on the effect of batch and extrusion cooking on lipidprotein interaction have indicated that batch cheese possessed firmer texture with
less peptidization than extruded cheeses of identical composition. It is postulated
that this may be due to improved protein restructuring as a result of stirring and the
use of a lower temperature in batch cooking.412 Extrusion cooking is claimed to be
the way of future processing by the year 2000.413
Table 3.16
Type of Product
Process cheese
Ingredients
Natural cheese,
emulsifiers, NaCl,
coloring
Cooking
Temperature
0
71-80 C
74-85C
0
Process cheese
food
79-85 C
Process cheese
spread
Same as process
cheese food plus
gums for water
retention
88-91 0 C
90-95 0 C
Source:
a
Composition
3
pH
Author
5.6-5.8
Kosikowski
Thomas
Kosikowski
5.2-5.6
<5.2
Kosikowski
55% Moisture
Thomas
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337. Crow, V. L. 1986. Metabolism of aspartate by Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii:
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340. Fluckiger, E. 1980. Formation of CO2 and eyes in Emmental cheese. Schweiz. Milchzeit.
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342 Rousseau, M., and C. Le Gallo. 1990. Scanning electron microscopic study of the structure of
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358. Sloot, D., and P. D. Harker. 1975. Volatile trace components in Gouda cheese. J. Agric. Food
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359. Coghill, D. 1979. The ripening of blue vein cheese: a review. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 34:72-75.
360. Hartley, C. B., and J. J. Jezeski. 1954. The microflora of Blue cheese slime. / . Dairy Sci.
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362. Gripon, J. C. 1987. Mold-ripened cheeses. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and
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366. Friedman, M. E., W. O. Nelson, and W. A. Wood. 1953. Proteolytic enzymes from Bacterium
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367. King. R. D., and G. H. Clegg. 1979. The metabolism of fatty aids, methylketones and secondary
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370. Franke, W., A. Platzeck, and G. Eichhorn. 1961. Zur Kenntnis des fettsaureabbaus durch schmmelpilze. Arch. Microbiol. 40:73-93.
371. Lawrence, R. C, and J. C. Hawke. 1968. The oxidation of fatty acids by mycelium of Penicillium
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372. Wong, N. P., R. Ellis, L. A. LaCroix, and J. A. Alford. 1973. Lactones in Cheddar cheese. J. Dairy
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373. Jolly, R. C , and F. V. Kosikowski. 1975. Quantification of lactones in ripening pasteurized milk
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380. Iya, K. K., and W. C. Frazier. 1949. The yeast in the surface smear of Brick cheese. /. Dairy Sci.
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387. Parliment, T. H., M. G., Kolor, and D. J. Rizzo. 1982. Volatile components of Limburger cheese.
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388. Cervantes, M. A., D. B. Lund, and N. F. Olson. 1983. Effects of salt concentration and freezing
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J Food Prot. 49:526-531.
CHAPTER
4
enhancement was achieved in 1983 when a three-stage drying procedure with integrated fluid bed was introduced.
Concentrated and dried dairy products are milk products with an extended shelf
life. Concentrated milk products are obtained by partial water removal, while the
water content of dried products is usually <4%. The concentrated products are
sterilized or their osmotic pressure is increased so that no microorganisms survive.
Concentrated and dried milk products have several advantages, including:
1. Storage: Requires small space under regular storage conditions and retains high
quality at the same time.
2. Economy: Because mass and volume are reduced, transportation costs are less.
3. Balance: Surplus milk can be reconstituted when fresh milk supplies are low.
4. Use in emergencies: Can be used under adverse conditions such as wars, epidemics, or earthquakes when fresh milk is unavailable.
5. Formulations: Suitable for tailored food products such as those designed for
sportsmen, convalescents, or geriatric individuals.
Milk
Cooling
4C
Storage
4C
First standardization
Fat
Pre-heating
115-128C, 1-6 min
Evaporation
45-70C
Water
Homogenization
Stabilizing agent, water
Second standardization
Packages(cans)
Packaging
Sterilization
100-120C, 15-20 min
1400C, 3 s
Storage
10C
Evaporation
Pretreatment
of the milk
Clarification
Standardization
of the fat and
solids-non-fat
content
Heat treatment
Homogenization
Cooling
Sample
sterilization
Addition of
phosphates
as required
Cooling
Sterilization
Preheating
Storage
Figure 4.2 Process line for unsweetened condensed milk. (Courtesy of a-Laval.)
Filling and
sealing
Manufacture
of cans
14a
1
10
s
4
Lu*
to
13
S
9
L3
vc
Figure 4.3 Falling film evaporator with TVR: 1. First effect; 2. second effect; 3. third effect;
4. fourth effect; 5. fifth effect; 6. sixth effect; 7. seventh effect; 8. vapor separator; 9. pasteurizing unit; 10. heat exchanger; 11. finisher; 12. preheater; 13. condenser, 14a and 14b.
thermocompressor. F = feed, S = steam, C = condensate, VC = vacuum, W = water,
P = product. (Courtesy of APV Anhydro.)
C,
S
VC
Figure 4.4 Fallingfilmevaporator with MVR: 1. First effect; 2. second effect; 3. third effect; 4. vapor separator; 5. mechanical compressor/highpressure fan; 6. pasteurizing unit; 7. condenser; 8. preheater. F = feed, S = steam, C = primary condensate outlet, C, = secondary condensate
outlet, VC = vacuum, P = product. (Courtesy of APV Anhydro A/S.)
S
S
DS
IS
F
V*P
Figure 4.5 Arrangement of plates for one complete feed pass in plate evaporator. 1 -4. Plates;
5. steam spacers; 6. joint rubbers; 7. head. F = feed, S = steam section, IS = inlet section,
DS = discharge section, C = condensate, PH-V = product H- vapor. (Courtesy of APV
Anhydro.)
pressure must be applied. Because of the pressure difference, the vapor moves to
the next effect. The temperature difference between two neighboring effects is usually ^5 0 C. This allows maximum boiling temperature to be as low as 700C, corresponding to an absolute pressure of 230 mm Hg.2
Every evaporation assembly, single or multiple-effect, consists of an evaporator,
condenser, equipment for vacuum creation, separator for separating vapor from the
concentrated product, and a steam recompression system.
The energy crisis in the 1970s made it necessary to develop improved evaporation
techniques in order to minimize the total energy consumption. As a result, there are
two systems for vapor recompression in operation at present: (1) evaporation with
thermal vapor recompression (TVR) and (2) evaporation with mechanical vapor
recompression (MVR).10 At TVR (see Fig. 4.3), the heating medium in the first
effect is the product vapor from one of the next calandria, which is compressed to
a higher temperature by a steam injection. The vapor generated in one calandria is
used as the heating medium in the next one.
The MVR evaporator (Fig. 4.4) is a newer system that is superior to the conventional ones in areas where electrical energy is cheap or where natural gas is available.
The heating medium in the first effect is vapor generated in one of the associated
effects, or in the same effect, compressed by a turbo-compressor or high-pressure
fan to a higher pressure, corresponding to the rise of the condensation temperature.
Like TVR, the heating medium in each effect is vapor from the previous calandria.
Vapor from the final effect is transferred to the suction side of the turbo-compressor
or the fan and condensate is used for preheating the feed.
In addition to evaporation, only reverse osmosis is widely used in the industrial
procedures for water removal, for example, dairy processing. However the concentration is only 20 to 25% total solids, as better heat economy is achieved at this
level.4-12
Milk
Receiving and selection
Clarification
- Sediment
Cooling
4C
Storage
4C
First standardization
Fat
Heat treatment
110-120C, several seconds
Evaporation
45-70C
Water
Sugar
(Water)
Addition of sugar
62.5<CZ<64.5
Second standardization
Crystallization nuclei
Packages
Packaging
Storage
ioc
Sweetened condensed milk
Figure 4.6 Flow chart of sweetened condensed milk production.
addition, heat treatment decreases fat separation and inhibits oxidative changes. The
milk is also warmed prior to evaporation, and this has positive economical and
technological effects.
Heat treatment in sweetened condensed milk processing affects the final product
viscosity (i.e., the tendency to viscosity increase during storage). This defect is called
"age thickening" and is usually not caused by heat-resistant microbial proteases,
but is rather the consequence of physicochemical changes in casein. The most frequently applied temperatures in this technological process are 100 to 1200C in continual heat exchangers of plate or tubular type.9
Evaporation
Wwr
Pretreatment
of the milk
Clarification
Standardization
of the fat and
solids-non-fat
levels
Sugar (dry)
Heat treatment
Cooling
Seeding with
finely ground
lactose crystals
Crystallization
Filling and
sealing
Storage
Manufacture
of cans
Figure 4.7 Process line for sweetened condensed milk. (Courtesy of a-Laval.)
* = JTw
where
x 10
(4 1}
could, at lower temperatures, cause lactose crystallization. Sugar addition before heat
treatment increases thermoresistance of bacteria and their enzymes during heat treatment and significantly intensifies product susceptibility to "age thickening" during
storage. Sugar addition before evaporation also has a negative effect on viscosity changes during storage. The optimal time for sucrose addition is at the end of
evaporation.
During second standardization (^standardization or repeated standardization), total solids, sugar, and fat contents are controlled. On the basis of data obtained, the
ratio of these components to total milk solids, as well as the total dry matter of
sweetened condensed milk, are adjusted.
Temperature decrease
High lactose concentration ( > 10%)
Presence of high concentrations of added sugar (about 40%)
Relatively small amount of water.
Milk
Cooling
4C
Heat treatment
Evaporation
30-35% TS; 40-50%TS
Water
Homogenization
5-15 MPa
Drying
130-150C; 180-2400C
Water
Packages
Packaging
Storage
20C
Milk powder
Figure 4.8 Flow chart of milk powder production.
required. There is no need to homogenize skim milk destined for powder production
in view of the low fat content.
Milk used in the production of powder must be of high chemical, sensory, and
bacteriological quality. The same rigorous criteria apply as in the production of
sweetened and unsweetened condensed milk. They are regulated by law and differ
in various countries.
Further processing includes clarification by centrifugal separators or filtration,
cooling in plate heat exchangers to 4C, and storage in tanks at the same temperature.
This is followed by standardization which is to adjust the ratio of milkfat to total
solids as required in the final product.
Y
F
S
Figure 4.9 Steam and condensate flow in roller dryer. F = feed, S = steam, V = vapor,
C = condensate (1).
A
3
4
1
2
A
P
A
Figure 4.10 Process line for spray drying (one-stage drying, centrifugal atomization).
1. Spray drying chamber; 2. air neater; 3. atomizer; 4. cyclone system; 5. control board:
F = feed; A = air; P = product (powder). (Courtesy of NIRO ATOMIZER.)
up to 1500C and a pressure of up to 621 MPa is used for heating the roller when
introduced into its axis. The steam condensate is continuously removed by a pump
located at the other end of the roller's axis. Milk temperatures reach approximately
the same value as the steam during drying. Dry film, scraped off by knives, falls on
spiral conveyer belts located along each roller, where it is finely crushed ("diced")
and transported to a hammer mill, where it is pulverized.
In relation to the flow of milk, the air stream moves through the spray dryer in a
concurrent flow (same direction), countercurrent flow (opposite direction), or in a
mixed flow (angular). In spite of the inferior heat economy, concurrent flow is preferred in the dairy industry, as it improves product quality.
In order to decrease air quantity and thermal losses in the spray dryer, it is important that the following procedures be followed.
1. Maintain a high temperature of the inlet air and a low temperature of the outlet
air.
2. Use outlet air for heating inlet air.
3. Use inlet air from the upper part of the plant because it is the warmest and the
drying chamber is insulated.
4. The two most commonly used devices for recovery of heat and mass from spray
dryer exhaust include the sanitary spray scrubber and sanitary venturi scrubber.
A milk atomizer's basic function in spray drying is to provide a high surface-tomass ratio, thus enabling quick heat transfer with a high evaporation rate. The two
atomizing designs most commonly used are the centrifugal (rotary) atomizer and the
pressure (nozzle) atomizer.
A centrifugal atomizer is advantageous in drying viscous materials and suspensions. However, to achieve versatility in production, most dryers are now constructed
for both atomizing possibilities. By operating with a centrifugal atomizer, the same
high-pressure feed pump can be used without pressure. Milk is dispersed in the
centrifugal atomizer, at rotating speeds of 10,000 to 20,000 rpm, or by a pressure of
17.2 to 24.5 MPa in the pressure nozzles. In this way, fine particles with large specific
surface areas are obtained. As the milk dispersion rate increases, the specific surface
area is increased as well. This provides a rapid and intensive heat transfer from air
to milk, and mass transfer from milk to air. By dispersing 1 L of milk into droplets
of 50 |xm in diameter, a total surface area of 120 m2 is gained. Due to increased
surface area and high latent heat of water evaporation (2.26 MJ/kg sprayed particles),
moisture is quickly lost and the temperature of the incoming air drops immediately.
When the inlet air temperature is up to 215C, the temperature in the chamber drops
almost instantly to that of outlet air. This is approximately a 95C drop in one-stage
drying.
Regardless of the kind of the atomizer used, the powder particles during drying
gain spherical shapes (because of surface tension) with trapped air, thus gaining a
low bulk density. Each spray dried particle is spherical and has a diameter between
10 and 250 p,m. These particles contain evenly distributed vacuoles of occluded air
in their interior.18 Although most vacuoles are average in size, some are small
(Fig. 4.11).
The surface of spray-dried particles is usually smooth, but may become wrinkled.
The tendency to form wrinkles is increased by higher inlet air temperatures and
larger temperature differences between the hot air and powder particles. The presence
of particles of different morphology in the same sample is ascribed to the different
drying conditions to which the individual particles were exposed.
Figure 4.11 Microstructure of milk powder: (a) Roller dried; (b) Spray dried.18
Atomization methods, either centrifugal or nozzle, have no special effect on
particle structure. The bulk density of spray-dried powders varies (0.50 to 0.70
g/cm3).118 Bulk density could be improved by introducing steam into the atomizer
C'steam swept wheel"), using special atomizer constructions and adjusting drying
parameters. Atomization parameters affect some important properties of the final
product: bulk density, size and size distribution of powder particles, incorporated air
content, moisture content, and others.
The product is removed immediately after drying to stop further contact between
powder and hot air. Long contact with hot air could result in penetration of fat at
the particle surface, which causes adhesions and overheating of the powder. It is
necessary to provide adequate velocity for carrying particles of certain diameters.
This velocity is calculated on the basis of Stokes' law and is called terminal velocity.
With the enlargement of the particle diameter, the terminal velocity increases. Cyclone separators are used for powder recovery. With this system, 90% of the powder
having particle size larger than 10 //,m, 98% of the powder with particle sizes larger
than 20 |xm, and 99% of dry particles with diameters larger than 30 /im can be
recovered. The efficiency of cyclones is calculated on the basis of material balance,
that is, ratio of total solids of raw ^naterial entering the process versus total solids
of powder at the outlet. The formula is:
Ef =
SM*
X 10 (%)
(4>2)
where
SMe = dry matter entering the process (kg)
SM0 = dry matter outlet of the process (kg).
Today, there is a system of several cyclones with large diameters combined with
one cyclone of smaller diameter, which provides simultaneous cooling of the powder.
Spray drying has numerous important advantages compared to the other drying
techniques:
2,
S
A
9
4
F
S
i
DETAIL 5
A
6
P
S
W
A
Figure 4.12 Three-stage drying. 1. feed tank; 2. concentrate preheater; 3. atomizer; 4. spray
drying chamber; 5. integrated fluid-bed; 6. external fluid bed; 7. cyclone; 8. bag filter; 9. liquid
coupled heat exchanger. F = feed, A = air, S = steam, W = water, P = product. Detail:
5. Integrated fluid bed3 (Courtesy of APV Anhydro).
rable 4.1
Drying system
With Nozzle
Atomizer
With Rotary
Atomizer
48
2140
3.5
280
850
50
1720
3.5
215
866
Two-Stage
50
3.5
220
972
Milk powder
Water, steam, 10% skimmilk
5-10% water
Agglomeration
Separation by cyclones
Fluid-bed drying
2-4% water, 90-1200C
Humid air
non-agglomerated fines
Cooling
10C
Sifting
Fines
Packages
Packaging
Instant milk powder
Figure 4.13a Flow chart of instantized milk powder production, (a) Rewet procedure.
Dry milk powder is the starting material for the rewetting procedure. The powder
is dispersed in the wetting chamber and gains a water content of 5 to 10%, causing
formation of powder particle agglomerates. The agglomerated product is transferred
to the vibrating fluid bed dryer and cooler (Figs. 4.12 and 4.13), where it is redried
in a hot air stream at 90 to 1200C and immediately cooled to approximately 100C.
The powder layer in the fluid bed dryer is about 10 cm high, with a residence
time of 10 to 12 min.10 Because two-stage drying results in a powder of lower
Evaporated milk
Hot air
Fluid-bed drying
90-12O0C, 2-4% moisture
Humid air
non-agglomerated fines
Cooling
Sifting
Fines
Packages
Packaging
Human Milk
Cow Milk
87.43
3.75
1.63
6.98
0.21
8.82
12.57
86.61
4.14
3.58
4.96
0.71
9.25
13.39
of the product are excellent. The most recent development is a multistage spray dryer
developed by Storck.23 The drying chamber is directly connected to the external
fluid bed through the well mix section. This reduces the transportation time for the
moist powder.
Table 4.3
Nutrient
Protein (g)
Fat
(g)
(% cal)
Essential fatty acids (linoleate)
(% cal)
(mg)
Vitamins
A(IU)
D(IU)
K (/xg)
E(IU)
C (ascorbic acid) (mg)
B (thiamine) (fig)
B 2 (riboflavin) (pig)
B6 (pyridoxine) (fig)
B 12 (Mg)
Niacin
(^g)
(fig equiv)
Folic acid (jug)
Pantothenic acid (fig)
Biotin (fig)
Choline (mg)
Inositol (mg)
Minerals
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Iodine (^g)
Zinc (mg)
Copper (fig)
Manganese (fig)
Sodium (mg)
Potassium (mg)
Chloride (mg)
a
b
c
d
c
1976 Recommendations13
FDA 1971
Regulations
Minimum
Minimum
Maximum
1.8
1.8
4.5
1.7
15.0
3.3
30.0
6.0
54.0
2.0
222.0
3.0
300.0
250.0
40.0
0.3
7.8
25.0
60.0
35.0
0.15
250.0
800.0
4.0
300.0
50.0d
25.0d
6.0
1.0
5.0
60.0
4.0
300.0
1.5
7.0
4.0
40.0d
25.0d
6.0
0.15
5.0
0.5
60.0
5.0
20.0 (mEq)e
80.0 (14 mEq)e
55.0(11 mEq)e
Skim milk
Receiving and selection
Clarification
Sediment
Cooling
4C
Deaeration
Air
Pasteurization
75C, 20 S
Evaporation
45-700C
Water
Blending of ingredients
Homogenization
15-20 MPa
Mix pasteurization
110C, 60s
Drying
t,: 160-18O 0 Ct 2 : 900C
Packages
Water
Packaging
Infant formula
Figure 4.14 Flow chart of infant formula production.
Recommendations for the composition of infant formulas are presented in Table
4.3. 2 6
The most difficult modification is to add immuno factors to cow's milk, as these
substances are normally present in breast milk, but not in cow's milk. The wellknown deficit has prompted many health professionals to recommend breast feeding
whenever possible.
The manufacture of infant formulas requires different processes. One is the "dry
procedure," where all ingredients are blended in dry form; the other is the "wet
procedure" where mixing is done in the wet state prior to drying. Frequently, these
methods are combined. In the dry process, the goal is to produce an even blend.
As evident from Fig. 4.14, the spray-drying regimens in the production of infant
formulas differ from those for milk powder production because of the high content
of lactose and fat (in infant formulas). In addition to lower inlet air temperature, the
total solids content of the feed (for infant formulas) is lower than that of milk powder
and the drying chamber must be specially constructed to provide cooling. Drying of
infant formulas is usually accomplished in the two- or three-stage drying process.
When combining the two procedures, water-soluble components are added to the
milk before drying, whereas less soluble components are added in a dry form to the
blend after drying. The wet procedure provides the best mixing, resulting in sterile
products, whereas the dry procedure is cheaper in capital outlay and operation. The
combined method has some advantages for both and is the most used.
Next Page
the same as those used in modified milk production. Imitation milk powder production is used in a manner similar to modified milk powder and has multiple
advantages:
1. It has low productions costs (as the price of vegetable fat and protein is much
lower than for the corresponding milk components).
2. It serves well those parts of the world where there are no cattle and no milk
production.
3. It has a longer shelf life compared to milk powder.
4. It has a wide variation in composition, depending on the availability of ingredients.
Other dry dairy products include anhydrous milkfat, dried dairy beverages, dietetic dry products, coffee whiteners, dry fermented milk products, dry cream, dry
cheese products, dry ice cream mix, dry buttermilk, and single cell protein.
Previous Page
the same as those used in modified milk production. Imitation milk powder production is used in a manner similar to modified milk powder and has multiple
advantages:
1. It has low productions costs (as the price of vegetable fat and protein is much
lower than for the corresponding milk components).
2. It serves well those parts of the world where there are no cattle and no milk
production.
3. It has a longer shelf life compared to milk powder.
4. It has a wide variation in composition, depending on the availability of ingredients.
Other dry dairy products include anhydrous milkfat, dried dairy beverages, dietetic dry products, coffee whiteners, dry fermented milk products, dry cream, dry
cheese products, dry ice cream mix, dry buttermilk, and single cell protein.
CHCCSC
MILK
CHCCSC PRODUCTO
IN
RV
l CR
FB DRYING
SCfARATO
lN
PROCESSN
IG
ICAtACTOSO
l ASC
URCA CACTOSVL URCA
RCACTOR
GLUCOSC-GALACTOSC
PCRMCATC
WMCV
FG
lS
ULTRA FILTRATION
FC
l LO
FROTCN
I
LACTOSC
FCRMCNTATO
lN
CRYSTALLIZATION
CVAFORATN
tC
FAT
SCPARATO
I N OISTILLATION
VCAST
SCFARATO
IN
MOTMCR LQ
I UOR
CLCCTROOIALVSS
i
ALCOHOL
FAT
SPRAY
DRYING
RCCONSTtTUTO
lN
MOTHCR LIQUOR
POWDER
CHCCSC
SKIM MILK
NON-HVCROSCOFC
I
WHCV
FAT CNRC
t HCO
WHCY
CLCCTROOA
I LVSCO
WHCV
SCF
FROTCN
l
WHCV
FCRMCATC
Figure 4.15 Dry dairy products derived from whey. (Courtesy of A/S NIRO Atomizer.)
SCP = Single cell protein
ORDINARY
WHEY POWDER
PRECRYSTALLIZED
WHEY POWDER
Pretreatment
WHEY POWDER
(STRAIGHT THROUGH)
NON-CAKING
NON-CAKING
WHEY POWDER
(BELTPROCESS)
Pretreatment
Pretreatment
Pretreatment
Evaporation
Evaporation
Evaporation
Evaporation
42-45% TS
about 40% TS
about 40% TS
50% TS
Highconcentration
50-60% TS
Highconcentration
50-60% TS
Precrystallization
Precrystallization
Precrystallization
4-16 h
16-24 h
16-24 h
Spray drying
Spray drying
Spray drying
I 1 = 18O0C
ti = 2000C
tj= 1850C
Spray drying
q= 15O0C
Postcrystallization
Fluid-bed
drying
Fluid-bed
drying
Fluid-bed
cooling
Pneumatic
transport/cooling
Pneumatic
transport/cooling
Fluid-bed
cooling
[a]
[b]
[C]
a)
c)
b)
Figure 4.17 Dead-end (a) versus cross-flow (b) ultrafiltration. (c) Cross section of asymmetric membrane of hollow fiber type.
and is not hygroscopic, with no caking tendencies. It is used extensively in food
processing.
In all four procedures, reverse osmosis may be used for partial whey concentration
(up to 25% total solids), prior to evaporation. This is an energy saving measure. It
must be emphasized that the two concentrating plants may be located in different
places.
whereas proteins are concentrated in the retentate. This permits a WPC with 20 to
60% protein in total solids and low quantities of lactose and mineral matter to be
obtained. Permeate, a by-product of this processing, is used for producing lactose,
alcohol, single cell protein, yeast, galactose, glucose, cattle feed, and various pharmaceuticals.
As ultrafiltration proceeds, an increased protein content of up to 98% may be
achieved by adding water to the feed.28 This proceure is called diafiltration. The
optimal moment to start diafiltration is when the total solids content has been reached
at which the ultrafiltration flux is still relatively high. That level of total solids must
be kept constant during diafiltration in order to minimize the water quantity needed.
To obtain 80% protein in total solids, the latter should reach a level of approximately
22 to 25%. The scheme of continuous WPC production is shown in Fig. 4.18.28
Sweet whey is first subjected to clarification (removal of casein fines, fat separation, and pasteurization). After pasteurization, the whey is cooled to 60 to 65C
and held at this temperature for 30 to 60 min before cooling to 500C for ultrafiltration.
This heat-and-hold treatment has the function of stabilizing the calcium phosphate
complex, and thus reduces the fouling of the membranes during ultrafiltration. Further reduction of the mineral content in WPC is achieved by adjusting pH of the
whey to pH 5.7 to 6.0 with HCl. In this way, the solubility of calcium is increased,
followed by its greater portion in the permeate. After ultrafiltration, the retentate is
pasteurized, evaporated, and dried. Although in Fig. 4.18 evaporation is included in
the process, a better solution is to directly dry the product. Depending on the protein
content, total solids may be increased from 22 to 25% up to 44% during ultrafiltration, and WPC may be dried directly as obtained from the ultrafiltration plant. This
provides a better quality of high protein product. To reduce or avoid protein denaturation, lower temperatures than those for drying milk are used: 160 to 1800C for
the inlet temperature and less than 800C for the outlet air temperature (Fig. 4.18).
4.6.3.1 Casein
Casein is the major milk protein. In addition to the protein moiety, it also contains
phosphorus, calcium, and citrate in the structure of its micelles.29"31
As the initial pH value of milk is decreased from 6.5, casein starts losing its
colloidal dispersibility and stability and begins to precipitate at pH 5.3. Maximum
precipitation takes place at pH 4.6, which is the isoelectric point of casein. Casein
may also be precipitated by proteolytic enzymes. Depending on the reagent used,
the following kinds of casein are produced.32"35
1. Acid casein is obtained by precipitating milk with an acid such as hydrochloric,
sulfuric, or lactic acid.
2. Sweet casein results from the action of chymosin.
3. Low-viscosity casein is produced by treating milk simultaneously with proteolytic enzymes and an acid.
Bag Filter
Powder So
li s
Evaporato
in
Spray Dryn
ig
Fluid Bod]
Dyctone,
Beggn
ig
Pasteurziato
in
Clarification
Storage
SET
Separao
tin< !Wh.yCr.am
Heat
-transported
Pasteurziato
in
Retentate Storage
Hod
ln
ig lank
U
T
tR
O
tiFN
DU
IAR
FA
IUFR
AA
TT
IC
*.
Figure 4.18 Processing plant for production of WPC from sweet whey.
The basic operations in the production of casein are the same irrespective of the
type of casein produced. The flow chart of acid casein production, together with
sodium casemate production, is shown in Fig. 4.19.
The precipitation of casein in skim milk is initiated by changing the pH value of
the milk using hydrochloric, sulfuric, or lactic acid. The nature of the coagulum
(curd) obtained by direct precipitation of skim milk depends on the temperature of
precipitation, the intensity of agitation, and the final pH value of the precipitate. The
best results are obtained by atomizing a diluted acid solution such as 1.3 to IA N
HCl in a countercurrent direction to the flow of the milk maintained at 30 to 35C.
Skim milk
Rennet
treatment
Casein curd
Casein curd
Draining, washing
pressing, milling
drying
Draining, washing
pressing, milling
drying
Acid casein
pH6-7
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Rennet casein
Spray drying
Caseinate
Figure 4.19 Production of commercial casein and caseinate products.
In the next step, steam is injected into the mixture in order to rapidly increase its
temperature to cause coagulation, that is, 40 to 45C. The mixture is subsequently
directed into an inclined tube where it coagulates.
Skim milk may also be coagulated in a two-section plate heat exchanger. Acid is
injected into the skim milk after it passed through the first section of the heat exchanger, where it was heated to 300C by heat recuperated from whey processing.
The acidified skim milk is then heated to 45C by hot water in another section of
the heat exchanger. The yield of casein may be as high as 99%.
The procedure is the same regardless of the type of the acid used. Hydrochloric
and sulfuric acids are most commonly used. The selection of a particular acid depends on economic factors. Preference has been given to hydrochloric acid because
it is usually available at a lower cost than sulfuric acid.
An economical, high-capacity production of casein is based on the use of lactic
acid as a precipitating agent. Lactic acid can be produced inexpensively by the
fermentation of lactose. In New Zealand, almost all acid casein is produced in this
way, using cultures of Streptococcus lactis and/or Streptococcus cremoris.
Initially, this process, as well as all subsequent wet operations, were carried out
in cheese vats. The skim milk was inoculated at 25 to 27C with 0.5 to 1.5% of a
mixed lactic acid bacteria starter culture. The coagulation of the skim milk was
Sodium
Caseinate
Calcium
Caseinate
Acid
Casein
Rennet
Casein
94.0
4.0
1.3
0.1
0.8
0.2
1.5
4.0
6.6
93.5
4.5
0.05
1.5
0.8
0.2
1.5
4.0
6.8
95.0
2.2
0.1
0.08
0.9
0.2
1.5
10.0
89.0
7.5
0.02
3.0
1.5
1.5
12.0
7.0
Coprecipitate
89-94
4.5
1.5
1.5
5.0
6.8
Grinding produces uniform dimensions of the casein particles. They range from
300 to 600 /im in diameter. Particles obtained by attrition drying are considerably
smaller, that is, to 150 //,in in diameter.33
Ground casein is classified according to particle dimensions. It is sifted through
a series of gradually increasing mesh number sieves. Classified casein is packaged
in bags that are of the same kind as those used for milk powder packaging.
The approximate composition of commercial casein and casein products is presented in Table 4.4.
Casein is used in many industries such as the paper industry, the manufacture of
water-based paints, the production of adhesives, the food industry, the manufacture
of plastics, the production of casein fibres, the tanning industry, and the manufacture
of animal feeds and pet foods.
also added in order to maintain the total solids content of the caseinate solution
below the 20 to 22% level. The total solids content of the solution destined for spray
drying is 25 to 31% lower than that of milk, which is usually in the 45 to 55% range.
The low dry matter content, dictated by the requirement to maintain a low viscosity
of the sodium casemate solution, increases the production costs. The viscosity of
sodium caseinate solutions is a logarithmic function of the total solids concentration.
In order to increase the solids concentration to a maximum, a relatively high solubilization temperature of 90 to 95C is applied. The viscosity is lowest in the pH
range of 6.6 to 7.0. The raw acid casein must be completely free of lactose; otherwise
conditions favorable to the induction of Maillard reactions leading to the discoloration of the product would develop.
The homogeneous sodium caseinate solution obtained in the preceding operation
is usually spray dried in a stream of hot air. Only rarely is sodium caseinate dried
by roller drying. The total solids content of the solution destined for spray drying
ranges from 20 and 22% and may be exceptionally as high as 25%. The highest
permissible caseinate concentration is determined experimentally for every individual spray dryer.
All sodium caseinate produced commercially is used in the food industry. The
following foods are examples of products containing sodium caseinate: various kinds
of sausages, meat-based instant breakfast and milk-based instant breakfast, modified
milk, whipped cream, coffee whiteners, ice cream, desserts, sauces, soups, casein
bread, doughs, crackers, biscuits, dietetic products, and various protein-enriched
products. The two main reasons for using sodium caseinate as an ingredient in foods
are its functional properties and nutritive value.
4.6.3.3 Coprecipitates
In coprecipitate processing, high-temperature treatment of skim milk leads to the
interaction of the /3-lactoglobulin fraction of the whey proteins with K-casein. The
heat-induced K-casein/3-lactoglobulin complex is then coprecipitated with casein
by an acid, or another chemical agent such as CaCl2, or a mix of the two.32"35 Other
milk proteins are coprecipitated together with the casein-lactoglobulin complex.
Coprecipitates were patented in the 1950s and became more popular in the 1970s.
Their advantage over casein and its compounds is that they also consist of whey
proteins that contain relatively high concentrations of sulfur-containing amino acids.
This factor contributes to the biological value of coprecipitates. In addition, the
coprecipitate procedure increases the recovery of milk proteins.
In order to produce coprecipitates, skim milk is preheated and the final heating
of up to 900C in the second stage is obtained by steam injection into the milk. CaCl2
or acid is also injected through spray countercurrent to the direction of milk flow to
provide full mixing. The mixture is transformed into curd in a holding tube (20 to
25s). The curd is separated from the whey and the coprecipitate is washed, pressed,
and dried. At optimal process conditions it is possible to recover 95 to 97% of the
milk proteins. There are three basic varieties of coprecipitates, each having different
amounts of calcium33: low-calcium coprecipitate (LCC, 0.1 to 0.5% Ca), medium-
calcium coprecipitate (MCC, 1.0 to 1.5% Ca), and high-calcium coprecipitate (HCC,
2.5 to 3.0% Ca). The calcium concentration in coprecipitates can be changed by
changing basic parameters in the production process. A higher pH value at precipitation results in a higher calcium concentration in the product, whereas longer retention time at high temperature decreases calcium concentration.
Coprecipitates with different concentrations of calcium and polyphosphate and
different ratios of serum protein and casein have various uses in the food industry.
They each serve the same purpose as caseinates. The production process of coprecipitates has been developed in order to recover not only casein, which is about 80%
of all milk protein, but other proteins as well. This increases the recovered protein
to nearly 96%.
4.6.4 Lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of D-glucose and D-galactose. In the chemical
nomenclature, lactose is called 4-O-/3-D-galactopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose. It is the
major component of total milk solids and can be isolated on a commercial scale
from whole whey or from deproteinized whey.37"39 More recently, as the use of
membrane methods for the concentration and fractionation (ultrafiltration, hyperfiltration, etc.) of milk in the dairy industry is being expanded, the permeate obtained
by the ultrafiltration of whey is being used as the starting material in the production
of lactose.
Technological processes used to produce lactose may be divided into two basic
groups:
1. Crystallization of lactose from whey in the presence of whey proteins.
2. Crystallization of lactose from deproteinized whey after the removal of whey
proteins. Crude or refined lactose can be produced by either of these processes.
Lactose manufacture is shown in Fig. 4.20.37
The raw material for lactose production is evaporated in multistage vacuum
evaporators or may be subjected to preliminary concentration by reverse osmosis,
as well. The final concentration of lactose depends on whether proteins are present
in the syrup. If lactose is produced from protein-containing whey, the syrup is evaporated to increase its dry matter content to 60 to 65%. In the production of lactose
from deproteinized whey, the dry matter content of the syrup may be increased as
high as 70%.
Lactose crystallization is initiated in the hot syrup that had been concentrated to
oversaturation. The crystallization is initiated either spontaneously in oversaturated
syrups that are in an unstable crystallization state, or following the introduction of
seed crystals into syrups that are in the metastable crystallization state. The objective
of crystallization is to produce a large number of similar sized crystals (0.2 mm
average diameter) which would be easy to separate from the molasses.
A crystallizer is a double-walled closed tank having a conical bottom. It is
equipped with slow-motion agitators and scrapers which prevent the formed lactose
crystals from sticking to each other and from sedimenting.
Whey
Protein removal
Crystallization nuclei
Evaporation
60-65-70% TS
Water
Crystallization of lactose
^30 0 Ct 2 : 15-200C, 30h
Water
Filtration
Evaporation
65-70% TS
Water
Crystallization nuclei
Drying
70C
Grinding
Packages
Sifting
Packaging
Crude or refined lactose
Refining
- Sediment
Technical
Row
Edible Grade
Pharmaceutical Grade
98.0
0.35
1.0
0.45
0.2
0.4
94.0
0.3
0.8
0.4
0.1
0.4
99.0
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.06
99.4-99.85
0 . 1 - 0.5
0.01- 0.05
0.03- 0.09
0.001- 0.01
0.04- 0.03
From ref. 4.
4.7 References
1. Hall, C. W., and T. I. Hedrick. 1975. Drying of Milk and Milk Products. AVI, Westport, CT. 338
pp.
2. Wiegand B. 1985. Evaporation. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane Filtration and Spray
Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production. North European Dairy Journal, Vanl0se, Denmark,
pp. 91-178.
3. Masters, K. 1984. Spray Drying Handbook, 4th edit. George Godwin, London. 696 pp.
4. Caric\ M. 1990. Technology of Concentrated and Dried Dairy Products, 3rd edit. Naucna Knjiga,
Beograd, Yugoslavia, 293 pp. (in Serbian).
5. Kiermeier, F., and E. Lechner. 1973. Milch und Milcherzeugnisse. Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany,
443 pp.
6. Food and Drug Administration. 1978. Standards, Food and Drugs: Evaporated Milk, 131.130, 153
pp.
7. Swaisgood, H. E. 1986. Chemistry of milk protein. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy
Chemistry-1. Proteins, pp. 1 -60. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
8. Holt, C. 1985. The milk salts: their secretion, concentrations and physical chemistry. In P. F. Fox
(ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-3. !Lactose and Minor Constituents, pp. 143-182. Elsevier
Applied Science, London.
9. Kessler, H. G. 1988. Lebensmittel- und Bioverfahrenstechnik. Molkereitechnologie, 3rd edit.
A. Kessler, Freising, Germany, 582 pp.
10. Knipschildt, M. E. 1986. Drying of milk and milk products. In R. K. Robinson (ed.), Modern Dairy
Technology Advances in Milk Processing, Vol. 1, pp. 131-234. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
11. Westergaard, V. 1983. Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, 3rd edit. Niro
Atomizer, Copenhagen, Denmark, 147 pp.
12. Hallstr0m, B. 1985. Evaporation versus hyperfiltration. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane
Filtration and Spray Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production, pp. 289-298. North European
Dairy Journal, Vanl0se, Denmark.
13. Walstra, P. 1983. Physical chemistry of milk fat globules. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy
Chemistry-2. Lipids, pp. 119-158. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
14. Caric", M. 1988. Nonenzymic browning of dairy products. In Reactions of Nonenzymic Browning of
Food Products, pp. 105-141. Naudna Knjiga, Beograd, Yugoslavia (in Serbian).
15. Morrissey, P. A. 1985. Lactose: chemical and physiochemical properties. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-3. Lactose and Minor Constituents, pp. 1 -34. Elsevier Applied Science,
London.
16. Masters, K. 1985. Spray drying. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane Filtration and Spray
Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production, pp. 299346. North European Dairy Journal, VanI0se, Denmark.
17. Pisecky, J. 1983. New generation of spray dryers for milk products, Dairy Indust. Int 48: 21-24.
18. Caric*, M., and M. Kalb, 1987. Effects of drying techniques on milk powders quality and microstructure: a review. Food Microstructure 6: 171-180.
19. Peebles, D. D. 1936. U.S. Patent 2,054,441.
20. Peebles, D. D., and D. D. Clary, Jr. 1955. U.S. Patent 2,710,808.
CHAPTER
5
Dairy Microbiology and Safety
Purnendu C. Vasavada and Maribeth A Cousin
5.1. Introduction, 303
5.2. General Dairy Microbiology, 304
5.2.1. Morphological Features, 305
5.2.2. Microorganisms Associated with Milk, 305
5.2.2.1. Bacteria, 305
5.2.2.2. Yeasts and Molds, 318
5.2.2.3. Viruses, 318
5.3 Growth of Dairy Microbes in Milk and Dairy Products, 321
5.3.1. Relative Growth Rates of Psychrotrophs, 321
5.3.2. Sources of Psyhrotrophs in Milk, 323
5.3.3. Significance of the Presence and Growth of Psychrotrophs, 324
5.4. Inhibition and Control of Microorganisms in Milk and Dairy Products, 326
5.4.1. Natural Antimicrobial Systems, 326
5.4.2. Lactoperoxidase, 327
5.4.3. Lactoferrin, 330
5.4.4. Lysozyme, 331
5.4.5. Xanthine Oxidase, 331
5.4.6. Lactic Acid Bacteria and Bacteriocins, 332
5.4.7. Potassium Sorbate, 335
5.4.8. Carbon Dioxide, 336
5.4.9. Removal of Microorganisms by Physical Methods, 336
5.5. Mastitis, 338
5.5.1. Effect on Milk Composition, 338
5.5.2. Economic Losses, 338
5.5.3. Common Mastitis Pathogens, 339
5.5.4. Uncommon Mastitis Pathogens, 341
5.5.5. Factors Affecting the Incidence of Mastitis, 341
5.5.6. Detection and Diagnosis, 341
5.6. Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk and Dairy Products, 342
5.6.1. Listeria monocytogenes, 344
5.6.2. Yersinia enterocolitica, 344
5.6.3. Campylobacter jejuni, 346
5.6.4. Escherichia coli, 347
5.7.
5.8.
5.9.
5.10.
5.11.
5.1 Introduction
An understanding of the microbiological aspects of milk is essential to those who
successfully pursue production, processing, and manufacturing of quality milk and
dairy foods. The significance of microbes occurring in milk is multifold: microorganisms can be either beneficial or harmful depending on the circumstances of their
presence and activities in milk and dairy products. The adverse publicity resulting
from the foodborne illness outbreaks or widespread recalls of cheese, ice cream, and
other dairy foods found to be contaminated with foodborne pathogens could be
devastating to the economy of the dairy industry. More importantly, the consumer
anxiety associated with safety and wholesomeness of milk and dairy foods can lead
to lack of consumer confidence and further reduce consumption of milk and dairy
foods.
The microbiological quality of raw milk is critical for production of superior
quality dairy foods with reasonable and predictable shelf life. Milk and other ingredients used in manufacturing must be free of offensive odors and flavors and undesirable microorganisms capable of causing spoilage. The psychrotrophsmicroorganisms capable of growth at 7C (45F) regardless of their optimum growth
temperatureare the predominant spoilage organisms in milk and dairy foods. Although the majority of psychrotrophs are relatively heat sensitive and are readily
inactivated by conventional pasteurization, the thermoduric psychrotrophs and psychrotrophic spore-formers can be important in causing flavor and texture defects and
spoilage of long-shelf-life dairy products. Moreover, psychrotrophic bacteria, particularly Pseudomonas spp., are capable of producing heat-stable enzymes1'2 during
growth in milk prior to pasteurization. These enzymes have an adverse effect on the
quality and yield of products prepared from such milk, for example, Adams et al.3
and Patel et al.4 have reported on studies of heat-stable proteases resulting from the
growth of psychrotrophs in milk. The psychrotrophic bacteria and their role in quality
and shelf life of milk and dairy products have been studied extensively. Several
Table 5.1
REQUIKEMENTS
Raw milk
Pasteurized milk
SPC
Coliform
Temperature
<100,000/ml
SPC
Coliform
Phosphatase
<200,000/ml
<10/ml
Negative
<40F
excellent reviews on psychrotrophic bacteria and their importance in milk and dairy
product quality have appeared in the literature.5"11
Recent findings of the psychrotrophic nature of the so-called emerging pathogens,
that is, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, and others have provided
additional significance to the problem of psychrotrophic contamination in milk.
The beneficial aspects of microorganisms in milk mainly apply to the cultured or
fermented dairy foods. Microorganisms capable of degrading lactose to lactic acid
and other compounds such as acetic acid, propionic acid, acetaldehyde, and diacetyl
are used as starter cultures in the dairy industry. Proper selection, propagation, and
behavior of starter cultures is crucial in manufacturing a variety of cheeses, yogurts,
and other cultured milk products. Recent developments in starter culture genetics
have increased the potential for development of specific bacterial strains to improve
flavor and nutritional quality, control pathogenic bacteria, and resist infection by
bacteriophage.12
The significance of microorganisms, particularly pathogens, was clearly evident
in the earlier days of the dairy industry as milk and milk products were the major
vehicle for dissemination of pathogens. The diseases once commonly spread by milk
include typhoid fever, septic sore throat, tuberculosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and
undulant fever.13'14 The advent of tuberculin testing, brucellosis eradication programs, and mandatory pasteurization led to a dramatic decline in the incidence of
milkborne disease outbreaks.
The importance of microorganisms in milk is recognized in the fact that the
microbiological limits for total bacterial count and the coliform count are the crucial
parts of the milk quality grades and compliance with the regulations in the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) (Table 5.1).
Because milk provides nutrients, near neutral pH, and a high water activity (Aw)
preferred for reproduction of microorganisms, it can serve as a growth medium for
a wide variety of microorganisms. The main objective of this chapter is to provide
a broad overview of the microbiological aspects of milk and milk products.
5.2.2.1 Bacteria
The latest classification of milkborne microorganisms is given in Bergey's Manual
of Systematic Bacteriology, Volumes I and II. 1 5 1 6 In Bergey's Manual, the bacteria
are grouped according to the Gram reaction, morphology, and relation to growth
with or without oxygen. Summary information about these groups is given below.
Detailed information on microorganisms associated with milk and milk products
may be found in several reference sources.17"19
The Spirochetes
The only organism of importance in dairy microbiology classified in this section is
Leptospira interrogans. Organisms in the genus Leptospira are flexible, helicoidal
rods (0.1 X 6 to 12 /xm), Gram negative, motile, and obligately aerobic. They inhabit
the kidney of the animal or human and are shed in the urine. Clinical effects of
leptospira vary from an influenza type illness to a severe icteric form. The optimum
growth temperature for the organism is 28 to 300C.
Vibrio
Streptococci
Staphylococci
Capsules
Yeasts
Bacilli
Spores
Aspergillus
Bacteriophages
Figure 5.1 Morphological features of microorganisms.
Spirilla
Flagella
Penicillium
O 2 and 3 to 5% CO2 in their atmosphere for growth. The optimum growth temperature is 42C, although C. jejuni is known to survive in milk stored at low temperatures.20"22 Campylobacter is known to cause abortion in cows. In humans, C. jejuni
has been the cause of several milkborne illness outbreaks associated with the consumption of raw or unpasteurized milk.23"26
C. jejuni can cause mastitis in cows.27-28 Since 1980, the incidence of campylobacteriosis has increased drastically and the organism has surpassed Salmonella as
the main causative agent of foodbome illness.29'30
and phosphtase positive. Many strains produce yellow to orange pigment although
some strains do not produce pigment. Flavobacterium species can hydrolyze casein
and cause psychrotrophic spoilage of milk and dairy products.
Brucella. This genus contains coccobacillary or short rods (0.5 to 0.7 /xm to 0.6
to 1.5 /xm) that are catalase positive, oxidase positive, and grow optimally at 37C.
Many strains are pathogenic to cattle (B. abortus), pigs (B. suis), and goats
(B. melitensis). B. abortus causes abortion in cattle and undulant fever in man. Annually about 100 to 200 cases of brucellosis occur in the United States. The organism
primarily affects slaughterhouse workers, veterinarians, livestock producers, and others. Brucella are readily destroyed by pasteurization of milk. The organisms are
difficult to work with in the laboratory and specific safety precautions should be
taken when working with Brucella?1
It has been suggested that only B. melitensis should be recognized as a separate
species with others being recognized as biovars.18
Alteromonas. This genus contains Alteromonas putrefaciens, a Gram-negative,
facultative, rod-shaped (0.5 to 1.0 /xm X 1.1 to 4.0 /xm) organism, previously known
as Pseudomonas putrefaciens. It grows optimally at 20 to 25C and produces a
nondiffusible reddish-brown or pink pigment. The organism is associated with spoilage of milk and dairy products, particularly surface taint of butter. Clinical isolates
of the organism may grow at temperatures as high as 42C. The organism may be
an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised individuals.
Acinetobacter and Moraxella-Zifce Organisms. Acinetobacter are Gram-negative, aerobic, plump short rods. They are found in a variety of raw and prepared
foods, including milk in which they may be the cause of ropiness or enzymatic
defects. Moraxella-likt organisms are oxidase positive psychrotrophs and may be
associated with spoilage of milk and milk products during storage at refrigeration
temperatures.
Salmonellae are facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative, motile (peritrichous flagella) rods (0.3 to 1.0 /xm X 1.0 to 6.0 ^m) that produce gas from glucose and use
citrate as carbon source. They are oxidase negative, catalase positive, produce H2S,
decarboxylate lysine and ornithine but are urease negative, and do not produce indole. They generally do not ferment lactose, although lactose-positive strains have
been noted.
Foodborne outbreaks of salmonellosis have been caused by a variety of foods,
primarily poultry, eggs, and meats. However, salmonellosis from consumption of
milk and dairy products has been reported131438*39 in which raw or improperly
pasteurized fluid milk, ice cream, and cheese were implicated as the vehicles of the
organism.13-14'29-40
The salmonellae are ubiquitous, being found worldwide in a wide variety of
sources including milk, meat, poultry, eggs, soil, water, sewage, pets and other animals, humans, feed processing environments, etc.
The optimum growth temperature for salmonellae varies from 35 to 37C, although many strains are capable of growing at 5 to 7C. The organism is heat sensitive and is readily inactivated by conventional pasteurization. However, Salmonella
seftenberg is generally recognized as more heat-resistant than most salmonella
strains. Thermal inactivation of salmonella depends on time-temperature of the heat
treatment, pH, and moisture content (Aw) of the food.
Yersinia. Previously classified as pasteurella, the genus Yersinia includes Yersinia
pestis, Y. pseudotuberculosis, Y. frederikensenii, Y. kristensenii, Y. intermedia,
Y. enterocolitica, and Y. ruckeri.41
7. enterocolitica is a Gram-negative, short, rod-shaped organism that is motile at
<30C but not at 37C. The organism is a psychrotroph capable of growing, albeit
slowly, in milk and dairy products stored at refrigeration temperatures. The optimal
growth temperature for Y. enterocolitica is 32 to 34 0 C. 42 " 44 It is a poor competitor
with common spoilage bacteria in milk at 4C.22 Yersiniae are remarkably tolerant
to bile salt and can survive better under alkaline conditions.
Outbreaks of yersiniosis implicating milk and milk products have been reported. 14 ' 4245 Y. enterocolitica is widespread in nature, having been isolated from
water, sewage, soil, and a wide variety of animals, particularly pigs.43 It should be
noted that only certain strains of Y. enterocolitica are considered pathogenic for man,
with most strains being environmental strains. Pathogenic strains of Yersinia may
be distinguished from nonpathogenic strains based on esculin hydrolysis and salicin
fermentation.42-43
Aeromonas. The genus Aeromonas belongs to the family Vibrionaceae. Aeromonas are facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative cocci or rods with rounded ends
(0.3 to 1.0 fim X 1.0 to 3.5 /zm). They are generally motile, with polar flagella, and
produce oxidase and catalase. The optimum and maximum growth temperatures for
Aeromonas are 28C and 42C, respectively. However, strains capable of growth at
5C have been reported.20-46"49 Aeromonas spp. can grow in nutrient broth containing 5% salt at 280C.46-49
Gram-Positive Cocci
This group includes aerobic or facultatively anaerobic Gram-positive, usually nonmotile spherical (0.5 to 1.5 /xm diameter) shaped organisms that are important in
the dairy industry as foodborne pathogens, causative agents of mastitis, thermoduric
spoilage organisms, and lactic starter cultures used in the manufacture of fermented
dairy foods.
Micrococcus. These are strictly aerobic, catalase-positive organisms that are found
in soil, water, dust, and on skins of human and animals. Micrococci occur in a variety
of foods, including milk and dairy products. Optimum growth temperatures of micrococci range from 25 to 37C, although most strains can grow at 100C but not at
45C. Micrococci can ferment glucose aerobically but not anaerobically and grow
in the presence of 5% salt.
Staphylococcus. This genus contains S. aureus, S. hyicus, S. epidermidis, and two
lesser known species, S. chromogenes and S. caprae.
Staphylococcus aureus is a well-known pathogen that can produce a heat-stable
enterotoxin implicated in several outbreaks of foodborne illness. It is coagulase positive and produces a variety of hemolysins and a thermostable nuclease. Some strains
of S. aureus produce an antibiotic-like substance, staphylococcin, that can inhibit
other staphylococcal strains. Staphylococcus aureus contamination in milk and dairy
products indicates contaminations from human sources. In contrast, S. epidermidis
is found on human skins and is coagulase negative. The organism produces hemolysin and thermostable nuclease; however activity of these two compounds is weak
compared to that produced by S. aureus.
Staphylococcus hyicus and S. chromogenes have been isolated from skins of pigs
and cows and from the milk of cows suffering from mastitis. Most strains of S. hyicus
do not show coagulase activity, although enterotoxigenic strains of S. hyicus have
been reported.50 5. chromogenes was considered a subspecies of 5. hyicus until 1986
when it was proposed as a separate species by Hajek et al.18 It is coagulase negative
and shows a negative or weakly positive thermostable nuclease activity.
S. caprae is a facultatively anaerobic organism isolated from goat's milk. It is
coagulase negative and has characteristic hemolysis and fermentation reactions useful in characterization and differentiation from other staphylococci.18
Streptococcus. This genus contains several organisms known to be associated with
milk. The lactic streptococci and enterococci belonged to the genus Streptococcus
until recently but now they have been classified in the genera Betacoccus and
Enterococcus, respectively.
The organisms classified in the genus Streptococcus are Gram-positive cocci,
occurring in pairs or chains, mostly nonmotile and facultatively anaerobic with some
strains being strictly anaerobic. Streptococcuspyogenes is a pathogen associated with
scarlet fever. Optimum growth temperature for growth of this organism is 37C with
no growth occurring at 10 or 45C. The genus Streptococcus also includes three
species important as the causative agent of bovine mastitisS. agalactiae, S. dys~
galactiae, and 5. uberis. S. agalactiae infections are readily controllable through
mastitis prevention programs instituted in the United States and herds may be certified Strep, ag. free following eradication of the organism in a herd through successful mastitis control programs. 5. pyogenes is classified in the Lancerfield group
A whereas S. agalactiae and S. dysgalactiae are classified in Lancefield group B
and C, respectively. These organisms have complex growth requirements and are
characterized on the basis of hemolysis on blood agar and hydrolysis of hippurate
and esculin.
Two other important species of the genus Streptococcus are Streptococcus zooepidemicus and Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus. The latter is a thermophilic bacterium used as a part of a mixed strain starter culture used in the manufacture of yogurt and Italian cheeses. S. thermophilus, as it was known earlier,
grows at 35 to 37C. It can grow at 45C, but not at 1O0C.
S. zooepidemicus is primarily an animal pathogen causing septicemia in cows. It
has been implicated as the cause of a food poisoning outbreak associated with the
consumption of raw milk cheese.51 The milk was obtained from cows with mastitis
caused by this organism.
Lactococcus. This genus contains a group of organisms formerly known as mesophilic lactic streptococciS. lactis, S. cremoris, and S. diacetylactis. These organisms are classified in Lancefield group N and have complex growth requirements.
Several strains are capable of producing nisin and bacteriocins which can inhibit
foodborne pathogens. The lactococci can produce lactic acid and other compounds
responsible for the characteristic flavor and aroma of fermented milk products such
as cheeses, cultured buttermilk, and sour cream. Some strains of L. lactis subsp.
lactis are also known to cause malty off-flavor in milk and dairy products. L. lactis
var. diacetylactis can metabolize citric acid to produce CO2 and diacetyl; the latter
is responsible for the characteristic "nutty," or "buttery" aroma of cultured butter,
buttermilk, and sour cream. Some strains can also produce H 2 O 2 and acetic acid and
inhibit pseudomonads, coliforms, and other contaminating organisms, including salmonella. The characteristics, functions, and plasmid-mediated properties of Lactococcus have been reviewed elsewhere.52"56
Leuconostoc. This genus contains Gram-positive, spherical to lenticular shaped
organisms that occur in either pairs or chains. Leuconostocs occur in milk and dairy
products, plant materials, fruits, and vegetables. They are heterofermentative, producing lactic acid, ethanol, and CO2 from glucose. Some leuconostocs, for example,
L. mesenteroides, produce extracellular polysaccharides leading to slime formation
in sugar solutions and other products. L. mesenteroides subsp. cremoris and L. mesenteroides subsp. dextranicum are mesophilic organisms used in combination with
lactococci in the production of cream cheese, cottage cheese, cultured buttermilk,
and quarg. The so-called dairy strains of Leuconostocs generally do not produce
slime, although dextran-producing strains of L. mesenteroides may be used to impact
body and texture of products such as ice cream. Some leuconostocs produce acetic
acid from citrate and may be used to control psychrotrophic spoilage (e.g., slime
production) in fermented milk products. Growth temperatures for leuconostocs range
from 10 to 37C, although most prefer 18 to 25C. L. lactic may grow at temperatures
up to 400C. It can also survive at 600C for 30 min.
monocytogenes
+
+
+
+
ivanovii
innocua
+
+
4+
Vb
welshimerei
seeligeri grayi
+
+
+
V
-f
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
murrayi
+
+
+
V
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
From Lovett.72
* V = variable.
short chains, lying parallel or in a " V " shape. Listeria exhibit a characteristic tumbling motility and a typical "umbrella" pattern in an appropriate motility medium
when grown at 200C. On a solid medium, listeria produce typical blue-gray colonies
when viewed by 45C incident transmitted light (Henry's illumination). Biochemically, Listeria resemble members of the genera Brochothrix, Erysipelothrix, Lactobacillus, and Kurthia, but can be differentiated from them based on motility, catalase
reaction, and glucose fermentation. A detailed differentiation of Listeria species is
given in Table 5.2.
Kurthia. These are Gram-positive, strictly aerobic, usually motile, often occurring
as unbranched or coccoid rods (0.8 to 1.2 ^m X 2.0 to 4.0 ^m). They are found in
meats and meat products, meat processing plants, intestinal contents, and in milk.
They are oxidase negative and grow optimally at 25 to 300C. The presence of Kurthia
may indicate improper handling of the product or contamination with animal feces.
A. bovis
A. pyogenes
/8
+
+
36C
300C
Mycobacteria
The genus Mycobacteriwn includes two species important in dairy microbiology:
M. tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis in humans, and M. bovis, which
causes tuberculosis in cattle, dogs, cats, primates, and man. The Mycobacterium spp.
are generally aerobic or rarely facultatively anaerobic, slightly curved or straight,
generally Gram-positive rods. These organisms can withstand acid/alcohol decolorization and hence are termed "acid-fast" organisms. They may be isolated and
characterized using procedures described by Jenkins et al.73 Mycobacteria have been
isolated from raw milk.74 They do not grow at 25C or 45C, but grow optimally at
37C. The advent of pasteurization of milk was primarily designed to inactivate
M. tuberculosis, and control tuberculosis.
5.2.2.3 Viruses
Viruses are ultramicroscopic, obligate parasites consisting of a nuclear material
(DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. They require biological host cells for
Significance
Saccharomyces
Candida
Yeastlike organismsfungi
imperfecti, short-ovoid or longer
cells, lactose fermentation and nitrate
assimilation may be positive or
negative
Kluyveromyces
Debaryomyces
Yeast
their growth and replication. They are classified into various groups according to
their morphology, host range, physicochemical characteristics, serological properties, and ability to lyse the host cell during replication. Viruses infect humans, animals, and plants and cause disease in susceptible hosts. Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages are important in the cheese industry. Because phages are host specific,
they may be used for typing or characterizing bacterial species or strains. In addition
to bacteriophages, viruses of importance in the dairy industry include those causing
poliomyelitis, cowpox, central European tickborne fever, and hepatitis.
Cowpox virus is a causative agent of lesions, vesicles, or pustules on teats of the
cow. It may be transmitted to the milkers, producing lesions on the back of the hands
or forearms and face. The virus is oval in shape, consisting of a multilayered covering
around a double-stranded DNA core.
Poliomyelitis virus is an icosohedral particle containing a single-stranded RNA
core, but no envelope. It can infect the central nervous system of the subject and
cause paralysis. The polio virus may be transmitted through raw and pasteurized
milk. It is inactivated by heat treatment of 74 to 76C, unless occurring in a concentration of >5 X 1O1VmI.18
Central European tickborne fever is a virus-borne disease that may be transmitted
through raw goat's milk. The virus is spherical shaped, consisting of a singlestranded RNA core enclosed within an envelope. It is readily inactivated by heat
treatment of 600C for 10 min.
Characteristics
Aspergillus
Penicillium
Geotrichum
Scopulariopsis
Sporendonema
Mucor
Rhizopus
Significance
In the cheese industry, bacteriophages are the primary cause of slow or dead vat
problems due to the failure of a lactic starter culture.75'76 The replication process of
a phage in a susceptible bacterial host follows four distinct steps: (1) adsorption and
attachment, (2) injection of the genetic material into the host cell, (3) production of
the phage particles within the host cell, and (4) lysis of the host cell. The newly
formed phages released in the environment on lysis of the host cell attach to new
host cells to continue the cycle. Occasionally, the genetic material from the phage
may become integrated into the host chromosome or it may be maintained in the
The curve is not completely linear because /x changes with temperature. Phillips and
Griffiths87 showed that the Arrhenius equation did not reflect the temperature profiles
of several psychrotrophs grown in dairy products because the JJL values depended
upon the bacterium and its growth medium. However, a square root plot: r =
b(T T0) where r = growth rate constant, b = slope of the regression line,
T = temperature (K), T0 = temperature below which the microorganisms cannot
grow, predicted the effects of temperature on the growth of psychrotrophs in dairy
products. This confirmed the research of Reichardt and Morita88 when they studied
16 psychrotrophic and psychrophilic bacteria, but could not establish a relationship
between /x and the optimum growth rate that was valid to classify microorganisms
as psychrophiles, psychrotrophs, nonpsychrotrophic mesophiles, and thermophiles.
Stannard et al.89 concluded that the square root plot can be used to establish the
lowest growth temperature that can serve as a classification tool for psychrotrophs,
nonpsychrotrophic mesophiles, and thermophiles.
Microorganisms that grow at low temperatures must have substrate uptake, cell
permeability, enzyme systems, and synthetic pathways that function at low temperatures. Some theories about the growth of psychrotrophs involve the generation of
low //,-values, presence of unsaturated fatty acids in the cell membranes, conformational changes in the ribosomal proteins and regulatory enzymes, substrate uptake,
and cell permeability.6'9'84"86
The generation times of Gram-negative psychrotrophs range from 3.5 to 17 h at
5 to 70C.6-90 Spohr and Schiitz91 reported that P. fluorescens had generation times
of 6 and 4.5 h at 4 and 8C, respectively, with no lag period. Pseudomonas species
generally have the fastest generation at these temperatures. Gram-positive bacteria
have generation times ranging from 6 to 36 h at 5 to 7C. Micrococcus species have
generation times over 20 h compared to the Bacillus species.90 Griffiths and
Phillips92 reported that B. circulans had generation times of 19 to 36 h at 2C in
whole milk. All strains of Bacillus studied had generation times of 7 to 23 h at 6C
in whole milk. For Pseudomonas species, the presence of air can shorten the generation time, especially at low temperatures. Hence, this genus generally becomes
dominant when raw milk is stored for several days. Bloquel and Veillet-Poncet93
reported that raw milk initially had 41% Gram-negative bacteria (mainly Pseudomonas and Achromobacter species), but after 96 h at 4C, 88% were Gram-negative
bacteria comprised of about 73% fluorescent pseudomonads and only 12% were
Gram-positive bacteria (mainly Micrococcus species). Shelley et al.94 reported that
>90% of raw milk samples in an Australian study were pseudomonads, particularly
P. fluorescens and P.fragi, which produced heat-stable Upases. Kroll et al.95 found
that the proteolytic microflora of raw milk consisted of 83% P. fluorescens.
The major Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria are listed in Tables 5.6 and
5.7, respectively. Psychrotrophic fungi can be associated with refrigerated milk and
dairy products, and among the yeast genera are Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaryomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, Rhodotorula, Saccharomyces, Torulopsis, and
Trichosporon.6'99 Mold genera that have psychrotrophic strains include Alternaria,
Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Mucor, Penicillium, and Rhizopus.9**100 Fungi become important in refrigerated dairy product spoilage when
Genus
Achromobacter
Acinetobacter
Aeromonas
Alcaligenes
Alteromonas
Chromobacterium
Citrobacter
Cytophaga
Enterobacter
Escherichia
Flavobacterium
Klebsiella
Moraxella
Proteus
Pseudomonas
Serratia
a
Lipase
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-f
4-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Genus"
Arthrobacter
Bacillus
Clostridium
Corynebacterium
Lactobacillus
Microbacterium
Micrococcus
Staphylococcus
Streptococcus
b
Aerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Aerobe
Aerobe or facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Proteinase
After Bloquel and Veillet-Poncet,92 Cogan,95 Cousin,6 Mottar,97 Suhren,90 and Walker.98
Table 5.7
Rods
Rods to cocci
Rods to cocci
Rods to cocci
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods to cocci
Rods
Rods
Rods
Relative to Oxygen
Cell Shape
Relative to Oxygen
Proteinase
Lipase
Rods to cocci
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Diphtheroid rods
Cocci
Cocci
Cocci
Aerobe
Aerobe or facultative anaerobe
Anaerobe
Aerobe or facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe
+
+
+
4-
+
+
water activity (Aw), acidity, and processing method become more favorable for them
than for bacteria in cheese, yogurt, and other fermented dairy products.
type of microorganisms and the numbers present, the conditions of production, the
temperature and length of storage, the season of the year, and other such factors.6-90
Griffiths and Phillips92 found that psychrotrophic Bacillus species were in 58%
of the milks in bulk tank milk collected between May and June in Scotland. Counts
of spores were between 30 to 920/L (average 460/L). Unclean bulk tanks contributed
most to the presence of the spores of Bacillus cereus, B. circulans, B. mycoides, and
other Bacillus species in milk. Coghill and Juffs101 isolated similar Bacillus species
from milk and cream in Australia. McKinnon and Pettipher102 found that heatresistant spore-forming bacteria in milk came from the teat of the cow and to a lesser
extent from improperly cleaned milking equipment. Other heat-resistant, psychrotrophic bacteria that have been isolated from milk include species of Aerococcus,
Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, Microbacterium, Micrococcus, and Streptococcus.103'105 Heat-resistant ascospores of Byssochlamys nivea can also be isolated from
raw milk and may be present in cheese and other fermented dairy products.106
D values at 92C ranged from 1.6 to 1.9 S for cream.
The growth of microorganisms in milk and dairy products will be a function of
storage temperature, time, and generation time (growth rate) of contaminants. Griffiths and Phillips107 developed a relationship between storage temperature and microbial growth using linear relationships between temperature and the square root
of the specific growth rate of psychrotrophs over 2 to 220C and between temperature
and the square root of the reciprocal of lag time. There were highly significant
relationships between these factors of specific growth rate and lag time and temperature. Generally Pseudomonas spp. were isolated most frequently at 2C but as the
temperature increased to 21C, they made up only 10% of the population. Other
Gram-negative bacteria (Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Moraxella,
and Aeromonas) remained constant regardless of temperature. The Enterobacteriaceae, (mainly species of Enterobacter, Escherichia, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, and
Serratia) remained constant at 3 to 100C, but became more dominant as the temperatures increased to 210C. Similarly, Gram-positive cocci (Micrococcus and Streptococcus species) increased as temperatures increased and they predominated above
16C. Hence, milk stored at below 5C will most likely be populated by Pseudomonas species.
P.fluorescens when 105 to 106 cfu/ml were reached because malate was decarboxylated to pyruvate and carbon dioxide. L-Lactate decreased when cell counts reached
107 to 108 cfu/ml and glucose-3-P increased. Bacterial lipases and proteases were
noted when microbial numbers reached 107 to 108 cfu/ml. Citric acid cycle intermediates can stimulate the synthesis of proteases and lipases by psychrotrophs.108
Glucose, lactate, pyruvate, acetate, and citric acid repressed the production of proteinases by psychrotrophs, especially Pseudomonas species. These psychrotrophs
will normally use nonprotein and nonlipid carbon sources before using the more
complex proteins and lipids.
Proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes can be produced when conditions are favorable
for their production. McKellar108 has reviewed the conditions that regulate enzyme
synthesis. Generally, temperature, pH, oxygen, and nutrients exert the greatest effect
on proteinase and lipase synthesis. Griffiths109 reported that both proteinases and
lipases were maximally synthesized during the late exponential to stationary growth
phases when P. fluorescens strains were grown at 6 to 210C but not at 2C.
McKellar110 found that proteinase production was 55% greater at 20 than at 5C.
Similar results for maximal proteinase and lipase production during late logarithmic
and stationary phases were reported by Stead.111 More lipase was produced at low
temperatures of 4 to 100C than at 200C.112-113 Flavobacterium spp. also produced
more proteinase in the late logarithmic and early stationary phases, but they could
not grow well at 70C,114 The amount of enzymes synthesized depended on the strain
and there was little difference between synthesis in whole and skim milk. Griffiths
and Phillips115 found that aeration of milk increased lipolysis (mainly due to native
milk lipoprotein lipase) and decreased proteolysis due to catabolite repression by
glucose. Bucky et al.113 also reported that lipase production increased when milk
was aerated and could be noted in the early logarithmic growth for P. fluorescens.
When milk was flushed with nitrogen, proteolytic psychrotrophs grew slowly, but
did not produce proteinases after 18 days of storage at 4C, suggesting that oxygen
is important for proteinase production.116
Much research has been done on the growth of psychrotrophs in milk and dairy
products.6'110-115-117 Degradation of proteins and lipids by psychrotrophs or their
heat-stable enzymes has been the subject of several recent reviews. 99117 " 119 The
presence of psychrotrophs or their enzymes in milk and dairy products directly correlates with decreased shelf life, development of off-flavors and odors, decreased
product yield, gel formation in liquid products, and defective manufactured products.6'95'120"122 There are several published reports over the last 10 years on the
decreased yield in cheese manufacture due to proteolysis that results in loss of casein
protein with the whey.123"129 The length of milk storage at low temperatures, counts
of >10 6 psychrotrophs/ml of milk, temperature of storage, and types of psychrotrophs affect the amount of decreased yield for both nonripened and ripened cheeses.
The proteinases produced by psychrotrophs in milk selectively degrade the casein
proteins, especially K-, /3-, and a-casein.6'99 Patel et al.4 found that extracellular heatresistant proteases of Pseudomonas spp. degraded a-, /c-, /3-, and y-caseins to different degrees depending on the strain. a-Casein was a good substrate for most of
these strains. Generally, K-casein is degraded first and this has implications for cheese
Next Page
manufacture where /c-casein is important for rennet coagulation." Also, the age
gelation of UHT milk has been attributed to K-casein. The size of the casein micelle
decreased with increasing growth of psychrotrophic bacteria to populations >10 8
cfu/ml.130 Hence, the degradation of casein during milk storage can have detrimental
effects on final dairy product quality.
Most psychrotrophs are killed by normal pasteurization temperatures; however,
some species and strains of Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium,
Lactobacillus, Microbacterium, Micrococcus, and Streptococcus can survive pasteurization and cause problems in finished products.6'103 Cromie et al. 104 ' 105 have
shown that aseptically packaged pasteurized milk changes the spoilage microflora
to Bacillus species. Also, some of the lipase and proteinase activity will remain after
pasteurization, even after UHT processing, because these enzymes are heat stable.
Proteinases can have high heat resistances at UHT processing. Two Pseudomonas
proteinases had D values of 4.8 and 6.2 min at 1400C.122 Cogan95 reviewed the heat
resistance of lipases and proteinases from psychrotrophs that grew in milk and reported values from 0.2 to 54 min at 66 to 74C for lipases and 54 to 950 min for
proteinases at 71 to 74C. Similar information is reviewed by Kroll2 and Linden.131
Low-temperature inactivation of these enzymes has been reported at temperatures
from 50 to 600C depending on the enzyme studied.2'131132 Leinmiiller and
Christophersen133 reported that a proteinase from P. fluorescens was completely
inactivated after 15 min at 500C. Kumera et al.134 recently presented data suggesting
that the production of proteinases helped to stabilize lipases to heat. Therefore, the
presence of enzymes produced by psychrotrophs growing in milk and dairy products
can lead to both quality and economic losses for dairy processors. Ways to prevent
psychrotrophic growth are very important for dairy product quality.
Previous Page
manufacture where /c-casein is important for rennet coagulation." Also, the age
gelation of UHT milk has been attributed to K-casein. The size of the casein micelle
decreased with increasing growth of psychrotrophic bacteria to populations >10 8
cfu/ml.130 Hence, the degradation of casein during milk storage can have detrimental
effects on final dairy product quality.
Most psychrotrophs are killed by normal pasteurization temperatures; however,
some species and strains of Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium,
Lactobacillus, Microbacterium, Micrococcus, and Streptococcus can survive pasteurization and cause problems in finished products.6'103 Cromie et al. 104 ' 105 have
shown that aseptically packaged pasteurized milk changes the spoilage microflora
to Bacillus species. Also, some of the lipase and proteinase activity will remain after
pasteurization, even after UHT processing, because these enzymes are heat stable.
Proteinases can have high heat resistances at UHT processing. Two Pseudomonas
proteinases had D values of 4.8 and 6.2 min at 1400C.122 Cogan95 reviewed the heat
resistance of lipases and proteinases from psychrotrophs that grew in milk and reported values from 0.2 to 54 min at 66 to 74C for lipases and 54 to 950 min for
proteinases at 71 to 74C. Similar information is reviewed by Kroll2 and Linden.131
Low-temperature inactivation of these enzymes has been reported at temperatures
from 50 to 600C depending on the enzyme studied.2'131132 Leinmiiller and
Christophersen133 reported that a proteinase from P. fluorescens was completely
inactivated after 15 min at 500C. Kumera et al.134 recently presented data suggesting
that the production of proteinases helped to stabilize lipases to heat. Therefore, the
presence of enzymes produced by psychrotrophs growing in milk and dairy products
can lead to both quality and economic losses for dairy processors. Ways to prevent
psychrotrophic growth are very important for dairy product quality.
5.4.2 Lactoperoxidase
The lactoperoxidase system has been extensively studied. Reviews by Ekstrand,135
Reiter,136-137 and Reiter and Harnulv,139 can be consulted for more detail on the
history, background, and biological functions of this inhibitory enzyme. The lactoperoxidase enzyme catalyzes the reaction of H 2 O 2 + SCN" -> OSCN" + H2O;
hence, both hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate are essential to the antimicrobial
activity. Lactoperoxidase is present in bovine milk in the whey proteins at concentrations from 10 to 30 /xg/ml of milk depending on the cow and its breed.136137-140
Lactoperoxidase is a basic glycoprotein with a molecular weight of about 77,000
and iron (Fe3 + ) heme group.135 It has its highest activity at pH 4 to 7 which would
be in the range for fresh milk. Hernandez et al.141 isolated and further characterized
lactoperoxidase from bovine milk.
There is little hydrogen peroxide in milk, but it can be produced by lactic acid
bacteria that contaminate the milk. Also, if free oxygen is present in milk, hydrogen
peroxide can be produced by reactions with xanthine oxidase, copper sulfhydryl
oxidase, and ascorbic acid. 136137140 Because hydrogen peroxide is not very stable,
it can be reduced by catalase or bound to enzymes, such as lactoperoxidase.
Thiocyanate is present in bovine milk in up to 15 ppm, especially in milk that
has a high somatic cell count. 1 3 6 1 3 7 1 3 9 1 4 0 Thiocyanate is a common anion that is
present in many animal tissues (mammary glands, salivary glands, stomach, kidneys,
etc.) and secretions (cerebral fluid, saliva, lymph fluid, plasma, etc.). The type of
feed, especially clover and feed containing glucosides, affects the concentration of
thiocyanate. The health of the cow affects the thiocyanate level because cows with
diseases such as mastitis contain more leucocytes and obtain the increased thiocyanate concentration from the blood. 1 3 6 1 3 7 1 3 9 1 4 0
The mode of bacterial inhibition by the lactoperoxidase system involves a change
in the cytoplasmic membrane because hypothiocyanate (OSCN") binds to the free
SH-groups of key enzymes, causing the pH gradient to drop and potassium and
amino acids to leak from the cell. 135 " 137 ' 140 ' 142 ' 143 This prevents the uptake of carbohydrates, amino acids, and other nutrients because their transport mechanisms are
inhibited. Further activities of the cell involved in protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis
are disrupted. Gram-negative bacteria are more readily killed and lysed by the lactoperoxidase system than the Gram-positive bacteria. This is probably due to the
differences in both cell wall composition and thickness. Some Gram-positive streptococci are resistant to the hypothiocyanate.
lactoperoxidase system can extend the refrigerated keeping quality for both raw and
pasteurized milk.
Because psychrotrophs grow in raw refrigerated milk and produce proteolytic and
lipolytic enzymes, they can create problems for products made from this stored milk.
Research has been done on the use of the lactoperoxidase system to improve the
quality of cheese and other cultured dairy products. Reiter144 and Reiter and
Harnulv138 reported that milk where lactoperoxidase system was activated resulted
in cheese that was judged as normal in flavor after 4 months of storage, whereas the
control cheese from untreated milk was labeled as rancid and had high free fatty
acid profiles. Ahrne and Bjorck150 reported that the lactoperoxidase system could
inhibit lipoprotein lipase activity in milk, and lipolysis was decreased. The treated
cheeses also gave higher yields because the proteolytic degradation by psychrotrophs
was suppressed. Lara et al.151 also noted a 1 to 2% (wet weight) increase in the
lactoperoxidase-activated raw and pasteurized milk cheeses, respectively; however,
acid production and microbial growth of the starters were reduced. ZaIl et al. 152 ' 153
noted that acid production during cheddaring and weaker curds were seen for Cheddar cheese produced from milk with an activated lactoperoxidase system. These
cheeses also did not develop the typical Cheddar flavor within 6 months as expected.
Cottage cheese made from this milk was also judged by trained panelists as having
a distinctly different flavor.153 Yogurt and buttermilk made from milk that had an
activated lactoperoxidase system took longer to make than controls because the
culture grew slower.152 The experimental buttermilk had an objectionable flavor, but
the yogurt could not be differentiated from the control. Kamau and Kroger154 also
found that the rennet coagulation time and acid production by starter cultures were
slower in the lactoperoxidase-activated systems than in control milks. Earnshaw et
al.155 added lactoperoxidase, potassium thiocyanate, glucose oxidase, glucose, and
urea peroxide to cottage cheese to simulate the lactoperoxidase system. This system
effectively reduced the populations of added Pseudomonas spp., E. coli, and Salmonella thyphimurium. The use of the lactoperoxidase system for controlling the
growth of psychrotrophs in milk used for cultured product manufacture has both
desirable and undesirable consequences. The treated milk has lower microbial counts
and generally results in high product yields; however, the coagulation rate, acid
production, and flavor are not produced in a time similar to that of control products.
The lactoperoxidase system inhibits E. coli and other Gram-negative bacteria in
milk. Because milk and dairy products have been implicated in several foodborne
disease outbreaks in recent years, there has been renewed interest in ways to prevent
pathogens from growing to dangerous levels. Research has been done on the use of
the lactoperoxidase system to inhibit some pathogenic bacteria that can grow in milk.
Zajac et al.156 found that the lactoperoxidase system decreased the vegetative cells
of Bacillus cereus, but had no effect on the spores, because the plasma membrane
is not accessible. Campylobacter jejuni rapidly decreased in raw or heated milk when
the lactoperoxidase system was activated.157 The lactoperoxidase system was also
effective against strains of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria innocua depending
on the cell number, temperature, and medium.158159 Generally, low numbers (<100
cfu/ml) could be inactivated at 4 to 35C and decreases in populations were noted
for higher temperatures. Kamau et al.160 reported that both L. monocytogenes and
S. aureus were inactivated more rapidly when heated at 50 to 600C after the lactoperoxidase system was activated. There were both decreased lag times and lower
D values, showing that these bacteria were more sensitive to heat once the lactoperoxidase system was activated. The safety of milk in relation to foodborne pathogens can be increased by the use of the lactoperoxidase system in combination with
heat and other preservation methods.
The lactoperoxidase system could also be beneficial in countries where cooling
milk before transporting to dairy processing plants is not possible. The activation of
the lactoperoxidase system with 10 ppm thiocyanate and sodium percarbonate to
generate 8.5 ppm of hydrogen peroxide resulted in increased keeping quality of milk
during transportation at 27 to 300C.138 Bjorck et al.161 showed that the activation of
the lactoperoxidase system with 5 ppm thiocyanate and 7.5 ppm hydrogen peroxide
helped to preserve milk in Kenya. The reaction was inversely related to the temperature of storage. The bacteriostatic effect lasted for 7 to 8 h at 300C, 11 to 12 at
25C, 15 to 16 h at 200C, and 24 to 26 h at 15C during laboratory trials. In actual
field conditions, the milk was treated at the collection station and then sent to the
dairy plant which took 3 to 6 h at 27 to 300C. After the activation of the lactoperoxidase system 88% of the samples had a resasurin reading of 6 after 10 min
compared to 26% for the controls. Ridley and Shalo162 studied the use of activation
of the lactoperoxidase system and a combination of the lactoperoxidase system and
evaporative cooling to extend the shelf life of milk in Kenya. The lactoperoxidase
system reduced the total plate count by 1 log cycle and the combination of lactoperoxidase plus evaporative cooling reduced the count by 2 log cycles. In Sri Lanka
both the bovine and buffalo milks were stabilized by the activation of the lactoperoxidase system once the milk reached collection centers 3 to 6 h after milking.163
With temperatures ranging from 20 to 33C, the milk could be kept for 4 to 9 h
longer than when not treated. These results show that the use of the lactoperoxidase
system in countries where milk cannot be refrigerated can help to extend the shelf
life during transportation and storage before milk can be shipped to processing plants.
5,4.3 Lactoferrin
Lactoferrin is an iron-binding protein in milk that has antimicrobial activity.135"138
Bovine milk contains 0.02 to 0.35 mg/ml of lactoferrin.136'137 Lactoferrin is a glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 76,500 that has two metal binding sites that
bind ferric ions and bicarbonic ions. The citrate concentration of milk is important
because it can exchange the iron chelated by lactoferrin and this can cause loss of
the bacteriostatic activity. Lactoferrin inhibits only bacteria with high iron requirements, such as coliforms but has no effect on bacteria that require a low amount of
iron. 136137 The bacteriostatic effect of lactoferrin is temporary because some Gramnegative bacteria can adapt to low iron and synthesize iron chelators. Ellison et al.164
found that lactoferrin damaged the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and
caused permeability problems. Very little research has been done on the use of
lactoferrin as an antimicrobial agent in milk.
5.4.4 Lysozyme
Lysozyme is a small basic protein that has a molecular weight of 15,000.136'137
Bovine milk contains 13 fig of lysozyme/100 ml. Lysozyme has three functions:
(1) a direct enzymatic effect that degrades the bacterial cell peptidoglycans and
polysaccharides of Gram-positive bacteria; (2) an indirect enzymatic effect is seen
when the peptidoglycan is cleaved to yield muramyldipeptide and an immunostimulating effect is produced; and (3) the positively charged lysozyme can neutralize
the negatively charged groups on the bacterial cell membranes.135 Lysozyme has
found its greatest use in inactivating vegetative cells and germinating spores of
Bacillus and Clostridium.136'131 Wasserfall and Teuber165 used 500 U/ml of egg
white lysozyme to kill vegetative cells of Clostridium tyrobutyricum; however,
spores were resistant. A 1-day delay in outgrowth of spores into vegetative cells
could account for the "late gas" defect in Edam and Gouda cheeses. Countries such
as Germany, Italy, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, Spain, as well as Australia,
have experimented with (some have even approved) the use of lysozyme to prevent
the "late gas" defect due to butyric acid fermentation by Clostridium species in
semihard and hard cheeses including Gouda, Emmenthal, Provolone, Edam, and
others.166'167 Lysozyme hydrolyzes the peptidoglycan in clostridia and other Grampostive bacteria. Lysozyme is added to the cheese milk and 99% stays with the
casein and remains active during ripening. Bester and Lombard168 found that 250
U/ml of lysozyme inhibited vegetative growth of C. tyrobutyricum but spores were
not inhibited and germination was stimulated. Lactobacillus spp. were inhibited only
if concentrations of lysozyme were >500 to 1000 U/ml. Starter cultures composed
of Lactococcus and Leuconostoc species were not affected; hence, they could grow
normally in the presence of lysozyme. El-Gendy et al. 169 also showed that 0.02%
hydrogen peroxide could inhibit Clostridium species involved in "late gas" formation in cheese. Griffiths and Phillips170 found that lysozyme did not inhibit growth
of psychrotrophic Bacillus spp. in milk. Therefore, lysozyme can find specific uses
to prevent gas formation in cheese by Clostridium species.
Bacteriocin
Lactobacillus helveticus
Lactocin 27
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Helveticin J
Lactacin B
Lactobacillus plantarum
Lactacin F
Lactolin
Plantaricin A
Nisin
Diplococcin
Lactostrepcins
pediocin A
Pediococcus pentosaceus
Klaenhammer.178
membrane function. Sulfhydryl groups in the cytoplasmic membrane were inactivated by nisin, affecting both spore and the vegetative cell.181-182 Nisin is thought
to inhibit the swelling process for spore germination. Nisin (100 RU/ml) enhanced
spore germination for some psychrotrophic strains of Bacillus in milk186 and made
them easier to inactivate by heat. Nisin is rapidly degraded in the stomach, does not
result in sensitized human intestinal microflora, and is accepted for food use in 49
countries.181 In the United States, nisin use is limited to pasteurized cheese and
process cheese spreads.180 The antibotulinal effectiveness of nisin has been
shown.187 FDA set the daily intake to 2.9 mg nisin/day/person. In other countries
nisin is used for preserving processed cheese spreads, pasteurized dairy desserts,
milk in countries without adequate refrigeration, and canned evaporated
milks.181-182'188 Additional success has been observed with pasteurized double
cream189 and prevention of butyric acid fermentation in cheese.190
Other bacteriocins have also been evaluated for their antimicrobial activity. Pediocin AH, produced by Pediococcus acidilactici, adsorbed to Gram-positive bacterial surfaces and caused loss of potassium and other cellular components.191 Another pediocin, PA-1-bacteriocin, was bactericidal to Listeria monocytogenes}92
Lactobacillus acidophilus produces lactacin B that is bactericidal to other Lactobacillus species as well as Enterococcus faecalis.193 Pulusani et al.194 partially purified antimicrobial compounds produced by Streptococcus thermophilus that were
low molecular weight (700) amines; however, they were not classified as bacterio-
cins. These compounds inhibited Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Salmonella and Shigella species. Although it is not commonly considered a
lactic acid bacterium, Bifidobacterium bifidwn produced antibacterial activity that
inhibited S. aureus, Bacillus cereus, E. coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Salmonella
typhosa, and Shigella dysenteriae in skim milk medium.195 Several lactic acid bacteria produce antimicrobial compounds; however, not all of them have enough specificity to be of general use for preserving dairy products. The ones that are active
against bacterial foodborne pathogens, such as L. monocytogenes, should undergo
more research and product trials to determine the extent of their preservation
potential.
Other preservation compounds have been evaluated for specific applications.
Three of these are Micrograd, natamycin, and nitrate. Microgard is a preservative
that is made by fermenting grade A skim milk with Propionibacterium shermanii
followed by pasteurization.172 This product is approved for food use by the FDA
because it extends the shelf life of foods, especially refrigerated dairy products.
Microgard is bacteriostatic to mainly Gram-negative bacteria and some molds and
yeasts but not Gram-positive bacteria.172 Weber and Broich128 showed that Microgard at 0.4% in cottage cheese was bacteriostatic against Gram-negative bacteria
and increased the keeping quality at 7C by 91%. In yogurt and sour cream, 0.5%
Microgard inhibited molds and yeasts. Salih et al.196 showed that Microgard extended the shelf life of yogurt and cottage cheese. The effect was concentration
dependent for inhibition of yeasts in yogurt. Molds and Gram-negative bacteria were
inhibited in cottage cheese. Gram-positive pathogenic Bacillus cereus, Listeria
monocytogenes, and 5. aureus were not inhibited by Micrograd and some strains
were even stimulated by this product.197 Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria, such
as Salmonella typhimurium, S. paratyphi, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Aeromonas
hydrophila were sensitive to Microgard at pH 5.3 in an agar assay. Microgard is
used at 1% in cottage cheese, yogurt, and dairy based salad dressing with the greatest
use in cottage cheese.197 Microgard contains propionic acid, diacetyl, acetic acid,
and lactic acid in addition to the heat-stable proteinaceous components with a molecular weight of 700. 172 Natamycin or pimarcin is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces natalaensis that inhibits molds and yeasts.180 The FDA has approved the
use of 200 to 300 /ig/ml maximum concentrations of natamycin for inhibition of
mold on the surface of cheese that has a standard of identity that allows use of mold
inhibitors. Morris and Castbert198 showed that natamycin at 1000 ppm prevented
unacceptable mold and yeast growth on blue cheese during curing. Natamycin did
not penetrate into cheese nor did it cause the cheese to have off-flavors like those
treated with potassium sorbate.199 Butyric acid fermentation is a problem in some
European cheeses, such as Edam, Gouda, Emmenthal, Gruyere, and others. Nitrate
from 1 to 15 g/100 L of milk helped to decrease the level of spores in cheese because
the xanthine oxidase could reduce nitrate to nitrite and prevent growth of germinating
spores.200 The need to control specific groups of microorganisms will result in the
use of inhibitors that are approved for limited use. This is demonstrated by the
selective approval of chemical inhibitors for specific foods.
