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Dairy Science and

Technology Handbook
1 Principles and Properties
Y. K Hui
EDITOR

VCH

Dairy Science and


Technology Handbook
2 Product Manufacturing
Y. H. Hui
EDITOR

VCH

Dairy Science and


Technology Handbook
3 Applications Science,
Technology, and Engineering
Y. K Hui
EDITOR

VCH

Dr. Y. H. Hui
3006 4 4 S " Street
Eureka, California 95501
U.S.A.

A NOTC TO THE READER:


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Copyright O 1993 by Wiley-VCH, Inc.


Originally published as ISBN 1 -56081 -078-5
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
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Printed in the United States of America.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Dairy science and technology handbook / editor, Y.H. Hui.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56081-078-5
1. Dairy processing.
2. Dairy products.
I. Hui, Y. H. (Yiu H.)
SF250.5.D35
1992
637dc20
92-30191

PREFACE

Although there are many professional reference books on the science and technology
of processing dairy products, this 3-volume set is unique in its coverage (topics
selected, emphasis, and latest development) and its authors (experts with diversified
background and experience).
Volume I discusses four important properties and applications of milk and dairy
ingredients: chemistry and physics, analyses, sensory evaluation, and protein. Each
chapter is not a comprehensive treatment of the subject, since more than one reference book has been written on each of the four disciplines. Rather, each chapter
discusses the basic information in reasonable details that are supplemented by new
research data and advances. This assures that each chapter contributes new information not available in many reference books already published.
Volume II discusses the manufacture technology for yogurt, ice cream, cheese,
and dry and concentrated dairy products. The direction of each chapter is carefully
designed to provide two types of information. Each chapter details the currently
accepted procedures of manufacturing the product and then explores new advances
in technology and their potential impact on the processing of such products in the
future. The fifth chapter in this volume discusses microbiology and associated health
hazards for dairy products. The goal of this chapter is obvious, since there are so
much new information on this topic in the last few years. The authors have done an
excellent job in reviewing available data on this highly visible field.
Volume III is unique because it covers five topics not commonly found in professional reference books for dairy manufacture: quality assurance, biotechnology, computer application, equipment and supplies, and processing plant designs. The length

of each chapter is limited by the size of the book. As a result, I assume full responsibility for any missing details since I assigned a fixed length to each chapter.
The appendix to Volume I alphabetically lists products and services in the dairy
industry. Under each product or service, the appendix describes the names of companies that provide those products and services. In Volume III, the appendix provides
information for each company listed in Volume I. This includes contact data and the
types of products and services for each company. The appendixes for Volumes I and
III are not repeated in Volume II in order to assure a reasonable price for the books.
As for the expertise of the authors, you are the best judge since most of them are
known among scientists, technologists, and engineers in the dairy discipline.
This three-volume set is a reference book and will benefit dairy professionals in
government, industry, and academia. The information is useful to individuals engaged in research, manufacturing, and teaching. In general, the texts form an excellent background source for professionals who just enter the field. For expert dairy
professionals, these books serve as a subject review as well as a summary of what
is new. Any chapter in the three volumes can be used as a supplement material for
a class teaching a specific topic in or an overview of the science and technology of
processing diary products.
Y.H. Hui
October 1992

Contributors

Genevieve L. Christen, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of


Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37901-1071, U.S.A.
H. D. Goff, Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario
NlG 2Wl, Canada
A. R. Hill, Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario
NlG 2Wl, Canada
Lynn V. Ogden, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, U.S.A.
Paul Paquin, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Laval,
Quebec, Province of Quebec, GlK 7P4, Canada
Olivier Robin, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Laval,
Quebec, Province of Quebec, GlK 7P4, Canada
Sylvie Turgeon, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Laval,
Quebec, Province of Quebec, GlK 7P4, Canada