15 sec) was used to produce dried skim milk.222 Thermization decreased the psychrotrophic count to < 100 cfu/ml, but had no effect on spore or thermoduric counts.
Thermization can be used to reduce some pathogens in raw milk. Yersinia enterocolitica was not recovered from thermized milk if levels were <10 5 cells/ml.223 No
results have been reported for other dairy pathogens.
Preheat treatments can also be used to decrease enzyme levels and activate spores
so that pasteurization can then affect the other bacteria. Psychrotrophic bacteria
produce proteases and lipases that are stable to heat treatments given to milk and
dairy products. These enzymes can be irreversibly inactivated by temperatures close
to those for enzyme activity.2 This has been called "low temperature inactivation"
and has been well documented.2 Protease from Pseudomonas fluorescens was inactivated rapidly at 55C in both pH 6.6 and 4.5 solutions of casein.224 Self-digestion
resulting in low molecular weight compounds was suggested. Guamis et al.225 found
that 45C for 5 min or 85C for 45 s completely inactivated proteases of Flavobacterium sp. and drastically decreased Cytophaga sp. protease, but were not effective
toward P. fluorescens protease. Temperatures of 50 to 57C were generally successful at inactivating proteases of Pseudomonas spp.; however, above 600C there was
little inactivation.2 The mechanism was an autolytic process. Low temperature inactivation has also been shown for lipases. Senyk et al.226 found that 43 to 100%
inactivation of lipase activity could be noted after treatments of 57.2 to 82.2C for
10 s. Variable results were reported by Fitz-Gerald et al.227 for 20 lipases heated
at 55 to 1000C. More research is needed on the inactivation of lipases by low temperatures.
Psychrotrophic Bacillus spp. need to be effectively controlled in milk. Because
pasteurization does not eliminate Bacillus spores, temperatures that activate spores
before pasteurization are needed. Griffiths and Phillips228 found that 95C for 5 to
15 s was sufficient to heat activate 13 Bacillus spp. in milk. After 24 h at 8C, a
pasteurization treatment of 74C for 15 s was given to the milk. Premaratne and
Cousin229 found that a heat treatment of 800C for 10 min followed by incubation at
32C for 4 h and then a pasteurization of 72C for 15 s eliminated a Bacillus cereus
contaminant that concentrated during ultrafiltration. In products where Bacillus
spores can be problematic, an activated heat treatment followed by a germination
step will be necessary before the milk is pasteurized and further processed.
The removal of bacteria by centrifugation has been used in Europe for preprocessing of cheese milks. Sillen230 reported that the use of centrifuges to remove
bacteria (bactofugation) at 600C resulted in a 98 to 99% reduction in anaerobic spores
that cause late fermentation in cheese. During centrifugation, about 3% of the milk
has the high bacterial count. This fraction can be heated at UHT temperatures of 135
to 14O0C to kill the bacteria and then it is remixed with the rest of the milk. Waes
and Van Heddeghem231 outlined a method for removal of bacterial spores from milk
to be used for the manufacture of Edam, Gouda, and Tilsiter cheese. Centrifugation
plus addition of 2.5 g of KNO3/100 L centrifuged milk may be necessary to prevent
butyric acid fermentation of these cheeses. Bactofugation can also be used for the
removal of bacteria from milk to be used for UHT processing of milk.232 Centrifugation can be useful in removing bacteria from milk; however, it can also result in
loss of 2.5 to 3.5% of the total milk with most loss being protein.231 Centrifugation
can be useful for preprocessing of some milk before it is used to make a dairy
product.
5.5 Mastitis
Mastitis is defined as an inflammation of the mammary gland regardless of the
cause.36 Most mastitis occurs in a subclinical form where the characteristic signs and
symptoms are not readily detectable by visual examination of milk using a strip cup
or by manual palpation of the udder. The clinical form of mastitis is evident by
inflammatory swelling, fibrosis, and the atrophy of mammary tissue. Acute inflammatory swelling is also accompanied by hurt and pain. The clinical mastitis is also
evident by marked abnormality in secretion, such as blood clots or abnormal color
in milk.
Table 5.9
Constituents
Solids-Not-Fat
Fat
Lactose
Total protein
Casein
Whey proteins
Serum albumin
Sodium
Chloride
Potassium
Calcium
Table 5.10
Normal Milk
(%)
Abnormal Milk
(%)
8.9
3.5
4.9
3.61
2.8
0.8
0.02
.057
.091
0.173
0.12
8.8
3.2
4.4
3.56
2.3
1.3
.07
0.105
.147
0.157
.04
Percent Change
__
-9
-10
-1
-18
+ 62
+ 250
+ 84
+ 61
-9
-66
Subclinical
Milk production loss
Clinical
Death and premature culling of cows and reduced cows sale value
Discarded or downgraded milk
Treatment, labor, and veterinarian service
a
70
13
14
9
indicate that mastitis costs dairy producers up to $2 billion per year or $180 to $200
per cow annually.37
Economic losses to the dairy industry are attributed to decreased milk production,
discarding of abnormal milk, losses of milk from cows treated with antibiotics,
culling of cows, veterinarian services, and treatment costs (Table 5.10).
The losses are compounded when mastitic milk is combined with milk for manufacturing purposes. Low cheese yields and lower quality grades of cheese are often
related to mastitic milk.240 Also, the potential for milk adulteration with residues of
antibiotics and sulfa drugs used for treating mastitic cows poses a very serious problem for the dairy industry37
Microorganism
Source
Streptococcus
agalactiae
Infected udders
Cow-to-cow at
milking time
Staphylococcus
aureus
Infected udders;
teat sores
Cow-to-cow at
milking time
Environmental
streptococci
Environment
Environmentto-cow
Environment
Environmentto-cow
Coliforms
Control Measures
mation, teat injury, lesions, etc. The tests for detection of mastitis include such
cowside tests as the California Mastitis Test (CMT) or electrical conductivity test
(e.g., Mas-D-Tec). Other tests for detection of mastitis and abnormal milk include
the Wisconsin Mastitis Test (WMT), the catalase test, the Nagase Test, the filterDNA test, and the modified Whiteside Test. These are commonly used as screening
tests. However, milk samples showing positive screening tests and therefore probability of mastitis in cows must be subjected to the confirmatory tests. The two
confirmatory tests commonly used in the dairy industry are the Direct Microscopic
Somatic Cell Counts (DMSCC) and the Electronic Somatic Cell Counts (EMSCC).
Details of the diagnostic tests for mastitis are described elsewhere.58'234'241
Microbiological procedures for isolation and characterization of specific pathogens are often used in diagnosis of mastitis. Cultures of milk samples from individual
quarters or of composite samples from all four quarters of individual cows are plated
on blood agar for detecting mastitic pathogens. Differentiation and characterization
of pathogens is done by colony morphology, hemolysis reaction, CAMP-esculin test,
catalase and coagulation tests, and various other biochemical reactions.
Microbiological diagnostics of intramammary pathogens can be very useful in
determining prevention and treatment of mastitis.
Notable Diseases/Pathogens
1900-1920
1920-1940
1940-1960
1960-1980
Product
Country
Pathogen
Cases
Deaths
1981
Raw milk
Raw milk
Powdered milk
Switzerland
Scotland
U.S.A.
C. jejuni
S. typhimurium
Y. enterocolitica
500
654
239
0
2
0
1982
Pasteurized milk
Pasteurized milk
U.S.A.
England and
Wales
Scandinavia
Y. enterocolitica 0:13
C. jejuni
172
400
0
0
50
S. zooepidemicus
E. coli 0:27
16
169
2
0
L. monocytogenes
49
14
12
French brie/Camembert
cheese
S. sonnei
U.S.A.
Raw milk
S. zooepidemicus
Cheddar cheese
England and
Wales
Canada
S. typhimurium PTlO
1,500
1985
Pasteurized milk
Pasteurized milk
Pasteurized milk
Powdered milk
Mexican style cheese
Vacherin cheese
U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Sweden
U.K.
U.S.A.
Switzerland
5. typhimurium
S. aureus
S. Saint pul
S. ealing
L. monocytogenes 4b
S. typhimurium
18,284
860
153
48
181
22
7
0
0
1
65
0
1988
Raw milk
Canada
E. coli 0157:H7
30
1983
1984
From D'Aoust.
40
Pathogen
Country
Tested
100
Percent
Positive
9
B. cereus
U.S.(1982)
C. jejuni
U.S. (1982)
Netherlands (1981)
U.S.(1982)
England (1984-87)
108
200
195
1138
0.9
0
1.5
6.0
E. coli 0157:H7
U.S.(1986)
Canada (1986)
24
1912
4.2
2.0
Listeria monocytogenes
Spain (1982-83)
U.S.(1983)
U.S.(1984)
France (1986)
Canada(1986)
85
121
650
337
445
45.0
12.0
4.1
4.2
1.3
Salmonella spp.
U.S.(1985)
Canada (1985-86)
England (1984-87)
678
511
1138
4.7
2.9
0.2
Yersinia enterocolitica
Canada (1977)
France (1980)
U.S. (1982)
Northern Ireland (1985)
131
56
100
150
22.1
83.9
12.0
11.3
From D'Aoust.40
milk, ice cream, cheese, etc. have occurred during the 1980s.14 Inadequate pasteurization, poor manufacturing practices, and postprocessing contamination were the
primary causes of pathogenic contamination in dairy products. The common refrigeration practices for controlling pathogenic bacteria in milk and dairy products may
not always be adequate.14'47 The listeriosis and salmonellosis outbreaks and wellpublicized recalls of dairy products caused concern among the consumers and regulators regarding safety of the milk supply14'247 and prompted the Dairy Products
Safety Initiative by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.14
The main characteristics and illnesses caused by the more common pathogens
found in milk and dairy products are given in Table 5.15. The following is a brief
discussion on the so-called emerging pathogens.
Table 5.15
Pathogen
Gram
Stain
Morphology
Temperature
Range for
Growth
Oxygen
Requirement
Catalase
Reaction
pHfor
Growth
Motility
Pathogenicity
Positive
Small coccoid
rodsno spores
2.5-42C
Microaerophilic
Positive
5.6-9.8
Positive
(20-250C)
p. listeriolysin lipase
Positive
10-50Ca
Aerobicbc
Positive
4.9-9.3
Positive
petritrichous
flagella
Negative
Slender-curved
"vibrioid" rods
30-450C,
optimum
42-45C
Microaerophilic0
Positive
4.9-8.0
Motile
single polar
flagellum
E. coli
Negative
Small coccobacilli
10-35Cd
Facultative
anaerobic
Positive
5.6-6.8
Positive
Salmonella spp.
Negative
Short rods
5-470C
Aerobic
Positive
6.6-8.2
Positive
peritrichous
flagella
Invasiveness, heat-labile
enterotoxin, heat-stable cytotoxin
S. aureus
Positive
Cocci in pairs or
irregular clusters
10-450C
Aerobic or
anaerobic
Positive
4.5-9.3
Small rods
4-34Ce
Aerobic
Positive
L. monocytogenes
B. cereus
C. jejuni
Y. enterocolitica
Negative
Negative
6.8-9.0
Negative
a
b
c
d
e
10% CO 2 , and 85% N 2 . 20 " 22 - 259 " 261 The organism grows at temperatures from 30 to
47C. Campylobacter jejuni is /3-hemolytic on media containing blood and is catalase
positive.21'22
C. jejuni has been isolated from feces of cattle, swine, sheep, goats, dogs, cats,
rabbits, and rodents.20'262 It causes mastitis in cows and has been isolated from raw
milk.260"262
Campylobacter infections are more common than cases of salmonellosis and
shigellosis combined.21 Symptoms of campylobacteriosis include mild enteritis or
sometimes severe enterocolitis. Often the patient experiences apparent recovery followed by relapse. Other symptoms include nausea, abdominal cramps, and bloody
diarrhea.22
C. jejuni is sensitive to heat, drying, air (oxygen), and acidic pH. It is readily
inactivated by normal pasteurization.20-262
Number
Country
Etiological
Agent
111
Death
Raw milk
Scotland (1981)
U.S. (1985)
5. typhimuriwn
S. typhimuriwn
654
16,284
2
7
153
?
Cheese
Cheddar/
Monterey
Emmenthal
Cheddar
U.S. (1965)
S. aureus0
42
490
$11,676.00
Canada (1977)
S. aureusc
15
653
Food
Chocolate
a
b
c
d
U.S. (1976)
Canada, U.S.A.
(1973-74)
Direct
S. Heidelberg
234
S. eastbournre
>200
$62,063
25 l
Indirect
Cost/Case
$1,226
?
$ 2,108.00
?
43.00
$ 1,073.00
$30,317.00
there were > 16,000 culture-confirmed cases; 2777 were hospitalized and 14
died.30-273 In another noteworthy outbreak of Listeria monocytogenes infections due
to Mexican-style soft cheese in California,274 over 150 persons became ill. Over 50
deaths (fatality rate of 34%) were aborted fetuses or pregnant women and their
newborn offspring were reported.30 According to the CDC, dairy products were
associated with 103 deaths and the death-to-case ratio was 5.0 per 1000.29
Economic losses associated with foodborne illness and recalls have been estimated by Todd.275 These include direct costs attributed to expenses involved in
epidemiological investigations of outbreaks, laboratory diagnosis, treatment, loss of
income by patients, and financial losses to the food manufacturers as a result of
product recalls and loss of sales. Indirect costs involve expenses related to litigation,
settlement, and compensation for grief, pain and suffering, and loss of life.275 Table
5.16 shows cost estimates of economic losses associated with disease outbreaks
involving raw milk and cheese.
Next Page
pasteurization and sterilization of milk. Aflatoxin B, present in contaminated feed,
is converted into a carcinogenic derivative M, and secreted into milk. 277 Results of
studies of cheese manufacturing using milk from cows fed aflatoxin B, or milk with
M, added directly to it, have shown that 47% of the toxin present in the milk was
recovered in Cheddar cheese, about 50% in Camembert cheese, and 45% in why. 278
Other mycotoxins such as penicillic acid, patulin, cyclopiazonic acid, or PR toxins
may also be found in cheeses, including Cheddar and Swiss cheese. Certain mold
starter cultures used in the manufacture of mold-ripened cheeses such as Camembert
and Roquefort cheese are also capable of producing mycotoxins in cheese. 276 Further
information on the occurrence, synthesis, and control of aflatoxins and other mycotoxins is given below. Reviews by Applebaum et al. 279 Bullerman, 280 and
Scott 277 ' 281 " 283 may be consulted for additional information on the subject.
Biogenic amines, for example, histamine, tyramine, and tryptamine, found in
cheese and other foods constitute a negligible risk to all but the rare individuals
lacking monoamine oxidases (MAO). 284 However, the occurrence of these amines
in food, particularly cheese, may be responsible for causing hypertensive response
and even death from cerebral hemorrhage in persons on monoamine oxidase inhibitor
(MAOI) therapy. 285 ' 286
Several outbreaks of apparent amine intoxication have occurred from consumption of Gouda, Swiss, and other cheeses containing ^ 100 mg of histamine per
100 g of cheese. 284 - 287
The toxic amines are produced in cheese by decarboxylation of the appropriate
amino acids by certain bacteria, including strains of Streptococcus faecium, Streptococcus mitis, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus plantarum, viridans streptococci, and Clostridium perfringens.2S4'2SS Voight and Eitenmiller288 studied tyrosine and histidine decarboxylase activities in dairy-related bacteria and showed that
the lactic starter bacteria (group N streptococci) were not likely to be producers of
biogenic amines in cheese.
Certain diamines such as putrescine, cadeverine, and spermine enhance the toxic
amount of histamine. 284 Therefore, conditions allowing the formation of diamines,
particularly putrescine and cadeverine, should be monitored carefully. The production of biogenic amines in cheese depends on a number of factors including the
presence of certain bacteria, enzymes, and cofactors necessary for amino acid decarboxylation; existence of the proper environment, that is, pH, temperature, and
water activity during cheese ripening; and the presence of potentiating compounds
(e.g., diamines). Proper control of the cheese manufacturing process, particularly
regarding pH, salt, and moisture levels during ripening, is essential for minimizing
the potential threat of biogenic amines.
Previous Page
pasteurization and sterilization of milk. Aflatoxin B, present in contaminated feed,
is converted into a carcinogenic derivative M, and secreted into milk. 277 Results of
studies of cheese manufacturing using milk from cows fed aflatoxin B, or milk with
M, added directly to it, have shown that 47% of the toxin present in the milk was
recovered in Cheddar cheese, about 50% in Camembert cheese, and 45% in why. 278
Other mycotoxins such as penicillic acid, patulin, cyclopiazonic acid, or PR toxins
may also be found in cheeses, including Cheddar and Swiss cheese. Certain mold
starter cultures used in the manufacture of mold-ripened cheeses such as Camembert
and Roquefort cheese are also capable of producing mycotoxins in cheese. 276 Further
information on the occurrence, synthesis, and control of aflatoxins and other mycotoxins is given below. Reviews by Applebaum et al. 279 Bullerman, 280 and
Scott 277 ' 281 " 283 may be consulted for additional information on the subject.
Biogenic amines, for example, histamine, tyramine, and tryptamine, found in
cheese and other foods constitute a negligible risk to all but the rare individuals
lacking monoamine oxidases (MAO). 284 However, the occurrence of these amines
in food, particularly cheese, may be responsible for causing hypertensive response
and even death from cerebral hemorrhage in persons on monoamine oxidase inhibitor
(MAOI) therapy. 285 ' 286
Several outbreaks of apparent amine intoxication have occurred from consumption of Gouda, Swiss, and other cheeses containing ^ 100 mg of histamine per
100 g of cheese. 284 - 287
The toxic amines are produced in cheese by decarboxylation of the appropriate
amino acids by certain bacteria, including strains of Streptococcus faecium, Streptococcus mitis, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus plantarum, viridans streptococci, and Clostridium perfringens.2S4'2SS Voight and Eitenmiller288 studied tyrosine and histidine decarboxylase activities in dairy-related bacteria and showed that
the lactic starter bacteria (group N streptococci) were not likely to be producers of
biogenic amines in cheese.
Certain diamines such as putrescine, cadeverine, and spermine enhance the toxic
amount of histamine. 284 Therefore, conditions allowing the formation of diamines,
particularly putrescine and cadeverine, should be monitored carefully. The production of biogenic amines in cheese depends on a number of factors including the
presence of certain bacteria, enzymes, and cofactors necessary for amino acid decarboxylation; existence of the proper environment, that is, pH, temperature, and
water activity during cheese ripening; and the presence of potentiating compounds
(e.g., diamines). Proper control of the cheese manufacturing process, particularly
regarding pH, salt, and moisture levels during ripening, is essential for minimizing
the potential threat of biogenic amines.
Product
Raw milk
Pasteurized milkc
Dried milk
Cream
Butter
Cheese
Yogurt
a
b
c
283
Scott.
Although toxigenic strains were isolated from some of these products, mycotoxins are rare.
Vadillo et al.289
ucts and produce mycotoxins if the conditions are correct.283-290"292 Mycotoxins are
secondary metabolites that are produced by molds and their consumption can result
in biological effects in animals and humans. The major biological effects of the
mycotoxins have been classified as acute toxic, carcinogenic, emetic, estrogenic,
hallucinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic.292293 The common mycotoxins that can
be found in dairy products are listed in Table 5.18.
Molds
Aflatoxins
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus parasiticus
Citreoviridin
Penicillium citreoviride
Penicillium toxicariwn
Citrinin
Penicillium
Cyclopiazonic acid
Aspergillus flavus
Penicillium camemberti
Penicillium cyclopium
Deoxynivalenol
Fusarium species
Moniliformin
Fusarium species
Nivalenol
Fusarium species
Ochratoxin
Aspergillus ochraceus
Penicillium viridicatum
Patulin
Penicillium patulin
Penicillic acid
Aspergillus species
Penicillium series
Penitrem A
Penicillium crustosum
Sterigmatocystin
Aspergillus nidulans
Aspergillus versicolor
T-2 Toxin
Fusarium species
Versicolorin A
Aspergillus versicolor
Zearalenone
Fusarium graminearum
converted to aflaxtoxin M1, feeding cows 33 fxg of aflatoxin Bj/kg in the diet would
result in exceeding 0.5 ppb of aflatoxin M1 in milk. Corbett et al.303 studied the
presence of aflatoxin M1 in milk to estimate the level of aflatoxin B 1 in feed. Although aflatoxin B 1 levels were all below 20 ppb, aflatoxin M 1 was found in the
milk of 40 cows in levels ranging from 0.001 to 0.273 ppb. When more aflatoxin
M1 was detected in the milk, the level of milk production was decreased for the
herd. More research is needed to see the long-term effects of chronic ingestion of
low levels of aflatoxin B 1 by dairy cows. Because all these previous studies have
shown that consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated feeds resulted in aflatoxin M1 in
milk, Fremy et al.304 analyzed milk for aflatoxin M1 after cows consumed peanut
cakes contaminated with aflatoxin B1 that was treated or untreated with ammonia
gas. In milk from cows that consumed treated peanut cakes no or only trace amounts
of aflatoxin M1 were detected, but >0.5 ppb aflatoxin M1 was detected in milk.
These and other research reports have shown that aflatoxin and other mycotoxins
can be carried over from the feed into milk.
The second way that milk can be contaminated by mycotoxins is the growth of
molds in or on dairy products. For maximum mycotoxin production, the proper
conditions of nutrients, temperature, pH, aeration, competition, and time are all important. Many studies have been done on the proper conditions for mild growth and
mycotoxin production in milk and dairy products. Some of the research done over
the past decade on growth and mycotoxin production in dairy products will be briefly
reviewed. The production of aflatoxins in dairy products has been researched often
because these are the most potent mycotoxins known. Park and Bullerman305-306
examined the effect of temperature on the production of aflatoxin in cheese and
yogurt by A.flavus and A. parasiticus. Both species of Aspergillus grew best at 25C
in Cheddar cheese with growth being detected within 2.5 days.305 As the temperature
was decreased to 18, 15, and 5C, the time to detect growth in Cheddar cheese took
4.6 and 5.2 days, 16 and 15 days, and nondetectable for A. parasiticus and A.flavus,
respectively. Sporulation in Cheddar cheese took longer than growth. At 25C
A. parasiticus sporulated in Cheddar cheese in 5 days compared to 8.4 days for
A.flavus. Sporulation at lower temperatures took considerably longer for both species
and no sporulation was noted at 5C. The effects of cycling temperatures from 5 to
25C were used to see if changes in temperature affected the production of aflatoxin
in Cheddar cheese.305 More aflatoxin B 1 was produced by A. flavus at a constant
temperature of 25C than at the cycling temperatures of 5 to 25C. A. parasiticus
produced more aflatoxin G1 than B 1 at 25C than at the cycling temperatures. For
both molds, much less aflatoxin was produced at 18 and 15C and none was produced
at 5C.
Further research using other dairy products showed that A. parasiticus produced
little to no aflatoxins on Cheddar cheese, cottage cheese, and yogurt.306 A. flavus
produced no aflatoxin in both Cheddar and cottage cheeses at 15C, but did in yogurt.
This is most likely due to the presence of more carbohydrate because aflatoxin is
produced best on substrates with high carbohydrate instead of high protein. This was
also shown by the high production of aflaxtoxin in rice. Similarly more aflatoxin
was produced at 25C than at 15C. A. flavus was able to use small amounts of
carbohydrate to produce aflatoxin in dairy products, but A. parasiticus could not.
The production of aflatoxin in the presence of lactic acid bacteria has been investigated, as these bacteria are important in cheese ripening. El-Gendy and Marth307
found that when both Lactobacillus casei and A. parasiticus were grown together,
there was both more mold growth initially but less aflatoxin production than when
the mold was grown alone. The aflatoxin was also degraded more after 7 to 10 days
of coincubation of L. casei and A. parasiticus. Mohran et al. 308 noted that the proteolytic activity of Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var.
diacety lactis, Lactobacillus casei, and Lactobacillus bulgaricus was not altered with
increasing levels of aflatoxin B 1 , but decreased for L. lactis subsp. lactis. The presence of aflatoxin B 1 in milk can have an effect on the subsequent use of the milk to
produce fermented dairy products; however, this depends on the species and aflatoxin
concentration.
Most of the research that has been done on the production of aflatoxins in dairy
products shows that aflatoxins are not produced unless there is sufficient carbohydrate; therefore, cheese is not a good substrate. Also, the storage of dairy products
at temperatures below 100C effectively prevents the toxigenic species of Aspergillus
from growing. Other molds will generally out-compete the aflatoxin-producing aspergilli in dairy products.
Aspergillus versicolor is frequently found growing on cheese.292 A. versicolor
can produce a toxin called sterigmatocystin, which has a chemical structure similar
to that of aflatoxin BY. For A. flavus and A. parasiticus sterigmatocystin is a precursor
to aflatoxin biosynthesis.309 Sterigmatocystin is toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic
and has an LD 50 in rats of 120 to 166 mg/kg of body weight when given orally.309
Sterigmatocystin has been found in hard cheeses, such as Edam and Gouda.292'309'310
Northolt et al. 310 noted that A. versicolor was frequently isolated from hard cheeses
stored in warehouses, especially aged cheese. A. versicolor could grow in the lower
water of aged cheeses and even penetrate the plastic coating in the cheese. When
cheeses were chemically analyzed, they had sterigmatocystin in the upper 1 cm of
the cheese. The concentrations of sterigmatocystin in the upper 1 cm layer ranged
from 5 to 600 /Ag/kg. Veringa et al.309 found that lactose, fat, and glycerol all stimulated A. versicolor's production of sterigmatocystin on cheese. Frequent turning of
cheese promoted growth of and toxin production by A. versicolor. If several layers
of plastic were used to coat the cheese, then the fatlike compounds, which are stimulatory to sterigmatocystin production, cannot diffuse through for the mold to grow.
Once sterigmatocystin is produced, it is stable in the refrigerator, freezer, and warehouses for several weeks.292
In addition to Aspergillus species, several toxin-producing Penicillium species
can be isolated from dairy products. Northolt et al. 310 showed that P. verrucosum
var. cyclopium could be isolated from cheeses that were refrigerated in shops, homes,
and warehouses. This species and several Penicillium and Aspergillus species311
produce penicillic acid. The oral toxicity of penicillic acid is low. Four strains of
P. cyclopium did not produce penicillic acid in either Gouda or Tilsiter cheeses at
16C for up to 42 days. The water activity of the cheeses was 0.97. Penicillic acid
is not produced very well in substrates low in carbohydrates and at water activities
below 0.97, which may occur in cheese. Also P. brevicompactum, producer of mycophenolic acid, and P. verrucosum var. verrucosum, which produces citrinin, ochratoxin, viridicatin, and viridicatic acid, were isolated from cheeses stored in warehouses.310 Ochratoxins are produced by species of Penicillium and Aspergillus?12
Ochratoxin can cause kidney and liver problems in laboratory animals. In some
Balkan countries human endemic nephropathy may be due to ochratoxin A. On Edam
cheese at a water activity of 0.95, ochratoxin A was produced by P. cyclopium at
temperatures from 20 to 24C. The toxicity of these mycotoxins is much lower than
that for aflatoxins. Also, these mycotoxins do not occur very frequently in cheeses.
Mold-ripened cheeses are made from strains of two Penicillium species, P. camemberti for Camembert and Brie cheeses and P. roqueforti for Roquefort and Blue
cheeses.294'313 Toxic metabolites can be produced by these species. The major toxic
metabolites that can be produced by P. roqueforti are patulin, penicillic acid, citrinin,
alkaloids (roquefortines A to D, festuclavine, marcfortine), PR toxin, mycophenolic
acid, siderophores (ferrichrome, coprogen), and betaines (ergothioneine and hercynine). These mycotoxins have either not been detected or detected only in very low
levels. Penicillic acid and PR toxin are not stable in cheese. Engel et al.314 found
that only Roquefort cheese from one factory had mycophenolic acid present. Strains
of P. roqueforti produced 50 to 100 times lower levels of mycophenolic acid in Blue
cheese compared to synthetic media. Because blue cheese is eaten in low quantities,
there should be no toxicological effects observed in humans. P. camemberti produces
cyclopiazonic acid that shows toxicity in rats. Cyclopiazonic acid was found in the
crusts, but not in the interior, of some Camembert and Brie cheeses. Also, production
was higher at 25C than at 4 to 13C.315 In an effort to develop cyclopiazonic acid
negative strains of P. camemberti, Geisen et al. 316 isolated mutants that either produced no detectable cyclopiazonic acid or only about 2% that of the parent strain.
The latter mutant produced a new metabolite within 21 days at 250C. Therefore, it
may be possible to produce strains for cheese manufacture that have low or no
detectable levels of cyclopiazonic acid. Care must be taken in the production of these
strains to ensure that no new toxic compounds are produced. Generally, mycotoxins
produced by these mold starter cultures pose no health hazards because the levels
of consumption of these cheeses are low.
initial and final levels were very similar. For Brick cheese, aflatoxin M 1 concentrated
by 1.7-fold because the washing step removed some of the toxin;320 however, the
level of aflatoxin M1 never dropped below the initial concentration for the 22 weeks
of aging at 100C. In the surface-ripened Limburger-like cheese, the level of aflatoxin
M1 after 22 weeks at 100C was the same as the initial concentration, indicating that
the aging did not degrade the toxin. In Mozzarella cheese, there was an 8.1-fold
increase in aflatoxin M1 and the levels remained constant for 19 weeks storage at
7C.321 For Parmesan cheese, the level of aflatoxin M1 concentrated 5.8-fold over
that of milk, but the level decreased in the cheese over 22 weeks of ripening at 100C
and then a slow increase was seen until 40 weeks of ripening.321 It was postulated
that the addition of lipase could allow more efficient recovery of aflatoxin M 1 initially
because similar increases in concentrations of aflatoxin M1 in Cheddar cheese ripening were noted when the lipolytic and proteolytic enzymes would be most active.
Wiseman and Marth322 showed that aflatoxin M1 was stable for 2 months during
both refrigerated and frozen storage of Baker's and Queso Blanco cheeses. Aflatoxin
M1 was also stable during ripening and frozen storage of Manchego-type cheese.323
For products that are not ripened such as cottage cheese, yogurt, and buttermilk, the
level of aflatoxin M1 remained stable during storage at 7 0 C. 297 ' 324 Aflatoxin M1
content decreased in Kefir; however, this could have been a result of the analysis or
the binding of casein to aflatoxin M 1 . 322 Munksgaard et al. 300 reported an apparent
increase in aflatoxin M1 in yogurt stored at 5C for 2 weeks; but the level in Ymer
remained constant. Aflatoxin M1 was also stable during skim and whole milk, nonfat
dried milk, and buttermilk manufacture.300-325 Lower amounts of aflatoxin M1 were
found in a butterlike spread, as the toxin concentrates with casein and not fat.317-325
All of this research has shown that aflatoxin M1 is stable during the manufacture
and storage of dairy products. Also, the level of aflatoxin remains stable during both
refrigerated and frozen storage.
Only a limited amount of research has been done on the fate of aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 ,
G1, and G2 in dairy products. Megalla and Mohran326 studied the fate of aflatoxin
B 1 in milk fermented by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and found that aflatoxin B 1
was converted to nontoxic and less toxic components, namely B 2a and aflatoxicol,
respectively. Aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G1, and G2 distributed more in curd than whey on
a per weight basis in Manchego-type cheese manufacture. During manufacture, aflatoxins B1 and B 2 were lost up to 10% compared to 31% for G1 and G2. During
the 60-day ripening, there was no loss of aflatoxins B 1 and B 2 and aflatoxins G1 and
G2 increased by 133%. Although there were variations in samples during both refrigerated storage for 60 days and frozen storage for 90 days, the presence of aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G1, and G2 appeared to be stable. These results plus those published
in earlier reports indicate that aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G1, and G 2 will remain during
manufacture, ripening, and storage of cheese and other dairy products.
understood. The control of mold growth in foods and feeds will be important to
prevent mycotoxin production. New and improved analytical methods will help to
monitor the level of mycotoxins in foods and feeds.
5.8.1 Terminology
The fermentation of lactose to lactic acid and other products is the main reaction in
the manufacture of most cheese and fermented dairy products. Consequently, dairy
starter cultures are also referred to as lactic cultures or lactic starters. In the dairy
industry, single or multiple strains of cultures of one or more microorganism are
used as starter cultures.
The taxonomy and scientific nomenclature of the lactic acid bacteria have been
recently modified, for example, lactic streptococci, S. cremoris, S. lactis, and
S. diacetylactis are now classified in the genus Lactococcus and referred to as Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, and L. lactis subsp.
lactis biovar diacetylactis, respectively. However, for the sake of convenience, the
older names will be retained here. The nomenclature and some distinguishing characteristics of dairy starter cultures are listed in Table 5.19.
There are two main types of lactic starters: the mesophilic (optimum growth
temperature of about 300C) and the thermophilic (optimum growth temperature of
about 45C). Mesophilic cultures usually contain S. cremoris and S. lactis as acid
producers and S. diacetylactis and Leuconostocs as aroma and CO 2 producers. Thermophilic starters include strains of 5. thermophilus, and, depending on the product,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, L. helveticus, or L. lactis. Often, a mixture of thermophilic
and mesophilic strains is used as a starter culture for manufacturing Italian pasta-
Table 5.19
Growth
Organism
Current
Nomenclature
Morphology
100C
450C
Type
Lactic
Isomer
Percent
Lactic
Acid
Produced
in Milk
Fermentations
Citrate
Metabolism
Glucose
Streptococcus
lactis
Lactosoccus lactis
subsp. lactis
GM + cocci
Streptococcus
cremosis
L. lactis subsp.
cremoris
GM -f cocci
Streptococcus
diacetylactis
L. lactis subsp.
lactis var.
diaceytilactis
GM + cocci
Leuconostoc
cremoris
L. mesenteroides
subsp. cremoris
GM + cocci
Streptococcus
thermophilus
S. salivarius subsp.
thermophilus
GM + cocci
Thermophilic
Lactobacillus
bulgaricus
L. delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus
GM + rods
Thermophilic
D(~)
1.8
Lactobacillus
helveticus
L. helve tic us
GM + rods
Thermophilic
DL
2.0
Mesophilic
0.8
Mesophilic
0.8
Mesophilic
0.8
Mesophilic
0.2
Galac- Lactose
tose
+
D(-)
(d)
0.6
(d)
NH3
from
Arginine
Associated Microorganisms
Products
Mesophilic
Streptococcus lactis,
Streptococcus cremosis,
S. lactis var. diacetylactis,
Leuconostoc cremosis
Thermophilic
Streptococcus
thermophilus,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus,
L. lactis, L. casei,
L. helveticus,
L. plantarum,
Enterococcus faecium
Mixed starters
S. lactis, S. thermophilus,
E. faecium, L. helveticus,
L. bulgaricus
filata type cheese. Some thermophilic starters, such as those used in Beaufort and
Grana cheese, contain only lactobacilli,75 whereas some fermented milks made with
thermophilic starters also contain Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. bulgaricus, and
bifidobacteria for their healthful and therapeutic properties.346 Table 5.20 lists
the common starter cultures and their applications in cheese and fermented dairy
products.
The lactic starter cultures are also subdivided into two groups: defined cultures
and mixed cultures. Defined cultures constitute starters in which the number of
strains is known. The concept of defined starter culture, mainly pure cultures of
Streptococcus cremoris, was developed in New Zealand to minimize the problem of
open textures in cheese thought to be caused by CO 2 produced by flavor-producing
strains in mixed cultures. The application of defined cultures did control the open
texture problem, however, and they were prone to slow acid production due to their
susceptibility to bacteriophage.75'347 The use of pairs of phage-unrelated strains and
culture rotation to prevent buildup of phage in the cheese factory were practiced to
minimize the potential for phage problems.75-347 Eventually, the use of multiple
strain starter and factory-derived phage-resistant strains was made to control the
phage problem.345-347-348
Lactic starter cultures are also categorized based on flavor or gas production
characteristics64'75 for example, B or L cultures (for Betacoccus or Leuconostoc)
contain flavor and aroma producing organisms, for example, Leuconostoc spp.
D cultures contain Streptococcus diacetylactis', BD or DL cultures contain mixtures
of both Leoconostoc and S. diacetylactis strains and O cultures do not contain any
flavor/aroma producers but contain S. lactis and S. cremoris strain. This nomenclature is commonly used in the Netherlands.349
Often, the lactic starters routinely used in dairy plants without rotation are called
P (practice) cultures as opposed to L (laboratory) cultures which have been subcultured in the laboratory. The P cultures are not usually affected by their own phages,
and unlike L cultures, they can recover following the attack of so-called ' 'disturbing" phage.
growth of starter cultures as most lactic acid bacteria require amino acids or peptides
for their growth. Proteinase negative (Prot") strains of lactic starters depends on
PrOt+ strains in a multiple strain culture for growth in milk.
Mother
culture
Bulk
culture
Intermediate
culture
Cheese
vat.
Many larger dairy plants develop their own cultures. However, preparing and
maintaining bulk cultures requires specialized facilities and equipment. Much research and development in the starter culture technology has been aimed at designing
specialized growth media for starters, protecting the starter cultures from sublethal
stress and injury during freezing, and minimizing the theat of bacteriophage during
starter culture preparations.
The specialized systems for starter culture propagation include the Lewis system,
the Jones system, the Alfa-Laval system, etc.64 The Lewis system356 utilizes reusable
polyethene bottles fitted with Astell rubber seals and two-way needles. The growth
medium (10 to 12% reconstituted, antibiotic-free skim milk) is sterilized in the
mother culture bottle. The stock culture is incubated through a two-way needle by
squeezing the stock culture bottle. The bulk starter tank used in the Lewis system is
pressurized to allow heating of the growth medium in the sealed vessel. The top of
the tank is flooded with 100 ppm sodium hypochlorite solution to prevent any contamination during the inoculation of bulk starter.
The Jones system uses a specially designed bulk starter tank.64 Unlike the Lewis
system, this tank is not pressurized. The bulk starter tank is inoculated by providing
the intermediate starter through a special narrow opening and a ring of flame or
steam is used to prevent any contamination during the inoculation of bulk starter.
Recently, a combination of the Lewis/Jones system has been developed in the
United Kingdom that improves on the Lewis technique of aseptic culture transfer
and economizes by using cheaper, nonsealed tanks as in the Jones system. The details
of the combined Lewis/Jones system have been described ty Tamime.64
The Alfa-Laval system uses filtered-sterilized air uner pressure, for transferring
the culture. The mother and intermediate cultures are prepared in a special unit called
a "viscubator" and transferred to the bulk starter tank using compressed air.64-357
rinsing, is important in minimizing the inhibition of starter culture growth and activity by residues of cleaners and sanitizers.
Occasionally, inhibition of the growth of starter culture may be caused by naturally occurring antibacterial compounds present in milk. For example, lactin and the
lactoperoxidase system (LPS) have been reported to cause inhibition of certain lactic
cultures.357'375-376
Reference
Sugar utilization
Proteinase activity
McKay 5 5
Kok et al. 3 7 9
Kempler and McKay 3 8 0
Citrate utilization
Bacteriocin production
Nisin production
Bacteriophage resistance
(1) produce desirable flavor compounds; (2) lower requirements for added sweeteners (sugar) in dairy fermentations; (3) produce enzymes necessary for cheese flavor, body, and texture development; and (4) resist bacteriophage attack during
cheesemaking.54"56'79'80'386'387
Research by Klaenhammer and others has indicated that several mechanisms for
bacteriophage resistance may exist in lactic streptococci.78"80'384-387 These include
prevention of phage absorption, restriction/modification controlled by the host and
abortive infection via lysogenic immunity, or other mechanisms. Bacteriophageresistant dairy streptococci have been obtained following conjugal transfer of a 30megadalton plasmid, pTR 2030, from a lactose-negative S. lactis to a fast-acid producing S. lactis and S. cremoris strains.80 The development and industrial utilization
of phage-resistant strains containing the pTR 2030 have been reported.79'80178
There exists a potential for application of genetic engineering for improvement
of dairy starter. Laboratories in the United States, Australia, and Europe are actively
engaged in research dealing with genetics of lactic acid bacteria. The use of genetically engineered lactic bacteria for dairy fermentation is limited although the genetic
approach for developing improved strains for dairy industry appears promising.12'388
Bactoscan
Biofoss
Spiral plater
Direct epifluorescent
Filter technique (DEFT)
Plate-loop count
Petrifilm
ATP measurement
Bioluminescence
Limulus test
Electrical conductance
Electrical impedance
Electrical capacitance
Membrane filter
HGMF-Isogrid
Direct epifluorescent
Filter technique (DEFT)
Dye reductions
Methylene blue
Resasurin
Microcalorimetry
Flow cytometry
RODAC plate
Rinse-filter method
Application
Enumeration of proteolytic
organisms
Enumeration of mesophilic/
thermophilic bacteria, and spores
Enumeration of coliforms
Standard Plate Count (SPC) involves preparing a 10-fold serial dilution of the
sample to be tested. A 1.0- or 0.1-ml sample of the dilution is placed in a sterile
petri dish followed by pouring of the liquified sterile agar medium (SPC agar). The
sample is mixed with the agar medium and agar is allowed to solidify. The petri
dishes are incubated at 32C for 48 h (or any other specified conditions). Following
the incubation, the plates with 25 to 250 colonies are counted and the total number
of microorganisms is determined by multiplying the average number of colonies by
the dilution factor. The details of the sampling, diluting, plating, and incubating
procedures and proper counting and reporting of the bacterial numbers in a sample
of milk and milk products are described in the SMEDP.58
Various modifications of the SPC have been used to determine the numbers of
psychrotrophic, thermoduric, proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria; coliforms; and yeast
and molds in milk and dairy products (Table 5.23); for example, the psychrotrophic
bacterial count (PMC) procedure involves the same method as the SPC, except that
the plates are incubated at 7C for 10 days.58 Also, various methods designed for
assessing the hygiene and keeping quality of milk are also based on the SPC
method.58400
Most Probable Numbers (MPN) involves the use of three sets of three or five
tubes each containing a sterile medium. These tubes are inoculated from each of
three consecutive 10-fold dilutions (10, HT 1 , 10~ 2 or HT 1 , 10" 2 , 10" 3 ). The
tubes are incubated and growth of the organisms is detected as turbidity or evidence
of gas formation. Numbers of organisms in the original samples are determined by
using standard MPN tables. The MPN is statistical in nature and the results are
generally higher than SPC.19
Dye reduction involves the use of redox dyes such as methylene blue, resasuring,
or 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC). The method depends on the ability of
microorganisms to reduce and hence change color or decolorize the dye. The time
required for reduction of the dye is generally correlated with the metabolic activity
and is universally proportional to the initial bacterial load of the sample. The dye
reduction method is simple and economical. However, they are unsuitable for analysis of milk having low bacterial numbers401 and are poorly correlated with the
bacterial counts in refrigerated milk.402 The dye reduction tests and their limitations
are discussed in detail by Edmonson et al.401
The Stomacher uses two reciporcating paddles to crush the sample and diluent
held in a polythene bag. Unlike the lab blender commonly used for sample preparation, there is no direct contact between the sample and the machine. Therefore,
there is no need for cleaning and sterilization between use; also, the Stomacher
minimizes the problem of aerosol formation. The Stomacher uses disposable sterile
bags, thus eliminating the need for large numbers of glass or metal jars to be cleaned
and resterilized. It is very easy to operate. Several reports on the comparison of total
bacterial counts obtained using the Stomacher and the laboratory blender have indicated that satisfactory results can be obtained by using the Stomacher.
The Gravimetric Diluter eliminates the need for accurately weighing the sample
(e.g., 10 g or 450 g) prior to adding the requisite amount of diluent to obtain a 1:10
or 1:100 dilution. The dilution operation is automated in that after weighing an
amount of the sample, the machine delivers a specific volume of the diluent required
to obtain the dilution. The Gravimetric Diluter is easy to operate and saves considerable time in routine microbiological analysis of milk products.
diluent which eliminates the need for preparing serial 10-fold dilutions of the sample.
The rest of the procedure for pouring, incubating, and counting plates is the same
as the conventional SPC method. The PLC method is quite satisfactory for use with
routine bacteriological testing of raw milk, except manufacturing grade raw milk,
when counts exceed 200,000/ml.412
Noteworthy among the products on the market designed to facilitate conventional
plate count methods are the Isogrid system, the Petrifilm plates, and the Spiral system
with CASBA (computer-assisted spiral bioassay) data processor.
The Isogrid system393'413-414 is a filtration method that uses a Hypobaric Grid
Membrane Filter (HGMF) consisting of 1600 growth cells. The diluted sample is
first filtered through a prefilter (5 ^m) to remove large food particles and then
through the HGMF. The HGMF is placed on a selective agar and incubated under
specified conditions to allow the growth of microorganisms present in the food. The
HGMF method is officially recognized by the AOAC and FDA and is used for
detecting and enumerating Salmonella and coliforms, as well as for detecting aerobic
plate counts.415
Petrifilm plates are dual-layer film systems coated with nutrients and a cold water
soluble gelling agent. The diluted sample is inoculated on the Petrifilm surface,
similar to the regular surface plating method, and the resulting petri plate is incubated
under specified conditions to allow growth of the microorganisms. The standard plate
count and coliform counts may be determined by the Petrifilm SM and Petrifilm
VRB, respectively. Petrifilm plates have been evaluated extensively through collaborative studies416"419 and are recognized as an official method for microbiological
analysis of milk and dairy products.
The Spiral System420-421 involves precise delivery of a continuously decreasing
volume of a liquid sample onto the surface of an agar plate. Use of a hand or laser
counter and a CASBA data handling system can facilitate throughput. The Spiral
System greatly reduces media and dilution requirements. It is widely used for determination of aerobic plate counts of milk and dairy products.58
A pectin gel, resembling conventional agar medium, is formed in the petri dish,
which is incubated and the colony count determined as in the conventional SPC
procedure. Recently, the use of the Redigel system for determining microbial counts
in milk and dairy products has been reported.428"^31 A high degree of statistical
correlation was obtained when counts determined with the Redigel system were
compared with that with the conventional method428
A comprehensive analysis of the Redigel, Petrifilm, Isogrid, and Spiral System
using seven different foods, including raw milk, conducted by Chain and Fung428
indicated that these systems compared favorably with conventional methods and a
high degree of accuracy and agreement of the results were possible using alternative
methods. A comparison of cost per viable cell counts was: SPC ($13.62), Petrifilm
and Redigel ($8.22), Isogrid ($3.33), and Spiral System ($2.77).394 The Isogrid and
Spiral System require the initial purchase of specialized equipment. However, they
require only one plate per sample compared to four to six plates required for the
conventional SPC method.
Other applications of the Isogrid, Petrifilm, and Spiral System include enumeration of coliforms, S. aureus, and yeast and mold counts; detection of specific organisms such as Salmonella, E. coll 0157:H7, Yersinia enterocolitica, etc.; and determination of inhibitory properties and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of
antibacterial compounds.
test for judging bacteriological quality of raw milk at receiving in dairy plant has
been developed in Europe. 432 The principles and applications of ATP measurement
tests have been reviewed recently by LaRocco et al. 435 and Stannard.436
The growth of microorganisms results in unique and significant changes in electrical conductivity and resistance in growth medium. The changes in electrical
impedance, capacitance, or conductance are measured using specialized instruments
such as the Bactometer and Malthus system. 392 ' 437 The Bactometer is an instrument
designed to measure impedance changes resulting from microbial metabolism and
growth. 392 The impedance detection time (IDT), or simply detection time, is the time
(h) when the electrical parameter being measured changes significantly from the
starting value. The IDTs are inversely proportional to the initial levels of microorganisms present in the sample and are generally indicative of the time required to
reach population of approximately 1O6AnI. Impedance changes are affected by the
composition of growth medium, temperature of incubation, and specific growth kinetics of bacteria. Impedimetric methods have been used for a variety of dairy microbiology applications including detection of abnormal milk, 438 estimation of bacteria
in raw or pasteurized milk 439 " 441 and dairy products, 389 ' 390 ' 425 ' 442 detection of antibiotics, 443 measurements of starter culture activity, 444 - 445 and determining levels of
bacteriophage. 446 ' 447
The Malthus system is similar to the Bactometer in that both systems involve
continuous monitoring of changes in electrical parameters to obtain detection times.
However, they differ in the electrical component measured, the frequency at which
the measurements are made, and the specific design of electrode, measurement and
the instrument.437 The conductance curve generated by the Malthus system is similar
to the impedance curve obtained by the Bactometer. In both systems, screen displays
of green, yellow, and red colors indicating "accept," "caution," and "reject" or
"pass," "caution," and "fail" levels of microbial population are available for use
in routine monitoring of microbiological quality of samples being tested. 392 - 437
The Malthus system has been used for detection of postpasteurization contamination of pasteurized milk, 441 ' 448 estimation of lactic acid bacteria in fermented
milks, detection of psychrotrophic bacteria in raw milk, and determination of microbial levels in powdered dairy products. 437
A conductance method for the quantitative detection of coliforms in cheese has
been developed by Khayat et al. 442 Also, a special selective medium (selenite-cystine
broth) containing trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) and dulcitol was developed for
detection of salmonella by the conductance method. 449 " 451 Recently, Cousins and
Marlatt452 evaluated a conductance monitoring method for the enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae in milk. Detection of < 10 to 500 cfu/ml of Enterobacteriaceae in
raw milk in 6 to 12 h was reported. 452
Radiometry and microcalorimetry have been used to estimate numbers of microorganisms in clinical specimens and a variety of foods. The radiometric method
deals with monitoring the production of radioactive CO 2 by microorganisms growing
in a medium containing radioactive glucose. The 14 CO 2 generated, which is directly
proportional to the metabolic activity of the microorganisms present in a sample, is
measured by an instrument such as the Bactec. The microcaloric method involves
measurement of minute changes in heat using sensitive instruments such as the Bio
Activity Monitor. The applications of radiometry and calorimetry in food microbiology have been discussed by Lampi et al.,453 Rowley et al.,454 and Gram and
Sogaard.455
The Limulus Amoebocyte Lystate (LAL) method is a rapid (1 h) and sensitive
test for detection of low levels of Gram-negative bacteria in milk and dairy products.
All Gram-negative bacteria contain endotoxin (lipopolysaccharides, LPs) that can
be determined by the LAL test. In the classic LAL test, serial dilutions of the sample
are mixed with the LAL reagent (amoebocyte lystate of horseshoe crab, Limulus)
and incubated at 37C for 1 h. A positive reaction is indicated by formation of firm
gel and levels of endotoxin (ng) are calculated based on the highest dilution showing
a firm gel. Other LAL test procedures involving turbidimetric and colorimetric measurements of the LAL reaction have been developed, some for use with a robotic
system for automatic handling of large numbers of samples. A microfiltration method
for application of the limulus test in dairy bacteriology has been developed as a
commercial kit.456
The LAL is a simple, rapid, and sensitive test for low levels of Gram-negative
bacteria in milk and dairy products.457'458 It is also useful in determining the previous
history of the milk in investigating quality and shelf-life problems of heat-treated
products such as UHT milk and dry milk powders. Further details of the LAL test
and its applications in food microbiology may be found in a recent review by Jay459
and by Heeschen et al.460
The catalase test is another rapid method for estimating microbial populations in
certain foods. Because many psychrotrophic spoilage organisms, particularly Pseudomonas spp., important in causing spoilage of milk and dairy products are strongly
catalase positive, this test may be used as a rapid screening test for assessing milk
quality. Other important organisms such as Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, E. coli,
and others are also catalase positive and may be detected by this test.
Recently, an instrument called the Catalasemeter was developed for rapid detection of catalase activity. This instrument is based on the simple and rapid estimation
of catalase activity present in milk or culture filtrates. The principle is based on the
flotation time of a paper filter disc containing catalase in a tube containing stabilized
H2O2. On reaction, the evolved gases cause the disc to float. The time required for
the disc to float (disc flotation time) is inversely proportional to the catalase activity.
Because mastitic milk characteristically contains elevated levels of somatic cells and
high catalase activity, the catalasemeter has been used for rapid screening of abnormal and poor quality milk396-461-462 and for predicting milk quality and shelf life.426
Rapid screening methods for dairy microbiology also include the Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique (DEFT) test,395-408-463 which involves filtering of a sample
or dilution through a polycarbonate filter (0.6 /mm size, 25 mm diameter) to concentrate bacteria on the filter followed by staining the filter using acridine orange dye.
The filters are then examined with epifluorescent microscopy. The applications of
the DEFT include rapid estimation of viable cells in milk464 detection of postpasteurization contamination in cream,395 and assessment of keeping quality of milk
samples. However, it requires special equipment and skilled labor. Also, poor cor-
relations between DEFT count and colony counts in products such as milk powder,
pasteurized whey, and ripened cream butter limit the applications of the DEFT for
microbiological analysis of milk and milk products. The principle equipment and
applications of the DEFT test have been reviewed by Pettipher408-463 and Pettipher
et al.397'464-465
A reflectance colorimeter instrument has been developed for measurement of
microbial and enzyme activities in milk and dairy products,466 The instrument,
Omnispec, consists of a reflective colorimeter, computer, and a robotic laboratory
automations system. The instrument measures color changes in a microtest well
containing sample at frequent intervals. The color change measurements are then
related to biochemical changes caused by the activity of microorganisms or enzymes
and converted to estimates of microbial numbers by a computer. The Omnispec may
be used for traditional quality control tests in dairy industry including rapid estimation of microbial numbers, detection of antibiotics, screening abnormal milk,
culture activities test, coliforms, staphylococcal and yeast and mold counts, and
keeping quality tests.466
Next Page
processed products as well as airborne contamination. Quality control programs include routine testing of plant and equipment surfaces, packaging material, and air
for the presence of microorganisms.
Surface sampling methods, for example, swab, surface rinse, and adhesive tape
methods are widely used in the dairy industry.402 These methods involve transferring
residual contamination on the designated area of the surface to be tested to sterile
dilution blanks using cotton swabs, followed by the plate count method. Following
specified incubation (e.g., 30C/48 h), the colonies are counted to determine the level
of contamination. Another method used for assessing microbiological contamination
on dairy plant surfaces is the RODAC plate method which involves pressing of small
plastic petri dish ( 25 cm2) containing solidified agar medium to the surface followed by incubation and counting of colonies. The RODAC plates are not suitable
for wet or heavily contaminated surfaces.
Recently, rapid dip-stick type methods for determining total or coliform counts
on dairy plant surfaces have been introduced. These methods may be used in conjunction with the swab or rinse method. They are preferred by some laboratories as
they eliminate the need for using petri dishes.
Previous Page
processed products as well as airborne contamination. Quality control programs include routine testing of plant and equipment surfaces, packaging material, and air
for the presence of microorganisms.
Surface sampling methods, for example, swab, surface rinse, and adhesive tape
methods are widely used in the dairy industry.402 These methods involve transferring
residual contamination on the designated area of the surface to be tested to sterile
dilution blanks using cotton swabs, followed by the plate count method. Following
specified incubation (e.g., 30C/48 h), the colonies are counted to determine the level
of contamination. Another method used for assessing microbiological contamination
on dairy plant surfaces is the RODAC plate method which involves pressing of small
plastic petri dish ( 25 cm2) containing solidified agar medium to the surface followed by incubation and counting of colonies. The RODAC plates are not suitable
for wet or heavily contaminated surfaces.
Recently, rapid dip-stick type methods for determining total or coliform counts
on dairy plant surfaces have been introduced. These methods may be used in conjunction with the swab or rinse method. They are preferred by some laboratories as
they eliminate the need for using petri dishes.
processing that has been done to the products, the final pH and water activity of the
products, the packaging and storage conditions, and the intended shelf life of the
products. Zikakis481 has reviewed these factors that affect the keeping quality of
dairy products. Cooling and refrigeration have been extensively used to slow the
growth of psychrotrophic microorganisms and stop the growth of mesophilic and
thermophilic microorganisms. After milk reaches the processing plant, it can be
pasteurized or sterilized to reduce some or all spoilage microorganisms, respectively.
In addition milk can be fermented to make several different types of dairy products
that have decreased pH and, in some cases, water activity when compared to fluid
milk. A two-volume book on dairy microbiology has recently been revised and edited
by Robinson.482'483 In the first volume the microbiology of raw, heat-treated, dried,
and concentrated milks is reviewed. The second volume focuses on the microbiology
of cream, ice cream and frozen desserts, butter, cheese, and fermented milks. More
details on the spoilage of these dairy products can be obtained from these books.
This section will be a brief review of the microbiology and potential spoilage of
dairy products.
Several studies have been done on the keeping quality of the milk once it has
been pasteurized and stored. Schroder490 studied the postpasteurization contamination of milk and reported that Gram-negative bacteria were not detectable immediately after pasteurization, but could be detected in the packaged milk samples. Psychrotrophic bacteria were recovered from storage tanks and filling equipment,
suggesting that these were areas where postpasteurization contamination was occurring. Flavor defects were noted when psychrotrophic levels reached 107 cfu/ml. The
temperature of pasteurized milk storage also plays a role in the overall spoilage of
the product. Much research has been done to predict the keeping quality or shelf life
of pasteurized milk. Griffiths et al.57 found that psychrotrophic counts rather than
total aerobic counts were better indicators for the shelf life of milk stored at 60C;
however, the prediction of shelf life was correct only 51 to 72% of the time. Hence,
preincubation tests that took 24 to 50 h to complete were used to improve the predictability to 83 to 87% for correct identification of pasteurized milk and cream that
would have an estimated shelf life. Bishop and White423 suggested that the ideal test
for estimating the shelf life of milk should be simple to do, indicate the exact number
of microorganisms in the milk, produce results in a very short time, and be economical. Some of the new methods discussed included detection of metabolites (proteases, lipases, and endotoxins) and use of automated estimation of total numbers
(impedance). Chen and ZaIl491 suggested using a bar-coded polymer that shows
temperature changes to determine potential spoilage of milk. The polymer reflectance
changes correlated to the taste of the milk for some of the samples, but not for all
samples. Therefore, more research needs to be done on the use of these temperature
indicators. Mathematical models have been used to study bacterial growth.107 Chandler and McMeekin477-480 studied a temperature function integration model based on
the square root to predict the spoilage of milk and found that at temperatures < 15C,
the curve had a T0 (conceptual temperature where the square root of growth is zero)
of 264 K if the spoilage limit was set at 107 5 cfu/ml for pseudomonads. This model
takes into account temperature variations during storage and can be used to monitor
a product continually. Obviously, more research needs to be done on the prediction
of the keeping quality of pasteurized milk and cream.
The microflora of the pasteurized milk will also be a result of the pasteurization
treatment that is given.105'492 Cromie et al.105 studied 15 temperatures between 72
and 880C for 1 to 45 s followed by aseptic packaging. In these milks coryneform
bacteria (Microbacterium and Corynebacteriwri) made up 83.8% of the population
followed by 12.8% Gram-positive cocci (species of Micrococcus, Aerococcus, and
Streptococcus) and by 3.4% Bacillus species. B. circulans was the predominant
microorganisms isolated when these milk(s), regardless of pasteurization temperature, were spoiled. This suggests that aseptic packaging prevents the entrance into
pasteurized milk of the normal Gram-negative postpasteurization spoilage microflora
and only the thermoduric bacteria will be of concern. Psychrotrophic Bacillus species
were found more frequently in the summer-autumn months than in the winter-spring
months.493 Psychrotrophic species most frequently identified were B. cereus, B. circulans, and B. mycoides. Therefore, Bacillus species become important when they
are selected by temperature and aseptic conditions of packaging.
duction that resulted in ruptured cans were noted in spoiled evaporated milk. Proteolysis by B. subtilis stimulated the E.faecium. The heat resistance of these isolates
was not studied in the evaporated milk. Usually evaporated milk will spoil because
the processing has not been adequate to inactivate the spore-forming Bacillus species
in the milk. The evaporation will concentrate both the milk and spores and make the
thermal processing more complicated.
candidum, Penicillium camemberti, P. verrucosum, and Cladosporium macrocarpum, also were isolated from the blue-veined cheeses.
Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from 85 and 88% of Brie and Camembert
cheeses, respectively.511 The highest number was in the rind as opposed to the core
of the cheese. Escherichia coli was isolated in >10 2 cfu/g in 23 to 32% of the
Camembert and Brie cheeses, respectively. Bacterial pathogens were found in relatively few samples. S. aureus was isolated from one Brie and three Camembert
cheeses; Y. enterocolitica was isolated from only three cheeses; B. cereus was found
in one Brie and four Camembert cheeses. Yeasts (mainly Yarrowia lipolytica, Debaryomyces hansenii, Kluyveromyces marxianus, and Candida spp.) were isolated
from over 80% of the Brie and camembert cheeses. In addition to P. camemberti,
other molds, such as G. candidum, Cladosporium macrocarpum, Stachybotrys chartarum, Mucor plumbeus, Aspergillus niger, and Fusarium were isolated from some
of these cheeses. Mold contamination was minimal.
produce off-flavors. The final spoilage of hard cheeses will depend on the pH, water
activity, packaging, and storage conditions.
and packaging techniques. Very few Gram-negative bacteria, which are able to degrade protein and fat, were isolated from the products.
5.10.8 Butter
Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion that contains over 80% fat. Generally, well made
butter from pasteurized cream has few microbiological problems unless there is
postprocessing contamination and storage at temperatures above refrigeration. Hankin and Hanna528 did a survey on 32 butter samples and found that five had counts
>10 5 aerobic bacteria/g, four of the samples had psychrotrophic counts above 1000
cfu/g, only four samples had more than 200 yeasts and molds/g, and only five samples had high lipolytic or proteolytic bacterial counts (>5 X 103 cfu/g). Although
there are no definite microbial standards for butter, most of these samples would be
considered microbiologically acceptable and would be expected to have long shelf
lives. The incidence of yeasts in butter is very low.99-486 Jensen et al.529 found that
the storage temperature and salt had an inhibitory effect on yeasts in butter. Also,
both coliform and other bacteria were reduced in number over time in salted butter.
Mold growth in butter was effectively inhibited by 0.1% potassium sorbate with or
without an added 2% sodium chloride.530 The potential for microbial spoilage of
butter will depend on the microorganisms in the water phase, the temperature of
storage, and the amount of salt present.
the 100 cfu/g limit and only 3.2% of the samples exceeded the limit of 12 cfu/g for
S. aureus; none of the isolates could produce enterotoxins A to D. Yeasts are reported
only in low levels in ice cream, generally <10 3 cfu/g.99'486
lactis. Qvist et al.555 made Havarti cheese from UF five-fold retentates and found
that the degradation of /3-casein was retarded in UF cheeses and slower flavor development by diacetyl producers was noted as a result of slow protein breakdown.
There results plus those given above for growth of lactic acid starters in UF retentates
suggest that special concerns for pH, decreased moisture, and proper flavor development are needed when cheese is made from UF retentates.
Because UF retentates have high buffering capacity, they could be used as media
for propagation of lactic starter cultures for dairy manufacture. Christopherson and
Zottola556 found that strains of L. lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris
generally grew to higher cell numbers in UF retentates with 12 to 13% total solids
compared to nonfat dry milk reconstituted to 8.3 and 15% solids; therefore, retentates
could serve as natural buffered media for starter culture propagation. Whey permeate
could also serve as a medium to propagate lactic starter cultures because the decreased lactose and increased solids content compared to skim milk kept the pH
higher. 557558 Addition of 1% yeast extract to the permeate stimulate growth of the
Lactococcus spp. Cheddar cheese whey permeate was used successfully to propagate
strains of L. lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris over several transfers
for Colby cheese manufacture.557 The pH and bacterial count from Colby cheese
made with a two-fold retentate were comparable to cheese made from unconcentrated
milks; however, the moisture content was higher.
Whey permeate has a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) that can result in
high sewage treatment costs. Reinbold and Takemoto559 showed that Bacillus megaterium, Rhodopseudomonas sphaerroides, and Kluyveromyces fragilis could reduce
the BOD of permeate from 15,500 mg/L to 1580 mg/L. Further research is needed
on the reduction of BOD in permeate by bacteria and yeasts.
Another concern of using UF technology is the ability to properly clean and
sanitize the membranes after use.560 Several reports have been published on the
inability of commercial cleaners and sanitizers to effectively remove microorganisms
from the membranes.561"565 Bisulfite was not an effective sanitizer of unclean membranes because it needed a pH of 3.5 which resulted in corrosion and pitting of
stainless steel fittings and rubber gaskets.562 Even if the membranes were clean, none
of the sanitizers (50 ppm available chlorine, 0.2% hydrogen peroxide, acid anionic
surfactant at pH 2.5) were completely effective because of circulation problems.563
A new sanitizer that releases chlorine dioxide and chlorous acid from a sodium
chlorite solution at pH 2.7 effectively sanitized a polysulfone UF membrane; however, electron micrographs showed that the membranes were still plugged with particulates, such as protein and possibly nonviable bacteria.561 More research needs to
be done to improve the UF membranes, produce better cleaners than are now available, and manufacture acceptable sanitizers.
Reverse osmosis (RO) has not had as much acceptance as UF because the cellulose acetate membranes could withstand temperatures to only 35C.566 RO is a
concentration method that allows most water to pass through the membane under
pressure and retains most other components. Normal RO operating temperatures of
20 to 35C allowed psychrotrophic and mesophilic microorganisms to grow. Now
new composite membranes can be operated up to 500C; however, little research has
been done with them. Previous research with the cellulose acetate membranes had
shown that RO could be used to manufacture yogurt that compared to conventionally
manufactured products for culture growth, acid production, viscosity, and flavor.567
RO has been used for experimental production of butter, reduced water content in
fluid milks, yogurt, and skim milk powder.568 Drew and Manners569 showed that
processing at 50 to 55C reduced the bacterial population in RO concentrates; however, psychrotrophs grew at about the same rate in RO and raw milk at 5C. Cromie
et al.566 reported that preheating milk to 500C before RO of 2:1 reduced the psychrotrophic, proteolytic, lipolytic, and coliform bacteria, and yeasts and molds by
16 to 50%. In RO concentrates it took 3.5 days longer for the count to reach the
same level as in the raw milk. As newer, more temperature-stable membranes are
developed, there will be a need for more research on RO.
Microfiltration is a separation process that uses filters with pore sizes of 0.1 to
10 fim to remove microorganisms from liquid that results in a permeate (filtrate)
and retentate (concentrate).570 A small pressure differential is used across the membrane.571 Microfiltration of milk reduced the B. cereus spore count by 99.95 to
99.98% and the total count by 99.99%.571 Microfiltration units that can filter viscous
liquids are pleated tangential crossflow cartridges.572 This type of filtration can be
used to separate bacteria from milk in addition to fat from milk and casein from
milk protein. Microfiltration can remove bacteria and clostridial spores from milk
better than by bactofugation. Trouve et al. 573 showed that a 1.4 /xm membrane
retained 99.93 to 99.99% of the bacteria when milk was microfiltered. Microfiltration
may find greater uses in the future for removing bacteria from milk for both fluid
consumption and manufacturing uses.
of manganese, and 11 ppm of magnesium. One concern with spores at the temperatures above 121C is whether they have a Z value of 100C. Brown and Gaze580
studied the thermal resistance of Clostridium botulinum from 120 to 1400C and found
that the Z value was 11C; therefore, the traditional botulinal process can be safely
extrapolated to UHT-processed foods. Lembke and Wartenberg234 suggested using
a bactofuge to remove bacteria from milk before it was UHT processed. Some Bacillus species that were isolated from spoiled UGT-processed milk were identified
as mesophilic Bacillus species, B. subtilis, and B. cereus.581 As these strains had
Z values of 5.6 to 8.8C, they should have been inactivated by the UHT process.
This could suggest postprocess contamination of the UHT milk. The studies that
have been done suggest that spores, even thermophilic ones, should be inactivated
by the UHT processing.
Proteinases and Upases have not been inactivated by UHT processing and can
cause problems in the milk during extended storage. Adams and Brawley582 reported
that lipase from a Pseudomonas sp. had D values of 1620 to 63 s at 100 to 1500C.
The Z value was 38.4C. Kroll2 and Fox et al.1 have reviewed the heat resistance of
proteinases and lipases, especially those produced by Pseudomonas species. A modified UHT treatment of 1400C for 5 s followed by 600C for 5 min reduced the proteolytic and lipolytic activity in milk.583-584 The presence of proteinases and lipases
in the milk used for UHT processing can therefore create problems with the final
product. Gillis et al.585 and Mottar et al.586 reported that milk with high proteolytic
and psychrotrophic counts, especially Gram-negative bacteria, showed more proteolysis in the final UHT milks. Mottar et al.586 used in HPLC method to determine the
proteolytic quality of milk for UHT processing. Two components, identified only as
2 and 3, were highly correlated to protein breakdown by bacterial proteinases. Gillis
et al.585 found that both the Hull and the trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) tests
correlated proteolysis to milk samples with microbial populations between 105 and
106 cfu/ml. One of the problems is the ability to measure the proteolytic activity.
Rollema et al.587 did a collaborative study to compare several methods of detecting
bacterial proteinases in milk. The 2-fluorescamine, azocoll, and TNBS assays were
equally sensitive and gave comparable results. The results of the proteolytic assays
needs to be compared to the keeping quality or shelf life of the UHT milk.
Several of the effects of proteinases and lipases have been reviewed by Cousin100
and Mottar.97 The keeping quality of the milk is related to the presence and activity
of heat-resistant enzymes, especially proteinases. Bitter flavors and gelation are common factors in UHT milk spoilage. Keogh and Pettingill588 found a highly significant
correlation between proteolytic enzyme activity and age gelation of UHT milk. The
increase in free amino groups during 4 weeks of storage at 210C indicated that
proteolytic enzymes were active in UHT milk.589 Although Pseudomonas spp. are
most frequently identified as the protease producers, Keogh and Pettingill590 identified coryneform bacteria, such as Arthrobacter spp., as being involved in age gelation of UHT milk. Aseptically packaged UHT cream became bitter due to proteolytic enzymes that were optimally active at 30 to 37C.591 Heat-resistant lipases have
caused rancid flavors in UHT milks,592 but they are usually of lesser importance
than proteinases.97 The increase in lipolytic activity is normally followed by the acid
degree value or increase in free fatty acids, especially those with C4 to C12 chain
lengths.97'589-592 Both heat-resistant proteinases and lipases can affect the quality of
UHT milk. Hence, good quality assurance programs are needed to ensure that UHT
milk is of acceptable quality. Various aspects of quality assurance and final UHT
product quality are reviewed by Cordier,5 Dunkley and Stevenson,593 Farahnik,594
and Reinheimer et al.595 Additional research is needed to determine new methods
for the detection of heat-resistant proteinases and lipases in milk that is used for
UHT processing. Also, new methods are needed for the final assessment of sterility
of UHT-processed milk and dairy products.
Mrad/min, irradiation increased the shelf life of cheese by four- to live-fold and
yogurt by three-fold. Irradiation at 78C and 40 KGy sterilized ice cream and
frozen yogurt, but not Mozzarella or Cheddar cheese.604 The 12 D values for B.
cereus spores in ice cream, frozen yogurt, and Mozzarella cheese were 49,47.9, and
43.1 KGy, respectively. Listeria monocytogenes was inactivated by irradiation at
-78C using low doses.604 The 12 D in Mozzarella cheese was 16.8 KGy. In ice
cream, the 12 D was 24.4 KGy. The results of this research indicate that low-dose
gamma irradiation can be used to lower the level of microorganisms and some pathogens in dairy products. More research is needed in this area to correlate levels that
reduce microorganisms versus those levels that result in organoleptic changes.
Next Page
FDA had indicated that organisms such as Listeria may indeed be isolated from
the plant environment. Isolating critical areas from main traffic flow and minimizing employee movement from the raw to the finished areas is critical in reducing the risk of pathogenic contamination.
5. Keep accurate records of critical control point monitoring and other process variable. Designate a specific location for these records and person(s) responsible
for maintaining records of the critical control point monitoring.
6. Finally, plan a good product recall (retrieval program that is adequately tested).
Designate a "response team" and a plan of action to be followed in the event of
product contamination.
The HACCP approach provides a systematic way to minimize hazards associated
with the raw or processed foods, including potential consumer abuse. Development
and implementation of the HACCP by major dairy food processors worldwide indicate the desire of the industry to provide high-quality, safe dairy products to the
consumer.
5.13 Conclusion
The significance of dairy microbiology vis-a-vis processing, manufacturing, safety,
quality, and shelf life of milk and dairy products, particularly new technologies such
as membrane processing, microwave, and UHT technology cannot be overemphasized. Much research has been done to understand the behavior of spoilage and
pathogenic organisms in milk and dairy foods. Yet, much information is needed to
devise practical ways of managing microbiological problems in the dairy industry.
Genetic manipulations of starter bacteria offer much promise for development of
strains with desirable properties for fermentation of conventional and novel dairy
foods and ingredients. Understanding of the crucial role of dairy microbiology has
led to regulations regarding the maximum levels of microbial contamination permitted. The increasing need for microbiological testing of milk and dairy products
has also prompted developments of rapid and automated methods in dairy microbiology.
This chapter has only touched on the main areas of dairy microbiology as it is
impossible to discuss in great detail the myriad of microorganisms that may be
associated with milk and dairy products. Further information on any of the areas
mentioned may be found in several recently published monographs, reviews, and
reference books, some of which are listed in this chapter. It is our hope that those
in the dairy industry interested in acquainting themselves with a basic knowledge of
dairy microbiology as well as those seeking review of research dealing with microbiological aspects of milk and dairy products processing, quality, and safety will
find the information presented here useful.
5.14
References
1. Fox, P. F., P. Power, and T. M. Cogan. 1989. Isolation and molecular characteristics. In R. C.
McKellar (ed.), Enzymes ofPsychrotrophs in Raw Food, pp. 57-120. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Previous Page
FDA had indicated that organisms such as Listeria may indeed be isolated from
the plant environment. Isolating critical areas from main traffic flow and minimizing employee movement from the raw to the finished areas is critical in reducing the risk of pathogenic contamination.
5. Keep accurate records of critical control point monitoring and other process variable. Designate a specific location for these records and person(s) responsible
for maintaining records of the critical control point monitoring.
6. Finally, plan a good product recall (retrieval program that is adequately tested).
Designate a "response team" and a plan of action to be followed in the event of
product contamination.
The HACCP approach provides a systematic way to minimize hazards associated
with the raw or processed foods, including potential consumer abuse. Development
and implementation of the HACCP by major dairy food processors worldwide indicate the desire of the industry to provide high-quality, safe dairy products to the
consumer.
5.13 Conclusion
The significance of dairy microbiology vis-a-vis processing, manufacturing, safety,
quality, and shelf life of milk and dairy products, particularly new technologies such
as membrane processing, microwave, and UHT technology cannot be overemphasized. Much research has been done to understand the behavior of spoilage and
pathogenic organisms in milk and dairy foods. Yet, much information is needed to
devise practical ways of managing microbiological problems in the dairy industry.
Genetic manipulations of starter bacteria offer much promise for development of
strains with desirable properties for fermentation of conventional and novel dairy
foods and ingredients. Understanding of the crucial role of dairy microbiology has
led to regulations regarding the maximum levels of microbial contamination permitted. The increasing need for microbiological testing of milk and dairy products
has also prompted developments of rapid and automated methods in dairy microbiology.
This chapter has only touched on the main areas of dairy microbiology as it is
impossible to discuss in great detail the myriad of microorganisms that may be
associated with milk and dairy products. Further information on any of the areas
mentioned may be found in several recently published monographs, reviews, and
reference books, some of which are listed in this chapter. It is our hope that those
in the dairy industry interested in acquainting themselves with a basic knowledge of
dairy microbiology as well as those seeking review of research dealing with microbiological aspects of milk and dairy products processing, quality, and safety will
find the information presented here useful.
5.14
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549. Srilaorkul, S., L. Ozimek, and M. E. Stiles. 1989. Growth and activity of Lactococcus lactis ssp.
cremoris in ultrafiltered skim milk. / . Dairy Sci. 72:2435-2443.
550. Hickey, M. W., H. Roginski, and M. C. Broom. 1983. Growth and acid production of group N
streptococci in ultrafiltered milk. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 38:138-143.
551. Mistry, V. V., and F. V. Kosikowski. 1985b. Fermentation of ultrafiltered skim milk retentates with
mesophilic lactic cheese starters. /. Dairy Sci. 68:1613-1617.
552. Mistry, V. V., and F. V. Kosikowski. 1985c. Growth of lactic acid bacteria in highly concentrated
ultrafiltered skim milk retentates. /. Dairy ScL 68:2536-2543.
553. Premaratne, R. J., and M. A. Cousin. 1991a. Changes in the chemical composition during ultrafiltration of skim milk. J. Dairy Sci. 74:788-795.
554. Mistry, V. V., F. V. Kosikowski, and W. D. Bellamy. 1987. Improvement of lactic acid production
in ultrafiltered milk by the addition of nutrients. / . Dairy Sci. 70:2220-2225.
555. Qvist, K. B., D. Thomsen, and E. Hoier. 1987. Effect of ultrafiltered milk and use of different
starters on the manufacture, fermentation andripeningof Havarti cheese. / . Dairy Res. 54:437-446.
556. Christopherson, A. T., and E. A. Zottola. 1989a. Growth and activity of mesophilic lactic acid
streptococci in ultrafiltered skim milk and in reconstituted nonfat dry milk of differing total solids
contents. / . Dairy Sci. 72:2856-2861.
557. Christopherson, A. T., and E. A. Zottola. 1989b. The use of whey permeate as starter media in
cheese production. J. Dairy ScL 72:2862-2868.
558. Christopherson, A. T., and E. A. Zottola. 1989c. Whey permeate as a medium for mesophilic lactic
acid streptococci. / . Dairy Sci. 72:1701-1706.
559. Reinbold, R. S., and J. Takemoto. 1988. Use of Swiss cheese whey permeate by Kluyveromyces
fragilis and mixed culture of Rhodopseudomonas spheroids and Bacillus megaterium. J. Dairy ScL
71:1799-1802.
560. Beaton, N. C. 1979. Ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis in the dairy industryan introduction to
sanitary considerations. / . Food Prot. 42:584-590.
561. Bohner, H. F., and R. L. Bradley. 1990. Effective control of microbial populations in polysulfone
ultrafiltration membrane systems. /. Dairy ScL 73:2309-2317.
562. Smith, K. E., and R. L. Bradley, Jr. 1986. Ineffective cleaning of polysulfone ultrafiltration membrane systems and corrosion by bisulfite used as a sanitizer. / . Dairy ScL 69:1232-1240.
563. Smith, K. E., and R. L. Bradley, Jr. 1987a. Efficiency of sanitizers using unsoiled spiral-wound
polysulfone ultrafiltration membrances. J. Food Prot. 50:567-572.
564. Smith, K. E., and R. L. Bradley, Jr. 1987b. Evaluation of efficiency of four commercial enzymebased cleaners of ultrafiltration systems. J. Dairy Sci. 70:1168-1177.
565. Smith, K. E., and R. L. Bradley, Jr. 1988. Evaluation of three different cleaners recommended for
ultrafiltration systems by direct observations of commercial-scale spiral-wound ultrafiltration membranes. /. Food Prot. 51:89-104.
566. Cromie, S. J., D. Schmidt, and J. E. Giles. 1986. The effect of reverse osmosis concentration and
subsequent storage on the microflora of raw milk. N. Z. J. Dairy Sci. Technol. 21:1-7.
567. Davies, F. L., P. A. Shankar, and H. M. Underwood. 1977. The use of milk concentrated by reverse
osmosis for the manufacture of yogurt. /. Soc. Dairy Technol. 30:23-28.
568. Dixon, D. B. 1985. Dairy products prepared from reverse osmosis concentratemarket milk products, butter, skim milk powder and yoghurt. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 40:91-95.
569. Drew, P. G., and J. G. Manners. 1985. Microbiological aspects of reverse osmosis concentration
of milk. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 40:108-112.
570. Kosikowski, F. V., and V. V. Mistry. 1990. Microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and centrifugation separation and sterilization processes for improving milk and cheese quality. / . Dairy Sci.
73:1411-1419.
571. Olesen, N., and F. Jensen. 1989. Microfiltration. The influence of operation parameters on the
process. Milchwissenschaft 44:476-479.
572. Merin, U., and G. Daufin. 1990. Crossflow microfiltration in the dairy industry: state-of-the-art.
Le Lait 70:281-291.
573. Trouve, E., J. L. Maubois, M. Piot, M. N. Madec, J. Fauquant, A. Ronault, J. Tabard, and G.
Brinkman. 1991. Retention de differentes especes microbiennes lors de l'e'puration du lait par
microfiltration en flux tangentiel. Le Lait 71:1-13.
574. Burton, H. 1985. Thirty-five years ona story of UHT research and development. Chem. Jndust.
Aug. 19:546-553.
575. Brown, K. L., and C. A. Ayres. 1982. Thermobacteriology of UHT processed foods. In R. Davies
(ed.), Developments in Food Microbiology. Vol. 1, pp. 119-152. Elsevier Applied Science, Essex,
England.
576. Burton, H. 1988. Ultra-High-Temperature Processing of Milk and Milk Products. Elsevier Applied
Science, New York.
577. Cerf, O. 1987. Revue bibliographique: caracte'risation de Ia thermore'sistance des spores bacteriennes pour !'optimisation des traitements UHT. Le Lait 67:97-109.
578. Duquet, J. P., A. Trouvat, A. Mouniqua, G. Odet, and O. Cerf. 1987. Les spores thermore"sistantes
du lait utilise pour Ia fabrication de laits de longue conservation. Le Lait 67:393402.
579. Yildiz, F., and D. C. Westhoff. 1989. Sporulation and thermal resistance of Bacillus stearothermophilus spores in milk. Food Microbiol. 6:245250.
580. Brown, K., and J. Gaze. 1988. High temperature resistance of bacterial spores. Dairy Indust. Int.
53:37, 39.
581. Westhoff, D. C , and S. L. Dougherty. 1981. Characterization of Bacillus species isolated from
spoiled ultrahigh temperature processed milk. /. Dairy Sci. 64:572-580.
582. Adams, D. M., and T. G. Brawley. 1981. Heat resistant bacterial lipases and ultra-high temperature
sterilization of dairy products. J. Dairy Sci. 64: 1951-1957.
583. Bucky, A. R., P. R. Hayes, and D. S. Robinson. 1987. A modified ultrahigh temperature treatment
for reducing microbial lipolysis in stored milk. J. Dairy Res. 54:275-282.
584. Bucky, A. R., P. R. Hayes, and D. S. Robinson. 1988b. Enhanced inactivation of bacterial lipases
and proteinases in whole milk by a modified ultra-high temperature treatment. /. Dairy Res.
55:373-380.
585. Gillis, W. T., M. F. Cartledge, I. R. Rodriguez, and E. J. Suarez. 1985. Effect of raw milk quality
on ultra-high temperature processed milk. J. Dairy Sci. 68:2875-2879.
586. Mottar, J., R. Van Renterghem, and J. DeVilder. 1985. Evaluation of the raw material for UHT
milk by determining the degree of protein breakdown through HPLC. Milchwissenschaft 40:717721.
587. Rollema, H. S., R. C. McKellar, T. Sorhaug, G. Suhren, J. G. Zadow, B. A. Law, J. K. Poll, L.
Stepaniak, and G. Vagias. 1989. Comparison of different methods for the detection of bacterial
proteolytic enzymes in milk. Milchwissenschaft 44:491-496.
588. Keogh, B. P., and G. Pettingill. 1984. Influence of enzyme activity of bacteria in leucocytes in raw
milk on age gelation after UHT processing. /. Food Prot. 47:105-107.
589. Christen, G. L., W. C. Wang, and T. J. Ren. 1986. Comparison of the heat resistance of bacterial
lipases and proteases and the effects on ultra-high temperature milk quality. /. Dairy Sci. 69:
2769-2778.
590. Keogh, B. P., and G. Pettingill. 1982. Possible role of coryneform bacteria in age gelation of
ultrahigh-temperature-processed milk. AppL Environ. Microbiol. 43:1495-1497.
591. Richter, R. L., R. H. Schmidt, K. L. Smith, L. E. Mull, and S. L. Henry. 1979. Proteolytic activity
in ultra-pasteurized, aseptically packaged whipping cream. J. Food Prot. 42:43-45.
592. Andersson, R. E., G. Danielsson, C. B. Hedlund, and S. G. Svensson. 1981. Effect of a heatresistant microbial lipase on flavor of ultra-high temperature sterilized milk. / . Dairy ScL 64:375379.
593. Dunkley, W. L., and K. E. Stevenson. 1987. Ultra-high temperature processing and aseptic packaging of dairy products. /. Dairy Sci. 70:2192-2202.
594. Farahnik, S. 1982. A quality control program recommendation for UHT processing and aseptic
packaging of milk and milk products. Dairy Food Sanit. 2:454-457.
595. Reinheimer, J. A., and M. R. Denkow. 1990. Comparison of rapid tests for assessing UHT milk
sterility. /. Dairy Res. 57:239-243.
596. Farkas, J. 1989. Microbiological safety of irradiated foods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 9:1-15.
597. Patterson, M. F. 1990. The potential for food irradiation. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 11:55-61.
598. Raj, D., and M. K. Roy. 1987. Preservation of milk by gamma-irradiation. / . Nucl. Agric. Biol.
16:227-229.
599. Sadoun, D., C. Couvercelle, A. Strasser, A. Egler, and C. Hasselmann. 1991. Low dose irradiation
of liquid milk. Milchwissenschaft 46:295-299.
600. Searl, A. J. F., and P. McAthey. 1989. Treatment of milk by gamma irradiationeffect of anoxia
on lipid peroxidation and the survival of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Sci. Food Agric. 48:361367.
601. Rosenthal, L, M. Martinot, P. Lindner, and B. J. Juven. 1983. A study of ionizing irradiation of
dairy products. Milchwissenschaft 38:467-470.
602. Jones, T. H., and P. Jelen. 1988. Low dose r-irradiation of Camembert, cottage cheese and cottage
cheese whey. Milchwissenschaft 43:233-235.
603. Yiiccer, S., and G. Giindiiz. 1980. Preservation of cheese and plain yogurt by low-dose irradiation.
/ . Food Prot. 43:114-118.
604. Hashisaka, A. E., J. R. Matches, Y. Batters, F. P. Hungate, and F. M. Dong. 1990. Effects of
gamma irradiation at 78C on microbial populations in dairy products. / . Food Sci. 55:12841289.
605. Decareau, R. V. 1985. Microwaves in the Food Processing Industry. Academic Press, New York.
606. Knutson, K. M., E. H. Marth, and M. K. Wagner. 1987. Microwave heating of food. Lebensm.Wiss. U.-Technol. 20:101-110.
607. Sims, L. A., P. C. Vasavada, R. R. Hull, R. A. Chandler, and E. H. Marth. 1991. Impedimetric
analysis of quality and shelf-life of milk pasteurized by a continuous microwave treatment. J. Dairy
Sci.74(Suppl.I):\39.
608. Stearns, G., and P. C. Vasavada. 1986. Effect of microwave processing on quality of milk. / . Food
Prot. 49:853.
609. Vasavada, P. C. 1990. Microwave processing for the dairy industry. FoodAust. 42:562-564.
610. Chiu, C. P., K. Tateishi, F. V. Kosikowski, and G. Armbruster. 1984. Microwave treatment of
pasteurized milk. J. Microwave Power 19:269-272.
611. Chiu, P., K. Tateishi, F. Kosikowski, and G. Armbruster. 1982. Microwave treatment of pasteurized
milk. J. Microwave Power 17:316-317.
612. Jaynes, H. O. 1975. Microwave pasteurization of milk. J. Milk Food Technol. 38:386-387.
613. Knutson, K. M., E. H. Marth, and M. K. Wagner. 1988. Use of microwave ovens to pasteurize
milk. / . FoodProt. 51:715-719.
614. Tochman, L. M., C. M. Stine, and B. R. Harte. 1985. Thermal treatment of cottage cheese "inpackage" by microwave heating. / . FoodProt. 48:932-938.