Contributors

Marijana Caric, Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, 2100 Novi Sad,
Bulevar, Yugoslavia
Ramesh C. Chandan, James Ford Bell Technical Center, General Mills, Inc., 9000
Plymouth Avenue North, Minneapolis, MN 55427, U.S.A.
Maribeth A. Cousin, Department of Food Science, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN
47906, U.S.A.
Rafael Jimenez-Flores, Agricultural Bioprocessing Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801-4726, U.S.A.
Norman J. Klipfel, Baskin-Robbins International Company, Glendale, CA, U.S.A.
K. Rajinder Nath, Kraft General Foods, 801 Waukegan Road, Glenview, IL 60025,
U.S.A.
Khem Shahani, Department of Food Science and Technology, Food Industry Complex, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0919, U.S.A.
Joseph Tobias, Agricultural Bioprocessing Laboratory University of Illinois, Urbana,
IL 61801-4726, U.S.A.
P.C. Vasavada, Department of Animal and Food Science, University of Wisconsin,
River Falls, WI 54022

Contributors

Jeffrey R. Broadbent, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-8100, U.S.A.
Vance Caudill, Lockwood Greene Engineers, Inc., Spartanburg, SC 29304, U.S.A.
Thomas Gilmore, Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, 6245 Executive
Boulevard Drive, Rockville, MD 20852-3938, U.S.A.
Jeffrey K. Kondo, Marschall Products, Rhone-Poulenc, Inc., 601 Science Drive,
Madison, WI 53711, U.S.A.
Robert L. Olsen, Department of Research and Development, Schreiber Foods, Inc.,
Green Bay, WI 54307-9010, U.S.A.
Jim Shell, Consultant, Ellicott City, MD 21043, U.S.A.
John E. Stauffer, Stauffer Technology, 6 Pecksland Road, Greenwich, CT 06831,
U.S.A.

Contents

Preface .............................................................................

vii

Contributors (Volume 1.) ..................................................

ix

Contributors (Volume 2.) ..................................................

Contributors (Volume 3.) ..................................................

xi

Volume 1. Principles and Properties


1.

Chemistry and Physics ..............................................

1:1

1.1

Introduction ...................................................................

1:2

1.2

Composition .................................................................

1:5

1.2.1

Proteins .......................................................

1:9

1.2.2

Lipids ...........................................................

1:18

1.2.3

Lactose ........................................................

1:26

1.2.4

Minor Components ......................................

1:28

Structure .......................................................................

1:30

1.3.1

Casein Micelles ...........................................

1:30

1.3.2

Fat Globules ................................................

1:41

Physical Properties ......................................................

1:49

1.4.1

Density ........................................................

1:49

1.4.2

Viscosity ......................................................

1:50

1.4.3

Freezing Point .............................................

1:52

1.3

1.4

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vi

Contents
1.4.4

Electrochemistry ..........................................

1:54

1.4.5

Surface Tension ..........................................

1:56

1.4.6

Acid-Base Equilibria .....................................

1:57

1.4.7

Heat Capacity and Thermal


Conductivity .................................................

1:60

Optical Properties ........................................

1:60

1.5

Summary ......................................................................

1:61

1.6

Future Developments ...................................................

1:62

1.7

References ...................................................................

1:62

Analyses ....................................................................

1:83

2.1

1:85

1.4.8

2.

Introduction ...................................................................
2.1.1

2.2

2.3

Purpose of Analysis of Dairy


Products ......................................................

1:85

2.1.2

Sources of Additional Information ................

1:86

2.1.3

Types of Analyses .......................................

1:86

Sampling ......................................................................

1:86

2.2.1

General Comments ......................................

1:86

2.2.2

Sampling of Liquid Products ........................

1:87

2.2.3

Sampling of Dry Products ............................

1:88

2.2.4

Sampling of Butter .......................................

1:88

2.2.5

Sampling of Cheese ....................................

1:88

Tests for Milk Composition ...........................................

1:89

2.3.1

Fat ...............................................................

1:89

2.3.2

Total Solids ..................................................

1:96

2.3.3

Protein .........................................................

1:98

2.3.4

Lactose ........................................................

1:99

2.3.5

Ash ..............................................................

1:101

2.3.6

Vitamins .......................................................

1:101

2.3.7

Minerals .......................................................

1:102

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Contents
2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

Tests for Milk Quality ....................................................

1:102

2.4.1

Titratable Acidity ..........................................

1:102

2.4.2

Added Water ................................................

1:105

2.4.3

Sediment .....................................................

1:106

2.4.4

Antibiotics ....................................................

1:107

2.4.5

Acid Degree Value .......................................

1:112

2.4.6

Iodine and Hypochlorites .............................

1:113

2.4.7

Aflatoxins .....................................................

1:113

2.4.8

Pesticides ....................................................

1:114

Tests for Abnormal Milk ...............................................

1:115

2.5.1

Cow-Side Tests .........................................

1:115

2.5.2

Wisconsin Mastitis Test ...............................

1:116

2.5.3

Somatic Cell Count ......................................

1:117

Microbiological Methods ..............................................

1:120

2.6.1

Aerobic Plate Count .....................................

1:121

2.6.2

Coliform Count .............................................

1:126

2.6.3

Tests for Specific Spoilage Bacteria ............

1:131

2.6.4

Tests for Specific Pathogenic


Bacteria .......................................................

1:135

Selected Analytical Techniques for Dairy


Products .......................................................................

1:139

2.7.1

2.8

vii

Assurance of Adequate
Pasteurization ..............................................

1:139

2.7.2

Total Solids in Butter and Cheese ................

1:141

2.7.3

Salt in Butter and Cheese ............................

1:142

2.7.4

Sorbic Acid in Cheese .................................

1:144

2.7.5

Overrun in Frozen Dairy Desserts ................

1:145

Sensory Analysis ..........................................................

1:146

2.8.1

Sensory vs. Chemical and


Microbiological Methods ..............................

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1:146

viii

Contents
2.9

3.

Summary ......................................................................

1:148

2.10 Future Developments ...................................................

1:148

2.11 References ...................................................................

1:149

Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products .......................

1:157

3.1

The Senses ..................................................................

1:158

3.1.1

Introduction ..................................................

1:158

3.1.2

Taste ...........................................................

1:159

3.1.3

Smell ...........................................................

1:162

3.1.4

Sight ............................................................

1:163

3.1.5

Hearing ........................................................

1:165

3.1.6

Touch ..........................................................

1:166

Sensory Evaluation Techniques ..................................

1:166

3.2.1

Introduction ..................................................

1:166

3.2.2

Affective Testing ..........................................

1:168

3.2.3

Discrimination Testing .................................

1:170

3.2.4

Descriptive Analysis .....................................

1:171

Application of Sensory Analysis to Dairy


Products .......................................................................

1:174

3.2

3.3

3.3.1
3.4

3.5

The Philosophy of Judging of Dairy


Products ......................................................

1:175

Descriptive Sensory Defects of Dairy Products ...........

1:175

3.4.1

Fluid Milk and Cream ...................................

1:175

3.4.2

Cottage Cheese ...........................................

1:185

3.4.3

Butter ...........................................................

1:198

3.4.4

Ice Cream and Related Products .................

1:214

3.4.5

Cheese ........................................................

1:229

3.4.6

Cultured Products ........................................

1:243

3.4.7

Yogurt ..........................................................

1:254

3.4.8

Dry Milk .......................................................

1:267

References ...................................................................

1:274

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Contents
4.

ix

Functional Properties of Milk Proteins .......................

1:277

4.1

Introduction ...................................................................

1:278

4.2

Composition and Principal Physicochemical


Properties of Major Milk Proteins .................................

1:280

4.2.1

Major Protein Components in Milk ...............

1:280

4.2.2

Principal Physicochemical Properties


of Milk Proteins ............................................

1:281

Major Functional Properties of Milk


Proteins ........................................................................

1:282

4.3.1

Water-Protein Interactions ...........................

1:282

4.3.2

Protein-Protein Interactions .........................

1:292

4.3.3

Protein-Surface Interactions ........................

1:302

Some Selected Processing Effects on the


Functional Properties of Major Milk Proteins ...............