615. Young, G. S., and P. G. Jolly. 1990. Microwaves: the potential for use in dairy processing. Aust.
J. Dairy Technol. 45:34-37.
616. Chen, J. H., and J. H. Hotchkiss. 1991. Effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the growth of
psychrotrophic organisms in cottage cheese. J. Dairy Sci. 74:2941-2945.
617. Kankare, V., V. Antila, T. Harvala, and V. Komppa. 1989. Extraction of milk fat with supercritical
carbon dioxide. Milchwissenschaft 44:407-411.
618. Kamihira, M., M. Taniguchi, and T. Kobayashi. 1987. Sterilization of microorganisms with supercritical carbon dioxide. Agric. Biol. Chem. 51:407-412.
619. Sperber, W. H. 1991. The model HACCP System. Food Technol. 45:116-118, 120.
620. Baumann, H. E. 1974. The HACCP concept and microbiological hazard categories. Food Technol.
28:28,30,32,34, 79.
621. Bryan, F. L. 1988. Hazard analysis and critical control point: what the system is and what it is not.
J. Environ. Health. 50:400-401.
622. ICMSF. 1988. Microorganisms in Foods, Vol. 4, Application of the Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point System to ensure microbiological safety and quality. International Commission on
Microbiological Standards for Foods. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
623. NACMCF. 1989. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System. National Advisory Commission on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. Food safety and inspection service. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
624. Merin, U., and I. Rosenthal. 1984. Pasteurization of milk by microwave irradiation. Milchwissenschaft 39:643-644.
APPENDIX
Temperature
155F
175F
Time
30 min.
25 sec.
135.3 Definitions.
*In order to provide the most recent standards for frozen desserts, this legal document is reproduced
as an appendix to this volume instead of to Chapter 2.
optional dairy ingredients specified in paragraph (b) of this section, and may contain one
or more of the optional caseinates specified
in paragraph (c) of this section subject to the
conditions hereinafter set forth, and other
safe and suitable nonmilk-derived ingredients; and excluding other food fats, except
such as are natural components of flavoring
ingredients used or are added in incidental
amounts to accomplish specific functions. Ice
cream is sweetened with nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners and may or may not be characterized by the addition of flavoring ingredients.
(2) Ice cream contains not less than 1.6
pounds of total solids to the gallon, and
weighs not less than 4.5 pounds to the gallon.
Ice cream contains not less than 10 percent
milkfat, nor less than 10 percent nonfat milk
solids, except that when it contains milkfat at
1 percent increments above the 10 percent
minimum, it may contain the following milkfat-to-nonfat milk solids levels:
^
*
Percent milkfat
10
11
12
13
14
Minimum
percent
.
r
nonfat
milk
solids
10
9
8
7
6
Ice milk.
(a) Description. Ice milk is the food prepared from the same ingredients and in the
same manner prescribed in 135.110 for ice
cream and complies with all the provisions
of 135.110 (including the requirements for
label statement of optional ingredients), except that:
(1) Its content of milkfat is more than 2
percent but not more than 7 percent.
(2) Its content of total milk solids is not
less than 11 percent.
(3) Caseinates may be added when the content of total milk solids is not less than 11
percent.
(4) The provision for reduction in milkfat
and nonfat milk solids content from the addition of bulky flavors in 135.110(a) applies, except that in no case will the milkfat
content be less than 2 percent, nor the nonfat
milk solids content be less than 4 percent.
When the milkfat content increases in increments of 1 percent above the 2 percent minimum, it may contain the following milkfatto-nonfat milk solids levels:
Minimum
Percent milkfat
2
3
4
5
6
7
.
nonfat milk
solids
9
8
7
6
5
4
Mellorine.
and 2.7 percent protein having a protein efficiency ratio (PER) not less than that of
whole milk protein (108 percent of casein) by
weight of the food, exclusive of the weight
of any bulky flavoring ingredients used. In no
case shall the fat content of the finished food
be less than 4.8 percent or the protein content
be less than 2.2 percent. The protein to meet
the minimum protein requirements shall be
provided by milk solids, not fat and/or other
milk-derived ingredients.
(3) When calculating the minimum amount
of milkfat and protein required in the finished
food, the solids of chocolate or cocoa used
shall be considered a bulky flavoring ingredient. In order to make allowance for additional sweetening ingredients needed when
certain bulky ingredients are used, the weight
of chocolate or cocoa solids used may be
multiplied by 2.5; the weight of fruit or nuts
used may be multiplied by 1.4; and the
weight of partially or wholly dried fruits or
fruit juices may be multiplied by appropriate
factors to obtain the original weights before
drying and this weight may be multiplied by
1.4.
(b) Fortification. Vitamin A is present in a
quantity which will ensure that 40 international units (IU) are available for each gram
of fat in mellorine, within limits of good
manufacturing practice,
(c) Methods of analysis. Fat and protein
content, and the PER shall be determined by
following the methods contained in "Official
Methods of Analysis of the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists," 13th Ed.
(1980), which is incorporated by reference.
Copies may be obtained from the Association
of Official Analytical Chemists, 2200 Wilson
Blvd., Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201-3301,
or may be examined at the Office of the Federal Register, 1100 L St. N.W, Washington,
DC 20408.
(1) Fat content shall be determined by the
method: "Fat, Roese-Gottlieb Method
Official Final Action," section 16.287.
(2) Protein content shall be determined by
one of the following methods: "Nitrogen
Official Final Action," Kjeldahl Method,
Sherbet.
(a) Description. (1) Sherbet is a food produced by freezing, while stirring, a pasteurized mix consisting of one or more of the
optional dairy ingredients specified in paragraph (b) of this section, and may contain one
or more of the optional caseinates specified
in paragraph (c) of this section subject to the
conditions hereinafter set forth, and other
safe and suitable nonmilk-derived ingredients; and excluding other food fats, except
such as are added in small amounts to accomplish specific functions or are natural components of flavoring ingredients used. Sherbet is sweetened with nutritive carbohydrate
sweeteners and is characterized by the addition of one or more of the characterizing fruit
ingredients specified in paragraph (d) of this
section or one or more of the nonfruit-
likely to be read and understood by the ordinary individual under customary conditions
of purchase and use.
(i) Label declaration. Each of the optional
ingredients used shall be declared on the label
as required by the applicable sections of Part
101 of this chapter.
[43 FR 4599, Feb. 3, 1978, as amended at 46
FR 44434, Sept. 4, 1981]
135.160
Water ices.
CHAPTER
1
Quality Assurance and
Dairy Processing
John E. Stauffer
1.1 Introduction, 3
1.1.1 Definition of Quality, 3
1.1.2 Quality Assurance Versus Quality Control, 3
1.1.3 Organization and Management, 4
1.2 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, 4
1.2.1 Basic Concepts, 4
1.2.2 Food Hazards, 5
1.2.2.1 Microbiological Hazards, 5
1.2.2.2 Chemical Contamination, 7
1.2.2.3 Extraneous Matter, 8
1.2.2.4 Functional Hazards, 8
1.2.3 Critical Control Points, 8
1.2.3.1 Blended Products, 9
1.2.3.2 Raw Milk Quality, 9
1.2.4 Pasteurization, 12
1.2.4.1 Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 12
1.2.4.2 Pasteurization Conditions, 14
1.2.4.3 Two Tragedies in 1985, 19
1.2.5 Cheese Processes, 20
1.2.6 Ice Cream Processes, 23
1.2.7 Yogurt Processes, 25
1.2.8 Butter and Milk Processes, 27
1.3 Product Specifications, 30
1.3.1 Food Additives and GRAS Substances, 30
1.3.2 Unavoidable Contaminants, 33
1.3.3 Standards of Identity, 33
1.3.4 USDA Grades, 35
1.3.5 Analytical Methods, 37
1.3.6 Codex Alimentarius, 39
1.4 Good Manufacturing Practice, 40
1.4.1 Regulatory Requirements, 41
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.4.2 Sanitation, 41
1.4.2.1 Materials of Construction, 41
1.4.2.2 Equipment Design and Standards, 42
1.4.2.3 Cleaning of Equipment, 43
1.4.2.4 Sanitizing Compounds, 44
1.4.2.5 Application of Cleaning/Sanitizing Solutions, 45
1.4.2.6 Maintenance of Equipment, 46
1.4.3 Plants and Grounds, 47
1.4.3.1 Environmental Concerns, 47
1.4.3.2 Pest Control, 48
1.4.4 Employee Training, 49
Product Labeling, 50
1.5.1 Ingredient Labeling, 50
1.5.2 Nutritional Labeling, 52
1.5.3 Fortification, 55
1.5.4 Imitation and Substitute Foods, 57
1.5.5 Open Date Labeling, 59
1.5.6 Kosher Certification, 59
Packaging, 60
1.6.1 Functional Needs, 61
1.6.2 Materials Testing, 62
1.6.3 Tamper-Evident Closures, 63
1.6.4 Aseptic Packaging, 63
1.6.5 Packaged Weight Control, 64
Distribution, 65
1.7.1 Shelf Life, 65
1.7.2 Warehousing and Shipping, 65
1.7.3 Product Recall, 66
Summary, 67
1.8.1 Importance of Process Controls, 67
1.8.2 Need to Avoid Recontamination, 68
Future Developments, 68
1.9.1 The Promise of Biotechnology, 68
1.9.2 Internationalization of the Dairy Industry, 69
1.9.3 Proliferation of New Products, 69
References, 70
L l Introduction
1.1.1 Definition of Quality
Traditional concepts of quality need to be modified when discussing dairy products.
Quality can be thought of as the ''degree or grade of excellence," but something
more specific should be added to this definition when coping with everyday problems. A survey by the Dairy & Food Industries Supply Association indicated that
the primary quality concern of dairy processors is the organoleptic attributes (taste
and texture) of their products. Safety issues, that is, bacterial control and sanitation,
ranked second among the concerns expressed.1 This priority undoubtedly reflected
the outstanding progress that has been made over the years to ensure product safety.
Consumers also expect and demand convenience, sound value, and, increasingly,
good nutrition. The meaning of nutrition, however, has undergone dramatic changes.
Whereas at one time quality was equated with the fat content of a dairy product (the
richer the better), now consumers are substituting low-fat or "light" dairy products
into their diets. This switch has been prompted by fears of excessive intake of saturated fat, cholesterol, salt, and sugar, all of which have been shown to contribute
to such chronic diseases as hypertension, heart disease, and some cancers.2
The new concerns about nutrition have exerted a strong effect on consumer preferences. Skim milk and cheese, for example, have become dominant staples as meal
items. At the same time such high-calorie treats as ice cream and sherbet remain
popular.3 In an attempt to have it both waysgood nutrition while being self indulgentconsumers are availing themselves of new introductions of engineered
dairy products containing fat substitutes and artificial sweeteners.
Such a formalized procedure will ensure that proper attention will be given to the
control of a given hazard.
cause the toxin is heat stable and may be present after the organism is destroyed,
diagnosis of the illness can be complicated. It is important to avoid contamination
with this bacteria by maintaining personal cleanliness and adhering to recognized
sanitation procedures in the handling of foods. Refrigeration of foods below 4.4C
(400F) inhibits the growth of this organism. Typical foods that can be adulterated
with 5. aureus are pastries and foods of animal origin such as meats and dairy
products.
Salmonella, of which there are more than 2000 different serotypes, is transmitted
primarily by farm animals which pass the organisms on to such foods as eggs, meat
products, poultry, and raw milk. The symptoms of salmonellosis include diarrhea,
abdominal cramps, vomiting, and fever usually within 24 h after consuming the
contaminated food. Consequences, however, may be more severe for the very young,
the elderly, and those already weakened by disease. Salmonella is very heat sensitive,
and therefore it is readily destroyed by normal cooking of food and proper pasteurization of milk. Nevertheless cross-contamination of foods after heat treatment must
be guarded against. Because Salmonella is so pervasive in nature, complete control
of this organism has remained elusive.
Listeria monocytogenes is characterized by its ability to grow even under refrigeration temperatures. It is heat sensitive, however, and the preponderance of evidence indicates that the microorganism is destroyed by pasteurization. Most healthy
people can survive infection, but certain individuals such as newboms, pregnant
women, and persons with impaired immune systems are particularly susceptible to
listeriosis. The mortality rate among sensitive individuals can be as high as 30 to
40%. Raw milk and soft cheese are the dairy products most commonly associated
with listeriosis.
Campylobacterjejuni has been reported on a number of occasions when raw milk
was consumed. These incidents occurred usually under special circumstances, such
as during visits by school children to dairy farms. This organism can be controlled
by proper pasteurization.
Yersinia enterocolitica has been the cause of serious outbreaks of food poisoning.
Such dairy products as pasteurized milk, reconstituted dry milk, and chocolate milk
were thought to have been contaminated through unsanitary handling. The afflicted
persons, many of them children, developed symptoms of intense abdominal pain
often misdiagnosed as apendicitis. These errors resulted in a number of unnecessary
appendectomies.
Escherichia coli is common in the intestinal tract of humans and animals. As a
result it has long been used as an "indicator" organism, the presence of which in a
food product would suggest insanitation. More recent evidence indicates that certain
strains of E. coli are pathogenic. There have been several reports of cheese contaminated with this organism.
Molds produce mycotoxins which may have adverse effects on humans. Therefore care should be taken to avoid eating molds except such intentional ones as
veined in Roquefort and other blue cheeses. These organisms are capable of growth
on a variety of substrates, notably cheese among dairy products. Conditions of high
humidity and warm temperatures favor the growth of molds.
One toxin that has received much attention is aflatoxin, produced by the mold
Aspergillus flavus. This toxin is highly poisonous and potently carcinogenic. The
commodities peanuts, corn, and cottonseed, are most susceptible to aflatoxin contamination. When contaminated feeds have been included in the rations of dairy
cows, the milk produced by these animals has been found to be adulterated with the
toxin.
Moldy cheese is a common occurrence and a problem that must be faced by
consumers. The normal reaction of most persons is to discard such food, but by
careful trimming, good cheese can often be recovered. Some guidelines have been
suggested for this practice:
1. Trim only cheese that has been kept properly refrigerated.
2. If the mold growth is extensive, do not attempt to recover the cheese.
3. Consider trimming only solid cheeses; do not try to recover semisolid or soft
cheese, such as cream cheese or Brie.
4. To minimize mold growth, practice good sanitation in the handling of the cheese,
keep it well wrapped and stored under adequate refrigeration, and consume it
within a reasonable time span.
5. Keep in mind that manufacturers' use of mold inhibitors (preservatives) such as
potassium sorbate and calcium proprionate will delay mold growth but not prevent it indefinitely.11
Viruses are not a major problem with dairy products. Until the 1940s poliomyelitis was the only viral disease known to be foodborne. This foodborne disease
was largely associated with unpasteurized or recontaminated milk. It should be noted
that viruses cannot multiply in foods, and even the modest heat treatments of milk
pasteurization will inactivate foreseeable quantities of most viruses that might be
present.12
Somatic cells are not microbes, but their presence in milk is significant from a
health standpoint. Somatic cells are white blood cells or body defense cells whose
primary function is to eliminate infections and repair tissue damage. Increasing numbers of these cells will be detected in milk from cows that are fighting off mastitis
infections. These cells are an indication of the overall health of the herd and the
quality of milk that is being produced. Thus, the goal of producers should be to
supply milk with the lowest possible somatic cell count (SCC).13
The problem of drug residues is compounded by ' 'extra-label'' drug use to treat
several common diseases in dairy animals. There are few approved drugs for lactating dairy animals because pharmaceutical manufacturers do not have an economic
incentive to obtain such registrations. Under the circumstances, veterinarians will
prescribe and producers will make use of drugs that are not labeled for such use.
Generally these extralegal acts will not be prosecuted so long as certain precautions
are taken, for example, the drug is withdrawn in sufficient time before resumption
of milking so as to avoid residue contamination. With the increasing sensitivity of
new testing methods, however, residues are being found in milk that previously
escaped detection.15
Chemical contaminants are not limited to animal drug residues but cover a multitude of other substances. These compounds include such pesticides used on crops
as dieldrin, chlordane, and heptachlor. Surveillance of Florida's milk supply has
disclosed in addition to drug residues the following chemical contaminants: vinyl
chloride, 2-4D, cyanide, lead and other heavy metals, volatile organic solvents, chlorine, and acid sanitizers.16 Although some of these contaminants can be traced to
specific infractions; others are the result of an increasing background of synthetic
substances that have pervaded our environment.
Another group of contaminants is chemical germicidals: iodophores, hypochlorites, and strong ionic surfactants. These substances are used in formulations for udder
hygiene, including teat dips and washes, to control the spread of bovine mastitis.
The same germicidals are also applied to sanitize dairy process equipment. These
substances can leave toxic residues in milk.17
to the shipping of finished product. A flow diagram showing all of the processing
streams is indispensable for understanding the key elements of the process. With
this knowledge at hand, a systematic search can then be made to identify the potential
entry points of each hazard. Many of these entry locations are obvious, for example,
raw materials, but others are less apparent, such as open vats, exposed conveyor
lines, and even the equipment itself. The latter may be a source of hazards because
of broken parts or unclean surfaces.
SOY
WHEY
CALCIUM CARBONATE
1/8" SCREEN
5.
RIBBON BLENDER
BAR
MAGNET
SWECO
FILTER
PRODUCT
SCALE
9
PACKAGING
SHIPPING
CONTROL POINT
CRITICAL CONTROL POINT
Figure 1.1 Milk replacer process.
to 100,000 per milliliter, lower counts of 20,000 per milliliter or less are highly
desirable.
Preliminary Incubation (PI) Count is a variation of the SPC test. A raw milk
sample is held for 18 h at 12.80C (55F) before being subjected to a standard plate
count. This procedure is effective for indicating the presence of psychrotrophic or
cold-loving bacteria. Such types of microorganisms contribute to the spoilage of the
milk, and therefore the PI count is a good measure of shelf life. High PI counts are
evidence of sanitation shortcomings in milk production and storage. Values of PI
counts in excess of three or four times SPC are basis for rejection.
Laboratory Pasteurization Count (LPC) is obtained by subjecting raw milk
samples to a simulated vat or batch pasteurization step, which is conducted in a
laboratory water bath. This test indicates the presence of bacteria that most likely
would survive the pasteurization process and are known as thermodurics. The legal
limit in California for LPC is 750 per milliliter.
Coliform Plate Count is obtained by using a different media from that employed
in a SPC test. It thus enumerates the group of bacteria found in the intestinal tract
of mammals, for example, E. coli. The coliform count is a good index of the level
of sanitation. Although this test may not be used in every state for raw milk, generally
it is applied to pasteurized milk which should test at less than or equal to 10 per
milliliter.
Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) is a good screening test because the results
are obtained rapidly without plating. The DMC often provides an indication of the
cause of a sanitation problem, as the general types and range of bacteria present can
be ascertained when a Gram stain is used. One disadvantage of the method is that
it does not differentiate dead from living bacteria, thus limiting its use with pasteurized milk.
Antibiotics are screened by the Bacillus subtilis or B. stearothermophilus plate
disc test. Raw milk must test no zone ^ 1 6 mm with the B. stearothermophilus disc
assay method to comply with federal standards.
Somatic Cell Count (SCC) in excess of about 300,000 per milliliter is usually
indicative of mastitis. Somatic cells may be counted by the direct microscopic
(DMCC) procedure. The Federal standard is less than or equal to 1,000,000 per
milliliter.
Freezing Point Determination is the standard method for ascertaining whether
raw milk has been adulterated with water. The freezing point of raw milk is sensitive
to slight changes in water content. Unadulterated raw milk has a freezing point of
= -0.30 0 C (31.5F). Each increase of 0.0060C in the freezing point is indicative of
approximately 1% added water.
Titratable Acidity (T.A.) measures the formation of lactic acid by lactic acid
bacteria due to delayed or inadequate cooling of the raw milk. Because of the buffering components of milk, pH is not a practical means of determining lactic acid
formation. Excessive acid will cause a sour taste and possible milk coagulation. Low
values of T.A. are indicative of alkali producers, namely, psychrotrophs or spoilage
bacteria. Normal fresh milk exhibits a T.A. of 0.14 to 0.17% acidity (as lactic acid).
Sediment is determined by the disk filtration method which indicates the level
of extraneous material in the raw milk. Disks covered with the filtered sediment are
compared to standards and assigned a grade, either No. 1, 2, 3, or unlawful. Only
No. 1 and 2 grades will qualify in premium quality milk programs.
Although the above tests provide a good indication of raw milk quality, effective
quality assurance must start with farm management. All the testing will be to no
avail unless proper steps are adhered to by the producer. Such practices as milking,
transferring, storage, overall sanitation, and housekeeping must be tightly controlled.
No variable is more critical than the temperature of the raw milk. Regulations
require that milk be cooled to 100C (500F) within 1 h after completion of milking
and to 7.2C (45F) within 2 h after milking. Preferred practice, however, is to cool
the milk to 7.2C (45F) within 1 h and to 4.4C (400F) or less within 2 h. Rapid
cooling and holding the raw milk at these temperatures are vital for the maintenance
of raw milk quality. Recording thermometers are required in some states to check
compliance with these standards.
Of utmost importance to the production of quality milk is the health of dairy
herds. Udder infections or mastitis is a continuing problem that must be controlled
in order to maximize production of the highest quality milk. The National Mastitis
Council, a nonprofit organization, assists producers in achieving these aims. This
group actively supports research and educational programs related to its objectives.22
1.2.4 Pasteurization
Testing alone cannot ensure the absence of microorganisms in the raw milk used in
the manufacture of milk products. In dairy processes the manufacturer must take for
granted the microbiological contamination of the raw milk supply. Therefore in these
situations the processor has to depend on a "kill step" in order to eliminate or control
potentially harmful organisms. The definition of a kill step is a process adjustment
that will achieve the reproductive inactivation of a given microorganism. This kill
step is a critical control point. In dairy processing the kill step consists of a heat
treatment known universally as pasteurization.
The principles that laid the foundation for pasteurization were first elucidated by
Louis Pasteur in the middle of the 19th century. Working with the French liquor
industry, he showed that the development of undesirable organisms that ruined the
quality of wine could be controlled by a moderate heating step. Such a heating step
provided temperatures high enough to inactivate the harmful organisms but not so
high as to impair the taste of the wine. Subsequently this technology was adapted
to the processing of milk and has been used in this application ever since.
dictions. The ordinance was developed and is currently updated with the assistance
of milk sanitation and regulatory officials at every level of federal, state, and local
government. These individuals are members of the National Conference on Interstate
Milk Shipments (NCIMS) which has a Memorandum of Understanding with the
FDA prescribing their joint responsibilities in protecting the nation's milk supply.
Milk products processed under PMO are accepted as Grade A (not to be confused
with USDA grades) and can be so labeled.
The PMO requires that only Grade A milk and milk products may be sold to the
final consumer or to restaurants, soda fountains, grocery stores, or similar establishments. This requirement means that these products must be pasteurized, ultrapasteurized, or aseptically processed. Pasteurization is defined in the PMO as the process
of heating every particle of milk or milk product in properly designed and operated
equipment to a specified temperature and held at that temperature for a given length
of time as indicated in Table Ll. 2 3 Ultrapasteurized means that the product shall
have been thermally processed at or above 138C (2800F) for at least 2 s, either
before or after packaging. Aseptic processing means the product has been subjected
to sufficient heat processing and packaged in a hermetically sealed container so as
to maintain the commercial sterility of the product under normal nonrefrigerated
conditions.
Besides providing specifications for pasteurization, the PMO gives rules governing, among other provisions, the inspection of milk haulers, tests for antibiotics,
tamper-proof caps and closures, product labeling, and sanitation practices. Former
Table 1.1 PASTEURIZATION
CONDITIONS
Milk and Milk Products Except Eggnog
Temperature
Holding Time
a
63C(145F)
72C(161F)a
89C (191F)
90C(194F)
94C (2010F)
96C (2040F)
1000C (212F)
30 min
15 s
1.0 s
0.5 s
0.1 s
0.05 s
0.01s
Eggnog
Temperature
69C (155F)
8O0C(175F)
83C (180F)
a
Holding Time
30 min
25 s
15 s
product definitions given in the PMO have been replaced by references to FDA
standards of identity, which are published in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
Dairy products other than milk products are covered by separate regulations,
which provide for the pasteurization of their ingredients. Thus, the food standard for
frozen desserts including ice cream specifies that these products be produced from
a pasteurized mix (21CFR135.3). Cheeses and cheese products must be manufactured from pasteurized dairy ingredients (21CFR133.3) unless other provisions are
met. For example, in the production of Cheddar cheese, if the dairy ingredients are
not pasteurized, the cheese shall be cured at a temperature of not less than 1.7C
(35F) for at least 60 days (21CFR133.113).
Other dairy products such as butter and nonfat dry milk are covered under USDA
grading and inspection programs. Butter, for instance, shall be made from cream
that is pasteurized at a temperature of not less than 73.9C (165F) for 30 min or by
other approved methods giving equivalent results (7CFR58.2622). All milk and but-"
termilk used in the manufacture of dry milk products shall be pasteurized at the plant
where dried and under conditions as specified in the regulations (7CFR58.236).
or vat pasteurization, sometimes called low-temperature holding (LTH), high-temperature-short-time (HTST) pasteurization, and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) pasteurization. Because of their importance, each of these modes is described in some
detail below.
Batch Pasteurization is the oldest method of pasteurization, and it has the advantage of simplicity. Raw milk is heated in a large, closed vat by means of a steam
coil or hot-water jacket. Every particle of milk, by law, must be held at 63C (145F)
for 30 min. An agitator keeps the milk in continuous circulation to ensure uniform
heating and to prevent the formation of a scum on the surface that would protect
bacteria by inhibiting the penetration of heat.
Proper heating is assured by means of an automatic temperature controller and a
recording thermometer. In addition a mercury-indicating thermometer is required to
provide a check on the accuracy of the recording thermometer. The holding period
of 30 min does not include the time spans required for filling or emptying the vat
or the time required to bring the milk up to the required temperature. No milk shall
be added to the vat after commencement of the holding period.
Operating experience has shown that when foam is present during pasteurization,
the temperature of the foam may be well below the pasteurization temperature. Furthermore, in filling vats, milk is frequently splashed on surfaces above the milk level
as well as on the underside of the vat cover. Droplets of this splash may drip back
into the body of the milk. For the above reasons, heating of the air space above the
milk is necessary. The temperature of the air above the surface of the milk must be
kept at not less than 3C (5F) higher than the pasteurization temperature. To check
on compliance with this regulation, each pasteurizer must be equipped with an airspace recording thermometer.
All equipment used in batch pasteurization must be of sanitary design. Unless the
inlet and outlet valves as well as all connections to the vat are properly designed,
cold pockets of milk may be present during pasteurization. Precautions should also
be taken to avoid possible leaks from valves and fittings.
High-Temperature-Short-Time (HTST) pasteurization is a continuous process
that possesses several advantages over batch pasteurization. In HTST pasteurization
the raw milk flows through a holding tube in which it is heated to 72C (161F) and
held at that temperature for 15 s. Higher-heat-shorter-time (HHST) pasteurization
utilizes a temperature of 89C (191F) and above with holding times of 1 s and less.
HTST processing allows high volume production in a minimum of processing space.
The process also affords operating efficiencies because it uses a regenerative heater.
This heater, which simultaneously heats the raw milk and cools the pasteurized milk,
conserves energy.
The HTST process provides additional advantages over batch pasteurization as a
result of the effects of temperature on bacterial destruction as opposed to its effects
on chemical reactions. For example, a 100C (18F) rise in processing temperature
produces about a 10-fold increase in bacterial destruction while only doubling the
chemical reactions. (Batch pasteurization used to be conducted at 143F or 18F
below HTST pasteurization.) These chemical reactions are responsible for the destruction of certain nutrients and flavors. Therefore, the higher the temperature and
the shorter the processing time, the greater the retention of vitamins. Milk pasteurized
by the HTST process retains 90% of its vitamin C and 100% of its vitamin B 12
content compared with batch pasteurized milk which has none of its original vitamin
C and only 90% of its initial vitamin B 12 . Furthermore, HTST pasteurization results
in little or no loss of vitamin A, niacin, and riboflavin.25
The success of the HTST method of pasteurization depends on accurate, fail-safe
controls. Figure 1.2 is a schematic diagram of the HTST process, showing the critical
elements of this process.26 Significant features of the system are described below.
A constant level tank holds the cold raw milk to be pasteurized. The tank must
be equipped with controls to maintain a constant level of milk so as to provide a
uniform head pressure on the milk being sucked from it by the timing pump. At all
times when the pasteurizer is in use, the tank must be covered.
In the raw milk side of the regenerator, the cold raw milk is heated by the hot
pasteurized milk flowing in a counter-current direction on the opposite side of the
regenerator plate. The pressure of the milk flowing through the raw side of the
regenerator must always be lower than the pressure of the pasteurized milk. Thus,
if any pinholes develop in the plate regenerator, pasteurized milk will leak into the
raw milk; the reverse will never occur.
The timing pump usually is a positive displacement type that is connected to
an electric motor through a common drive shaft, gears, pulley, or variable speed
drive. The linkage and the motor controls must be sealed by the appropriate regulatory inspectors so that unauthorized changes cannot be made in the pump operation.
In 1982 FDA cleared the use of microprocessor-based, solid-state, AC variablefrequency controllers on metering pumps.27 When variable speed drives are used,
they shall be of such design that wearing or stretching of the belt results in a slowdown rather than a speedup of the pump. In some newer pasteurization systems, the
positive displacement pump is replaced by a centrifugal pump operating in concert
with a magnetic flow meter. The signal from the flow meter will regulate either a
control valve or the speed of the pump.
The heater further heats the raw milk to bring it up to the pasteurization temperature, namely, 72C (161F). The milk may be heated with steam or hot water
circulating through a plate heat exchanger.
The holding tube must be of minimum length to hold every particle of the
heated milk for 15 s when the timing pump is running at maximum speed. The
holding tube should have a uniform bore with a diameter of 17.8 cm (7 inches) or
less. The tube should be installed with an upward slope in the direction of flow. This
slope should be not less than 2.1 cm/m (0.25 inch/foot) in order to preclude the
entrapment of air.
The regulations provide that the holding tube be an empty pipe. This design,
however, has a drawback, namely, product near the wall of the tube will travel
appreciably more slowly through the tube than product at the centerline. Such variation in flow rates could be reduced by installing a motionless or static mixing device
in the holding tube, thereby providing more uniform retention times.28
An indicating thermometer and the sensor for a recorder/controller are located
downstream for the holding tube to indicate and record the temperature of the milk
REAKER
PASTEURIZED
REGENERATOR
PASTEURIZED PRODUCT
COOLER I
RECORDER
CONTROLLER
FLOW DIVERSION
DEVICE
CONTROLLER SENSOR
HOLDING TUBE
DIVERT UNE
RAW
REGENERATOR
HEATER
RAW PRODUCT
TIMING fUMP
f ASTEURIZED FRODUCT
RAW fRODUCT
Figure 1.2
HTST pasteurizer.
at this point. The accuracy of the recorder/controller must be checked daily by reading the indicating thermometer. The recorder/controller shall be sealed by the proper
regulatory authority.
A flow diversion device is essentially a three-way valve used to divert any milk
not properly pasteurized back to the constant level feed tank. This device must be
installed not more than 46 cm (18 inches) downstream from the sensor of the recorder/controller. The position of the flow diversion device is controlled by the
recorder/controller. The flow diversion device shall be so designed that failure of
the primary motivating power shall automatically divert the flow of the milk.
In the pasteurized milk side of the regenerator, the pasteurized milk is partially
cooled.
The cooler further reduces the temperature of the pasteurized milk to 4C (400F)
or below.
An effective vacuum breaker shall be installed at least 30.5 cm (12 inches)
above the highest point reached by the raw milk in the system. This device ensures
that any flow-promoting equipment located downstream from the system will not
create a negative pressure.
Ultrahigh Temperature (UHT) pasteurization is designed to sterilize the milk
product by killing all microorganisms present. The UHT process is capable of destroying the bacterial spores of Bacillus stearothermophilis; however, certain enzymes present in the raw milk are many times more heat resistant. These protease
and lipase enzymes, which survive pasteurization, can initiate chemical changes that
limit shelf life.29 When UHT processed milk products are packaged in presterilized
containers that are hermetically sealed, these products are commonly known as aseptically processed.
UHT pasteurization is a continuous-flow process much like HTST pasteurization
but with more sophisticated controls. By law, UHT pasteurization is defined as heating a milk product to 138C (2800F) or higher and holding it at this temperature for
at least 2 s. Because holding times are shorter than in HTST pasteurization, greater
care must be exercised to ensure that minimum processing conditions are being met.
The rationale for UHT processing is the dramatic increase in shelf life of the milk
product. This advantage, however, is not gained without some drawbacks. The effect
most noticeable to consumers is the change in flavor. A "cooked" flavor is initially
formed followed after some days of storage by various stale flavors. In addition to
flavor changes, some effects on physical properties have been noted. 3031
Improvements have been sought in the UHT process to minimize its disadvantages. One approach is establishing greater control over the heating method so as to
eliminate hot spots on the heat transfer surfaces and to provide for more uniform
heating of the milk product. Ohmic resistance heating is one answer that has been
proposed. In this process an electric current is passed through the milk product which
is heated by means of its electrical resistance. Thus, there is no need for heat transfer
surfaces.32
Microwave pasteurization is another approach to UHT processing that has generated interest. Rapid, uniform heating can be achieved by the application of microwaves to a milk product. Laboratory testing has been conducted showing the effec-
The Food and Drug Administration responded with more measured steps to determine what reforms, if any, might be needed. On April 1, 1986, the agency, in
cooperation with the states and industry, launched its Dairy Safety Initiative Program, a three-part investigation comprising microbiological surveillance, check ratings of interstate milk plants, and FDA inspections. Out of this effort have come
some preliminary assessments.
In general it was noted that dairy plants are getting bigger, though there are fewer
of them, so that when contamination problems do arise, the effects are magnified.
More specifically, Sanford A. Miller, director of FDA's Center for Food Safety &
Applied Nutrition, observed, "The real problem is that plant technology is far outrunning the technology we use to assure safety."35 Jerome J. Kozak, chief of FDA's
Milk Safety Branch, commented that much of the new dairy equipment needs to be
better designed for ease of cleaning and maintenance, minimizing product exposure,
and providing proper product protection. Kozak went on to outline a comprehensive
program consisting of:
1. Training and industry programs such as the Product Assurance Safety System
(PASS) developed by the Milk Industry Foundation and the International Ice
Cream Association.
2. Product-safety programs in every dairy plant addressing all aspects of safety
instead of merely the "organism of today. The marriage of microbiology and
sanitation must finally be consummated."
3. Research and testing for "a pragmatic indicator organism for pathogens, rather
than target our efforts on a selective organism."
4. Better utilization and increased effectiveness of the coliform test. "We should
establish a reduction to less than 1 coliform per ml for Grade A finished product,
and similar standards for non-Grade A products."
5. Continuance and expansion of environmental sampling by plants.
6. Continued, thorough, in-depth check ratings and inspections with the focus on
critical control items which are "selectively regulated."
7. Consideration to establishing a National Foundation of Dairy Industry Training
and Education.36
VATER
MILK
INTAKE
STORAGE
PASTEURIZER
FILTER
FILTER
SALT
ANNATTO
RENNET
CaCL 2
LACTIC
STARTER
CULTURE
STARTER
KESIA
STARTER
TANK
DRAIN
TABLE
CHEESE
VAT
VHEY
UETAL
DETECTOR
PACKAGING
VHEY
FINISHED
PRODUCT
SAMPLES
CDOLER
SHIPPING
VHEY
BARRELS
Figure 1.3 Stirred curd Cheddar cheese process. (Reproduced with permission from National
Cheese Institute.)
economic control point such as yield, weight control, composition; and " R " is
reserved for a regulatory control point exemplified by labeling, coding, standards,
and weight control. The preparer of this figure has elected to include only those
control points that are specific to the process. Other control points, of a more general
nature but still of equal importance, have been omitted. Both the control points
indicated in the figure and other selected control points are reviewed below.
Raw milk receipts require special attention beginning with "dock tests" prior
to being unloaded. Microbiological, chemical, and physical hazards must be monitored and controlled. Test procedures for many of these hazards are discussed in
Section 1.2.3.2. In addition, incoming milk may be checked by infrared analysis for
such quality attributes as the fat-to-protein ratio. This ratio has been found to affect
both yield and quality.38 If the cheese plant is under USDA inspection, then the raw
milk intake is also a regulatory control point.
Ingredients other than raw milk need to be inspected. These ingredients include
water, starter media, starter culture, calcium chloride, annatto, rennet, and salt. Microbiological hazards associated with these ingredients are minimal. Research on the
growth of Listeria monocytogenes in cultures, rennet, and annatto indicated that these
ingredients would not be likely sources of contamination.39"41 The quality of these
ingredients, however, is critical. Rennet attributes, for example, have a significant
bearing on the yield and quality of the cheese produced.42
The milk intake line filter is a critical control point that monitors potential
physical hazards. It is also considered to be a quality control point for detecting
extraneous matter, such as hair, in incoming milk shipments.
Milk storage has been identified as a microbiological critical control point. Milk
must be maintained at refrigerated temperatures in order to retard growth of micro-
organisms. A further step that has been proposed is the inoculation or preculturing
of the raw milk to control psychrotrophs.43
The pasteurizer is labeled as a microbiological critical control point. Details of
its operation are given in Section 1.2.4.2. Aside from factors already discussed, tight
control of this point is important to minimize protein denaturization. All cheese
products are oil/water emulsions, which are stabilized by the natural proteins in
cheese acting as surfactants. These proteins are adversely affected by processing,
particularly by the heat of pasteurization.44 The pasteurizer is also a regulatory control point inasmuch as its controls must be lead-sealed.
Starter production is a microbiological critical control point because of the
necessity of producing an active starter for subsequent rapid lactic acid development
in the cheese vat. Slow (weak) or dead starters added to the vat permit the growth
of post pasteurization microbial contamination. Starter production can be regulated
by means of automatic pH control. Starter production is also labeled a quality control
point since it affects the quality of the finished cheese.
The cheese vat is considered to be a quality control point. At this location proper
acidity must be developed by the starter, and curd firmness needs to be developed
through the action of the rennet.
The metal detector is a physical hazard control point designed to pick up any
tramp metal that may be introduced at any point in the system.
Packaging is labeled an economic control point where the packaged weight
must be checked.
Finished product samples are taken to monitor microbiological critical control
points, quality control points, and regulatory control points. Every vat of cheese
produced must be sampled and tested for pH because pH is critical to the control of
microbiological growth. Batches with excessively high reading of pH, above 5.4,
should be diverted to other uses, for example, pasteurized process cheese. Other
attributes that need to be checked on a periodic basis include salt content, moisture,
the percentage of milkfat, product consistency, color, flavor, extraneous matter, and
microbiological specifications. The moisture content, for example, directly affects
shelf life.45 The meltability of the cheese is an important criterion for many applications. Development work on correlating this property to flow viscosimetry measurements has been carried out.46
The cooler is a microbiological critical control point, as storage temperatures
are critical to the quality and safety of cheese products. As a rule, cheese is aged for
a minimum of 60 days; medium cheese for 90 to 120; and sharp cheese for 6 months
or longer. The curing temperature is reported to be held at about 4C (39F).47
Accelerated cheese ripening systems have been introduced in order to reduce holding
times by as much as one half.48'49
Shipping is shown to be the location of microbiological, chemical, and physical
critical control points. Prior to loading, each vehicle must be inspected for possible
filth and other contamination. The van temperature should comply with shipping
instructions. Shipping can be considered to be a regulatory control point as every
food manufacturer is responsible for keeping accurate shipping records that must be
made available during inspections or product recalls.
Because of their importance, some of these critical control points require elaboration. Of considerable interest is the fact that a number of nondairy ingredients are
added to the product after pasteurization. This practice immediately flashes danger
signals. Postpasteurization contamination by microorganisms becomes a real worry.
For example, with the addition of fruits to dairy products, quality control personnel
need to monitor not only the microbiological quality of the fruit but also the sanitation associated with the handling of the fruit.52
Some guidelines have been offered to govern the addition of ingredients after
pasteurization. Only those flavoring and coloring ingredients that meet the following
qualifications may be added:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dry
Receiving
Condensed
Cream
Corn sugar
Liquid
Receiving
Cane sugar
Water
Milk
SANITATION
Buiier
Fruit
Preparation
Distribution
Flavor and
color added
UQUlFII-R
FruiU
and
nuts
Storage
10u>-2O 0 F
Air
Source
Storage
tank
32 to 400P
Blending
Pasteurising
Homogenizing
Cooling
32to 40
Freezing
2I 0 F
Pmp
Pump
RERUN
Pp
RERUN
Packaging
2J 0 F
Wrapping
Pump
Strainer
Figure 1.4 Ice cream process. (Reproduced with permission from Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation.)
Hardening
-45 to-5O0F
Yogurt is a traditional product that has its roots in antiquity. As a result it has not
always been so precisely defined as it is today.56 As in the case of other cultured
dairy products, pure laboratory starter cultures were not used to produce yogurt.
Rather, the inoculum was obtained from a previous production batch, and its microbiological identity was unknown. Yogurt belongs to a large class of fermented milk
products known throughout the world. These products differ one from another by
the source of the milk cultured, the type of starter used, and the processing conditions.57 United States federal regulations recognize the diversity of cultured milk
products and, in addition to yogurt, make allowance for their production. These
products may be labeled to reflect the type of culture used, for example, *'kefir
cultured milk," or "acidophilus cultured milk" (21CFR131.112).
To gain a better understanding of how yogurt is produced, Figure 1.5 shows a
simplified flow diagram for a yogurt process. Actual operating conditions will vary
from one producer to another, but the salient features that have been reported are
discussed below.58-59
Dairy ingredients are blended in the right proportion so that the final yogurt
product (but before the addition of bulky flavors) will contain not less than 3.25%
milkfat and not less than 8.25% milk-solids-not-fat, as required by the standard for
yogurt. The milkfat requirements for low-fat yogurt and for nonfat yogurt are reduced. In addition to the dairy ingredients, any nondairy ingredients are added to
the yogurt mix at this point. These may include a stabilizer such as gelatin and
sweeteners, typically sucrose and corn syrup solids. Only the flavoring ingredients
may be added later in the process after pasteurization.
The yogurt mix is pasteurized and homogenized.
KECIIVIMO
VAT*
BATCH
TAMKI
HTIT
IL(NO
YOOUB-I
M i l
INCUBATIOM
TAMKI
nun*
Figure 1.5 Yogurt process. (Reproduced with permission from Food Engineering.)
Acceptable starter cultures are necessary to produce the desired flavor and texture in the yogurt product. A microscopic check of the culture will indicate the ratio
of rods to cocci, which ideally should equal a 1:1 ratio. For a long set method of
incubation, a 2% active yogurt starter culture is used, whereas a 5% culture is needed
for the short set method.
Incubation may be carried out at different temperatures and holding times. For
example, the long set method requires incubation at 32C (900F) for approximately
18 h, and the short set method specifies 44C (1 H 0 F) for 3 to 4 h. In either case the
process is controlled by monitoring the pH. When the final pH is reached, given in
one example as pH 3.9, the process is terminated.
Flavoring ingredients, commonly fruit, are added to the yogurt before filling
and packaging. The quality of the fruit is extremely important to the shelf life of the
yogurt product. In an attempt to keep yeasts and molds to an absolute minimum,
one manufacturer specifies the use on only aseptically processed fruit.
The critical control points for the yogurt process are not shown on Figure 1.5,
but they can be summarized as follows. All ingredients must be inspected, and the
final product must be tested to meet specifications. As with other dairy processes,
pasteurization is a critical control point. In addition, pH control of the incubation
step would be considered a critical control point in order to comply with the specification for titratable acidity in the finished product.
Spray Drier
Skim
Milk
Raw Milk
Lowfat Milk
(2% fat)
Separator
36-40%
Cream
Lowfat Milk
(1%fat)
Pasteurizer
Blender /
Homogenizer
Milk
(3.25% fat)
Half and Half
(10.5% fat)
Pasteurizer
Light Cream
(18% fat)
Heavy Cream
(36% fat)
Butter
Churn
Butter
(>80% fat)
Buttermilk
Next Page
last, they are standardized commodities for which worldwide markets of huge dimensions have been created.
To achieve manufacturing efficiencies, effective control must be established over
any operation producing butter and milk products. One of the best approaches to
achieving such control is to determine milkfat balances for the entire plant. This
procedure involves measuring the milkfat content of each stream and multiplying
these results by the quantities of the streams. In this manner all the milkfat taken
into the plant as raw milk can be accounted for in the products produced or as losses.
In order to make the necessary milkfat balances, accurate methods of analysis are
required. The earliest test for milkfat was developed near the end of the 19th century
by S. M. Babcock. This analytical method has been improved on by infrared analysis.
Accurate data also depend on the care taken to obtain samples. Significant variations,
for instance, have been noted in samples taken from bulk holding tanks. Finally, the
quantities or weight of each processing stream must be determined as precisely as
possible for accurate results.66
Batch processes have traditionally required considerable manual operation. This
mode of operation has made inefficient use of personnel and has led to excessive
human errors. Because dairy processes, for the most part, are batch systems, there
has been a need for improvements in the industry. Now, some attempts have been
made to develop computer software programs for controlling batch operations. One
such program has been reported for running a fluid milk plant.67 As first steps in the
direction of total automation, dairies have installed control systems for refrigeration,
tank inventory, and clean-in-place operations.68 Progress has also been made in
controlling individual batch operations using microprocessors.69
Previous Page
last, they are standardized commodities for which worldwide markets of huge dimensions have been created.
To achieve manufacturing efficiencies, effective control must be established over
any operation producing butter and milk products. One of the best approaches to
achieving such control is to determine milkfat balances for the entire plant. This
procedure involves measuring the milkfat content of each stream and multiplying
these results by the quantities of the streams. In this manner all the milkfat taken
into the plant as raw milk can be accounted for in the products produced or as losses.
In order to make the necessary milkfat balances, accurate methods of analysis are
required. The earliest test for milkfat was developed near the end of the 19th century
by S. M. Babcock. This analytical method has been improved on by infrared analysis.
Accurate data also depend on the care taken to obtain samples. Significant variations,
for instance, have been noted in samples taken from bulk holding tanks. Finally, the
quantities or weight of each processing stream must be determined as precisely as
possible for accurate results.66
Batch processes have traditionally required considerable manual operation. This
mode of operation has made inefficient use of personnel and has led to excessive
human errors. Because dairy processes, for the most part, are batch systems, there
has been a need for improvements in the industry. Now, some attempts have been
made to develop computer software programs for controlling batch operations. One
such program has been reported for running a fluid milk plant.67 As first steps in the
direction of total automation, dairies have installed control systems for refrigeration,
tank inventory, and clean-in-place operations.68 Progress has also been made in
controlling individual batch operations using microprocessors.69
substance in question does meet the test, the agency will affirm this result via official
publication in the Federal Register. Hundreds of substances have had their GRAS
status affirmed in this way, and new substances are added to this list from time to
time.
A special class of ingredients, namely, color additives, are regulated under separate legislation. The Color Additive Amendments, passed in 1960, regulate those
color additives not GRAS. Specifically, these substances include compounds that
are chemically synthesized, such as any coal tar dye, which must be certified before
use in food. Only a limited number of these substances are allowed. Certified colors
are identified by assigned numbers, to wit, FD&C Blue No. 1, FD&C Blue No. 2,
FD&C Green No. 3, FD&C Red No. 40, FD&C Yellow No. 5, and FD&C Yellow
No. 6. These dyes can be used as is, or they may be reacted with alumina hydrate
to produce lakes, which are advantageous for coloring products containing fats and
oils.
Restrictions may apply even to those food ingredients approved under the law.
First, only those ingredients specifically permitted in a food standard, for example,
ice cream, may be used to make that particular food. Second, many food additives
and affirmed GRAS substances are limited in their use by the amounts that may be
added to a food, by the types of food in which they may be used, or by the functions
for which they may be utilized. Even when no restrictions apply, the regulations
require that a food ingredient (cf. lecithin) be used in accordance with "good manufacturing practice," which is defined as:
1. The quantity of a substance added to food does not exceed the amount reasonably
required to accomplish its intended physical, nutritional, or other technical effect
in food; and
2. The quantity of a substance that becomes a component of food as a result of its
use in the manufacturing, processing, or packaging of food, and which is not
intended to accomplish any physical or other technical effect in the food itself,
shall be reduced to the extent reasonably possible.
3. The substance is of appropriate food grade and is prepared and handled as a food
ingredient... (2ICFR 182.1)
Food ingredients generally are grouped on the basis of their intended purpose.
The following classes of ingredients not derived from milk are commonly used in
dairy products. The listings within each class are incomplete but serve to point out
some of the more interesting applications.
Colors, by special provisions, may be added to the butter, ice cream, and cheese
without declaring the color on the label. The rationale for these provisions is that
coloring is added only to compensate for seasonal variations in the appearance of
dairy products. For a long time coloring was not permitted to be added to margarine
for the purpose of making it resemble butter. These restrictions were relaxed in the
1950s as a result of economic pressures, so that today margarine manufacturers may
color their products. In general, a producer may not color a product in deceptive
ways or to cover up unwholesomeness. A producer of an eggnog mix was censured
in 1981 for adding Yellow No. 5 to its product to give it the appearance of containing
more eggs than it actually did.
Liquid dyes, added just after pasteurization, are used to color ice cream. Lakes
are useful to color fat-based coatings, for example, ice cream bars, variegated sauces,
wax coatings for cheese, and fruit filling for yogurt. Uncertified colors, namely, the
carotenoids, are commonly used to color such flavors of ice cream as vanilla and
strawberry, and sherbet with lemon, cherry, or orange flavorings. The carotenoids
are also added to margarine, butter, and cheese. The carotenoids vary in hue from
yellow for (3-carotene to orange for apocarotenal and red for canthaxanthin.70
Flavors are widely used in dairy products. Although the manufacturer is restricted primarily by his imagination, a few popular flavors account for most usage.
These include vanilla, chocolate, coffee, and such fruit flavors as raspberry and
strawberry. In addition, bulky flavors such as nuts are common. Although sweeteners, salt, and organic acids, for example, citric acid, may contribute to the taste
profile of a product, these ingredients are classified separately.
Preservative usage in dairy products is restricted. For example, these additives
are not permitted in yogurt. Antimicrobials are primarily used in cheese and cheese
products to suppress yeast and mold. Changes in the standards for cheese permit the
application of antimycotics as a surface treatment, thereby giving protection to the
cheese during curing and aging. Antimycotic agents may also be applied to the
surface of slices or cuts in consumer-sized packages. Such safe and suitable preservatives as benzoates, sorbates, and parabens are used in these applications.71
Emulsifiers and stabilizers provide desirable textural properties to dairy products. Both natural ingredients and synthetic compounds are used in these applications. Because dairy products generally consist of water/fat dispersions, emulsifiers
help to keep these phases intimately mixed. Egg-yolks and lecithin are natural emulsifiers that are frequently used. The synthetic organic chemicals polysorbate 60,
polysorbate 65, and polysorbate 80 are extremely effective emulsifiers. Polysorbate
60 may be used to prepare nondairy coffee creamers while polysorbate 65 and polysorbate 80 may be incorporated into ice cream and sherbet. Certain phosphate salts
are common emulsifiers for cheese products.
Stabilizers are high molecular weight colloids that act as thickeners. In small
quantities they provide body and mouthfeel to dairy products such as ice cream and
chocolate milk. Each particular stabilizer has unique properties that dictate its use.
Common stabilizers used in dairy products include pectin, gelatin, sodium alginate,
carrageenan, guar gum, and locust (carob) bean gum.
Vitamins may be added to milk products as noted in Section 1.2.8. Under the
food standard for margarine, the fortification with vitamin A is required with or
without vitamin D (2ICFR166). The same is true for low-fat milk.
Processing aids are those substances added to a product during manufacturing
in order to aid in the processing of the food. These substances, however, have no
function in the finished product. Rennet used in the manufacture of cheese falls into
this category.
Indirect additives are unintentional additives that may enter a food from such
sources as packaging or lubricants used on food machinery. The subject of packaging
materials is usually dealt with separately.
Other additives include sequestrants such as calcium disodium EDTA used in
margarine, and anticaking agents such as calcium silicate added to grated cheeses.
The above discussion of food additives by no means exhausts the subject.
Another accommodation in the standards was introduced by the use of "safe and
suitable" ingredients. The ice cream standard, for example, permits the mix to contain "other safe and suitable nonmilk-derived ingredients" (21CFR135.110). For
the exact meaning of this expression one must refer to the regulations that stipulate
that "safe and suitable" requires that the ingredient:
1. Perform an appropriate function in the food in which it is used.
2. Is used at a level no higher than necessary to achieve its intended purpose in that
food.
3. Is not a food additive or color additive as defined in Section 201(s) or (t) of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act as used in that food, or is a food additive
or color additive as so defined and is used in conformity with regulations established pursuant to Section 409 or 706 of the act.
(21CFR130.3)
Additional flexibility in the standards has been achieved by permitting new manufacturing technology. The standards for certain cheeses (cf. Cheddar, Mozzarella,
and Limburger cheese) were amended in 1985 to permit their preparation "by any
other procedure which produces a finished cheese having the same physical and
chemical properties." This adjustment in the standards has opened the way to the
use, for example, of milk processed by ultrafiltration provided that equivalent cheese
products can be made.79
Finally, in response to popular demand for "light" dairy products, a number of
derivative products with low milkfat or low sodium content have been proposed or
adopted. Temporary permits have been issued by FDA for "light eggnog," 80 "light
ice cream,"81 and "lite sour cream." 82 FDA has also proposed removing the
standards of identity for low-sodium Cheddar and low-sodium Colby cheeses, and
in their place, amending the standards for Cheddar and Colby cheese to allow for
use of salt substitutes as optional ingredients.83
What has been the effect of loosening the restrictions in the food standards?
Enlightened citizens would probably assess the result as a compromise between rigid
standards of quality and greater choice of products. Ice cream is a case in point.
Under the revised regulations, manufacturers can produce a relatively inexpensive
but nutritious frozen dessert, condescendingly referred to as "supermarket ice
cream," or they can supply a high cost, premium ice cream to "white tablecloth"
establishments. Considering the diversity of lifestyles, the trend toward greater flexibility is probably inevitable.
government programs. They also are so well recognized by the public that they have
become widely accepted.
USDA grade standards are all-encompassing. They establish requirements for
plant engineering and equipment design, good manufacturing practice, processing
conditions, and product characteristics. The standards are strictly enforced by routine
inspections for which fees are assessed. Products that meet the standards are identified by the USDA grade shield and the specific grade printed on the product's label.
Dairy products are assigned different grades depending on their quality. In determining quality, USDA places considerable weight on organoleptic properties.
These attributes are most noticeable to consumers and are therefore of prime economic importance. Over the long history of the grading system, USDA has developed
numerous objective tests. These tests plus the inspectors who are thoroughly knowledgeable in their fields result in an inspection process that is highly regarded.
The standard USDA grades for various dairy products are given in Table 1.2. The
terminology, one will note, is not uniform. The variations in language result from
the fact that these standards have been adopted at different times and under different
circumstances. They are so well known at this point that they will likely continue
Monterey cheese
Colby cheese
Cheddar cheese
Dry whey
Butter
Reference
7CFR58.2458
7CFR58.2467
7CFR58.2477
7CFR58.2503
7CFR58.2526
7CFR58.2572
7CFR58.2603
7CFR58.2625
7CFR58.2652
7CFR58.2827
to be used well into the future, notwithstanding suggestions that a uniform nomenclature be adopted.
Table 1.3 PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS FOR SWEET DRY WHEY, USDA EXTRA
GRADE
Test
Method
Frequency
Specification
Milkfat
AOAC 16.199
Spot check
NMT 1.5%
Moisture
AOAC 16.192
Each lot
NMT 5.0%
Standard plate
count
Coliform
USDA 918-109-2
Spot check
NMT 50,000/g
BAM ch. 5
Spot check
NMT 10/g
USDA 918-109-2
Spot check
NMT 15 mg
AOAC 16.023
Each lot
NMT 0.16%
AOAC 16.193
Spot check
NLT 11%
Visual check
Each lot
Alkalinity of
ash
Ash
USDA 918-109-3
Spot check
Creamy white
color, free
from hard
lumps
NMT 225 ml
AOAC 16.196
Spot check
NMT 12.5%
Heavy metals
Spot check
NMT 10 ppm
Every quarter
Negative
Scorched
particles
Titratable
acidity
Protein (N X
6.38)
Physical
appearance
Salmonella
Action
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
under GRAS affirmation. Lactose, not shown in the table, can be determined by
difference, that is, subtracting the proximate analyses for milkfat, moisture, protein,
and ash from 100. The maximum level of ash was set by the manufacturer at below
the upper limit established by FDA.
The significance of the tests deserve some comments. From a food safety point
of view, the microbiological tests and the heavy metals test are important. The tests
for scorched particles, titratable acidity, and ash alkalinity measure product integrity.
A high level of ash alkalinity, for example, would suggest that an excessive amount
of alkali had been added to the raw whey to neutralize or cover up high acidity.
The protein and ash levels of the dry whey indicate the product's economic benefits. Whey is primarily used for its content of protein and lactose. High ash would
suggest the inclusion of salt drippings which would be of no economic value. Finally,
the milkfat and moisture values are of interest in determining the keeping properties
of the product. High moisture causes caking of the product, and it also accelerates
protein degradation. Milkfat may turn rancid, thus limiting shelf life.
Standard tests for dairy products, such as the ones mentioned in Table 1.3, are
described in a few official references. These texts are:
1. Bacteriological Analytic Manual, Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Arlington, VA.
2. Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
3. Food Chemicals Codex, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
4. Methods of Laboratory Analysis, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D.C.
5. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists'
Society, American Oil Chemists' Society, Champaign, IL.
6. Official Methods of Analysis, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA.
7. Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy Products, American Public
Health Association, Washington, D.C.
Rapid methods of analysis are being used increasingly to provide results more
quickly than can be obtained by the standard tests. The importance of speed was
illustrated in Section 1.2.8 in which dock tests were described, including one for
antibiotic residues. Because of the limited holding times for dairy products, it is
critical that laboratory results be obtained as soon as possible. Unfortunately, this
objective is not always easy to achieve, particularly in microbiology where incubation times can run into days.
The challenge of developing rapid methods of analysis is being met by many
independent suppliers. These firms have introduced a wide variety of sophisticated
instrumentation that is revolutionizing the dairy industry.84"86 Offering greater convenience, these methods must nevertheless be correlated with standard tests. In some
instances the rapid method gives only a presumptive positive result which then needs
to be confirmed by official methodology.
On-line instrumentation is one step further along the road toward plant automation. It can provide continuous control over an operation and respond immediately
to process upsets. Limitations exist in the number of attributes that can be measured
directly. Still the opportunities are considerable. Using a single-beam infrared
measuring technique, a West Coast dairy has installed an on-line system for measuring two milk components: fat and protein.87 The potential advantages of on-line
control are so great that the future belongs to this technology.
A resource not to be overlooked by manufacturers is the availability of commercial laboratories.88 Well equipped to handle a variety of tasks, these certified facilities
can fulfill several needs. They can provide additional evidence in cases that are being
disputed with government or private businesses. Independent laboratories can perform difficult or expensive procedures that may not be cost effective to run internally.
They can also handle tests that are required only infrequently. Finally, as a precautionary measure, outside laboratories can be used for those tests involving pathogens,
avoiding any possible contamination of on-site facilities.
its provisions which were more restrictive than the loose practices then prevailing.
Lactose is manufactured from whey as a coproduct of modified whey, and the carbohydrate is widely consumed in infant formulas, confections, and other foods.
1.4.2 Sanitation
In Section 1.2.3 on Critical Control Points, the argument was made that entry points
in a food process where potential hazards can be introduced include the processing
equipment itself. This equipment, due to unclean food contact surfaces, may harbor
filth or harmful microorganisms. All efforts at maintaining product integrity can be
undone by exposing the dairy product to dirty equipment. For this reason extreme
precautions are taken to ensure that all utensils and equipment are maintained in
sanitary condition. These precautions are outlined in some detail in the following
sections.
provement is the use of titanium in such applications as plate heat exchangers. This
metal stands up better than stainless steel to free chlorine and chlorides which are
present in some sanitizing and cleaning agents.90 A wide variety of rubber and plastic
materials is used in dairy processing equipment. Criteria for their acceptance are
given in the 3-A Sanitary Standards.
steps can be combined by using such specially formulated products as those containing anionic surfactants and acid. By eliminating steps in the cleaning cycle,
substantial savings may be realized by reducing downtime, water requirements, energy consumption, and the usage of chemicals.
Effective detergent formulations may contain several additives including a surface-active agent (surfactant), a chelating agent (sequestrant), and either an alkali or
acid. The choice of additives will depend on the type of soil to be removed from the
equipment, the materials of construction, and the method of applying the cleaning
compound. The surfactant, commonly either anionic or nonionic, promotes rapid
wetting, penetration, and the emulsification of fats and oils. It also aids in the dispersion and suspension of dirt particles. Inorganic alkalis including caustic soda,
sodium metasilicate, and trisodium phosphate are effective in removing fats and
protein. To tie up calcium ions in alkaline solutions, sequestering agents, for example, polyphosphates, gluconic acid, or ethylenediamine tetracetic acid (EDTA),
are critical.
To clean equipment that is subjected to elevated temperatures during food processing, an acid formulation would be selected. Containing phosphoric, nitric, or
sulfamic acid, such a cleaning compound is capable of dissolving carbonate scales
and certain mineral deposits such as milkstone. An acid wash may be preceded or
followed by an alkaline cleaning step. Frequently in dairy plants an alkaline wash
is used first, and then an acidic sanitizing solution is applied to brighten the equipment by neutralizing excess alkalinity, thus preventing the buildup of mineral deposits. Most importantly the mild acid solution passivates the stainless steel, making
it inert to corrosive attack.
Completely different procedures must be used for cleaning equipment that handles
dry materials such as milk powder. As required, the equipment is dismantled, and
all product contact surfaces are thoroughly vacuumed or brushed clean. External
parts are likewise cleaned. Vacuum cleaning is preferred to brush cleaning as the
former method minimizes the formation of dust. Air blowers should be avoided at
all times. Brushes or vacuum cleaning fittings used for product contact surfaces
should not be used for cleaning nonproduct contact surfaces. Occasionally wet cleaning may be required to remove stubborn dirt. In such cases all parts must be completely dried before reassembly.
of some 37 sanitizing solutions at last count (21CFR178.1010); however, most products used by industry fall into one of four categories. In the selection of cleaning
and sanitizing compounds, care must be taken to prevent corrosion of food contact
surfaces. Corrosion will cause pitting which will only make future cleaning immeasurably more difficult. The following four types of approved sanitizers fulfill
most of the needs of dairy processors.
Chlorine compounds, typified by hypochlorites, are the most economical of the
common sanitizers and thus the most widely used. With excellent germicidal power,
they are effective against all microorganisms, bacteriophage, and even spores if the
temperature is sufficiently high. They are relatively nontoxic at use strength of <200
ppm chlorine, and they do not form films. Chlorine compounds do have drawbacks.
They have limited shelf life and are corrosive to most metals.
Iodophors, which are combinations of iodine and solubilizing agents, possess
good stability. They are active against all microorganisms except spores and bacteriophage. Generally used at a concentration of 25 ppm iodine and under acidic
conditions, iodophors exhibit good penetration and do not leave a film on drying.
They are noncorrosive and nonirritating to skin. Their amber color provides an indication of the presence of active iodine. Principal disadvantages are that they are
relatively expensive and are limited to temperatures under 49C (1200F).
Quaternary ammonium compounds, or quats as they are commonly called,
provide better control of Gram-positive bacteria including staphylococci than Gramnegative bacteria, such as coliforms and psychrophiles, for example, pseudomonas.
They are ineffective against spores and bacteriophage. They have a long shelf life
and are noncorrosive and are therefore suitable at higher temperatures than permitted
with hypochlorite sanitizers. At the recommended concentration of 200 ppm, quats
possess considerable detergency and provide excellent penetration; however, with
mechanical agitation they may cause foaming. Negative aspects include their higher
cost and incompatibility with anionic surfactants.
Acid-anionic surfactants are effective only at a lower pH, the optimum range
being 1.9 to 2.2. Used at 100 ppm of ionic surfactant, they are capable of controlling
a wide spectrum of microorganisms, including some thermodurics, but they are ineffective against spores. These sanitizers are stable, noncorrosive to stainless steel,
and can be used at higher temperatures. They are effective in removing such mineral
deposits as milkstone. Their chief disadvantages are that they are corrosive to metals
other than stainless steel, and they present foaming problems in mechanical systems.
solution. Accidental intermixing of product and detergent can be prevented by designing the plant with * 'key pieces" of pipe sections that fit between only two points
in the system.97 Successful CIP depends on the careful adjustment of the following
conditions.
Time of contact with the cleaning solution is important to allow penetration of
the soil film and its removal. The suggested length of time ranges from 10 to 20 min
for cleaning cold surfaces and 15 to 30 min for equipment in hot service. Excessive
times will only lead to lost production and an unwanted drop-off in the temperature
of the cleaning solution.
Time is also a factor in the application of sanitizing solutions. Studies have shown
a logarithmic relationship between the number of microorganisms killed and the
time of exposure.
Temperature of the cleaning solution is typically held around 71 to 85C (160
to 185F) for cleaning surfaces in hot applications and somewhat lower, 57 to 710C
(135 to 1600F), for cold surfaces. As a rule each H 0 C (200F) increment in temperature will double the activity of the cleaning agent. Higher temperatures also increase
the rate of kill by sanitizers. Upper limits are set by consideration of sanitizer stability
and corrosion rates.
Concentrations of the cleaning solutions for optimum results have been determined by the suppliers and are indicated on the labels. Most alkaline cleaners work
best at around 0.5 to 1% by weight. Acid cleaners are usually adjusted to a desired
pH range. For sanitizers, increasing the concentration accelerates the destruction of
bacteria. Maximum use levels are specified by FDA for approved sanitizing solutions. In automated CIP systems the strength of cleaning solutions can be monitored
by conductivity measurements.98
Physical action is of utmost concern in cleaning. To obtain the necessary agitation, a velocity of 5 feet per second or greater is required. Compensations must be
made if different sizes of pipes are installed in the same line. Sufficient pressures
must be supplied to operate spray devices which have to be correctly designed and
placed to ensure complete irrigation of all surfaces. A new development is the application of bursts of spray for 20 to 45 s durations.
tured it. Beginning with the sale of each new piece of equipment, the supplier should
be prepared to offer instruction and training in the maintenance of that equipment.100
Coordination of maintenance with production is mandatory in order to minimize
dislocations and to reduce hazards. When the largest dairy cooperative in Canada
was faced with the need to paint its storage tanks, it realized that sandblasting of the
tanks to prepare the surfaces would raise havoc with production. It therefore decided
to use an epoxy coating material that could be applied without surface preparation.
In so doing, the dairy avoided the extra cost of erecting temporary barriers.101 When
maintenance is planned and coordinated with production, as was the case with the
Canadian processor, inadvertent product contamination caused by misjudgments or
oversights can be avoided.
The plant air supply is another environmental concern. Ambient air may contain
between 1000 and 5000 germs per cubic meter including bacteria, yeasts, molds,
bacteriophages, and viruses.106 This air must be properly compressed, cooled, dehumidified, and filtered before it can be used. A so-called 95% filter will trap 95%
of all particles 1 jxm or larger. It is capable of removing all yeasts and molds as well
as essentially 100% of airborne bacteria as the latter tend to agglomerate either to
other bacteria or to dust and dirt particles. Ultimate results can be achieved by using
an absolute or High Efficiency Particular Air (HEPA) filter, which has a rating of
99.97% with 0.3 |xm-size particles. Such a filter can adequately control bacteriophage. The temperature and humidity of the air supply are critical in such locations
as a cheese packaging line to prevent condensation from forming on the surface of
the cool cheese before it is wrapped.107
Proper air distribution throughout the working areas of the plant is especially
important. In such critical places as starter culture rooms, positive air pressure is
maintained to seal this operation off from outside contamination by bacteriophage.
Air distribution within other rooms is also critical. Without proper air flow, walls
and ceiling can become damp thereby presenting ideal breeding grounds for microbes. Air supplied to equipment such as ice cream freezers, air agitation tanks,
and air blowers becomes intimately mixed and even incorporated into the product.
Obviously this air must be pure. Finally, there is increasing awareness of the advantage of using controlled-atmosphere enclosures to create a near-sterile environment.
This approach has been perfected to the point where it is used for the packaging of
aseptic products.
back from the walls. In addition, all spills must be cleaned up immediately. Traps
should be set at strategic points in the plant. One study urges that charts be maintained of all areas of rodent activity; however, it advises that this information be
kept in strict confidence.108
Entrance by rodents into a plant must be restricted. Carriers are notorious offenders in contributing to infestation problems. Therefore all truck and railcar deliveries should be inspected carefully. Building openings should be kept closed or
screened, and all cracks must be caulked. The plant grounds should be well maintained by keeping lawns mowed, the drives well paved and drained, and the area
free from weeds, refuse, and discarded equipment. Because pests are known to travel
only relatively short distances, the immediate surroundings are the most critical to
keep tidy. Unfortunately there is no single solution to pest control, but a combination
of partial responses can be extremely effective.
Next Page
used as a guide. Specific instructions include many do's and don't's, all of which
must be assimilated (21CFR110.10). In approaching the subject of personal hygiene,
one should keep in mind that people account for a major source of microbiological
contamination and are the most difficult variable in a process to control. Therefore
the full cooperation of employees is absolutely essential in order to achieve the
objectives of any sanitation program.
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used as a guide. Specific instructions include many do's and don't's, all of which
must be assimilated (21CFR110.10). In approaching the subject of personal hygiene,
one should keep in mind that people account for a major source of microbiological
contamination and are the most difficult variable in a process to control. Therefore
the full cooperation of employees is absolutely essential in order to achieve the
objectives of any sanitation program.
The requirement for listing ingredients calls for considerable legal expertise on
the part of the manufacturer, as any novice will soon discover. One of the first lessons
learned by the beginning law student is that for every legal principle put forward,
invariably there are exceptions to the principle, and not infrequently there are exceptions to the exceptions. To give a concrete example, as noted above, a list of
ingredients is required on all food products. An exception to this rule, however, is
made for standardized foods, which do not require such labeling. On the other hand,
if the standardized food in question contains optional ingredients, then these ingredients must be disclosed. Thus, in the case of ice cream, all of the ingredients must
be listed on the label, even though this is a standardized food, because all ingredients
are designated as optional in the standard.
As mentioned in Section 1.3.1, color additives need not be declared on butter,
cheese, and ice cream. In general, however, colors as well as spices and flavors are
declared by their collective names, that is, the individual compounds do not need to
be identified. Especially in the case of flavoring where as many as 125 separate
substances, each with complex names, can be used in a single product, practicality
dictates the use of collective terms. Exceptions to this rule exist where an individual
compound such as FD&C Yellow No. 5 causes allergic reactions in some people
and therefore must be declared. A chemical preservative must be listed by its common or usual name as well as by its generic function, such as "preservative," "to
retard spoilage," or "a mold inhibitor."
Besides colors, spices, and flavors, other collective names are permitted in ingredient labeling. Milk, concentrated milk, reconstituted milk, and dry whole milk may
be declared simple as "milk." Rennet and other clotting enzymes of animal, plant,
or microbial origin used in cheese may be disclosed as "enzymes." Bacterial cultures may be declared by the word "cultured" followed by the name of the substrate,
for example, "made from cultured milk."
Fats and oils, if they do not constitute the predominant ingredient, may be disclosed by their collective name, for example, vegetable oils, when followed by a
listing of each individual component in parentheses. This parenthetical list, however,
need not be given in descending order of predominance. Furthermore, a suitable
phrase such as "and/or" or "contains one or more of the following" may be used
to indicate that some of the components may not be present at all times. The terms
"hydrogenated" or "partially hydrogenated" should be used to indicate any fat or
oil so treated.
A recent ruling exempts minor ingredients from listing in descending order of
predominance. Those ingredients present at levels of 2% or less by weight may be
disclosed at the end of the ingredient list after a qualifying statement, for example,
"contains 2% or less of."118 Incidental additives that may be present in a dairy
product at insignificant levels and do not have any technical or functional effect need
not be listed at all. These substances include the following examples.
1. An additive may be incorporated in an ingredient for a functional purpose, but
when that ingredient in turn is used in a finished food product, the additive loses
its effect. Thus, an anticaking agent added to milk powder has a technical effect
and must be declared on the label of the milk, but when the milk is used to make
a gravy, that anticaking additive no longer is relevant and need not be declared
on the label for the gravy.
2. A processing aid is a substance that is useful in treating a food during a manufacturing step but has no technical effect in the finished product and is present
in insignificant amounts. For example, hydrogen peroxide may be used in making
Cheddar cheese provided that residues are eliminated by the addition of catalase.
Consequently hydrogen peroxide would not be declared on the label.
3. Indirect additives, such as those migrating from packaging materials or introduced from food equipment, do not have to be included in the ingredient statement.
A characterizing flavor, in addition to being included in the ingredient list, will
be declared prominently in association with the name of the food, for example,
14
vanilla ice cream." Such a declaration is mandatory whenever labeling or advertising makes any direct or indirect representation with respect to such a flavor. If the
characterizing flavor is simulated by means of an artificial flavor, for example, vanillin, then the product must be labeled prominently "artificial vanilla" or "artificially flavored vanilla." In instances where only natural flavors are used to characterize a product, for example, ice cream, but the principal flavor, say strawberry, is
supplemented or rounded out with other natural flavors, then the product should be
labeled as "strawberry flavored ice cream."
of food regulation. Codex Alimentarius and those countries that adhere to those
standards continue to require nutritional labeling only for foods that are fortified or
for which nutritional claims are made. Because of the sweeping changes in United
States law, the necessary regulations to implement the new provisions will take some
time to prepare and issue. Final rules are slated to be adopted within 2 years after
passage of the new act. Even before these regulations are finalized, however, certain
specifics of the new law can be discussed with some degree of certainty.
Food categories requiring nutritional labeling will be extended to most foods
regulated by FDA including packaged foods, fresh produce, and seafood. Meat and
poultry were not included in the new act as these products are under USDA jurisdiction. Exemptions from nutrition labeling are made for small retail outlets that will
not be required to post nutritional information for bulk foods, fresh produce, or
seafood. Restaurants and food service institutions are also exempted. Food of little
nutritional interest such as coffee and tea will not require nutritional labeling. In
summary, nutritional labeling of all dairy products will now become mandatory
regardless whether they are fortified or not, or whether any claims are made for
them.
Nutrient content of the information panel is shifted under the new law significantly away from the current emphasis on vitamins and minerals toward a greater
stress on macronutrients. This new focus is in keeping with concerns about chronic
illnesses. The micronutrients that will have to be reported will be left to the judgment
of FDA, which currently proposes only vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.
Macronutrients would include not only fat, carbohydrate, protein, dietary fiber, cholesterol, and sodium, but also a breakdown of total fat to show saturated fat, and a
breakdown of total carbohydrate to indicate both complex carbohydrates (dextrins
and starches) and sugar. The macronutrients would be reported in grams per serving
except cholesterol and sodium, which would be given in milligrams. Total calories
per serving and the caloric equivalent of total fat would also be required.
Serving sizes until now have been arbitrarily set by manufacturers, thus causing
confusion about the significance of reported nutritional values. FDA's new proposals
establish standard serving sizes for 159 food product categories including dairy products and substitutes; desserts, for example, ice cream; and spreads (butter, margarine). These serving sizes are to be stated in household measuring units that are
appropriate for the given food. The use of standard serving sizes will prevent manufacturers from manipulating the serving size to make their products seem more
attractive to the consumer.
Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) will replace the current U.S. Recommended
Daily Allowances (RDAs) as nutritional standards for individual micronutrients.
Values for RDIs have been proposed by FDA for persons four or more years of age
as well as for specific population groups, namely, infants, children between 1 and 4
years of age, pregnant women, and lactating women. RDIs are based on average
values of required nutrients rather than the maximum recommended values as were
used to establish RDAs. In addition to RDIs, FDA has proposed Daily Reference
Values (DRVs) for macronutrients including fat, saturated fatty acids, unsaturated
fatty acids, cholesterol, carbohydrate, fiber, sodium, and potassium. These values
could be used by a manufacturer to develop a nutritional profile for its product.
Health claims can now be regulated without dispute by FDA under provisions
of the new act. Thus, the permissible claims that manufacturers can make will be
tightly controlled in the future. To guide manufacturers in the kinds of statements
that would be allowed, FDA plans to develop for each recognized "diet and chronic
disease topic area" a scientific summary, a consumer health message summary, and
model label statements. FDA initially identified six topic areas: (1) calcium and
osteoporosis, (2) sodium and hypertension, (3) lipids and heart disease, (4) lipids
and cancer, (5) fiber and cancer, and (6) fiber and cardiovascular disease.119 To these
six topics the new act has added four more, bringing the total to ten. Manufacturers
are not required to adhere to proposals presented by FDA for health claims, but the
agency warned that firms that deviate inappropriately from the model label statements would risk regulatory action.
Descriptors used to modify names of nutrients will be given more precise and
consistent definitions. The descriptors that are specified in the new act include
"free," "low," "lean," "light" or "lite," "reduced," "less," and "high." These
descriptors have been used by manufacturers in conjunction with such nutrients as
fat, cholesterol, sodium, calcium, and fiber as well as with the term "calories" to
denote the nutritional quality of particular foods. Their use, however, often has been
misleading in spite of steps already taken by FDA to define them. In the future, the
use of descriptors will be restricted to avoid situations where the wrong impression
might be conveyed to the consumer. Thus, "low cholesterol" could not be claimed
for a product that is high in saturated fat even though it may indeed contain little
cholesterol. Also, a claim could not be made about the absence of a nutrient unless
that nutrient is usually present in the particular food. Exemptions from the rules
regarding descriptors would be allowed for certain standardized foods, for example,
"low-fat milk." Furthermore, FDA would be empowered to permit such terms as
"light butter" if such claims were consistent with the regulations.120
Federal preemption is provided by the new act covering, for the first time,
standards of identity; imitation labeling; label identification of the manufacturer,
packer, or distributor; net contents declaration; and ingredient declarations. Also
covered are nutritional labeling, health claims, and nutrient claims. Not included in
the preemption clause are statements dealing with safety, such as California's Proposition 65. Also exempted are other labeling matters not covered by the act, including
open date labeling and restaurant-served meals. Labeling uniformity has been sought
for some time by food manufacturers, which were concerned about the proliferation
of state regulations.
Analytical methods have not been specified by the new act or by FDA. General
concern has been expressed about the availability and cost of reliable data. In some
instances the use of databases might be an acceptable alternative to direct laboratory
analyses. For example, Agriculture Handbook No. 8-1. Dairy and Egg Products,
published by USDA, provides extensive data on the composition of dairy products.
As with existing nutritional labeling, reasonable ranges of nutrient values, consis-
tent with good manufacturing practice, would be acceptable under the proposed
regulations.
Label format was not addressed by the new act, nor has FDA yet made any
proposals in this regard. The agency is solicitous in knowing the opinions of the
public, and it plans to obtain such advice before adopting any measures. NAS, however, in its labeling study did propose formats for mandatory information panels,
and for mandatory and voluntary information panels. Together with the current information panel for 2% low-fat milk, these formats are shown in Figures 1.7, 1.8,
and 1.9. Even though the nutrient listings do not conform with FDA's proposals,
these sample panels are of interest in illustrating some of the possible alternatives
available for label formats.121
1.5.3 Fortification
The rationale for fortification (sometimes called enrichment or restoration) is the
need to replace nutrients that are lost during processing, storage, or handling of a
food. Further justification for fortification is the objective to provide a level of nutrition in substitute foods equivalent to that obtained from the traditional foods that
are replaced in the diet. Nutrients may also be added to fabricated or engineered
foods to provide balanced nutrition. Finally, fortification has been used in limited
situations as a public health measure to correct a widespread nutritional deficiency
among a population group.
While the judicious use of fortification has proven to be beneficial to consumers,
numerous excesses have caused concern among regulators. In an effort to control
the indiscriminate use of fortification, FDA has published guidelines for the proper
fortification of food (21 CFR 104.20). The principles enunciated in these guidelines
2% LOWFAT MILX
Nutrition Information Per Serving
SERVING SIZE
ONE CUP
SERVINGS PER CONTAINER .. 8
CALORIES
120
PROTEIN
8 GRAMS
CARBOHYDRATE
11 GRAMS
FAT
5 GRAMS
SODIUM
130 mg
Percentage of U.S.
Recommended Daily Allowances (U.S. RDA)
PROTEIN
20 RIBOFLAVIN
25
VITAMINA
10 NIACIN
VITAMIN C
4 CALCIUM
30
THIAMINE
6 IRON
CONTAINS LESS THAN 2% OF THE U.S. RDA FOR THESE NUTRIENTS
Figure 1.7 Current information panel for 2% Low-fat milk. (Reproduced with permission
from Food Technology?)
2% LOWFAT MILK
Serving size
1 cup (8 fi oz)
2% LOWFAT MILK
Serving size
1 cup (8 fl oz)
have been carried over into the food standards. Notwithstanding the steps already
taken, some issues are still unresolved. FDA recently proposed that if any micronutrient is added to a food so that a single serving provides 50% or more of the RDI,
such action would make the product a "food for special dietary use." 122
Dairy products and dairy substitutes were among the first food products to be
fortified. In 1918 Denmark, recognizing a deficiency of vitamin A in people's diets,
provided for the fortification of margarine with this nutrient. Then the United States
around 1933 introduced the fortification of milk with vitamin D. Today, in addition
to margarine and milk, the following dairy products are commonly fortified: skim
milk, low-fat milk, nonfat dry milk, dry whole milk, evaporated milk, and infant
formula.123
Whole milk is an excellent source of a number of important nutrients, particularly
protein, calcium, and riboflavin (vitamin B2). It contains lesser amounts of vitamin
A, vitamin C, and vitamin D. 124 During pasteurization, heat-sensitive vitamins, notably vitamin C, may be destroyed. Loss of vitamin C, however, is not considered
to be critical. Milk is a relatively unimportant source of vitamin C compared with
citrus fruits and other foods, and for this reason fortification of milk with vitamin C
is not practiced.
The fat-soluble vitamins, A and D, are lost when milkfat is separated from whole
milk. Therefore restoration of vitamin A is mandated for low-fat milk and skim milk.
The addition of vitamin D to these products is optional but generally done. To
compensate for the loss of total milk solids in low-fat milk and skim milk, the
standards provide for the addition of nonfat milk solids. In this case, the label declaration for products containing not less than 10% milk-derived nonfat solids requires
the phrase, "with added milk solids not fat." The more catchy expression, "protein
fortified," is not permitted.125
pretation, which has been upheld in the courts, states that a substitute food is an
imitation food only if it is nutritionally inferior to the food it replaces. To determine
nutritional inferiority, a comparison is made of the levels of essential nutrients, for
which RDIs have been established, in the traditional food and the intended substitute
food. The regulations also include a provision allowing FDA to consider regulatory
action should a substitute food be shown to be otherwise inferior to the traditional
food for which it is a replacement.127
Foods, therefore, that might ordinarily be considered imitations of traditional
foods do not have to be labeled "imitation" if they conform to FDA's conditions
for waiving this requirement. These foods can avoid the stigma of being branded
second rate. They do, however, have to comply with the regulation for Common or
Usual Name for Nonstandardized Foods. These regulations provide that a suitable
name, which may be a coined term, must accurately identify or describe the new
food product. The label may also bear a fanciful name that is not false or misleading.
Whenever a standard of identity, however, has been promulgated for a substitute
food, then the provisions included therein take precedence.
Standards of identity have been adopted for two notable imitation dairy products:
margarine which is a substitute for butter, and mellorine (2ICFR135.130) which is
a substitute for ice cream. In both imitation products, animal or vegetable fats are
exchanged for milkfat. Similar imitation products for milk and milk products, however, are expressly prohibited under the Filled Milk Act, which was enacted in 1923.
This law states that the sale of filled milk "constitutes a fraud upon the public."
"Filled milk" is defined as any milk, cream, or skimmed milk, whether fluid or
dried, to which has been added any fat or oil other than milkfat, resulting in a product
resembling milk or any milk product. Nonetheless, a number of substitute products,
for example, whipped toppings and coffee creamers, have managed to skirt around
this law.
Substitute cheese products have generated considerable interest in recent years.
FDA has not issued standards of identity or specific labeling requirements for these
products, and therefore manufacturers must follow the rulings for imitation foods.
Partial imitation or filled cheeses are made with vegetable oil replacing butterfat in
combination with domestic nonfat milk solids. (By nature of being domestically
produced, these nonfat milk solids are made under local supervision but invariably
cost more than imports.) Complete imitation or analogue cheeses also use vegetable
oils but in addition use either foreign casein or nondairy proteins such as soy to
replace domestic nonfat milk solids. The public has been slow to accept substitute
cheese products when packaged to look like cheese. On the other hand, these
substitutes have made significant inroads into such derivative products as frozen
pizzas.128
Many states, including some with large dairy industries, have not agreed with the
federal interpretation of imitation. They have taken such actions as requiring that
substitute cheese products be labeled "imitation" regardless of whether or not the
products may be nutritionally equivalent to traditional products. Confusion in state
regulation has been compounded by the introduction of products that defy clear
definition. Does a frozen pudding on a stick, sold on the basis of both net weight
and fluid volume (see Section 1.6.5 for commentary on contents declaration) qualify
as a pudding, a frozen dessert, or something new? New York State, when confronted
with such a product, ruled that it falls under the frozen dessert regulations.129 Much
of the controversy over imitation labeling should be removed by the recently passed
legislation that provides for federal preemption in this area (Section 1.5.2).
Not all foods are inherently accepted as kosher. Furthermore, those foods that do
qualify as kosher must be prepared with strict adherence to exacting standards. Milk
is considered to be kosher provided it comes from animals considered kosher, for
example, cows or goats. On the other hand, animal fat, that is, tallow, is not kosher
and may not be eaten. Therefore margarine and food emulsifiers in order to be
accepted must be prepared entirely from vegetable oils. Other products of vegetable
origin, for example, sweeteners, are kosher approved. Microbiologically produced
rennin is accepted, but rennin extracted from animal stomachs may be disallowed
unless the animal is kosher.
All mineral derived ingredients such as salt and inorganic phosphate emulsifiers
are accepted as kosher without question. Because petroleum is considered to be a
mineral, organically synthesized ingredients from petrochemicals are considered to
be kosher. In this category would be included certified food colors and chemical
preservatives. For the same reason synthetic glycerine is accepted whereas natural
glycerine produced from tallow is not approved.
Although dairy products are accepted as kosher, they may not be eaten with meat.
Thus, cheeseburgers are forbidden and ice cream may not be served for dessert at
the end of a meal in which meat was consumed. Some products, for example, of
vegetable origin, may be eaten either with meat or dairy products and are designated
pareve. An example is an ice cream substitute called tofu, which is based on soy
protein and vegetable oils. So-called "nondairy" creamers formulated with sodium
caseinate are considered in fact to be dairy and therefore are not permitted with
meat.132 Although Moslem dietary laws follow kosher rules in most respects, they
differ notably in that milk products including butter are allowed to be consumed
together with meat.133
Only those products that have been approved kosher and are produced under
rabbinical supervision may be labeled as kosher. Federal regulations provide that
the term "kosher" should be used only on food products that meet certain religious
dietary requirements (2ICFR101.29). In addition, a number of states including New
York and New Jersey specify penalties for infractions involving kosher labeling.
Because of the complexity of Jewish dietary laws, any dairy producer interested in
this topic should seek expert advice.
1.6 Packaging
1.6.1 Functional Needs
The functional needs of packaging are manifold. First and foremost, packaging must
protect the freshness and integrity of the dairy product from the time it leaves the
plant until it is used by the consumer. In addition, packaging should be cost effective
and convenient. Containers in a wide range of sizes are required, and they must be
available for products in different forms including liquids, spreads, solids, aerosols,
granules, and powders. Of more recent concern, packaging should not contribute to
environmental problems, whether caused by the escape of propellants to the atmosphere or the disposal of containers in landfills.
tessen counters, retail establishments are getting more involved with food packaging.
Frequently, though, they are ill equipped for their new role. In response to growing
concerns about vacuum packaging in retail stores, FDA has issued guidelines for
this activity. As applied to dairy products the following six control steps are
recommended.
1. The food must be limited to those products that do not support the growth of C.
botulinum including foods with a water activity below 0.93, foods with a pH of
4.6 or less, and foods with high levels of nonpathogenic competing organisms,
such as natural hard and semisoft cheese containing live cultures.
2. Vacuum-packaged food must be maintained at 7.2C (45F) or below.
3. Consumer packages must be labeled with storage instructions.
4. Shelf life, which must not exceed 10 days or extend past the shelf life of the
original food, shall be indicated on the package.
5. Acceptable procedures for the packaging operation must be written and followed.
6. The responsible regulatory authority must approve these procedures.138
process, the container stock, lidding material, and filled product are enclosed in a
sterile air tunnel. 145146
All the precautions taken during the filling operation are to no avail unless the
container is tightly sealed. With the limitations of present technology, obtaining a
good seal is the most pressing problem. Defective seals are reported to run normally
between 10 and 100 per thousand containers filled. This performance compares
unfavorably with the reject rate experienced on canning lines, said to be roughtly
four defects per ten thousand cans. Furthermore, as opposed to canning operations
that have on-line detection systems, aseptic packaging lines have no such safeguards.147 The major challenge, therefore, seems to be the development of improved
containers for aseptic packaging. A number of firms are devoting considerable energies to this task. 148149
1.7 Distribution
1.7.1 Shelf life
Product shelf life is the controlling factor in the distribution of dairy products. It
dictates the total elapsed time allowed from production to consumption. For perishable products such as milk, shelf life assumes even greater importance than in the
case of other foods. The shorter the shelf life, the smaller are the inventories of
product that can be maintained at key distribution points, for example, plant loading
dock, warehouse, supermarket. Lower inventories call for more frequent and smaller
shipments. Therefore the goal of every supplier must be to extend the shelf life of
its products without sacrificing quality.
Shelf life depends on the care taken during processing and on the treatment of
the product in distribution. The elements of quality control, for example, sanitation,
that are so important to shelf life have been discussed in previous sections of this
chapter. Testimony of these findings is given repeatedly. By improving its CIP operation, a Midwestern diary was able to guaranty a refrigeration shelf life for its fluid
milk products of 14 days.152 A study conducted at Pennsylvania State University
indicated that a shelf life of 14 days is attainable for fluid milk products held at
7.2C (45F) provided that the best available processing and sanitation procedures
are regularly followed. These procedures include hot water sanitizing at 76.6C
(1700F) of processing and packaging equipment. By reducing storage temperature
to 4.40C (400F) even a longer shelf life is achievable.153
No variable is more critical to shelf life than the holding temperature during
distribution. Unfortunately effective control over temperature is not always maintained. Particularly at transfer points, this variable may exceed the established limit
by wide margins. In order to obtain better management of this key variable, numerous proposals have been made to apply time-temperature sensors. These devices
integrate the temperature variable with time to obtain a thermal history of the product. These results have been found to correlate well with the keeping properties of
fluid milk products. 154155
few people still needed are improved, as they are not required to enter the refrigerated
storage areas. Automated warehouses have the flexibility to adjust to changing volumes of orders without reassigning personnel.
Not only is efficiency realized in automated warehouses through the reduction in
manual labor, but savings in refrigeration space and in energy costs are possible.
The compactness of these warehouses permits much greater utilization of cold storage areas, thereby reducing refrigeration needs. Additional energy can be saved
inasmuch as there is little need for lighting in the storage and transfer areas. When
all the advantages of automation are considered, the extra capital investment needed
for machinery and computers seems well justified,156"158
With the advent of aseptic packaging, worldwide distribution patterns are changing. Particularly in Europe and lesser developed countries that lack adequate refrigeration facilities, the use of aseptic packaging has brought benefits to people, many
of whom were previously deprived of good nutrition. By contrast, in the United
States where refrigeration is commonplace, aseptic packaging has been a failure.
Consumers object to the cooked, almost burnt taste of milk so processed. The overriding consideration, however, is that aseptic packaged milk costs three times as
much as regular milk. 159160 The first aseptic plant built in the United States at a cost
of $25 million was hardly completed when it was put up for sale in 1985.161
Although aseptic packaging has not made headway in the United States, another
trend, UHT pasteurization, has swept the dairy industry. The days of home delivery
of milk are almost gone forever, as consumers become increasingly dependent on
supermarkets for their needs. Between the years 1963 and 1991, the amount of milk
delivered by milkmen nationwide fell from 30% to 1%.162 One survey indicated that
the number one item on shopping lists is fresh milk, which is bought by 33% of
supermarket customers.163 More and more what these customers are purchasing from
the refrigeration counter, however, are not pasteurized milk products but UHT
processed milk products.
Milk that is UHT processed and refrigerated is reported to have a shelf life of 30
to 45 days as opposed to 16 or 18 days otherwise. The longer shelf life means that
dairies can restock supermarket shelves on a weekly basis rather than at shorter
intervals as formerly was necessary. Similar conveniences are enjoyed by customers
who can shop less often. The flavor of UHT milk products, however, does not have
parity with that of pasteurized ones. But by using direct steam in the UHT pasteurization step and by rapidly cooling the milk via vacuum flashing, dairies can reportedly minimize undesirable cooked flavors.164 Whatever unfavorable comparisons are made with pasteurized milk products, the growing acceptance of UHT
processed milk products still seems assured.
recall is the manufacturer's own. This provision does not mean that FDA cannot or
will not bring pressure to bear on this decision. Through its power to seize products,
obtain injunctions, and prosecute criminal acts, the agency has considerable sway
over the affairs of dairy producers.
FDA has established guidelines to be followed in a product recall, and the agency
will hold the manufacturer accountable for meeting these standards of conduct. A
manufacturer faced with the prospect of a product recall is best advised to notify
FDA. Cooperation beginning at an early stage of a recall can avoid misunderstanding
and punitive action at a later date.
Four classes of product recall, based on the seriousness of the infraction, have
been defined by FDA to convey to the public as clearly as possible the seriousness
of any action taken. Class I is specified for the most dangerous cases, such as botulism. Class II includes situations that may cause illness but are not life threatening;
Class III is reserved for relatively minor violations; and Market Withdrawal; is an
action by the manufacturer that carries no implication of wrongdoing.
Although the classification of a recall does not automatically dictate the depth of
the recall, the classification is the most important consideration. In general, a Class
I recall shall be made to the consumer level, a Class II recall to the retail level, and
a Class III recall to the wholesale level. When a recall is made to the wholesale
level, product already on supermarket shelves and in the homes of consumers does
not need to be returned. An appropriate communication plan must be formulated and
implemented to warn the necessary individuals of the action being taken.
Regarding the question of the disposal of recalled product, FDA has issued policy
statements. If product can be reconditioned, this step becomes an option. Otherwise
the product must be discarded in an environmentally acceptable manner such as
spreading contaminated milk on farmland. The product may not be diverted to animal
feed unless the safety of this application has been demonstrated. Apropos of reconditioning, FDA has warned that this action can only be taken under strict regulatory
supervision and may not include the blending of adulterated and unadulterated products. Furthermore, adulterated product must be reconditioned by such methods that
it cannot be distinguished after processing from wholesome product.165
1.8 Summary
L8.1 Importance of Process Controls
Section 402(a)(3) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act states that if a food
contains "any filthy, putrid, or decomposed substance, or if it is otherwise unfit
for food," it is deemed to be adulterated and therefore banned. The only way compliance with this provision is possible is by establishing suitable controls over food
processes. In dairy processing no control point is of greater importance than pasteurization. Only by heat-treating raw milk in such a pasteurization step can the
control of pathogens be assured. This fact is underscored every time there is an
outbreak of illness caused by the consumption of raw milk. Notwithstanding new
regulatory issues such as nutritional labeling, food safety continues to dominate the
concerns of quality assurance.
the new technology. Meanwhile potential manufacturers of the hormone are pressing
their case for approval. Inevitably scientific debate has become enmeshed with economic and social issues. In this mileau regulatory bodies everywhere have taken a
wait-and-see attitude. Although the delays are frustrating for the parties concerned,
this additional time does provide an opportunity for the political process to run its
course.171
challenges. But of even greater concern is the education of consumers in the proper
handling of these new products. In Section 1.5.5 concerning open date labeling, the
point was made that whereas consumers are knowledgeable about the shelf life of a
traditional dairy product, they are much less familiar with new products entering the
market. Confusion is compounded when a new product looks like one type of food
but has the characteristics of another kind. Safety concerns, however, are not limited
to the consumer. Manufacturers need to be made aware of the pitfalls of new product
introductions. In this regard the dairy processor is well advised to rely in its planning
on the HACCP principles, which by now have been so well expounded.177
1.10 References
1. DFISA survey spotlights dairy purchasing plans. Food Engin. April 1989, p. 16.
2. Light dairy products: issues and technology. Food Technol. October 1990, pp. 77-98.
3. Bruhn, C. M., and H. G. Schutz. 1986. Consumer perceptions of dairy and related-use foods. Food
Technol. January, pp. 79-85.
4. Technology for quality dairy products. Food Technol. March 1989, p. 58.
5. Swientek, R. J., and D. D. Duxbury, 1985. Kraft's QC/QA program. Food Process. September,
pp. 54-57.
6. Haberstroh, C. 1988. HACCP: making the system work. Food Engin. August, pp. 70-80.
7. Foster, E. M. 1989. A half century of food microbiology. Food Technol. September, pp. 208-209.
8. McBean, L. D. 1988. A perspective on food safety concerns. Dairy Food Sanit. March,
pp. 112-118.
9. Molenda, J. R. 1989. Veterinary public health.... Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. October,
pp. 558-562.
10. Bacteria associated with food borne diseases. Food Technol. April 1988, pp. 181-200.
11. Mycotoxins and food safety. Food Technol. May 1986, pp. 59-66.
12. Virus transmission via foods. Food Technol. October 1988, pp. 241-248.
13. Timms, L. L. 1990. Can somatic cell counts get too low? Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. August,
pp. 494-497.
14. Hilts, P. J. 1990. F.D.A.'s Tests on milk are called inadequate. The New York Times. November
21,p.D21.
15. Corlett, N. J., Jr. 1989. Assuring safe drug use in dairy production. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit.
August, pp. 450-451.
16. Boosinger, J. 1990. Milk safetywho's responsible? Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. September,
pp. 543-545.
17. Applied microbiology and Babson brothers
18. Mayo, G. 1988. New methods make advances in foreign body detection. Food Engin. November,
pp. 136-138.
19. Stauffer, J. E. 1988. Quality Assurance of Food. Food & Nutrition Press, Westport, CT.
20. Improved milk quality results in impressive pay-offs for industry. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. June
1990, pp. 359-361.
21. Bruhn, J. C , et al. 1990. Use of recording thermometers.... Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. December,
pp. 731-733.
22. National Mastitis Council. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. May 1990, pp. 286-287.
23. Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 1989 Revision, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C.
24. Blanching milk improves flavor, shelf life. Food Engin. October 1981, pp. 103-104.
25. Effects of food processing on nutritive values. Food Technol. December 1986, pp. 109-116.
26. Milk Pasteurization Controls and Tests, 2nd edit. Public Health Service, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, 1986.
27. Solid-state drives boost productivity in HTST pasteurization. Food Engin. April 1988, pp. 160-162.
28. Stauffer, J. E. U.S. Patent Pending, 1992.
29. Success of UHT may hinge on quality raw milk. Dairy Field. February 1982, p. 15.
30. Hansen, A. P. 1987. Effect of ultra-high-temperature processing and storage on dairy food flavor.
Food Technol. September, pp. 112-116.
31. Hill, A. R. 1988. Quality of ultra-high temperature processed milk. Food Technol. September,
pp. 92-97.
32. Swientek, R. J. 1988. Aseptically processed particulates without mechanical agitation. Food Process. January, pp. 42-44.
33. Rosenberg, U., and Bb'gl, W. 1987. Microwave pasteurization . . . Food Technol. June, pp. 92-99.
34. Taylor, D. L. 1985. Tougher pasteurization laws ahead for the California dairy industry? Food
Engin. August, p. 25.
35. Morris, C. E. 1987. Feds focus on food safety. Food Engin. August, pp. 59-72.
36. Kozak attacks 'product safety cataracts' afflicting dairy industry. Food Engin. June 1988, pp.
25-27.
37. Ellinger, R. H. 1990. Total Quality Systems HandbookHACCP, American Butter Institute/National Cheese Institute, Washington, D.C.
38. Robe, K. 1989. 'Simple' operational changes yield more cheese per ton of milk . . . Food Process.
May, pp. 24-32.
39. Listeria grows in S. Cremoris cultures. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. October 1989, p. 571.
40. Commercial rennet unlikely source of Listeria contamination. Dairy Food Sanit. July 1988, p. 368.
41. Annatto food colorings, starter distillate unlikely sources of Listeria contamination. Dairy Food
Environ. Sanit. October 1989, pp. 564-565.
42. Pszczola, D. E. 1989. Rennet containing 100% chymosin increases cheese quality and yield. Food
Technol June, pp. 84-89.
43. Andres, C. 1985. Raw milk inoculation has potential for improving cheese yield and quality. Food
Process. November, pp. 7475.
44. Shimp, L. A. 1985. Process cheese principles. Food Technol. May, pp. 63-70.
45. New cheeses increase usage. Food Engin. December 1986, p. 54.
46. Measuring textured properties of food. Food Process. April 1988, p. 153.
47. Spindler, J. E., and Robe, K. 1984. Age 12 million Ib of cheese, stored six pallets high. Food
Process. December, pp. 66-67.
48. Cheese-ripening system cuts aging time in half. Food Engin. September 1985, p. 48.
49. Andres, C. 1986. Biotechnology and enzyme breakthroughs . . . Food Process. February,
pp. 31-33.
50. Morris, C. E. 1989. World's largest ice-cream plant. Food Engin. March, pp. 85-100.
51. Goff, H. D. 1988. Hazard analysis and critical control point identification in ice cream plants. Dairy
FoodSanit. March, 1988, pp. 131-135.
52. Quality control for added fruits in dairy products. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. August 1989, p. 460.
53. Frozen Dessert Processing Guidelines, 1st edit. Milk Safety Branch, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C. October 1989.
54. FDA finalizes yogurt standards. Dairy Rec. April 1981, p. 28.
55. Andres, C. 1987. Manufacturing and marketing of live culture yogurt is receiving new impetus.
Food Process. August, pp. 4244.
56. Kroger, M. 1989. Food misinformation in major reference works: setting the record straight on
yogurt. Food Technol. June, pp. 62-67.
57. Kroger, M., et al. 1989. Fermented milkspast, present, and future. Food Technol. January,
pp. 92-99.
58. Chandan, R. C. 1977. Considerations in the manufacture of frozen and soft serve yogurt. Food
Product Dev. September, pp. 118-121.
59. Morris, C. E. 1987. Steuben foods: high-tech rehab. Food Engin. March, pp. 61-70.
60. Raccach, M. 1990. The dairy industry in Arizona . . . Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. April,
pp. 218-222.
61. Separators are vital part of dairy plant production. Food Engin. February 1988, pp. 71-72.
62. Schmidt, E., and Swientek, R. J. 1985. Six-effect TVR evaporator cuts energy costs $1200/day.
Food Process. July, pp. 116-117.
63. Dziezak, J. D. 1989. Milk products. Food Technol. October, pp. 101-102.
64. Broken bag detector proves to be an accurate monitor for milk processor. Food Engin. February
1988, p. 80.
65. Precise metering pumps automate vitamin dosing. Food Process. May 1988, p. 290.
66. Packard, V., et al. 1988. A study of farm receipts of milkfat . . . Dairy Food Sanit. April,
pp. 179-182.
67. Okos, M. R., and Reklaitis, G. K. 1985. Computer-aided design and operation of food processes
in industry and academia. Food Technol. April, pp. 107-118.
68. Swientek, R. J. 1986. Dairy upgrades tank gauging . . . Food Process. May, pp. 156-159.
69. Russell, M. J. 1988. Process control: emphasis on batch. Food Engin. July, pp. 53-64.
70. Dziezak, J. D. 1987. Applications of food colorants. Food Technol. April, pp. 78-88.
71. Andres, C. 1985. Antimicrobials. Food Process. March, pp. 26-30.
72. Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed,
HFF-342, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C, June 1978.
73. PBB action levels no longer needed. Food Technol. March 1987, p. 64.
74. Farley, D. 1989. Setting safe limits on pesticide residues. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. March,
pp. 135-137.
75. Regulatory limits' to replace action levels. Food Technol. July 1990, p. 48.
76. Small, E. 1981. Tracing the definition and standard for butter. Dairy Rec. November, pp. 114-118.
77. Shank, F. R., and Carson, K. L. 1990. Light dairy products: regulatory issues. Food Technol.
October, p. 91.
78. Light butter. Food Chemical News, March 4, 1991,cp. 19.
79. Przybyla, A. E. 1986. Expanding uses of milk proteins. Food Engin. December, pp. 51-56.
80. Light eggnog market permit issued. Food Technol. November 1990, p. 50.
81. Permit issued for nonstandard ice cream. Food Technol. January 1990, p. 48.
82. Market permits issued for 'lite' sour cream. Food Technol. December 1989, p. 28.
83. Low-sodium cheese changes proposed. Food Process. January 1988, p. 20.
84. Swientek, R. J. 1987. Food-borne disease outbreaks spur development of rapid microbial assays.
Food Process. May, pp. 196-210.
85. Dziezak, J. D. 1987. Rapid methods for microbiological analysis of foods. Food Technol. July,
pp. 54-73.
86. Dilley, C. L., and Dixon-Holland, D. 1990. Rapid residue test for aflatoxin M, and sulfamethazine
in dairy products. Food Technol. June, p. 132.
87. Swientek, R. J. 1988. On-line analytical sensors improve product quality. Food Process. August,
pp. 136-139.
88. Dziezak, J. D. 1987. Quality Assurance through commercial laboratories and consultants. Food
Technol. December, pp. 110-127.
89. Factors to be considered in establishing good manufacturing practices for the production of refrigerated foods. Dairy Food Sanit. June 1988, pp. 288-291.
90. Freeman, L. K. 1988. Heating up the marketing wars. Food Engin. September, pp. 145-149.
91. Gilmore, T. M. 1989. Cleanability requirements of dairy processing equipment Meeting 3-A Sanitary Standards. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., February, pp. 75-76.
92. Gilmore, T. M. 1990. The 3-A Story. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., February, pp. 60-63.
93. The 3-A Sanitary Standards program: a review and a look forward. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit.,
February 1991, pp. 87-89.
94. Supplier profiles, sine pump. Food Engin., April 1988, p. 168.
95. Dziezak, T. D. 1990. Membrane separation technology offers processors unlimited potential. Food
Technol., September, pp. 108-113.
96. DFISA/ASAE Award to Wisconsin's Lund. Food Engin., May 1987, p. 31.
97. No more tangled pipelines. Food Engin., February 1985, p. 83.
98. Ebel, J. A., and Ellis, R. F. 1988. CIP management program automates cleaning jobs. Food
Process., February, pp. 96-97.
99. Freeman, L. K. 1988. Cleaning up the bottom line. Food Engin., November, pp. 113-124.
100. Rogers, D. G. 1986. A preventive maintenance program: it's a productivity 'blind spot'. Food
Engin., December, p. 62.
101. New coating system saves dairy cooperative $2,000 per storage tank. Food Engin., May 1988,
p. 184.
102. Taylor, D. L. 1986. Attacking sanitation problems. Food Engin., November, pp. 99-103.
103. Developing a total cleaning/sanitation program. Food Process., February 1987, pp. 112-113.
104. Recommended guidelines for controlling environmental contamination in dairy plants. Dairy Food
Sanit., February 1988, pp. 52-56.
105. Fuqua, R. G. 1988. A practical environmental sampling plan for dairy processing plants. Dairy
Food Sanit., October, pp. 521-523.
106. Verhoefen, U. 1987. Putting the brakes on bacterial contamination in the food industry. Food
Engin., August, pp. 116-117.
107. Proper food plant air conditioning helps fight dangerous contaminants. Food Engin., October 1987,
pp. 110-113.
108. Starting your rodent elimination programgood advice for food facilities. Dairy Food Environ.
Sanit., June 1990, pp. 356-357.
109. Mason, M. E. 1987. Potential benefits to the food industry of industry-university cooperative research. Food Technol., December, pp. 105-106.
110. Dairy training center aids China's milk production. Food Technol., September 1987, p. 45.
111. IAMFES audio visuals library. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., July 1989, p. 407.
112. Ligugnana, R., and Fung, D. Y. C. 1990. Training of food and dairy staff for microbiological air
and surface hygiene. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., March, pp. 130-135.
113. Basic pasteurization courses and special problems courses. Dairy Food Sanit., April 1988, p. 214.
114. Dairy laboratory workshop. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., May 1989, p. 260.
115. 100 Years of dairy manufacturing short courses. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., December 1990,
p. 742.
116. Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 1989 Revision, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C.
117. Sanitation Compliance and Enforcement Ratings of Interstate Milk Shippers, Public Health Service,
Food and Drug Administration, HFF-346, Washington, D.C. 20204, April 1, 1987.
118. Exemption to predominance listing of ingredients. Food Technol., June 1990, p. 60.
119. Industry fears draft rule will make health claims illegal. Food Chemical News, January 29, 1990,
p. 59.
120. Nutrition labeling bill could save FDA money, House report says. Food Chemical News, June 25,
1990, p. 40.
121. Porter, D. V., 1991. Nutrition labeling: comparisons of proposals for regulatory reform. Food
Technol., January, pp. 68-75.
122. Nutrition labeling pegged to 'meaningful sources'. Food Chemical News, July 23, 1990, p. 6.
123. Use of vitamins as additives in processed foods. Food Technol., September 1987, pp. 163-168.
124. Lecos, C. 1982. Milk. FDA Consumer. June, pp. 16-20.
125. Stays effective date of skim milk standard. Food Technol., May 1982, p. 50.
126. Babayan, V. K., and Rosenau, J. R. 1991. Medium-chain-triglyceride cheese. Food Technol., February, pp. 111-114.
127. Vanderveen, J. E. 1987. Nutritional equivalency from a regulatory perspective. Food TechnoL,
February, pp. 131-132, 140.
128. Graf, T. 1981. Imitations giving natural cheese a strong competitive tussle. Dairy Rec, July,
pp. 94-95.
129. Sandier, J. 1981. Pudding: new star for dairies? Dairy Rec, June, p. 7.
130. Food labels and food safety. Dairy Food Sanit., February 1988, p. 68.
131. Food Chemical News, February 6, 1989, p. 35.
132. Regenstein, J. M., and Regenstein, C. E. 1988. The Kosher dietary laws and their implementation
in the food industry. Food TechnoL, June, pp. 86-94.
133. Twaigery, S., and Spillman, D. 1989. An introduction to Moslem dietary laws. Food TechnoL,
February, pp. 88-90.
134. Gonyeau, V., and Rice, J. 1985. 3-Qt gabletops help gain shelf space in more stores. Food Process.,
August, p. 76.
135. Limited supplies of ethylene & HDPE pose problems for milk industry. Food Process., November
1988, p. 30.
136. Film switch improves cheese pack performance. Food Process., February 1988, p. 135.
137. Advertisement by Ropak Corp., Dairy Food Sanit., April 1988, p. 185.
138. FDA outlines controls measures for retail vacuum packaging. Food Chemical News, February 6,
1989, pp. 32-35.
139. Migration of toxicants . . . Food TechnoL, July 1988, pp. 95-102.
140. Holusha, J. 1991. An industry tries to improve its record on plastic. The New York Times, March 31,
p.F5.
141. FDA's 'informal' review of recycled plastics raises concern. Food Chemical News, March 25,
1991, p. 23.
142. Dioxin and milk safety. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., July 1990, p. 437.
143. Lead-soldered cans phase-out recommended. Food TechnoL, November 1990, p. 50.
144. OK's higher H2O2 residuals. Food Process., September 1987, p. 14.
145. Aseptic formulations evaluated rapidly using new Hercules/PFW Div. Pilot Plant. Food TechnoL,
December 1986, pp. 68-69.
146. Lisiecki, R., et al. 1990. Aseptic package addresses a variety of needs. Food TechnoL, June, p. 126.
147. Morris, C. E. 1988. Talking with Ted Labuza. Food Engin., July, p. 67.
148. Fuhrman, P. 1990. Boxed in. Forbes, October 29, pp. 102-104.
149. Rice, J. 1986. Aseptically packaged products enter new growth phase. Food Process., June,
pp. 62-68.
150. Dual weight/volume net contents labeling rejected by FDA. Food Chemical News, January 15,
1990, pp. 29-30.
151. Hess, J. L. 1989. Managing quality. Chemtech, July, pp. 412-416.
152. Popovitch, G., and Ellis, R. F. 1986. Computerized CIP system saves 35% in cleaning costs. Food
Process., February, pp. 62-64.
153. Barnard, S. E. 1991. Extending the keeping quality of fluid milk. Paper abstract, Dairy Food
Environ. Sanit., March, p. 159.
154. Singh, R. P. 1988. Stock management utilizing time-temperature integrators. Paper given at Fall
1988 Meeting, Research and Development Associates for Military Food and Packaging Systems,
Inc., San Antonio, TX.
155. Chemg, Y. S., and ZaIl, R. R. 1989. Use of time temperature indicators to monitor fluid milk
movement in commercial practice. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., August, pp. 439443.
156. Ellis, R. F., 1985. Automated guided vehicles move packaged milk in and out of cooler storage.
Food Process., April, pp. 84-85.
157. Computerized cold storage system helps get milk to market quickly. Food Engin., October 1985,
pp. 104-106.
158. Advertisement by Descorp, Food Process., May 1987, p. 38.
159. Let's talk about UHT milk. Dairy Food Sanit., June 1988, p. 309.
160. Some facts about UHT milk. Food Process., October 1988, p. 131.
161. Failing UHT milk sales force dairymen to seek new options. Food Engin., March 1985, p. 27.
162. Foderaro, L. W. 1991. Believe it or not, a milkman making rounds in Scarsdale. The New York
Times, July 11, pp. Bl and B2.
163. Milk # 1 shopping list item. Food Process., June 1987, p. 179.
164. Swientek, R. J., and Duxbury, D.D. 1987. Dairy industry trends. Food Process., September,
pp. 108-120.
165. FDA restates policy on disposition of adulterated milk. Food Chemical News, November 26,1990,
p. 24.
166. Duxbury, D. D. 1988. Alternate-source milk coagulant enzyme developed by rDNA technology.
Food Process., May, pp. 44-46.
167. Chymosin preparation affirmed as GRAS. Food TechnoL, May 1990, p. 46.
168. Feber, B. J. 1991. An urban start-up's rural twist. The New York Times, June 6, 1991, pp. Dl, D5.
169. Jacobs, E. 1989. BST believers. Michigan Farmer, August 5, pp. 18-19.
170. FDA Talk Paper, T89-50. August 4, 1989, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD.
171. Schneider, K. 1989. Stores bar milk produced by drug. The New York Times, August 24,
pp. Al, A18.
172. Growth and economic impact. Food TechnoL, May 1988, pp. 108-109.
173. International foods. Food TechnoL, September 1987, pp. 125-127.
174. New product analysis. Food Engin., April 1989, pp. 102-103.
175. Fat-free Eskimo pie. Fortune, December 3, 1990, p. 104.
176. Keller, S. E., 1991. Formulation of aspartame-sweetened frozen dairy dessert without bulking
agents. Food TechnoL, February, pp. 102-106.
177. Corlett, D. A., Jr. 1989. Refrigerated foods and use of hazard analysis and critical control point
principles. Food TechnoL, February, pp. 91-94.
CHAPTER
2
Biotechnology of Dairy
Starter Cultures
Jeffrey R. Broadbent and Jeffrey K. Kondo
2.1 Introduction, 77
2.2 Applications and Successes, 78
2.2.1 Low-Fat Dairy Products, 79
2.2.2 Bacteriocins as Food Preservatives, 80
2.2.3 Bacteriophage Resistance, 83
2.2.4 Accelerated Cheese Maturation, 84
2.3 Yesterday and Tomorrow: Tools for Biotechnology, 85
2.3.1 Conjugation and Cell Fusion, 85
2.3.1.1 Conjugation, 85
2.3.1.2 Protoplast Fusion, 87
2.3.2 Transformation and Gene Delivery Systems, 88
2.3.2.1 Electroporation, 88
2.3.2.2 Gene Delivery Systems, 89
2.3.3 Manufacture of Heterologous Proteins, 91
2.4 Regulatory Aspects of Dairy Biotechnology, 92
2.5 Summary, 95
2.6 References, 95
2.1 Introduction
The applications for biotechnology in the dairy industry that will be addressed in
this chapter are those linked to the improvement of starter cultures utilized in fermented products. Most of these cultures are lactic acid bacteria, organisms that
produce lactic acid from lactose fermentation and significantly lower the pH of
fermented products. The lactic microorganisms employed to ferment foods are included within five genera: Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus,
and Streptococcus.
Species from all genera except Pediococcus are commonly used in dairy fermentations. Because lactic acid bacteria can be isolated from raw milk, it is likely that
fermented dairy products have been part of the human diet since the time milk was
first collected in containers and held for a day or two. Over the centuries these
fermentations evolved into the unique cheeses, yogurts, and buttermilks that are
available today. It was not until this century, however, that commercial manufacturers of these products recognized that substantial improvements in product consistency and quality were gained from the use of well characterized starter cultures.1
Since this development, the economic value of fermented dairy products has grown
to represent approximately one-fifth of the world total of all fermented foods including alcoholic beverages.23 Propagation of this important economic resource has
relied on modern microbiology and fermentation technology to consistently produce
uniform, high-quality products. Manufacturers have found that achieving this goal
is largely dependent on the starter cultures utilized in the fermentation. As in the
past, the key to continued viability of this valuable economic resource in the future
will be starter cultures with known, predictable, and stable characteristics.
Biotechnology now offers investigators powerful methods to both firmly establish
these qualities among cultures and to amend other traits of dairy microorganisms.
Increased quality, decreased production and storage losses, and an expanded diversity of dairy products in the marketplace are examples of how biotechnology may
contribute to a sound economic future for the dairy industry. With an estimated 800
industrial and academic laboratories worldwide now devoting resources to this area,
it is clear that biotechnological approaches will have a significant role in the dairy
industry. The 1980s have predominantly been a time for development of biotechnological techniques with applications in a few key areas such as bacteriophage
resistance. We anticipate the 1990s will see a consistent effort to utilize these techniques in more dairy applications.
This chapter will discuss a few of the pertinent applications of biotechnology in
the dairy industry, review various new biotechnological methodologies and techniques available, and summarize some of the legal ramifications of biotechnological
applications in human food. Several reviews on the historical development of dairy
starter culture biotechnology have recently been published4'5 and so this subject will
not be addressed here.
Bacteriophage resistance
Stabilization of plasmid-linked activities
Flavor and texture enhancement; accelerated ripening of cheese
Production of bacteriocins and other natural antimicrobials
Biogum production
Control of flavor defects
Probiotics
Production of food grade enzymes and heterologous proteins
Specialty markets: decreased browning of Mozzarella cheese, improved cultures
for low-fat dairy products, cold-sensitive yogurt starter cultures.
Because several recent books and review articles have been devoted to these
subjects, this chapter will not attempt to discuss all of these applications in detail.
Topics such as probiotics and the therapeutic properties of fermented milk were
covered extensively in a new book by Robinson6; microbial testing of foods was
recently addressed in a book chapter by Firstenberg-Eden and Sharpe7; and the
production of biogums has been discussed by Baird and Pettitt8 and also by Ceming.9
media for low-fat cheeses. pH control bulk starter media yield high cell numbers
which, in low-fat applications, may be disadvantageous due to the development of
acid cheese and other inconsistencies in production of low-fat cheese.
At present, correct starter and media selection are the keys to manufacture of
high-quality, reduced-fat cheese. Starter cultures and media that perform well in the
production of full-fat cheese often are not suited to low-fat cheese (D. Willrett,
Marschall Products, personal communication). The limited number of starter cultures
useful for low-fat cheese manufacture also restricts the number of strain rotation
schemes available to guard against bacteriophage. As a result, bacteriophage resistance is an important attribute in low-fat starter cultures (for further discussion of
phage resistance, see Section 2.2.3). Other strategies that may facilitate the manufacture of high-quality low-fat cheese are the use of adjunct cultures or enzyme
preparations. Adjuncts are species of lactic acid bacteria not traditionally used to
manufacture the product, but that are sometimes added to the product with the starter
blend. These cultures may provide enzymes or other unique capabilities that contribute to improved flavor or textural properties in low-fat cheese. Proteolytic enzyme
preparations have been used with limited success to accelerate cheese flavor development (see Section 2.2.4), and similar applications may also improve flavor development in low-fat cheese. Identification and molecular analysis of starter enzyme
systems that promote the manufacture of high-quality low-fat cheese should eventually yield strategies to construct specialized culture systems that satisfy low-fat
cheesemaking constraints.
Fat substitutes, such as Simplesse 100, are also currently being used in 50%
reduced fat cheeses with success (R. Snook, The Nutrasweet Company, personal
communication). For further discussion of fat substitutes in foods, see Iyengar and
Gross.11 In summary, present trends indicate that low-fat dairy products will be one
of the most important topics of the 1990s and biotechnology will likely provide
important contributions to the consumer acceptability and success of these products.
and even fungi. Bacteriocin production has been demonstrated in every genus of
lactic acid bacteria12"14 as well as within the propionibacteria.15 Because of their
proteinaceous nature, bacteriocins are degraded by stomach enzymes when consumed as part of a fermented food. This feature, combined with desirable physical
and inhibitory properties, has prompted the utilization of two of these compounds,
nisin and Microgard, as preservatives for dairy foods.
Nisin, a peptide secreted by some Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains, is by
far the most successful example of a bacteriocin with applications for food preservation. Current and potential applications for nisin are shown in Table 2.1. Often
described as an antibiotic, nisin is bactericidal toward a wide variety of Grampositive bacteria16 and some Gram-negative organisms may also be affected.17 In
many countries, the protein has been used since the late 1950s to effectively control
spore-forming bacteria and prolong the shelf stability of processed dairy and canned
foods.1618 FDA has approved addition of a commercial nisin preparation, as an
antibotulinal agent, to processed cheese spreads in the United States.19 In addition
to food preservation, some interest has recently focused on nisin as a potential therapeutic agent to combat bovine mastitis.20"22
Microgard (Wesman Foods Inc., Beaverton, OR, U.S.A.) is a skim milk product
that has been fermented by a strain of Propionibacteriumfreudenreichii subsp. shermanii and then pasteurized. The preparation contains a small bacteriocin that inhibits
Gram-negative bacteria and fungi but not Gram-positive organisms.23'24'25 A 1%
solution of Microgard is widely used to preserve cottage cheese in the U.S.25 Further
characterization of this compound may identify additional applications for Microgard, such as the control of rind rot defect in Swiss cheese.26
Lactic bacteriocins with relatively narrow spectra of activity may also prove useful for food preservation. A number of these compounds have been identified within
members of the genus Lactobacillus14 which contains species important to both food
fermentation and spoilage.27 Bacteriocins inhibitory only to the lactobacilli may be
quite useful in high acid products where spoilage by these microorganisms is predominant. Biotechnological techniques such as protein engineering through sitedirected mutagenesis might also be utilized to alter and expand the specificity of
narrow spectrum bacteriocins.24
At present, most of the successful food preservation applications derived from
bacteriocins have relied on commercial preparations added directly to processed
foods. Analogous applications clearly exist, however, within fermented products if
the fermentative microorganisms possess the capability to synthesize the bacteriocin.
European investigators28 pioneered studies that demonstrated the efficacy of nisinproducing starter cultures to control clostridial blowing of rennet set Edam and
Emmental cheeses. Unfortunately, these studies also demonstrated that the nisinproducing culture inhibited the other starter cultures required to manufacture quality
cheese, and that nisin-producing strains of L. lactis subsp. lactis alone did not possess
all of the traits necessary to produce quality cheese.16-28 The discovery and development of gene transfer systems during the past 10 years now presents investigators
with the capability to overcome these problems and significantly expand the
applications for "built in" food preservation mechanisms. The methodology is now
available to custom engineer organisms for a particular fermentation that will produce bacteriocins known to combat the unique spoilage organisms associated with
that product. For this reason, bacteriocins produced by lactic organisms have remained a focal point of genetic studies.
Several laboratories have now cloned and sequenced genes associated with nisin
production.29"32 Genes that encode other lactic bacteriocins have been located on
plasmid or chromosomal DNA14 and a few have subsequently been cloned and
This collaborative work between research groups at Marschall Products (M. E. Sanders) and North Carolina State University (T. R. Klaenhammer) provided the key
success story to demonstrate the potential for genetic methods in starter culture
improvement programs.
More recently, Klaenhammer and Sing46 proposed an innovative strategy that
utilized rotation of different R/M and abortive phage defense mechanisms within a
single-strain starter system. This system not only thwarted proliferation of bacteriophage, but it also actually removed contaminating phage from the medium. Other
recent advancements designed to help combat phage infection are the use of antisense
mRNA technology,47 identification of external cellular components required for infection,48-49 and studies of bacteriophage gene expression.50"52 The cumulative
knowledge derived from genetics studies has now provided an optimistic outlook
toward stringent control of the bacteriophage problems that have dogged lactococcal
starter cultures for years.
Whereas effective mechanisms for the control of lactococcal phage problems
appear imminent, the opposite appears true of thermophilic cultures where increased
production of Italian cheeses has initiated problems similar to those observed in the
lactococci 40 years ago.53 If the Italian cheese industry is to avoid increased economic losses due to bacteriophage attack then it must support basic research required
to identify phage resistance mechanisms in thermolactic bacteria. This work has been
initiated in several laboratories and some progress has been achieved. Restriction
endonucleases have been isolated54'55 and a few reports have linked differences in
bacteriophage sensitivity to plasmid DNA in some of these organisms.56'57 Although
these are certainly positive developments, considerable work remains before a bacteriophage resistance system for thermolactic cultures may be developed. The need
for such systems, however, will grow because the demand for Italian cheeses continues to escalate and increased production will place even greater stress on thermolactic cultures to resist bacteriophage attack.
received considerable attention and a number of these enzyme systems have been
well characterized in lactic acid bacteria (for review see refs. 61, 62). Protein engineering of lactococcal proteases has also received attention, and proteinases with
altered specificities have been developed.63 Proteinase enzymes with altered specificity and activity may have future commercial applications that might include acceleration of cheese ripening.24
Other studies have examined lipase activity in both starter and nonstarter (i.e.,
part of the secondary microflora of cheese) Lactobacillus spp.64'65 and in Micrococcus spp.,66 an organism that also contributes to the nonstarter microflora. Interest
in secondary microflora has grown because investigators noted that during maturation the numbers of starter bacteria decline whereas those of nonstarter bacteria,
particularly lactobacilli, increase.3'67
Intensive genetics and microbiological studies continue to focus on the flavors
and enzyme systems involved in cheese maturation. Results from previous studies
have provided investigators with a number of potential strategies that may soon yield
the technology to accelerate the maturation process. A few of these strategies, notably
those that utilized enzyme preparations or Lactobacillus spp. adjuncts with the starter
blend, have demonstrated restricted success with accelerated cheese maturation (for
a review see ref. 68).
Another strategy toward accelerated cheese ripening was taken by Feirtag and
McKay,69-70 who employed thermolytic lactococcal strains as an enzyme delivery
system. Thermolytic strains lyse at cook temperatures of 39 to 400C, and thus deliver
intracellular cheese ripening enzymes to the curd. Studies of accelerated ripening
with these strains indicated that potential exists for this approach. Classic mutagenesis and molecular techniques might be used to expand the number of strains
that display the thermolytic response.
As these investigations continue, more effective technologies will likely emerge
that should eventually allow cheese manufacturers to cut expenditures associated
with cheese maturation. The knowledge gained from studies of flavor and texture
development will also benefit other applications such as the production of low-fat
dairy products described previously.
these reports have principally involved transfer of broad host range conjugative
plasmids that encode antibiotic resistance, rather than genes useful to industry, they
have demonstrated conjugal mechanisms for intergeneric transfer. These mechanisms have since been manipulated to transfer genes associated with nisin production
from Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis into Lactobacillus plantarum39 and Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus (Broadbent, Kondo, and Sandine; unpublished
data). The availability within food grade lactic acid bacteria of conjugative DNA
that encodes industrially significant traits, and the existence of mechanisms for interspecific and intergeneric transfer, indicate that conjugation remains a viable technique for the biotechnological improvement of lactic acid bacteria.
generation among lactic genera other than lactococci are required if protoplast fusion
is to approach the potential it offers for strain construction and improvement.
ciently transform cells is directly tied to the ease with which recombinant DNA
technology may be applied to a particular bacterium. Among the lactococci, studies
have demonstrated that very efficient transformation frequencies (up to 107 transformants/jjig of DNA) may be obtained if the thick Gram-positive cell wall is weakened prior to electroporation.114122 These results suggest that the lactococcal murein
layer may act as a barrier to DNA entry but it is unclear whether the same is true of
other lactic organisms. Wycoff et al.120 have obtained high-frequency electrotransformation (>10 6 transformants/|xg of DNA) with whole cells of Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris AA-A. Although significant progress has been realized
toward the development of very efficient electrotransformation procedures of lactic
acid bacteria, most notably among lactococci, transformation frequencies remain
orders of magnitude lower than the 1010 transformants/|xg of DNA reported for
electroporation of E. coli.123 Further investigation of the various parameters that
affect the efficiency of electrotransformation of lactic organisms may eventually
yield results comparable to those for E. coli.
Although most reports of high-efficiency electrotransformation in bacteria have
involved relatively small plasmids,120'122'123 the technique has also proven useful to
transform larger plasmid DNAs. Gillies and Kondo124 electrotransformed a Lac~
Pit" strain of L. lactis subsp. lactis, albeit at low frequency, with 55 kb lac and
43 kb prtA plasmids isolated from L. lactis subsp. lactis C2O. The relationship
between plasmid size and the efficiency of electroporation remains unclear. Some
reports have indicated that greater plasmid size adversely affected transformation
frequency,113116 whereas others have found no obvious relationship between size
and electrotransformation efficiency.114-125 Resolution of this question requires direct
comparison, as yet not performed, between the transformation frequency of plasmids
that contain the same origin, regulatory sequences, and markers, and that differ only
size.108
In conclusion, electroporation presents the most direct and efficient method for
the development of a genetic transformation protocol among lactic acid bacteria. The
technique offers significant advantages over previous methods and this feature, combined with the commercial availability of reliable instruments, have made electroporation the method of choice for the introduction of exogenous DNA into lactic
organisms. For more detailed discussions of the experimental parameters affect electrotransformation efficiency and cell recovery, or the events surrounding cell membrane breakdown, see refs. 104,108.
utilize host mechanisms for homologous DNA recombination to enter the chromosome. 137138 Raya et al., 139 however, have constructed an integration vector for
Lactobacillus gasseri which instead utilizes integration functions isolated from the
genome of a temperate bacteriophage. Although integration vectors are a relatively
new development in lactic acid bacteria, Leenhouts et al.143 have already demonstrated stabilization of proteinase genes in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis with one
of these vectors.
Information gleaned from the work outlined above has provided investigators
with a solid framework for gene cloning and expression in lactic acid bacteria. This
background information was also necessary for the development of successful food
grade gene delivery systems. In principle, food grade vectors are identical to their
laboratory counterparts. Because they may become distributed in foods, however,
safety concerns dictate that food grade vectors cannot employ antibiotic resistance
genes as selective markers because they may be transmitted inadvertently to other
microorganisms.144 Because of this concern, all of the potential food grade vectors
constructed to date have utilized selective markers isolated from food grade, generally regarded as safe (GRAS), bacteria. The lactic markers employed in these
vectors include genes for nisin resistance,145"147 P-galactosidase,148 or thymidylate
synthase.149 A number of other lactic genes, such as those that encode bacteriocin
production and immunity or the utilization of various carbohydrates, may also be
useful selective markers for food grade gene delivery systems.
Although reports that describe potential food grade vectors have emerged only
recently, it is probable that more sophisticated versions will follow quickly. Leenhouts et al.150 recently discussed a method to construct a potential food grade integration vector. Before any of these food grade vectors may be utilized to improve
bacteria utilized in food, however, the constructs will have to satisfy regulatory
concerns. At present no precedent for such a food application exists and the regulatory process will certainly affect the role of these vectors for biotechnology in
fermented foods.
Among the criteria used by FDA to evaluate the potential safety of these products
is the relative safety of the producer organism.152153 At present, most of these biological compounds are obtained from species of microorganisms that are not GRAS.
It is the burden of the petitioner to verify that the product in question does not contain
any deleterious impurities,152 and one method to simplify this requirement may be
to utilize GRAS microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria to synthesize these
proteins.
European laboratories have led the investigations of heterologous gene expression
and development of secretion vectors required for success. 129135154 The results obtained with these hostvector systems have been encouraging; expression of several
heterologous proteins, which include bovine chymosin,154 hen egg white Iysozyme,135 and the Bacillus subtilus neutral protease155 has been obtained in lactococci.
Among other lactic acid bacteria, expression of the a-amylase enzyme of Bacillus
lichenformis and a Streptomyces cholesterol oxidase have been reported in Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus.129'156
As the food industry grows to embrace biotechnology, more genetically engineered products will be developed and utilized. Logic indicates that the potential
health risks associated with these products may be diminished if they are produced
by safe, food grade microorganisms. The suitability of lactic acid bacteria as hosts
for the manufacture of heterologous proteins has been demonstrated and should
stimulate industrial pursuit of this application.
FDA, however, organisms or products derived from biotechnology for dairy foods
applications presently require approval from FDA.
Although FDA issued a policy statement for regulation of biotechnology products
in 1986,159 important questions exist with regard to how the agency will view genetically altered microorganisms in human food. For example, would a recombinant
DNA molecule derived entirely from the DNA of GRAS organisms, and subsequently transformed into another GRAS bacteria, yield an organism that would require approval as a food additive? What about transformation of a native plasmid
isolated from one GRAS bacteria into another? In the latter situation, would approval
require, as dictated for recombinant molecules, that the entire DNA sequence of the
plasmid be provided to FDA? How will FDA view intraspecific versus interspecific
and intergeneric constructs, achieved by duplicate technology, of GRAS microorganisms? At present, FDA policy toward biotechnology has focused on a case by
case basis for review and approval.159 Biotechnology is an expensive process, however, and until these issues are clarified and a firm prospect for regulatory approval
of genetically altered microorganisms exists, it is unlikely that the dairy industry
will embrace this new science. Unfortunately, events in recent years have lent little
form to the FDA position toward the use of genetically engineered microbes in
human food.
Further insight into the FDA position may be available from proposed USDA
guidelines that pertain to the release of genetically altered organisms into the environment.160 The validity of such an inference is based on BSCC actions,157 whose
mission has been to ensure consistent and coordinate biotechnology regulations
among federal agencies, and because altered microorganisms in food will likely
become distributed into the environment. Among other things, the USDA document
specifically proposes to exclude from regulation microorganisms modified solely by
movement of nucleic acids, if they have not first been manipulated in vitro, through
physiological processes such as conjugation, transduction, and transformation.
Whereas transduction and conjugation are documented physiological processes
among lactic acid bacteria,38 natural transformation systems in these organisms have
not been identified. As discussed previously, the latter form of gene transfer is today
usually achieved by electroporation, a technique based on physical phenomena rather
than natural physiology. The conclusions drawn from this inference are that the FDA
position toward the safety of organisms that are genetically altered by physiological
processes will likely be determined by the status of the parental organisms. The
agencies opinion of bacteria improved by transformation, however, remains unknown, even if recombinant DNA molecules have not been employed in the construct. The latter condition provides an important distinction because two situations
may be envisioned with regard to the safety review of lactic organisms genetically
altered by transformation. The first involves transformation into one GRAS organism
of whole, unaltered native plasmids isolated from another GRAS bacteria, whereas
the second applies to recombinant DNA molecules.
One of the most significant discoveries to emerge from studies of lactic acid
bacteria, particularly lactococci, has been that many important traits for milk fermentations are encoded by plasmid DNA141 If some of these plasmids were trans-
formed into industrial strains, they would probably contribute an immediate refinement to the fermentation. The interests of the dairy industry would certainly be
served if the question of how intraspecific and intergeneric constructs of transformed
GRAS bacteria, which employed whole, unaltered plasmids from other GRAS bacteria, will be addressed by FDA. These answers may require the dairy or culture
industry to submit test cases to FDA, the expense of which cannot be foreseen.
The criteria for FDA review of organisms obtained through the use of recombinant DNA has been established.159 It remains unclear, however, whether the agency
would consider a transformed GRAS organism, which contained a recombinant
DNA molecule derived entirely from other GRAS bacteria, as GRAS or as a food
additive. FDA has clearly indicated that the latter situation is possible but has stated
it will review petitions case by case.159 Food additive approval requires considerable
time and expense, features that industry chooses to avoid whenever possible. Furthermore, petitions for GRAS affirmation of new products and organisms require
the same scientific data as those for food additives plus documentation of literature
that supports GRAS designation.153 Thus, GRAS affirmation may be even more
laborious to a company than approval as an additive. Because of the potential expense, clarification of the FDA position is critical if biotechnology is to be accepted
by the dairy industry. Resolution of this issue will require action by the dairy fermentation industry, either through dialogue or submission of test cases. Even greater
confusion surrounds the status of hybrid microorganisms that might be obtained by
protoplast fusion technology. It appears that at present these organisms, because they
may involve substantial yet poorly defined DNA recombination, would receive
added scrutiny during review and are the most probable constructs to receive food
additive status.
In an effort to resolve some of these issues and to address the use of biotechnology
in human food, an expert panel, The International Food Biotechnology Council, was
formed in 1988. Last year the IFBC proposed a series of criteria and procedures that
they felt would assist regulatory evaluation and safety determination of biotechnology products.161 When evaluating the safety of whole foods produced from microorganisms, the IFBC recommended that regulatory agencies first consider the genetic
origins of all nucleic acids used for the construct. This would be followed by evaluation of whether the construct resulted in new food constituents, and finally,
whether the new product would alter the intake levels of food constituents among
consumers. If FDA employs these recommendations, then cultures that are constructed entirely from GRAS microbes and DNA, regardless of the technology employed in the construct, would quite possibly retain GRAS status. In summation,
although progress has been achieved further action is required of both dairy foods
producers and FDA to clarify impressions regarding the safety of genetically altered
microorganisms in fermented foods.
Although clear guidelines based on scientific fact will serve to promote the application of biotechnology in the dairy foods industry, the success of these products
will also rely heavily on public knowledge of biotechnology. As discussed recently
by Harlander,151- 162 consumer perceptions and fears toward food biotechnology
cannot be trivialized or ignored if the technology is to succeed. A good example of
the dangers that face new developments in biotechnology is offered by the global
controversy that has surrounded the proposed use of recombinant DNA-derived bovine somatotropin (r-bST) to increase milk production in dairy cattle.163"165 Although FDA concluded several years ago that milk obtained from cattle treated with
this hormone was safe for human consumption, and use of r-bST will likely be
approved by FDA,165 negative consumer perceptions could determine the eventual
success of this biotechnological development.164-165 Further obstacles to the application of biotechnology may result from state or local regulations. Legislation at this
level is far more susceptible to amendments that address public concerns which lack
scientific basis than is federal law.
In summary, biotechnology holds great potential to improve and expand our supply of fermented dairy foods. If this potential is to be realized, however, both industry
and consumers must accept the new science. Acceptance of biotechnology among
the dairy fermentation industry may be accelerated by clarification of the FDA perspective toward the use of genetically altered microorganisms in foods. Acceptance
among the general public will require education and dialogue. Harlander162 has provided an excellent outline designed to meet the challenges posed by public misconceptions of biotechnology. If these challenges are met, the dairy industry could
experience an unprecedented revolution in product quality, variety, and supply all
as a consequence of biotechnology.
2.5 Summary
With the arrival of biotechnology to the dairy lactic acid bacteria 20 years ago, the
dairy fermentation industry entered a revolution that has since provided modern
investigators with unprecedented power to ensure the success of dairy fermentations.
Within this short period, important biochemical pathways have been elucidated; gene
transfer and delivery systems were discovered and refined; gene expression and
secretion signals were identified; and a large number of important genes were located, isolated, and examined at the DNA sequence level.144 Although most of these
studies initially focused on lactococci, work has now expanded to include all dairy
lactic acid bacteria and other important genera such as Propionibacteriwn spp. and
Bifidobacterium spp. As this research continues, the dairy fermentation industry will
rise to a new era which should witness the evolution of new products and technologies designed to ease the economic pressure upon manufacturers and provide safe,
delicious, and healthy dairy products to consumers.
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CHAPTER
3
Computer Applications:
Expert Systems
Robert L Olsen
3.1 Introduction, 106
3.1.1 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 106
3.1.2 Relationship to Traditional Programming, 108
3.2 Knowledge-Based Architecture, 109
3.2.1 Knowledge Representation, 109
3.2.2 Searching and Inference Strategies, 113
3.2.3 Uncertainty, 116
3.3 Building Expert Systems, 117
3.3.1 Feasibility, 117
3.3.2 Knowledge Acquisition, 118
3.3.3 Tool Selection, 120
3.4 Expert Systems and Process Control, 121
3.4.1 Preexpert System Developments, 121
3.4.2 Expert System Applications, 123
3.4.3 Knowledge Representation in Process Control, 126
3.4.4 Commercial Examples, 127
3.5 Business and Manufacturing Operations, 128
3.5.1 Physical Goods Management, 128
3.5.2 Time Management: Planning and Scheduling, 130
3.5.3 Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 132
3.6 Quality Management Applications, 138
3.6.1 Quality Control Programs, 138
3.6.2 Laboratory Systems, 140
3.6.3 Quality Defect Analysis, 142
3.7 Strategic Operations, 143
3.7.1 Simulation, 143
3.7.2 Research and Development, 146
3.7.3 Training, 149
3.8 Future Trends, 150
3.9 References, 151
3.1 Introduction
This chapter explains what expert systems are, how they work, and their strengths
and limitations. Expert systems have four major applications. The first is for intelligent process monitoring and control. This involves managing a real-time system
by interpreting incoming data and taking suitable actions. A real-time system refers
to a computer system that can respond to incoming data fast enough to continue the
process at the desired speed. The second application is diagnosis or troubleshooting.
The main task of a diagnostic system is to locate the cause of an observed defect.
This type of expert system application has been most widely used. The third application is instruction or learning. In the area of computer-assisted instruction, expert
systems can be used as intelligent tutors. The fourth application is design and configuration. This involves constructing a solution from a set of components given a
set of constraints. Complete computer systems are configured or assembled according to a customer's requirements using an expert system. Sections 3.4 through 3.8
describe applications of these areas in the food industry. However, the sections are
organized according to subject areas and not according to the above categories. Dairy
processing will be emphasized where possible. Because expert systems are often
added to existing traditional computer systems, descriptions of those traditional areas
will be included.
One of the earliest expert systems was developed in the 1960s by research workers
at Stanford University. They were asked by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration to construct a computer program to help analyze the soil chemistry
on Mars using a mass spectrometer. In order to analyze the spectra, the expertise of
a soil chemist had to be encoded into the program. Although the system turned out
to be too large for the spacecraft, it led to the development of the successful DENDRAL expert system. Significant features of DENDRAL distinguishing it from previous expert system attempts were its highly specific rules and narrow area of expertise. Another widely known expert system developed at Stanford is MYCIN.
MYCIN can diagnose bacterial infections and prescribe treatments for them. Current
applications of expert systems span a wide array of subjects. They include topics as
diverse as optical fiber cable design, container loading, preventive maintenance of
diesel engines, control of a cement kiln, machine operation planning, airline scheduling, forest fire prevention, analysis of computer systems performances, DNA restriction mapping, and legal advisement. Major fields of business, science, education,
medicine, and agriculture all have had many workers developing and evaluating
expert systems.
The discovery that earlier general purpose reasoning programs were limited led
to the development and success of these narrowly focused expert systems. Once
closely constrained, practical problems were solved with success, it became apparent
that basic knowledge representation and reasoning techniques could be useful in
solving commercial problems.
Some critics have suggested that the term ''expert systems" is limiting because
the same general methods can be used to create intelligent behavior without the
human expert. These same critics argue that generally available knowledge or information, rather than expert knowledge, can be accessed and manipulated, and made
more useful through the inference process. To accommodate this attitude, the term
"knowledge-based systems" has been proposed and is often observed in the literature. For the sake of consistency the term "expert system" will be used in this text.
The development of expert systems has enriched traditional programming. Expert
system procedures are embedded in programs such as symbolic compilers, multiwindow high-resolution displays, and object-oriented software. Expert systems use
symbolic data rather than numeric data. Symbols can take the form of characters or
digits. Numeric and symbolic processing programs both use symbols, but conventional computer programs use numeric or computational operations. Expert system
programs differ from conventional programs in that they understand relationships
between symbols. Databases and word processors appear to be symbolic on the
surface, but manipulation of all data is numeric. Although expert system programs
use symbols that are numbers according to ASCII code, expert system programs
involve symbolic concepts and interconnected symbols at a higher level. Conventional programs are more rigidly designed. With an expert system language or tool,
the information-containing portions of the program are kept apart from the inference
mechanism. This allows portions of the program to be changed without affecting the
whole program. In addition, relationships can be derived that might exist but that
are not apparent from examining data by usual means. Programs often reveal relationships unrecognized by human experts.
Adaptive expert systems can exchange operations in response to past experiences.
In the case of adaptive expert systems, the logic techniques are similar to a mechanical clock in which the hands are continually adjusted until they finally arrive at the
right time. Adaptive or self-learning systems derive rules from experience. They
start with blank rules and guess answers for given input. Rules are modified depending on whether they are wrong or right.
THEN
(set of conditions)
= conclusion
Agitator
Boiler
Steam
Pasteurizer
Sanitary
MtIk Tank
Company
Milk Silo
Temperature
Gauge
Processing
Vat
Blue Moon
Dairy
The conclusion is reached only if the premise is true. With rule-based programs a
rule interpreter uses a pattern matching procedure to see if the IF conditions in the
rules match up with information in the knowledge base. Rules are modular and
independent in nature. They contain many possible paths to other procedures. To
outline all of the possible pathways showing the relationships between various rules
would be difficult using conventional programming. Conventional programs are so
structured as to be difficult to change.
Several problems exist with rules. Rules may lack variation and are unstructured.
They can be difficult to use successfully in representing cause-and-effect knowledge
because too many rules and too much effort are required to get all effects of the
causal model. Large numbers of rules are difficult to manage. Although rules are
considered to be independent, it is true mainly in the sense that they are unsequenced.
However, when they are written, the expert is often thinking of them in terms of
other rules. This may create unnoticed relationships. A new rule can violate a previously established relationship, resulting in a nonsense inference.
Frames are templates or patterns for clusters of related knowledge. Related items
of knowledge are grouped together. Frames package both data and procedures into
knowledge structures. A typical frame is made of a name, parents of the frame, slots
and their values, and attached predicates. A generic representation and an applied
example of frames are shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3. Frames contain slots that can
be filled with values. Fields in a database can contain data, attributes, and descriptions. Slots in frames contain these and also additional information such as rules,
hypotheses about a situation, questions to ask users, graphical information, explanatory information, and debugging information.
An inheritance method helps organize the frames into parent-child relationships.
Frames are related through hierarchies. A frame for 2% milk can inherit knowledge
from a parent frame for raw whole milk. Lower frames inherit the knowledge from
Frame:
Parent:
Value:
Slot:
If needed:
Predicate
or
If added:
Predicate
Value: 2%
Slot:
Protein
Slot:
Value: 3.4%
Value: 100 cfu/ml
if needed:
Predicate
If added:
Predicate
Codes:
JJudge
T - Technician
Preparation Counter
Sink
Refrigerator
Booths
Samples
Scorecards
Water
Entry Condition
Results
J: Invited
J: Has Time
J: Wants Compensation
J: Is Compensated
T: Has Data
T: Has Fewer Samples
Event
Event
Event
Event
1
2
3
4
Enter Panel
Read Instructions
Taste Sample
Mark Card
domain of a dairy processing plant, different sets of objects can be used. The objects
involved in cheese quality control would be different than the objects dealing with
waste disposal, energy utilization, inventory control, or patron incentive programs.
As it becomes apparent that some object sets overlap with others it is necessary to
define the objects and their interactions.
An interesting feature of objects is that their relevant properties differ depending
on the existing conditions. The pertinent properties of milkfat in premium ice cream
are different from those of unwanted milkfat residues in milk lines. Also, basic
objects can be modified according to current interests. A generic object for frozen
dessert can be modified for reduced fat, alternative bulking agents, or other novel
ingredients. An object-oriented taste panel is shown in Figure 3.5.
Because of their similarities, the trend has been for object-oriented and framebased systems to combine their strengths into one structure.
Mike
Technician
(send
message)
Need
Sample
(send
message)
Read
Instructions
(send
message)
Bring
Sample
(send
message)
Finished
Judge
Judge
Ellen
(send
message)
Compensation
Technician
Technician
Joan
Cashier
Ron
Cashier
Figure 3.5 An object-oriented taste panel session.
reach a conclusion and make a recommendation. The pathway the inference engine
will follow is not known in advance. It depends on the response given back to the
questions the computer generates.
A series of rules can join together to form a line of reasoning. Graphically, this
can have the appearance of a network structure or a tree. The line of reasoning leads
to a goal or a fact. Viewing problems in a network array or decision tree is useful
because of the complexity of many problems. It helps to illustrate the problem
clearly. It soon becomes apparent that there is more than one pathway to the goal.
All possible lines of reasoning are called a network. Networks are observed in many
situations. An example would be a dairy delivery route (Fig. 3.6). A delivery network
would connect various stores and warehouses around a city and neighboring communities. The connections can vary just as the connection for a network or a rule
tree seem to vary.
In designing the inference strategy, two main approaches could be taken: forward
chaining and backward chaining. A forward chaining strategy starts at the plant and
continues until the last destination is reached. If the line of reasoning begins at the
last delivery point and works backwards toward the starting point, it is called backward chaining. Forward chaining or goal-oriented reasoning is carried forward from
available facts. It is expected that the deduction of new facts will eventually lead to
Fred's Market
Highland
Elementary
Ella's Delicatessen
Sandy's Daycare
Savemore Foods
University Hospital
Figure 3.6 Components of a dairy delivery route.
the goal. The inference engine cycles through rules until one is found whose premise
matches a true fact. Forward rules try to prove goals in their premise.
IF cheesemaker needs flake salt (goal)
THEN receiving buys flake salt (if successful adds this to fact base)
If no direction or a very general goal is provided in forward chaining, poor efficiency
is observed. An advantage of forward chaining is that goals can be generated as
conclusions are found. Forward chaining is also advantageous where the system has
to interpret a set of incoming facts. Often the facts are supplied interactively by the
user.
Backward rules try to prove goals in their conclusion.
receiving buys flake salt (begins with goal)
IF cheesemaker needs flake salt (tries to provebecomes another goal)
Backward chaining takes a goal as a hypothesis and tries to prove subgoals by
working backward from the goal. Each subgoal becomes a hypothesis during the
reasoning process. The THEN or ELSE part of the IF/THEN statement of the rule
is checked first to see if it matches the desired goal. The premise of the rule is then
examined to see if its truth can be deduced from the knowledge base. Backward
chaining helps to solve diagnostic problems in which the conclusion is known and
the causes sought.
Suppose the objective is to efficiently find a route from University Hospital to
Sandy's Daycare (Fig. 3.6). One could either work forward from University Hospital
or work backward from Sandy's Playhouse. Using forward chaining there is only
one path from University Hospital to Sandy's Daycare. With backward chaining,
there are several paths originating from Sandy's Daycare. Because these other paths
do not lead to University Hospital it makes no sense to pursue them unnecessarily.
Consider a second route going from Fred's Market to Highland Elementary. Departing from Fred's Market in a forward direction can result in a useless sidetrack
down to University Hospital. Working backward from Highland Elementary will
result in fewer distractions. From Sandy's Daycare, if Savemore Foods and Ella's
Delicatessen are examined, they will be found incorrect and routes beyond them will
not be pursued.
The decision of which pathway and strategy to follow depends on the connections,
destination, origin, and all the constraining factors. In the delivery example, a number
of route patterns or networks can be constructed. Constraining factors include speed
limits, one-way streets, preferred delivery times, size of delivery, changing customer
base, other stops, traffic conditions, size of truck, size of load, and distance. The
inference engine decides which pathway is best by deciding which is shortest, most
efficient, and most accurate.
3.2.3 Uncertainty
An expert system that mimics human intelligence in real-world situations must be
able to deal with uncertainty. Information that is incomplete leads to uncertainty.
Although knowledge can be improved and made complete, much knowledge is inherently imprecise.
Areas such as the medical, biological, and agricultural fields suffer from having
too little data and too much imperfect knowledge. Rigorous probability principles
no longer apply. Because a valid statistical record of data is required to utilize probability theory, alternatives need to be considered. These include certainty theory and
fuzzy logic.
With certainty theory inexactness is represented as a confidence factor between
0 and 100. The use of these values to indicate partial truth is known as fuzzy logic.
Often the value has to be estimated. Consideration of the context of the relationship
is important. Old as it relates to Cheddar cheese is much different compared with
old relative to Cottage cheese. Also, the relationship between sharp flavor and age
is arbitrary. Although 6 months or perhaps 9 months is defined as the age for a sharp
cheese, samples will vary considerably. Because judges' opinions may differ and
may change, it is necessary to allow for uncertain decisions. Uncertainty values are
determined for specific events and then combined to arrive at an uncertainty value
for compound or complex events. Once a statement is assigned a confidence level
there are more precise ways of combining and weighing statements that have differing confidence levels.
One method of combining uncertainty is to use Bayes's Theorem. Although not
valid as a statistical probability approach to this application, the theorem is useful
to simply combine inexact values. The likelihood of one hypothesis over another
can be based on the strength of the given evidences using Bayes's Theorem. The
formula is given as follows:
LR(H:E) = P(E:H)/P(E:H')
where LR is the likelihood ratio, H is a particular hypothesis, E is the evidence or
event, and H' is the false hypothesis. Stated in words, the probability or likelihood
of the hypothesis given an event is equal to the probability of the event given the
hypothesis is true, divided by the probability of the event given the hypothesis is
false. For example, the probability of developing high-moisture cheese (hypotheses),
knowing the starter culture is slow developing acid (event), can be calculated if the
probabilities of the event, given the true and false hypotheses, are known. The false
hypothesis is that the cheese is not high in moisture.
The theory behind the statistics used in decision-making with expert systems has
been widely discussed. Because no rigorous theory has been developed in AI for
decision-making, expert system decision procedures are often merely a combination
of logical inference and probability theory. Techniques used to deal with uncertainty
in expert systems have not yet employed the most satisfactory statistical methods.4
However, AI is increasingly turning to statisticians in seeking solutions to problems
in uncertainty.
Widespread adoption of the technology was slow because of concern over massive problems due to a single computer failure. By taking advantage of PLCs in
distributing computing over a wider area, concerns over large-scale failures were
alleviated.
Digital-controlled systems are widely used control mechanisms in use today.
Once computer-based control systems are interfaced with sensors, valves, and
switches, the measurement devices can provide input for the computer while signals
from the computer provide input for the control device. A key feature in this system
is the ease with which process changes can be made by reprogramming the computer.
Computer-based process control begins with the monitoring and control of unit
operations. These include blending, pumping, heating, and storage operations as well
as clean-in-place (CIP) operations.
Blending or formulation can be considered as a unit operation. For instance,
computers can be used in standardizing cheese milk to give the correct casein/fat
ratio. Yield prediction formulas can be used in the calculations. The 44ASEA Master
Batch" control system for process control in ice cream manufacturing uses programs
comprised of modules from an integrated software library.6 Batch movement and
formulation are fully automated. Quantities of raw materials and finished product
are tracked and reported.
Blending operations using least cost formulation and computer-aided optimization
are well established in the food industry. Blending operations must also consider
legal and sensory requirements.
Metering of milk and other ingredients is often computer controlled. The casein/
fat ratio for cheesemilk can be determined on-line using an infrared multicomponent
analyzer. The speed of the :ream meter is adjusted as needed. Pumping systems have
been designed to avoid problems associated with centrifugal pump cavitation. The
systems include a PLC, a sound sensor, and a variable speed drive at the pump
motor. The sensor can detect preliminary cavitation impulses, signaling the variable
speed drive to adjust the pump's revolutions.7
During pasteurization, a computer can monitor all of the parameters of the process. These include temperatures, valve positions, liquid levels, and feed rates. Some
control systems are limited to data acquisition without real-time control ability. In
these cases, process control adjustments are still dependent on the operator. A retort
management system has been developed (TechniCAL, Inc., Metairie, LA, U.S.A.)
that provides temperature and pressure control. The system monitors these signals
along with all facets of retorting including cooking, venting, and cooling. If a temperature deviation occurs, the system automatically recalculates a new process time
and makes all necessary adjustments. USDA and FDA officials were involved in
developing and implementing the system to ensure regulatory compliance.
Controllers and recording devices for dairy pasteurizers must also meet federal
and state health codes. Instrumentation for these applications includes differential
pressure controller and single- and dual-point diversion recorder/controllers. The
pressure controllers measure and indicate pressures at the raw product inlet of a hightemperature-short time (HTST) pasteurizing regenerator. The diversion recorder/
controllers specify control temperature levels.
Liquid levels in tanks can be monitored simultaneously. The data can be used in
production tracking and inventory control. Enclosed cheese vats are well suited for
automated control. Ingredient addition, temperature control, cutting, stirring, draining, and washing are commonly computer controlled.
CIP systems have long been established as major computer process control systems in the dairy industry. Recent developments include computer-controlled detergent dosing systems, environmentally friendly CIP systems, automatic analyzers,
and CIP data logging systems.
Some difficulties encountered in automation and computer utilization in the food
industry are a lack of suitable sensors, low profit margins, use of batch/continuous
operations, and the installation of equipment that is not integrated into the whole
process.
Beyond unit operations, these systems currently can supply data to a higher level
host computer for further data manipulation. Devices can be mixed and matched and
integrated into plantwide control schemes. The use of single loop controllers involves
only configuration without dedicated software.
Configurable software is used to sequence control systems so that the process
operates as a sequential series of linked operations that can operate independently
of each other (fill tank, empty tank, sterilize, etc.) but are still related in terms of
order and integrity to process operation. To design suitable control systems around
these concepts, all tasks must be uniquely defined and self contained and the plant
must be divided into areas of unit operations. The distributed operator interface can
then use a single coaxial cable to connect modules rather than thousands of strands
of wire.
For example, consider diverse processes such as manufacturing regular, flavored,
and evaporated milk; storing products; and cleaning. The status of the process is
shown by means of matrices at the operator station. Some of the linked computers
control manufacturing while another acts as a management computer. With a computerized control system, the desired functions can be monitored and the system
programmed for the next product. Computers can chart equipment conditions and
locate developing problems at any point in a process. Products such as the System
30 (APV Crepaco, Inc., Chicago, IL, U.S.A.) are useful for small plants yet allow
for expansion to scan and control thousands of sensors and actuators and combine
with many different users. Features of the System 30 include the ability to network
with other systems; to communicate with a wide range of protocols including intelligent sensors, bar code readers, PLCs, and PC software packages; and to provide
fault-tolerant operation.
system. Process control software is able to monitor many operating, trend, and alarm
parameters. Networked with a host computer to make process information available
to appropriate personnel, the necessary information system is in place to permit online, expert-system applications.
Placing microcomputers in plants for local solutions is useful. However, production operations require changes in programs and few qualified technicians are available to make changes when problems occur. Documentation is often incomplete.
Expert systems can be used to take the place of experts or qualified technicians.
Three types of expert systems used in process control are self-tuning controllers,
control system configurations, and fault analyzers.
Self-tuning controllers automatically change controller settings based on control
loop performance. Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) refers to a three-mode algorithm for this type of controller. PID controllers use either pattern-recognition or
frequency filters. With pattern-recognition, responses are characterized for overshoot, damping, and period, and corrective adjustments are made. Frequency filtering
achieves control by forcing the outputs of two filters to conform to a given ratio.
Using pattern recognition, a controller can identify a disturbance response in the
loop-error signal. When the loop error exceeds a specified threshold level, it is tested
against a series of rules. The information obtained is used for a tuning calculation.
Another type of self-tuning controller is model based. These controllers are adjusted
according to the difference between the process response and a model used for
comparison.
Control system configurators are used to connect components together to form a
control system. With many controlling devices interacting, the optimal configuration
becomes important. Expert systems are able to select optimum configurations for
control systems. The user can enter known operating conditions and process parameters and the program will select the configuration that best satisfies the requirements.
Expert systems can provide steps on configuration of the system. Connecting
many I/O points with accompanying information can be accomplished more easily.
The system can be regularly checked for accuracy with on-line help provided as
required. Expert system configurators can simulate data in order to test a system
prior to actual operation. Therefore, errors in control or other functions can be observed and corrected.
Fault analyzers diagnose problems as they arise and provide corrective instructions to operators. In serious failure conditions an expert operator may not be available or may have insufficient time to respond. An expert system can be used to
interpret a series or pattern of alarms quickly, resulting in a description of the fault
and a recommendation for corrective action.
On observing an out-of-control situation, an operator must determine the cause
of the situation and the best solution. The knowledge of how one or more experts
would respond could be obtained from a properly designed expert system. The
knowledge base can be continually updated by human experience and by information
the computer gains as failures occur. Several advantages the expert system has are
the depth of experience coming from several human experts and the much larger
amount of data and factors an expert system can assimilate that is available to the
user.
Personal computer (PC)-based systems can be networked to provide performance
levels equivalent to much larger machines. Coprocessors are additional processors
used to speed up operations by handling some of the duties of the main processor
or CPU. Coprocessor technology in the PC allows the accessing of real-time information. PLCs can transfer data directly into a monitoring PC, which can run an
expert system based on those data.
A user can define conditions or rules that are continuously checked. If conditions
are found to be true, certain functions are performed. For example, a cluster of valves
may be checked to see if all are closed. If all valves are closed, the status of the
calculated point is false. If a valve is open, the status is true. Another rule sends a
start command to the pump if a valve is open or a stop command if all valves are
closed. This rule based arrangement, sometimes referred to as an event processor,
allows maximum flexibility in developing control strategies.
The processing capability of computer-based controllers can be increased with
the integration of expert systems. Expert systems can provide an intelligent interface
to the controlling device or sensor. Many process variables can be examined and
assimilated. However, integration of expert systems with a process control system
is complicated by the real-time interaction requirements. Not all tools are useful for
this purpose, and the language constructs become critical. For these reasons incorporation of expert systems into on-line process control has been slow to develop.
Some of the problems associated with expert system integration have been addressed
by workers at Honeywell, Inc. resulting in their expert systems development and
delivery environment called TDC 3000 Expert.
The development of many successful expert systems has centered mainly around
small-scale prototypes. Some of the requirements may differ with medium and largescale systems. In the larger systems, integration with the existing data structures is
required. To build intelligent applications of scheduling, simulation, supervision,
and statistical process control, integration of management information systems and
database technology with expert systems methodology is critical.
To successfully integrate expert systems into a process control environment, the
expert system must access the real-time manufacturing data and communicate with
the human operator. The inference engine instructs the data accessor. Because a
large number of variables are probably being referenced, and data points are changing often, access needs to be timely. Otherwise the data collection can interfere with
the reasoning process and reduce the pertinence of the system's advice. The inference
engine keeps track of what data are needed and then instructs its acquisition while
the knowledge base is inactive. In providing information to the operator, the expert
system must prioritize results as to their importance. Specific declarative and procedural mechanisms allow the expert system to reason about how intelligent it can
afford to be and still provide a timely response. Language constructs need to support
change and trends. Procedural representation should be avoided.
For a knowledge base, input is needed from expert and process engineers about
normal plant behavior as well as problem situations. What constitutes a problem
depends on the state of the process. For example, what constitutes high pressure
during the cheesemaking set is different than high pressure during stirout of the curd.
A slight problem with temperature control adjustment on an enclosed cheese vat
may be less critical than an out-of-position discharge valve.
ance messages, which the operator already knows, must be eliminated. The operator
needs time to observe, comprehend, and act. The operator needs to access process
data in the knowledge base using terminology with which process engineers are
familiar.
Reference needs to be made to trends in process data over various time intervals.
Trend intervals and statistics can be predetermined and precomputed into the system.
Historical buffers of raw data can be maintained and made available for the engineer's questions.
Ways to interact with an operator in real-time application need to be provided.
Occasionally, the system cannot get information from the data and needs to query
the operator. However, an operator may not be there, and the system cannot stop. A
special class of query objects can be treated for which instances are declared. An
instance can be when an answer attribute is needed to evaluate the expression, the
latest answer is unknown, and the corresponding question is not displayed. The
evaluation then causes the text of the question to get delivered to the operator's
console.
The main decision is to determine what kind of explanation capability should be
provided and what information operators will find useful. The expert system could
explain why the problem exists, how to perform the recommended action or how to
obtain the information needed, why the action should be performed and how it will
help, and how the conclusion was determined or the line of reasoning.
Next Page
sories. These can act as guides before operating boundaries are breached. Problems
with using expert systems for real-time control include separation from the process
control system, extensive interface hardware, and complex program creations. EXPERT 90 has addressed these by embedding the expert system within the Process
Management System. This allows easier exchange of data between the expert system
and the control system. EXPERT 90 also provides a distributed architecture facility
and a modular system building approach.
Although not an expert system itself, the Lynx-OS (Lynx Real-time Systems,
Inc., Los Gatos, CA, U.S.A.) is a real-time operating system specifically designed
for process control, data acquisition, and communication. Lynx-OS is multitasking,
allowing users to run several control applications, expert systems, program development jobs, and maintenance tasks concurrently. It accommodates an expert system
in a real-time environment by preempting it with a higher priority control task whenever necessary. In the food industry it has been successfully used to standardize and
optimize beverage extract quality.
A process control system with expert system features has been incorporated into
a sugar refining operation (System 3, Rosemount, Inc., Eden Prairie, MN, U.S.A.).
Referred to as a distributed process control system. System 3 offers diagnostic features and allows in-house installation and configuration. The step of sugar boiling
requires highly skilled and experienced operators. The program for the operational
sequence of the vacuum pans is based on a flow chart constructed from the knowledge and experience of the expert operators. One of the results was a reduction in
processing time. An expert system is being developed to measure mixture consistency (OpCon, Eaton Corp., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A.). Torques on mixing shafts are
measured. These values can be combined with other process information such as
temperature, pH, moisture, and color.
Previous Page
sories. These can act as guides before operating boundaries are breached. Problems
with using expert systems for real-time control include separation from the process
control system, extensive interface hardware, and complex program creations. EXPERT 90 has addressed these by embedding the expert system within the Process
Management System. This allows easier exchange of data between the expert system
and the control system. EXPERT 90 also provides a distributed architecture facility
and a modular system building approach.
Although not an expert system itself, the Lynx-OS (Lynx Real-time Systems,
Inc., Los Gatos, CA, U.S.A.) is a real-time operating system specifically designed
for process control, data acquisition, and communication. Lynx-OS is multitasking,
allowing users to run several control applications, expert systems, program development jobs, and maintenance tasks concurrently. It accommodates an expert system
in a real-time environment by preempting it with a higher priority control task whenever necessary. In the food industry it has been successfully used to standardize and
optimize beverage extract quality.
A process control system with expert system features has been incorporated into
a sugar refining operation (System 3, Rosemount, Inc., Eden Prairie, MN, U.S.A.).
Referred to as a distributed process control system. System 3 offers diagnostic features and allows in-house installation and configuration. The step of sugar boiling
requires highly skilled and experienced operators. The program for the operational
sequence of the vacuum pans is based on a flow chart constructed from the knowledge and experience of the expert operators. One of the results was a reduction in
processing time. An expert system is being developed to measure mixture consistency (OpCon, Eaton Corp., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A.). Torques on mixing shafts are
measured. These values can be combined with other process information such as
temperature, pH, moisture, and color.
position of goods using computerized databases. Whether dealing with raw materials
or finished products many of the techniques are the same. Both deal with handling
and delivering items to a customer, one being internal and the other external. Materials handling systems control raw material storage, conveyance, and batch blending of dry and liquid products. Material consumption and inventory is automatically
monitored and logged. Integration of this information with other areas of the manufacturing operation is a basic part of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM).
Automatic storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) have enabled companies to reduce
labor costs and product damage. More efficient structures and energy saving designs
can be achieved using AS/RS. Once an automated system is in place, computer
integration and intelligent control can be incorporated.
Computerized delivery and distribution systems are widely used. Sales and order
information from remote locations can be logged via a modem to the central office
on a daily basis. This information can be useful in timely production planning and
scheduling. Raw material demands can be more accurately predicted. The systems can coordinate the information for delivery documents and vehicle loading
information.
Computer Aided Production Management (CAPM) is a subset of CIM dealing
mainly with information management. The software for CAPM is modular with each
module representing a different area of production. The central module is a single
database of information on materials, production machines, operations, and routings.
Another database module manages the inventory. This information includes raw
materials, partially completed products, and finished goods. Current information on
labor is also included. Another module deals with sales order processing. This system
provides information for documents such as order acknowledgements, picking lists,
and invoices. Current information of sales order, stock levels, and discounts is readily
available. CAPM systems can also access external accounting software.
An integrated software system enables data from one module, such as sales order
entry, to be automatically shared throughout the system. Errors due to reentry of
data can be eliminated. A customer order can be used to develop production orders,
and production supplies can be subtracted from inventories. Invoices can be sent out
more rapidly. Customer payment information can be used for sales analysis. Inventory and sales data can be updated rapidly.
Several commercial applications are described. A cane sugar computer program
was developed to calculate the balance of materials at each stage of the sugar production process.8 Many developments in warehousing and material handling have
been observed. A system of driverless forklifts has been installed in a bottled water
facility in France.
Computer systems designed mainly for the dairy industry are available from
Albasoft Systems International Ltd. (Glasgow, U.K.). The systems are fully integrated and provide control of distribution, doorstep delivery, stock, processing, sales,
purchasing, payrolls, and transportation.
A software program called SLAMSYSTEM (Pritsker Corporation, Indianapolis,
IN, U.S.A.) can evaluate high-volume packaging lines. The system can simulate a
packaging line design. It can examine interactions of line components and evaluate
operating efficiencies. The user observes problem areas and modifies the model
accordingly. The effects of the changes can then be measured in the form of diagnostic reports and graphs.
An expert system called Packaging Advisor (E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.,
Wilmington, DE, U.S.A.) was reported for rigid food container design.9 Packaging
Advisor was implemented to help induce customers to examine du Pont's barrier
resins. It automates the design process, allowing the customers to design their own
packages. The system provides information on alternative materials, quantities to
meet performance specifications, and estimates of costs. The packaging advisor was
used to inform customers and field office staff of new and existing products.
An expert system for truck routing and certain warehouse management functions
has been developed by Performance Analysis Corporation (Research Triangle
Park, NC, U.S.A.). Performance Truck Routing was specifically designed for food
distribution.
An example of a highly automated warehouse is provided by C&H Sugar (Crockett, CA, U.S.A.). Flow of sugar into packages is regulated by PLCs. Bags are bundled
and bar coded. After they are palletized, the AS/RS takes control. A scanner reads
the bar code and palletizer logic configures the load pattern. After the load is stretch
wrapped and weighed, sensors check the profile of the load misshapen stacks. At
the warehouse the computer checks available space among racks and assigns a rack
space. Items with a higher turnover are placed closer to the front. Product types are
balanced among six aisles for optimum availability. Shipping schedules and orders
are generated. The trucker gets a printout of the proposed load pattern along with
the manifest.
Performance Analysis Corporation (Research Triangle Park, NC, U.S.A.) builds
expert systems and near optimal systems for truck routing and certain warehouse
management functions. Performance Truck Routing forecasts future orders based on
past orders. Driving distances are minimized as routes are constructed and delivery
times established. Because the optimal route is known, the cost of any extra customer
service can be quantified. The system was designed specifically for food distribution
to a fixed customer base.
Performance Analysis has developed a warehouse efficiency application that determines the best location for item storage. Balancing capabilities are provided relative to aisle, loop, and level for optimal retrieval. An expert system is used for
maintenance of product layout and family grouping. Family grouping saves time by
grouping products that can be selected and palletized together. The expert system
recommends an initial pick slot assignment based on predefined parameters such as
the family group or case height. Family groups can be defined based on store merchandizing, thus reducing the time required at the store to sort the products. Pallets
of product arriving at the store can be taken directly from the truck into the aisle
and stocked.
provide intelligent advice to the user. Various expert systems for scheduling have
been developed and implemented in industrial settings. Some of the systems are
coded in LISP and require sophisticated hardware. Smaller packages, usually coded
in PROLOG, PASCAL, or C, have also been successful in some applications.
The number of precise computer-based planning and scheduling systems has been
growing in recent years. Advances in database technology have helped make data
more accessible for planning and scheduling. Expert systems are qualitative and less
structured and use inferential reasoning. Operations research designs are well structured, quantitative, and numerical in their optimization procedures. The integration
of operations research, expert systems, and database technologies can more effectively solve planning and scheduling problems. Although a number of expert system
tools are available on the market, to deal with large scheduling problems an expert
system needs to be embedded within the database technology.
The three-way integration of operations research, expert systems, and database
technology is the basis for the software products MIMI/MJ and MIMI/E (Chesapeake
Decision Sciences, Inc., New Providence, NJ, U.S.A.). MIMI/MJ is designed for
production planning and scheduling. It includes long- and short-term planning, interactive reporting, and database integration functions. MIMI/MJ considers inventory, customer orders, raw material lead times, production capacity, setup cost, and
forecast demands. It can than deliver daily production schedules, material and resource requirements, equipment utilization, projected inventories, potential problems, and expected production costs. MIMI/E captures the knowledge of expert
modelers and the intuition of experienced production schedulers. MIMI/E analyzes
and improves the schedule based on the scheduler's knowledge of the plant. Production schedules can be developed using the knowledge and intuition of an experienced scheduler. MIMI/E uses both backward and forward chaining on a flexible
knowledge base. It can be linked to other databases and can be completely integrated
with operations research techniques.
Japanese workers have reported using an expert system to solve planning problems in a goods distribution situation.10 They examined work scheduling, packing
layout planning, and perishable food processing planning.
Schedulex (Numetrix, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) is a production scheduling system that combines the computational capabilities of the computer with the intuitive
abilities of the human scheduler. The goal of the scheduler is to find the lowest sum
of all inventory and manufacturing costs. Once the costs are defined in a scheduling
model, Schedulex can evaluate various "What/If" scenarios. Optimization algorithms can search for an optimum solution. The optimization algorithms are a combination of nonlinear integer math programs and heuristics. The simulator in Schedulex uses data in the model to evaluate schedule alternatives. Advantages of this
system include inventory reduction, less overtime, and fewer rush shipments.
The development and implementation of an expert system for scheduling in a
liquid packaging plant have been reported.11 The packaging plant produces cartons
for milk, juice, and other beverages. A critical point during the process is the printing
and cutting operation. Two to four cartons are produced simultaneously at the press.
When changing orders, the entire press is shut down and the time required depends
on both the previous order and the new order. Common colors or common plates
reduce the preparation time. The amount of preparation time required and the intricacy of the package design affect the quantity of waste generated before the process
settles. It is desirable to be able to change more than one carton while the press is
stopped. However, sufficient labor must be available at that time. Also, the rate at
which one side of the press can run due to the nature of the package controls the
rate at which the other side of the press runs.
First a model was formulated based on the quantity of cartons, the degree of
difficulty, the color codes, and the plate codes. Initially, the makespan, or time
required to finish all jobs, was minimized. After interviewing the human expert
scheduler and plant management a multiple objective scheme was determined to be
more useful. The program was written in PASCAL and was incorporated in an
integrated software package, which includes (1) a database management program in
which the orders are filled, (2) the daily and weekly scheduling program, and (3) a
4
'manipulator" that allows the user to make last-minute changes. The manipulator
was found to be critical to the successful adoption of the system. The user would
often have last-minute information not available from the database. It also accommodated disruptions and unforeseen events.
storage, and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) processing; another deals with packaging
and palletizing; and the third controls overwrapping, pallet labeling, and finished
product storage.
A vendor-independent systems integrator, ITP/Boston, Inc. (Cambridge, MA,
U.S.A.) describes systems integration as the combining of the three components that
make up a factory: manufacturing systems, information systems, and human systems.
The emphasis on human systems addresses concerns expressed by others.15 Some
of these include a need for more user training, more end-user involvement in the
decision-making process, organization of a formal project team headed by users, and
installation of the required manpower prior to implementation.
Relative to the food industry, ITP developed a large, real-time hierarchical control
system for material handling at the Kellogg Salada cereal plant in London, Ontario,
Canada. The equipment that this system controls includes a high-rise AS/RS, which
has 6000 storage locations in six aisles, a monorail system, three roller conveyor
networks, and 61 special automatic and manual material handling operation stations
serving the various plant production areas. The control system is based on a hierarchical architecture of computers and PCs. The PCs are coordinated by real-time
minicomputers. The entire operation is directed by material handling management
software on a central plant computer. The system is integrated with other production
control, scheduling, and plant management systems.