1:325

4.4.1

Effects of Heat Treatments ..........................

1:325

4.4.2

Membrane Separation Processes ................

1:329

4.5

Conclusion ....................................................................

1:332

4.6

Acknowledgments ........................................................

1:333

4.7

References ...................................................................

1:334

Appendix: Product Listing .................................................

1:355

Advertising to Instantizers/Agglomerators ............................

1:355

Instruments to X-Ray Inspection ...........................................

1:385

4.3

4.4

Volume 2. Product Manufacturing


1.

Yogurt ........................................................................

2:1

1.1

Introduction ...................................................................

2:2

1.2

Definition of Yogurt .......................................................

2:7

1.2.1

Standard of Identity and Regulatory


Aspects of Yogurt ........................................

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2:8

Contents
1.2.2

National Yogurt Association Criteria


for Live and Active Culture Yogurt ...............

2:10

Frozen Yogurt ..............................................

2:11

Yogurt Starters .............................................................

2:13

1.3.1

Taxonomy of Yogurt Bacteria ......................

2:15

1.3.2

Production of Yogurt Starters .......................

2:20

General Principles of Manufacture ..............................

2:22

1.4.1

Ingredients and Equipment ..........................

2:22

1.4.2

Mix Preparation ...........................................

2:25

1.4.3

Heat Treatment ............................................

2:25

1.4.4

Homogenization ...........................................

2:27

1.4.5

Fermentation ...............................................

2:27

1.4.6

Packaging ....................................................

2:27

Yogurt Production ........................................................

2:28

1.2.3
1.3

1.4

1.5

1.5.1

Yogurt Ingredients and Flavor,


Texture, and Rheological Aspects ...............

2:28

Yogurt Starter and Its Contribution to


Texture and Flavor .......................................

2:31

Manufacturing Procedures ...........................

2:32

Yogurt Quality Control ..................................................

2:36

1.6.1

Refrigerated Yogurt .....................................

2:36

1.6.2

Frozen Yogurt ..............................................

2:39

Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Health


Properties of Yogurt .....................................................

2:39

1.7.1

Prefermentation Changes ............................

2:39

1.7.2

Changes During Fermentation .....................

2:41

1.7.3

Postfermentation Changes ..........................

2:45

1.7.4

Prophylactic and Therapeutic


Properties ....................................................

2:45

References ...................................................................

2:54

1.5.2
1.5.3
1.6

1.7

1.8

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Contents
2.

xi

Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts ................................

2:57

2.1

2:59

Introduction ...................................................................
2.1.1

2.2

Steps in the Manufacture of Ice


Cream ..........................................................

2:59

2.1.2

Ice Cream as a "Generic" Name ..................

2:60

2.1.3

Government Regulations .............................

2:60

2.1.4

Types of Frozen Desserts ............................

2:61

Selection of Ingredient .................................................

2:61

2.2.1

Sources of Dairy Products ...........................

2:62

2.2.2

Nonconcentrated Milk Products ...................

2:63

2.2.3

Concentrated Milk Products .........................

2:67

2.2.4

Perishable Concentrated Milk


Products ......................................................

2:67

Dehydrated Concentrated Milk


Products ......................................................

2:69

2.2.6

Dry Whey .....................................................

2:73

2.2.7

Dried Buttermilk ...........................................

2:73

2.2.8

Other Dry Ingredients ..................................

2:74

2.2.9

Preserved Fluid Concentrated Milk


Products ......................................................

2:74

2.2.10 Frozen Concentrated Milk Products .............

2:75

2.2.11 Substitutes for Dairy Products .....................

2:75

2.2.12 Sweetening Agents ......................................

2:76

2.2.13 Sucrose .......................................................

2:79

2.2.14 Dextrose ......................................................

2:80

2.2.15 Corn Syrups .................................................

2:81

2.2.16 Honey ..........................................................

2:82

2.2.17 Stabilizers ....................................................

2:82

2.2.18 The Mode of Stabilizer Action ......................

2:87

2.2.19 Emulsifiers ...................................................

2:90

2.2.20 Miscellaneous Ingredients ...........................

2:92

2.2.5

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xii

Contents
2.3

Calculations and Mix Standardization .........................