CIM systems have been developed with expert system capability. To be practical,
an expert system must integrate itself in MIS and CIM environments. Access to
external databases is almost always necessary in order to perform the desired inferencing procedure. A difficulty lies in the lack of industry standards for interconnecting knowledge bases. A successful architecture is to place the expert system as
the center of a star with the other systems each connected. Wide, local, and bus area
networks are non-AI techniques for integrating data.
MAC-PAC (Andersen Consulting, Chicago, IL, U.S.A.) is an operational system
designed to integrate manufacturing, distribution, and finance. Applications provided
by MAC-PAC include production scheduling, order processing, inventory control,
purchasing, accounting functions, capacity planning, product costing, and material
requirements. An expert system technique used by MAC-PAC is Expert Configurator. With this application the expert knowledge of the employees is transferred to
the system to control all processing from sales order entry through manufacturing.
Its comprehensive design can be applied in production and process definition, customer service, inventory management, and production planning and control. Expert
Configurator lets the user design order entry screens and help text. Valid values may
be accessed from each screen for rapid order entry. The Expert Configurator adapts
to a particular pricing structure with procedures such as adding a fixed price when
a particular option is selected, calculating a percent discount for a customer type or
class, or calling external programs for more complex calculations. Bills of material
and routings can be generated dynamically for selected options.
The I/A Series Systems (The Foxboro Company, Foxboro, MA, U.S.A.) are another class of industrial automation that is up a level from distributed control. The
Intelligent Automation Series integrates the entire production process. It offers an
open architecture in which specifications are made public. A dual operating system
runs in every processor module in the system. A Real-Time Executive in each processor oversees the real-time tasks, while an Application Executive runs under the
Real-Time Executive to simultaneously manage the more resource-oriented, highlevel applications tasks such as process optimization and report writing.
The control strategies include EXACT, a knowledge-based system able to tune
difficult control loops. EXACT stands for Expert Adaptive Controller Tuning and
is reported by Foxboro as the first successful application of expert system technology
in process control. For example, in filling a container or vat it is able to respond to
fouling, varying flow rate, nonlinear behavior, vessel modifications, and other process dynamics. Other features referred to as high-level application tools combine with
the relational information management structure to provide high-quality, real-time
information. Intelligent measurement products such as flow, pressure, and level
transmitters have been developed to help integrate process information. Sophisticated
self-diagnostics isolate problems and report them to the system. The I/A Series Systems support high-level application tools for reports, cost analyses, product quality
tracking, and process optimization. Foxboro has developed several modular packages
for specific industry applications, including a multiple effect evaporator control for
the food industry.
Gensym (Cambridge, MA, U.S.A.) has made the observation that up until the last
few years a commonly held philosophy was that plant automation was simply an
aid or substitution for manual operator control. The introduction of regulators for
numeric control equipment with centralized monitoring was often the extent of automation. However, by using advanced programming and integration techniques,
much better results could be achieved. In applying their INTEGRAL 2000, Gensym
outlines four levels in an integrated factory automation scheme: Level 1, process
control; Level 2, process monitoring; Level 3, process management; and Level 4,
management information systems. In the third level of Process Management, Gensym utilizes their expert system G2. In order to maximize economic results, immediate access to both technological (first and second levels) and strategic-economic
(fourth level) data is necessary. The management staff must be able to modify and
implement it with ease and have an on-line simulation facility to allow the consequences of management decisions to be examined. G2 provided the required computation and simulation functions. The application of this system in the food industry
has been observed in a sugar factory. On-line simulations are used to calculate the
effects of the modifications and the most appropriate strategy to follow. For example,
if a centrifuge fails, the processing capacity is reduced. Once repair time is determined and entered, the system evaluates the best operating strategy on the basis of
the forecast duration of the fault, costs incurred, the space available to stock thick
juice, the possibility of recycling the juice, and changes in power requirements.
Process Operations Management System or POMS (Industrial Computing Designs Corporation, Reston, VA, U.S.A.) is a PS/2-based software system developed
expressly for the food and pharmaceutical industries to accomplish three objectives:
(1) link planning, MRP, quality analysis, and engineering with process control and
operations; (2) create a complete electronic batch or run record; and (3) monitor and
enforce good manufacturing practices. In daily use POMS sends either the operator
or the controller instructions, interfaces with on-line sensors, and passes process
information along the network. POMS is designed to incorporate the common information needs of users within a specific vertical market. The POMS software
consists of seven main nodules including manufacturing procedures, host interface,
orders server, operations supervisor, and operator's module. In addition to the POMS
modules, third-party software packages can be incorporated into POMS. These include expert system based process modeling and schedule optimization programs.
Gensym has developed an architecture for distributed real-time expert systems
and communications products known as Gl Network. G2 can integrate a wide range
of computer products and operating systems from major vendors. Each G2 knowledge base may be accessed from all other G2s in the network. This allows users to
transfer knowledge freely around the organizations. Local expert systems solutions
can be combined with decision support expert systems covering an entire organization. The GSI data server can connect to multiple data sources such as data acquisition systems, mainframe databases, and user programs in other computers. The
communication between computers in the G2 Network is generally over Ethernet.
With the G2 Network users can build networks quickly and easily. Each G2 expert
system can oversee a multitude of tasks occurring within a complex local application.
By connecting several G2s, a distributed intelligent network can be assembled. Telewindows enables users in G2 to get real-time advice from a remote G2 knowledge
base. Engineers, operators, and maintenance personnel can get current expert information about the system being monitored.
Databases are a major feature of CIM. Closely related to the application of expert
systems in CIM is the use of intelligent databases. Mercury KBE (Artificial Intelligence Technologies, Inc., Hawtorne, NY, U.S.A.) is a knowledge base environment
geared for the construction of intelligent database applications. It is able to integrate
smoothly with SQL compliant relational databases such as Oracle and Db2. SQL
stands for structured query language, which is a language designed to interrogate
and process data in a relational database. The production engine provides forward,
backward, and integrated chaining. An SQL object-oriented compiler generates code
at the lowest level of the supported database for increased speed. The developer adds
declarative statements to class definitions in the object system. They are then automatically transformed into the proper SQL accessor functions. Included is a presentation management facility for generation of end user interfaces including forms,
menus, charts, and icons. An application can be delivered on a single work station
or a network of computers.
The Ministry of the Environment in Germany contracted with Digital Equipment
Corporation GmbH to develop an intelligent, on-line, environmental detection and
corrective action system. The system detects potential environmental pollution, suggests corrective actions, and performs on-line decision support. Various databases
are supplied by on-line data acquisition. Also, laboratory tests of air, soil, and water
quality are entered into databases. The user interface includes a map of Germany
and presents any state of contamination, the likely cause, and a recommended corrective action.
to identify risk items, such as the cleaning procedures in the receiving area. Specific
duties are entered into the computer and a work order is generated. For example, a
list of duties could include the following: (1) clean and sanitize using CIP systems;
(2) clean receiving hose by hand (cream loadout hose stored in separate location);
and (3) clean and inspect manhole vent at the end of the day and replace filter. Also
listed are costs and hours required for the activities. Duties for management can also
be specified. These might include checking records from the receiving room, such
as the tank CIP charts. Another management duty could be an inspection of the
receiving area for irregularities.
A major objective behind the development of SPC for unit operations has been
improved performance. Depending on the needs of the application, this performance
could be defined as improved precision. Losses due to overfilling containers could
be reduced as the standard deviation of the fill weights is reduced. Another definition
could be reduced human operator or worker hours through automation. The development of microprocessors has allowed process control devices to greatly improve
in reliability and usefulness. Coupled with data acquisition capability, computer
control can provide operators, quality support personnel, and general management
large amounts of information on which intelligent judgments can be made.
Although increased automation decreases operator time, it does create new demands. The remaining operators will be required to have a higher level of expertise
in order to supervise the system in an out-of-control situation. The judgment required
to correct a process failure within a highly automated system may reside with only
a few individuals. They may be unavailable at the time of the crisis. In these situations an expert system can function as an on-line advisor.
Reports of expert systems in food quality control programs are emerging. An
analysis and selection computer program was reported for malting barley quality.17
Quality traits are stored on a database. Data can then be queried to select the breeding
lines for any set of criteria contained in the database. The program offers a summary
of quality traits and an objective means of selecting for overall malt quality. It is
also applicable to other crops. The use of expert systems in quality control using a
yogurt manufacturing process as an example has been reported.18
Although the applications of expert systems in dairy processing are only now
emerging, their use in various agricultural and dairy production activities has been
widely investigated.19'20 Assistance to patrons regarding dairy production operations
can help ensure high-quality milk for processing. Automatic registering and recording of milk production data can be achieved with sensors, terminals in the barn and
milking parlor for direct access by the herdsman, and a master computer to enter
additional data and perform various calculations. Information about milk yield and
components is useful not only for quality monitoring but also for controlling disease
and adjusting rations. Expert systems for monitoring dairy production can compare
incoming data to preestablished standards, interpreting deviations to provide information on corrective action. In addition to this type of monitoring activity, specific
expert systems can be used as diagnostic devices and planning systems.
penetration into hams can be observed using computer X-ray tomography.24 Creep
behavior in viscoelastic foods can be analyzed much more rapidly.25 The needs for
more rapid and more reliable methods of microbial food analysis are being met with
automated techniques such as impedance measurement, image analysis, and computer-assisted identification of bacteria.26 Robots have been used for automatic titrations, total solids sample preparation, gas chromatography, differential scanning
calorimetry, thin-layer chromatography, nitrogen analysis, texture measurement, microbial plate counts, and fat analysis. An expert system entitled SEXIA was developed to characterize certain foods, particularly olive oils.27 Up to 50 analytical variables such as acidity, color, fatty acids, sterols, and triglycerides can be examined.
Characterization of foods uses numerous tools including discriminant analysis and
cluster analysis. These tests are based on chemical data. A problem with this and
any type of analysis is that dispersion or variation in data can occur over time due
to environmental factors such as temperature and humidity. This type of dispersion
can be reduced using expert systems. Each rule is associated with a chemical parameter. Because expert system rules are constructed independently, the displacement
of a chemical parameter over time is minimized with the data of another chemical
parameter.
With the expert system SEXIA, samples of olive oil can be characterized and
identified according to the following parameters: (1) if oil is genuine olive oil; (2) the
olive zones within Spain where oil was obtained; and (3) the majority variety among
the most representative varieties of those zones. With SEXIA interviews take place
with an analyst and the database. Inference rules then relate the findings. The expert
system handles values of 50 analytical variables. The taxonomic organization of the
data is a tree graph. The nodes of the tree contain information on the chemical
parameters. This information is stored in frames. Ranges of chemical parameters are
obtained from results of the statistical tests that analyzed the data distribution. They
were specified as low, medium, and high.
The system uses three kinds of rule sets: the identification rule set, the interrelation
rule set, and demons. The demon rules are interrelated with the user/computer interface. The identification rules deal with varieties, olive zones, and denominations
of origin.
There are three groups of rules. The first determines confidence factors associated
with varieties, zones, and origins. The second rule group works with the results
obtained with the different kinds of varieties, olive zones, and origins. It determines
the evidence of all categories. The third group combines results obtained by the
second kind of rules to get the final evidence.
An improvement using SEXIA over stepwise discriminant analysis is that the
many rules based on different chemical parameters can be used to get optimal results.
The statistically based classification models of discriminant analysis programs are
more limited and produce less confident results.
Overall, SEXIA tries to eliminate data dispersion in the identification of foods.
More specifically, SEXIA presents the following features: (1) it allows the use of
heuristic rules combined with others deduced by statistical programs; (2) rules and
propositions are built independently so the effect of random errors is minimized;
rind-like or nut shell-like." Faults were classified into categories such as paste faults,
crust faults, and taste faults to facilitate their selection. Faults were represented as
objects in GOLDWORKS to assist knowledge-base modifications. A fault was defined by (1) name, (2) definition, (3) documentation text, and (4) name of its group.
The faults were considered as facts in the explanation rules.
The hypotheses were the causes of the faults. Although some were very specific
and others more general, no priority was attributed to a specific hypothesis. Hypothesis were either established or not. Probabilities or fuzzy logic were not used.
The hypotheses were verified by parameters. For example, a parameter to verify the
hypothesis "soft cheese" could be "extrusion force." More specific hypotheses to
refine the initial hypothesis such as "too fat," "too humid," or "too proteolyzed"
could be verified with their own appropriate parameters. Parameters are also represented as objects and are characterized by (1) name; (2) explanation text; (3) type:
numeric or not; (4) domain: list of alphanumeric values or numeric interval; and (5)
group: used in prevision approach to help in parameter selection.
The explanation rules link hypotheses to faults or other hypotheses. The rules are
used to generate all possible causes of a fault. They can support both backward
chaining and forward chaining. Verification rules link parameters to hypotheses.
Action rules link verified hypotheses to corrective actions.
The system can function in three ways. In the fault approach, the user tries to
establish the fault, generate hypotheses and parameters, and provide corrective action
for the cheese manufacturer. In the report approach, the user presents a fault to the
computer and receives all of the actions that apply to the specified fault. The prevision approach determines the production risks incurred following some modification to the system. The effects of changing a parameter, such as heat treatment,
can be measured.
An expert system was developed to trace Cheddar cheese defects to their source.31
In this program the user initially provides information about the sensory attributes
of the cheese such as appearance, body and texture, and flavor. The system then
follows its own lines of reasoning toward the eventual cause of the defect, asking
for additional information about the raw materials, the process, and analytical data
as it proceeds. Several conclusions are normally given, with a confidence rating for
each one.
lation modeling can be applied to many areas. Most of the food industry applications
include material flow and packing. Expert systems are able to incorporate results
from these models and make them more generally useful. Expert systems can fuse
knowledge from different sources and fields of knowledge, and can help in distributing scarce human expertise to many locations.
Computer models have long been used for thermal processing.32"35 Real time
calculations of time and temperature relationships can be made with models. Cooking effects such as bacterial destruction, nutrient loss, and sensory deterioration can
be predicted. As an alternative to placing a thermocouple in a test can with every
retort batch, the temperature of the geometrical center of a can can be predicted.
Using a numerical computer model to simulate thermal processing, rapid evaluation
of process deviations and on-line corrections can be made (TechniCAL, Inc.,
Metairie, LA, U.S.A.). During simulation, measurable changes in temperature are
projected for the entire process cycle. Results include reduced downtime and improved productivity.
The Pathogen Modeling Program (PMP) (USDA/ARS Eastern Regional Research
Center, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.) explores how combinations of various factors
affect the growth of pathogenic organisms. Version 3.0 considers five organisms
including Salmonella spp., Listeria monocy to genes, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, and Aeromonas hydrophila. Factors considered are temperature, pH,
sodium chloride content, sodium nitrite content, aerobic conditions, and anaerobic
conditions. Equations for the models were derived by response surface analysis. PMP
was designed to be used with Lotus 1-2-3 (Cambridge, MA, U.S.A.). The "program" was written using a series of Lotus macros and menu-driven queries. A series
of queries is presented, and with the last query, the program will display a second
menu through which results can be viewed. A kinetics options displays the calculated
values for exponential growth rate, generation time, lag phase duration, and maximum population density. The time option provides an estimate of the time required
for the microorganism to grow to the predefined level. A growth curve calculated
from the combination of the variables selected can be displayed. Any of the factors
can be changed, and new results presented.
Initial efforts in microbial modeling have been directed at pathogens. However,
as the databases and models develop, information on spoilage organisms will accumulate. Forecasting during each stage of food production will then be possible.
This will allow a more integrated approach from raw materials to finished product.
Computer programs have been useful in the control of energy consumption.36
Controlling energy consumption is important economically due to the high cost of
energy, but keeping track of consumption can help lead to other more specific problems. For example, high energy may be traced to poor heat exchange. The poor heat
exchange may represent food or cleaner residues coating the equipment surfaces.
Once the problem is recognized, corrective actions can be taken.
Consumption of fuel or electricity can be compared to predicted values, and can
be expressed as fuel or electricity per unit of milk processed. When prepared in
graph form, deviations are easily removed. Various sums and ratios of raw materials
used, energy consumed, products consumed, and costs incurred can be calculated.
simulation usually consists of at least several hundred blocks. Their complexity leads
to difficulty when changes are made.
A particular configuration represents the final equations after the interactions between equipment and materials have been considered. This makes it difficult to
isolate and see the change of any one part or material. The ISIM (Intelligent Simulation) system was created using an object-oriented methodology. Each component
of the simulation is implemented separately, and the implementer can specify how
the components interact. ISIM simulation blocks represent physical devices that
manipulate objects. Traditional simulation blocks manipulate numbers. The manipulation of an object or material is called a simulation variable. Codes associated with
the simulation variable can determine the effects of various actions taken. For example, a boiler will add BTUs to material in an evaporator, without knowing the
physical properties of the material. The simulation variable modeling whey protein
concentrate will then change the temperature appropriately. The simulation variable
acts to integrate separate parts of a process acting on material.
Each unit operation can be modeled independently by a domain expert without
modifying other modules. Another advantage is that the knowledge base can use
heuristic simulation methods. Traditional simulation environments require much customizing in practical applications. With ISIM the user can much more easily build
a manufacturing unit from unit operations. The use of object-oriented programming
has been an important factor in the development of intelligent simulation.
Several key databases include product line information, raw material specifications, and finished product shelf life progression. These functions overlap with quality control responsibilities, but provide useful information in product development.
A knowledge of the functional properties of food ingredients is critical for R&D.
The wide range of ingredients available and the many interactions with other ingredients in the food product justify the time and expense involved in capturing as much
relevant information as possible. Information is available in the scientific and trade
literature. Much information is resident with the human experts. Because expert
knowledge tends to be quite specialized, several experts may be needed during the
product development process. Capturing this domain specific knowledge is the object
of much expert system development work.
Quality of products can often be traced to poor experimental design. An incomplete understanding of cause-and-effect relationships during the design phase of a
product can lead to high costs of scrap, rework, and inspection. Statistically based
experimental designs allow scientists to get the largest amount of information from
the smallest number of experimental trials. The development of computer software
packages with statistical techniques has greatly simplified the use of experiment
designs. Dziezak43 suggests the following steps to implementing designed
experiments:
1. Define the purpose of the study and identify the factors and the responses. The
factors can be ingredients or process conditions. The responses are the dependent
variables that are measured.
2. Develop a model for each response that will predict response values for different
factors.
3. Select an optimization design to test the factors in a minimum number of trials.
4. Conduct the experiments in a random order if possible.
5. Fit the model to the data using regression analysis generating a prediction
equation.
6. Examine the data in a graphical form to discern relationships and regions for
further investigation.
The beginnings of computer applications in sensory analysis were the use of
statistical software packages to analyze the panel data. Devices designed to automate
data collection are a more recent development. A system may operate as a network
with a server computer and several terminals. Typical features of a sensory program
include panelist registration, score card preparation and presentation, and results
management.
Touch screens have been developed to automate data collection. One system
comprised of touch screen hardware, software, and user interface has been designated
' 'computer aided sensory testing." 44 Besides response input, the system can perform
other sensory tasks such as project setup, rating form construction, and data analysis.
King and Morzenti45 compared a computerized mode of quantitative descriptive
analysis (QDA) scoring with a manual mode. Various samples such as turkey patties,
doughnuts, and citrus fruit were judged by four to seven panelists. Results indicated
that computerized QDA was better than, or as good as, manual QDA. Other factors
such as cost would need to be evaluated.
Even more extensive automation is reported in an Apparatus for Automated Sensory Testing (ASST).46 The system prepares samples for sensory evaluation, instructs the subject during the test, records and processes the results, and provides
the next series of samples according to the previous performance of the subject.
Expert systems can be applied to statistical modeling. Object-oriented expert system tools provide a system for capturing statistical expertise. A library of statistical
techniques can be related to one another. Objects, which pass data between themselves, can be supervised by other objects or rules to direct problem-solving skills
and automated statistical reasoning. Intelligent Statistical Process Analysis (ISPA,
Artificial Intelligence Technologies, Inc., Hawthorne, NY, U.S.A.) contains three
major cooperating expert subsystems. The first subsystem is the Statistical Master.
It is an object-oriented model of the expert procedure to develop statistical models.
The second subsystem is the Process Expert. This system asks the user about the
process and then self-generates an expert system for use in model validations and
variable selection. The last subsystem is the Object-Oriented Database. It allows
specific data to be manipulated and passed from module to module. The total system
builds a tree of potential model variables and the tree is then pruned to reduce the
statistical search space.
Planning and scheduling procedures in R&D are similar to those previously discussed. Corporate success will be achieved as the right plans are constructed and
performed. In some respects, planning techniques are similar to design methods,
only with the element of a structured time frame added. It is desirable to have all of
the available information possible. R&D planners must also see how information is
interrelated. Intelligent decision systems using expert system technologies can help
deal with complex decision processes such as these. The knowledge of leading R&D
decision consultants has been captured in a computer-based decision workstation
called R&D Analyst (Strategic Decisions Group, Menlo Park, CA, U.S.A.). The
R&D Analyst expert system constructs an influence diagram. The influence diagram
represents decision problems in a graphical format that shows relationships of decisions and uncertainties. The Analyst constructs mathematical models that represent
this information. Critical factors such as number of competitors, foreign demand, or
initial price are then identified, quantified, and ranked.
The R&D Analyst also provides an analysis of the current projects showing a
plot of the probability of technical success versus the commercial value given technical success. The result is an overall status of all the R&D projects showing the
most profitable projects and the areas in which the R&D management should focus
their efforts. The third analytical tool develops and runs decision analysis models.
Commercial search services are an important resource for current information on
competitive market activity and R&D activities (DIALOG, Palo Alto, CA, U.S.A.;
Orbit Search Service, McClean, VA, U.S.A.). Information commonly accessed includes financial condition of competitors, new product development, and marketing
strategies. Expert systems can be useful in the development of searching strategies.
3.7.3 Training
People are the most important assets of food and dairy processing plants. The people
operate the plants. They make decisions concerning operations at all levels. While
the top management is charting the course with company goals and objectives, line
workers and supervisors are making decisions and contributing to the company on
a daily basis. It is critical to remember that people are more important than technology. Unless projects have supportive people who are well informed, involved,
well trained, and well led, difficulty and failure are likely results. Unfortunately,
much of the best training and development is provided for upper management, while
the individuals closest to the product receive either less or poorer quality training.
A common complaint among employers is the need for extensive training of
recent college or university graduates. This is understandable because most food
science and dairy manufacturing programs cover a wide variety of subject areas. A
thorough education in the basic sciences and communications skills should be expected. However, training specific enough to meet the needs of each processing entity
is unrealistic. Some type of structured training for new employees is almost always
required.
One area of employee training that has become mandatory is hazardous chemical
exposure. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has a goal
of ensuring that employers and employees know about chemical work hazards and
know how to protect themselves. To accomplish this they have implemented a rule
called "Hazard Communications" (HAZCOM). Under HAZCOM, chemical suppliers are required to communicate hazard information determined by the chemical
manufacturers for each of their products. Employers are required to communicate
the hazards of chemicals they use to workers. They are also to provide training in
chemical safety. Hazard information and use of labels and material safety data sheets
must be communicated to employees through a formal training program.
One technique that can help reduce the manager and supervisor time devoted to
employee training is the use of intelligent tutoring computer programs. These systems not only allow self-paced, unsupervised learning, but they are able to make the
most efficient use of the employee's time. The time spent relearning what is already
known and understood is eliminated.
Individualized self-paced learning materials have long been available in various
forms. These include frame-based written materials, slide presentations, movies and
video presentations, various computer programs, and even interactive video disks.
Intelligent tutoring, which utilizes expert system procedures, is one area within the
larger field of computer-assisted instruction. The major advantage of intelligent tutoring is the ability to focus on the specific areas that are lacking in the employee's
training or background. For example, an individual may be very familiar with heat
transfer and flow rates through a heat exchanger, yet have little understanding of the
effects of heat, acid, and mineral balance interaction on protein destabilization. The
intelligent tutoring system is designed to detect those areas, instruct, and evaluate
the information transfer.
Although little activity in the use of intelligent tutors has been reported in the
food and dairy industry, a prototype industrial-training system at Bell Communications Research (Livingston, NJ, U.S.A.) called Word of Intelligent Tutoring System (WITS) captures the knowledge of the company's best workers. For feedback
purposes, it compares student responses with that knowledge. The system charts
students' progress and selects supplementary material. Licensing of WITS is expected in 1991.
For references to manuals expert system based software can be used on-line. This
allows the manual to be customized for a particular application or personnel. With
expert system techniques the system can determine the skill level of the operator
and provide the appropriate information. Also, information can be made available
in spreadsheets and database software.
The incorporation of hypertext into an expert system as a means of providing the
user with additional information during a problem-solving session has been reported
for a program dealing with decreased milkfat yield.47 The form of the information
can be textual, graphical, or procedural. Several benefits include clarification of
ambiguous and technical terms and description of underlying principles involved in
the problem-solving strategy. The flexible hypertext interface allows users to explore
information in a nonlinear method according to their abilities and interests.
3.9
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by computer X-ray tomography. Fleischwirtschaft 69:220-222.
25. Balaban, M., A. R. Carrillo, and J. L. Kokini. 1988. A computerized method to analyze the creep
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52:38-46.
CHAPTER
4
items will not cause contamination to the dairy product. The 3-A Sanitary Standards
Program is a voluntary and self-regulated tripartate, cooperative program within the
industry that working together with state and federal regulators has provided equipment manufacturers with defined standards for equipment and the processors a
method of assuring the sanitary condition of equipment they purchase.
Although Chapter 5 in this volume discusses in detail the designs of a dairy
processing plant, some basic illustrations of typical plants are provided here.
Although there are many differences in floor plans and equipment juxtaposition,
the following diagrams are illustrative of a generic plant. They are based on a plant
that is mid to large size, processing about 1 million pounds of milk a day. The
products manufactured include milk and ice cream.
Figure 4.1 is a plot plan of 15 acres and is a minimum for this size facility. All
expansions to double the capacity are shown and expansion to double the capacity
will not interrupt current production. Traffic patterns keep trucks backing to the
driver's sidea safety consideration.
Figure 4.2 is a main floor plan showing a continuous production flow from raw
products and dry storage through process to load-out. A separate machine room for
homogenizers and separators segregates noise from the rest of the plant. With the
tendency toward products with extended shelf life, a room pressurized with filtered
900* APROX.
TRUCK
SERVICE
GARAQE
F\JT.
M
AEC.lLK
UO
RO
ELER
MILF
KUTO
FUTURE
1.0. STORAGE
ITAUF DOWN
Figure 4.1 Plot plan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company, Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)
FfK)NT STREET
EMPLOYEE PARKINS
VISITOR
PARKING
DRYSTORAQC
PENTHOUSE
COLDTK.
RM.&
PROCESS &
TANK MEZZ.
MtLK COOLER
AND
CASE STORAGE
TRUCK PARKINQ
730' APROX.
1.0. STORAGE
Of FIC AREA
FUTUW I. . STO*.
MtLK COOCEM
oun
OLE*
AMA
BOILEK ROOM
OMT
WHV 10M)IN(I
KMOC(H
. C, ITOH.
TKkUi C0t*ACT0fl
AMA NOl
DRY STOflAOE
FUT. BLOW MOLD RM.
Figure 4.2 Main floor plan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company, Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)
air is used for filling and adds a degree of bacterial isolation. The cold storage area
is designed to ensure first in-first out inventory control.
Figure 4.3 for the second floor plan describes a visitor tour route and an employee
lunch room. These locations provide a view of processing while assuring bacterial
isolation. Vertical storage tanks are located in an environmentally controlled room
directly above their respective process function. Empty cases are washed on entry
and stored directly above the cold storage area.
The basement floor plan is shown in Figure 4.4 and describes the utility functions,
all of which are located directly below the points of use. This figure also shows the
bd
HAlI. MlOW
ULX MC. OTF. 4
W0WCM4 IKH
MUOVMll P A H ( I *
Ml.
HtUOVt(M P
PtNTHOUSC
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LUNCH AREA
r2
5
CAtI* DOWM-
Figure 4.3 Secondfloorplan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company, Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)
TUNNEL
REGRN
ID AREA
CI E BUL
IDERS
c^Ur, ou..
Cl* ARCA NO2.
PITCH TO oa*
ELEC. & M C C
I KAM* UP
ElXC. I M C C
8ASCMENT LEVEL
PENTHOUSE
TIACM COMPACTOH
MKK COOLER
OTTC
l
t~]
MACH
ROOM
O*Y STORAOt
BASEMENT AREA
ELEVATION / SECTION VIEW A-A
Figure 4.4 (a) Basement floor plan, (b) Elevation plan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company,
Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)
elevation plan and the relationship of one function to another. The penthouse is the
location of the air handling system and provides for environmental zone control.
Figure 4.5, is a schematic typical for fluid milk processing, including by products
batching, drink blending, high-temperature-short-time (HTST) pasteurization, storage, packaging, and filling.
Careful planning of the facility, equipment location, product flow, and employee
traffic flow cannot be overemphasized. The benefits are bacterial isolation, lower
production costs, and higher product quality. It should also be mentioned that all
new construction and equipment changes (especially if welding is necessary) should
be reviewed by the local control authority before the project is started.
As you read each section in this chapter, you should use some of these diagrams
of dairy processing plants as a frame of reference in relation to the placement of
various dairy equipment and supplies.
NON DAIRY
NCfWDIENTS
DAMY
INCRCDIENTS
BU
CREAM
KEt
WATER
CORN SYKUP
METER BASED
BATCH SYSTEM
OKY INCREDCNT
MD(ER
CCRTinED METER
KECEMNC SYSTEM
r
msr
"BD
luz
WATER
HOLDING TUBE
AC DWVE
HOMO
HT*
HECEN
ZLi
HTST
AC DWVE
BASE
DRINKS
BLCMMNG SYSTEM
TO COOLER
1/2 GAL JUG FILLER
TO COOLER
1 GAL JUG FILLER
METGR BASCD
TtMIHG SYSTEM
CONSTANT
LEVEL
TANK
OUT
STAMMROIZMC
SCPARATO*
Figure 4.5 Typical fluid milk process flow diagram including byproducts batching, drinks blending, HTST pasteurization, and pasteurized product storage and filling. (Courtesy of Accurate Metering Systems, Inc., Schaumburg,
IL, U.S.A.)
Milk coming to the plant from the farm is first stored in a raw product storage
tank. The purpose of this vessel is to cool the product to holding temperature, usually
34 to 36F if it is not already at that temperature and to keep it cool prior to processing
which occurs within 2 days after being received at the plant. Raw milk storage time
is minimized, thus reducing degradation of quality due to bacterial growth and enzyme activity.
The size of the raw milk storage tank and the number of tanks are determined by
the product capacity of the dairy plant and the logistics problem the dairy may have
from the raw product source. Standard size vessels, or silos as they are commonly
called, range from 5000 to 60,000 gallons. When more than one tank is required,
which is usually the case, they are installed in groups called banks or batteries.
Because silos are designed as vertical cylinders they are installed in rows on cement
pads with a hallway in between for plant personnel to make piping connections and
other checks, such as temperature indicators, as required. The vessels are installed
close to the raw milk receiving area to reduce pumping costs and to minimize shear
damage to the raw milk. Figure 4.6A shows the cross-section of a silo tank and thus
the basic construction. The tank is of double shell construction which means it
consists of an outer shell of mild steel with the inner liner made of AISI304 stainless
steel. The mild steel is furnished primed by the manufacturer, then final painting is
the responsibility of the dairy plant as shown in Figure 4.6B. Of course the inner
liner is constructed in a manner so there are no square corners and all surfaces are
polished to a minimum of 150 grit finish. The reader should see the 3-A Sanitary
Standards for further clarification. Insulation of cork or urethane foam is used as a
thermal barrier to keep the product cool and is installed between the inner liner and
the outer liner. The outer shell can be made of stainless steel, however, mild steel
is more economical. The CIP connection for the tank is preinstalled and consists of
a spray device in the top of the silo, thus allowing for CIP solution to be sprayed on
the dome and to cascade down the sides, therefore covering the entire product contact
surface of the tank. The connection for the CIP is located in the tank's alcove (see
Fig. 4.7.). A central CIP system is used to supply the cleaning regimen to the tank.
All silo tanks include an air vent and an overflow line to permit air to be expelled
from the tank during filling and vent filtered air into the tank during emptying, thus
eliminating collapse of the vessel by creating a vacuum.
The alcove is made of AISI304 stainless steel and is used as the interface between
the outside and the inside of the plant. Due to the enormous size of the tanks they
are installed in banks or batteries as indicated earlier. The alcove then allows the
tank to be fitted up next to the building and properly sealed to keep out the weather
elements. Contained in the alcove is a manhole to allow entrance into the silo by
plant personnel and inspectors for physical examination of the unit for cleanliness
and any possible defects. The inlet and outlet connections for the tank are included
in the alcove and are sized depending on the capacity of the tank and the desired
product filling and removal rate. Wells for level indication or control are also part
of the silo plus a well for temperature indication or control which are installed in
the alcove. Thus the operator can always tell how much is in the tank and the
temperature. Low and high level alarms can be part of the level indication controls.
O.D.
I.D.
INSIDE
APPROX.
OVERALL
Figure 4.6.A Cross-section of a silo tank. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)
Figure 4.6.B An outside view of silo tanks. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)
Also low and high temperature alarms are available to alert the plant personnel to
possible problems. All of this information can be recorded on standard charts or
computerized and printed out. All silo tanks should have a refrigeration surface of
some design unless the tanks are installed inside of a refrigerated room, which usually is not economically feasible. The surface is designed for water, glycol, ammonia,
or Freon. The amount of surface per tank is dependent on the heat exchange media,
the outside conditions, and if the tank will be used to simply maintain product
temperature or cool the product during storage. Control of the cooling media is by
temperature controls, thus cooling and maintaining the product at the desired temperature. Figure 4.8 shows a typical mechanical agitator used to keep the raw milk
properly mixed. Note the unit is CIP cleanable. Agitation is of the utmost importance
for the silo tank and consists of a mechanical agitator and sometimes an air agitation
mechanism to keep the raw milk continuously in gentle motion. Low-level indicators
are used to shut agitation off, thus reducing over-agitation of the product as the tank
empties. Timers are also used to regulate the amount of time the milk is agitated,
therefore reducing the possibility of over-agitation.
Figure 4.7 Alcove of a silo tank. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)
Processing tanks are the next vessels the milk can come into contact with in the
dairy plant. They are used for incorporation of ingredients such as solids-not-fat for
fortification of 1% and 2% milks or addition of cocoa powders and sugar for preprocessing of chocolate milk and drinks. Another use for processing tanks can be
for vat pasteurization of specialty products. Thus one can readily recognize a variety
of designs are required due to the different functions desired. Processing tanks can
be single- or double-shell vessels. For example, a tank used for mixing purposes
only could be a single-shell vessel as no heating or cooling is required. A doubleshell tank would be required for vat pasteurization or if any heat treatment or cooling
of the product is to be done. Unlike the raw milk silo the processing double-shell
tank would consist of an AISI 304 stainless steel for the interior lining and the
exterior shell also would be of the same material. The interior would be polished to
150 grit finish with 2B finish exterior being acceptable.
The heat exchange surface for processing tanks is divided into zones; therefore,
if the vessel is not full only the zones fully covered with product will be used. The
surface can be designed for steam only but is more versatile if it is designed for hot
water for heating purposes and chilled water or glycol for cooling.
There are two basic top designs for processing tanks, the bridge and cover or the
dome top as illustrated in Figure 4.9. The type of top selected should be determined
by whether or not additional ingredients need to be added and how the ingredients
will be added.
TANK C.I.P.
LINE
C.I.P. HEADER
INTERLOCK
AGITATOR
MOUNT
AGITATOR
C.I.P. LINE
QUICK-CONNECT
COUPLING
Figure 4.8 A typical horizontal sanitary type agitator. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN,
U.S.A.)
Figure 4.10 shows two types of bottoms used in processors and many types of
agitators available. The pitched and dish-bottom type tanks are used for products
with low viscosity whereas the cone-bottom type vessels are more applicable to
highly viscous materials. Agitators used in processing tanks are bottom sweep, bottom and side sweep, scraper combinations, and high-speed propeller and turbine
type. Bottom sweep is used for products where gentle motion of the product will
suffice to keep it evenly mixed whereas bottom and side sweeps are required for
high-viscosity products. Various scraper type combinations are used on extremely
thick products. The high-speed propeller and turbine types are found in vessels used
Figure 4.9 Two basic top designs for processing tanks. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud,
MN, U.S.A.)
for incorporating difficult ingredients and blending. Each type of agitator is designed
for certain functions and therefore should be appropriately applied.
The size of processing vessels can be as small as 50-gallon capacity or as large
as 5000-gallon capacity. Inlets are usually installed in the top of the tank and are of
the no-foam variety while the outlets are in the cone or in the lowest portion of the
pitched bottom tanks for total emptying or drainage. CIP-able units consists of a
variety of sprayball combinations to ensure all areas of the tank surface are cleaned
properly. A separate CIP system supplies the cleaning program to the processing
tank while in smaller dairies each processor may be cleaned by recirculating CIP
solution through the sprayballs until the vessel is clean.
BOTTOM SWEEP
RADA
I L TURBN
IE
PROPELLER (4) BLADE AXIAL
TURBN
I E TYPE
TYPE
TYPE
MOUNTED OFF-CENTER ON TANKN
, O BAFFLE REOUR
I ED
AGITATOR OPTIONS
FOR PROCESSORS
A-2O2S-B
Figure 4.10 Two examples of processors' bottoms and types of agitators. (Courtesy of dci,
Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)
Controls for processors can range from simple to very high tech. For example,
hand-operated valves can be used to regulate heating or cooling media to the tanks
with product indicator thermometers showing the operator the product temperature.
Or all controls can be automatic and of course can be computerized for heat treatment
programs, mixing, addition of ingredients, discharge of finished product, and CIP.
After the product has been blended, standardized, and pasteurized it is pumped
into pasteurized/finished product tanks for storage prior to filling or final packaging.
The pasteurized storage tanks can be single shell if they are located in a refrigerated
room; however, as indicated previously this is expensive use of valuable floor space
and refrigeration is costly; therefore most tanks are double shell with a minimum
amount of cold water or glycol heat exchange surface to maintain the pasteurized
dairy product at below 36F. In large dairies a tank with the same design as the raw
milk storage tank is used with the tank itself installed outside on a cement pad and
an alcove connecting it to the inside of the manufacturing plant.
Another type of tank commonly used for pasteurized storage is a horizontal tank
as shown in Figure 4.11. As the name implies it is a vessel built horizontally instead
of vertically. Again the interior shell is AISI 304 stainless steel with the exterior
liner being painted mild steel. A stainless steel exterior can be purchased if the vessel
will be setting in the processing or wet area. This is usually not the case because
processing area in the plant is more expensive than warehouse area; therefore the
one end of the tank containing the inlet, outlet, and manhole is usually bulk headed
through the wall into the program area, thus allowing the major porting of the tank
to set in the warehouse area. The horizontal tank requires a different spray device
for CIP which consists of one or more sprayballs with holes drilled in designed
locations to ensure cleaning to the vessel.
The pasteurized storage tanks are smaller than raw tanks because the product is
stored for only a very short time period, always 24 h and in most plants only a few
minutes. Thus 5000- to 20,000-gallon capacity is a common size for the storage tank.
OLA.
an
LDi
Figure 4.11 A horizontal tank. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)
The size of plant and the product mix determine the size and number of pasteurized
tanks required.
As with the previous tanks the controls can be very simple or be highly technical
depending on the desires and requirements of the individual plant. The more simple
controls require more attention by the operator while automatic controls, alarms, and
indicators can reduce man hours required for attending to the pasteurized storage
area. However, as automation of controls increases so does the initial investment by
the plant owner. Because the pasteurized storage area is the last control of the product
prior to packaging it is more important to have charts and printouts of the conditions
of the finished products during their storage to packaging.
Another tank, although simple in nature, deserves some attention in the discussion
and that is the balance or surge tank which is used in the dairy plant as a staging
area between the preparation of product and the HTST (see Section 4.2.2). They are
also used prior to the filling equipment and are usually a part of the filling machine
itself. These tanks vary in size from 20- to 1000-gallon capacity and are single-shell
vessels without agitation. Figure 4.12 shows a typical surge tank available for today's
dairy plant. Balance/surge tanks are equipped with inlet and outlet connections as
well as the return connection for the flow diversion valve of the HTST. Level controls
monitor the amount of liquid in the tank and alarm the operator when product is low
or not present. These tanks are also used for a CIP makeup tank for cleaning of the
HTST system.
Tanks are a necessity in every dairy plant and have many uses throughout the
facility. It is evident from the discussion that first one must decide what the function
of the tank will be and then decide on the characteristics the tank must have so the
desired function will be accomplished.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
Round Tank
Rectangular Tank
Figure 4.12 Typical surge tanks. (Courtesy of A & B Process Systems Corp., U.S.A.)
Three types of heat exchangers will be reviewed in this section; the plate heat
exchanger, the shell and tube heat exchanger, and the spiraflow. The requirements
for heat exchangers vary over a wide spectrum in the dairy plant. Before choosing
a heat exchanger for a given function the following items should be considered: (1)
materials of construction; (2) performance requirementstemperature, pressure
drop, flows; (3) scaling/fouling tendencies; (4) ease of cleaning, inspecting, and
servicing; (5) physical changes in the product during the heating/cooling process;
and (6) overall efficiency.
A commonly recognized heat exchanger in the plant is the plate heat exchanger
which has been used for heat transfer of dairy products for over 50 years. As product
is pumped through the plate heat exchanger the flow is distributed in a thin film that
moves over the irregular surface, producing a turbulence desirable for uniform heating and maximizing the length of process runs. This is the most efficienct means for
heat transfer due to the thin exchanger wall and the turbulence of the product and
media, thus resulting in a high heat exchange value. The plate heat exchanger (PHE)
consists of the following main components: (1) plates, (2) gaskets, and (3) frame
inclusive of a fixed end, movable end, intermediate piece, top hanging bar, and lower
guide rail (see Fig. 4.13). The plates are thin stainless steel strips pressed into various
configurations to guide the flow of product evenly over the plate with the maximum
Figure 4.13 A plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems Corp.,
Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
turbulence possible to create good heat transfer and to give the plate the rigidity it
needs for proper meshing into subsequent plates within the plate pack (see Fig. 4.14).
The plate pack is a series of plates placed parallel to each other to create a heat
transfer system if you will. The plates are made from many materials; however,
those most common for dairy PHEs are AISI 316 stainless steel. More expensive
metals or metal alloys are available that are more corrosive resistant but these characteristics are not required in the dairy operation. Plates used in dairies vary in
thickness from 0.01968 to 0.03346 inch. Horizontal and vertical corrugations are the
most common configurations of the plate stamping. The horizontal is used most
often because it produces more product turbulence and thus is a more energy efficient
Figure 4.14 Plates in a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems
Corp., Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
plate. The vertical configuration is used for products with higher viscosity such as
ice cream mix or yogurt because it reduces the pressure drop in the PHE. So-called
dimples are used to give the plate rigidity and allow for the metal-to-metal contact
to give the total plate pack the mechanical strength required. The plates also come
in many different sizes. In general the plate design must ensure constant flow, pressure drop, and thermal characteristics when any two plates are put together. Gaskets
on each plate prevent mixing of the heat exchange media with the product and both
from leaking onto the floor. Port gaskets are vented to the atmosphere to prevent
internal leakage. Gaskets can be made of any food-grade material providing it withstands the heating function, the cleaning program it is subjected to, and forms a
proper seal. Rubber type compounds are most commonly used; however, EPDM is
also used because of its elasticity and thus provides superior sealing quality. Other
more expensive materials are available but are not used for dairy plate heat exchanger
gaskets because their particular characteristics are not required. In the past glue was
used to adhere the gaskets to the plates. The gluing process is time consuming and
somewhat unhealthy to those doing the task. Therefore new improved lock-in type
gaskets have been developed and are being supplied by all major plate heat exchanger manufacturers (see Fig. 4.15). This eliminates all the disadvantages of glued
gaskets including the reduction of crevices that are difficult to clean and sanitize.
The plates are all assembled into a frame. The fixed end of the frame is just that,
fixed and does not move. If possible, utilities are connected to the fixed end as there
is then no need to disconnect these when opening of the unit. Opposite the fixed end
is a so-called floating or movable end. This end draws toward the fixed end for
tightening of the plate pack. A top hanging bar is used for hanging the plates in the
unit with the bottom guide bar ensuring proper alignment for the plates. The frame
is usually made of mild: steel materials and is clad with AISI 304 stainless steel.
The cladding is then glass beaded or buffed to give the unit an aesthetic appearance.
The take-up or tightening of the plate pack is accomplished with bolts located on
the perimeter of the frame (see Fig. 4.16), single and twin screw arrangements with
manual tightening, and single and twin tightening rams with pneumatic or hydraulic
driving closure devices. Each method has its advantages; for example, bolts on the
perimeter gives the best sealing of the plates because the pressure is applied more
evenly over the sealing surface and is the least expensive method of tightening the
plate pack; however it is the most labor intensive method. On the other end of the
spectrum is the hydraulic closure device which reduces the labor required to open
and close the PHE but is very expensive when compared to the bolt take-up. The
amount the plate pack is compressed is determined by the manufacturers and should
be indicated on the nameplate of the PHE. A maximum and minimum will be given
because the plates with new gaskets will not require as tight a compression of the
plate pack as plates with older gaskets. The plate pack must not be tightened past
the maximum as doing so could damage the plates.
One of the advantages of PHEs is the ability to put two, three, four, or even more
different heat exchange sections in the same PHE frame. To do this an intermediate
piece is required to allow product and heat exchange media to be introduced or
discharged from the heat exchanger. The intermediate piece is made of mild steel
LOCK-IN System
Figure 4.16 Tightening of plate pack in a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food &
Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
and is clad similar to the main PHE frame. Because gaskets do leak, especially as
they grow old, and deteriorate, safety shields made of AISI 304 stainless steel can
be supplied to protect workers in the area and other equipment from hot product or
hot cleaning solution. Piping to the PHE must be done in such a manner as to not
create stress on the fittings of the unit. Properly placed pipe hangers will allow the
connections to be made without undue stress. Clamp type fittings are common because they allow for easy dismantling and inspection to the heat exchanger.
Figures 4.17 and 4.18 give the reader a better understanding of how the PHE
works. A section is designed with a number of streams and passes. For example, a
plate could have two passes of two streams each, thus indicating the product flows
in two channels and changes direction within the section two times. The combination
of streams and passes is infinite and depends on the functions required and the
utilities available.
In a typical plate pasteurizer for milk the product enters what is called the raw/
up side of the regenerator where cold raw milk coming in is preheated by the warm
already pasteurized milk in the opposite side of the plates. The pasteurized milk is
thus precooled. A major savings of the thermal requirement for heating and cooling
the milk is accomplished in this regenerative section, usually 85 to 90%. After passing through the raw/up side of the regenerator the milk is heated to pasteurization
temperature via recirculating hot water or steam on the opposite side of the plate
from the product. Next the product flows through the legal holding tube, the flow
diversion valve, and then through the regenerator down side. If the product is not
up to the preset temperature the flow diversion valve routes the product back to the
balance tank until the system is up to legal standards. The milk then enters the cooler
section which uses chilled water or glycol as a cooling medium to cook the milk to
approximately 34 to 38F.
Recent improvements for PHEs include improvement in the plate design, more
durable frame, gasket design, and gasket materials which decrease capital costs and
improve total PHE operation life.
Tubular type heat exchangers are also used in the dairy plant for heat treatment,
pasteurization, and cooling of product. The configurations include tube within a tube,
triple tube, and the conventional tube in a shell. Most of these type heaters are straight
tubes; however, some are in a spiral arrangement in order to save valuable floor
space. Heat transfer is usually less in tubular heaters than in PHEs due to a greater
thickness of the product layer and less product turbulence. Tubular heat exchangers
can be attached to walls or hung from ceilings and therefore are extremely useful in
dairies having limited floor space but ample overhead area.
The tube-within-a-tube configuration consists of a tube made of AISI304 stainless
steel inside of a larger tube made of the same material. The product flows through
the inner tube and the heat exchange media flows through the outer tube. High
product velocity is required to increase turbulence and thus improve heat transfer
efficiency. These units are used for various functions in the plant but are more
commonly used for higher viscosity products or products containing paniculate matter that are difficult to process on the PHE. The triple tube or tube within a tube
within a tube is also common. This unit has the same advantages as the tube within
a tube but in addition is more efficient because media can flow on both sides of the
product to be treated. Either unit can be used for regenerative purposes.
The tube in shell heat exchanger consists of a number of tubes through which the
product flows surrounded by a shell through which the media flows (Fig. 4.19). The
tubes of course are made of stainless steel with the shell being made of mild steel
Figure 4.17 Components of a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
Next Page
fixed plate
intermediate plate
end plate
loose plate
end plate
Figure 4.18 Schematic drawing for a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food &
Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
or stainless steel. These units are not suitable for regenerative purposes. They are
used in dairy plants especially most often as concentrate preheaters prior to spray
drying and as heat recuperators for the evaporation process.
The spiraflo heat exchanger consists of a series of concentric corrugated tubes
located in headers with a central bolt holding the unit together. Because the tubes
are spirally corrugated, product turbulence is promoted. Units can be individually
designed for the function required and like the other tubular units they can be installed in any location.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.
2. GEA-Ahlborn and GEA-Finnah, GmbH & Co., Sarstede, Germany.
3. Alfa Laval Food & Dairy Company, Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.
4.2.3 Pumps
4.2.3.1 Introduction
Milk, milk products, and cleaning solutions require movement throughout the plant
from raw milk receiving to filling and packaging. Gravity flow, although most de-
Previous Page
fixed plate
intermediate plate
end plate
loose plate
end plate
Figure 4.18 Schematic drawing for a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food &
Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
or stainless steel. These units are not suitable for regenerative purposes. They are
used in dairy plants especially most often as concentrate preheaters prior to spray
drying and as heat recuperators for the evaporation process.
The spiraflo heat exchanger consists of a series of concentric corrugated tubes
located in headers with a central bolt holding the unit together. Because the tubes
are spirally corrugated, product turbulence is promoted. Units can be individually
designed for the function required and like the other tubular units they can be installed in any location.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.
2. GEA-Ahlborn and GEA-Finnah, GmbH & Co., Sarstede, Germany.
3. Alfa Laval Food & Dairy Company, Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.
4.2.3 Pumps
4.2.3.1 Introduction
Milk, milk products, and cleaning solutions require movement throughout the plant
from raw milk receiving to filling and packaging. Gravity flow, although most de-
Figure 4.19 Shell and tube heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems,
Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
sirable for optimum product quality, is usually not practical. Compressed air may
be used to "blow down" lines. But one usually finds several types of sanitary pumps
available for movement of milk and milk products and nonsanitary types for pumping
cleaning solutions. Each type is best suited for particular applications.
There are two basic types of pumps-the positive displacement type and kinetic
pumps. Reciprocating and rotary pumps are two most common styles of positive
displacement pumps whereas the centrifugal pump is the most common in the kinetic
group.
Figure 4.20 A typical centrifugal pump. (Courtesy of Waukesha Pumps, Delavan, WI,
U.S.A.)
teeth and discharged under pressure. In the external gear type, the liquid flows between the gear teeth and pump housing where pressure is generated. The gear pump
has the disadvantage of causing damage to certain products such as cheese curd and
has limited use in conveying products of this type (see Fig. 4.24).
The lobe-type positive displacement pump is frequently used for the transfer of
fluid particulate-containing products. The lobes are dynamically balanced and do not
mesh. In this type of pump the lobes or impellers are counter rotating, creating a
positive displacement force. It is possible to pump liquids containing entrained gases
or vapors without loss of prime. However, a loss of volumetric efficiency will be
noted. The capacity per revolution will vary slightly with fluctuations in speed and
pressure. To vary the pump capacity, it is necessary to vary the pump speed.
Pressure developed by rotary pumps is independent of speed and is determined
by the dynamic head. Positive displacement pumps cannot be operated against closed
discharge lines without damage to the pump or power source or discharge system;
when such an operation is required, it is necessary to provide a bypass relief valve
in the pump or in the discharge pipeline.
Rotary pumps are versatile pumps, finding wide application. Pumps have been
developed for pressures up to 300 psi (2100 kPa) and capacities of several thousand
gallons per minute. Rotary pumps may be used where high vacuums are required.
Ena
lrged ports
Investment cast,
. not sa
tmped 8 wed
led
. Deeper,
more efficient
inlet "eye"
Generous n
i vou
l te
casn
i g evens fo
l vy
mn
im
i zies turbue
l nce
No clips
or crevices
to breed
contamn
i ants
Fvi e ba
l de
impeler
Figure 4.21 Casing, shelf, and impeller of a centrifugal pump. (Courtesy of Waukesha
Pumps, Delavan, WI, U.S.A.)
They are useful for pumping highly viscous liquids. Most of the positive displacement pumps in the dairy industry are of this type because, depending on impeller
selection, they have few contact surfaces, large ports and large cavities making it
suitable for pumping nonabrasive particulates. The seals between the rotary gears or
impeller and the face plates are of concern because of possible leakage. Also these
are areas of low velocity, requiring some gear or lobe-type positive pumps to be
manually cleaned.
The capacity of this type of pump is controlled mainly by pump and pump size.
Other variables such as inlet location, discharge pressure, product viscosity, and air
content of the product also affect this type of pump's capacity. It is also important
to maintain a fully flooded inlet. Positive rotary pumps are typically available from
Heave
ir front
bBdnoo extends
life
Overszied motor
sttaft eliminates
vibration
Meets Hydraucil
Institute &
ANSI specs
Nosbaft
extenso
in
Ibtaflyeodosed
fan cooe
ld
Figure 4.22 Schematic diagram for a centrifugal pump. (Courtesy of Waukesha Pumps,
Delavan, WI, U.S.A.)
1 to 6 inches with capacities up to 510 USGPM (2000 L/h) and pressures up to 300
psi (2100 kPa).
Rotor selections are usually a function of the product being pumped. For products
containing solids in suspension a twin lobe is preferred whereas for viscous liquids
a tri- or multilobe pump is used. Rotors may be of stainless steel, rubber, or other
materials where required for special applications.
The flexible impeller pump is another variation of the positive pump. In this case
the impeller is fabricated from synthetic elastomers and the impellers make contact
with stainless steel housing as they pass over a cam, creating an almost perfect seal
and high vacuum for self-priming. As the impeller rotates each successive blade
draws in product as it passes the inlet and carries the product to the outlet port. As
the liquid in each blade approaches the discharge, it reaches the cam and its volume
is decreased, creating the pressure to force the liquid out of the continuous, uniform
product flow.
The flexible impeller pumps offer many of the advantages of solid impeller pumps
such as high outputs, energy effectiveness, self-priming, excellent lift, and the ability
to handle a wide range of high-viscosity products. It has the additional advantages
of being able to handle solids in suspension (including abrasives) without clogging
and gentle pumping action to minimize emulsification, aeration, or damage to delicate suspended solids.
Other types of positive displacement pumps are those equipped with sinusoidal
impellers. The cross-sectional view of the pump illustrates its essential features (Fig.
4.25). The rotor's sinusoidal shape containing two complete sine curves creates four
separate, symmetrical pumping compartments. As the rotor turns in the housing,
31. lmpefler, n
I vestment
Cast instals directly to motor
shaft, efimnates need lor
rtonWesome sum shaft
316L Casn
i g, n
i vestment Cast
Figure 4.25 A typical progressive cavity pump. (Courtesy of Netzsch, Inc., Exton, PA,
U.S.A.)
the need for auxiliary feeders even when pumping highly viscous liquids. The pulsefree flow also means less damage to the product, less pump maintenance, elimination
of pressure spikes in the process line, and a smooth metered product flow.
The progressive cavity pump v/as invented in 1929 by the French Scientist Rene
Moineau. Although introduced in the United States in 1936, it is better known outside
the dairy industry (Figs. 4.26 and 4.27). The progressive cavity pump is very simple.
It consists of one moving elementnormally a single helical rotor and a stationary
element, a double-threaded helical rotor having twice the pitch. Operation does not
require pistons, vanes, gears, lobes, or diaphragms to establish fluid flow and valves
are not required to control pumping action. The mechanical relationship between the
stator and rotor forms a service of sealed cavities that are phased by 180 degrees.
The cavities progress from suction to discharge as the rotor turns. While one cavity
diminishes, the opposite cavity increases in volume at the same rate, resulting in
uniform, nonpulsating flow. The effect is like that of a piston pump that is continually
on the pressure stroke. The resulting low shear and low velocity provide excellent
capabilities for handling viscous materials (up to 1,000,000 cps), abrasive slurries,
shear-sensitive fluids, and solids in suspension (solids up to 1.8 inch or 45 mm
diameter). These pumps operate at low speeds, thus lowering maintenance requirements. The pump can be disassembled quickly and easily for cleaning and
maintenance.
The shear pump has slotted or drilled stators or rotors. These may be interchangeable, making these pumps versatile and compact systems for component blending,
mixing, emulsifying, texturizing, and smoothing with no aeration. Its operation involves mechanical, ultrasonic, hydraulic, and controlled cavitation. For processing
high-viscosity products in a shear pump, positive pressure provided by a positive
pressure pump may be required.
The colloid mill is characterized by having close fitted groved rotors and stators.
This design produces highly sheared, uniform emulsified products and is capable of
dispersing agglomerates in slurries. The product processed with a colloid mill is
stabilized to a small, uniform globule size. Colloid mills are fed with a positive
displacement pump.
4.2.3.4 Pump Selection Factors
To effect the transfer of mechanical energy from pump to liquid, it is necessary that
the liquid be conveyed into the pump chamber. The energy required to accomplish
this must come from a source outside the pump.
With rotary pumps, a vacuous condition is created by the action of the moving
rotors in the pump chamber. The differential pressure between the vacuous condition
in the pump and the free surface of the liquid, plus suction head, when available,
supplies the energy transferring the liquid to the pump. As the differential pressure
is usually <14.7 psi (103 kPa) atmosphere pressure, the suction side of the pump
becomes a limiting factor in application.
The vacuous condition at the entrance of the pump may be determined with a
vacuum gauge. The gauge indicates the differential pressure as measured in inches
4
Gear-type universal
joint, either single SM
sealed* or double
3
Rotor available in mild sealed. Pin-type univer2
sal joints also available.
steel, tool steel,
Stator available in a
stainless steel and a
wide range of natural or variety of other mate- Patent # 4.305.596
synthetic rubbers, tool rials. Chrome plating
steel, stainless steel or available.
a variety of rigid
plastics.
1
Thru-bolt construction
for easier maintenance.
5
Suction housing flange
can be rotated to any of
four positions in 90
increments.
6
Solid drive shaft. Unlike
hollow shafts, material
cannot accumulate or
8
cause clogging.
Discharge flange is a
standard connection
matched to individual
7
pump's discharge
Packed stuffing box,
pressures.
mechanical seals or
special seals.
9
Drain plug allows draining of housing.
10
Connecting rod is extra
long for extremely low
angularity (approx. 1),
resulting in longer
joint life.
Figure 4.26 Cross-section of a progressive cavity pump. (Courtesy of Netzsch, Inc., Exton, PA, U.S.A.)
11
Clean-out port.
12
Deep-groove ball
bearings.
Item
2
t
1617
18
2019
Ottcription
Pump Body
Pump Body - Flushing
Pump Cover
Pump Cover -Vented
Pump Cover - Jacketed
Bearing Housing
Bearing Housing Cover
Gear - Drive Shalt
Gear - ShoM Shall
Orive Shalt
Short Shall
Rotor - Twin Blade
Stud
Wmg Nut
Grease Seal - Front Brg Retainer
Grease Seal - Front Brg Rear
0:1 Seal-8H Rear
Oil Seal- BH. Cover
Bearing Rear
Bearing Front
Key-Gear
Seal Brg Retainer
Socket Head Capscrew-Shim
Qty
1
1
11
682
22
2
22
2
41
Pirl No
060 001^010
060
001-011
COO 002-SOO
055-002-VOO
CD0
002J10
070-105
000
070
106000
060
007-001
060060-008000
007002
060-009000
060010000
060011000
CD0016O02
000
030 009
000-030-010
000
030030012
011
000
060
035000
060 037-000
036-000
060
070-038
000
039 000
008
Item
t 22
2324
26
27
28
29
30
t
333234
363537
3839
MODEL 60
Ottcription
01. Part No
Dowel
Pin - CS Upper
OowelPm-CS
lower
coao4t>oo6
OowelPm-BHS
Upper
COO 040RO0
040-100
Dowel Pm -BHB Cover
H S Lower
CO0
Gasket
CO0O40R10
Hex
Capscrew-Fill
Dram.
Level
070-042-000
Rotor
Shi
m NuI
-FrtGearBrg
as reqd 000046003
060
052000
Spacer
060054XXX
Spacer
Rear
Front Beari
Bearinngg
060055000
Spacer
060
055
001
FiBeari
ber nWasher
060
055002
g Retain-erDram andCoverLevel
ADO-064-000
HtCapscfew-8H
060
080 000000
HexCapscrew-Brg
8BB-058
Grease
Retainer RearRetBrg
ST0081022
Grease
Fitting
STO
091 002
Shi
m -BushingB H. Base'Upper
800092
000
Dowel
070-110-000
Dowel
Bushi
n
g
Lower
COO
116000
'Stop
0' RiPm-Seal
ng Cover - Buna N
CCOO-117000
00-116 100
223-126000
Hem
Description
Pan No.
' 22 COO-T26
000
Spacer
127-000
22 060
424341 fcyeLockwastier
BoU Sea! - Gear
STO
129 009001
SIO
136
22 SlO 136011
4445 Lockwasher
-BrgFrom
Big
0 RingB70 137 154
4647 lockout
Locknui
-- Gear
-Re!
Hear-Inner
22 STD-236-009
FiontBfg
STO064236000011
070
OIL1-MICRO-PLATE
140
Gallon Can
OBI-140-000
1 -Quart
OBM41-000
GREASE
MICROCan
1 - Pound
Tube- PLATE 555
0BI-t42-OOO
A00 -096 -001
t1 0 RiRolngorRemoval
Tool
060019-000
NuI Wrench
t Net Shown
* See Vented Cover Section. Page 44. for Assembly Ophons and Pans
Breakdown
PumpS/N Required
of mercury. One inch Hg of vacuum is equivalent to .49 psi (3.4 kPa), or 1.13 feet
(96.4 mm) of dynamic suction lift.
Successful operation of any pump is dependent on proper proportioning of the
suction line. When suction lines are too long, or not of sufficient size, cavitation will
occur. The effect of cavitation will be a loss of capacity and noisy operation.
When proportioning the suction line it is necessary to consider the following
factors: (1) the vertical distance from the source of supply, (2) entrance losses,
(3) velocity losses, (4) friction losses, and (5) absolute pressure required to prevent
vaporization of the liquid in the suction line of pump.
The effect of viscosity on suction line size, length, and capacity is very important.
Viscosity is that property of a liquid that resists any force tending to produce flow.
Consequently, greater frictional losses will be encountered with increased viscosity.
High frictional losses in the suction line will occasion a reduction in capacity and
in the velocity of the liquid in the suction line. The reduction in suction line capacity
occasioned by increased viscosity will require a reduction in pump speed so that the
pump displacement does not exceed the line capacity.
If the absolute pressure in the suction line or pump chamber falls below the vapor
pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid being pumped, vaporization
will occur. When this situation prevails, cavitation and loss of capacity ensues. The
term Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is used to indicate the absolute pressure, as
measured, at the pump suction port. When suction conditions require the pumping
of volatile liquid without sufficient NPSH, best results may be obtained with short
suction lines and high liquid velocities. This is due to the time element involved in
vaporization of the liquid.
It is of interest to note that pump capacities are usually determined by suction
conditions. The proper procedure is to size the suction line so as to convey the
required quantity of liquid to the pump. The pump size is then determined by the
size of the suction line and the pump speed is determined by correlating the displacement to suction line capacity.
Pump efficiency is the ratio of liquid horsepower to brake horsepower required
by the pump. Efficiency of the rotary pump is subject to wide variation. Volumetric
efficiency, mechanical losses, and viscosity of the liquid being pumped are major
factors in determining pump efficiency.
High volumetric efficiency is conducive to favorable pump efficiency. With favorable volumetric efficiency, the ratio of liquid horsepower expended in pumping
slip to the brake horsepower input assumes satisfactory proportions. At a constant
pressure, reduced pump efficiency will be encountered at low pump speeds because
slip is constant and independent of speed. With a constant pump speed, increased
pressure will result in decreased pump efficiency occasioned by increased slip.
Mechanical losses are incurred in timing gears, bearings, and stuffing boxes.
Losses in timing gears and bearings may possibly amount to 10% of the power
consumption in a medium or large size pump. An improperly adjusted stuffing box
may account for more friction than all other mechanical losses combined as stuffing
boxes are notorious power consumers. Mechanical losses in small-capacity pumps
may exceed the liquid horsepower required. The efficiency of small-capacity pumps
will usually be very low. Viscosity has a marked effect on pump efficiency. A
reduction in efficiency is encountered with increased viscosity. This is due to energy
required in effecting viscous shear in the pump clearances. Viscous liquids often
possess adhesive properties which will occasion a further reduction in pump efficiency. This is due to the additional power required to start a pump handling tacky
liquid. After the pump has been started, the power requirements may diminish with
a tacky liquid, and improved efficiency will be obtained with relieved clearances.
Conventional practice in determining pump efficiencies is to conduct tests on
water or other liquids of low viscosity. Such tests are not indicative of efficiencies
with highly viscous liquids. Close clearances required for favorable efficiency on
these liquids will require excessive power when pumping viscous liquids. Open
clearances conducive to satisfactory operation with viscous liquid will occasion a
reduction in pump efficiency when pumping thin liquid due to increased slip.
Maximum efficiencies are usually encountered with medium- and large-capacity
pumps. This is due to the fact that mechanical losses are not proportional to pump
size, and also due to better volumetric efficiencies encountered with large pumps.
Rotary pump efficiencies seldom exceed 60%, even with favorable conditions.
With very viscous adhesive liquids, pump efficiencies may be as low as 15 to 20%.
The term cavitation is derived from the word cavity, meaning a hollow space.
Cavitation in a pump is an undesirable vacuous space in the port of the pump rotor
that is normally occupied by liquid. Cavitation occasions a loss of volumetric efficiency and noisy operation. The useful life of the pump will be materially shortened
through mechanical damage, increased corrosion, and erosion when cavitation is
present.
Vaporization of liquid in the suction line of the pump or in the pump chamber is
a common cause of cavitation. Vapor bubbles will be carried along with the liquid
until a region of higher pressure is encountered, at which time the bubbles will
collapse with shock. The magnitude of the shock is dependent on pressure, amount
of slip, and nature of the pump. To prevent vaporization, the NPSH must exceed the
vapor pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid being pumped.
The presence of dissolved or entrained vapor or gas in a liquid will have the same
effect as vaporization when suction conditions require vacuum. Mechanical agitation
of a liquid will tend to entrain quantities of air. The presence of bubbles or foam on
the surface of the liquid being pumped may indicate entrained vapor or air. Air leaks
in the suction line or stuffing box will also cause cavitation.
When pumping highly viscous liquids, the speed of the pump must be adjusted
to the viscosity of the liquid. Viscosity is a friction effect and reduces the capacity
and velocity of the flow through the suction line. Cavitation will occur if the velocity
of the rotor does not allow sufficient time to fill the liquid cavity of the fluid chamber.
It is interesting to note that there is a definite relation between suction line velocity
and rotor velocity.
Cavitation in pumps handling highly viscous liquids will usually be accompanied
by greater shock and noise than occurs with cavitation in pumps handling thin liquids. This is because less slip is encountered on highly viscous liquids, and slip
accomplishes the partial collapse of the vacuous space before the region of high
pressure is reached.
Excessive cavitation may be recognized by the noise produced and ensuing vibration. If the pump knocks or rumbles as though the rotors are out of time, in all
probability the cause is due to cavitation. Cavitation is the most commonly encountered of all pump difficulties. It occurs with all types of pumpsrotary, reciprocating, or centrifugal. When encountered, excessive pump speed or adverse suction
conditions will be found responsible. Reducing the pump speed or rectiflying the
suction condition will usually eliminate the difficulty. Slip is the liquid lost by leakage through the pump clearances. The direction of the flow will be from the highpressure to the low-pressure side of the pump. The amount of slip depends on several
factors. As might be expected, increased clearance will result in greater slip. The
size and shape of the rotor will be a factor determining the amount of slip. Rotors
with long sealing surfaces, or with labyrinth effect, have less slip than those without,
providing clearances and size are constant. On most pumps the shortest sealing
surface will be found at the sides of the rotor, and it is at this point that the majority
of slip occurs.
Theoretically, slip will vary as the square root of the pressure differential for a
condition of turbulent flow; slip will vary directly for a condition of laminar flowthrough characteristics.
Viscosity is a factor in determining slip. Theoretically, the slip will vary inversely
with the viscosity. Due to heating of the fluid in the pump clearances, slight variations
from the theoretical will be encountered. The effect of slip may be disregarded with
very viscous liquids as the quantity becomes negligible.
Slip is independent of pump speed. This factor must be taken into consideration
when operating pumps at low speeds with thin liquids. For example, the quantity of
slip at 400 rpm pump speed will be the same as the quantity at 200 rpm provided
the pressure is constant.
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual capacity to the theoretical displacement of the pump. Volumetric efficiency is subject to considerable variations with
conditions. A volumetric efficiency of 100% is possible only when the absolute
pressure at the suction port of the pump is equal to that of the discharge port. Because
this condition is seldom encountered in practice, volumetric efficiencies are usually
<100%.
Slip is a factor in determining the volumetric efficiency of a pump. Because slip
is constant per unit of time, the volumetric efficiency will change with pump speed
when pumping thin liquids, being greater at maximum pump speed. A volumetric
efficiency of zero will occur at the speed at which pump displacement equals slip.
When estimating volumetric efficiencies when pumping highly viscous liquids, the
effect of slip may be disregarded.
The presence of entrained gas or air in the liquid being pumped will occasion a
reduction in volumetric efficiency with dynamic suction lift conditions. Air leaks in
the suction line or through the stuffing box will also result in a loss of volumetric
efficiency.
will follow, together with rapid corrosion and possible corrosion of the pumping
chamber, resulting in early pump failure.
Cavitation can be defined as the implosion of vapor bubbles in the fluid, usually
with the pump head, although it can also occur in the pipework. In simple terms,
vaporization of liquid causes gaseous pockets in the fluid that are carried along with
the flow until the region of high pressure in the pump head is met, at which point
the vapor bubbles suddenly collapse causing shock, noise, and vibration. The degree
of shock is proportional to the differential pressure across the pump and the viscosity
of the fluid.
Cavitation can also result if a fluid contains dissolved or entrained gases; alternatively any leaks through the pump stuffing box or suction line will have the same
effect. Further, viscous products will flow only slowly into the pump chamber, hence,
if the pump is too fast to allow the rotor cavity to fill with liquid, cavitation will
ensue. To prevent this problem from occurring, the selected pump speed should be
checked against viscosity on the maximum rpm/viscosity curve, particularly as
greater shock is experienced with cavitation when handling viscous products. This
is because partial collapse of vapor bubbles takes place before reaching the discharge
side of the pump due to slip with low-viscosity liquids, but with viscous products
slip is only nominal and collapse is almost instantaneous.
To overcome cavitation, it is necessary to increase the NPSH availability by
reducing the suction lift (or raising the static positive head), alternatively, friction
losses can be reduced by increasing the suction pipe diameter or shortening the
length. The problem can also usually be solved by slowing the pump speed which
reduces the NPSH required by the pump.
When determining flow conditions, the velocity of liquid through a pipe can easily
be calculated using the formula:
Q = 0.7854D2K
where Q = quantity, D = pipe bore, and V = flow velocity.
Pipes are assumed to be filled; however, the flow velocity determined is only a
mean figure as frictional forces slow the flow in contact with pipe wall, causing a
velocity gradient across the section of the flow.
Streamline (or laminar) flow is indicative of low velocity with viscous forces
predominating. The velocity profile will be a smooth parabola, with maximum velocity at the center of the pipe, approx. 1.5 times the mean velocity.
Turbulent flow is experienced with high velocity, when forces of inertia predominate and velocity profile is not predictable and constantly changing. Velocity profile
is not important, although as a rough rule the maximum velocity is approximately
1.75 to 2.0 times the mean velocity, depending on the Reynolds number and surface
finish of the pipe.
The friction losses with streamline and turbulent flow are quite different; therefore, it is important to know the flow condition. For streamline flow friction losses
are predominant due to viscous drag and are independent of pipe surface roughness.
However, with turbulent flow, shear stresses in the liquid are higher than those due
to viscosity; surface finish has an appreciable effect on fictional losses. Factors affecting flow condition are viscosity, velocity, and pipe size which are related by the
unitless formula for Reynolds number:
DV
Reynolds no. = 0.7740
where D = pipe diameter, V = fluid velocity, and JJL = viscosity.
If the Reynolds number is <1200, flow will definitely be streamline and may
under certain conditions continue up to 2000, but if the number is 3000 or above,
the flow is always turbulent.
44
Slip" is the term used to describe the internal leakage taking place through the
rotor clearances. Several factors affect the amount of slip, but theoretically slip varies
as the square root of the pressure differential for turbulent flow and directly for a
condition of streamline flow. Further, slip varies inversely with viscosity and for
high-viscosity fluids the effect is only nominal. It is important to note the slip is
constant for given operating conditions and is independent of pump speed; hence
slip at 300 rpm and 500 rpm would be the same quantity.
stainless steel sheets free of imperfections such as pits, folds, and crevices. The way
of obtaining this surface finish is to successively polish the tubing with increasing
grit number of silicon-carbide, the last being 150 grit. In some special applications
a higher grit number or electropolishing may be necessary. Sanitary tubing is covered
by the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Polished Metal Tubing for Dairy Products, Number 33-00 and the applicable provisions of ASTM Specification for Seamless and
Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Sanitary Tubing Designation A270. Polished tubing is required for sanitary applications.
4.2.4.2 InstallationJoining
Methods most commonly used to cut sanitary stainless steel tubing include sawing,
abrasive wheel, and lathe cutting. Sawing is the most economical but may not provide perfect end edges. Abrasive wheel cutting is the fastest method and with proper
fixturing will provide squared ends and accurate cut length with minimum burrs.
Tubing should be cleaned thoroughly after abrasive cutting. Lathe cutting is the most
accurate method and usable on all sizes and wall thicknesses.
Sanitary stainless steel tubing is joined by welding or by various mechanical
means which usually involve welding a sanitary fitting to the tube. The tubing or
fitting ends must be square cut and deburred. The welding surface (interior, face,
and exterior) must also be cleaned and freed of all foreign matter and surface oxide
prior to welding. Iron-free abrasive shall be used when cleaning the surfaces.
There are several welding methods that are used to join stainless steel tubing but
only one is recognized as being suitable for sanitary applications and that is the
tungsten inert gas (TIG) method. The TIG method is electric arc welding with a
tungsten electrode shielded by an inert gas, to produce a butt fusion weld. The inert
gas may be either argon or helium, depending on whether it is a manual or automatic
welding operation. The inert backup gas protects and controls the interior of the
weld.
The design of the weld joint should be such as to avoid pits, craters, ridges, or
imbedded foreign materials. Welding procedures shall ensure uniform and complete
penetration of the weld surfaces. Penetration of the root bead into the bore shall be
kept to a minimum. With skilled technicians, hand welds, in which the positioning
of the weld is manually controlled, give satisfactory results. Both semiautomatic and
automatic welding methods are available. A semiautomatic weld is described as that
made using equipment that requires manual strike or manual control during the
welding cycle and will consistently make repetitive welds. A fully automatic weld
is described as that made by equipment that starts and completes the weld, strikes
and controls the arc with no manual adjustment of control during the welding cycle,
and will consistently make repetitive welds. The fully automatic orbital method is
capable of welding a wide range of diameters, including 1 inch (25 mm) to 4 inches
(100 mm) O.D. Sanitary tubing is suitable for butt welding tube to tube or tube to
fittings such as standard or long tangent elbows and tees or short quick-disconnect
type fittings. Each size weld head may be operated up to 100 feet (30 m) away from
the power supply. Once these automatic systems are set up, fully penetrated, smoothfinished, perfect welds are easily and repeatably made at a touch of a button.
Visual inspection of welds is the basic inspection method. Good lighting and a
low-power (5 to 10 X) hand-held lens are necessary. A straight-edge and measuring
tape may also be useful. As an adjunct to visual inspection, dye penetration test may
be useful but only in the hands of skilled technicians. A boroscope is often required
by dairy control authorities to inspect representative welds.
Internal and external grinding or polishing of welds used to join pipelines is not
required. If grinding or polishing of external weld surfaces is desired, it shall be
delayed until after inspection and acceptance by the proper control authority unless
internal weld surfaces are easily accessible for inspection. Internal or external grinding or polishing should never be used as a substitute for proper welding technique.
The frequency and numbers of welds inspected is an often asked question. The
answer will vary depending on the circumstances but must meet the local control
authority's requirements. The following are suggestions on the extent of inspection.
Where new piping or substantial extensions to pipework are being installed: (1) all
branch connection welds should be inspected; (2) the first five butt welds made by
each technician should be inspected; if satisfactory, then reduced to three randomly
chosen welds for each of the next five butt welds and finally to one in five randomly
chosen; (3) if any welds are unsatisfactory the sequence should be repeated. All
repair welds should be reinspected.
Several mechanical joining methods are possible with stainless steel tubing. They
include threaded connections, bolted joints, interlocking connections, compression
fittings, swagging and rolled fittings. These are generally unsatisfactory for sanitary
application and used only where butt welding of tubes or welding a sanitary fitting
to a tube end is not possible for essential functional reasons. ACME-threaded, bevelseated joints are acceptable but do require frequent inspection where mechanical
cleaning is used, and will often require manual cleaning.
Milk Capacities
in.
mm
lb/hr
Rg/hr
1
VA
2
21A
3
4
25
40
50
65
75
100
4250 to less
4251 to 14,500
14,501 to 33,400
33,401 to 51,900
51,901 to 82,500
82,501 to 160,000
2000 or less
2001 to 6600
6601 to 15,000
15,001 to 23,600
23,601 to 37,500
37,501 to 352,000
For viscous or high solids products use the next larger size.
of piping system while product processing operations are underway elsewhere in the
same piping system.
In the matrix piping systems all product and CIP valves are consolidated into
compact grids or matrices. In order to create a matrix, the pipe work is arranged so
that one group of parallel pipes crosses another group of parallel pipes, usually at
90 degrees.
A valve can be installed at any point where two pipelines cross. The valves are
mixproof double-seat valves. These valves are used at every point where a closed
valve must absolutely isolate incompatible products or product and cleaning solutions. In the United States, the PMO limits use of double-seat valves to separate
compatible products or solutions.
Matrix piping systems design eliminates tees and other physical separations such
as hoses, swing panels, and multiple-valve block and bleed arrangements. In addition
to the above, there are numerous reasons why matrix technology is used. The use
of this system and proper valving provides a piping system that has no pockets or
traps, thus providing end-to-end cleaning. Because there are no dead ends, CIP
solution and rinse quantities can be reduced. Also because there are no make-break
connections, the system is completely automated and may be operated from one
central location. The elimination of all manual operations minimizes the chances for
operator error. The matrix systems uses fewer valves than nonmatrix ones, thereby
lowering capital and maintenance costs.
Glass piping was used in many installations with the general adoption of CIP.
Glass piping has to be of the boro-silicate type and be able to withstand the chemical
used in CIP and sanitizing and temperatures to at least 212F (1000C). The most
important advantage of glass piping is the ability for visual inspection for cleanliness.
Glass has the very important disadvantage of not being able to withstand stress or
strain and requires special installation techniques. Today glass piping is seldom
found in dairy plants but is still used in many farm milk handling systems.
Flexible plastic and rubber tubing are often used where rigid piping is not feasible
because of vibration, reciprocating motions, or desired pitch or to reduce the number
of sanitary fittings. Plastic or vinyl line and rubber tubing for example has found
extensive use for bulk tanker unloading and on farm pickup trucks. Their use in this
application reduces the number of fittings to two and allows easy and quick connection of a milk transport tank outlet valve to the raw milk receiving pump. Flexible
tubing also has found use on filling and packaging equipment, membrane processing
equipment, and occasionally on pumps or other equipment that vibrates excessively.
Although rubber and rubberlike materials and plastics meeting 3A Sanitary
Standards are considered sanitary, it is desirable to use as much stainless steel piping
as possible.
to the system, to sample and measure flow, and as sight gauges. There are literally
hundreds of examples of these devices, thus discussion will be limited to a general
one using examples for which there are sanitary specifications.
Sanitary Fittings
The dairy industry has long been concerned with simplifying and standardizing fittings design. The first attempts by the United States dairy industry to develop
standards were those pertaining to fittings. These first "standards" were proposed
to unify specifications for fittings. In 1944, the 3-A Sanitary Standards Program's
priority became and remains that of developing uniform standards for equipment
reflecting practical advances in sanitary science.
There are currently 12 3-A Standards for fittings and valves, one for flow meters,
and an additional four that cover instrument fittings and filters. The general sanitary
concepts embraced by all of the standards may be summarized as:
1. These devices must be easily accessible and readily cleanable, either when in an
assembled position or when removed.
2. All product contact surfaces shall be self draining.
3. All permanent joints in metallic product surfaces shall be welded and polished
to a No. 4 finish.
4. If threads are necessary, they shall be wide, open, and easily cleaned (ACME
type preferred).
5. When equipment is assembled, no pipe or fitting threads should be in the product
zone.
6. Interior junction surfaces must be smooth without crevices or projections.
7. Gaskets, when used, should provide a flush interior surface.
To illustrate the importance of fittings in a medium sized dairy with 6600 to
10,000 feet (2000 to 3000 m) of pipes there may be a thousand or more fittings
installed. The fittings may be bends, tees, in-line sight glasses, reducers, cross-type
fittings, or fittings for special functions such as those for interfacing thermometers
and pressure sensors to the process.
The threaded fitting was the first detachable fitting used by the dairy industry.
Early ones were undoubtedly not sanitary. Today threaded fittings are available in
numerous styles and sizes. The most common style is the bevel seat using ACME
threads in 1 inch (25 mm) to 4 inch (100 mm) size. This type of fitting may be used
to join pipe to pipe, pipe to equipment, or a fitting to an instrument. The union is
made with a hexagonal nut to a threaded ferrule. The fabrication of this fitting
provides a relatively leakproof union and is suitable for pressures up to 100 psi (700
kPa). Although sanitary, this type of fitting requires disassembly and manual cleaning. There is another type of threaded fitting that is gasketed and joins a threaded
ferrule to a gasket seat ferrule with a hexagonal nut. These modified bevel seat fittings
are useful for daily make-break connections in CIP systems.
The clamp and yolk-type, quick disconnect fitting is widely used in systems where
CIP is done. In these systems joints must often be changed when switching from
processing to CIP and when joints are disassembled for inspection purposes. The
clamp-type gasketed fitting is quite satisfactory in that it provides a smooth internal
surface free of crevices and is easily attached or removed by one person without the
use of tools. Proper alignment of the fitting is assured because the clamp or yolk
will not lock into place if the joint is not properly aligned. Because the resulting
union presents no possibility of trapping product or cleaning solution and is easily
assembled and taken apart, it is the fitting-type of choice where CIP is the norm.
Now that CIP is widely accepted and practiced, welded joints are considered the
most satisfactory and although not always practical, are being used wherever possible. As plants get larger and more automated, welded fittings have the obvious
advantages and welded pipelines need not be taken down except for occasional
inspection. Inspections are done at points joined by sanitary fittings.
Valves are necessary to control and direct flow processes. The types of valves
available to the dairy plant operator are numerous and may be classified in several
ways. The dairy plant operator is limited to those of sanitary construction but they
may be manually cleanable or CIP-able. Valves may be further classified as manually
or power operated and by their configuration: compression type, butterfly type, plugtype, diaphragm type, and so forth.
The discussion here will be limited to those used in the dairy industry and, with
two exceptions, to those for which there are 3-A Sanitary Standards. The manually
operated, plug-type valve was one of the first to have service in the dairy industry
and is still used in applications requiring manual cleaning. They may be of one-way
or three-way configurations. Manual plug-type valves are used on batch pasteurizers
and other critical processes where leak detection is necessary. These are inlet and
outlet leak-protector valves. They are designed so that when the valve is in any
closed position, it will prevent leakage of the product passed through the valve. Leak
protector valves are provided with one or more leak-protection grooves 3/16 inch
(5 mm) wide and 3/32 inch (2 mm) deep at the center. These grooves shall be
positioned to divert leakage occurring at all points throughout the depth of the seat
and to prevent air binding. They must also be fitted with a stop to guide the operator
in closing the valve so that unpasteurized product may not enter the outlet line or
the pasteurizer. They must also be designed to prevent the accumulation of unpasteurized product in the product passages of the valve when the valve is in any closed
position. Although the norm is manually operated and cleaned, power actuation is
available and at least one manufacturer claims CIP.
The diaphragm-type valve controls the flow of product by a flexible rubber or
plastic diaphragm. These valves are useful for varying flow rates. The diaphragm
separates the product from the working bonnet assembly. They may either be manually controlled or power operated. The bonnet is attached to the body. The chamber
on the exterior side of the diaphragm shall have one or more 3/32 inch (2 mm) leak
detection holes above the bonnet flange.
The boot-seal type valve is a second example of a sanitary valve using rubber or
plastic materials to control fluid flow. The valve assembly consists of a boot-seal,
poppet, helix pin, knob, cap, and body. The boot seal separates the product from the
working assembly. These valves must also provide for leak detection by having 3/32-
inch (2 mm) holes on the end of the poppet and two holes 180 degrees apart on the
sidewall.
The automatic positive displacement samplers deserve mention even though they
are not flow controlling devices because they do serve an important function. These
are difficult to design in a sanitary manner because of close tolerances and small
passages and therefore should be manually cleaned. The sampler consists of a body,
plunger, head, O-rings, seals, and a power-operated mechanism. They also consist
of a closure plug or sample bottle port closure suitable for sealing the sample bottle
opening when the sampler is not in use. Automatic positive displacement samplers
do not require leak detection ports, but they must be capable of being automatically
controlled to prevent overfilling of the sample bottle. Manually operated sampling
valves are also available.
The rupture disc is another fitting (or single service ' Waive") that needs to be
mentioned because of its near universal use on silo-type milk storage tanks and on
other larger vessels. Its function is to break or rupture before a tank explodes or
implodes from high or low pressure. Rupture disc assemblies consist of a disc holder,
top section, seal, a girdle, and means for rupturing the seal. They may also be fitted
with alarm devices (recommended especially on silo tanks). Rupture discs are usually
attached to the tank with a sanitary fitting and a quick disconnect-type clamp.
The butterfly valve is one for which there are no printed 3-A Sanitary Standards.
They are however used on many United States farm holding tanks and are common
in the alcohol beverage industry. These valves consist of a body, a plate or butterfly,
a shaft, and appropriate seals. They may be manually or power operated. Their design
is such that manual cleaning and visual inspection must be done.
The valve type with the most use in the industry is the power-operated compression valve. This type valve has gained popularity as more dairies use CIP and automated procedures. The power-operated compression valves are usually a rising
stem type with the valve seat flush or nearly flush with the outside ports. The acturators are available as normally open or normally closed. The normally open close
on activation whereas the normally closed open by the release of the activating force.
The activation force is often supplied by air pressure but may also be magnetic or
electrical. Although not required by 3-A Sanitary Standards many have a stem indicator. 3-A Standards do require the open yolk design for powered acturators with
an open space of at least 1 inch (25 mm). Manually operated compression valves
must be disassembled for cleaning. Those with powered activators may be cleaned
in place provided the valves are pulsed during cleaning and sanitization.
A variation on the compression valve is the double-block and bleed valve. This
valve has two seats in one body with a leak detection port. These mixproof doubleseat valves allow solid connections between product piping and cleaning systems.