2.3.1

Calculating MSNF in Skim Milk and


Cream ..........................................................

2:92

Standardization of Ice Cream Mixes


the Simplest Case ........................................

2:93

The Serum Point Method of Mix


Standardization ............................................

2:94

Algebraic Method of Mix


Standardization ............................................

2:100

Restandardizing a Mix of Erroneous


Composition .................................................

2:104

2.3.6

Mix Made in a Vacuum Pan .........................

2:108

2.3.7

Calculating Density and Degrees


Baume (Be) .................................................

2:109

Formulation ..................................................................

2:110

2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5

2.4

2.4.1

Premium and Superpremium


Products ......................................................

2:112

2.4.2

The "All-Natural" Designation ......................

2:113

2.4.3

Formulations for a Plain (White) Ice


Cream Mix ...................................................

2:114

Formulations for a Chocolate Ice


Cream Mix ...................................................

2:114

2.4.5

Fruit Ice Cream ............................................

2:115

2.4.6

Products Containing 2 to 7% Fat .................

2:116

2.4.7

Products Containing 0 to 2% Fat .................

2:117

2.4.8

Sherbets and Ices ........................................

2:117

2.4.9

Direct-Draw Shakes .....................................

2:118

2.4.10 Frozen Yogurt ..............................................

2:119

2.4.11 Other Frozen Desserts ................................

2:119

2.4.12 Nonstandardized Products ...........................

2:120

Mix Processing .............................................................

2:121

2.5.1

2:121

2.4.4

2.5

2:92

Pasteurization ..............................................

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Contents

xiii

2.5.2

Homogenization ...........................................

2:125

2.5.3

Mix Cooling and Storage ..............................

2:127

Flavoring of Frozen Desserts .......................................

2:129

2.6.1

Flavor Character and Intensity .....................

2:132

2.6.2

Quantity of Flavoring ....................................

2:133

2.6.3

Propriety Flavorings .....................................

2:134

2.6.4

Vanilla Flavor ...............................................

2:134

2.6.5

Chocolate Flavor .........................................

2:135

Freezing of the Mix .......................................................

2:136

2.7.1

Amount of Water Frozen ..............................

2:138

2.8

Ice Cream Hardening ...................................................

2:142

2.9

Defects of Ice Cream ...................................................

2:145

2.9.1

Defects Identified by Sight ...........................

2:146

2.9.2

Defective Container .....................................

2:146

2.9.3

Product Appearance ....................................

2:146

2.9.4

Meltdown Characteristics of Ice


Cream ..........................................................

2:146

2.9.5

Defects of Texture .......................................

2:147

2.9.6

Defects in Body ...........................................

2:147

2.9.7

Flavor Defects .............................................

2:147

2.9.8

Defects Contributed by the Dairy


Ingredients ...................................................

2:148

Defects Due to Mix Processing and


Storage ........................................................

2:149

2.9.10 Defects Due to Flavoring Materials ..............

2:149

2.9.11 Defects Due to Sweetening Agents .............

2:149

2.9.12 Defects Due to Storage of Ice Cream ..........

2:149

2.9.13 Defects of Frozen Dessert Novelties ............

2:150

2.10 Plant Management .......................................................

2:151

2.11 Active Areas of Research in Ice Cream .......................

2:153

2.11.1 Ice Cream Mix .............................................

2:153

2.6

2.7

2.9.9

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xiv

3.

Contents
2.11.2 Ice Cream Structure .....................................

2:155

2.11.3 Processing and Freezing .............................

2:156

2.12 References ...................................................................

2:157

Cheese ......................................................................

2:161

3.1

Introduction ...................................................................

2:163

3.1.1

Classification ...............................................

2:164

3.1.2

Cheese Production and Composition ...........

2:165

3.2

Heat Treatment of Milk for Cheesemaking ..................

2:169

3.3

Cheese Starter Cultures ..............................................

2:173

3.3.1

Types of Cultures ........................................

2:174

3.3.2

Leuconostoc ................................................

2:178

3.3.3

Streptococcus salivarius subsp.


Thermophilus ...............................................

2:178

3.3.4

Lactobacilli ...................................................

2:179

3.3.5

Lactobacilli Found During Cheese


Ripening ......................................................

2:179

3.3.6

Propionibacteria ...........................................

2:180

3.3.7

Pediococci ...................................................

2:180

3.3.8

Molds ...........................................................

2:181

Growth of Starter Bacteria in Milk ................................

2:182

3.4.1

Inhibitors of Starter Bacteria ........................

2:182

Starter Culture Systems ...............................................

2:187

3.5.1

Culture Systems ..........................................

2:188

Culture Production and Bulk Starter


Propagation ..................................................................

2:191

3.6.1

History .........................................................

2:191

3.6.2

Concentrated Cultures .................................

2:191

3.6.3

Bulk Starter Propagation ..............................

2:192

3.6.4

pH-Controlled Propagation of
Cultures .......................................................

2:194

3.4
3.5
3.6

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Contents

xv

3.6.5

General Comments ......................................

2:196

3.6.6

Helpful Points to Phage-Free Starters .........

2:196

Manufacture of Cheese ................................................

2:197

3.7.1

Cheddar Cheese ..........................................

2:200

3.7.2

Stirred Curd or Granular Cheddar


Cheese ........................................................

2:200

3.7.3

Colby Cheese ..............................................

2:200

3.7.4

Swiss Cheese ..............................................

2:201

3.7.5

Parmesan Cheese .......................................

2:201

3.7.6

Mozzarella and Provolone Cheese ..............

2:205

3.7.7

Brick Cheese ...............................................

2:205

3.7.8

Mold-Ripened Cheese .................................

2:206

3.8

Cheese from Ultrafiltered Retentate ............................

2:207

3.9

Salting of Cheese .........................................................

2:210

3.10 Cheese Ripening and Flavor Development .................

2:210

3.10.1 Proteolysis of Caseins .................................

2:211

3.10.2 Proteolysis in Cheese ..................................

2:212

3.10.3 Amino Acid Transformations ........................

2:213

3.10.4 Flavor Development .....................................

2:213

3.11 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Cheddar Cheese ..........................................................

2:215

3.11.1 Fate of Lactose ............................................

2:215

3.11.2 Fate of Casein .............................................

2:216

3.11.3 Microbiological Changes ..............................

2:217

3.11.4 Fate of Fat ...................................................

2:218

3.11.5 Flavor of Cheddar Cheese ...........................

2:219

3.12 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Swiss Cheese ..............................................................

2:219

3.12.1 Fate of Lactose ............................................

2:220

3.12.2 CO2 Production ............................................

2:220

3.7

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xvi

Contents
3.12.3 Eye Formation .............................................

2:221

3.12.4 Fate of Proteins ...........................................

2:222

3.12.5 Flavor of Swiss Cheese ...............................

2:222

3.13 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Gouda Cheese .............................................................

2:222

3.13.1 Fate of Lactose ............................................

2:223

3.13.2 Fate of Proteins ...........................................

2:223

3.13.3 Fate of Fat ...................................................

2:224

3.13.4 Microbiological Changes ..............................

2:224

3.13.5 Flavor of Gouda Cheese ..............................

2:224

3.14 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Mold-Ripened Cheese .................................................

2:224

3.14.1 Blue Cheese ................................................

2:224

3.14.2 Camembert and Brie Cheese .......................

2:226

3.15 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Bacteria Surface-Ripened Cheese ..............................

2:227

3.15.1 Brick Cheese ...............................................

2:227

3.16 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Mozzarella Cheese ......................................................

2:227

3.17 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Parmesan and Romano Cheese .................................

2:228

3.18 Accelerated Cheese Ripening .....................................

2:229

3.19 Processed Cheese Products .......................................

2:229

3.19.1 Advantages of Process Cheeses over


Natural Cheese ............................................