A mixproof double seat valve is defined as a valve that, in the closed position,
provides one sealing element to block fluid on one side of the valve and a second
sealing element to block fluid on the other side of the valve. Between the two sealing
elements is an atmospheric break that provides a back pressure-free pathway for the
discharge of leakage fluid from either side of the valve in the event of failure of
either of the sealing elements. Mixproof double-seat valves are specifically designed
Next Page
4.2.5 Centrifuges
The dairy industry has used the principle of centrifugal separation since the turn of
the 20th century. Prior to the centrifuge, cream was separated from milk via the
principle of sedimentation, that is, the milk was left to set in a quiescent state which
allowed the lighter fat globules to rise to the top while the heavier skim milk settled
to the bottom. Of course this method was very slow and inefficient. The first separators (Fig. 4.28) built in the 1890s were hand operated and used on the farm to
separate the cream and skim portions of milk. Since then the separator has become
electrically power driven, capacities have increased, and efficiency improved. Typical applications for separators by the industry include warm milk separation, cold
milk separation, whey separation, milk and whey clarification, and milk standardization. They are also used in processing products such as quark, cream cheese,
butteroil, casein, caseinate, and lactose, and for removal of bacteria from milk. Due
Previous Page
4.2.5 Centrifuges
The dairy industry has used the principle of centrifugal separation since the turn of
the 20th century. Prior to the centrifuge, cream was separated from milk via the
principle of sedimentation, that is, the milk was left to set in a quiescent state which
allowed the lighter fat globules to rise to the top while the heavier skim milk settled
to the bottom. Of course this method was very slow and inefficient. The first separators (Fig. 4.28) built in the 1890s were hand operated and used on the farm to
separate the cream and skim portions of milk. Since then the separator has become
electrically power driven, capacities have increased, and efficiency improved. Typical applications for separators by the industry include warm milk separation, cold
milk separation, whey separation, milk and whey clarification, and milk standardization. They are also used in processing products such as quark, cream cheese,
butteroil, casein, caseinate, and lactose, and for removal of bacteria from milk. Due
Figure 4.28 The first hand-operated milk separator. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale,
NJ, U.S.A.)
to the many requirements it is necessary to specifically design the separator for the
function or process. Separators are rated on capacity and clarification/separation
efficiency.
There are two basic types of construction for separators/clarifiers. Separators with
solid wall bowls are used for discontinuous processing and separators with selfcleaning bowls for continuous processing as shown in Figure 4.29. The space for
holding solids in the discontinuous operating separator is formed by the solid outer
bowl wall. Foreign materials that are removed from the milk accumulate on the inner
wall of the bowl in the solids holding space. The bowl must be taken apart and
manually cleaned after each day's operation. The length of the production operation
depends on the amount of solids separated which is mainly dictated by the solids in
the feed. The process must be stopped and the unit cleaned when the solids reach
the edge of the disc stack. Thus the need for self-cleaning separators is apparent for
processes where continuous operation is desired. The separation occurs in the disc
pack whereby the solids are separated out into the solids holding space. The solids
Figure 4.29 A milk separator of the new generation with "soft-stream" inlet system, type
MSD 200-01-076. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)
holding space is a double conical form which incorporates ejection ports that are
opened and closed via hydraulically lowering and raising a sliding piston. During
the production period the accumulated solids are ejected almost instantaneously at
preset intervals by lowering the sliding piston. At the end of production the centrifuge
is automatically cleaned in place.
Three types of centrifuges will be discussed, the first one being the warm milk
separator (see Fig. 4.30). For warm milk separation a self-cleaning separator fitted
with an internal hydraulically operated sliding piston can be used. The milk is separated into the cream and skim portions in the disc stack with the continuous separation of the foreign materials also occurring at the same time. The foreign materials
slide down the discs toward the periphery and accumulate in a holding space prior
to being ejected through ports at preselected intervals and without reducing the bowl
speed. This is accomplished by hydraulically lowering and raising a sliding piston.
The milk feeds into a rotating bowl via a central feed tube. The kinetic energy in
the stationary feed tube is converted to pressure energy in the enlarged inlet chamber.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Feed
Cream discharge
Skim milk discharge
Centripetal pump for skim milk
Centripetal pump for cream
Feed tube
Distributor tube
Disc stack
Separating disc
"Soft-stream** inlet system
Rising channels
Solids holding space
Solids ejection ports
Sliding piston
Closing-water chamber
Opening-water feed duct
Piston valve
Solids outlet
The lower section of the distributor is kept full by throttling the feed to the disc
stack. The milk enters the disc stack through the rising channels. The fat globules
are separated from the skim out in the disc stack and flow to the center due to the
lower specific gravity. The cream is then discharged from the bowl under pressure
to eliminate foam via a self-contained centrifugal pump. The skim flows above the
separating disc, which seals the separation chamber from above. The skim milk is
also discharged via a built-in centrifugal pump under pressure to eliminate foam.
In a warm milk separation system, as shown in Figure 4.31, the milk is pumped
from the balance via a centrifugal/positive displacement pump through the up side
of a split regenerator where the milk is prewarmed to separation temperature. The
pump must be sized to supply the proper flow of product to the separator at the
manufacturer's recommended feed pressure, usually 20 to 30 psi.
The skim milk is discharged from the separator at a maximum of 70 psi which
is adjusted by the control pressure of a constant pressure valve. In order for the
constant pressure valve to function properly, the total pressure in the downstream
equipment should not exceed 65 psi. If the downstream pressure is over the 65 psi,
a booster pump will be required in the line to meet the necessary requirements. Note
1 Storage tank
(whole milk)
2 Pump
3 Balance tank with lloat
valve
4 Pump (output
approx. 10 % higher than
separator throughput
8 Pressure gauge
capacity)
9 Constant pressure valve
5 Flow constrictor
for adjusting the
PI - |>2 at least 0.5 bar,
operating pressure
max. 2.0 bar
10 Flow diversion valve
6 Heat exchanger
1 1 Line to tank
7 Milk separator
12 Flowmetcr
13 Adjustable flow
constrictor
14 Cream heater
15 Flow diversion valve
16 Line to cream tank
17 Booster pump
Figure 4.31 Installation diagram for warm milk separation. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)
the pump is not installed immediately on the skim discharge of the separator since
it could disrupt the function of the constant pressure valve. The cream is discharged
from the separator at a slightly higher maximum pressure, 75 psi, than the skim milk.
The butterfat content of the cream is adjusted either by a hand-operated cream adjusting valve or via an adjustable flow constrictor. The volume of the cream is read
from a flowmeter. If an adjustable flow constrictor is used on the cream side it is
necessary to make sure the maximum pressure difference does not exceed 22 psi. If
the cream flows from the separator directly into a balance tank and then pumped to
the storage tank the fat content must be regulated by a hand-operated cream adjusting
valve.
Milk that is stored below 500F for over 48 h prior to separation requires a higher
temperature because such storage of milk causes a more uniform and stronger water
bond between the fat globule membrane and the skim milk. That is, the difference
in specific gravity between the skim phase and the fat phase is less. Thus there is an
increase in the butterfat content in the skim milk which needs to be offset by higher
separation temperatures, which help to destroy the water bonds and thereby improve
the separating efficiency.
As indicated, regulating valves in the cream and skim milk discharge lines are
used to adjust the required ratio of cream and skim milk. The constant pressure valve
in the skim milk discharge line is set at a fixed value. The butterfat content in the
cream is then adjusted with the regulating valve in the cream discharge line. Corresponding regulating valves in the feed line maintain a fixed feed to the separator.
The adjusted butterfat content does not affect the separation efficiency in normal
separation conditions. However, as the butterfat content of the cream is regulated
to above 50%, the separation efficiency is reduced and thus the skim contains
more fat.
Listed below are some factors that affect the separation efficiency of warm whole
milk separators:
Time of year
Type of feed and the breed of the milk cow
Quality of milk delivered to the dairy plant
Temperature/time in storage prior to separating
Shear of the milk before processing
Process-related factors during separation (pressures, temperatures, capacities, etc.)
Free air in the process milk
Effect on milk subjected to high vacuum.
Thus by proper control of the above factors separation efficiency can be optimized
and fat lost in the skim milk kept to a minimum.
Cold milk separators can be of the self-cleaning or the solid wall bowl variety.
They basically function the same as the warm milk separators. The process parameters do however change, especially the separation temperature which is between 40
and 500F. If the temperature is too cold the cream will not flow through the separator.
Also the maximum fat content in the cream is 42% due to the high viscosity of the
cream at the separating temperature. It is best to maintain a 40% fat level in the
cream to prevent any malfunctions of the machine.
When choosing a separator for buttermilk it is necessary to know the source of
the buttermilk such as whether it is from sweet cream, from sour cream, from neutralized cream, or from the cask churning process. Self-cleaning and non-self-cleaning separators can be used for all of the above except the buttermilk produced from
sour cream. Buttermilk from sour cream contains a large amount of coagulated protein which is separated out and would cause large accumulations in a short period
in nonself-cleaning separators, thus requiring frequent cleaning. Therefore the selfcleaning separator is required because in this type of separator the protein can be
discharged routinely without shutdown of the system.
The second type of centrifuge used in the dairy industry is the clarifier (Fig. 4.32)
which is used to remove foreign materials in milk such as dirt particles, blood cells,
udder cells, and bacteria. This material, sometimes called sludge, does not have a
consistent composition. Other methods have been used to remove these materials
from milk but the clarifier has proven to be the most satisfactory way. As with
separators, clarifiers can be either the self-cleaning or nonself-cleaning variety. In a
typical milk clarifier milk to be clarified is pumped through the central inlet tube
into the clarifier bowl. The milk flows via the distributor and rising channels into a
disc set. The milk is divided into many thin layers. The solid material slides outward
Figure 4.32 Bacteria-removing clarifier for bacterial clarification of cheese milk. (Courtesy
of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)
under the effect of the centrifugal force and leaves the separation space at the edge
of the disc. The milk that has been clarified flows inward and is pumped via a
centripetal pump from the clarifier. The foreign materials slide outward and collect
in the double-conical sediment holding space. In the case of self-cleaning clariflers
the hydraulic system ejects the solids at preselected intervals. As with the separators
the bowl is desludged at full speed.
Centrifuges are also used for whey processing as clariflers to remove cheese fines
from the whey and as a separator to recover butterfat lost during the cheesemaking
operation. Cheese fines occur in whey in a suspension similar to the foreign matter
found in raw milk. For clarification of whey the whey is fed into the disc pack at
the periphery as opposed to the separator where the liquid flows from the center to
the periphery. Thus as the liquid enters the bowl at the periphery, the cheese particles
are subjected to a very high centrifugal force. The liquid flows to the center in an
opposite direction to the centrifugal force in order to discharge from the clarifier
bowl. With this method the very small cheese fines are removed from the whey. Due
to the large amount of fines required to be removed it is necessary to divide the
processing into the clarifying process and the separation process. The clarifier bowl
has a larger sediment holding space which allows for longer intervals between the
desludging process.
The design of the whey separation process is affected by the following factors
and thus should be examined carefully prior to making equipment selections:
The types of cheese being produced
If the whey is a mixture from many types of cheese what is the range of the ratios
of the blends?
Will a salt containing whey be processed? Will the salt whey be processed separately? What is the volume of salt in the whey and the volume of the whey?
Is there any whey from cheese presses being processed? What is the volume of
fat content?
What is the butterfat content of the whey to be processed?
What is the percent of cheese fines in the whey?
How are the fines to be removed, with screens or clarifier or a combination of
both?
What is the length of the daily process period?
Is the process continuous or discontinuous?
What is the history of the whey prior to the process, that is length of storage, heat
treatment, or any other factors affecting the characteristics of the whey?
Each manufacturer has his own desludging mechanism designed into the centrifuge. In one such system the hydraulically actuated sliding piston is the bottom of
the centrifugation chamber. When the bowl is rotating the sliding piston is kept in
the raised position by the pressure exerted on it by the water in the closing chamber.
Therefore the ejection ports are in the closed position. The piston valve controls the
closing water and thus the position of the sliding piston. Operating water is fed to
the piston valve to open the bowl ports. The piston valve is opened, allowing the
closing water from underneath the sliding piston to drain through the outlet. The
centrifugal pressure of the product rotating with the bowl then forces the piston
downwards, opening the ports in the bowl periphery through which the solids are
ejected. The operating water fed is stopped to the piston valve and the centrifugal
force pushes the piston valve outward, therefore sealing the outlet for the closing
water and closing the ejection ports. The operating liquid is then fed into the closing
chamber below the sliding piston. Because the liquid pressure in the closing chamber
is greater than the pressure in the centrifugation chamber the sliding piston is forced
upwards. A timing unit controls the valves automatically to allow the centrifuge to
desludge.
Some accessories for centrifuges include timing units, constant pressure valves,
and flow constrictors. The self-cleaning separators are equipped with timing units to
fully automate the centrifugation process. The electronic timing unit (Fig. 4.33)
automatically controls the closing and opening of the water valves as well as the
pneumatic constant pressure valve in the skim milk discharge line of the separator.
Controls are available for either total or partial desluding. Constant-pressure valves
(Fig. 4.34) are required in processes where the skim milk discharge pressure varies.
A spring-loaded or air-operated valve is installed in the skim milk discharge line to
maintain constant pressure. A flow constrictor (Fig. 4.35) is used to maintain a
maximum throughput capacity at a preset value. Each centrifuge supplier has his
own design for the constrictor that matches the capacities of his units.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. Alfa Laval Food & Dairy Company, Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.
2. Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.
Figure 4.33 Timing unit, type TVE 2-M. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)
Figure 4.34 Constant pressure valve. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)
4.2.6 Homogenizers
Milkfat has a tendency to rise in milk and form an area of cream or cream line. This
property of milk/cream separation is not accepted by today's consumer; thus a
method was developed to disperse the fat, homogenization. Homogenization is subjecting the fat globules to mechanical treatment that breaks them into smaller globules that are evenly dispersed throughout the milk. The treatment reduces the mean
diameter of the globule by a factor of about 10. Homogenization is also used for
other products in other areas of the dairy industry such as for ice cream mix to
provide for a smooth mixture that does not separate on storage in tanks or to improve
viscosity in sour cream or yogurt.
The homogenizer (Fig. 36) is composed of a reciprocating piston type highpressure pump, usually three- or five-cylinder piston pump, with a back pressure
device, the homogenizing valve. The pistons run in cylinders bored in a high-pressure
block, all of which are made of resistant, compatible materials. Seals are provided
to prevent oil from leaking into the product and to seal the product into the system.
Water is used to cool the pistons as they move in and out of the cylinder. (See Figure
4.37) for further details of the homogenizer head.) In the case of high-temperature
processes steam or condensate is used to lubricate the pistons.
Figure 4.36 Homogenizers. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)
UPPER CAP
HOMOGENZ
IN
IG
PRESSURE GAUGE
DS
ICHARGE
VALVE
DS
ICHARGE VALVE STOP
TAPERED DS
ICHARGE
VALVE SEAT
GAUGE BLOCK
N
I LETCAP
SUCTO
I NVALVE
TAPERED SUCTO
IN
VALVE SEAT
PLUNGER
CYLN
I DER
N
I LET
CONNECTO
IN
N
I LET FEED PRESSURE GAUGE
PLUNGER PACKN
IG
FRONTCAP
Figure 4.37 Typical pumping cylinder. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington, MA,
U.S.A.)
Although all components of an homogenizer are important the heart is the homogenizing valve itself (Fig. 4.38). It appears the primary factor in homogenization
is cavitation with a secondary factor being turbulence. To create these effects the
milk/ice cream mix enters the homogenizing valve assembly from the pump section
of the machine at high pressure and low velocity. As the product enters the space
between the valve and the seat which is very narrow the velocity greatly increases
(Fig. 4.39). There is a corresponding decrease in pressure to the vapor pressure of
the liquid and vapor bubbles in the product. As the liquid flows through the valve/
valve seat area the velocity decreases and presure regains, resulting in the implosion
of the bubbles. The formation and implosion of bubbles is referred to as cavitation.
The intense energy release and turbulence associated with cavitation cause disruption
of the fat globule. The homogenization process occurs over an extremely small
distance and a time of <0.005 s.
The power base for a typical homogenizer consists of a frame, lubrication system,
gears, drive, eccentric shaft, and connecting rods (Fig. 4.40). The frame is usually
cast iron mounted on a steel fabricated sub-base with ball feet or lugs for embedding
in the floor. The lubrication system is a forced feed system accomplished by small
oil pump with high/low pressure switches to protect the gears. The gears are double
helical and are pinion mounted on a driveshaft. The drive unit can be a constant
speed motor with V-belt drive or variable speed motor. The eccentric shaft is a single
piece, high strength shaft with three cams heat shrunk to the shaft. The connecting
Two-stage manual
homogenizing valve
actuator assembly
Single-stage manual
homogenizing valve
actuator assembly
Two-stage
HVA System
Micro-Gap*
valve assembly
Figure 4.38 The valve of a homogenizer. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington, MA,
U.S.A.)
rods are self-aligning with babbitt-lined field replaceable bearings. The previous
description was taken from an APV Gaulin data sheet.
The homogenization process described previously was for what is considered
single-stage homogenization, that is, the homogenization taking place through one
valve/effect. However, for some products such as ice cream mix single-stage homogenization is not enough; therefore a two-stage valve is available that consecutively passes the product through two valves. The first valve breaks the fat globule
up as indicated; however due to the nature of the product the small globules have a
tendency to form agglomerates and thus will rise in the product like unhomogenized
product. Thus a second stage is required to further break up the agglomerates and
thus make sure the fat is evenly dispersed throughout the product. The pressure on
the second stage is always less than on the first stage because not as much work is
VALVE
SEAT
BASIC
PROLXJCT
HOMOGENIZED
PRODUCT
VALVE
MFBCTRiNG
Conrtol 1000 PS
G
I
SULFUR
CB
oE
nN
rtoT
lON
6000CLA
P
SG
I
TIE
Y
CTo
tN
tU
0O
0
SG
I
T
In
Ao
IM20D
I XD
IPE
Co
illBON700
G
I
Cn
Ao
R
B0
LACP
KS
CM
oA
nG
troN
lES
3000OX
P
G
I
U
IM
O
IS
E
ConK
lN S
O
O
O
G
I
IrtoO
O
X
D
IEPS
Figure 4.39 The valve and homogenization. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington,
MA, U.S.A.)
Next Page
OIL PUMP
GEAR CASE
DRIVE SHAFT
BASE
SUB BASE
DRIVING SHEAVE ASSEMBLY
MOTOR
Figure 4.40 Homogenizer base with major sub-assemblies. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc.,
Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Gaulin and APV Rennie, Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.
Previous Page
OIL PUMP
GEAR CASE
DRIVE SHAFT
BASE
SUB BASE
DRIVING SHEAVE ASSEMBLY
MOTOR
Figure 4.40 Homogenizer base with major sub-assemblies. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc.,
Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Gaulin and APV Rennie, Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.
3. The equipment must be designed so that all the product contact surfaces will be
in contact with circulating clean solutions in sufficient volume and velocity to
clean them.
4. All interior surfaces with product contact must be self draining and contain no
dead ends.
5. Product contact surfaces must be visible for inspection when assembled or be
easily disassembled for inspection to ensure mechanical cleaning and sanitizing
procedures are effective.
6. If these items are not satisfactory manual cleaning procedures must be used.
7. Nonproduct contact surfaces must also be designed to protect the contents from
contamination and constructed in such a manner to prevent harboring of soil,
bacteria, or vermin and be readily cleanable.
Why the stringent criteria? Dairy foods are perishable, are potential carriers of
disease, and contain spoilage bacteria. A high quality and safe dairy food cannot be
made using unclean equipment; 98% clean is still 2% dirty!
4.2.7.2 Clean-In-Place
Mechanical cleaning, frequently referred to as clean-in-place (CIP), was first applied
in the dairy industry in the 1940s. Prior to that time cleaning of all milk processing
equipment involved complete disassembly, manual cleaning by rinsing, brushing
with a cleaning solution and rinsing, and reassembly followed by application of a
sanitizing solution just prior to processing. This was a very labor intensive process
requiring up to 50% of the total labor. It also was not conducive to large plants,
automation and the economics of scale associated with the former. The transition
period from manual to mechanical cleaning was lengthy and usually occurred during
complete plant overhaul or during the design phase of new, highly automated plants.
Today mechanical cleaning is the most common commercial method for closed
systems of lines and for cleaning most pieces of equipment. This method of cleaning
is highly effective when processing systems are constructed and operated properly.
Mechanical cleaning also lends itself to automation and large, multiproduct plants.
The objective of mechanical cleaning is to clean product lines, tanks, and processing
equipment without dismantling and cleaning manually. A word of cautionpipeline
systems and equipment designed and properly operated for mechanical cleaning
require periodic disassembly for inspection for cleaning effectiveness.
2. Sanitizing shall mean treatment of a cleaned surface to destroy disease and spoilage organisms to reduce the total vegetative cell population to a safe level.
3. Disinfecting shall mean destruction of all vegetative organisms.
4. Sterilization shall mean the complete destruction of all organisms including
spores.
There are seven factors that affect microorganism growth:
1. Source of microbesraw milk must be assumed to be contaminated.
2. Nutrient source is requiredmilk residue is an excellent source.
3. Microbes require free waterall fluid dairy products and many manufactured
ones have high water activities.
4. pH is a factor and varies depending on microbe species but many fluid and
manufactured products have a pH conducive to microbe growth.
5. Proper osmotic pressure is required for microbe growth and survival.
6. Temperature is importantmost bacteria thrive at 37 to 82C (100 to 1800F).
Heating above 82C (1800F) or cooling below 4C (400F) will inactivate or inhibit
growth of most bacteria. Certain bacterial spores are resistant to 82C and bacteria
will remain dormant even at below freezing temperatures.
7. Competing bacteria will affect the population mix.
All dairy processing and cleaning/sanitization procedures use techniques to alter
one or more of the above factors to produce safe dairy products.
WATER
WATER HEADER BY OTHERS
CITY WATER
LlOUID
LEVEL
PROBES
ClPS
ISTtI
WATER
SUPPLY
TANK
75 GALLONS
SiT
COND
TRAP BY OTHERS
FOR RTD
CHEHICAL FEED
CIPS
PUMP-IO HP
Figure 4.41 A one-tank cleaning system. (Courtesy of Sani-Matic Systems, Madison, WI, U.S.A.)
FOR RTD
UPPER
SPRAY BAR
STM
FRESH
RINSE
TANK
300 GAL.
WASH
TANK
300 GAL.
SiT
CONO
TRAP BY OTHERS
TANK 2
TANK 1
LOVER
SPRAY BARS
30 HP
CIPS PUMP
7 1/2 HP
RETURN PUMP
Figure 4.42 A two-tank cleaning system. (Courtesy of Sani-Matic Systems, Madison, WI, U.S.A.)
through the lines and discharged to a drain removing a large portion of the soil.
Following the initial rinse, various cleaning solutions are circulated for the required
period of time. The solutions can be returned to the wash tank and recirculated.
Recirculating systems are desirable because of lower operating cost due to more
conservative use of water and chemicals. Water is conserved in a multiple tank
recirculation system by returning the final rinse water to the prerinse hold tank. This
allows the system to clean with the wash solution for a longer time without adding
makeup water to the system.
Another variation is a system designed to clean lines and tanks at the same time.
(Also see Figures 4.43 and 4.44.) The preparation of rinse and cleaning solutions
are as in the two-tanks lines-only system. The system is more complicated in that
lines and tanks are cleaned at the same time, and the first rinses in tank cleaning are
different than those required for the line cleaning. A balance of cleaning solution
flow adequate to clean the lines and supply the sprayballs to the tanks must be
accomplished. This requires careful sizing of the pumps and lines. Also proper sequencing and establishment of time, temperature, and cleaning cycles must be accomplished. Rinse cycles must be arranged so adequate rinsing of body lines and
the tank is done prior to cleaning. Air blows must be incorporated at both pumps.
The next step to a more complex system is one that cleans product line, tanks,
and additional processing equipment. All the requirements of a line-tank system
apply here plus all requirements that must be satisfied for rinsing and cleaning the
processing equipment. In this case the processing equipment will probably be the
most difficult to clean, hence the cleaning procedures used for equipment are usually
more than adequate for lines and tanks. Because of this individual circuits are often
fabricated to clean process equipment, thereby allowing independent cleaning of
lines and equipment and obtaining a more efficient use of cleaning solutions and
equipment.
The above systems may be manually controlled or a certain degree of automation
can be incorporated into these systems particularly in the preparation of cleaning,
rinse, and sanitizing solutions. Controlling the flow of rinse and cleaning solutions
to the individual areas is dependent on the individual process layout and can be quite
simple to very complex.
There are numerous automated mechanical cleaning system configurations available (Figures 4.45 thru 4.49). They are nearly always of the recirculating type because of their lower operating costs. The heart of these systems is the rinse and CIP
solution center (Figure 4.43). Water and solution are conserved in a multitank recirculating system by returning final rinse water to the prerinse tank and by enabling
the system to clean without adding makeup water to the system. An example of such
a system is illustrated in Figure 4.50. It is typical of those used in the dairy industry.
The rinse tank is provided with water, steam, and control openings as well as necessary connections, valves, and piping. The wash or cleaning tank is equipped in a
similar manner but also has provisions for controlling the solution and CIP return
lines. The tank size is dependent on the complexity and size of the process to be
mechanically cleaned.
CIPR
!CHEM
FEED
ug
RINSE
TANK
GAL.
CHEM
FEED
LLC
ACID
REUSE
TANK
GAL.
DET
REUSE
TANK
GAL.
[CC
CIPS
STM
64-2
pC
Si T
COND
TRAP BY OTHERS
STRAINER
CIPS
PUhP
Figure 4.43 A three-tank cleaning system. (Courtesy of Sani-Matic Systems, Madison, WI, U.S.A.)
FV
SB-2
PT-2
PT-I
PT-3
PP
DASHED LINES ARE PRODUCT CONTACT SURFACES
SOLID LINES ARE SOLUTION CONTACT SURFACES
RP
UATER VALVE
CIPS
U
ER
DA
G
UR
R
IE
ST
N
IEE
STEAM VALVE
SHELL & TUBE
HEAT EXCHANGER
Sanitizing and cleaning solutions are prepared by metering the required amount
of chemical agent into the line carrying the rinse water. Sanitizing solutions are not
returned to the supply tank but are prepared fresh for each use. The controls include
the conductivity control for solution strengths, thermostats, and level controls on
tanks. The cleaning tank is fitted with a temperature recorder to record the temperature of the returning cleaning solution. With this type of cleaning center, the control
system may initiate and complete all cleaning and sanitizing sequences once the
sequence is initiated. With the instrumentation and computer controls available today, any number of items and sequences are controllable automatically. It must be
pointed out that the interlocked sequences are not changed automatically and deviations are more difficult.
Most larger dairy plants will integrate the CIP circuit, process lines, tanks, and
process equipment. An entire system may be mechanically and automatically cleaned
at the end of production. Because no processing is occurring all appurtenances requiring manual cleaning are removed, sprayballs are positioned in tanks and proc-
Raw milk
Figure 4.45 Cleaning of several circuits from a central CIP station. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval
Food & Dairy Group, Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)
ClP
return
Cold
water
Hot
water
Rinse
water
Detergent
Acid
Rinse
milk
CIP
pressure
Figure 4.46 Design of a central CIP station. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group,
Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)
Raw milk
Figure 4.47 Decentralized CIP system. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group, Inc.,
Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)
essing equipment, as needed, and any piping changes are made to connect CIP lines
to equipment. Doors and vents are opened on tanks and process vessels. An additional CIP return pump is controlled by CIP controller, and the CIP cycle is begun.
The advantages of CIP systems are numerous but the most important one is that
the CIP operation will be performed satisfactorily and in a controlled manner. No
shortcuts may be taken. Records are automatically made of the entire sequence and
if an aberration occurs it will be recorded. The second most important reason for
automated CIP is economics, especially if cleaning is done often or the system is a
large one. CIP has a place in practically all dairy operations; only the degree of
automation required varies. When choosing a CIP system one should consider first
the additional assurance that effective cleaning will be accomplished, then economics, production schedules, capital costs, and personnel.
See Figures 4.49 to 4.48 are additional examples.
Supply of
' Equipm.
itobe
daaned
Supply of
Supply of
cone
acid
Equipm.
to be
daaned
Supply of
cone
add
cone
acid
Equipm.
to be
daaned
> Equipm.
itobe
deaned
Figure 4.48 Rinsing with water (a,b); filling with detergent or with water and acid. (Courtesy
of Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group, Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)
Sanitary Standards. The standards attempt to provide the major indicators or guidelines for evaluating sanitary equipment so it may be used as a check list for compliance with rigid health and quality assurance concepts.
At the outset it should be understood that these standards will be concerned only
with equpment that has product contact surfaces. It will not involve such items as
surfaces of crates, refrigerators, cabinets, or material handling devices that do not
contact the product. These standards are based on the criteria for the cleanability
and product protection that had been adopted and published by the 3-A Sanitary
Standards Committees. Although these standards had their genesis in the milk industry, they are broadly applicable and should be considered more as universal
standards for any industry utilizing thermal processing and packaging of fluid food
products.
As the 3-A Sanitary Standards are used as a basis for this discussion, the evolution
of accepted 3-A Sanitary Standards criteria and their implementation today has left
a history of development that should be of interest. These requirements are based
on highly deliberative motives whose informative rationale has convinced leaders in
the dairy industry and regulatory community of a reasonable way of doing things.
Figure 4.49 Satellite CIP unit in decentralized system. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group, Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)
Before we discuss the nuts and bolts of sanitary criteria, consideration needs to
be given, in a preliminary way, to the concept of cleanability. Cleanability is a term
one lives with daily in the field of sanitation control and is an integral part of quality
control. One hesitates to attempt to define cleanability but it is a term that relates to
empirical criteria for the restoration of the original condition of a product contact
surface, assuming of course that the word "original" pertains to the ideal of pristine
first appearance of the equipment for use. Cleanability means in addition the properties aiding the release of soil from a product contact surface, and the preparation
of the surface for reuse. Many interrelated factors are involved in the phenomenon
factors of surface tension, smoothness, corrosion resistance, and even electrical or
galvanic action.
A finite mesurement for cleanability is difficult but such a methodology is sorely
needed and there is a substantial literature on the efforts to establish such evaluation.
Some of the techniques that have been tried are those of sterile swabs, radioactive
or "tag" soil, reflectance, and ultraviolet absorption, but none to date are practical
for routine in-plant measures of cleanability. Thus, the degree of cleanability remains
a visual evaluation of surfaces.
Equipment for processing fluid dairy products should be designed to include
minimum criteria for cleanability and product protection. Such criteria should ensure
capability for cleaning and reuse of product contact surfaces for any food material.
This concept does not accommodate the theory that there are degrees of sanitation
requirements based on the perishability of the dairy or food product or its epidemiological history as a disease factor. All product contact surfaces must first be safe
and they must be cleanable, whether they be used to convey milk and milk products,
liquid eggs, beer, fruit juices, water for bottling, or most any other food with a
moderate to high water activity.
Standards should be comprised of four essential segments: scope, definitions,
materials, and fabrication. In putting together uniform guidelines for equipment sanitation, two pivotal and highly substantive segments are the latter twomaterials
and fabrication.
All published 3-A Sanitary Standards have the same four basic sections: Scope,
Definitions, Materials, Fabrications, and an advisory section called an Appendix.
The balance of this discussion will deal with the philosophy that is inherent in these
subject areas.
Under materials we consider the self-limiting characteristics of the materials that
compose the equipment. Under fabrication we should consider sanitary design insofar as it can be determined or effected by the fabrication process. That is, the finish
of the material; the limitation of radii for inside angles; self-draining characteristics;
accessibility for cleaning and inspection; and the design for mechanical cleaning,
floor clearance, integrity of surface for product contact, and nonproduct contact or
exterior surfaces.
The principal tried and proven material for dairy and food processing equipment
is AISI 300 series stainless steel and the corresponding American Cast Institute
grades for castings. Sanitary specifications should spell this out with an ultimate
provision for equally corrosion-resistant metal. The determination of ultimate materials should be made in the context of the environment of its intended use. Even
with this proviso, however, the latitude is not generous enough to permit wholesale
use of other metals. There is recognition for the use of dissimilar metals for bearing
surfaces and functional requirements, such as hardness.
There are other exceptions to the AISI 300 series requirements, such as the need
for engineering plating and, in the nonmetallic area, recognition has to be made of
rubber and plastics and to a lesser degree glass, carbon, and ceramics, all of which
have relatively minor uses in equipment from the standpoint of volume used but the
applications themselves are virtually nonsubstitutable in many cases. Overall there
is little flexibility for selection of materials by the equipment fabricator.
Sanitary rubber, for example, must first comply with the Food, Drug and Cosmetic
Act. Then it should exhibit rather narrow limits of absorption and changes in physical
properties as measured by the durometer test for hardness. Criteria for rubber have
been published by the 3-A Sanitary Standards Committees based on durometer limits
angle. There are provisions for bonding and welding, accessibility of surfaces, selfdraining characteristics, protection of product through covers, gasket groove dimensions, limitations of threads in the product zone (with specific exceptions), floor
clearance, and many specialized considerations for different types of equipment.
The highlights of the additional fabrication criteria can be reviewed quickly. Permanent joints in metallic welded product contact surfaces need to be continuously
welded. Welded areas on product contact surfaces shall be at least as smooth as a
No. 4 ground finish on stainless steel sheets free from imperfections such as pits,
folds, and crevices.
Appurtenances having product contact surfaces need to be easily removable for
cleaning or shall be readily cleaned in place.
Product contact surfaces need to be self draining except for normal clinage.
Gaskets having a product contact surface need to be removable or bonded. Gasket
retaining grooves in product contact surfaces shall be no deeper than their width.
Internal angles of 135 degrees or less on product contact surfaces need a radii of
not less than 1A inch (in some applications Vs inch is acceptable) except where smaller
radii are required for essential functional purposes.
When the radius is V32 inch or less, the product contact surface of this internal
angle must be readily accessible for cleaning and inspection.
The radii in grooves for standard Vz inch O-rings shall be not less than !/32 inch.
There shall be no threads on product contact surfaces.
The specifications that have been discussed here are applicable to the fabrication
of food equipment in general. Naturally, individual standards will provide a number
of specialized considerations for different types of equipment. For example, if a
standard for instrument fittings is being considered, the following should be included
in the fabrication section:
Fittings, connections, gaskets (if used), and other component parts to be used in
the processing system to be sterilized by heat and operated at a temperature of 2500F
(121C) or higher need to comply with the following additional criteria:
1. The construction is to be such that all product contact surfaces can be: (a) sterilized by saturated steam or water under pressure at a temperature of at least 250F
(121C) and (b) operate at temperatures required for processing.
2. All fittings to be used in such processing systems need to be permanently installed.
3. The fittings for instruments that have product contact surfaces to be used in such
a processing system, not designed so that the steam automatically is shut down
if the product pressure in the system becomes less than that of the atmosphere
and cannot be restarted until the system is resterilized, shall have a steam or other
sterilizing medium chamber surround the joint at the product contact surface
between the fitting and the device.
4. The connections on the steam or other sterilizing medium chamber for the steam
or other sterilizing medium lines shall be such that the lines can be securely
fastened to the connection. The lines shall be connected in a manner that they
expertise in voluntry compliance, the 3-A Program offers the logical mechanism for
developing sanitary criteria for all food, pharmaceutical, and consumable goods. The
consumable goods industries would benefit from uniform guidelines for sanitary
equipment designthe need for stringent cleanability design and product protection
is the constant. 3-A was a good idea 50 years agoit is a better idea today.
pH at 7O0F
CAUSTIC
T.S.P.
SODAASH
In other words, changing the concentration by 600% changes the pH less than one
unit. Therefore, pH measurement is of practically no value as an indication of how
much alkali is present in a given solution.
Figure 4.52 shows the alkalinity of the same commercial alkalies as in Figure
4.50. You will note that as the concentration of the solution increases, the alkalinity
as measured by titration increases proportionally. The first point that must be made
CAUSTIC
SODA ASH
T.S.P.
PRODUCT C
PRODUCT B
PRODUCTA
PH
Acids are used to remove hard water and other mineral films, to brighten stainless
steel equipment, and to ensure complete neutralization of alkaline cleaners.
Alkalies are used to remove fatty solids and carbohydrates and for most cleaning
applications. The strength of alkalies varies greatly from general purpose manual
cleaner to highly caustic compound ones.
Chlorine when used as an additive to alkaline cleaners, never acids, improves
protein film removal. NOTE: Chlorine in an alkaline cleaner is for soil removal, not
sanitizing.
Water conditioners are used to prevent formation of hard water and other mineral
films and scale. They are normally added to alkaline cleaners or rinse water. Once
films are allowed to build up, it is usually necessary to descale with an acidic product.
Wetting agents are used with both acidic and alkaline products to increase soil
penetration, improve rinsing, or to control foaming properties. Foam control may be
"defoaming" or "foam addition" depending on the specific wetting agents, solution
temperature, and concentration.
Sanitizers are not cleaners but used following a cleaning operation to destroy
remaining organisms that may present health problems.
Active
Chlorine
Steam
Iodophors
Good
Vegetative cells
Good
Good
None
Depends on
wetting agent
Yes
Excellent
Yes
Excellent
Excellent
Fast
Poor
No
None
Varies with
temperature
Fast
Poor
None
High
Excellent
Speed
Penetration
Film forming
Affected by organic
matter
Affected by other water
constituents
Ease of measurement
Ease of use
Odor
Taste
Effect on skin
Corrosiveness
Depends on
wetting agent
Yes
Varies with
temperature
Varies with
temperature
Fast
Good
None to slight
Moderate
Fast
Good
None
Low
Fast
Excellent
Yes
Low
No
High pH
High pH
Yes
Poor
Poor
None
None
Bums
No
High
Excellent
High foam
None
None
None
Bad on mild
steel
Moderate
Excellent
High foam
None
None
None
None
Cost
Excellent
Excellent
Iodine
Iodine
None
Not to stainless
steel
Moderate
Low pH and
Iron
Excellent
Excellent
Chlorine
Chlorine
Some
Bad on mild
steel
Low
Characteristic
Germicidal efficiency
Toxicityuse dilution
Toxicityshelf strength
Stabilitystock
Stabilityuse
Yes
Low
Quats
Somewhat
selective
Moderate
Moderate
Rubber belts
Tile walls
Visual control
Walls
Water treatment
Wood crates
Recommended Sanitizer
Iodophor
Quat
Acid sanitizer
Active chlorine
Iodophor
Acid sanitizer
Iodophor
Active chlorine
Iodophor
Iodophor
Phenolic
Acid sanitizer
Iodophor
Iodophor
Iodophor
Quat
Hypochlorite
Iodophor
Quat
Quat
Iodophor
Active chlorine
Quat
Acid sanitizer
Active chlorine
Iodophor
Iodophor
Iodophor
Iodophor
Active chlorine
Quat
Active chlorine
Active chlorine
Concentration
25 ppm
200 ppm
130 ppm
130 ppm
800-1000 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
2-3%
130 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
200 ppm
25 ppm
200 ppm
200 ppm
130 ppm
200 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
200 ppm
200 ppm
20 ppm
1000 ppm
8. Wear rubber aprons, boots, gloves, and face shields before working with cleaning chemicals.
9. Smoking and eating are not permitted in chemical storage or use area.
10. Chemical containers should not be used on stools, ladders, shelves, etc.
11. Wipe up chemical spills promptly.
12. Do not switch drum pumps or scoops from one chemical container to another.
13. Do not mix chemicals unless specifically instructed in writing by the manufacturer.
14. Never mix an acid cleaner with a chlorinated cleaner. Mixing acid with chlorine
or chlorine-bearing compounds will produce dangerous chlorine gas.
Hypochlorites (liquid)
Short shelf life
Odor
Precipitate in iron
Corrosiveness on some
metals
25 ppm I
Quats
Incompatibility with common
detergent components
Germicidal efficiency varied and
selective
Slow in destruction of coliform and
Gram-negative psychrophilic
bacteria (such as Pseudomonas)
Not effective in destruction of
spores and bacteriophage
Expensive
15. Slowly add the chemical cleaner to cold water: DO NOT ADD WATER TO
A CLEANER.
16. In case of chemical burns, rinse skin with cool water for at least 15 min. Follow
first-aid instructions. Notify supervisor and seek medical aid, if required.
18. Avoid transfer of bulk chemicals into intermediate containers. If this cannot be
avoided, label the intermediate container and never use cup, glasses, or other
4
'household" containers.
19. For chemical splashes in the eyes: Wash eyes thoroughly at an eye wash station
with cool, flowing water for at least 15 min. Seek medical attention. Notify
supervisor.
20. Chemical safety is no accident. Work defensively, work smart, stay safe, and if
in doubt DON'T.
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13
CD SUPPLY
ClP RCTURN
TYPICAL
PASTCURIZCD
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FLAVOR
VATS, FItCCZINa
FILLINGTAHKS
AND
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COUVHCNT.
ClP SUPPLY
VATCR
PASTCURIZO ICC CRCAH MX STORAOC
ClP RCTURN
[EYI
EX
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Figure 4.53 Typical ice cream production and schematic flow diagram. (Courtesy of Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.,
Schaumburg, IL, U.S.A.)
After an adequate soak period to ensure complete hydration and blending of the
dry ingredients, the mix is pasteurized. Pasteurizing may be done in the mix preparation vat or in a HTST system using plate or tubular heat exchangers and a holder
tube. There are some ice cream plants using a hybrid of the two methods. If vat
pasteurization is used, every particle of the mix must be heated to at least 155F
(69C) and held at that temperature for a minimum of 30 min. Other times and
temperatures for vat pasteurization of ice cream mix are 15 min at 1600F (710C) and
165F (74C) for 10 min. The air space must be at least 5F (3C) higher than the
minimum required temperature of pasteurization during the hold period. Smaller
plants (<250,000 gallons [950,000 L] per year) tend to use this method of pasteurization. This method is less capital intensive, but more labor intensive. Also vat
pasteurization yields a somewhat more functional mix and a slight cooked flavor
which is desirable in some markets. Larger plants (over 1 million gallons [3.8 million
L] per year) use HTST systems for mix pasteurization. HTST systems are discussed
in Section 4.2.2. Plate design may be slightly different than those used for low solids
products to accommodate the higher internal pressures encountered pasteurizing ice
cream mix. The minimum HTST pasteurization times and temperatures are 25 s at
175F (800C) or 15 s at 1800F (83C). There is a trend today to even higher-temperature, shorter-time (HHST) pasteurization for ice cream mix pasteurization and
temperatures up to 212F (1000C) for .01 s may be used. The reasons for this higherheat shorter-time pasteurization are (1) to yield a mix with lower bacterial counts,
(2) to increase mix viscosity, (3) to increase protein functionality with resulting
savings in stabilizer usage, and (3) to obtain a slight cooked flavor which is desirable
in some markets. HTST or HHST pasteurization is continuous and automatically
controlled and is always less labor intensive than batch methods and offers the
economy of scale. Other advantages of continuous pasteurization are (1) the incorporation of regenerative heating and cooling, (2) longer run times, and (3) more
effective control which yields a more uniform mix.
There are hybrid pasteurization systems using plate or tubular heat exchanges to
heat and cool the mix and a vat for the continuous holding of the mix for at least
the minimum times and temperatures listed above for vat pasteurization conditions.
In these systems all the requirements for vat pasteurization must be met. The warmup
time in the plate or in the tubular heat exchanges must not be included in determining
the holding period. It is also recommended that the minimum pasteurization time
and temperature combinations be exceeded where possible.
Homogenization is universal for all dairy-based mixes. Homogenizers are described in Section 4.2.6. The reasons for homogenization are to disperse the fat
particles, disrupt the fat globule membrane, and, for some stabilizers, to provide the
required shear to activate them. Homogenization is achieved by forcing the mix
through a small orifice at proper temperature and pressure using a positive displacement pump to supply the energy. The breakup of the fat particles is caused by shear
forces applied to a thin stream of mix traveling at up to 30,000 fpm. Also the sudden
release of pressure causes cavitation (the formation of vapor) in the mix.
Homogenization of dairy based ice cream mixes is done at temperatures of 145F
(63C) to 1700F (77C) because at lower temperatures fat clumping occurs and some
emulsifiers are not activated. In a HTST-HHST system this necessitates placing the
homogenizer between regeneration and final heating (the most common position) or
after the final heating. When using high temperature pasteurization the mix may be
cooled to 1500F (660C) and then homogenized. If batch pasteurization is used, the
homogenizer is downstream from the pasteurizing vat.
Pressures for homogenization of dairy-based mixes depend on many factors such
as mix composition, desired viscosity, mix stability, temperature, and whether a
single-stage or two-stage homogenizer is used. Thus only a range is suggested here
with the realization that one must experiment to find the most suitable pressures for
a particular product. The range for single-stage homogenization is usually between
2000 and 2500 psi (13,800 to 17,700 kPa). For two-stage homogenization the first
valve is set between 2500 and 3000 psi (17,700 to 20,700 kPa) with the second stage
at 500 psi (3500 kPa). Chocolate mixes and other high solids mixes will develop
enough viscosity with pressures reduced by 500 psi (3500 kPa) on single-stage or
on the first value of two-stage homogenizers.
The homogenized mix is then cooled to at least 45F (7.2C) but preferably to
400F (4.4C) or less. If a continuous system is used, cooling will be effected by a
plate which may have glycol coolant in the final stage. In batch systems a plate may
be used or in some cases surface coolers are still used. Surface coolers are also used
if the mix is too viscous to be cooled with a plate cooler. If used a surface cooler
should be constructed so that condensate of the tube cannot flow into the mix or
drop into the lower trough.
The cooled mix may be aged before further processing. The mix could be aged
in the pasteurization vat but this is rarely done. In smaller plants, the pasteurized
mix is aged in cylindrical, rectangular, or oval jacketed tanks of a few hundred to
several thousand gallons. In larger operations, vertical silo-type tanks of greater than
10 feet (3050 mm) are used to store and age mix. These tanks must meet specifications found either in the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Storage Tanks for Milk and
Milk Products, Number 01-04 or the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Silo-Type Storage
Tanks for Milk and Milk Products, Number 22-06 Silo-type tanks may be refrigerated and agitated if the mix is to be held for an extended period of time. Aging tanks
may be fitted with power-operated valves and pumps that will permit the freezer
operators to move mix from storage to flavor tanks.
The white or unflavored mix must be flavored with nonbulkly flavors before it
enters the freezer. The mix is transferred into a single shell tank containing one or
more compartments. The flavor tank must be fitted with vertical or horizontal mechanical agitator(s) and should also have a thermometer. The 3-A Sanitary Standards
for Uninsulated Tank for Milk and Milk Products, Number 32-01 provide the sanitary aspects for uninsulated tanks. If the volume of the mix or the subsquent freezing
rate is such that the temperature of the mix cannot be maintained at 400F (4.4C) or
less, then the flavor tank should be jacketed and cooled with chilled water. Flavor
tanks may be equipped with probes or positive-displacement pumps to transfer measured quantities of mix or liquid ingredients to the tank. Once the nonbulky ingredients (flavor or color) are added, the mix is now ready to freeze.
The only ingredients that may be added after pasteurization of the mix are those
flavoring and coloring ingredients that meet one or more of the following conditions:
(1) they are subjected to prior heat treatment adequate to destroy pathogenic microorganisms; (2) they have a water activity of .85% or less; (3) they have a pH of less
than 4.7; (4) they are roasted nuts and added at the freezer; (5) they contain high
alcohol content; (6) they are bacterial cultures; (7) they are fruits or vegetables and
added at the freezer; or (8) they are subjected to any other process that will ensure
that the ingredient is free of pathogenic microorganisms. All dairy ingredients, eggs
or egg products, cocoa or cocoa products, emulsifiers or stabilizers, dry or liquid
sweeteners, any dry or condensed ingredients mixed with water and added water
must be added prior to pasteurization. Also note that some colorings fruits or vegetables contain bacterial contamination; thus careful monitoring and extra precaution
may be needed to ensure finished product safety and quality.
type and the velocity with which the refrigerant passes through SSHE; and (5) for
batch freezers the rate of unloading.
Batch Freezers
Batch freezers, as the name indicates, are not used for continuous mix processing
and are generally used where production of frozen dessert is 20 to 100 quarts (19 to
95 L) per batch. Typically a batch freezer is sized to accept 40 quarts (130 L) of
mix and produce 70 gallons (265 L) of partially frozen mix per hour. The batch
freezer is sometimes used in large plants for specialty low-volume items but is most
often found in low-volume plants. The smaller batch freezers are the counter freezers,
more commonly called soft-serve freezers, but with the same essential features.
The essential features of a batch feezer are a jacketed, cylindrical chamber provided with suitable refrigeration, usually self contained; a device for air incorporation
(the dasher); and scraping blades to remove the partially frozen mix from the cylinder
walls. The cylinder may be horizontal or vertical with the horizontal type being the
most common. Frozen dessert freezers must comply with the 3-A Sanitary Standards
for Batch and Continuous Freezers for Ice Cream, Ices and Similarly Frozen Dairy
Foods, Number 19-05. The batch freezer may also include accessory devices for the
addition of fruits, nuts, or other flavoring materials, and always provides an expelling
device and a discharge gate.
The freezing cylinder liners are made of AISI 300 series stainless steel. If of
stainless steel, or other structurally suitable materials, the liners may be covered with
an engineering coating of chromium and always are chromium plated for wear resistance if stainless steel scraper blades are used. Liners must be plated with chromium if base the heat-exchange material is other than AISI300 series stainless steel.
The liner is jacketed by placing a larger concentric cylinder around the freezing
cylinder with end plates to form an enclosed space. The refrigeration is of the direct
expansion type and may be supplied by self-contained chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) or
ammonia units. The advantages of CFC units are lower capital and maintenance
costs but they have the disadvantages of CFCs which are an increased energy use
due to lower efficiency, compared with ammonia units. Under the Montreal Protocols
CFCs will be phased out by the 36 countries that are the heaviest users of CFC
during the 1990s. The jacketed freezing cylinders are insulated and covered with
sheet metal.
On the inside of the freezing chamber there are revolving parts whose functions
are to whip or add air to the mix, to remove the partially frozen layer of mix from
the liner surface, and to move the mix from inlet of the freezing chamber to the
discharge port. The dasher and the scraper assembly accomplish the above by
counter-rotating at equal speeds. The outer unit is the scraper blades and the expelling
device. The inner unit is the dasher or beater. The blades are hinged so that the
rotational forces and the viscosity of the mix will keep the blades firmly against the
concentric liner. The liner should be smooth and free of voids and of uniform diameter. The scraper blades should be sharp for efficient removal of the frozen layer
of mix. In batch freezers dull or improperly sharpened scraper blades are the most
frequent cause of poor freezing rate and may also be a cause of coarse textured
product.
The expeller consists of one or more angled bars or expelling lugs mounted on a
flat bar. The expeller does not touch the liner wall, although nearly so, and is placed
so that when the unit revolves the mix is moved foward in the freezer. With the
discharge closed the mix returns to the center of the freezer and during unloading
the expeller aids in discharge.
The dasher mechanism is the device that adds or whips the partially frozen mix.
Dasher configurations are bladelike, squirrel-cage types, a blade and rod, or a compound dasher. The blades are at 90 degree angles to the shaft and are pitched to
cause return circulation. The squirrel-cage type has rods lengthwise to the axis of
rotation. The compound dasher consists of several small rods each revolving on its
own axes.
Operation of batch freezers requires careful attention to details to produce a product of uniform quality. The freezer is assembled and, while assembling, all parts
should be checked for wear and, more importantly, inspected to be sure they are
clean and dry. Sanitizing is done next using hot water (at least 1800F or 82C) or a
cold chemical sanitizing agent. Sanitizing is done just prior to freezing. Chemical
sanitizers should not be allowed to concentrate or dry on any surfaces because this
is a major cause of corrosion. Also while sanitizing do not rotate the dasher assembly
more than a few turns, thus avoiding excessive wear on blades and the liner. The
sanitizing step also serves as a check for proper assembly and as a test for leaks.
Before the mix is added, the freezer should be cooled if hot water was used or
drained completely if chemical sanitizing was done. The mix at 400F (4.4C) is
introduced usually through an integral mix supply tank meeting 3-A Sanitary
Standards. If the mix tank is of such a capacity that the contents are not transferred
into the freezing cylinder within 30 min, it shall be designed so the temperature of
the mix will not exceed 45F (7.2C) at any time. In determining conformity with
this requirement, the test shall be conducted in an ambient temperature of 1000F
(37.8C).
The freezer motor is started only after mix is introduced, the refrigerant is turned
on, and nonbulky flavorings or colors added. Bulky ingredients are added near the
end of the freeze cycle or at discharge. The mix is allowed to whip and freeze. In
recent machine design, the proper stiffness (degree of freezing) is achieved before
the desired overrun is obtained. If this is the case the refrigent may be turned off
and whipping continued until the desired overrun and consistency is attained.
Through experience the operator will learn the freezing characteristics of each mix
and also those of his freezer and adjust the whipping and freezing times accordingly.
However, when the ice cream is drawn from the freezer it should be stiff enough to
produce a ribbon and not so stiff to prevent it from settling when packaged. The
partially frozen product is quickly drawn from the freezer, packaged, and placed in
a hardening room.
Continuous Freezers
The continuous frozen dessert mix freezer is one designed to be operated in such a
manner as to partially freeze and incorporate air into the product as it flows continuously through the freezing cylinder(s) and to discharge the product continuously.
Continuous freezers may have a single-barrel or multiple barrels up to six. The
multiple-barrel freezer may be operated as a unit for maximum volume or barrels
operated independently, fed by several compartment flavor tanks producing multiple
flavors.
Formerly continuous freezers were used only in large plants. Now self-contained
continuous freezers are available down to 40 gallon (15 L) per hour output at 100%
overrun. These lower capacity continuous freezers offer an alternative to batch freezers for freezing small volumes of mix. These lower capacity continuous freezers are
available skid mounted with homogenizers, pasteurization equipment, pumps, tanks,
ingrediators, and other accessory equipment to form a complete ice cream plant.
These are very useful for product development and university pilot plants. Typically
a single barrel continuous freezer will discharge 50 to 300 gallons (200 to 1000 L)
per hour finished product, two barrel freezers to 600 gallons (2000 L) per hour, and
1200 gallons (4500 L) per hour and the very large capacity six-barrel configurations
up to 2000 gallons (7600 L) per hour.
The continuous freezers have the same essential features as a batch freezer plus
a few additional ones. The additional features include one or more of the following:
mix and air pumps, mix pressure gauges with sanitary fittings, overrun and product
hold back valves, and more elaborate ones that often are automatically controlled.
Other differences between the two freezer types are continuous freezers which may
be mechanically cleanable (especially new designs) whereas batch freezers seldom
are mechanically cleanable. A further subdivision of continuous freezers are those
low-temperature ones capable of delivering product at 16 to 7F ( 8.9 to 8.3C)
which is 5 to 6F (2.8 to 3.3C) less the 21 to 23F ( - 6 . 1 to -5.0 0 C) for conventional continuous freezers.
The principal function of the continuous freezer is to partially freeze the mix, to
incorporate air into the mix, and provide sufficient force to move the partially frozen
product to the next operation. The operator's main input is to regulate the amount
of air being incorporated into the mix and to regulate the temperature of the refrigerant on the freezing cylinder(s) until the desired overrun and consistency are
achieved. At this point the freezer is brought to an equilibrium state and continuously
operated until the day's operation is complete or the mix is changed. Refrigeration
may be ceased momentarily to clear the barrels between mixes. Also adjustment to
overrun and refrigerant temperature may be necessary for different mixes or as the
final product may dictate. These two variables will require frequent checks on older
machines, however, on well-maintained freezers, changes are not frequent. In new
continuous freezers these variables are automatically controlled and large quantities
of frozen product can be made with little variations in quality.
today. Other products such as stick products, bars, and sandwiches had their beginnings in the 1920s. The sales performance of novelties remains strong at $1.4 billion
in supermarket sales plus $1.8 billion for away from home consumption.
Novelty products are a varied lot with sales lists containing up to 500 items. They
come in many sizes, shapes, formulations, and package types. Novelty products may
be dairy or nondairy based with or without overrun; slush frozen; and deposited in
molds, cones, or cups or be drawn at temperatures for packaged goods or less. Some
products melt slowly and others very slowly, and the list continues. Yet many ice
cream makers expect all of these products to be frozen with one type of ice cream
freezer.
There are continuous ice cream freezers available and in use that are designed for
making specialized frozen desserts. Ice cream products for filling molds or small
cups at high speed must be very fluid so they will mold quickly and allow entrapped
air to escape. The partially frozen ice cream is drawn from the freezer so warm when
filling molds (25F or - A-0C), it is near its initial freezing point. It also melts in the
filler hopper and losses overrun. Specially designed freezers are available to allow
production of warm-drawn ice cream that has well developed air cells and holds
overrun during molding or high-speed cup filling. These freezers have a mix pump,
an ice cream discharge pump, and a recirculation pump.
The pump arrangement is such that air for overrun is admitted at cylinder pressure
between the mix pump and the cylinder. Sometimes dual-mix pumps are used. The
recirculation pump takes the semifrozen mix from the line between the discharge
port and discharge pump and pumps it into the mix between the mix pump and
cylinder. The effect is to produce a product that melts more slowly in the hopper
and retains more overrun. The savings for a 2.75 fluid ounce bar at 65% overrun
versus 100% is nearly 0.3 fluid ounces of mix.
Extruded products require a stiff, dry ice cream product from the freezer. Mix
formulations are often changed to produce the required physical properties or ice
cream may be drawn at lower temperatures. Ice cream from standard freezers in
good repair may be drawn as low as 19 to 200F ( - 7 . 2 to -6.7C). At 2O0F
( 7.2C), about 56% of the free water is frozen vs. 50% at drawing temperature of
22.5F ( 5.3C) typically used for packaged ice cream. The additional 6% frozen
water increases the concentration of suspended solids, lowers the available water,
and increases viscosity. Low-temperature freezers are capable of extruding at temperatures as low as 14F ( - 100C) in a single pass. They are modified for heavyduty use. Frames are stronger, larger pump drives are used, and dashers are of the
displacement type supported with heavy duty bearings. The freezer may also be used
to draw products at the more normal temperatures of 21 to 23F ( - 6 . 1 to -5C)
without changes to the freezer except the usual operational ones.
Sherbets, ices, and sorbets contain little or no milk solids, high sugar content, and
often have added citric acid. Overrun of these products may be 0 to 40% and sugar
content of 28 to 35%. These products freeze considerably different from ice cream.
The high sugar content depresses the freezing point and, coupled with low milk
solids and low overrun, increases wear on internal reciprocating parts. The acidity
in some products may increase corrosion. The products offer yet another set of
the original filler. The frozen shell is then filled with an ice cream core by a second
filler. There are also fillers that can fill molds with larger sizes of fruit or even whole
fruit. Stickless novelty bars are yet another example of the versatility of molding
plants. Removal of the bars is assisted by stainless steel combs which replace stick
attaching mechanisms with specially designed remover arms with tongs (called
combs) to lift the bars from the molds.
For stick insertion there are fully automatic devices that eliminate touching of
sticks or product by human hands. Manually operated devices are also available.
Wet and dry coating is the last step before wrapping. The wet coating (chocolate)
is kept in a heated jacketed container controlled by a thermostat. From the reservoir
the wet coating is pumped into the dip tank with constant overflow. The dip tank
can be set to coat part or all of the bar surface from the tip upward to the stick.
Small pieces of nuts or confections may be added to the wet coating. Dry coated
bars are easily produced by using an oil or chocolate in the dip tank followed by
lowering the coated bars into the dry coater where paddles distribute flour-based
crumbs, confections, or nuts over the coated bar. A hopper for the dry coating material and a vibrator plate ensure the supply of dry coating material is continuous.
Cut and extruded novelty plants can be as simple as a multiple nozzle of required
geometry and hot wire cutting devices and increase in complexity and enrobing
devices to multiple station plants that extrude and deposit ice cream and one or more
ingredients such as fudge, caramel, and nuts followed by enrobing. The latter products are often ice cream novelties that mimic a candy bar. A hardening tunnel or
tower is required for extruded products. The freezing and forming process of extruded bars begins at the ice cream freezer, drawing at lower temperatures than
molded items followed by extrusion into a specific size and shape. In the United
States square or rectangular shapes are the most common although just about any
geometry can be accomplished such as hearts, Santa Clause, or animal shapes. The
extruded ice cream ribbon is cut to desired height or length synchronous with the
speed of discharge. If enrobing is the only other ingredient operation, the block is
fed directly into a hardening tunnel or tower. If other ingredients are to be added,
they are layered on top of the ice cream ribbon in as many stations as there are layers
prior to hardening. Following hardening for 10 to 15 min the ice is wet enrobed, dry
enrobed, or both. Wet enrobing is usually followed by a second but short hardening.
The enrobed bars are conveyed downstream for wrapping, collating, and packaging
or shrink wrapped.
Equipment for the production of rectangular, square, and round ice cream sandwiches is available from only one or two manufacturers. They consist of extruding
nozzles, slice indexing wheel, product control devices, cookie or wafer dispenser,
roll feed for wrapper, and the associated sealing mechanism. The output ranges from
30 pieces per minute to several hundred. These machines require many complex
motions but recent improvements have resulted in very sanitary machines. Recent
advances in sanitary design include drip shields, use of stainless steel materials for
all product contact surfaces, sealed threads, packless bearings, ground and polished
welds, protected wafer chutes, and a more open-type construction. In addition to the
sandwich maker, these systems include collators and boxers and may include a dry
coater for applying crunch, miniature chocolate pieces, or cookie crumbles to sandwich edges. Advances in sanitary design and fabrication of these accessory items
are similar to those for the sandwich maker. Collators and boxers can be operated
up to several hundred sandwiches per minute. An integrated system can produce 375
dozen sandwiches per hour with one operator and one carton packer.
most other equipment product contact surfaces but sandblasted to prevent butter from
sticking to the surface. The churns may be designed for partial vacuum operation or
for inert gas flushing. Working butter under a partial vaccum reduces air entrainment
in the butter. The churning process is continued until the butter granules reach pea
size or 0.5 to 1 mm in diameter. The buttermilk is drained and stored. Cold water
is added and churning is resumed for a short period. The wash water is drained and
salt is thoroughly worked into the butter. Working is continued until the butter is
completely compacted and no water droplets are seen. The churn's internal vanes or
ribs cause the butter to tumble and fold as the churn rotates and the butter passes
between the vanes.
The butter may be removed manually from small churns but this is usually a
mechanized procedure. The butter may be dumped into a trolley and manually emptied into the filler hopper or augered to the filler. Bulk packaging is 60 to 68 Ib (27
to 31 kg) cubes whereas butter for resale is printed (formed) into 1 Ib, 1A Ib, or
chiplet (single service pieces).
4.3.2.4 Packaging
The finished butter is transported to the packaging equipment by one of three methods. The butter is placed in a silo with a bottom screw conveyor which feeds the
butter to the packaging machine. The butter may be pumped to the packaging machine or it may be moved using a trolley. The trolleys are often equipped with screw
conveyors. A combination of these methods can also be used.
The butter is either packaged in bulk or for retail use. Bulk packs are preferred
if the butter is to be stored for several months or longer. Bulk packs are more than
11 Ib (5 kg), and, in the United States, a 68-lb (31-kg) pack is common.
Printing butter is the process of molding or cutting butter into retail size. Common
United States sizes are quarter, half, and pound pieces and chiplets or pats for individual servings. The most common number of pats are 48, 72, or 108 per pound.
The primary packaging material must be grease and moisture proof. It is usually
parchment or parchment-coated foil. The wrapped prints are then placed in a carton
that is impervious to light and cartons are placed into corregated cardboard boxes.
a later date. The low style vats have internal stainless steel steam distribution systems
that heat both the bottom and the sides of the inner shell, whereas the deep-make
style vats are heated on the bottom only.
All product contact surfaces and many nonproduct contact surfaces are AISI 300
series stainless steel. All product surfaces must be smooth and free of imperfections.
The inner floor pans must be well supported and structurally sound to keep the inner
pan flat. The pans are sloped from side to side to the middle and from one end to
the drain point on the other. Squared end vats are most popular in the low form and
shorter lengths, and are generally used without the aid of mechanical agitation. However, mechanical agitation can be effective. The deep-make vats are usually in the
rounded end configuration to ensure uniform cheese quality.
Other vats for special functions are available. Spray film cheese vats use recirculating hot water rather than steam heat. The hot water is continuously sprayed
from a spray rail located in the inside of the jacket, continually recirculated, and
temperature controlled. These vats are designed to meet the delicate heat requirements for cottage cheese. Modern Swiss cheese vats utilize a reusable woven plastic
belting rather than traditional cheesecloth. This innovation increases whey drainage
rates while producing a good surface finish. Also the reusable belting is labor saving
and eliminates expensive cheesecloth.
6 inch by 13 inch (330 mm) cheese. A young American produces a 10-lb (4.5 kg)
cheese of about 7 by 7 inches (175 mm X 175 mm). The ever popular daisy produces
a 22-lb (10 kg) 13.5 inch by 4.25 inch (340 X 110 mm) cheese. The Wilson style
rectangular hoop is often used and is available in 20 to 60 Ib (9 to 130 kg) sizes.
These are only a few examples of the many styles and sizes available.
The hooped cheese is placed next into a press. This operation is to remove still
more whey. While screw presses are in use, the newer ones are hydraulic. They can
accommodate large and small hoops and even different size hoops at the same time.
Mold presses are also available as tunnel presses, as wagon presses, and as vacuum presses for 640-lb (290 kg) cheese blocks. The tunnel press consists of a top
body including press cylinders and a mold table. The tunnel press can be used for
continuous or periodical pressing and is completely enclosed. It is fixed but offers
large production in minimal room height. Wagon presses are portable and consist
of a table, pressing cylinders above a movable plate. Above the cylinders there is a
removable cover. They are used in small and large plants, are easy to move, and are
suitable for narrow spaces. In very large plants there are complete systems for production of 640-lb (290 kg) cheese blocks. The large hoops are assembled and filled
with a cyclone filler in two steps and brought up to final capacity after settling. The
next step is to allow free whey drainage and prepressing. The blocks are then pressed
and moved to a vacuum chamber for final whey removal. The molds are capped,
banded, and check weighed before moving to the cooler.
Special pressing and molding vats are available and can be used for prepressing
and final pressing of various cheese types. They are made of stainless steel with the
inside bottom of a pressing vat made of a plastic mat lying on a grooved bottom.
The pressing vat sides and ends are lined inside with perforated plates. The pressing
lid is fixed on shafts of hydraulic cylinders and it can be moved up and down through
mechanical control. Inside the pressing lid there is a pipeline for curd distribution
and washing. In front of the vat there is a stationary or transferable unloading device.
The wet or dry curd is distributed evenly in the vat by overhead nozzles. The whey
drains through the bottom and is removed through channels to the whey pipeline.
The curd is leveled and a surface mat is placed over the curd before pressing is
begun. After pressing the cheese is mechanically removed and cut into the desired
block size. The blocks are moved by conveyor to packaging.
One special type of pressing vat is a mold vat. In these the pressing and washing
lids are not stationary and the bottom consists of perforated plates and a removable
end plate. A pressing lid and set of transferable pressing bulk heads sized for the
cheese type are included. The curd is distributed into the vat through a pipeline by
gravity or using a vane pump. The pressing force applied by the lid can be regulated.
The cheese is mechanically unloaded and cut. Both types can be mechanically
cleaned.
The current trend for larger and larger cheese factories has brought a change to
faster and more automated mechanical methods of cheesemaking. This is especially
true for Cheddar cheese, and stirred curd types, Swiss and Mozzarella. The stirred
curd method eliminates the cheddaring step by using deep circular or oval shaped
vats with specially designed, reversible agitators and cutting knives. The curd is
pumped to draining and matting tables with sloped bottoms, milled, slated, and
hooped. Others make use of draining-matting conveyors with a woven or porous
plastic belt to permit whey drainage. A second belt is used for cheddaring and
moving to the mill. The milled curd is carried to a finishing table for salting and
then to hooping.
An Australian innovation uses a short set. After cutting and cooking, the curd is
moved to a series of perforated stainless steel troughs traveling on a conveyor where
draining and partial curd fusion occurs. The slabs are placed into buckets on a
forming conveyor and transferred to compression buckets for cheddaring. Mechanical milling, slating, hooping, and pressing follows.
Other mechanical innovations include mechanical block formers and block cutters. The milled and salted curd is pneumatically moved to a tall block forming tower
where the weight of the cheese causes curd fusion to form a continuous columnar
mass. The curd column is under a constant partial vacuum resulting in a consistent
column free of whey and voids. At the bottom the cheese is guillotined into the
desired block sizes.
Pasta filata type (plastic-curd type) cheeses such as provolone or Mozzarella require specialized machines for stretching and molding. After the curd is matted and
cut into slabs, the slabs are worked and stretched in hot water (150 to 1800F). The
curd is kneaded in the hot water until it reaches 135F (660C). This operation historically was done by hand. Today a sanitary dough mixing machine or custom
machinery that stretches the knit curd is used. Molding by hand is difficult to describe
but suffice to say it requires considerable dexterity. The maker takes the amount of
cheese necessary for one cheese and works it into shape by kneading and folding it
into a triangular shape. After the large voids and hot water are removed, the corners
are folded under to form a ball. The curd ball is further manipulated into the desired
shape and a smooth, closed surface. Molds can be used to achieve the desired shape.
Molding machines are available for large-scale operations. The warm curd is then
often placed in cold water to harden it into the desired shape. The hardened cheese
is removed from the mold and is then salt brined from one to several days.
In the 1970s cross-flow membrane filtration became a useful tool for the cheesemaker as an adjunct to conventional cheesemaking. Today cheesemaking for Camembert can be done with preconcentrating the milk by ultrafiltration (UF). The cheese
milk is heat treated much like that for the conventional process in a vat and then
concentrated by ultrafiltration to a precheese state. The permeate can be compared
to conventional whey. Unlike whey, the permeate contains neither fat nor protein
but is a mixture of water, peptides, and lactose. Most of the nutrient content of the
milk is recovered in the precheese concentrate which is about one-fifth the original
volume of the milk. After ultrafiltration the precheese is placed in molds and rennet
is added. Renneting is at about one-fifth that needed for traditional processes. After
the rapid coagulation and whey syneresis, the salting and ripening is the same as
that for the conventional Camembert procedure. The advantages are that these processes are highly automated and allow downstream equipment to be downsized at a
capital savings. There is however additional capital outlay for the UF equipment.
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uct. For example, the production of evaporated milk requires 57% of the water in
normal milk to be removed and skim milk powder on the other hand requires 99.6%
of the water to be removed.
During the water removal process the milk undergoes many physical changes
beginning with a low-viscosity waterlike fluid and ending with a medium viscosity
liquid in the case of high solids milk concentrate production. Of course these changes
are more drastic in the production of powder where the product changes from a
liquid to the solid state. Thus many methods are used to remove the water from milk
to obtain the finished product.
The production of evaporated milk, sweetened condensed, and milk concentrate
prior to drying requires an evaporator. The evaporator is usually operated under
vacuum conditions, thus allowing the water to be vaporized at a lower temperature,
therefore reducing damage to the product. The production of powder is then accomplished by taking the concentrated product and further removing the water via roller
dryers, spray dryers, and fluid beds depending on the characteristics desired in the
final product.
Whey and whey byproducts are concentrated in equipment similar to that used
for milk; however, there are some differences in the equipment used due to different
heat treatment conditioning required.
A simple evaporator would be a pan containing milk placed on the top of a stove.
As the boiling temperature is reached water evaporates from the surface of the liquid
and over time the milk concentrates. However, due to the delicate nature of milk
such an evaporation process would result in a product having caramelized or
scorched particles depending on how carefully the heating temperature was controlled. Of course on a larger scale this could be accomplished in a processing tank.
In either case the product is not satisfactory; therefore evaporation takes place in a
vessel under a vacuum. There are many kinds of evaporators; however, to shorten
the discussion we will review only those used in the industry which includes the
falling film (Fig. 4.54A) and rising film (Fig. 4.54B) or a combination rising/falling
film. Either evaporator system consists of the feed and control system, preheaters,
integrated pasteurization system, calandria inclusive of distribution system, product/
vapor separator, product transfer/removal, condenser, and vacuum system as shown
in Figure 4.55. Controls are integrated to allow all of the previously mentioned
components to create the total process.
The feed and control consists of a balance tank with controls (see Section 4.2.1)
the size being determined by the evaporator design capacity, a centrifugal feed pump,
flow meter/indicator, and flow control valve.
Preheaters (Fig. 4.56) are used to heat the product using waste heat from the
evaporation process. These heaters can be spiral tubes placed inside the calandria,
straight tubes placed outside the calandria, or standard plate heat exchangers such
as those discussed in Section 4.2.2. In all cases the heating media is vapor or condensate from the process to recover all possible heat.
The pasteurization system with heater, holding tube, and flow diversion valve is
integrated into the evaporator system. The type of heater used will be either spiral
tube, straight tube, or plate and frame.
Figure 4.54 Falling film evaporation. (Courtesy of C. E. Rogers, Mora, MN, U.S.A.)
Figure 4.54.B Rising film evaporator. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems, Inc.,
Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
The calandria is a new term to the reader and can be either a vertical tube chest
consisting of tubes up to 46.5 feet in length and 3 inches in diameter or a series of
specially designed heat exchanger plates assembled in a frame similar to a standard
plate heat exchanger. Either type of calandria must have a distribution system (Fig.
4.57) because it is of great importance that the product evenly covers the heat exchange surface. In practice the two distribution systems are dynamic and static.
The dynamic system consists of orifices or nozzles. Therefore in such a system
the product is superheated in relation to the pressure inside the tubes and thus flash
vapor is instantaneously formed. The vapor/product mixture sprays over the heat
exchange surface. Such systems rely on pressure drop, product viscosity, and flash
for proper distribution of the product. A change of any one can cause improper
coverage of the surface and therefore less efficient evaporation plus scorched particles. With a static distribution system the incoming superheated product is separated
into flash vapor and product. Note this type of system is possible only with the tube
chest type calandria. The product then enters a distributor above the tube chest. Level
is controlled on the distributor plate. Each plate has holes that are above the area
between the tubes, therefore allowing the product to flow onto the tube plate and
then over the edge of the tube and to be distributed evenly over the surface. The
flash vapor which flows through small tubes aids in pushing the product against the
tube surface and in increasing the velocity of product. After the evaporation process
S1
Figure 4.56 Preheaters and straight-tube preheaters. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
Figure 4.57 Calendria. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray
Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson,
WI, U.S.A.)
the product and vapor must be separated efficiently to recover product and to allow
for a condensate that is not a pollutant. Therefore the product/vapor mixture flows
through a separator which allows the product droplets to fall to the bottom of the
vessel and be recovered while the vapor goes on to the next stage or to the condenser.
A typical separator is snail shaped which uses centrifugal force to aid in the separation process. Also the separator is large to reduce the velocity of the liquid/vapor
mixture, thus again reducing the amount of product carried over with the vapor.
The product is transferred from calandria to calandria and from the final calandria
via centrifugal pumps with water-flushed seals. Because of the function, that is,
pumping from a vacuum to a positive pressure and many times operating with a
partially full pump head, the pump selected must be of heavy duty quality.
A condenser is used to condense the vapors coming from the evaporator and can
be of two varieties, direct or indirect. The direct condenser is essentially a large pipe
with the vapors flowing into it and mixing with water sprayed into the vapor stream.
The vapors then condense in the water. The mixing condenser is very simple; however, any solids carried over with the vapor are mixed in the cooling water; therefore
the use of a cooling tower is not recommended because the cooling water system
can and does become contaminated. The mixing condenser thus allows for only one
use of the water. The indirect surface condenser can be of either shell in tube or
plate design. As the name implies the cooling water and the vapor are on opposite
sides of the heat exchange surface; therefore, no cross-contamination occurs. Although more expensive initially a cooling tower can be used with an indirect condenser; thus long-term savings on water and sewage costs can be realized due to
reusing the water.
In order to operate under a vacuum a source for the vacuum must be available.
Common sources for evaporator vacuums are the steam ejector and mechanical vacuum pumps. The method used will depend on the amount of vacuum desired and
the costs of electricity and steam.
Evaporators can be from one stage to typically seven stages. This means the
evaporation is being done in one calandria at one temperature or in seven calandria
at seven different temperatures. The more stages used the more efficient the evaporator because the vapor from one stage is used to heat the next stage. However, there
is a limit to the number of stages due to the lowest possible temperature that can be
accomplished in the last stage and to the capacity of the evaporator. Evaporators
typically use steam or mechanical means to create the heat source for the evaporation
process. The method used is dictated by steam costs, electrical costs, flexibility in
capacity/products, and capital expenditure. Thermal compressors are used with the
steam-driven evaporators to make them more efficient.
Instrumentation for evaporators is of utmost importance to produce a good, consistent, quality product. All of the following parameters should be indicated and
controlled: (1) flow of raw product, (2) temperature of raw product, (3) preheat
temperature, (4) temperature of pasteurization, (5) heating/boiling temperature of
each stage, (6) incoming steam pressure, (7) steam pressure at the thermocompressor,
(8) condenser water temperature, in/out, (9) vacuum, (10) condensate quality (conductivity), and (11) final solids content.
Simply put, spray drying is accomplished by atomizing feed liquid into a drying
chamber where the small droplets are subjected to a stream of hot air and are converted to powder particles. The spray drying system (Fig. 4.58) consists of the product feed system, the hot air system, the drying chamber and atomization system,
product/hot air separation, product cooling equipment, and final product recovery.
Additional items to the spray dryer can be an agglomerator for producing instant
products and a lecithination system for making instant whole milk.
The feed system is the interface between the evaporator and the spray dryer and
consists of feed tanks, water tank, feed pump, preheating system, and filter. Two
feed tanks are usually used so that one tank can be cleaned while the other is used
to feed the dryer. These tanks are of the same design as the previously discussed
balance tanks and are fitted with similar controls. The water tank is a single-shell
vessel that holds emergency water in case the dryer runs out of product feed and is
also used for a mixing area for CIP solutions.
The feed pump can be centrifugal with a flow control valve, positive rotary type,
or a high-pressure piston pump. The type of pump is dictated by the product and the
type of atomization system the dryer uses. A plate heat exchanger or shell in tube
heat exchanger is used to preheat the concentrate to reduce the viscosity and to reduce
the amount of energy the dryer must put into the product. The exchanger must be
put close to the dryer's atomization system to prevent an increase in the product
viscosity and excessive heat treatment. A final filter should be used prior to the
atomization system to prevent scorched evaporator particles or other contaminants
from plugging the atomizer. A dual-screen arrangement works well for this purpose.
Figure 4.58 Conventional spray dryer. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO
A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
The spray dryer requires a hot air system that is used to evaporate and carry the
moisture out of the product. This consists of a coarse filter to remove the large
contaminants from the air. The major item in the system is the unit that heats the air
either by direct or indirect means. The air can be directly heated by a gas heater and
works on the same principle as the direct gas fired heater used for home heating
purposes. The direct gas heater is inexpensive, very efficient, and can reach high
temperatures. However, when using a direct gas heater it is necessary to calculate
the amount of water vapor resulting from the combustion of the gas as this increases
the humidity of the drying air and therefore reduces the amount of water it can carry
from the product to be dried. The air can also be heated directly by electricity;
however, due to energy costs this is not done unless electricity costs are extremely
low.
Indirect heating of the air can be accomplished by steam, oil, gas, or hot oil, liquid
phase type units. These units are more expensive, cause more pressure drop of the
air, and have limitations on the temperature that can be attained. Indirect heaters do
have the advantage of not requiring addition of water to the drying air and avoid
possible contamination of the drying air due to combustion of the gas. The hot air
is then dispersed around the atomized product cloud via the air disperser. The air
disperser can be a series of perforated holes, a combination of screens, or a snail
arrangement. The first two result in the air flowing somewhat in a plugflow down
over the atomized product cloud while the latter swirls the hot air around the atomized droplets.
The drying chamber is a large, vertical cylinder with typically a cone on the
bottom for removal of the major portion of powder. The ratio of the diameter to
height is extremely important and each manufacturer has what he feels is the optimum. The chamber is usually insulated and clad with stainless steel. In the roof of
the dryer is the atomization unit which can be a rotating disc (Fig. 4.59), a grouping
of nozzles operating under high pressures, or a single nozzle (Fig. 4.60). It is important for system efficiency and product quality that the atomizer and the air disperser be properly designed to eliminate scorched particles and to prevent wetting
of the chamber sidewall. The decision of whether to use pressure nozzles or a rotary
atomizer will be dictated by the final product quality desired. High-density powder
requires the use of nozzles whereas typical skim milk powder can be produced using
the rotary unit. If the plant is not sure which powders it wants to produce in the
future they may want to look at buying a dryer that is designed to accommodate
both kinds of atomization systems, thus ensuring flexibility. The pressure nozzle
system is designed so that the liquid feed is atomized when it is forced under relatively high pressure through a narrow orifice. The nozzle system offers the versatility
in the selection of the spray angle, direction of the spray, and position of the atomizer
in the chamber/box. Particle size can be controlled by the nozzle design and the
pressure of the feed to the nozzle. The centrifugal or rotary atomizer spins at high
velocities; thus the liquid feed is accelerated to the point where it forms fine droplets
that mix with the drying air. Particle size is controlled by the speed of the wheel,
feed rate, and atomizer design.
Figure 4.59 Atomizer wheel. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and
Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S
Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
Some drying chambers are built in the form of boxes, thus their name, the box
dryer. The mxiing of the air and atomized product is equally important in this type
dryer. Nozzles are the atomization method of choice. Most of the powder is removed
from box dryers via drags which pull the products to the end of the dryer into either
augers or an air conveying system.
After the atomized product is introduced into the hot air stream and the water has
been evaporated the powder/air mixture must be separated to recover the valuable
product and to ensure the discharge air does not pollute the atmosphere. The powder
carried with the air stream is referred to as fines because the particle size is smaller
than the powder that drops out of the air in the chamber/box. Usually a vessel called
a cyclone (Figure 4.61) is used as the primary unit to remove the fines from the air
to an acceptable level. In the cyclone a vortex motion is created; thus the centrifugal
force spins the fine powder particle to the outside of the cyclone where it falls down
the side and can be collected. An air lock valve or vortex is at the bottom of the
cyclone to allow the powder to drop into the powder conveying system and the air
to be discharged at the top of the cyclone. In large systems multiple cyclones are
connected in parallel to reduce the size of the cyclone and the pressure drop through
the collection system. Due to the mechanical nature of the cyclone separation some
particles are carried over with the air from the cyclone and therefore depending on
the type of product and local environmental standards a secondary separation system
may be required such as a baghouse (Fig. 4.62A and B) or wet scrubber (Fig. 4.63A
and B). A typical baghouse/filter consists of numerous bag filters made of cloth
material surrounding a cage that keeps the bag from collapsing. The unit is designed
in a way to ensure equal air loading to all bags. The air flow is from the outside and
thus the collected powder forms on the outside of the bag and is removed via me-
Figure 4.60 High-pressure nozzle, spraying system. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy ofNIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
chanical shaking of the bag or using a reverse air pulse. The baghouse is usually
used for secondary separation; however, it can be used as both the primary and
secondary separation and therefore the cyclone can be eliminated. Another secondary
method of cleaning the discharge air is a wet scrubber. A typical venturi wet scrubber
system works in the following manner in that the outlet air from the spray dryer is
accelerated after the cyclones to a high velocity in the venturi inlet, where the scrubbing liquid is injected through a nozzle. The air/particles collide with the scrubber
liquid droplets and the powder dissolves into the liquid. As the air/liquid mixture
passes through the scrubber body, the two are separated with the air being discharged
through a center duct and the scrubbing liquid being collected in the bottom of the
scrubber. The scrubber liquid can be water or product depending on the product
feed, the end product, and the concentration (evaporator) system.
Product coming out of the spray dryer is too high in temperature to package and
therefore is cooled. The cooling can be accomplished in a duct using prechilled/
dehumidified air or in a vibro-fluid bed cooler. The powder conveying system usually
serves two purposes: that of conveying the powder to the storage silo or filler and
air
exhaust duct
, conveying air
fan
air duct
conveying
cyclone
powder
hopper
powder slide
rotary
valve
powder
conveying
duct
air filter
powder
sieve
rotary
valve
baggingoff
Figure 4.61 Pneumatic conveying system. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO
A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
as the cooling unit. The powder conveying system requires four to five times as
much air as powder to convey the powder properly and to cool it to a temperature
for storage or packaging. The conveying air is cleaned using the same methods used
for the drying air. The vibro-fluidizer will be discussed later.
Modern dryers are one stage, two stage, or multiple stage. In single-stage dryers
the product is dried to the final desired moisture content in a single unit as the drying
chamber. In two-stage dryers (Figure 4.64) the primary drying is accomplished in
the primary chamber and the secondary drying is accomplished in a vibro-fluid bed,
a stationary dryer within the chamber, or on a moving wire belt.
A typical multistage dryer (Figure 4.65) would have the primary drying in the
chamber with the powder falling onto a stationary dryer where further drying is
done. The powder is then transferred to a Vibro-fluidizer where final drying occurs.
Each drying system has advantages and disadvantages. The single-stage dryer is
simple in design and is the least expensive dryer system. The two-stage is more
energy efficient than the single-stage but not as efficient as the multistage units. The
cost differential of the latter two is little but the amount of difference depends on
the control system. The powder characteristics for each type dryer are different;
therefore the choice of dryer system is many times determined by the end product
properties desired.
Figure 4.62.A Bag filter. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray
Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson,
WI, U.S.A.)
Properties that are variable include the final moisture, bulk density, particle density, interstitial air, flowability, solubility, number of scorched particles, surface free
fat, wetability, and dispersibility. Tests are available so that all of the powders can
rated/scored as to the above properties.
Agglomerators are used to give certain properties to the end product that cannot
be obtained during standard drying procedures. Agglomeration of powder can be
accomplished in the two-stage and multistage dryer be spraying some of the fines
back into the atomization cloud; thus the dried fines collide with the wet droplet and
an agglomerate forms and then is further dried in the system. Another method of
forming agglomerates is to provide for special wetting methods of an already dried
product. In such a system powder is fed into an agglomerating tube where it is wetted
and allowed to bump into other particles, thus forming the agglomerates which can
then be dried in a chamber similar to the drying chamber or in a vibro-fluidizer.
The vibro-fluidizer is a horizontal unit that has a screen installed parallel to the
body of the fluidizer. Powder is fed unto the screen and at the same time conditioned
air in fed through the bottom of the screen so the powder is dried or cooled to the
desired end result. The unit is constantly vibrated to help keep the powder mixing
and moving along the fluid bed. As indicated the vibro-fluidizer can be used for
Figure 4.62.B Spray dryer with bag filter. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO
A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
drying, cooling, or conditioning. Due to separated sections in the fluidizer all three
functions can be accomplished in the same unit.
The drying of whey involves some special equipment, namely crystallizing tanks
and, for some processes, a crystallization belt. Due to the two kinds of lactose in
whey it is necessary to precondition the concentrate prior to drying in order to form
a powder that is nonsticking and free flowing, thus the need for crystallization tanks
(see Section 4.2.1). Crystallization tanks are designed with a heavy duty total sweep
agitator and dished or flat bottom. When designing the tanks knowing the lactose
crystallization process is required. Once a tank is designed to give the proper agitation and cooling to the product, the control system should be automated to ensure
consistency of crystallized feed to the spray dryer. The ideal crystallization tanks
produce very fine crystals in the whey concentrate.
In some processes, to further ensure that nonhygroscopic product is produced the
powder is dried in the primary dryer to 12 to 14% moisture and then spread onto a
crystallization belt which, in effect, is a long timing belt that further allows the
EXHAUST
AIR
POWDER /AIR
LIQUID OUTLET
LIQUID INLET
Figure 4.63.A Sanitary wet scrubber. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation
and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NERO A/S,
Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
Product*
Water
Figure 4.63.B Wet scrubber recycled with water. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology,
Evaporation and Spray Dryings V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy
of NIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
Figure 4.64 Spray dryer with Vibro-Fluidizer for two-stage drying. (Adapted from Milk
Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc.,
Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
into the whey, and returning the heated whey to the vat. The advantages to external
cooking are a more uniform temperature vat at the top surface and the ability to
maintain positive circulating pressure.
Cream addition may be done in the cheese vat but is often done with specially
designed blenders. The blenders can be ordered with insulated jackets or be water
jacketed. Typical capacities are 3500 Ib (7700 kg) to 5000 Ib (11,000 kg). The
blenders are mounted so they are positioned at a 45 degree angle and are usually on
load cells. The load cells allow accurate proportioning of ingredients while the 45
degree mounting angle results in excellent unloading of product from the blender.
The agitator shaft is offset from the center line of the blender and the area of agitation
is concentrated along the lowest two sides of the blender's inner surface. The two
scraper blades are curvilinear in two planes along the major and minor axes. Addition
of a bottom linear scraper and angled fin-type blades ensures the entire contents are
gently mixed together. These blending tanks are fully integratable into an automated
cottage cheese system and are CIP-able.