2:231

3.19.2 Processing ...................................................

2:231

3.19.3 Emulsifiers ...................................................

2:231

3.19.4 Heat Treatment ............................................

2:234

3.19.5 pH and Microbiological Stability ...................

2:234

3.20 References ...................................................................

2:235

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Contents
4.

Concentrated and Dried Dairy Products ....................

2:257

4.1

History and Definitions .................................................

2:258

4.2

Unsweetened Condensed Milk ....................................

2:259

4.2.1

Processing Chart and Preparing Raw


Milk ..............................................................

2:259

4.2.2

Preheating and Evaporation ........................

2:259

4.2.3

Homogenization and Second


Standardization ............................................

2:265

Packaging, Sterilization, and Storage ..........

2:266

Sweetened Condensed Milk ........................................

2:267

4.2.4
4.3

4.3.1

Processing Chart and Raw Milk to


First Standardization ....................................

2:267

Heat Treatment, Evaporation, Sugar


Addition, and Second
Standardization ............................................

2:267

Cooling with Crystallization ..........................

2:270

4.4

Other Concentrated Dairy Products ............................

2:270

4.5

Dried Dairy Products ....................................................

2:271

4.5.1

Milk Powder .................................................

2:271

4.5.2

Instant Milk Powder .....................................

2:278

4.5.3

Infant Formulas ............................................

2:282

4.5.4

Other Products ............................................

2:285

Dried Dairy Ingredients ................................................

2:286

4.6.1

Whey Powder ..............................................

2:286

4.6.2

Whey Protein Concentrates .........................

2:289

4.6.3

Casein Products ..........................................

2:290

4.6.4

Lactose ........................................................

2:296

References ...................................................................

2:299

Dairy Microbiology and Safety ...................................

2:301

5.1

2:303

4.3.2

4.3.3

4.6

4.7

5.

xvii

Introduction ...................................................................

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xviii

Contents
5.2

5.3

General Dairy Microbiology ..........................................

2:304

5.2.1

Morphological Features ...............................

2:305

5.2.2

Microorganisms Associated with Milk ..........

2:305

Growth of Dairy Microbes in Milk and Dairy


Products .......................................................................

2:321

5.3.1

5.4

5.5

Relative Growth Rates of


Psychrotrophs ..............................................

2:321

5.3.2

Sources of Psychrotrophs in Milk .................

2:323

5.3.3

Significance of the Presence and


Growth of Psychrotrophs .............................

2:324

Inhibition and Control of Microorganisms in Milk


and Dairy Products .......................................................

2:326

5.4.1

Natural Antimicrobial Systems .....................

2:326

5.4.2

Lactoperoxidase ..........................................

2:327

5.4.3

Lactoferrin ...................................................

2:330

5.4.4

Lysozyme ....................................................

2:331

5.4.5

Xanthine Oxidase ........................................

2:331

5.4.6

Lactic Acid Bacteria and Bacteriocins ..........

2:332

5.4.7

Potassium Sorbate ......................................

2:335

5.4.8

Carbon Dioxide ............................................

2:336

5.4.9

Removal of Microorganisms by
Physical Methods ........................................

2:336

Mastitis .........................................................................

2:338

5.5.1

Effect on Milk Composition ..........................

2:338

5.5.2

Economic Losses .........................................

2:338

5.5.3

Common Mastitis Pathogens .......................

2:339

5.5.4

Uncommon Mastitis Pathogens ...................

2:341

5.5.5

Factors Affecting the Incidence of


Mastitis ........................................................

2:341

Detection and Diagnosis ..............................

2:341

5.5.6

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Contents
5.6

5.7

Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk and Dairy


Products .......................................................................

2:342

5.6.1

Listeria Monocytogene .................................

2:344

5.6.2

Yersinia Enterocolitica .................................

2:346

5.6.3

Campylobacter Jejuni ..................................

2:346

5.6.4

Escherichia Coli ...........................................

2:347

5.6.5

Escherichia Coli 0157:H7 .............................

2:347

5.6.6

Bacillus Cereus ............................................