Figure 4.65 Multistage dryer. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and
Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S,
Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
Another option to the cottage cheese maker is a high-speed drainer that separates
curd from its last wash water. These presses affect rapid water removal while controlling moisture by removing water through a fine mush belt moving around a
perforated drum. Tension on the press belt can be regulated to control moisture
retention.
4.3.5.2 Yogurt
Yogurt is a very popular cultured product in the United States, and, along with other
yogurtlike products, is popular in most of the world. Yogurt may be classified into
two types. Set yogurt is placed into its final package after it is inoculated with starter
culture and is incubated in its final package. If fruit or other bulky flavoring is added,
it is placed in the cup first, resulting in the so called sundae-style yogurt. Nonbulky
flavors may be added to the mix or added along with the culture. The other classification is stirred yogurt which is prepared by adding culture to the mix in the tank
and incubation occurs in the tank. After incubation, the product is cooled, and bulk
flavors may be stirred into the yogurt and then packaged. This is called Swiss-style
yogurt. Other added ingredients, such as milk solids, sweeteners, or stabilizers are
added to the mix prior to inoculation.
The milk and added ingredients, except flavors and the inoculum, are mixed and
pasteurized in the usual equipment. Homogenization is also usually done with twostage piston homogenizers. The solids content may be increased by adding milk
powder prior to pasteurization or water may be removed by a vacuum vessel after
pasteurization. The total solids level when using vacuum removal is controlled by
the milk temperature at the inlet of the vacuum vessel and the rate of milk flow
through it. Regeneration is employed from the vacuum vessel to preheat the incoming milk (or mix) to about 1400F (600C) and then heated to 185 to 194F (85 to
900C) in a second heating section. During evaporation the milk (or mix) temperature
is reduced to 158F (700C). The vacuum vessels are used in lines with capacities up
to 2000 gal/h (8000 L/H). For high capacities up to 10,000 gal/h (30,000 L/H) falling
film-type evaporators are used.
At this point there is a departure in make procedure for sundae-style and Swissstyle yogurt and hence in equipment. For sundae- or set-style yogurt, the mix is
adjusted to 112 to 114F (44 to 46C) to allow a decrease of 6F (3.3C) during
filling operations and movement to the incubator, and culture is added. These operations take place in jacketed, temperature-controlled tanks just prior to filling.
Positive displacement metering pumps are frequently used to continuously add the
culture and essences. After inoculation and flavoring, the mix is packaged into the
consumer container and incubated. The fillers are similar to those used for other
viscous dairy products. The individual containers are boxed and incubated at 108 to
113F (42 to 45C) for 3 to 4 h. Incubation is interrupted by cooling to 50 to 600F
(10 to 15C) in 1 to V/2 h by passing palletized yogurt through a cooling tunnel.
Smaller operations may use circulating air to cool the yogurt. Using either method,
gradual cooling is necessary to prevent syneresis and shrinkage of the curd. After
sufficient cooling, the product is removed to a 400F (4.4C) cold storage room for
final chilling and storage.
Swiss-style or stirred-style yogurt is made by inoculating the mix cooled to incubation temperature in large incubation tanks. These are insulated, stirred tanks
able to maintain proper incubation temperature. The culture is metered into the tanks
from external bulk starter tanks. The incubation and culture tanks are frequently
fitted with pH electrodes to monitor acidity development. After incubation, the temperature is reduced to 54 to 600F (12 to 16C) by a second plate heat exchanger.
The gel must be handled gently to ensure proper curd strength and the tank emptying
pump and het exchanges are sized so emptying the tank takes 20 to 30 min. The
cooled yogurt is moved to one or more buffer tanks for curd healing. The product
is now ready for packaging and flavor addition. Fruits and other bulky flavors are
added by inline blenders during the transfer of yogurt from the buffer tanks to filler.
This is done continuously by using variable speed metering pumps to feed ingredi-
ents and a static blending unit. The fruit metering pump and the yogurt feed pump
are synchronized. Packaging equipment is similar to that used for sundae-style
yogurt.
is aseptically filled into sterilized containers that are hermetically sealed. This discussion will review only the first part of the process.
The quality of long-keeping milk can be expressed by the value C (Fig. 4.66).
The C represents a measure for the thermal, inevitable damage of the milk contents
during the high-temperature heating and can be determined from the temperature/
time combination of the heating process. Dr. Horak from the Institute for Dairy
Science and Food Technique of the Technical University Munich-Weihenstephan
determined, on the basis of his comprehensive tests, a dimensionless value C* = 1
as the limit value. Lower values of C ensure as careful a treatment of the product as
is possible. This is shown analytically as damage to thiamine (vitamin B1) of < 3 % ,
by a decomposition of Iysine of < 1 % , or by a damage of riboflavin (vitamin B2)
that lies below the sensitivity of the determination method. The lower the value of
C of the heating process the more carefully the product is treated and thus less offflavor results due to heat. The bacteriological security of a heating process is ex-
UHT
Temperature in F
Figure 4.66 Value C.
pressed by a value B, which has to be > 1 . The limit value of J5* = 1 characterizes
the heat treatment which causes a reduction by a factor of 10 to the 9th (109) of the
thermophile spores. At an average load of the raw milk with approximately 10
spores/ml a lethal value of 9 means that among 100,000 packages at most one package contains one single spore; all the other 99,999 packages are sterile.
For clarity the words "sterile," "aseptic," and "commercially sterile" will be
used interchangeably and for this discussion indicate the absence of any living microbe or active enzyme. There are certain requirements for successful operation of
a high-temperature processing system. First the equipment must be capable of heat
treating the product, that is, heating it to the desired temperature and holding it for
the required time. Second, the equipment must be designed to operate for long
periods of time at the high temperatures and pressures that result from the process
conditions and procedures. Third, the equipment must be capable of being rapidly
and effectively cleaned in place and then sterilized prior to introducing product.
Finally, the total process must be 100% repeatable from day to day and easily monitored. Of course the system should be energy efficient and have minimum maintenance costs.
The three common methods of producing milk and milk byproducts aseptically
are the direct steam injection/infusion method, the tubular type system, and the PHE
system. Each has unique advantages and of course some disadvantages. Another
method should also be mentioned because of its potential and that is the use of
membranes to cold sterilize the skim portion of milk and the use of one of the
previously mentioned methods to sterilize the fat portion. After each portion is
treated both are recombined. This method produces a product that has had less
exposure to high heat treatment and therefore has less cooked or other off-flavors
often associated with high-temperature processing.
The three systems described here are based on the technical specifications for
commercially available systems. It should be noted that using their more direct description rather than a general one would help the reader understand the process
better. Using these technical descriptions does not denote endorsement of that particular system.
The steam infusion/injection system (Fig. 4.67) uses the direct heating and cooling
principle. The product comes into contact with the steam in a chamber where the
mixture reaches the desired sterilization temperature. The product is held for a short
period of time prior to being introduced into the vacuum portion of the process for
cooling. In a typical system the sterilization process starts with water being pumped
from a supply tank through the system and is recirculated until the water reaches
the sterilization temperature. The sterilization process continues until the preset time/
temperature has been met. The cooling side of the system is then cooled while the
water recirculating through continues to be heat treated/sterilized.
The product is pumped from the balance tank through the regenerative section of
a PHE via a positive rotary pump that has either a mechanical or an electrical speed
control. From the regenerative section the product enters the main heating unit where
steam is infused or injected into the product, bringing it up to sterilization temperature. The time/temperature relationship of the product is automatically controlled
BACK
PRESSURE
VALVE
TUBULAR
CONDENSER
STERILE PRODUCT
RAW or NON STERILE PRODUCT
WATER
STEAM
FLOWKDIVERSION
VALVE
REGENERATIVE
WATER
RECIRCULATION
TO
ASEPTIC
FILLER
[ Et
" HSTB
STEAM
INFUSER
ASEPTtttf
FLASH^
CHAMBER
VACUUM
PUMP
COMDENSER
RAW
PRODUCT
IN
PRODUCT, WATER
SUPPLY
SUPPLY
TANK
1 TANK REGENERATION
P.KR
ROTARY HOLDER
TIMING TUBE
PUMP
ASEPTIC
HOMOGENIZER
ASEPTIC
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
ROTARY
PUMP
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
Figure 4.67 Typical steam infusion/injection system. (Courtesy of APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.)
to supply the proper heat treatment to ensure sterility and product flavor. The product
then travels through a holding tube and has a 2- to 4-s resident time. It then passes
through a back pressure valve to the aseptic flash chamber. In this chamber water is
removed under partial vacuum until the product temperature is reduced to the same
temperature it was upon entering the main heating unit. The product is then pumped
via a centrifugal pump through an aseptic homogenizer, either single-stage or twostage depending on the product being processed, the regenerative down section of
the PHE, and then through a cooler section that uses cooling water or glycol to cool
the product to storage temperature.
An aseptic flow diversion valve is used downstream from the cooler to route the
product to the sterile surge tank, directly to the filler, or back to the balance tank in
case the system does not meet sterile conditions.
As one can see the system is made up of pretty much standard components which
have already been discussed elsewhere. The special component is the infuser or
injection unit. There are many designs and variations to units available from several manufacturers. A description of the individual units may be obtained from the
manufacturer.
Tubular type sterilizing systems (Fig. 4.68) is an indirect method of heating/
cooling that uses spiral tubular, straight tube, or tube in shell type heat exchangers.
Tube diameters are kept small compared to typical tubular heaters relative to product
flow. This is done to keep product velocities high and thus reduce harmful effects
to the product due to long heating times. It is important in tubular systems to design
the system around peak product flow and also taking into consideration product
viscosities.
In a typical system water is pumped from a balance tank via a centrifugal pump
through the system and is recirculated until sterilization temperature is reached. The
system is then held in this state until the time/temperature for sterilization has been
met. The cooling sections are then cooled down while the system is operating in an
aseptic manner.
Raw product is pumped from the balance tank via the centrifugal pump through
a tubular regenerative system in which product is regenerated against product or in
some systems a closed loop sterile water system is recirculated and used to prewarm
cool raw product and precool sterile product. From the regenerator up side the product goes through a stabilizing heater where the product is heated to approximately
1900F (880C) and held up to 2 min to help stabilize the dairy product prior to heating
to the sterilization temperature of 280 to 292F (138 to 145C). The final sterilization
temperature is obtained in a separate heater with a closed loop recirculating pressurized hot water set. After reaching the sterilization temperature the product is held
2 to 4 s. From the holding tube the product flows through the first section of the
regenerator down side to cool the product to homogenization temperature. The product is then homogenized in an aseptic homogenizer which pumps the sterile homogenized through the final section of the regenerator down, then through a final
cooler which uses a glycol/chilled water as the medium. The product then is routed
through the aseptic flow diversion valve to the surge tank, directly to the filler, or
back to the balance tank, thus the aseptic tubular system is similar to the standard
tubular except for higher velocity of product through the heat exchangers, and the
use of aseptic valves, pumps, and homogenizer as required.
CENTRATE
CONCENTRATE COBN
LENDN
IG
!BLENDING
TANK
TANK
PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER PRESSURETUBE
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
DRUM OR BULK
CONCENTRATE
CENTRF
I UGAL
TO
PUMP
HOT WATER RECIRCULATION HOT FILL
STERILE PRODUCT
OPERATO
IN
RAW or NON STERILE PRODUCT
WATER
STEAM
Figure 4.69 Plate heat exchanger high temperature sterilization system. (Courtesy of APV
Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.)
Figure 4.70 Tank for sterile products. (Courtesy of APV Crepaco, Inc., Lake Mills, WI,
U.S.A.)
processing and packaging; otherwise the processing equipment and packaging equipment must be matched. Without the surge tank if either side, process or packaging,
shuts down the other side is idle. This is not practical in the dairy to maintain a
profitable operation. Using the aseptic surge allows the product to be delivered to
storage and then removed as the filler requires.
Aseptic surge tanks are sterilized before processing usually as part of the process
system sterilization or with a self-contained sterilization system. Precautions are
taken to ensure all parts of the vessel in contact with the product are properly sterilized and that the air supply to the tank is sterile. The sterile air is required to maintain
a protective positive pressure and to displace the product. Antibacterial barriers must
be provided at agitator shafts if the tank has one.
Aseptic pumps are designed similar to standard pumps as described in Section
4.2.3. All shaft seals must have antibacterial barriers. Seals and gasket materials
must be capable of withstanding sterilization procedures.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.
2. GEA-Ahlborn and GEA-Finnah, GmbH & Co., Sarstede, Germany.
3. Stork Food Machinery, Inc., Gainesville, GA, U.S.A.
MEMBRANE
mmftm
***
MEMBRANB
MM8RA
tacfd
ilWf
Figure 4.71 Ultrafiltration; (b) reverse osmosis; (c) microfiltration. (Courtesy of Koch Membrane Systems, Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)
for a practically pure water to pass through. The membrane material, usually cellulose acetate, is incorporated into tubular or spiral-wound modules. RO membranes
are used in the dairy industry to purify evaporator condensate and other water/waste
streams. They are also used to preconcentrate whey prior to UF processing or roller
drying and to preconcentrate milk prior to cheesemaking. The pores in RO membranes range from 3 to 15 angstroms. It should be noted that RO membranes are
manufactured with different pore sizes and thus different retention characteristics.
Therefore depending on the application the type of RO membrane chosen may
change.
Ultrafiltration is a low-pressure membrane process used for separating high molecular weight dissolved materials from liquids. Most UF membranes are anisotropic
in structure and thus they have a dense layer on top that determines the degree of
separation and a spongy support layer underneath. The UF membrane is usually
made of a relatively inert polysulfone polymer and consists of the same material
throughout the membrane structure. The low molecular weight materials such as
salts and lactose pass through the membrane and are removed as permeate. The
macromolecules, suspended solids, and colloids are rejected by the membrane and
therefore are concentrated. Ultrafiltration is used to separate proteins from cheese
whey, for preconcentration of milk for making cheese base used in process cheese,
and for preconcentration of milk for various types of cheese such as Cheddar. Pore
sizes in UF membranes range from 15 to 1000 angstroms. MF is also a low-pressure
membrane process used for separating suspended materials in the .05 to 5 /mm range.
MF membranes are usually isotropic in structure; however, some are being manufactured with an anisotropic pore. In either case the material throughout the membrane is homogeneous. MF is applied in the dairy plant in a process for making a
low-heat sterile milk and is being tested as a means of separating the fat from whole
milk. Some fractionation of whey is also accomplished using MF membranes.
UO is a relatively new process used in the dairy industry to remove the salts from
salt whey, thus reducing the BOD load and recovering valuable protein from the
whey. This type of membrane is also being used for cleaning caustic for reuse CIP
systems. This membrane system operates in the pressure range of 150 to 600 psi,
thus between RO and UF.
Membranes used in the dairy industry all must have certain characteristics such
as capability of withstanding the transmembrane pressure (difference between the
feed-side and permeate-side pressure). Typical transmembrane pressures for MF are
5 to 50 psi, for UF 10 to 200 psi, for RO 200 to 1000 psi, and for UO 150 to 400
psi. Thus modules of each membrane type as well as the membrane must be capable
of surpassing the pressures to which they are subjected. Components and membranes
of the modules must also be made of materials that will withstand processing and
CIP temperatures. Typical processes for dairy applications are operated at 100 to
180 of (38 to 92C). Some dairy processes require steam sterilization; therefore for
these cases the membrane and module components must be designed accordingly.
Membranes also need to be compatible with pH of the cleaning solutions or process
fluids.
Membranes are usually available in four configurations: plate and frame, spiral
wound, tubular, and hollow fiber. The plate and frame unit is composed of flat
membrane sheets bonded to porous support plates or layered alternately with woven
spacer fabrics. Individual plates can be stacked to form a cartridge module containing
numerous flow channels. The units can be disassembled for inspection and replacement of membranes. The spiral wound module, as shown in Figure 4.72, is manufactured by building a "sandwich" of consecutive layers of membrane and flow
spacer sheets all wound around a perforated tube. The feed travels through the spacer
channels and permeate passes through the membrane and flows spirally along the
membrane channel toward the center until finally reaching the perforated permeate
tube at the center. The design of the unit does not allow it to be disassembled and
put back together. The design does offer a high surface-to-volume ratio which yields
a reduction in pumping requirements and floor space required.
Tubular membranes are made up of single or multiple tubular bundles with support structures (Fig. 4.73). The membrane is on the inside of the tube. The feed flows
through the membrane core and as it does this the permeate passes through the
side walls of the membrane and is collected in the housing which is also tubular in
Anti-telescoping Device
FEED SOLUTION
CONCENTRATE
PERMEATE OUT
CONCENTRATE
Membrane
Covering
Concentrate
Feed
Pressure
tube
Membrane
carrier
material
Membrane
Permeate
shape. The tubular design allows for a high-capacity throughput and the filtration of
high-viscosity products but has a low packing density.
A variation of the tubular design is the hollow fiber which is a bundle of hollow
fibers inside a tubular housing. The hollow fiber design provides for a high membrane surface-to-volume ratio. Similar to the tubular design the membrane is on the
inside of the hollow fiber. As the feed flows through the cores of the fibers the
permeate is collected in the open channels surrounding the fibers. The design of the
hollow fiber allows for operation of the system at low transmembrane pressures and
thus improves cleaning.
It is difficult to indicate which type of configuration is superior; however, each
system can be evaluated as to different characteristics. Some areas that are typically
looked at are the internal liquid volume, the method of membrane manufacture,
cleanability, permeate side construction, membrane exchange, membrane strength,
viscosity limits, construction materials, operating power consumption, and flexibility
of plant size.
Membrane systems in general are made up of a group of components that are
compatible with one of the four previously mentioned designs. Membrane systems
can be set up as batch where the feed of an initial volume is pumped to the filtration
unit and split into two separate streams, permeate and concentrate. The concentrate
stream returns to the process tank while the permeate is discarded or recycled for
additional processing. The process continues until the volume level of the process
stream drops to the desired level and the required concentration level is reached. The
other type system is the most common in the dairy industry and is called the multistage or stages in series system (Fig. 4.74). In the multistage system the feed rate is
equal to the permeate and concentrate rate. Feed is introduced to the first stage while
the concentrate generated serves as the feed to the succeeding stages, with the output
from the final stage being the final product concentration desired. One advantage is
the ability to produce the required concentrated product immediately and continuously without the need for excess tankage for storage.
When designing stages in series system the first question that must be answered
is how many stages to use. This is determined by the capacity of the feed, the
concentration desired in the end product, and the efficiency desired in the system.
The stages in series system is similar to a multiple effect evaporator in that the
product is concentrated progressively in each stage. Thus the liquid may be very
thin exiting the first stage and quite viscous leaving the final stage. The membrane
flux/capacity decreases with an increase in concentration. Thus reducing the number
of stages in the system reduces the average capacity per unit area of membrane.
Each membrane system manufacturer will optimize the number of stages per the
customer's requirements. Major components of the stages in series plants consist of
the balance tank and controls for the first stage, each stage consisting of the modules
and module rack, recirculation pump, flow control valves, and the final stage with
either a flow control valve for controlling the amount of concentrate bled off of the
system or in the case of extremely viscous products a variable-speed positive rotary
pump controlling the concentrate out. As all of these components have been discussed in other sections it would be redundant to review them again.
Figure 4.74 Multistages in series membrane system. (Courtesy of Koch Membrane Systems, Inc., Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)
Optimization of a membrane system is somewhat difficult; for example, the membranes flux at a higher capacity when the flow rate across them is high. However,
higher flow rate increases the pressure which increases power required to pump the
product and can also be detrimental to membrane/module life. Another area that
must be reviewed or considered for the above example is that a higher flow across
the membrane surface tends to aid in keeping the surface clean. Thus lowering the
flow which in turn lowers the power consumption could cause the membrane to foul
more rapidly and result in more CIP regimens per day and reduced capacity.
Cleaning of membrane systems is more challenging than cleaning most other
dairy processing equipment. Membrane fouling occurs in most separation processes.
The fouling which is a result of concentration polarization and a slowly increasing
gel layer thickness at the membrane surface reduces membrane performance. The
components of the fouling layer vary accordingly with the feed stream and have an
affinity for clinging to the membrane surface. CIP procedures must be optimized to
remove the fouling layer and sanitize the system at the same time minimizing the
degradation of the membrane. Each manufacturer recommends the proper cleaning
agents, sequence, times, flow rates, and temperatures for properly cleaning and sanitizing the system and maximizing membrane life.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1.
2.
3.
4.
CHAPTER
5
Engineering: Plant Design,
Processing, and Packaging
Vance Caudill
5.1 Introduction, 296
5.2 Plant Construction and Arrangement, 296
5.2.1 Construction Considerations, 297
5.2.1.1 Type of Business, 297
5.2.1.2 Contour of Building Site, 297
5.2.1.3 Soil, Wind, and Seismic Conditions, 298
5.2.1.4 Utilities, 299
5.2.1.5 Social Concern, 300
5.2.1.6 Construction Materials, 300
5.2.1.7 Foundation Type, 301
5.2.1.8 Framing Concept, 301
5.2.1.9 Roof Design, 302
5.2.1.10 Floor, 302
5.2.1.11 Walls and Doors, 303
5.2.2 Plant Layout, 303
5.2.2.1 Process Flow Diagrams and General Arrangements, 304
5.2.2.2 Receiving Docks, 305
5.2.2.3 Storage Tanks, 305
5.2.2.4 Dry Storage Areas, 305
5.2.2.5 Milk Processing Room, 305
5.2.2.6 Finished Product Storage, 306
5.2.2.7 Discharge Dock, 306
5.2.2.8 Offices and Laboratories, 307
5.3 Processing Engineering, 307
5.3.1 Dimensions and Units, 307
5.3.2 Fluid Flow Characteristics, 309
5.3.3 Heat Transfer, 310
5.3.3.1 Heat Transfer for Fluid Products, 310
5.3.3.2 Pasteurization, 312
5.3.3.3 UHT Processing, 313
5.3.4 Principles of Homogenization, 316
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.1 Introduction
In order to achieve the desired dairy manufacturing facility, several engineering
disciplines are combined to form the proper plan. This chapter discusses the plant
development, plant layout, several processing considerations, and some packaging
requirements. The plant must be designed to produce an economical product that
satisfies regulatory guidelines and consumer demands. Engineering is involved in
designing the plant facilities, establishing the optimal plant layout, specifying the
desired processing systems, and selecting the packaging equipment based on consumer requirements. An understanding of these operations and engineering principles is required in order to achieve an effective plant.
Type of
Business
Management and marketing will be required to determine and target the type of dairy
products required for this new facility. A study of the feasibility of a project must
be made in the very early stages of planning. In some cases this would determine
whether to build or modify an existing facility. This study would also include surveying the existing milk production capabilities in the selected area and assessing
their future production capabilities. The objective must be to estimate the quantity
and composition of the milk which could be brought to the plant as soon as it is
ready for operation.
Once the type of dairy products and optimal location of the new facility is determined, the owner must select the building site and engineering firm to plan and
construct the new milk plant or to remodel an existing plant. An engineering firm
should be contracted to study possible building sites based on a developed business
objective. For example, if the plant is in business for contract-packaging, then cost
becomes a primary consideration versus a state-of-the-art facility to develop new
market shares.
A qualified representative of the organization should visit similar dairy facilities
to observe the latest developments in construction, equipment, room sizes, and consequent building size. The product capacities should be based on marketing projections. Management should also review the possible requirement for future plant
production and incorporate this information into building design.
the site must be large enough to accommodate future expansion. All too often, the
parcel of land purchased for the best of building plans becomes too small. Once a
food manufacturing plant has outgrown itself, numerous types of product safety
problems can occur. Crowding limits the options for an efficient and sanitary plant
layout. Good planning up front will prevent this from happening.
A decision between a single-story or multiple-story building will be required.
Both have advantages and disadvantages which directly affect the manufacturing
process. A single-story building would simplify the shifting of personnel from operation to operation. Plant maintenance and operation will benefit because there is
improved communication and less time is required to move from job to job. Process
ingredients and other materials move more efficiently. Supervision of personnel and
of the manufacturing operation can also be enhanced. The major problems with
single-story buildings are associated with product flow. Gravity flow of secondary
ingredients to process is often not possible; as a result, the use of additional mechanical, pneumatic, and conveying equipment becomes necessary. Most singlestory structures require ceiling heights that are difficult to access. These same ceiling
areas become heavily congested with supporting service piping, duct work, and
miscellaneous equipment. It is often difficult to get at these areas to perform cleaning
and maintenance operations.
Multiple-story buildings have the opposite advantages and disadvantages. These
buildings allow for gravity-flow process techniques which eliminate a lot of mechanical and pneumatic elevating and conveying equipment. In addition, ceilings for
each floor are lower, less congested, and more accessible. At the same time, shifting
personnel from operation to operation and supervision become more difficult. Freight
elevators must be used to move process ingredients and other materials from floor
to floor.1
It might be appropriate to compromise by selecting a single-story building that
utilizes mezzanine floors. This type of plan allows for gravity flow where it is necessary, yet, it still offers the advantages of a single-story. This type of floor arrangement is most common in dairy plants.
95.76 KN/M2
383.04 to 957.00 KN/M2
2872.80 KN/M2
The basic design wind velocity is 145 KMPH and is based on a recurrence
frequency of 100 years. Basic wind pressures are based on the following height
exposure:
Height
Pressure
Oto 4.57 M
1101.24 N/M2
4.57 to 9.14M
1292.76 N/M2
9.14 to 15.24 M
1436.40 N/M2
Design wind pressures are obtained by multiplying the basic wind pressures by the
Factory Mutual shape factors and are usually dictated by state or local building codes.
A seismic study should be conducted to determine the design requirement in the
building frame. A detailed study of ground activity may include analyses such as
response spectrum, timehistory analysis, and random vibration analysis.3
Other climatic conditions, such as temperature, can also affect the economic operation of the plant. The climate of the location may require protective buildings,
cooling towers, or air conditioning.
5.2.1.4 Utilities
Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants, and fuel is required
to supply these utilities. Consequently, power and fuel can be combined as one major
factor in the choice of a plant site. The local cost of power can help determine
whether power should be purchased or self-generated. An energy study by an engineering firm should be conducted to determine any economical savings for energyefficient design, motor selection, equipment design, building design, etc.
A good potable water supply and an adequate sewage disposal system are essential. Such things as municipal water supply additives that may be objectionable to
the product quality or process should be investigated. Because it may be less expensive to pump water from a private source than to buy from a municipality, many
dairy plants develop their own water supplies. Water table or artesian well water
may contain suspended matter dissolved gases, microorganisms, and dissolved organic and inorganic matter. Once again, a plan study to review available and future
potable water should be conducted before final site selection.
The problems associated with the plant's liquid waste or processing discharge
waters are areas that are often overlooked. If the municipal sewage handling facility
is inadequate, then the site that is selected should be large enough to accommodate
treatment facilities. Frequently, this waste water contains significant organic matter.
The presence of certain organic materials, such as milk, fats, sugar, starch, etc. makes
the liquid biodegradable, which increases the biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D.).
Many sewage plants object to an increase in B.O.D. and will add a compensating
surcharge to normal sewage bills. The water study should include information concerning sewage issues.
In recent years, many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods for
disposing of waste materials from the process industries. The site selected for a plant
should have adequate capacity and facilities for correct waste disposal. Even though
a given area has no restrictions on pollution, it should not be assumed that this
condition will continue to exist. Waste disposal can be accomplished by water, land,
or air dispersal. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for the
various methods of waste disposal should be considered, and attention should be
given to potential requirements for additional waste-treatment facilities.
steel supports are rarely satisfactory for a wet environment, as peeling paint and
corrosion are a recurring product safety problem. For dry process equipment, mild
steel supports are very satisfactory. Mild steel supports should be painted with a
food-grade epoxy-base paint.5
The basic materials that are commonly and successfully used for building structures (steel, concrete, and brick) are equally satisfactory for milk plants. However,
the materials used for fittings and finishes are subject to limitations arising from the
special conditions associated with milk processing operations, affecting mainly the
interior of the building.
In past years most buildings, including milk plants, have been designed to dimensions that were determined arbitrarily by the architect to suit the particular needs
of the purpose and site of the building. With the increasing use of prefabricated
building elements standardization of dimensions, or "modules," has become desirable, if not essential, to keep buildings costs to a minimum. Although this would
not necessarily be true in the case of a building constructed entirely from local
materials using traditional techniques, the special requirements of a milk plant may
necessitate the importation of steelwork, panels, or other elements. These may be
available only in standard sizes.
5.2.1.10 Floor
Boors in the processing areas of a milk plant are commonly the most troublesome
aspect of building construction because of the severe operating conditions. The floors
must resist the mechanical stresses caused by hand trucks and must have a nonslip
surface. It is inevitable that during processing and equipment cleaning operations
the floor will be subjected to milk, acid, and alkali residues and to thermal stress
arising from the discharge of hot liquids. The floors in which dairy products are
processed, packaged, or stored should be constructed of tile in which all joints are
properly sealed with an impervious material. Typical dairy brick floors are illustrated
in Figures 5.3, 5.6 and 5.8.
No other areas in a food processing facility present more challenges to protective
coatings than do concrete floors. There are few areas in food processing plants where
concrete floors survive unprotected. Concrete is readily attacked by acids, strong
alkalis, nitrates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, sugars, and some fats and oils.
In these areas, floor topping such as epoxy with aggregate is applied as thick as
0.64 cm.
The floors of the receiving room, washrooms, and processing rooms should be
connected with the main drain line that leads to the sewer. One or more drains are
located in each room. In large rooms, there may be several. The bell and stand pipe
type traps shall not be used in the processing area.6 Drains should be arranged in
line and about 4.57 m apart, with provision for a slight rise in the floor level between
them. They should be connected with a cast-iron sewer pipe to carry liquid to a point
about 1.52 m outside the builiding line. At that point a grease trap should be installed
to collect fat transported in the drain water which, unless kept out of the system,
will clog sewer pipes. The grease trap is usually a concrete box constructed in the
drain, the bottom of the box being 0.61 m or more below the inlet pipe. The top of
the outlet pipe should be level with the bottom of the inlet pipe. The outlet pipe
should have elbows extending about 15 cm below the top of the liquid so that the
fat accumulating on the surface of the liquid will not pass into the sewer line. The
grease trap is required by certain city ordinances. A glazed terra-cotta pipe may
connect the grease trap with the main sewer line.1
for PFDs, GAs, docks, storage, processing areas, and packaging areas. Figure 5.1
illustrates a typical dairy processing facility.
PACKAGING
MATERIAL
STORAGE
ORY
STORAGE
CIP
RAW
INGREOIENT
RECEIVING
COLO
STORAGE
PACKAGINC
LAB Si Q.C.
MILK
PROCESSING
SPECIALIZED
PACKACING
CONTROL
ROOM
OFFICE
BREAK
ROOM
FACILITIES
BOILER
MAINTANCE
TANK
ROOM
LOCKER
DISTRIBUTION
&
SHIPPING
teurizers and finally to the fillers in a direct flow. The GA will indicate whether the
layout will be a straight line or in the form of an " L " or a " U , " depending on
location of the filling machines with respect to the cold room and the loading docks.
The pasteurizing equipment may consist of one or more HTST units (hightemperature-short time); a unit is illustrated in Figure 5.3. Tanks, homogenizers,
clarifiers, separators, etc. are to be included in this installation and thus must be
positioned in locations and in a manner that will facilitate the smooth operation of
the plant. Details on processing equipment specifications are established in the Federal Register Vol. 40, No. 198, Part 58. The facilities necessary for clean-in-place
(CIP) and plant automation should receive consideration when planning the processing areas. The General Arrangements are essential in developing the optimum
location for the processing equipment. Consequently, multiple reviews and modifications of the drawings will occur before final issue.
Base SI Unit
Symbol
Length
Mass
Time
Electric current
Thermodynamic temperature
Amount of substance
Luminous intensity
meter
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole
candles
m
kg
S
A
K
mol
cd
Now that dimensions and units have been defined, some of the most common
and important dimensions will be briefly discussed. In almost any application one
of the most important yet basic dimensions is mass. Mass is the measure of the
quantity of an object. The mass of an object is usually given in units of kilograms
(kg).
It is often necessary to study the kinematics of an object; therefore, understanding
velocity and acceleration is necessary. Velocity is a vector quantity expressed as the
distance traveled per unit time in a defined direction, given by the derivative dx/dt.
The SI units for velocity are meter per second (m/s). Acceleration is, in turn, the
rate of change in the velocity of an object. This relation is, therefore, given by doI
dt. Acceleration is given in SI units of meters per second squared (m/s2). One obvious
example of acceleration is the earth's gravitational attraction which is given a value
of about 9.807 m/s2. Velocity and acceleration are important factors to study in many
areas from mechanical to fluid applications.
From the definitions of mass and acceleration, the dimension of force can now
be found. Force, given by Newton's second law (F = ma) is the mass multiplied
by the acceleration and, therefore, takes on their units of kg/s which is called Newtons (N). An example of force is weight which is a force due to gravitational acceleration (W = mg).
Another dimension to consider is density. Density is the mass of an object or
substance per unit volume given in SI units of kg/m3.
Stress, or pressure, is a characteristic to describe force per unit area. An important
factor to consider is hydrostatic pressure, which is uniform in all directions at a point
within a fluid. Pressure is given as pascal (Pa) in the SI system, but commonly in
pounds per square inch (psi) in the English system.
Work is a quantity that is often misinterpreted. Work is achieved when a force
acts through a distance.
Work = F X X
A popular misconception is that work is a form of energy. It is the net transfer of
energy due to the motion of forces. However, it has the same units as energy which
is, in SI units, Joules (J) (equivalent to N-m). Work is a path function and dW is an
inexact differential, where energy is a point function. There are several types of work
such as displacement work, moving boundary work, shaft work, electric work, and
flow work.
Power, also a path function, is simply the time rate of work. The SI unit for power
is, therefore, Joules per second (J/s), which is called Watts (W).
LAMINAR
r
TURBULENT
ROUGH
SMOOTH
v/V
Figure 5.2 Velocity profiles of Newtonian flow in circular pipe where (v) is the center
velocity, (V) is the average velocity, and (e) is the pipe roughness coefficient.
The Reynold's number is defined as the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous
force on an element of fluid. A high Reynold's number implies a thinner layer
covering the pipe wall and, therefore, a lower resistance. The layer of resistance
increases as the viscosity increases. A fluid is considered to be a Newtonian fluid if
the relation of shearing stress to the rate of shearing strain is linear.
At the entrance of a pipe the velocity of a fluid is uniform and constant. However,
the velocity changes as it moves further into the pipe until it is fully developed. The
distance that is required for the fluid to become fully developed is the hydrodynamic
entrance length (Z0).
Generally, a velocity of at least 1.52 m/s is desired for adequate cleaning in piping,
regardless of the diameter of the pipe.
As a fluid flows through a network of piping it experiences head loss (hL) given
by:
Where F is the friction coefficient, / is the length of the pipe section, V is the velocity,
D is the pipe diameter, and g is the force of gravity. Head loss is related to pressure
change by the equation:
and y is the specific weight of the fluid. Head loss within the straight portion of pipe
due to friction is called a major loss. Minor losses are those due to flow through
components such as valves, bends, and tees. In some cases the minor losses are
greater than the major losses.
surroundings are at a higher temperature than the system. The SI unit for heat is the
Joule (J).
Heat transfer is, therefore, defined as the time rate of heat, dQ/dt, and has the SI
unit of Watts (W). Heat transfer occurs when convection of energy due to temperature difference is present and the system boundary is at a solid-fluid interface (by
the definition of heat). For convection of energy due to temperature difference to
occur the following criteria must be satisfied:
1.
2.
3.
4.
where hc is the coefficient for convection, A is the area perpendicular to the transfer.
r E is the temperature of the surroundings (wall), Ts is the temperature of the system
(fluid).10
There are three categories of industrial process heating applications: Low-Temperature (below 2900C), Medium-Temperature (290 to 5900C), and High-Temperature (above 5900C). There are many and varied applications of low-temperature
heating processes, including dairy foods.11
Now, a brief description will be given of some variables, characteristics, and
equations that may be considered when thermodynamically analyzing a specific
process such as milk pasteurization. First, some of the flow characteristics may be
studied (see Section 5.3.2), such as Reynold's number, velocity, and length required
for the fluid to become hydrodynamically developed. Next, the heat required for a
certain section could be considered. This is given by the following equation:
Where; qi is the heat transfer per time per area (wall-heat flux); p is fluid density;
v is fluid velocity; D is the duct diameter; C p is the constant pressure specific heat;
L is the length of the section, T^ is the bulk fluid temperature at the outlet, and Thi
is the bulk fluid temperature at the inlet.
The power required is then:
The entrance length required for the flow to become fully developed, thermally, (Zt)
is found by:
Z1 = 0.05D R e /V
R e is the Reynold's number (see Section 5.3.2)
Pr is the PRANDTL number:
and //, is fluid viscosity, gc is a conversion factor, and kf is the thermal conductivity.
To determine the wall-temperature variation ( r w z ) , we must first consider the
equation:
Where hz is the local coefficient, Thz is the bulk-fluid density variation, which is:
5.3.3.2 Pasteurization
High-temperature-short-time (HTST) pasteurization is the most important operation
in the processing of milk. The extent of microorganism inactivation by heat depends
on a time-temperature relationship. The minimum temperature and time relationships for pasteurization of milk are based on thermal death time studies with heatresistant microorganisms. The most heat-resistant pathogen found in milk is Corelliac burnettii. Some temperature-time treatments that are recognized by the U.S.
Public Health Service for the pasteurization of milk in indirect heat exchangers are
as follows:
62.8C for 30 min
71.7C for 15 s
88.3C for 1 s
90.00C for 0.5 s
93.9Cfor0.1 s
95.6C for 0.05 s
100.00C for 0.01 s
These temperatures and times are the minimum requirements for pasteurization.13
Any temperature or any holding time greater than one of these standards is satisfactory. Higher processing temperatures (HHST) are often used to increase shelf life.
For pasteurization of milk products with added sweeteners or butterfat more severe
heat treatments are required than for milk. A review of pasteurization and associated
processing equipment is presented in comprehensive publications by Harper14 or
Lambert.15
Virtually, all milk is pasteurized by HTST methods utilizing a plate heat exchanger. Figure 5.3 illustrates a typical unit mounted on a dairy brick floor. The homogenizer (see Section 5.3.4) may be located between the regenerative heating and
final heater sections of the heat exchanger or between the final heater and holding
tube.
Figure 5.3 Plate heat exchanger for HTST pasteurization. (Courtesy of Lockwood Greene.)
5.3.3.3
UHTProcessing
There are two basic methods for UHT processing. The direct method involves
heating the milk by steam injection or infusion, which results in dilution of the milk.
This is followed by evaporative cooling under vacuum, which removes the added
water, restoring the milk to its original composition. The second method, indirect
heating, involves heat transfer across a heat exchange surface. Steam does not contact
product.
A flow diagram of the Cherry-Burrell, steam injection UHT system at North
Carolina State University is presented in Figure 5.4. The flow chart is typical of the
UHT steam injection systems available from several equipment manufacturers. The
product is pumped from a holding tank through a plate heat exchanger, where the
product is preheated. Hot water is used as the heating medium. After the product is
preheated, a variable speed, positive displacement timing pump regulates the flow
rate through the injector, and controls the liquid level in the vacuum chamber. In
the injector, the product is heated to the sterilization temperature by mixing with
culinary steam. The holding tube is located between the injector and back pressure
valve. The pressure required in the holding tube is maintained by the back pressure
valve located at the end of the tube. The product is flash cooled to near preheat
temperature in the vacuum chamber. From the vacuum chamber, the product is
pumped to an aseptic homogenizer, then cooled to room temperature by tubular heat
exchangers. After passing through the flow diversion valve, product can be stored
in the aseptic tank or pumped directly to the aseptic packager. An infusion system
STEAM
REGULATOR
STEAM
TO
HOMO PISTONS
TO
STEAM SEAL
H.E.
TAP WATER'
PRODUCT
PLATE
H.E.
BPV
VACUUM
CHAMBER
TIMING
PUMP
FOV
ASEPTIC
TANK
H.E.
INJECTOR
AIR
BLEED
TUBULAR
CIP PUMP
FILLER
H.E.
CONDENSATE
H0M0CENI7F.R
in which product flows through a steam environment is rarely used, although it has
several of the same characteristics as the injection system.
High temperature plate heat exchangers, shell and tube, tube in tube units are
possible indirect systems. Several commercial vendors supply an array of heat exchangers for aseptic processing. These heat exchangers are similar in design regardless of the vendor. The plate unit is similar to a standard unit except designed for
high temperatures. The sterile product side of the exchanger must always operate at
a higher pressure than the regenerative or cooling portion of the exchanger. A secondary medium at lower pressures may be used during regeneration and cooling to
reduce concerns of product contamination, but the thermal efficiency of the system
is lower. A shell and tube unit consists of tubes mounted in a cylindrical heating
chamber. A centrifugal booster pump supplies flow through a plate heat exchanger
to a timing pump. Product reheating occurs in the plate heat exchanger when the
thermal regeneration section is used. The timing pump can be a one- to seven-piston,
positive displacement pump with variable speed drive. The product next passes
through two shell-and-tube heat exchanges. The first stage heater uses constant pressure steam at the shell side of the heat exchanger to heat product. Second-stage
heating can be regulated by a pneumatically operated steam control valve. Product
is then passed through a holding section where it can be held at the prescribed
temperature for the designed holding time.
Product cooling can be accomplished in three steps. Primary cooling occurs
in the regeneration system (a product-to water-to product heat recovery network).
The absorbed heat is transported to the plate heat exchange to heat incoming raw
milk. A throttling valve on the discharge side of the circulating pump can be
used to regulate the recirculating water flow which controls the extent of thermal
regeneration.
From the regeneration shell-and-tube units, the product passes through a onestage remote homogenization valve. Further cooling takes place in three cooling
tower water shell-and-tube coolers and one chill water shell-and-tube cooler. Product
passes through a flow diversion valve assembly and onto a filler. Product flow velocities of 2.4 to 6.7 m/s are used to give good heat transfer and reduce deposit
formation.17 These units are common in ultrahigh temperature processing of milk.
A tube in tube unit utilizes concentric stainless steel tube woven into each other.
Figure 5.5 represents a flow scheme for this type of unit. Two concentric tubes are
employed during preheating and regeneration. Three concentric tubes are utilized
for conducting system energy into increasing product temperature. Product flow
through the second tube or center tube of the triple tube system. The steam heating
medium flows in a counter-current direction in the outer and inner tubes. A differential pressure recorder must be installed to monitor and continuously record pressures. Because this system incorporates the use of product to product heat regeneration, triple tubes are used for cooling. The operating pressures and temperature are
an indication of product flow rate, product properties, and back pressure resistance.
A minimum back pressure of 10 psig over the operating steam pressure is required
in the holding tube. This would prevent any two-phase flow. Noncondensable gases
would displace product in the holding tubes, resulting in reduced resident time, as
F
LILER
H G
ms
COO
N
LIG
F
N
IA
L
H
E
A
T
E
R
H
O
M
O
G
E
Z
N
E
IR
REGENERA
O
TIN
PROGRESSV
IE
PREHEATER
Figure 5.5 Tube in tube indirect processing system for UHT milk.
well as reducing heat transfer in the heat exchangers. This requirement to back
pressure is similar to all UHT systems.
Milk is drawn into each cylinder in turn, and the piston then forces the milk through
the homogenizing valve which is loaded hydraulically or by a powerful spring with
hand wheel control. A high velocity gradient in the milk between the homogenizing
valve and its seat creates a shearing action. This action causes the larger fat globules
to break up into smaller globules. A plunger pump used for homogenization produces
a pulsating flow and pulsating pressure at the homogenizing valve. The variation in
pressure has a pronounced effect on the quality of homogenization. The best results
are obtained from a homogenizer valve when the fluid is forced through it under
steady conditions. Increasing the number of plungers to three, five, or seven produces
a more uniform globule size. A three-plunger pump gives a reasonably uniform
pressure but still there is a variation of approximately 20%.
Homogenization effectiveness is a term used to indicate the tendency for globules
to remain uniformly distributed within the milk. The tests for determining the homogenization effectiveness include microscopic, fat separation, centrifugal, and turbidimetric methods. The microscopic test has been used effectively to substantiate
other tests in showing effectiveness of homogenization. Generally, the microscopic
method is subject to errors, especially in measuring the small number of large globules containing a large proportion of the fat in relation to their weight, and thousands
of globules must be measured to determine an accurate size distribution.21 Farrall
developed a technique that consists of preparing a standard dilution of milk examining under a high power microscope, counting the number of fat globules in five
fields, and then calculating an index. While the Farrall index is a more rapid test
than other microscopic tests, it is at best only an indirect measure, and from a practical point of view is difficult to interpret.
The USPHS fat separation test is based on the tendency of fat globules to rise
because of their lesser density as compared with the aqueous portion of milk. The
fat percentage of the top 100 ml of milk in a quart bottle must not differ by more
than 10% of itself from the fat percentage of the remaining milk as determined after
thorough mixing.19 In other words, F1 Fh/Ft X 100 should not be greater than
10% where Ft = fat percentage in the top 100 ml and Fh = fat percentage in the
remainder. Unfortunately, results of this test contain significant errors due to sampling and fat testing. Sampling errors are associated in withdrawing the top 100 ml
of milk. It is difficult to remove this quantity from the top of the container without
mixing at the interface, and a ring of fat adhering to the wall of the container often
remains. Any mixing of top and bottom portions or any fat not included in the sample
creates significant errors. A fat test normally has a single sample accuracy of
0.05%. Such an error could create errors in the USPHS fat separation test in excess
of 25% of the true value.
The centrifugal method for determining the homogenization effectiveness is a
modified fat separation test. Centrifugal tests, although slightly more accurate than
the fat separation method, still contain significant errors. Yet, the primary advantage
of the centrifugal method for determining effectiveness of homogenization is that
this test is rapid.22
Turbidimetric methods for determining effectiveness of homogenization have
been reviewed by DeackoffP The turbidity of an emulsion such as milk can be used
to determine the effectiveness of homogenization by the light scattering of milkfat
globules. The effect of case in micelles is overcome by dissolving the micelles with
chelating agents, ammonium hydroxide, or other alkali. The light scattered is a function of the average particle size of the suspended fat globules, the difference in
refractive index between the water and milkfat, and the concentration of the fat. In
this method, the portion of the incident beam transmitted through the sample is
measured; the remaining portion that has been scattered is not measured. Walstra24
used light transmission at seven wavelengths between 400 nm and 1000 nm to
determine the mean globule size and size distribution. Caudill20 used a wavelength
of 1020 nm to measure homogenization effectiveness. This wavelength nullified the
scattering effects of color; thus a high degree of resolution and duplicability was
obtained. Using a single-wavelength reading permits more rapid determination
of homogenization effectiveness, but does not provide globule size distribution
information.
The first choice is whether the system is open or closed. Product properties largely
determine the outcome. The next step requires selecting the types of system pressurepositive or vacuum, or combinations of the two systems.
Open systems are suited when environmental control is unnecessary, as capital
costs are lower (a return line is not needed) and a wider range of devices can be
used. The majority of pneumatic conveying systems are open. The product nearly
always can be kept enclosed during conveying.
Closed systems are preferred when the material must be conveyed in a controlled
environment, the most simple form of a closed system, which consists of a closed
loop of piping, a blower, a supply hopper with a feed bin and solids feeder, and a
discharge bin with a baghouse filter on it. Continuous operation is easiest to achieve
using closed loops.
Positive-pressure systems are the most common, and are suited for the widest
range of solids-feeding devices, Venturis, screws, and blow tanks. By inserting diverter valves into the system lines, the product can easily be conveyed to a variety
of discharge hoppers.
Negative-pressure (vacuum) pneumatic conveyors are best suited for drawing up
solids from more than one source to a single point.
UNSCRAM8LER
BOTTLE
FILLER
STARWHEEL
LABELER
TOTE
OUMPER
BULK
STORAGE
CAP
SURGE
HOPPER
STARWHEEL
CAP
DETECTOR
STARWHEEL
TIMING
SCREW
CONVEYOR
CAPPER
FLATS
LABELS
FROM
PROCESSING
MILK
STORAGE
TANK
SEALER
CRATES
COOER
TO
COLO
STORAGE
CHECK WEIGHER
CRATE LOADER
GABLE
FILLER
bottle sizes. The filler bowl that contains the milk is constructed from 304 or 316
stainless steel that has a highly polished outer finish to promote sanitary operations.
A CIP (clean-in-place) system is designed with the necessary connections for interior
sprayball cleaning of the bowl and high velocity cleaning of the pipes and valves.
Temperature probes are located in the bowl to indicate CIP solution temperatures
and for product temperature during packaging. The fillers can operate at speeds up
to 500 containers/minute and may have 8 to 56 filling stations.
There are two basic methods to fill a container. The first, and most common, is
to fill to a level. The second method is to fill a premeasured volume. Plastic bottles
are clear; thus, for consumer appeal are filled to a level. This is an accurate and the
simplest method. Flow is by gravity into a sealed container, with air in the container
escaping through a vent tube. When the rising liquid reaches the air vent port, flow
stops. There is no overflow of product as in a pressure or pure vacuum filler. Aeration
is at a minimum, fill level is extremely accurate, and the filler is relatively simple
and easy to maintain. The size of the blow molded bottle is critical to control because
this dictates the amount of product being sold. Some containers will have an aluminum foil membrane sealed by heat to the bottle opening before capping or by
induction after capping. Capping can be accomplished by utilizing either a press cap
or screw cap. Screw caps often have a tamper evident fitment.
For gable (paperboard composition) containers, the filler fills to a premeasured
volume, as the product level is not visible for comparison. The fill cycle consists of
an intake stroke and a discharge stroke. During the intake stroke, the piston rises
and draws products from the supply tank into the measured volume cylinder. When
the cylinder is full, the intake port closes and the discharge port opens. The fill takes
place as the piston moves downward and delivers the premeasured volume of product
into the container below. Most fillers are mechanically operated and quite simple.
These fillers can handle a wide range of product viscosities and a broad range of
speeds. A Pure Pak system is presented in Figure 5.8. Gable containers are flats often
loaded onto the filler manually. These flats are formed before filling. The sealing of
the gable top is the next step. Some gable containers contain a screw cap opening
located on the sides instead of opening the paper flaps. Full containers are placed
into a crate and conveyed to cold storage for later distribution. The decision to use
either plastic or paper milk containers is normally dependent upon public preference
for that area. Normally, a dairy plant has both types of fillers and packages.
are paperboard containers and plastic containers. The institutional type container
consists primarily of a flexible bag supported by a rigid secondary container.
5.4.2.1 Materials
No aseptic machine system can be functional without a compatible packaging material that will deliver both good machine throughput and provide a sufficient packaging barrier. Any packaging material that is used for aseptic processing must have
a low initial microbial load (must be clean), and provide a barrier compatible with
dairy product. Container materials, by affecting oxygen and moisture transmission,
directly affect product shelf life and stability. The primary packaging materials that
are successfully being used include styrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride, saran, paper, aluminum foil, and combinations of these materials.
Two processes widely used in forming barriers are plastic coextrusion and lamination. Plastic coextrusion is the combining of two or more polymer layers during
a one-step process of film or sheet extrusion. In lamination, two or more materials are preformed and then brought together by adhesive or an extrusion-bonding
process.
Container cost will vary as much as fivefold with the material used, and is generally proportional to the barrier properties provided.25 Thus, it is important to determine the desired shelf life of the product and then select the material that will
provide it. For example, it may be preferable to package milk for institutional trade,
where the turnover is rapid, in a low-cost material, as the desired shelf life is only
4 to 6 weeks. The same milk product packaged in a high oxygen barrier material
would allow a retail shelf of 4 to 6 months. Therefore, although the same products
are processed in like manners, and the packaging systems are nearly the same, the
final products will have completely different characteristics based on the packaging
material used.
Another consideration is the product-container compatibility. For a milk product
intended for an extended shelf life, an appropriate choice would be polystyrene on
the outside, ethyl vinyl alcohol in the middle for oxygen barrier, and low-density
polyethylene on the inside. Polyethylene is a suitable plastic for contact with milk
and provides a moisture barrier. The combination of paper and plastic materials are
many and depend on the product requirement and packaging equipment. Normally,
the equipment vendor has experience in selecting the appropriate packaging material,
and the packaging barrier is developed between supplier and manufacturer.
Figure 5.9 International Paper System for aseptic packaging of milk products. (Courtesy of
N.C. State University.)
prefolded and the package enters the aseptic zone. Sterility is maintained in the
enclosed area by a positive pressure of cold sterile air. The air is sterilized by filtration and the flow is laminar. The inside of the formed container receives a spray of
hydrogen peroxide. Sterile air heated to 178C is blown in seven consecutive stations
to drive off the hydrogen peroxide, which is exhausted into the atmosphere.
The now sterile container is ready to receive product, which is delivered by a
double-acting piston. Headspace of the filled container is flushed with steam before
its top fins are sealed ultrasonically. The finished package is ejected from the transport chain.
Following removal of the cap a fill valve moves into the spout, the bag is filed and
the cap replaced. The bags are then placed in a box, a fiber drum, or various other
containers. Bag size varies from 9.5 L to 1,127 L.
This concept could significantly reduce packaging costs as well as providing other
benefits, such as increased warehouse and transportation efficiencies, reduced refrigeration costs, and reduced disposal problems of the spent container.
5.5 Regulations
The dairy industry is regulated by the development of guidelines from several agencies. Some of the agencies and organizations responsible for a majority of the guidelines are as follows:
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)
Food Engineering Branch
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Milk Safety Branch
International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians (IAMFES)
United States Public Health Service (USPHS)
The Dairy Industry Committee (DIC)
3-A Accepted Practices (3A)
American Dairy Product Institute (ADPI)
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)
It is important to become thoroughly familiar with each step in the development
of the plant, process and package, before attempting to evaluate the system in terms
of compliance with the above organization.
5.5.2 Product
On receipt of the milk at the processing plant several inspections and tests may be
run to control the quality of the incoming product. These tests commonly include
determination of fat and total solids by chemical or physical analyses; estimation of
sediment by forcing the milk through filter pads and noting the residue left on the
pad; determination of bacterial counts, especially total count, coliform count, and
yeast and mold count; determination of freezing point as an index to possible water
pickup; and evaluation of milk flavor. Under special circumstances tests for detection
of antibiotic residues from treated cows, and for pesticide residues that may get into
the milk from the cow's feed or from other farm use also may be made.
The Milk Ordinance and Code of the United States Public Health service provides
an excellent guide to the setting of microbiological and sanitary standards, and many
cities and states have adopted or patterned their milk regulations after this code.
Among various grades of milk and cream recognized by the U.S. Public Health
Service Milk Ordinance and Code26 are Grade A Raw Milk for Pasteurization, which
may not exceed a bacterial plate count or direct microscope clump count of 200,000/
ml; Grade A Pasteurized Milk, which may not exceed a total bacterial count of
30,000/ml or a coliform count of 10/ml; and Grade B Pasteurized Milk, which may
not have been made from raw milk exceeding a bacterial count of 1,000,000/ml prior
to pasteurization or exceed a bacterial count of 50,000/ml after pasteurization. These
bacterial counts are among many other requirements that have gone into establishing the grades. Not all states or cities conform to these grade requirements. Some
have more stringent regulations and do not permit the sale of market milk below
Grade A.
5.6 Summary
Planning is the foundation of any project; it is the most important step in developing
the optimal plant. Engineering should be initiated during the conceptual stages of
the project. A subsequent study of regulations/plant site, plant room arrangements,
material of construction, construction issues, process flow diagrams, general arrangements, equipment specifications, and vendor qualifications must be sufficiently developed prior to a successful production implementation. Processing and packaging
systems should be examined with regard to consumer requirements, new technologies, and energy utilization.
substances with greater sensitivity will also be a future trend. For dairy production
operation, aseptic processing and packaging will become increasingly important, as
this technology offers lower processing cost, no refrigeration, and lower containers
cost. Containers and other packaging materials will be designed for a secondary
usage, for example, incineration for energy or recycling into other usable plastic
products.
5.8 References
1. Immholle, T. J. 1984. Engineering for Food Safety and Sanitation. Technical Institute of Food
Safety. Crystal, MN.
2. Backhurst, J. R., and J. H. Harker. 1973. Process Plant Design. Heinemann Educational Books,
London.
3. Biggs, J. M., M. J. Holley, and R. J. Hansen. 1977. Structural and Geotechnical Mechanics. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
4. Lelieveld, H. L. M. 1985. Hygienic design and test methods. J. Soc. Dairy Technol. 38:
5. Keane, J. D. 1982. Good Painting Practice. Steel Structure Painting Council, Pittsburgh, PA.
6. Anonymous. 1990. General Specifications for Approved Dairy Plants and Standards for Grades of
Dairy Products. Federal Register. FDA. VoI 40, Part 58.
7. Peters, M. 1958. Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers. McGraw-Hill, New York.
8. 3-A Sanitary Standards Program. 1975. Materials Used as Product Contact Surfaces in Dairy Equipment. 3-A Sanitary Standards Administrative Council, Annes, IA.
9. Harper, J. L. 1979. Elements of Food Engineering. AVI, Westport, CT.
10. McMillan, H. K. 1990. Thermodynamics. Kinko's Publishing. University of South Carolina, Columbia.
11. Singh, J. 1985. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications. Marcel
Dekker, New York.
12. Janna, W. S. 1986. Engineering Heat Transfer. PWS Publishers, Boston.
13. Anonymous 1990. Milk and Cream. Federal Register. FDA. Vol. 21, Parts 131.
14. Harper, J. W., and J. A. Jones. 1976. Dairy Technology and Engineering. AVI, Westport, CT.
15. Lampert, L. M. 1975. Modern Dairy Products. Chemical Publishing Company, New York.
16. Hsu, D. S. 1970. UHT Processing and Aseptic Packaging of Dairy Products. Damana Technology,
New York.
17. Biziak, R. B., K. R. Swartzel, and J. A. Jones. 1982. Energy evaluation of an UHT shell and tube
processing system./. FoodSci. 47:1875-1878.
18. Heldman, D. R. 1975. Food Process Engineering. AVI, Westport, CT.
19. Trout, G. M. 1950. Homogenized Milk. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, MI.
20. Caudill, V. E. 1980. Homogenization of UHT Milk. MS Thesis, Department of Food Science, NC
State University, Raleigh, NC.
21. Farrall, A. W. 1963. Engineering for Dairy and Food Products. John Wiley & Son, New York.
22. Jones. V. A. 1962. Steam Injection for Globule Size Reduction in an Emulsion. PhD Thesis, Michigan State University.
23. Deackoff, L. P., and L. H. Rees. 1957. Testing homogenization efficiency by light transmission.
Milk Dealer 46:61, 62, 122.
24. Walstra, P. 1968. Estimating globule-size distribution of oil-in-the water emulsions by spectroturbidimetry. / . Coll. Inter/. Sci. 27:493.
25. Hlavacek, R. C. 1978. Aseptic processing/packaging overview. In Proceedings of the Conference
on Aseptic Processing and the Bulk Storage and Distribution of Food. Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN.
26. von Bockelmann, B. 1978. Technical and bacteriological aspects of aseptic packaging of milk and
other beverages. In Proceedings of the Conference on Aseptic Processing and the Bulk Storage and
Distribution of Food. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
27. Caudill, V. E. 1989. Effects of Aseptic Process Sterilization Treatments on Polypropylene Containers. PhD Thesis, Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
28. United States Public Health Services. 1965. Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance1965 Recommendations of the United States Public Health Service. Public Health Service Publication No.
229. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
APPENDIX
Company Listing
This appendix lists alphabetically those companies that provide products and services
most commonly used by the dairy and food industries. Under each company, two
types of information are provided: contact data; and products and services. An alphabetical listing of the products and services and the companies that provide them
is located in the Appendix of Volume I.
The data have been reproduced from the 1992/1993 Directory of Membership
Products and Services, copyrighted by the Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, Inc. Reproduced with permission.
Airco Gases
ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.
Contact Data: 2170 Academy Avenue, Sanger, CA 93657; Phone: 209-875-5563; Fax:
209-875-7665.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Box/
Carton Forming Equipment; Boxes; Carton
Form/Load/Close/Seal; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker, Conveyors Belt, Chain;
Custom Fabrication.
Albin Division
Contact Data: Johnson Pumps of America,
776 Emerald Forest Circle, Lawrenceville,
GA 30244; Phone: 404-985-5006; Fax:
404-985-5115.
Products and Services: Pumps Metering,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary.
Alconox, Inc.
Contact Data: 215 Park Avenue, South, New
York, NY 10003; Phone: 212-473-1300;
Telex: 955439; Fax: 212-353-1342.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Manual & COP.
Ambrosia Chocolate*
Contact Data: A Grace Cocoa Company,
12500 West Carmen Avenue, Milwaukee,
WI 53225; Phone: 414-271-2089; Telex:
9102623337; Fax: 414-271-0242.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate,
Coatings Confection.
Anbroco, Inc.
Contact Data: Rt. 2, Box 261, Old Plank
Road, Stanley, NC 28164; Phone: 704-8271255; Fax: 704-822-6266.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control
Systems CIP; Custom Fabrication; Filters Air, Liquid; Fittings; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Heat ExchangersPlate,
Scraped Surface; Inspection Equipment; Installation & Startup Services; Membrane
Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Pharmaceutical EquipmentProcessing; Processing Systems; Product Recovery Equipment; Pumps Centrifugal, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Refrigeration
Mechanical; Tanks Processing, Storage;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Turnkey Operations; Ultraviolet Disinfection Equipment;
Valves Sanitary.
APN, Inc.
Contact Data: 921 Industry Road, Caledonia,
MN 55921; Phone: 507-724-3392.
Products and Services: Fittings; Membrane
Processing Eqpt Reverse Osmosis, Ultrafiltration.
Aquionics, Inc.
Contact Data: 21 Kenton Lands Road, P.O.
Box 18395, Erlanger, KY 41018; Phone:
606-341-0710; Telex: 214-152; Fax: 606341-2302.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Aseptic
Pkg. Equipment/Components; Environmental Control Aseptic Air; Sterilizers;
UV Purifiers.
Astec
Contact Data: 4403 First Avenue, S.E., Suite
301, Cedar Rapids, IA 52402; Phone: 319395-7882; Fax: 319-395-7886.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Consultants Packaging; Environmental
Control Aseptic Air; Fillers & Sealers;
FiltersAir; Heat ExchangersTubular;
Pasteurizers UHT; Pumps Positive
Displacement; Rupture Discs; Sterilizers;
Turnkey Operations.
Autoprod Inc.
Contact Data: 5355 115th Avenue North,
Clearwater, FL 34620; Phone: 813-5727753; Fax: 813-573-0367.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid; Capping & Closing Equipment; Cheese Packaging; Control/Control Systems Computer Process;
Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty
Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube; Molds Ice
Cream/Frozen Dessert; Portion Control
Equipment & Supplies; Pumps Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Tamper Evident
Foil Lidding; Thermo Form Fill & Seal
Heat Strle Plast Pkg, Plastic, Rigid.
Beck Flavors
Balston, Inc.
Contact Data: 260 Neck Road, Box 8223,
Haverhill, MA 01835-0723; Phone: 508374-7400; Telex: 92-3481; Fax: 508-3747070.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Filters
Air, Liquid; Instruments Analytical.
S- H. Bates Company
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1879, Santa Monica,
CA 90406; Phone: 310-451-3500; Fax:
310-395-9727.
Products and Services: Frzn Desserts/Novelty EqptSlice/Sandwich; Ingredients
Baked Products Cookies, Baked Products Wafers, Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Confection, Fruits & Fruit Products,
Juices & Concentrates Blends, Juices &
Concentrates Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.
Belleview, Inc.
Beaver Metals Inc.
Contact Data: 900 Green Valley Road, P.O.
Box 144B, Beaver Dam, WI53916; Phone:
414-887-3183; Fax: 414-887-3256.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid; Conveyors Belt,
Chain, Roller, Screw; Cookers/Kettles
Batch; Custom Fabrication; Electrical Enclosures; Floor Plates & Drains; Ingredient
Feeders; Mixers Batch; Platforms,
Walkways & Stairs; Tanks Balance/
Surge, Batch, Processing, Storage.
Contact Data: Munsterstr. 246, D-4000 Dusseldorf 30, Germany; Phone: 49-0211
47302; Telex: 8586830; Fax: 49-0211
613178.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Butter Making & Packaging
Equipment; Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Fillers
& Sealers Paper Containers, Plastic PreFormed Contnrs; Homogenizers; Packaging Systems.
Bercon Packaging
Contact Data: 1800 N. Market Street, Berwick, PA 18603; Phone: 717-759-6200;
Fax: 717-759-6224.
Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Single Service; Containers Plastic.
Bowman Distribution
Contact Data: Barnes Group Inc., 850 East
72nd Street, Cleveland, OH 44103; Phone:
216-391-7200; Fax: 216-391-1121.
Products and Services: Fittings; Maintenance
& Repair Products; Valves Mechanical.
Bunge Foods
Contact Data: Dairy Services Division,*
3582 McCaIl Place N.E., Atlanta, GA
30340; Phone: 404-455-3603; Fax: 404986-6282.
Products and Services: Ingredients Cocoa
Powder, Blended, Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Flavor Bases, FlavorsAppl. Dairy Products,
Flavors Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors
Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Stabilizers & Thickeners.
C & R, Inc.
Contact Data: 2550 Creekway Drive, Columbus, OH 43207; Phone: 614-497-1130; Fax:
614-497-1585.
Products and Services: Cheese Cutters;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Conveyors Belt, Screw; Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch; Tubing/
Pipe Stainless; Valves Automatic,
Sanitary.
Cannon Equipment
Contact Data: 324 West Washington, Cannon
Falls, MN 55009; Phone: 507-263-4231;
Fax: 507-263-4010.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Dollies & Carts; Lifts, Gates &
Loaders; Packaging Systems; Sealers &
Carton Closures; Warehouse Systems;
Washers Equipment.
Cargill, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 9300, Minneapolis,
MN 55440; Phone: 612-475-6456; Telex:
290-625; Fax: 612-475-6233.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural/Spices, Flavors Appl.
Drinks & Juices, Juices & Concentrates
Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.
Cashco, Inc.
Cap Snap Co.
Contact Data: 890 Faulstich Court, San Jose,
CA 95112; Phone: 408-295-9922; Fax:
408-295-9930.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment, Supplies; Fillers & Sealers;
Sealers & Carton Closures; Tamper Evident.
Cardinal Packaging
Contact Data: 1275 Ethan Avenue, Streetsboro, OH 44241; Phone: 800-544-9573;
Fax: 216-562-4875.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Coding Equipment; Containers
Cups & Lids, Plastic; Fillers & Sealers
Plastic Pre-Formed Contnrs; Frzn Desserts/
Novelty Eqpt Molding; Labeling Equipment & Supplies; Printing Containers/
Catta 27 S.R.L.
Contact Data: Via Vizzano 44, 40044 Pontecchio Marconi, Bologna, Italy; Phone:
051-84 57 93; Telex: 51 14 26; Fax: 05184 57 99.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Conveyors Belt; Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage;
Frozen desserts Pkg. Dairy; Frzn
Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cakes/Fancy
Molded, Cone, Cup, Tube, Molding; Heat
ExchangersPlate; Homogenizers; Ingre-
CEM Corporation
Cesco Magnetics/Q-Controls
ContactData: 93 Utility Court, Rohnert Park,
CA 94928; Phone: 707-585-2402; Fax:
707-585-3886.
Products and Services: Conveyors Magnetic; Inspection Equipment; Metal Detectors; Separators & Clarifiers Magnetic;
Valves Mechanical, Sanitary.
Chalon-Megard S.A.
Contact Data: Zone Industrielle, La Cluse,
France 01460; Telex: 330023.
Products and Services: Cheese Making.
Chem-Trend Inc.
Contact Data: A Burmah Castrol Company,
1445 McPherson Park Drive, P.O. Box 860,
Howell, MI 48844-0860; Phone: 517-5464520; Fax: 517-546-6875.
Products and Services: Ingredients Lubricants & Release Agents.
Chemgrate Corp.
Contact Data: 19240 144th Avenue, NE,
Woodinville, WA 98072; Phone: 206-4839797; Fax: 206-481-3622.
Products and Services: Construction Materials; Floor Plates & Drains; Flooring &
Supplies; Platforms, Walkways & Stairs.
Chemineer Kenics
Contact Data: 125 Flagship Drive, N. Andover, MA 01845; Phone: 508-687-0101;
Telex: 947159; Fax: 508-687-8500.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid; Heat Exchangers
Tubular; Mixers Batch, Continuous,
Liquid, Static; Waste Treatment; Water
Treatment.
Cherry-Burrell Packaging
Equipment*
Contact Data: International Paper, 2400 6th
Street, S. W., P.O. Box 3000, Cedar Rapids,
IA 52406; Phone: 319-399-3200; Telex:
298529; Fax: 319-399-3543.
Products and Services: Fillers & Sealers
Form-Fill-Seal, Paper Containers; Packaging Systems.
Clermont Inc.
Coca-Cola Foods
Contact Data: P.O. Box 2079, Houston, TX
77252; Phone: 713-888-5127; Telex:
9108817075; Fax: 713-621-2984.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Bases, Juices & Concentrates Blends,
Juices & Concentrates Citrus.
Combibloc, Inc.
Contact Data: 4800 Roberts Road, Columbus, OH 43228; Phone: 614-876-0661;
Telex: 755294; Fax: 614-876-8678.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; ContainersPaperboard; Fillers & Sealers Aseptic Containers; Packaging Systems.
Crellin, Inc.
Contact Data: 87 Center Street, Chatham, NY
12037; Phone: 518-392-2000; Fax: 518392-2022.
Products and Services: Cheese Making;
Molds Cheese Hoops/Molds.
COX Recorders
Contact Data: 2311 Orange Avenue, Long
Beach, CA 90806; Phone: 310-595-4993;
Telex: 6714171; Fax: 310-595-0978.
Products and Services: Thermometers
Non-Recording, Recording.
H. S. Crocker Co.
Contact Data: 12100 Smith Drive, Huntley,
EL 60142; Phone: 708-669-3600; Fax: 708669-1170.
Products and Services: Fillers & Sealers
Form-Fill-Seal; Labels & Label Supplies;
Tamper Evident Closures, Foil Lidding.
Curwood, Inc.
Contact Data: 2200 Badger Avenue, P.O.
Box 2968, Oshkosh, WI 54904; Phone:
414-236-7300; Telex: 62916587; Fax: 414236-7309.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Preformed Bags; Thermo Form Fill & Seal
Flexible; Wrapping Material Films.
Contact Data: 1645 Blue Rock Street, Cincinnati, OH 45223; Phone: 1-800-6351086; Fax: 513-541-1192.
Products and Services: Doors.
Daido Corporation
Contact Data: 615 Pierce Street, Somerset,
NJ 08875; Phone: 908-805-1900; Fax: 908805-0122.
Products and Services: Conveyors Chain;
Power Transmission Equipment.
Start-Up Services; Inventory Control; Laboratory Analysis & Testing Services; Whey
Processing Equipment & Services.
DCI, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1227, St. Cloud, MN
56302; Phone: 612-252-8200; Fax: 612252-0866.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Mixers Batch; Tanks Balance/Surge,
Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage.
Defontaine, Inc.
Diversey Corp.
Double R Enterprises
Contact Data: 221 Grove Street, New Castle,
PA 16103; Phone: 412-658-4578; Fax: 412658-7427.
Products and Services :B\ov/ Molding Equipment; Bottles Plastic Returnable, Plastic
Single Service; Containers Plastic.
DuBois USA
Contact Data: 255 East Fifth Street, Cincinnati, OH 45202; Phone: 513-762-6804;
Fax: 513-762-6601.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual &
COP, Mechanical & CIP; Consultants Sanitation; Lubricating Systems & Supplies;
Waste Treatment; Water Treatment
Chemicals, Equipment.
DYCO
Contact Data: P.O. Box 66, Berwick, PA
18603; Phone: 717-752-2757; Fax: 717752-7366.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Blow Molding Equipment;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Complete Systems; Containers & Paperboard,
Plastic; Conveyors Belt, Chain, Plate;
Packaging Systems; Pallets; Turnkey Operations.
Edmeyer, Inc.
Contact Data: 1760 Livingston Ave., West
St. Paul, MN 55118; Phone: 612-450-1210.
Products and Services: Boxes; Capping &
Closing Equipment; Case Packer,
Stacker & Unstacker; Coding Equipment;
Conveyors Air, Chain, Plate, Roller,
Screw; Environmental Control Proc.
Cool Heat Air; Equipment Remanufactured, Repair; Fillers & Sealers.
Eaton Corp.
Contact Data: 4201 North 27th Street, Milwaukee, WI 53216; Phone: 414-449-6000;
Telex: 26716; Fax: 414-449-6221.
Electromate Enclosures*
Contact Data: Div. of Robroy Industries,
River Road, Verona, PA 15147; Phone:
412-828-2100; Fax: 412-828-4046.
Products and Services: Boxes; Control/Control Systems Panel; Custom Fabrication;
Electrical Enclosures.
Ensopack Ltd.
Contact Data: Jackson, St. Michael, Barbados, West Indies; Phone: 809-425-2179;
Telex: 2510; Fax: 809-425-2816.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
EquipmentHigh Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Boxes; ContainersPaperboard; Fillers &
Sealers Paper Containers.
Enviro Division
Contact Data: ASI Technologies, Inc., 5848
North 95th Court, Milwaukee, WI 53225;
Phone: 414-464-6200; Fax: 414-464-9863.
Products and Services: Doors.
ERCA
Contact Data: B.P. 54, Z.I. de Courtabouef,
91942 Les Ulis Cedex, France; Phone: 331-69074408; Telex: 600531; Fax: 33-169078238.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Fillers & Sealers
Aseptic Containers; Form-Fill-Seal; Packaging Systems.
ESE Inc.
Contact Data: 3600 Downwind Drive, P.O.
Box 1107, Marshfield, WI 54449; Phone:
715-387-4778; Fax: 715-387-0125.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder,
Powder; Computer Software; Control/Con-
Contact Data: 7204 Glen Forest Drive, Richmond, VA 23226; Phone: 804-287-5322;
Telex: 827460; Fax: 804-288-7149.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Box/Carton Forming Equipment; Consultants Packaging; Frozen
Desserts Pkg. Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube; Ingredients
Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Fruits & Fruit Products, Juices
& Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates Citrus, Stabilizers & Thickeners; Wrapping Material Films.
EXAC Corporation
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation*
Contact Data: 6410 Via Del Oro, San Jose,
CA 95119; Phone: 408-365-3300; Fax:
408-365-3500.
Products and Services: Flow Meters Flow
Control
F.E.I., Inc.
Contact Data: 934 South 5th Avenue, Mansfield, TX 76063; Phone: 800-346-5908;
Fax:817-473-3124.
Products and Services: None listed.
Fabricon Products
Contact Data: Div Of Eagle-Pitcher Industries, 1721 W. Pleasant Avenue, River
Ferro Corporation
Contact Data: 60 Green way Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15204; Phone: 412-331-3550;
Telex: 98-0165; Fax: 412-331-3553.
Products and Services: Labels & Label
Supplies; PrintingContainers/Caps/Closures.
Fiske Associates
Contact Data: 1000 Highland Avenue, Needham Heights, MA 02194; Phone: 617-4496000; Telex: 200177ALFA.
Products and Services: Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.
Flowdata, Inc.
Contact Data: 1784 Firman Drive, Richardson, TX 75081; Phone: 214-907-2787; Fax:
214-907-8016.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
EquipmentLiquid; Flow MetersFlow
Control; Meters Fluid, Sanitary.
FMC Corporation
Contact Data: Food Ingredients Division,
1735 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA
Fogg
Contact Data: 3455 John F. Donnelly Drive,
Holland, MI49424; Phone: 616-786-3644;
Fax: 616-786-0350.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment; Conveyor Systems; Conveyors Unscramblers; Fillers & Sealers.
Fold-Pak Corp.
Contact Data: 25 Smith Street, Nanuet,
10954; Phone: 914-624-4100; Fax: 914624-4105.
Products and Services: Boxes; Containers
Paperboard; Tamper Evident.
Fords-Holmatic, Inc.
Contact Data: 1750 Corporate Drive, Norcross, CA 30093; Phone: 404-925-2004;
Fax: 404-925-0939.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Cheese Packaging; Fillers
& SealersBottle Type, Paper Containers,
Plastic Pre-Formed Contnrs; Packaging
Systems; Pharmaceutical Equipment
Packaging; Portion Control Equipment &
Supplies; Sealers & Carton Closures;
Tamper Evident Equipment.
Next Page
Instrumnt/Monitoring;
Analytical.
Instruments
FrigoTech
Contact Data: 6630 202nd Street, S.W.
#101, Lynnwood, WA 98036; Phone: 206672-8200; Fax: 206-771-1171.
Products and Services: Chillers; Conveyors
Chain, Plate; Coolers & Proofers;
Drying Equipment Conveyor/Convection; Freezers Continuous, Ice Cream,
Processing/Hardening; Refrigeration
Mechanical.
Previous Page
H. B. Fuller Company
Contact Data: Monarch Division*, 3900
Jackson Street, N.E., Minneapolis, MN
G. E. Plastics
Contact Data: One Plastics Avenue, Pittsfield, MA 01201; Phone: 413-448-7784;
Fax: 413-448-7736.
Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Returnable, Plastic Single Service; Containers
Plastic; Resins; Washers Bottle.
GASTI Verpackungsmaschinen
GmbH
Contact Data: Raiffeisenstr. 8, D-7170
Schwabisch-HI, Germany; Phone: 49-7914020; Fax: 49-791-402100.
Products and Services: Fillers & Sealers
Aseptic Containers, Bottle Type, Flexible
Package, Paper Containers, Plastic PreFormed Contnrs; Packaging Systems.
GEA Wiegand
Contact Data: 8940 Route 108, Columbia,
MD 21045; Phone: 410-997-9500; Telex:
87879; Fax: 410-997-4639.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Control/
Control Systems CIP; Evaporators &
Gelber Industries
Contact Data: 7600 Gross Point Road, Skokie, IL 60077; Phone: 708-965-1300;
Telex: 9102230157; Fax: 708-673-8929.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Pressure; Filters Liquid; Fittings; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Meters Fluid; Mixers
Batch, Continuous, Liquid; Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Metering, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Strainers; Tanks
Processing; UV Purifiers.
Genpak Canada
Contact Data: Division of Hamelin Group
Inc., 260 Rexdale Blvd., Rexdale, Ontario,
M9W 1R2 Canada; Phone: 416-744-4220;
Telex: 06964505; Fax: 416-744-2464.
Products and Services: Containers Cups
& Lids, Plastic; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen
Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Packaging Systems; Printing Containers/
Caps/Closures; Tamper Evident.
Gerkens Cocoa
Contact Data: A Department of Cargill Inc.,
50 E. Shuman Boulevard, Suite 250, Naperville, IL 60563-1258; Phone: 708-3059200; Fax: 708-305-9279.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Fats & Oils, Flavor Bases.
GOAVEC
Contact Data: 32, rue Eiffel, BP 205, Alencon
Cedex, France 61006; Phone: 33 84 30 00;
Telex: 170818; Fax: 33 31 05 19.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cookers/Kettles Batch, Pressure, Vacuum; Coolers & Proofers; Heat Exchangers
Plate, Scraped Surface; MixersBatch,
Continuous, Liquid; Pasteurizers Batch,
Dairy, HTST/Continuous, Non-Dairy,
UHT; Tank Heating Systems; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo,
Storage; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.
Contact Data: 2500 Irving Park Road, Chicago, IL 60618; Phone: 312-478-3625;
Telex: 9102215269; Fax: 312-478-7647.
Greerco Corp.
Contact Data: 2 Wentworth Drive, P.O. Box
187, Hudson, NH 03051; Phone: 603-8835517; Telex: 94-3565; Fax: 603-882-6025.
Products and Services: Colloid Mills; Freezers Ice Cream, Processing/Hardening,
Storage; Homogenizers; Mixers Liquid;
Refrigeration Mechanical; Storage
Frozen.
Groen
Contact Data: A Dover Industries Co., 1900
Pratt Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, IL
Hartel Corp.
Contact Data: 201 North Main Street, Box
41, Fort Atkinson, WI53538; Phone: 414563-8461; Telex: 9102603734; Fax: 414563-7417.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
CIP, Computer Process, Instrument/Monitoring, Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization; Engineering Services Plant; Processing Systems; Refrigeration Mechanical; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/
Solid; Standardization Systems; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Processing, Silo, Storage;
Turnkey Operations; Weighing.
Heerema Company
Contact Data: 200 Sixth Avenue, P.O. Box
568, Hawthorne, NJ 07507-0568; Phone:
201-423-0505; Fax: 201-427-8672.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,
Liquid/Powder; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Centrifuges; Cheese Making;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Control/Control Systems Panel; Cook-
Hesco Inc.
Contact Data: 101 W. Kemp Avenue, Box
815, Watertown, SD 57201; Phone: 605882-4672; Fax: 605-882-4985.
Products and Services: Ingredients Baked
Products Cookies, Fat Substitutes, Fats
& Oils, Formulation Aids, Proteins
Animal.
Hixson Architects/Engineers
Contact Data: 25 Merchant Street, Suite 400,
Cincinnati, OH 45246; Phone: 513-7715700; Fax: 513-771-1949.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Buildings Storage; Computer
Software CAD Systems; Construction
Plant; Consultants Technical; Control/Control Systems Environmental;
Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; Environmental Control Aseptic Air, HVAC, Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Freezers Ice Cream, Storage; Processing
Systems; Refrigeration Mechanical;
Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Waste
Treatment.
Honeywell, Inc.
Contact Data: 1100 Virginia Drive, Fort
Washington, PA 19034; Phone: 215-6413000; Telex: 846-698; Fax: 215-641-3733.
Products and Services: Complete Systems;
Computer Software; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Environmental, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization; Flow
Meters Flow Control; Meters Fluid,
Sanitary; Packaging Systems; Recording
Devices; Turnkey Operations; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical.
tion, Reverse Osmosis, Ultra Osmosis, Ultrafiltration; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.
O. G. Hoyer A/S
Contact Data: 13, Soren Nymarksvej, Aarhus-Hojbjerg, Denmark DK-8270; Phone:
011-4586-292911; Fax: 011-4586-292200.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Capping & Closing Equipment, Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Manual & COP;
Conveyors Belt, Unscramblers; Enrobers; Fillers & Sealers; Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube,
Extrusion, Molding, Slice/Sandwich; Ingredient Feeders; Mixers Batch; Molds
Ice Cream/Frozen Dessert; Packaging
Systems; Pumps Positive Displacement;
Wrapping Equipment.
IDETEK9 Inc.
Contact Data: 1245 Reamwood Avenue,
Sunnyvale, CA 94089; Phone: 408-7450544; Telex: 314129; Fax: 408-745-0243.
Products and Services: None listed.
HydroCal, Inc.
Contact Data: 22732 Granite Way, Suite A,
Laguna Hills, CA 92653; Phone: 714-4550765; Fax: 714-455-0764.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing Hand Cleansers; Construction
Turnkey Operations; Conveyors Screw;
Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Metering, Positive Displacement, Sanitary, Vacuum; Tanks Balance/Surge; Waste
Treatment; Water TreatmentEquipment.
IDEXX Laboratories
Contact Data: One IDEXX Drive, Westbrook, ME 04092; Phone: 207-856-0300;
Fax: 207-856-0345.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection.
IMEX
Contact Data: Sani-Fit Division*, 4040 Del
Rey Avenue, Unit 9, Marina Del Rey, CA
90292; Phone: 800-367-4639; Telex:
181971; Fax: 310-305-7307.
Products and Services: Fittings; Gaskets &
Seals; Valves Sanitary.
INDEECO/HYNES
Ideas In Motion, Inc.
Contact Data: 3470 Raleigh, S.E., Grand
Rapids, MI 49512; Toll Free: 800-4443327; Phone: 616-942-5488; Fax: 616-9422009.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Blow Molding Equipment;
Conveyors Accumulators, Air, Belt,
Chain, Plate, Roller, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Fillers & Sealers; Inspection
Equipment; Recycling Equipment Container Recovery; Tanks Silo, Storage;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Turnkey Operations.
Industrial Accessories
Contact Data: 5018 Hadley, Overland Park,
KS 66203; Phone: 800-334-7431; Fax: 913384-6577.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Environmental; Conveyors Air,
Screw, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication;
Drying Equipment Continuous Vacuum,
Conveyor/Convection; Electrical Enclosures; Filters Air; Gaskets & Seals; Installation & Start-Up Services; Pumps
Positive Displacement; Tanks Silo, Storage; Tubing/Pipe Metal, Stainless;
Valves Automatic, Mechanical.
Intec, Inc.
Contact Data: 6631-J Commerce Parkway,
Dublin, OH 43017; Phone: 614-792-5833;
Fax: 614-792-7989.
Products and Services: Chillers; Coolers &
Proofers; Freezers Ice Cream, Processing/Hardening.
Integrated Ingredients
Contact Data: 1420 Harbor Bay Parkway,
Suite 210, Alameda, CA 94501; Phone:
415-748-6300; Fax: 415-748-6880.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; IngredientsCultures, Enzymes,
Fat Substitutes, Flavor Agents Natural,
Flavor Enhancers, Preservatives.
Interbake Foods
Contact Data: Dairy Ingredients Division*,
2220 Edward Holland Drive, Suite 301,
Ivalco
Ionics, Inc.
International Machinery
Exchange, Inc.
Contact Data: R.R. # 1 , P.O. Box 336, Decorah, IA 52101; Toll Free: 800-553-0050;
Phone: 319-382-9636; Fax: 319-382-3016.
Products and Services: ContainersPlastic;
Promotional Devices & Premiums; Sampling Devices & Supplies.
Contact Data: 214 North Main Street, Deerfield, WI 53531; Phone: 608-764-5481;
Fax: 608-764-8240.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Boilers; Centrifuges; Cheese Cutters;
Cheese Making; Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems; Consultants Sanitation,
Technical; Control/Control SystemsAutomation, CIP, Computer Process; Custom
Fabrication; Drying Equipment Spray;
Engineering Services Feasibility Studies; EquipmentRemanufactured, Repair;
Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan,
Rising Film; PasteurizersHTST/Continuous; Turnkey Operations; Welding Equipment.
J A I Engineers
Contact Data: 455 Cleveland Drive, Sarasota,
FL 34236; Phone: 813-388-2421.
Products and Services: Architectural, Related
Services; Consultants Sanitation, Technical; Engineering Services Feasibility
Studies, Plant.
K-Patents
Contact Data: C/O Raeco, 253 W Joe Orr
Road, Chicago Heights, IL 60411-1744;
Phone: 708-754-4800; Fax: 708-755-7199.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Computer Process,
Environmental,
Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Panel, Pressure, Temperature; Flow Meters Flow Control; Instruments Analytical; Meters Fluid,
Sanitary; Recording Devices; Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording.
Katrina, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 418, 91 Western
Maryland Parkway, Hagerstown, MD
21740; Phone: 301-733-9397; Fax: 301739-3428.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Instruments
Analytical; Laboratory Analysis & Testing Services.
Kelco Division
Contact Data: Merck & Co., Inc., 8355 Aero
Drive, P.O. Box 23076, San Diego, CA
Kidron, Inc.
Contact Data: 13442 Emerson Road, P.O.
Box 17, Kidron, OH 44636; Phone: 216857-3011; Fax: 216-857-8451.
Products and Services: Truck Bodies &
Trailers.
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 187, Banington, IL
60011; Phone: 708-381-6793; Fax: 708381-6849.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Architectural, Related Services;
Computer SoftwareCAD Systems; Consultants Finance, Management, Marketing, Sanitation, Site Location, Technical;
Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; Inventory Control; Maintenance
& Repair Products; Transportation
Services, Software.
KWW GmbH
Contact Data: Post Box 111240, Heerdter
Lohweg 63-71, Dusseldorf 11, D4000, Germany; Phone: 0211-5956187; Telex:
8587371; Fax: 0211-500345.
Leaf, Inc.
Contact Data: 2355 Waukegan Road, Bannockbum, IL 60015; Phone: 708-940-7500;
Fax: 708-940-0270.
Products and Services: Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Ingredients Baked
Products Cones, Baked Products
Cookies, Candies, Chocolate & Cocoa,
Coatings Chocolate, Coatings Confection, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors
Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl.
Dairy Products.
Letica Corp.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 5005, Rochester, MI
48308-5005; Phone: 313-652-0557; Fax:
313-652-0577.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Containers Cups & Lids, Paperboard, Plastic; Packaging Systems; Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures; Recycling
EquipmentContainer Recovery; Tamper
Liqui-Box Corporation
Contact Data: 6950 Worthington-Galena
Road, Worthington, OH 43085; Phone:
614-888-9280; Telex: 245430; Fax: 614888-0982.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Bag-In-Box; Bottles Plastic Returnable,
Plastic Single Service; Capping & Closing
Supplies; Containers Plastic; Fillers
& Sealers Aseptic Containers, Bag-InBox, Flexible Package, Form-Fill-Seal;
Flexible Packaging; Packaging Systems;
Preformed Bags; Sealers & Carton Closures.
Lumaco
Contact Data: 9-11 East Broadway, Hackensack, NJ 07601-6821; Toll Free: 800735-VALV; Phone: 201-342-5119; Fax:
201-342-8898.
Products and Services: Valves Automatic,
Sanitary.
Lumenite Electronic
Contact Data: 2331 North 17th Avenue,
Franklin Park, IL 60131; Phone: 708-4551450; Telex: 8003238510; Fax: 708-4550127.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrument/Monitoring, Pasteurization; Waste Treatment.
Lyons-Magnus
Contact Data: 1636 South Second Street,
Fresno, CA 93702; Phone: 209-268-5966;
Telex: 910-549-05; Fax: 209-233-8249.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents
Contact Data: 925 East Maple Road, Birmingham, MI 48009; Phone: 313-6446868; Fax: 313-642-1213.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Conveyors Air,
Screw; Drying Equipment Spray;
Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan,
Falling Film; Heat Exchangers Tubular;
Heat Recovery Systems.
Mammoth Containers*
Master-Bilt Products*
Marbo Inc.
Contact Data: 2425 W. Barry Avenue, Chicago, IL 60618; Phone: 312-296-0190; Fax:
312-296-0191.
Products and Services: Ingredients Juices
& Concentrates Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.
Masterleo, Inc.
Contact Data: 6631 Commerce Parkway,
Suite M, Dublin, OH 43017; Phone: 614793.1444; Fax: 614-793-1807.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Level, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Installation & Start-Up
Services; Recording Devices; Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording.
Mead Packaging
Contact Data: A Div. Of The Mead Corporation
1040 West Marietta Street, Atlanta, GA
30318; Phone: 404-875-2711; Telex:
8107513383; Fax: 404-897-6383.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Packaging Systems.
Meritech, Inc.
Contact Data: 8250 South Akron Street, Suite
202, Englewood, CO 80112; Phone: 303790-4670; Fax: 303-790-4859.
Products and Services: Standardization Systems.
MicroLog
Contact Data: 2217 River Front Road, Kansas City, MO 64120-1430; Phone: 800-3319335; Fax: 816-472-0088.
Products and Services: Brushes; Capping &
Closing Equipment; Cleaning/Sanitizing Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual
& COP, Mechanical & CIP; Colloid Mills;
Filters Liquid, Milk; Fittings; Flow Meters Flow Control; Gaskets & Seals; Homogenizers; Hoses/Hose Assemblies;
Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Recording Devices; Strainers; Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording; Tubing/Pipe Flexible, NonMetallic, Stainless; Valves Sanitary.
MicroPure Filtration
Milliken Packaging
Contact Data: P.O. Box 736, White Stone,
SC 29386; Phone: 803-474-2224; Fax: 803474-2228.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy;
Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup,
Tube; Portion Control Equipment & Supplies; Wrapping Material Foils, Paper.
Minigrip/Zip-Pak Inc.
Contact Data: 1955 Raymond Drive, Suite
107, Northbrook, IL 60062; Phone: 708480-5770; Fax: 708-480-5774.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Cheese Packaging; Flexible
Packaging; Packaging Systems; Preformed
Bags; Tamper Evident Closures; Wrapping Material Films, Laminates.
Milltronics, Inc.
Contact Data: 709 Stadium Drive, Arlington,
TX 76011; Phone: 817-277-3543; Fax:
817-277-3894.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level; Flow Meters Flow Control;
Inventory Control; Processing Systems;
Weighing.
Milprint Inc.
Contact Data: 9045 N. Deerwood Drive, Milwaukee, WI53223; Phone: 414-354-9010;
Fax: 414-354-9066.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Preformed Bags.
Moen Industries
Contact Data: 12333 East Los Nietos Rd.,
Santa Fe Spring, CA 90670; Phone: 310946-6381; Fax: 310-946-3200.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal;
Packaging Systems; Sealers & Carton Closures.
Mondomix Holland B. V.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 98, 1394 ZH Nederhorst, Nederhorst den Berg, The Netherlands; Phone: (31)29454444*; Telex:
12454 MOND; Fax: (31)2945-3099.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Aseptic
Processing Equipment High Acid, Low
Acid; Blending & Batching Equipment
Liquid, Liquid/Powder; Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Cheese Making;
Cookers/Kettles Continuous; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube;
Heat Exchangers Scraped Surface; Ingredient Feeders; Laboratory Equipment &
Supplies; Mixers Batch, Continuous,
Liquid, Static.
Monitor Manufacturing
Contact Data: 44W320 Keslinger Road, P.O.
Drawer AL, Elburn, IL 60119; Phone: 708365-9403; Telex: 72-0437.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level; Weighing.
Murzan, Inc.
Contact Data: 2909 Langford Road, 1-700,
Norcross, GA 30071; Phone: 404-4480583; Fax: 404-448-0967.
Products and Services: PumpsDiaphragm,
Sanitary.
Neos, Inc.
Contact Data: 12797 Meadowvale Road,
Suite B, Elk River, MN 55330; Phone: 612441-0705; Fax: 612-441-0798.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Supplies; Cheese Packaging; Conveyors Belt, Chain; Custom
Fabrication; Frozen Desserts Pkg.Dairy,
Non-Dairy; Packaging Systems; Vending
Equipment, Retail.
Netzsch Inc.
Navarro Pecan Co., Inc.
Contact Data: 2131 Hwy. 31 East, P.O. Box
147, Corsicana, TX 75110; Phone: 903872-2546; Fax: 903-874-7143.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.
Nelson-Jameson, Inc.
Nog Incorporated
Newman Sanitary Gasket Company
Contact Data: 964 West Main Street, Lebanon, OH 45036; Phone: 513-932-7379;
Fax:513-932-4493.
Products and Services: Gaskets & Seals.
NIMCO Corp.
Contact Data: 4012A Route 14, P.O. Box J,
Crystal Lake, IL 60014; Phone: 815-4594200; Telex: 722425; Fax: 815-459-8119.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Consultants Packaging;
ContainersPaperboard; Fillers & Sealers
Form-Fill-Seal, Paper Containers; Packaging Systems; Portion Control Equipment
& Supplies; Sealers & Carton Closures.
Norand Corporation
Contact Data: 550 2nd Street, S. E., Cedar
Rapids, IA 52401; Phone: 319-369-3100;
Telex: 9105251359; Fax: 319-369-3453.
Products and Services: Computer Hardware;
Computer Software; Inventory Control;
Warehouse Systems.
Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Single Service; Capping & Closing Equipment, Supplies; Containers Plastic;
Tamper Evident.
NuTemp, Inc.
Nu-Con Equipment
Contact Data: 3348 S. Pulaski Road, Chicago, IL 60623; Phone: 312-847-2220; Fax:
312-847-7330.
Products and Services: Chillers; Environmental Control HVAC, Plate Fin Coils,
Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Equipment Leasing, Remanufactured; Ice Making/Building
Equipment; Refrigeration Buildings,
Cold Rooms, Mechanical.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 5010,619 14th Avenue South, Hopkins, MN 55343; Phone:
612-939-0510; Fax: 612-933-4208.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Blending & Batching Equipment Powder;
Complete Systems; Conveyors Air,
Screw, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Filters Air; Ingredient Feeders; Installation
& Start-Up Services; Pharmaceutical
Equipment Processing; Processing Systems; Pumps Positive Displacement;
Screens, Cylindrical/Screen Plate Products;
Tanks Silo; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Powder, Sanitary; Whey Processing Equipment & Services.
O.S.F. Corporation
Products and Services: Centrifuges; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Colloid Mills; Complete Systems; Control/
Control Systems Automation, CIP,
Level, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Flow Meters Flow Control; Heat
Exchangers Plate; Homogenizers; Hose/
Hose Assemblies; Installation & Start-Up
Services; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous; Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Recording Devices; Tanks Processing, Silo;
Tubing/PipeStainless; WashersCase.
Products and Services: Cholesterol Reduction & Fat Modification Tech; Custom Development Food; Ingredients Fats &
Oils, Formulation Aids, Nutrient Supplements; License Programs.
& Supplies; Pumps Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Sealers & Carton Closures;
Tamper Evident Equipment; Turnkey
Operations.
Osmonics, Inc.
Contact Data: 5951 Clearwater Drive, Minnetonka, MN 55343-8990; Phone: 800848-1750; Telex: 29-0847; Fax: 612-9330141.
Products and Services: Filters Air, Liquid;
Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Product Recovery Equipment; Pumps
Centrifugal; Separators & Clarifiers
Liquid/Liquid, Liquid/Solid; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment; Whey Processing
Equipment & Services.
Owens-Illinois, Inc.
Contact Data: Label & Foam Product, Operation, One Seagate21 OSG, Toledo, OH
43666; Phone: 800-537-3488; Fax: 419247-1551.
Products and Services: BottlesGlass; Capping & Closing Supplies; Labels & Label Supplies; Tamper Evident Shrink
Sleeve.
P.I. Dynaseal
Contact Data: P.O. Box 669, Athens, TN
37303; Phone: 615-745-2652; Fax: 615745-7039.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Supplies; Tamper Evident.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Pressure, Temperature; Humidity Indicators & Controllers; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies; Recording Devices;
Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording.
Paratherm Corporation
Contact Data: 1050 Col well Road, Conshohocken, PA 19428; Toll Free: 800-2223611; Phone: 215-941-4900; Fax: 215-9419191.
Products and Services: Heat Transfer Fluid,
Food Grade.
Contact Data: 408 N. Springs Road, Columbia, SC 29223; Phone: 803-699-0784; Fax:
803-736-3341.
Pall Corporation
Penberthy
Contact Data: 320 Locust Street, Prophetstown, IL 61277; Phone: 815-537-2311;
Telex: 257339; Fax: 815-537-5764.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Manual & COP,
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control Systems Level; Heat Exchangers Injection; Mixers Liquid; Pumps Sanitary,
Vacuum; Sight Gauges; WashersEquipment.
Phillips 66 Company
Contact Data: A Div of Phillips Petroleum
Co., P.O. Box 792, Pasadena, TX 77501;
Plastican Inc.
Contact Data: 196 Industrial Road, P.O. Box
868, Leominster, MA 01453; Phone: 508537-4911; Fax: 508-537-6376.
Products and Services: None listed.
Polar Industries
Contact Data: 5626 Southwestern Boulevard,
Baltimore, MD 21227; Phone: 410-5660852; Fax: 410-247-3248.
Products and Services: Cabinets Storage/
Frozen; Containers Insulated, Plastic.
Polypack Inc.
Contact Data: 10650 72nd Street, North,
Bldg. 402, Largo, FL 34647; Phone: 813546-5761; Fax: 813-544-4165.
Products and Services: Packaging Systems;
Wrapping Equipment.
Polytainers, Inc.
Contact Data: 1400 N. Douglas, Lee's Summit, MO 64063; Phone: 816-246-6100;
Fax: 816-246-4897.
Products and Services: Containers Cups
& Lids, Plastic.
Next Page
mental; Flow Meters Flow Control;
Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Metering, Positive Displacement; Recording Devices; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/
Solid; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment.
Promega Corp.
Contact Data: 2800 Woods Hollow Road,
Madison, WI 53711-5399; Phone: 608274-4330; Telex: 62057092; Fax: 608-2736967.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Instruments Analytical.
Pure-Pak, Inc.
Contact Data: 30000 South Hill Road, P.O.
Box S, New Hudson, MI 48165; Phone:
313-486-4600; Fax: 313-486-4601.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; ContainersPaperboard; Fillers & Sealers Paper Containers; Packaging Systems; Sealers & Carton Closures.
Quest International,
Byproducts Group
Contact Data: P.O. Box 3917, 1833 57th
Street, Sarasota, FL 34230; Phone: 813355-8561; Fax: 813-355-3387.
Products and Services: Ingredients Colors
& Coloring Adjuncts, Cultures, Emulsifiers
& Emulsifier Salts, Enzymes, Fat Substitutes, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Stabilizers & Thickeners.
Previous Page
Contact Data: 4010 East 26th Street, Los Angeles, CA 90023; Toll Free: 800-421-6244;
Phone: 213-262-5145; Telex: 69-1240;
Fax:213-269-8506.
Products and Services: Cases.
Refrigiwear, Inc.
Remy L.C.
Repete Corp.
Contact Data: W226 N6283 Village Drive,
Sussex, WI 53089; Phone: 414-246-4541;
Fax:414-246-7166.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Powder; Computer Software; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Panel; Weighing.
C. E. Rogers Company
Contact Data: 1200 South Highway 65, P.O.
Box 118, Mora, MN 55051; Phone: 612679-2172; Fax: 612-679-2180.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Drying Equipment Conveyor/Convection, Fluid Bed, Roller, Spray; Equipment
Remanufactured, Repair; Evaporators &
Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan, Falling Film;
Heat Exchangers Tubular; Installation
& Start-Up Services; Tanks Balance/
Surge, Batch; Whey Processing Equipment
& Services.
Ropak Corporation
Contact Data: 660 S. State College Boulevard, Fullerton, CA 92631; Phone: 714870-9757; Fax: 714-447-3871.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Containers Plastic; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Ingredients
Candies; Packaging Systems; Pallets;
Printing Containers/Caps/Closures.
Rosemount Incorporated
Contact Data: 12001 Technology Drive,
Eden Prairie, MN 55344; Phone: 612-9415560; Fax: 612-828-3088.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Microprocess, Pressure, Temperature; Flow
Meters Flow Control; Instruments
Analytical; Laboratory Analysis & Testing
Services; Meters Fluid, Sanitary; PH
Measurement & Control.
S. J. Controls, Inc.
Contact Data: 2248 Obispo Avenue, Suite
203, Long Beach, CA 90806; Phone: 310494-1400; Fax: 310-494-1066.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
CIP, Computer Process, Insrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Pressure; Meters Fluid, Sanitary.
Sani-Matic Systems
Contact Data: Division of DEC Int'l, Inc.,
1915 S. Stoughton Rd., P.O. Box 8662, Madison, WI53708; Toll Free: 800-356-3300;
Phone: 608-222-2399; Telex: 265489; Fax:
608-222-5348.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators;
Cheese Cutters; Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP; Dollies
& Carts; Filters Liquid, Milk; Heat Exchangers Injection, Tubular; Product Recovery Equipment; Pumps Centrifugal;
Strainers; Tanks Batch, Farm, Storage;
UV Purifiers; Washers Can, Carton,
Case, Equipment.
Sani-Tech Incorporated
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1010, Andover, NJ
07821; Phone: 201-579-1313; Fax: 201579-3908.
Products and Services: Brushes; Fittings;
Flow Meters Flow Control; Gaskets &
Seals; Hoses/Hose Assemblies; Metal Detectors; Processing Systems; Sight Gauges;
Tanks Processing, Storage; Tubing/Pipe
Flexible, Non-Metallic, Stainless;
Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary; Water Treatment.
SaniServ
Sartorius Instruments
Contact Data: 1430 Waukegan Road,
McGaw Park, IL 60085; Phone: 708-5784286; Fax: 708-689-2038.
Products and Services: Instruments Analytical; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies;
Weighing.
T. D. Sawvel Company
Contact Data: 5775 Hwy. 12 W., Maple
Plain, MN 55359; Phone: 612-479-4322;
Fax:612-479-3517.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Custom Fabrication; Fillers & Sealers
Bag-In-Box, Plastic Pre-Formed Contnrs;
Ingredient Feeders; Packaging Systems;
Sealers & Carton Closures.
Scherping Systems
Contact Data: 801 Kingsley Street, Winsted,
MN 55395; Phone: 612-485-4401; Fax:
612-485-2666.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,
Liquid/Powder; Cheese Making; Control/
Control Systems Automation, Computer
Process, Insrumnt/Monitoring, Microprocess, Pasteurization; Cookers/Kettles
Vacuum; Flow Meters Flow Control;
Heat Exchangers Tubular; Ingredient
Feeders; Membrane Processing Eqpt Ultrafiltration; Mixers Batch, Continuous,
Liquid; Pasteurizers Batch, HTST/Continuous; Processing Systems; TanksBalance/Surge, Batch, Processing; Weighing;
Whey Processing Equipment & Services.
Scholle Corp.
Contact Data: Container Division, 200 West
North Avenue, Northlake, IL 60164;
Phone: 708-562-7290; Fax: 708-562-6569.
Serac Inc.
Contact Data: 1275 Old Spartanburg Highway, P.O. Box 518, Lyman, SC 29365;
Phone: 803-439-7537; Fax: 803-949-3039.
Products and Services: Motors & Accessories; Power Transmission Equipment.
Separators, Inc.
Contact Data: IM E. Sumner Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Phone: 317-786-7832;
Fax: 317-782-3384.
Products and Services: Centrifuge Parts; Centrifuges; Equipment Remanufactured,
Repair; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/
Liquid, Liquid/Solid; Standardization Systems.
Shepard Bros.
Contact Data: 509 W. Lambert, Brea, CA
92621; Phone: 714-990-4501.
Products and Services: Ingredients Lubricants & Release Agents, Solvents & Vehicles.
Simons-Conkey
Contact Data: Towle Building, Suite 545,
330 Second Avenue South, Minneapolis,
MN 55401; Phone: 612-332-8326; Fax:
612-332-2423.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Consultants Packaging, Sanitation, Technical; Control/Control Systems
Automation; Engineering Services
Plant; Refrigeration Buildings, Mechanical, Storage; Turnkey Operations; Waste
Treatment.
Somerville Packaging
Contact Data: Rendoll Operations, 439 Central Avenue, Rochester, NY 14605; Phone:
716-232-4284; Fax: 716-232-5919.
Products and Services: Containers Paperboard; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy;
Packaging Systems; Tamper Evident.
ST International, Inc.
Contact Data: 11040 Condor Avenue, Fountain Valley, CA 92708; Phone: 714-5464282; Fax: 714-546-1342.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves Sanitary; Welding Equipment.
W. M. Sprinkman Corp.
Contact Data: 1325 Washington Road, P.O.
Box218,Kenosha,WI53141-0218;Phone:
414-656-0771; Telex: 53217; Fax: 414656-0348.
Products and Services: Case Packer, Stacker
& Unstacker; Centrifuges; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Coding Equipment; Control/Control Systems Automation, Microprocess; Conveyors
Chain, Roller; Fillers & Sealers; Filters
Milk; Heat Exchangers Plate; Homoge-
Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Surface
Active Agents; Instantizers/Agglomerators.
Walter Stocklin AG
Contact Data: Domacherstrasse 197, Dornach, Switzerland CH-4143; Phone: 061
075 81 11; Telex: 962 920; Fax: 061 701
30 32.
Products and Services: Containers Metal.
Stoelting, Inc.
Contact Data: 502 Highway 67, Kiel, WI
53042-1600; Phone: 800-558-5807; Telex:
5103889511; Fax: 414-894-7029.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Cheese
Making; Conveyors Air, Belt, Chain,
Roller, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication;
Freezers Ice Cream; Installation & Startup Services; Molds Cheese Hoops/
Molds; Turnkey Operations.
Stonhard, Inc.
Contact Data: One Park Avenue, P.O. Box
308, Maple Shade, NJ 08052; Phone: 609779-7500; Telex: 7108920769; Fax: 609779-0128.
Products and Services: None listed.
Straigt-O-Matic
Contact Data: P.O. Box 2104, Suite, Sweden
S 44502; Phone: 031-980500; Fax: 031982792.
Products and Services: Consultants Technical; Conveyors Belt, Plate; Dispensing
Eqpt., Retail; Enrobers; Equipment Repair; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Extrusion, Molding, Slice/Sandwich; Ice Making/Building Equipment; Lifts, Gates &
Loaders; Printing Containers/Caps/Closures; Sealers & Carton Closures.
Supreme Corporation
Sunkist Growers, Inc.
Contact Data: 702 E. Sunkist Street, P.O. Box
3720, Ontario, CA 91761; Phone: 714-9839811; Telex: 3727053SUNKIST ONTO;
Fax: 714-983-5672.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Juices & Contrates Citrus.
Sverdrup Corporation
Sunshine Biscuits, Inc.
Contact Data: 100 Woodbridge Center Drive,
Woodbridge, NJ 07095-1196; Phone: 908855-4015; Fax: 908-855-2944.
Products and Services: Ingredients Baked
Products Cookies, Baked Products
Wafers.
Swagelok Company
Products and Services: Ingredients Bulking Agents, Chocolate & Cocoa, Curing &
Pickling Agents, Dough Conditioners, Fat
Substitutes, Fats & Oils, Flavor Agents
Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/
Spices, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers,
Flavors Appl. Bakery, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Leavening Agents, Lubricants &
Release Agents, Modified Whey Products,
Nuts, Preservatives, Proteins Animal,
Proteins Vegetable, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Surface Finishing Agents, Sweeteners Non - Nutritive, Sweeteners
Nutritive.
TCI-BRETCO, Inc.
Contact Data: 1137 Derry Road East, Mississauga, Ontario, L5T 1P3 Canada; Phone:
416-670-1163; Fax: 416-670-1387.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching Equipment Liquid; Heat Exchangers Infusion, Plate,
Tubular, Heat Recovery Systems; Homogenizers; Standardization Systems; Sterilizers; Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless.
Tebel-M.K.T. b.v.
Contact Data: Zwettestraat 30, Leeuwarden,
The Netherlands 8912 AV; Phone: 058131312; Telex: 46131; Fax: 058-122048.
Products and Services: Cheese Making.
Tech-Con, Inc.
Contact Data: 835 Innovation Drive, Suite
100, Knoxville, TN 37932; Phone: 615675-0141; Telex: 62900827; Fax: 615-6754666.
Techniserv, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 282, 1319 Market
Street, Berwick, PA 18603; Phone: 717759-2315; Fax: 717-759-2785.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Consultants
Technical; Control/Control Systems
Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Microprocess,
Panel, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Custom Fabrication; Electrical Enclosures; Engineering Services Feasibility
Studies, Plant; Instruments Analytical;
Inventory Control; Panels Building;
Processing Systems.
Terlet N.V.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 62, Zutphen 7200
AB, The Netherlands; Phone: 31-575041634; Telex: 49180 T; Fax: 31-575018083.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid;
Cookers/Kettles Vacuum; Evaporators
& Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan, Scraped
Surface; Heat Exchangers Scraped Surface; Mixers Batch, Liquid; Tanks
Processing; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.
Contact Data: 314 West 90th Street, Minneapolis, MN 55420; Phone: 612-887-2532;
Telex: 29-0450.
Thieman Tailgates
Contact Data: 600 E. Wayne Street, Celina,
OH 45822; Phone: 419-586-7727; Fax:
419-586-9724.
Products and Services: Lifts, Gates & Loaders.
L. C. Thomsen, Inc.
Contact Data: 1303 43rd Street, Kenosha, WI
53140; Phone: 414-652-8755; Fax: 414652-3526.
Products and Services: Filters Liquid,
Milk; Fittings; Gaskets & Seals; Pumps
Centrifugal, Sanitary; Sight Gauges; Strainers; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves
Automatic, Mechnical, Sanitary.
3M Microbiology Products*
Contact Data: A Division Of 3M Company,
3M Center, Bldg. 275-5W-05, St. Paul, MN
55144-1000; Phone: 612-733-4758; Fax:
612-733-9596.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection.
Products and Services: Consultants Packaging; Equipment Leasing, Remanufactured, Repair; Fillers & Sealers; Labeling
Equipment & Supplies; Packaging Systems; Veriegating Equipment.
Titan Industries
Contact Data: 9151 Normandy Lane South,
Centerville, OH 45458; Phone: 513-8859554; Fax: 513-885-9623.
Products and Services: Fittings; Hoses/Hose
Assemblies; Tubing/Pipe Flexible, NonMetallic.
Tubesales
Contact Data: 235 Tubeway Drive, Carol
Stream, IL 60188; Phone: 708-690-0110;
Telex: 283469; Fax: 708-665-8490.
Products and Services: Fittings; Tubing/Pipe
Metal, Stainless; Valves Automatic,
Mechanical.
Tremcar, Inc.
Contact Data: 1 Rue Tougas, Iberville, Quebec, J2X 2P7 Canada; Phone: 514-3477822; Fax: 514-347-8372.
Products and Services: Fittings; Pumps
Centrifugal; Sampling Devices & Supplies;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Silo, Storage;
Truck Bodies & Trailers; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.
Tri-Clover, Inc.
Contact Data: 9201 Wilmot Road, Kenosha,
WI53141;Phone:414-694-5511;Fax:414694-7104.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid/Powder; Cleaning/
Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP, Control/
Control Systems Automation, CIP, Microprocess, Panel; Filters Air, Liquid,
Milk; Fittings; Gaskets & Seals; Membrane
Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Processing Systems; Pumps Centrifugal,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Strainers;
Tubing/Pipe - Stainless; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary; Weighing;
Whey Processing Equipment & Services.
Trojan, Inc.
Contact Data: 198 Trojan Street, P.O. Box
850, Mt. Sterling, KY 40353; Phone: 606498-0526; Fax: 606-498-0528.
Products and Services: Lighting Non-Protective, Protective.
Tulip Corporation
Contact Data: 714E Keefe Avenue, Milwaukee, WI53212; Phone: 414-963-3120; Fax:
414-962-1825.
Products and Services: Crates.
Vac-U-Max
Contact Data: 37 Rutgers Street, Belleville,
NJ 07109; Phone: 201-759-4600; Telex:
138981; Fax: 201-759-6449.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Powder; Conveyors Air,
Vacuum; Ingredient Feeders; Processing
Systems; Product Recovery Equipment;
Separators & Clarifiers Magnetic;
Valves Powder; Weighing.
Valvinox, Inc.*
Contact Data: A Division of S.G.R.M., 654
lue Rue, Iberville, Quebec, J2X 3B8 Canada; Phone: 514-346-1981; Fax: 514-3461067.
Products and Services: Fittings; Pumps
Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.
Vanlab Corporation
Contact Data: P.O. Box 207, Rochester, NY
14601; Phone: 716-232-6647; Fax: 716232-6168.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts,
Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavors
Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products,
Vanilla & Vanillin.
Venjex Corp.
Viatran Corp.
Contact Data: 300 Industrial Drive, Grand
Island, NY 14072; Phone: 716-773-1700;
Telex: 7102601353; Fax: 716-773-2488.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Environmental, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization,
Pressure, Temperature.
Viskase Corporation
Contact Data: 6855 West 65th Street, Chicago, IL 60638; Toll Free: 800-323-8562;
Phone: 708-496-4200; Telex: 6714599;
Fax: 708-496-4412.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Cheese Packaging; Containers
Plastic; Preformed Bags; Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures; Thermo Form
Fill & Seal Rigid; Wrapping Material
Films.
VNE Corporation
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1698, Janesville, WI
53547; Toll Free: 800-356-1111; Phone:
608-756-4930; Telex: 9102882923; Fax:
608-756-3643.
Products and Services: Fittings; Heat
Exchangers Tubular; Pharmaceutical
Equipment Processing: Sampling Devices & Supplies; Tubing/PipeStainless;
Valves Automatic, Sanitary.
W R H Industries, Ltd.
Contact Data: 5 Industrial Way, Box 4535,
Riverside, RI 02915; Phone: 401-4346272; Telex: 955329; Fax: 401-434-1781.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Cases; Pallets; Pharmaceutical
Equipment Processing.
Contact Data: 1800 West Park Drive, Westborough, MA 01581; Phone: 508-3669910; Fax: 508-366-4841.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa.
E. H. Wachs Company
WCR Incorporated
Contact Data: 221 Crane Street, Dayton, OH
45403; Phone: 513-223-0703; Fax: 513223-2818.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Consultants Personnel; Equipment Repair; Evaporators
& Vacuum Pans Falling Film, Plate, Rising Film; Gaskets & Seals; Heat Exchangers Plate; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous.
Westvaco Corporation
Contact Data: Liquid Packaging Division,
P.O. Box 24039, Richmond, VA 23224;
Phone: 804-232-6746; Fax: 804-232-3975.
Products and Services: Containers Paperboard.
Weber Scientific
Zer-O-Loc, Inc.
Contact Data: 4740 Vanguard Road, Richmond, British Columbia, V6X 2P8 Canada;
Phone: 604-273-8306; Fax: 604-276-8293.
Products and Services: Doors; FreezersIce
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage;
Panels Building, Structural; Storage
Frozen, Refrigerated.
Zero-Temp, Inc.
Contact Data: 1500-A East Chestnut Avenue,
Santa Ana, CA 92701; Phone: 714-5479728; Fax: 714-542-6529.
Products and Services: Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage;
Panels Building, Structural; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold Rooms, Mechanical, Storage.
Index
Index terms
Links
A
A. flavus
2:334
A. fumigatus
2:341
A. hydrophila
2:311
A. ochraceus
2:358
A. parasitcus
2:349
A. pyogenes
2:317
A. versicolor
2:354
A. viscolactis
2:307
Abnormal milk
calibration of IR instruments
1:96
sediment
1:107
1:115
2:229
Acetaldehyde
cottage cheese
1:192
yogurt
1:254
Acid
butter
1:199
casein
2:292
coagulation
2:292
degree value
1:112
ice cream
1:215
2:293
3:409
3:410
Index terms
Links
Acid (Continued)
injection
2:292
lactic
2:293
milk
1:179
2:296
1:57
1:241
Acidity
pH
1:103
titratable acidity
1:102
Acinetobacter
2:308
2:324
Actinomyces
2:316
2:317
Action levels
3:33
Activity test
2:11
Adsorption
1:43
Aerococcus
2:327
Affective testing
1:168
hedonic scales
1:165
1:169
naive consumer
1:170
Aflatoxin M1
Aflatoxins
2:355
3:7
measurement
1:113
milk quality
1:147
Age gelation
1:41
2:269
2:185
Aggregation
Aging of ice cream mix
1:44
1:38
2:270
1:48
2:127
Air
flow during spray drying
2:276
2:276
3:411
Index terms
Links
Alcaligenes
2:307
Alfa-Laval
3:69
2:324
2:100
1:15
1:18
2:113
Alternariam
2:322
Alteromonas
2:307
2:308
3:34
3:42
3:42
Amino acids
1:12
2:213
1:83
purpose
1:85
sources of information
1:86
types
1:86
Analytical methods
3:37
3:11
Charm Test II
3:27
coliform test
3:20
3:27
3:8
3:12
infrared analysis
3:21
3:30
phosphatase test
3:14
3:19
2:260
3:7
1:109
determined by HPLC
1:111
1:107
immunological methods
1:111
mold enumeration
1:133
penicillin
3:38
1:112
3:7
3:39
3:412
Index terms
Links
Antibiotics (Continued)
PMO tests
starter bacteria
test for
tetracycline
Antimicrobial systems
Applications in biotechnology
3:13
2:186
3:11
3:7
2:326
3:78
3:84
3:80
bacteriophage resistance
3:83
3:79
Arthrobacter
2:316
Artificial intelligence
3:106
Aseptic packaging
3:27
2:317
2:324
3:13
3:18
3:48
3:50
3:131
3:63
3:66
institutional containers
3:325
materials
3:322
paperboard packaging
3:323
plastic packaging
3:325
2:192
Ash
measurement
1:101
See Minerals
Aspergillus
2:322
Aspergillus flavus
2:349
Aspergillus fumigatus
2:332
Aspergillus nidulans
2:334
Aspergillus niger
2:383
Astringent
cultured products
1:244
3:413
Index terms
Links
Astringent (Continued)
milk
1:179
Atomization
effect on milk droplet size and surface
2:276
nozzle pressure
2:276
of milk, centrifugal
2:276
2:277
Attrition drying
2:294
1:241
Aureobacterium
2:316
2:317
1:24
1:56
Autoxidation
B
B. abortus
2:308
B. cereus
2:314
B. circulans
2:322
B. coagulans
2:314
B. licheniformis
2:314
B. melitensis
2:308
B. mycoides
2:324
B. stearothermophilus
2:314
B. suis
2:308
B. thuringiensis
2:348
Babcock, S. M.
3:30
2:324
Bacillus
2:314
2:322
2:324
Bacillus cereus
2:324
2:329
2:348
Bacillus circulans
2:324
2:53
2:389
Bacillus licheniformis
3:92
Bacillus megaterium
2:388
Bacillus stearothermophilus
Bacillus subtilis
2:10
2:332
3:414
Index terms
Bacteria
brick cheese
Links
2:305
2:227
2:227
Bacteriocins
and starter bacteria
2:182
3:80
3:83
Baeteriocin
2:50
Batch pasteurization
2:123
Betacoccus
2:312
2:215
Biosynthesis of milk
Biotechnology
1:2
1:41
3:68
3:77
3:92
3:85
3:85
3:87
3:91
3:88
electroporation
3:88
3:89
Bitter
blind
1:162
butter
1:199
cheddar cheese
1:232
cottage cheese
1:186
cultured products
1:244
milk
1:180
yogurt
1:258
Block milk
2:271
3:415
Index terms
Links
Blue cheese
2:206
Borden, Gail
3:61
1:8
2:282
simulated
2:281
Brevibacterium
2:316
Brevibacterium linens
2:317
Brick cheese
2:205
Brie cheese
2:226
Briny, butter
1:205
Brochothrix
2:316
Brucella
2:307
Brucella abortus
2:308
Brucella melitensis
2:308
Bulky flavors
3:68
2:281
immunological factors in
2:224
2:317
2:227
2:308
1:58
2:8
2:9
Business management
automatic storage and retrieval
3:129
computer-aided manufacturing
3:129
3:133
3:134
databases
3:107
3:108
3:127
3:131
3:132
3:137
inventory
3:113
3:128
3:135
planning
3:130
3:148
3:131
3:140
sales
3:129
3:134
Butter
1:199
3:34
3:64
3:14
3:53
acid
1:200
bitter
1:201
3:31
3:60
3:416
Index terms
Links
Butter (Continued)
briny
1:205
cheesy
1:201
coarse
1:202
color specks
1:213
crumbly
1:211
feed
1:201
foreign material
1:213
garlic/Onion
1:203
grades
1:199
1:167
grading flavor
1:199
grainy
1:212
gummy
1:211
high salt
1:205
leaky
1:211
light butter
3:34
manufacture equipment
3:254
continuous churning
3:255
cream preparation
3:254
packaging
3:256
traditional churning
3:254
mealy
1:212
metallic
1:207
and microbiology
2:385
mold
1:213
1:213
musty
1:207
neutralize
1:207
old cream
1:208
oxidized
1:208
ragged boring
1:212
1:201
3:54
3:417
Index terms
Links
Butter (Continued)
rancid
1:208
sampling
1:198
scorched
1:209
score card
1:206
1:201
1:202
scoring
1:199
short
1:212
sticky
1:212
storage
1:209
1:214
tallowy
1:210
unclean/utensil
1:210
unnatural color
1:214
weak
1:213
whey
1:210
yeasty
1:211
3:27
2:324
C
C. butyricum
2:319
C. macrocarpum
2:383
C. sporogenes
2:314
C. tyrobutyricum
2:314
2:331
Caked
dry milk
1:273
Caking
of whey powder
Calandria
2:289
2:264
2:265
3:418
Index terms
Calcium
in coprecipitates
Links
1:29
2:296
phosphate
1:35
in whey
2:290
salts
2:262
2:7
1:36
1:39
2:266
2:92
2:92
2:109
3:19
California's Proposition
3:65
3:54
Camembert cheese
2:207
2:226
Campylobacter
2:305
2:307
Campylobacter jejuni
2:305
2:329
2:346
Candida
2:318
2:322
2:341
Caramelization in milk
2:271
Carbon dioxide
2:336
2:392
Casein
1:9
acid
2:291
2:216
micelle
1:30
composition of
1:30
stability of
1:35
pressing of
2:293
products
2:290
casein
2:291
composition of
2:294
coprecipitates
2:295
genetic variants
nonmicellar
2:291
1:9
1:33
1:35
3:419
Index terms
Links
Casein (Continued)
primary structure
1:12
1:13
secondary structure
1:10
1:36
sodium caseinate
2:294
3:58
3:60
Caseobacter
2:316
2:317
Cedecea
2:308
Centri whey
2:298
Centrifugal pumps
3:181
Centrifuges
3:203
1:269
Cheddar cheese
1:230
acid-cut
1:241
1:241
bitter
1:231
1:242
corky
1:239
crumbly
1:240
curdy
1:240
dark seams
1:242
fermented/fruity
1:231
flat/lacks flavor
1:235
garlic/onion
1:235
gassy
1:240
grades
1:236
heated
1:235
high acid
1:235
1:243
judging
1:230
light seams
1:242
lopsided 1:misshapen
2:200
1:24
3:420
Index terms
Links
1:230
mealy
1:240
microbiological changes
2:215
fate of casein
2:216
fate of fat
2:218
fate of lactose
2:215
2:219
moldy
1:237
mottled
1:242
pasty
1:241
rancid
1:237
score card
1:233
scoring
1:232
scoring guide
1:232
short
1:241
sulfide
1:238
tempering
1:230
unclean
1:238
uneven sizes
1:243
weak
1:241
whey taint
1:238
white specks
1:242
yeasty
1:239
Cheese
1:229
3:6
3:14
3:48
3:69
blue cheeses
3:6
Brie
3:7
2:217
2:163
3:7
3:31
3:61
3:3
3:8
3:32
3:64
3:421
Index terms
Links
Cheese (Continued)
Cheddar cheese
3:14
3:52
classification
2:164
ripened
2:164
fresh
2:164
colby cheeses
3:35
composition
2:165
cottage
3:20
3:35
3:7
3:19
3:43
cream cheese
3:7
grated cheeses
3:33
Limburger
3:35
Mozzarella
3:35
3:22
production
2:165
Roquefort
3:6
soft cheese
3:6
3:62
3:7
Cheese composition
2:165
2:210
2:207
Cheese manufacture
2:197
brick cheese
2:205
Cheddar cheese
2:200
colby cheese
2:200
manufacture equipment
3:256
3:258
cheese vats
3:257
cheesemaking systems
3:256
general processes
3:256
processed cheese
3:261
3:62
3:422
Index terms
Links
2:203
blue cheese
2:206
camembert cheese
2:207
2:205
parmesan cheese
2:201
2:200
swiss cheese
2:201
3:84
Cheese processes
3:14
2:210
2:213
flavor development
2:213
proteolysis in cheese
2:212
proteolysis of caseins
2:211
Cheese salting
2:210
2:173
lactobacilli
2:179
2:179
Leuconostoc
2:178
molds
2:181
Penicillium camemberti
2:181
Penicillium roqueforti
2:181
pediococci
2:180
propionibacteria
2:180
2:178
types of cultures
2:174
3:20
2:169
Cheesy
butter
1:201
cultured products
1:245
3:68
3:423
Index terms
Links
Chemical changes
in sulfhydryl compounds
2:266
inhibition of in milk
2:266
1:159
3:240
Cherry-Burrell Corporation
3:41
3:49
2:135
2:114
Cholesterol
Chromobacterium
3:3
2:268
3:53
3:54
2:311
Chymosin
1:13
1:38
Citrobacter
2:309
2:324
Cladosporium
2:322
Clarification
of milk
2:259
of whey
2:290
Clean-in-place (CIP)
2:273
3:30
3:45
3:65
3:218
Cleaners, types of
3:236
Cleaning and pH
3:234
3:218
3:217
clean-in-place
3:218
3:218
3:240
3:241
3:219
relation of ph to cleaning
3:234
3:238
3:226
3:46
3:424
Index terms
Links
3:236
types of sanitizers
3:237
Clostridium
2:314
Clostridium botulinum
2:314
Clostridium perfringens
2:314
2:220
2:326
Coagulation
by acid
2:292
capability
2:266
enzymatic
2:293
Coarse
butter
1:202
cultured products
1:246
Coarse/icy
ice cream
Code of Federal Regulations
1:225
2:8
Codex Alimentarius
3:39
3:53
3:69
Coffee creamers
3:32
3:58
3:60
2:23
2:35
Colby cheese
Collaborative growth
2:200
2:16
Collegiate contest
1:166
Color
2:266
atypical, yogurt
1:265
leaching, yogurt
1:265
specks, butter
1:213
1:242
1:273
1:253
1:280
Composition
2:21
3:425
Index terms
Composition, gross
Links
1:5
Composition of protein
1:280
Concentrated cultures
2:191
2:259
advantages of
2:259
nontraditional
2:271
2:67
3:261
Concentration of milk
2:262
Condensation degree
2:269
2:259
Condensed milk
caramelized
2:271
flavored
2:271
packaging of
2:266
second standardization
2:267
skim milk
2:271
storage of
2:266
sweetened
2:267
unsweetened
2:259
Conductivity
electrical
1:54
thermal
1:60
3:85
conjugation
3:85
protoplast fusion
3:87
3:297
construction materials
3:300
3:297
floor
3:302
foundation type
3:301
3:426
Index terms
Links
3:301
roof design
3:302
social concern
3:300
3:298
type of business
3:297
3:299
3:303
Consumer preference
Consumption
2:269
2:3
Continuous pasteurization
2:123
3:124
Cooked
cottage cheese
1:186
ice cream
1:216
milk
1:180
yogurt
1:258
Cooling
in evaporated milk production
2:270
2:294
2:289
2:290
Coprecipitates
2:295
advantages of
2:296
calcium in
2:296
Corky
Cheddar cheese
Corn syrups
1:239
2:81
Corynebacterium
2:316
2:326
Corynebacterium spp.
2:316
2:317
2:324
3:427
Index terms
Cottage cheese
Links
1:185
bitter
1:186
cooked
1:186
diacetyl flavor
1:190
feed flavor
1:190
fermented/fruity
1:190
firm/rubbery
1:195
flat
1:191
foreign
1:191
free cream
1:196
free whey
1:196
gelatinous
1:195
1:191
ideal
1:186
lacks cream
1:197
1:192
lacks freshness
1:192
malty
1:192
manufacture equipment
3:277
matted
1:197
mealy/grainy
1:195
metallic (oxidized)
1:19
and microbiology
2:382
musty
1:193
overstabilized
1:195
pasty
1:196
rancid
1:193
salty
1:191
score card
1:188
scoring guide
1:187
shattered curd
1:197
unclean
1:194
1:202
3:428
Index terms
Links
1:196
yeasty
1:194
Cowy, milk
1:181
Coxiella
2:311
Coxiella burnetii
2:311
Cream
2:265
3:34
defects
1:49
heavy cream
3:27
judging tips
1:176
3:35
products
1:176
scoring guide
1:176
3:8
blended products
3:9
pasteurization
specification for
3:27
1:175
effect of whipping on
3:23
3:61
3:37
3:12
3:4
Crumbly
butter
1:211
Cheddar cheese
1:240
ice cream
1:225
Cryoglobulin
1:47
Cryptococcus
2:322
Crystallization
of lactose
2:270
of milkfat
1:20
1:22
1:48
Cultured products
astringent
1:243
1:244
1:23
3:429
Index terms
Links
1:244
buttermilk
1:243
cheesy
1:245
coarse
1:246
1:243
curdy
1:250
dull appearance
1:252
fermented
1:246
foreign
1:247
gassy
1:250
grainy/gritty
1:251
green
1:247
high acid
1:247
ideal description
1:243
judging
1:243
1:247
1:248
lumpy
1:251
metallic/oxidized
1:249
rancid
1:249
ropy
1:251
salty
1:250
score card
1:245
scoring
1:244
scoring guide
1:248
sour cream
1:243
starter cultures
1:243
surface growth
1:253
too firm
1:252
too thin
1:252
unclean
1:250
3:430
Index terms
Links
1:253
wheyed-off
1:253
yeasty (cultured)
1:250
yogurt
1:243
Cultures
3:51
cheese cultures
3:21
3:23
yogurt cultures
3:26
3:27
Curdy
cultured products
1:250
ice cream
1:228
Cyclone separators
2:277
D
Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association
3:3
3:156
Dairy microbiology
2:304
3:42
2:305
bacteria
2:305
viruses
2:318
2:318
morphological features
2:305
Dairy products
judging, philosophy
1:175
2:62
Dairy safety
2:303
3:20
3:49
Debaryomyces
2:318
2:146
2:322
3:431
Index terms
Links
Defects
dairy ingredients, and ice cream
2:148
2:149
2:149
2:149
2:149
2:149
2:146
2:147
2:146
2:149
1:175
of flavor
2:147
2:150
of ice cream
2:145
defective container
2:146
2:148
of texture
2:147
product appearance
2:146
Dehydrated
concentrated milk products
2:69
2:149
2:147
Demineralization
Density
2:289
1:49
2:109
Descriptive analysis
1:168
Desulfotomaculum
2:314
Dextrose
addition to milk
Diacetyl flavor, cottage cheese
1:51
1:171
2:80
2:269
1:190
3:432
Index terms
Links
Diafiltration
2:290
3:307
Dioxin
3:62
2:118
Discharge dock
3:306
Discrimination testing
1:168
1:309
Dispersions of protein
1:292
1:170
Diversification
2:5
DLVO theory
1:37
1:48
3:113
3:143
3:118
Domain
Dried buttermilk
Dried dairy ingredients
2:74
2:286
casein
2:291
definitions
2:271
lactose
2:296
powder
2:271
whey
2:286
2:289
2:270
of lactose syrup
2:298
Dry milk
1:267
advantages of
2:259
caked
1:273
chalky
1:269
grades
1:268
judging criteria
1:268
lumpy
1:273
neutralizer
1:272
2:381
1:269
3:119
3:433
Index terms
Links
1:267
scorched
1:268
score card
1:270
scoring guide
1:272
stale
1:269
1:273
1:273
3:305
2:73
Drying
attrition
2:294
2:280
2:274
history of
2:258
industrial applications of
2:259
2:290
2:259
roller drying
2:273
2:274
spray drying
2:274
2:275
2:274
vibrating dryer
2:294
Dulce de leche
2:271
1:252
1:227
2:294
E
E. aerogenes
2:309
E. agglomerans
2:309
E. cloacae
2:309
3:434
Index terms
E. coli
Links
2:309
2:328
3:85
E. faecalis
2:381
E. faecium
2:333
Ear
1:165
1:243
Eggnog
3:31
light
3:35
Electrodialysis
2:289
Electroporation
3:88
Employee training
Emulsifiers
3:4
3:49
2:90
processed cheese
2:231
Emulsion stability
1:46
3:86
1:309
Energy
consumption in evaporation of milk
2:265
thermal
2:264
Engineering
3:296
Enterobacter
2:309
Enterobacter aerogenes
2:332
Enterobacteriaceae
2:308
Enterococcus
2:312
Environmental concerns
3:20
3:33
2:324
2:324
3:47
Enzymes
inactivation of
2:268
2:273
lipase
2:268
in milk
1:15
lipase
1:18
1:22
phosphatase
1:15
1:18
2:332
3:435
Index terms
Links
Enzymes (Continued)
protease
proteolytic
1:18
2:268
2:260
3:160
centrifuges
3:203
3:217
clean-in-place
3:218
3:218
3:240
3:241
3:219
relation of ph to cleaning
3:234
3:238
3:226
types of cleaners
3:236
types of sanitizers
3:23
heat exchangers
3:171
homogenizers
3:213
3:195
installation
3:196
3:199
3:195
pumps
3:179
centrifugal pumps
3:181
3:181
3:187
tanks
2:291
3:160
Erysipelothrix
2:316
Escherichia
2:309
Escherichia coli
2:347
2:381
2:324
3:436
Index terms
Links
Evaporation
2:260
assembly
2:265
condenser
2:265
2:276
energy consumption
2:273
falling film
2:262
heating by steam
2:264
in calandria
2:264
2:269
2:273
2:26
multiple effect
2:264
multiple evaporators
2:264
of milk
2:262
of whey
2:289
2:290
plate evaporators
2:264
pressure effect
2:265
single effect
2:265
temperature difference
2:265
2:265
2:267
2:273
1:266
3:107
biscuits
3:142
cheese
3:142
consistency
3:128
dairy Production
3:139
mass spectroscopy
3:107
olive oil
3:141
packaging
3:130
process control
3:127
3:135
sugar
3:128
3:126
3:143
3:136
3:437
Index terms
Expert system evaluation
Links
3:119
advantages
3:117
3:131
disadvantages
3:118
3:126
Eye
1:164
2:221
F
Facts
3:110
2:10
3:50
2:262
Fat
Babcock method
1:91
2:218
effect on instantization
2:280
Gerber method
1:93
globules
2:265
2:224
in condensed milk
2:267
infrared method
1:94
Mojonnier method
1:89
Roese-Gottlieb method
1:89
turbidimetric method
1:94
2:286
3:3
3:21
3:23
3:26
3:30
3:53
3:27
3:34
3:57
3:29
3:39
3:69
fat descriptors
3:54
3:54
labeling requirements
3:53
3:35
3:438
Index terms
Links
1:18
1:23
3:124
3:30
3:50
3:57
3:62
3:67
3:68
Feed, butter
1:201
1:190
1:181
Fermentation, susceptibility to
2:269
1:246
Fermented/fruity
cheddar cheese
1:231
cottage cheese
1:190
milk
1:181
3:281
3:51
3:306
1:195
Flat
butter
1:203
cottage cheese
1:191
milk
1:182
1:235
Flavobacterium
2:307
2:324
Flavor
and aroma and alcohol production
2:362
binding of protein
1:324
2:132
compounds
2:43
2:147
2:213
3:439
Index terms
Links
Flavor (Continued)
of cheddar cheese
2:219
of frozen desserts
2:129
chocolate flavor
2:135
2:132
propriety flavorings
2:134
quantity of flavoring
2:133
vanilla flavor
2:134
of Gouda cheese
2:224
of Swiss cheese
2:222
unnatural, yogurt
1:263
3:302
1:225
3:309
3:320
1:229
3:30
3:30
3:37
3:39
3:49
2:8
3:7
3:44
3:57
3:64
2:11
3:13
3:52
3:59
3:67
2:12
3:20
3:55
3:62
Food ingredients
3:31
colors
3:23
3:60
3:31
3:51
3:23
3:25
3:26
3:32
3:60
3:23
3:27
3:51
3:52
flavors
indirect additives
3:33
3:32
3:440
Index terms
Links
3:7
3:51
processing aids
3:32
3:32
3:60
3:40
3:120
3:126
1:191
cultured products
1:247
milk
1:182
yogurt
1:258
Foreign material
butter
1:213
2:110
all-natural designation
2:113
2:114
direct-draw shakes
2:118
frozen yogurt
2:119
2:115
nonstandardized products
2:120
2:119
2:114
2:112
2:117
2:116
2:117
3:301
Frames
3:110
3:301
1:196
Free whey
cottage cheese
1:196
yogurt
1:266
3:441
Index terms
Freezing of the mix for ice cream
amount of water frozen
Freezing point of milk
Fresh cheese
Links
2:136
2:138
1:52
2:164
2:75
Frozen desserts
3:14
3:23
3:34
3:53
3:59
3:64
calculation of overrun
1:145
fat measurement
1:93
types of
2:61
1:94
2:35
formulation
2:119
manufacture
2:36
technology
2:36
2:115
Fruit preparation
2:5
composition
2:30
1:278
Furasium
2:322
2:383
G
G. candidum
2:383
Garlic
milk
1:182
Garlic/onion
butter
1:203
cheddar cheese
1:235
Gassy
cheddar cheese
1:240
cultured products
1:250
3:442
Index terms
Links
Gelatinous
cottage cheese
1:195
Gellike
yogurt
Gelling properties of protein
1:264
1:297
3:89
2:60
2:366
Geotrichum
2:322
Geotrichum candidum
2:383
1:297
2:269
3:36
3:49
3:34
3:40
regulatory requirements
3:40
2:222
fate of fat
2:224
fate of lactose
2:223
fate of proteins
2:223
flavor
2:224
microbiological changes
2:224
2:60
2:5
Grainy
butter
1:212
yogurt
1:264
Grainy/gritty
cultured products
1:251
1:247
Green apple
1:192
See acetaldehyde
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
3:443
Index terms
Links
3:281
2:294
2:363
2:321
2:321
2:323
2:324
Gummy
butter
1:211
ice cream
1:226
H
HACCP
2:394
Hafnia
2:311
Hansenula
2:382
2:383
3:23
3:70
3:4
3:5
3:78
extraneous matter
3:8
functional hazards
3:8
3:21
2:39
2:47
and diarrhea
2:49
anticarcinogenic
2:50
cholesterol reduction
2:49
gastrointestinal tract
2:52
hypolactasia
2:51
3:444
Index terms
Links
2:53
lactase deficiency
2:51
lactose intolerance
2:51
Heat capacity
1:60
Heat exchangers
2:264
3:310
3:310
pasteurization
3:312
UHT processing
3:313
3:171
Heat treatment
and caseins
1:325
2:234
2:185
1:328
2:169
of protein
1:325
1:235
Heating
in milk powder production
2:273
2:268
preheating of milk
2:260
2:260
2:266
3:8
3:38
3:6
3:62
1:168
1:169
Heavy metals
lead
Hedonic rating
Heterologous proteins manufacture
3:91
High acid
cheddar cheese
1:235
cultured products
1:247
yogurt
1:259
3:445
Index terms
Links
1:191
1:42
High salt
butter
1:205
3:281
2:191
Homogenization
1:25
1:44
1:47
2:125
3:29
2:265
3:26
2:266
2:127
homogenization temperature
2:125
homogenizing pressure
2:126
2:125
principles
3:316
temperature
2:125
Homogenizers
3:213
Honey
2:82
HTST
2:25
Human milk
2:281
1:284
2:183
Hydrolysis, of lactose
2:267
Hydrolytic rancidity
lipolytic bacteria
1:132
measurement
1:112
psychrotrophic bacteria
1:131
sensory evaluation
1:147
Hygroscopicity
of whey powder
2:289
3:446
Index terms
Hypochlorites, measurement
Links
1:113
I
Ice cream
1:49
2:7
3:14
3:35
3:52
3:61
acid
1:215
2:153
2:92
coarse/Icy
1:225
cooked
1:216
crumbly
1:225
curdy
1:228
2:145
1:228
dull color
1:227
2:129
fluffy
1:225
foamy
1:229
formulation
2:110
2:136
2:385
generic name
2:60
government regulations
2:60
gummy
1:226
hardening
2:142
2:142
judging
1:214
1:217
1:50
2:59
3:31
3:48
3:53
1:214
3:3
3:32
3:51
3:60
3:447
Index terms
Links
1:219
lacks freshness
1:219
lacks sweetness
1:221
light
3:35
melting quality
1:228
metallic
1:221
mix processing
2:121
nonuniform color
1:227
old Ingredient
1:221
oxidized
1:222
plant management
2:151
processes
3:23
products
with 0 to 2% fat formulation
2:117
2:116
rancid
1:222
salty
1:222
sandy
1:226
score card
1:216
scoring
1:216
scoring guide
1:218
selection of Ingredients
soggy
1:220
2:61
1:226
steps in manufacture
2:59
storage
1:223
syrup flavor
1:223
1:223
1:229
too sweet
1:224
2:61
1:228
3:448
Index terms
Links
1:224
watery
1:229
weak
1:226
whey
1:224
wheyed-off
1:229
3:241
batch freezers
3:247
3:250
continuous freezers
3:249
mix freezing
3:246
mix preparation
3:242
novelty equipment
3:250
Ideality
1:158
2:286
2:286
2:5
2:282
3:6
3:20
2:281
3:62
3:40
3:66
3:57
backward Chaining
3:114
3:115
3:120
decision tree
3:114
forward chaining
3:114
3:115
3:120
inference engine
3:113
3:125
Infant formula
Inference Strategies
Ingredients
2:8
dairy
2:8
optional
2:8
other
2:8
3:449
Index terms
Links
2:61
2:67
corn syrups
2:81
2:69
dextrose
2:80
dried buttermilk
dry whey
2:73
emulsifiers
2:90
2:75
honey
2:82
miscellaneous ingredients
2:92
2:87
2:63
2:74
2:67
2:74
2:62
stabilizers
2:82
2:75
sucrose
2:79
sweetening agents
2:76
2:326
carbon dioxide
2:336
2:332
lactofenin
2:330
lactoperoxidase
2:327
lysozyme
2:331
2:326
potassium sorbate
2:335
2:336
xanthine oxidase
2:331
3:450
Index terms
Inhibition of starter cultures
Inhibitors
Links
2:365
2:18
antibiotics
2:19
bacteriophage
2:20
sweeteners
2:19
2:182
agglutination
2:185
antibiotic
2:186
bacteriocins
2:182
heat treatment
2:185
hydrogen peroxide
2:183
lactoperoxidase/thiocyanate/H2O2 system
2:183
lipolysis
2:182
pH
2:186
2:278
patent
2:258
reconstitution of
2:279
Instantization
rewet process
2:280
straight-through process
2:280
by agglomeration
2:280
effect of fat on
2:280
3:3
Institutional containers
3:325
Integration
3:125
1:303
Interfacial tension
International Association of Milk, Food and
Environmental Sanitarians
International Ice Cream Association
Internationalization of the dairy industry
1:44
3:126
1:56
3:2
3:20
3:42
3:6
3:451
Index terms
Interstate Milk Shippers
Links
2:10
1:113
Ion exchange
2:289
J
Jalisco Mexican Products, Inc.
3:19
3:19
K
Klebsiella
2:309
Kloeckera
2:384
Kluyveromyces
2:318
Kluyveromyces fragilis
2:388
Kluyveromyces marxianus
2:383
Knowledge base
3:108
2:324
2:322
metaknowledge
3:127
objects
3:109
3:148
3:112
3:120
rules
3:108
3:110
3:111
3:127
3:141
scripts
3:112
Knowledge engineer
3:118
3:142
Kosher certification
3:59
Kurthia
3:119
2:316
L
L. acidophilus
2:315
2:332
L. brevis
2:315
2:332
L. bulgaricus
2:315
2:332
L. casei
2:315
2:332
3:126
3:452
Index terms
Links
L. cremoris
2:313
2:315
2:315
L. dextranicum
2:313
L. helveticus
2:315
L. innocua
2:329
L. lactis
2:315
L. lactis subsp.
3:83
2:332
2:332
L. mesenteroides
2:315
3:88
3:88
L. monocytogenes
2:315
L. plantarum
2:332
Labeling, product
3:86
2:332
2:330
3:21
3:50
fortification
3:29
3:55
3:53
3:54
3:69
ingredient labeling
3:50
misbranding errors
3:8
3:57
PMOrules
3:13
3:54
3:70
3:137
analysis
3:140
3:140
1:247
1:197
1:248
3:141
3:69
3:57
3:453
Index terms
Links
1:192
ice cream
1:217
yogurt
1:259
Lacks flavoring
ice cream
1:219
yogurt
1:259
Lacks freshness
cottage cheese
1:192
ice cream
1:219
milk
1:183
yogurt
1:260
1:266
Lacks sweetness
ice cream
1:221
yogurt
1:260
Lactase
1:26
Lactic acid
1:102
2:41
2:293
2:315
2:316
2:321
2:332
3:78
2:7
2:14
2:18
2:11
2:16
2:19
2:354
3:88
2:362
2:332
3:81
Lactobacilli
cheese starter cultures
2:179
2:179
Lactobacillus
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Lactobacillus casei
Lactobacillus plantarum
3:87
2:12
2:17
2:20
3:454
Index terms
Lactobacillus spp.
Links
3:85
Lactococcus
2:313
Lactoferrin
2:330
Lactoperoxidase
2:327
2:183
Lactose
1:26
3:34
2:215
2:224
2:220
2:298
crystallization nuclei
2:289
crystallization of
1:27
2:296
hydrolysis of
2:267
2:267
intolerance
measurement
polarimetric determination of
1:4
2:332
3:78
2:7
3:38
2:296
3:39
2:270
2:289
2:51
1:99
1:5
prevention of crystallization
2:267
production of
2:289
refining of
2:298
2:286
supersaturated solutions
2:270
2:289
Leaky, butter
1:211
2:280
Leuconostoc
2:178
Leuconostoc mesenteroides
2:313
Leuconostoc spp.
2:361
2:298
3:78
3:455
Index terms
Links
Light-induced oxidation
1:26
1:56
Lipase enzymes
3:18
3:29
1:22
2:182
1:18
1:22
Listeria, monocytogenes
2:304
2:332
2:315
2:344
1:243
1:261
2:391
3:79
Lumpy
cultured products
1:251
dry milk
1:273
yogurt
1:267
Lysozyme
2:331
M
Maillard's reactions
effects on milk powder quality
2:274
2:295
Malty
cottage cheese
1:192
milk
1:183
Mammary gland
Manual cleaning and clean-out-of-place
Manufacture, yogurt
1:2
3:241
2:22
CIP
2:25
fermentation
2:27
general principles
2:22
2:27
2:329
3:456
Index terms
Links
2:25
homogenization
2:27
mix preparation
2:25
packaging
2:27
Margarine
Mastitis
3:31
3:33
3:34
3:53
3:60
3:57
3:58
1:8
3:8
3:68
2:338
3:11
3:7
3:12
2:339
1:115
economic losses
2:338
2:338
2:341
2:341
Material handling
3:318
Materials
3:322
1:197
2:341
Mealy
butter
1:212
cheddar cheese
1:240
1:195
3:219
Mellorine
3:58
1:228
2:146
1:228
1:329
3:288
3:457
Index terms
Metallic, ice cream
Links
1:221
Metallic/oxidized
cottage cheese
1:193
cultured products
1:249
Micelia sterilia
2:334
Microbacterium
2:316
2:367
conventional methods
2:367
2:370
shelf-life test
2:378
2:324
2:377
2:386
2:391
microwave processing
2:392
2:386
2:389
2:392
Microbiological hazards
3:5
3:9
3:21
Campylobacter jejuni
3:6
Clostridium botulinum
3:5
3:62
3:67
Clostridium perfringens
3:5
Escherichia coli
3:6
3:11
3:68
3:6
3:47
3:19
3:21
3:6
3:27
3:32
3:44
3:48
Salmonella
3:6
3:9
somatic cells
3:7
3:11
Staphyiococcus aureus
3:5
viruses
3:7
Listeria monocytogenes
molds
3:48
3:19
3:458
Index terms
Links
3:6
2:394
2:377
Microbiology
2:304
2:321
2:321
2:323
2:324
2:305
bacteria
2:305
2:318
viruses
2:318
morphological features
Microbiology of milk and dairy products
2:305
2:378
1:121
butter
2:385
coliform determination
1:126
cottage cheese
2:382
2:381
evaporated milk
2:381
hard cheese
2:383
2:385
1:132
Listeria detection
1:135
methods of enumeration
1:120
mold-ripened cheeses
2:382
2:379
1:135
1:132
3:459
Index terms
Links
1:131
Salmonella detection
1:137
1:134
1:137
1:136
1:133
2:384
2:359
2:362
2:362
2:363
2:363
pH control systems
2:364
2:365
2:362
2:362
genetic engineering
2:366
2:365
terminology
2:359
Micrococcus
Micrococcus sp.
2:322
2:324
3:85
Microorganisms
destruction of
2:268
Saccharomyces fragilis
2:267
Streptococcus cremoris
2:293
Streptococcus lactis
2:293
2:262
thermoresistance of
2:270
2:273
2:336
3:460
Index terms
Microorganisms associated with milk
Links
2:305
bacteria
2:305
viruses
2:318
2:318
2:392
Milk
acid or sour
added water in
1:179
1:52
aftertaste
1:179
astringent
1:179
bitter
1:180
buffering capacity
composition
1:58
1:5
cow
2:23
goat
2:23
mare
2:23
sheep
2:23
water buffalo
2:23
cooked
1:180
cowy
1:181
defects
1:175
definition of
density of
effect of feed on composition
1:42
1:2
1:4
1:49
1:51
2:23
1:6
fat content
1:176
feed
1:181
flat
1:182
foreign
1:182
garlic/onion (weedy)
1:182
judging tips
1:176
lacks freshness
1:183
malty
1:183
2:8
2:11
3:461
Index terms
Links
Milk (Continued)
nutrient composition of
1:5
oxidized (light-induced)
1:184
oxidized (metal-induced)
1:183
plasma, definition of
rancid
1:4
1:184
recombination of
1:44
salt content
1:29
salty
1:185
score card
1:177
scoring guide
1:176
seasonal variation
1:7
serum, definition of
1:4
solids
2:8
2:9
2:23
solids-not-fat
2:8
2:9
2:12
3:5
3:6
3:8
3:33
3:51
3:60
3:64
3:34
3:57
3:61
3:65
3:43
3:59
3:62
3:14
3:23
3:27
3:6
3:32
unclean
viscosity of
Milk
buttermilk
chocolate milk
1:185
1:50
concentrated milk
3:51
cultured milk
3:26
3:51
3:6
3:8
3:14
3:44
3:57
3:51
3:52
3:29
3:57
3:61
3:62
3:69
evaporated milk
goat milk
3:50
3:462
Index terms
Links
Milk (Continued)
Grade A milk
3:13
3:19
3:27
3:32
3:54
3:55
3:57
3:14
3:23
3:27
3:29
3:57
2:276
1:18
analysis
1:5
autoxidation of
1:24
chemical properties of
1:18
composition of
1:18
crystallization of
1:20
1:56
1:22
1:23
1:48
density of
1:49
lipolysis of
1:22
physical properties of
1:19
rancidity of
1:22
1:41
aggregation
1:48
destabilization of
1:48
size
1:46
stability of
1:46
1:3
1:51
1:22
1:44
3:20
Milk powder
2:271
high-heat
2:272
low-heat
2:272
bulk density
2:277
2:274
history of production
2:258
3:42
1:41
3:463
Index terms
Links
2:286
instant
2:258
modified
2:286
2:278
particle structure
2:276
recovery
2:277
3:305
2:257
2:278
Milk proteins
classification
1:9
composition of
1:9
Milk replacer
Minerals, measurement
3:9
1:102
Minerals
1:2
Minerals
3:53
calcium
Miscellaneous ingredients for ice cream
3:53
1:29
3:54
3:57
2:92
1:243
2:127
2:127
mix packaging
2:129
2:108
2:121
pasteurization
1:8
2:121
assembly of ingredients
2:121
batch pasteurization
2:123
continuous pasteurization
2:123
2:124
pasteurization
2:122
homogenization
2:125
3:464
Index terms
Links
2:127
homogenization temperature
2:125
homogenizing pressure
2:126
2:125
2:127
2:127
mix packaging
2:129
2:92
algebraic method
2:100
2:108
2:104
2:94
simplest case
2:93
2:286
Mold, butter
1:213
2:224
blue cheese
2:224
brie cheese
2:226
camembert cheese
2:226
and microbiology
2:382
2:226
2:181
Penicillium camemberti
2:181
Penicillium roqueforti
2:181
1:237
Monilia
2:384
Moraxella
2:308
2:324
Mottled
butter
1:213
cheddar cheese
1:242
3:465
Index terms
Links
2:205
2:227
2:92
2:322
Musty
butter
1:207
cottage cheese
1:193
Mycobacterium
2:318
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
2:318
2:349
2:350
fate of aflatoxin 1
2:355
elimination
2:356
regulation
2:358
N
Nanofiltration of protein processing
1:330
3:52
3:42
3:13
3:49
3:40
3:64
3:12
2:10
3:55
3:25
2:231
3:69
Neutralizer
butter
1:207
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
3:466
Index terms
Links
Neutralizer (Continued)
dry milk
1:272
2:63
2:11
2:120
1:227
Nose
1:162
Nutrition
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990
2:21
3:3
3:52
3:34
3:52
2:24
Nutritional changes
carbohydrates
2:41
lipids
2:43
postfermentation
2:51
prefermentation
2:39
proteins
2:43
Nutritional labeling
3:34
analytical methods
3:54
3:53
descriptors
3:54
federal preemption
3:54
food categories
3:53
health claims
3:54
label format
3:55
nutrient content
3:53
3:53
serving sizes
3:53
Nutritional properties
Nuts
3:52
3:68
3:57
3:58
2:39
2:5
O
Obesumbacterium
2:308
3:467
Index terms
Links
Office/laboratories/toilets/lockers, etc.
3:307
1:208
Old ingredient
ice cream
1:221
yogurt
1:261
Olfactory tissue
Optical properties
Organ of corti
1:158
1:60
1:158
3:4
Organoleptic attributes
3:3
destruction of flavor
3:15
1:162
3:36
3:9
3:18
3:66
3:8
3:14
Osmoanabiosis
2:267
Osmosis, reverse
2:265
1:195
2:271
1:55
Oxidized
butter
1:208
ice cream
1:222
yogurt
1:261
Oxidized
light-induced, milk
1:184
metal-induced, milk
1:183
1:193
P
P. brevicompactum
2:355
2:289
3:468
Index terms
Links
P. camemberti
2:355
P. crustosum
2:383
P. cyclopium
2:354
P. expansum
2:335
P. fluorescens
2:322
P. fragi
2:322
P. frequentans
2:384
P. maltophilia
2:307
P. putida
2:382
P. roqueforti
2:355
2:354
2:355
P. viridicatum
2:358
3:21
3:64
3:8
3:9
Packaging
functional needs
3:60
2:278
in cans
2:270
in inert atmosphere
2:278
2:270
materials testing
3:62
of casein powder
2:294
of milk powder
2:278
2:270
2:266
3:22
3:296
3:60
in bags
packaging materials
2:325
3:33
2:294
2:278
3:52
2:278
3:13
3:52
3:58
3:469
Index terms
Links
Packaging (Continued)
See also aseptic packaging, packaged weight control
Paperboard packaging
3:323
Parmesan cheese
2:201
2:228
Particles (dark)
assembly of ingredients
2:12
assurance of adequacy
1:139
batch pasteurization
2:123
continuous pasteurization
2:123
dry milk
1:273
2:124
2:269
2:290
pasteurization
Pasteur, Louis
3:12
Pasteurization
2:121
2:122
3:4
3:5
3:11
3:22
3:26
3:67
3:6
3:12
3:23
3:29
3:7
3:19
3:25
3:57
3:50
conditions
3:14
batch pasteurization
3:15
blanching
3:14
3:15
3:15
3:13
3:18
3:63
3:66
definition of
3:13
labeling requirements
3:50
2:379
3:470
Index terms
Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO)
Links
2:10
3:24
3:37
3:40
3:50
3:63
Pasty
cheddar cheese
1:241
cottage cheese
1:196
2:342
Bacillus cereus
2:348
Campylobacter jejuni
2:346
2:348
Escherichia coli
2:347
Listeria monocytogenes
2:344
2:349
Yersinia enterocolitica
2:346
2:180
Penicillium
2:322
Penicilliwn camemberti
2:181
Penicillium roqueforti
2:181
2:3
2:47
2:67
2:289
3:48
Pesticides
milk quality
1:147
measurement
1:114
pH
2:186
and cleaning
3:234
2:192
casein production
2:293
coprecipitates
2:296
2:234
propagation of cultures
2:194
3:471
Index terms
Links
pH (Continued)
starter cultures
2:364
Phage-free starters
2:196
2:365
Phosphatase
detection
test
1:139
2:10
Phosphates in milk
2:262
1:159
Physicochemical properties
1:280
Pichia
2:322
3:195
installation
3:196
3:199
3:195
2:114
3:326
2:39
3:47
3:296
construction considerations
3:297
construction materials
3:300
3:297
floor
3:302
foundation type
3:301
framing concept
3:301
roof design
3:302
social concern
3:300
3:298
type of business
3:297
3:299
3:472
Index terms
Links
3:303
design
3:296
layout
3:303
discharge dock
3:306
3:305
3:306
3:305
office/laboratories/toilets/lockers, etc.
3:307
3:304
3:305
storage tanks
3:305
2:151
1:18
Plasmolysis
2:259
Plastic packaging
3:325
3:33
Polysaccharides
2:43
3:181
2:32
Potassium sorbate
1:41
2:335
Powder
agglomerated lactose
2:298
dried casein
2:294
2:278
Preheating of milk
2:262
2:112
Preservatives
2:10
2:74
3:319
Process control
3:121
3:136
3:473
Index terms
Links
3:304
2:229
2:231
emulsifiers
2:231
heat treatment
2:234
2:234
Processing engineering
3:307
3:307
3:309
3:310
3:310
pasteurization
3:312
UHT processing
3:313
material handling
3:318
3:319
principles of homogenization
3:316
Processing of protein
1:325
Product
3:327
2:146
Product packaging
3:320
aseptic packaging
3:321
institutional containers
3:325
materials
3:322
paperboard packaging
3:323
plastic packaging
3:325
3:320
regulations
3:326
3:326
product
3:327
Product recall
Programmable logic controllers
3:66
3:121
3:127
3:123
3:121
3:125
3:474
Index terms
Proliferation of new products
Links
3:69
1:282
2:180
Propionibacterium
2:316
Proportional-integral-derivative
3:124
2:134
Protein
1:277
2:21
2:23
2:43
3:22
3:57
3:9
3:38
3:69
3:2
3:53
analysis of
1:5
components in milk
1:280
composition
1:280
dispersed systems
1:309
dispersions
1:292
1:325
effects on caseins
1:325
1:328
1:309
flavor binding
1:324
functional properties
1:278
gelling properties
1:297
globular proteins
1:297
hydration/rehydration properties
1:284
in condensed milk
2:271
1:303
measurement
2:317
1:98
1:329
nanofiltration
1:330
physicochemical properties
1:280
processing
1:325
1:282
3:475
Index terms
Links
Protein (Continued)
protein-protein interactions
1:292
protein-surface interactions
1:302
reverse osmosis
1:330
rheological behavior
1:292
single cell
2:289
solubility
1:289
stability of
2:266
water-protein interactions
1:282
ultrafiltration
1:331
2:286
1:292
Protein-surface interactions
1:302
Proteins
and Gouda cheese
2:224
2:222
Proteolysis
in cheese
2:212
of caseins
2:211
2:362
Proteus vulgaris
2:332
Protoplast fusion
3:87
Pseudomonas
2:303
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2:332
Pseudomonas fluorescens
2:307
Pseudomonas fragi
2:307
Pseudomonas sp.
2:324
Psychrotrophs
2:321
Pumps
3:179
centrifugal pumps
2:322
3:181
2:325
3:476
Index terms
Links
Pumps (Continued)
efficiency
3:188
3:181
3:187
selection factors
3:187
Q
Quality
assurance
control
3:3
3:68
2:36
3:3
3:37
3:144
defect analysis
3:142
energy
3:113
3:127
3:13
3:7
environment
fouling
frozen yogurt
3:145
2:39
3:138
pathogen
3:144
3:138
refrigerated yogurt
2:36
sensory evaluation
3:112
3:147
3:133
3:134
definition of
standards
3:3
2:259
condensed milk
2:267
2:273
2:259
1:174
scales
1:173
spider diagram
1:174
terms
1:172
3:148
3:477
Index terms
Links
R
Ragged boring, butter
1:212
Rancid
butter
1:208
cheddar cheese
1:237
cottage cheese
1:193
cultured products
1:249
ice cream
1:222
milk
1:184
yogurt
1:262
Rancidity, lipolytic
2:266
Ranking
1:168
2:370
2:376
Raw milk
3:6
3:20
3:27
3:67
antibiotics
3:11
3:27
3:11
3:11
flavor
3:9
3:11
3:11
3:11
quality
3:9
sediment
3:12
3:11
3:27
3:9
temperature
3:12
3:27
3:11
3:27
3:305
2:285
3:21
3:478
Index terms
Links
1:61
3:326
3:326
product
3:327
Regulatory limits
3:33
Rennet (rennin)
3:21
3:51
3:22
3:60
3:32
3:68
3:148
experimental design
3:147
intelligent database
3:146
product development
3:147
2:153
2:153
2:155
2:156
2:104
Retentate
2:289
Retina
1:158
1:158
Reverse osmosis
2:265
of protein processing
1:164
2:271
1:330
Rhanella
2:308
1:292
Rhizopus
2:322
Rhodotorula
2:318
Ricketsiaceae
2:311
Ripened cheese
2:164
2:322
2:289
3:479
Index terms
Links
2:228
3:302
Ropy
cultured products
1:251
yogurt
1:264
Rowland fractionation
1:9
S
S. agalactiae
2:312
2:313
S. aureus
2:312
2:330
S. cremoris
2:312
2:313
S. diacetylactis
2:313
S. dysgalactiae
2:312
S. enteritidis
2:309
S. faecium
2:350
S. lactis
2:313
S. paratyphi
2:334
S. pyogenes
2:313
S. salivarius subsp.
2:313
S. seftenberg
2:310
S. thermophilus
2:313
2:333
S. thyphimurium
2:329
2:332
S. zooepidemicus
2:313
Saccharomyces
2:318
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
2:383
Saccharomyces spp.
2:341
2:313
2:322
3:35
3:238
Salmonella
2:305
enteritidis
2:309
2:332
2:307
2:334
3:480
Index terms
Links
Salmonella (Continued)
typhi
2:309
Salt
and cheese
3:3
3:21
3:30
3:32
3:38
3:60
3:40
3:42
3:11
3:41
3:13
3:65
2:210
3:54
3:54
3:35
sodium descriptors
3:54
sodium labeling
3:53
2:266
2:266
1:191
cultured products
1:250
ice cream
1:222
milk
1:185
Sampling
1:86
butter
1:88
cheese
1:88
dry products
1:88
factors affecting
1:86
liquid products
1:87
1:226
Sanitary Standards
criteria for processing equipment
Sanitation
3:3
3:43
3:226
3:3
3:20
3:68
3:45
3:481
Index terms
Links
Sanitation (Continued)
cleaning of equipment
3:43
3:20
maintenance of equipment
3:46
materials of construction
3:41
3:36
3:42
3:237
3:44
acid-anionic surfacants
3:45
chlorine compounds
3:45
hypochlorites
iodophors
quaternary ammonium compounds
3:8
3:45
3:8
3:43
3:45
Scorched
butter
1:209
dry milk
1:268
1:242
light
1:242
Sediment, measurement
1:106
Self-tuning controllers
3:124
Senses, the
1:158
further subclassified
1:158
hearing
1:158
modality
1:158
sight
1:158
smell
1:158
taste
1:158
threshold
1:158
1:163
touch
1:158
1:167
1:146
3:45
3:482
Index terms
Sensory evaluation
Links
3:9
1:168
1:166
Serratia
2:324
Serratia marcescens
2:311
2:94
1:197
Shelf life
3:18
3:62
3:66
test
2:378
Sherbert
3:3
2:117
Shigella
2:334
Shigella dysenteriae
2:334
3:22
3:63
3:29
3:65
3:32
Short
butter
1:212
cheddar cheese
1:241
Shrunken, yogurt
1:267
Sight
1:163
color vision
1:164
Simulation
3:125
3:145
modeling
3:143
optimization
3:131
2:292
Smell
1:162
sniffing
1:163
olfactory
1:162
olfactory epithelium
1:162
trigeminal
1:162
3:127
3:146
3:143
3:483
Index terms
Links
3:300
Sodium caseinate
2:294
in imitation milk
2:286
industrial use of
2:295
Sodium chloride
butter
1:142
cheese
1:143
cryoscope
1:106
mastitis
1:116
2:295
1:226
3:298
Solubility of protein
1:289
Somatic cells
1:8
freezing point
1:106
measurement
1:115
1:144
Sour, milk
1:179
Specialty equipment
3:241
butter manufacture
3:254
continuous churning
3:255
cream preparation
3:254
packaging
3:256
traditional churning
3:254
cheese
3:256
3:258
cheese vats
3:257
cheesemaking systems
3:256
general processes
3:256
processed cheese
3:261
3:484
Index terms
Links
3:261
3:277
cottage cheese
3:277
3:281
3:281
yogurt
3:279
high-temperature processing
3:281
3:241
batch freezers
3:247
3:250
continuous freezers
3:249
mix freezing
3:246
mix preparation
3:242
novelty equipment
3:250
membrane separation
3:288
1:242
Sporobolomyces
2:382
Sporolactobacillus
2:314
Spray drying
2:275
advantages of
2:278
atomization of milk
2:276
cyclone separators
2:277
flow of air
2:276
fluid bed
2:279
industrial applications of
2:278
nitrosamines in
2:276
of infant formulas
2:282
of sodium casemate
2:295
scrubbers
2:276
temperature regimen
2:276
three-stage procedure
2:279
3:485
Index terms
Stability of milk, thermal
Links
2:260
Stabilizer action
2:87
Stabilizers
2:29
2:31
2:82
1:269
Standardization of milk
2:265
2:271
2:267
2:273
2:270
3:14
3:54
3:33
3:58
3:37
Standards of identity
Staphylococcus aureus
2:312
2:182
agglutination
2:185
antibiotic
2:186
bacteriocins
2:182
heat treatment
2:185
hydrogen peroxide
2:183
lactoperoxidase/thiocyanate/H/2O/2 system
2:183
lipolysis
2:182
pH
2:186
2:191
2:192
aseptic techniques
2:192
2:193
2:192
concentrated cultures
2:191
external pH control
2:195
general comments
2:196
2:196
history
2:191
internal pH control
2:195
temperature effect
pH-controlled propagation of cultures
Starter culture systems
2:195
2:194
2:187
3:486
Index terms
Links
2:359
2:362
2:362
2:363
2:363
pH control systems
2:364
2:365
2:362
2:362
genetic engineering
2:366
2:365
terminology
2:359
2:174
2:192
aseptic techniques
2:192
2:193
2:192
2:192
2:13
production
Statistics
2:20
3:64
Sterilization
of cans
2:266
of concentrated milk
2:266
Sticky, butter
1:212
2:200
Stokes Equation
1:47
Storage
butter
1:209
ice cream
1:223
3:487
Index terms
Links
Storage
of milk powder
2:278
2:266
Storage tanks
3:305
Streaky, butter
1:213
Streptococcus
2:312
Streptococcus lactis
2:362
2:178
Streptococcus thermophilus
Streptomyces natalaensis
2:7
2:14
2:324
2:11
2:16
2:12
2:20
2:334
2:75
Successes in biotechnology
3:78
3:84
3:80
bacteriophage resistance
3:83
3:79
Sucrose
2:313
2:79
Sugar
addition to milk
2:267
sugar index
2:269
sugar number
2:269
Sugar
3:3
2:269
3:25
3:53
Sulfamethazine
3:7
Sulfhydryl compounds
antioxidative properties of
2:266
inactivation of
2:273
1:238
1:214
Surface excess
1:44
3:30
3:488
Index terms
Links
Surface tension
1:56
Surface tension
2:266
Swallowing
1:179
Sweet casein
2:292
Sweeteners
2:5
2:20
2:8
2:25
2:19
2:28
Sweeteners
3:23
3:32
3:25
3:60
3:26
3:69
2:76
2:267
Swiss cheese
2:201
2:219
CO2 production
2:220
eye formation
2:221
fate of lactose
2:220
fate of proteins
2:222
2:222
1:223
T
Tallowy, butter
Tanford transition
1:210
1:14
Tanks
3:160
Taste
1:159
bitter
1:158
1:161
filiform papillae
1:160
foliate papillae
1:160
fungiform papillae
1:160
papillae
1:160
1:160
3:489
Index terms
Links
Taste (Continued)
qualities
1:160
1:162
salt
1:160
salty
1:158
sour
1:158
1:160
sweet
1:158
1:160
taste buds
1:159
tongue
1:160
vallate papillae
1:160
Taste buds
1:158
Tatumella
2:308
Taxonomy
2:15
Tempering, of casein
2:294
2:359
Texture nomenclature
1:173
Thermal conductivity
1:60
3:40
Thickening, of milk
2:269
Titratable acidity
1:58
Titratable acidity
2:8
1:160
2:270
2:10
3:33
Too firm
cultured products
1:252
yogurt
1:265
1:227
1:223
1:228
1:224
1:252
2:11
3:490
Index terms
Links
Tools
3:119
3:121
Torulopsis species
2:318
2:322
Total solids
content of sodium casemate
2:295
drying methods
1:96
infra-red method
1:97
1:96
measurement, butter
1:141
measurement, cheese
1:141
Touch
1:166
kinesthesis
1:166
somesthesis
1:166
Training
3:117
3:132
3:150
3:127
3:149
3:88
electroporation
3:88
3:89
Trends in consumption
2:4
Trichoderma
2:358
Trichosporon
2:322
Trigeminal nerves
1:162
Tuberculosis
3:119
3:135
3:5
3:14
1:40
2:25
U
UHT
processing
3:313
2:207
Ultrafiltration
2:271
3:69
3:35
2:386
3:43
3:491
Index terms
Links
Ultrafiltration (Continued)
asymmetric membranes
2:289
fouling of membranes
2:290
2:267
of protein processing
1:331
2:290
2:389
3:33
3:109
3:120
3:116
3:127
3:117
3:144
Unclean
cheddar cheese
1:238
cottage cheese
1:194
cultured products
1:250
milk
1:185
yogurt
1:263
Unclean/utensil, butter
1:210
1:243
Unit operations
3:121
clean-in-place
3:122
evaporator
3:122
3:136
thermal processing
3:122
3:144
3:21
3:35
1:214
ice cream
1:228
Unnatural flavoring
ice cream
1:224
yogurt
1:263
3:54
3:492
Index terms
USDA grades
Utilities and processing plant
Links
3:14
3:35
3:299
V
Vanilla flavor and ice cream
2:134
Vapor
recompression
2:265
secondary
2:264
Vibrio cholerae
2:308
Viruses
2:318
Viscosity
1:50
2:273
low-viscosity casein
2:310
2:266
2:268
1:26
2:9
3:16
1:28
2:21
3:32
2:292
Vitamins
1:4
1:101
2:44
3:53
niacin
3:16
riboflavin
3:16
3:57
vitamin A
3:16
3:29
3:53
3:57
3:32
vitamin B-12
3:16
vitamin C
3:16
3:53
3:57
vitamin D
3:29
3:32
3:57
3:40
3:65
W
Walls and doors of processing plant
Warehousing and shipping
3:303
3:22
1:105
1:282
1:229
Wavy, butter
1:213
3:493
Index terms
Links
Weak
butter
1:213
cheddar cheese
1:241
ice cream
1:226
yogurt
1:265
1:196
Whey
butter
1:210
ice cream
1:224
Whey
2:8
2:286
3:23
3:34
3:43
3:37
3:40
Centri
2:298
in lactose production
2:298
modified
powder
2:8
2:286
hygroscopicity of
2:289
particles
2:289
protein concentrate
2:30
demineralized
2:289
proteins
2:289
2:289
1:14
primary structure
1:14
secondary structure
1:14
sweet
2:290
1:238
Wheyed-off
cultured products
1:253
ice cream
1:229
Whipped toppings
3:58
Whipping
1:49
3:39
3:494
Index terms
Links
X
Xanthine oxidase
2:331
Y
Yarrowia lipolytica
Yeasts
2:383
3:27
3:32
3:44
3:31
3:32
3:51
Yersinia enterocolitica
2:310
2:334
2:346
Yersinia pestis
2:310
Yield, of casein
2:293
Yogurt
1:254
2:1
3:32
3:48
and molds
2:318
Yeasty
butter
1:211
cheddar cheese
1:239
cottage cheese
1:194
cultured products
1:250
yogurt
1:263
Yellow No. 5
3:65
acetaldehyde
1:254
atypical color
1:265
bitter
1:258
cardboard
1:261
color leaching
1:265
composition
2:7
cooked
1:258
2:384
definition
1:254
descnption
2:8
excess fruit
1:266
foreign
1:258
2:7
3:495
Index terms
Links
Yogurt (Continued)
free whey
frozen
1:266
2:7
fruit flavored
2:32
fruit-on-the-bottom
2:31
gellike
1:264
grainy
1:264
high acid
1:259
1:259
lacks flavoring
1:259
lacks freshness
1:260
lacks fruit
1:266
lacks sweetness
1:260
light
2:29
2:10
low acid
2:11
1:261
low-fat
2:6
lumpy
1:267
making
1:254
manufacture equipment
3:279
metallic
1:261
2:9
2:13
nomenclature
2:9
2:12
2:13
nonfat
2:6
2:10
2:13
nutrient profile
2:7
old ingredient
1:261
oxidized
1:261
plain
2:32
plant design
2:24
processes
3:25
rancid
1:262
regulatory aspects
2:8
refrigerated
2:4
3:496
Index terms
Links
Yogurt (Continued)
ropy
1:264
score card
1:255
scoring
1:254
scoring guide
1:256
shrunken
1:267
soft serve
2:5
standard of identity
2:8
stirred type
2:31
starters
2:13
2:31
too firm
1:265
1:262
too sweet
1:262
unclean
1:263
unnatural flavoring
1:263
weak
1:265
yeasty
1:263
1:257
2:12
Z
Zeta potential
1:38
1:40