2:348

5.6.7

Economic Significance of Pathogens ...........

2:348

5.6.8

Mycotoxins and Amines ...............................

2:349

Mycotoxins in Milk and Dairy Products ........................

2:350

5.7.1

Presence of Mycotoxins in Milk and


Dairy Products .............................................

2:351

Fate of Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Product


Manufacture and Storage ............................

2:355

5.7.3

Elimination of Mycotoxins ............................

2:356

5.7.4

Regulation of Mycotoxins in Foods ..............

2:358

Microbiology of Starter Cultures ..................................

2:359

5.8.1

Terminology .................................................

2:359

5.8.2

Function of Starter Cultures .........................

2:362

5.8.4

Inhibition of Starter Cultures ........................

2:365

5.8.5

Genetic Engineering for Improving


Starter Cultures ...........................................

2:366

Methods for Microbiological Analysis of Milk and


Dairy Products ..............................................................

2:367

5.9.1

Conventional Methods .................................

2:367

5.9.2

Rapid Methods and Automation in


Dairy Microbiology .......................................

2:370

Microbiological Tests for Assessing


Sanitation and Air Quality in Dairy
Plant ............................................................

2:377

5.7.2

5.8

5.9

xix

5.9.3

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xx

Contents
5.9.4

Shelf-Life Tests ............................................

2:378

5.10 Microbiology of Milk and Dairy Products .....................

2:378

5.10.1 Pasteurized Milk and Cream ........................

2:379

5.10.2 Dried Milk Powder ........................................

2:381

5.10.3 Evaporated Milk ...........................................

2:381

5.10.4 Cottage Cheese ...........................................

2:382

5.10.5 Mold-Ripened Cheeses ...............................

2:382

5.10.6 Hard Cheese ...............................................

2:383

5.10.7 Yogurt and Cultured Milks ............................

2:384

5.10.8 Butter ...........................................................

2:385

5.10.9 Ice Cream and Frozen Dairy


Desserts ......................................................

2:385

5.11 Microbiological Considerations of New


Processing Technologies .............................................

2:386

5.11.1 Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis .............

2:386

5.11.2 Ultrahigh Temperature Sterilization of


Milk and Dairy Products ...............................

2:389

5.11.3 Low-Dose Irradiation of Milk ........................

2:391

5.11.4 Microwave Processing of Milk and


Dairy Products .............................................

2:392

5.11.5 Use of Carbon Dioxide and


Supercritical Carbon Dioxide for
Reduction of Microbial Populations ..............

2:392

5.12 Assuring Microbiological Quality and Safety of


Milk and Milk Products: HACCP Approach .................

2:393

5.12.1 HACCP Principle .........................................

2:394

5.12.2 Elements of the HACCP System ..................

2:394

5.13 Conclusion ....................................................................

2:395

5.14 References ...................................................................

2:395

Appendix: Food and Drug Administration,


Part 135 Frozen Desserts, April 1, 1992 .................

2:427

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Contents

xxi

Volume 3. Applications Science, Technology,


and Engineering
1.

Quality Assurance and Dairy Processing ...................

3:1

1.1

Introduction ...................................................................

3:3

1.1.1

Definition of Quality .....................................

3:3

1.1.2

Quality Assurance Versus Quality


Control .........................................................

3:3

Organization and Management ....................

3:4

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points ................

3:4

1.2.1

Basic Concepts ............................................

3:4

1.2.2

Food Hazards ..............................................

3:5

1.2.3

Critical Control Points ..................................

3:8

1.2.4

Pasteurization ..............................................

3:12

1.2.5

Cheese Processes .......................................

3:20

1.2.6

Ice Cream Processes ..................................

3:23

1.2.7

Yogurt Processes ........................................

3:25

1.2.8

Butter and Milk Processes ...........................

3:27

Product Specifications .................................................

3:30

1.1.3
1.2

1.3

1.3.1

1.4

Food Additives and GRAS


Substances ..................................................

3:30

1.3.2

Unavoidable Contaminants ..........................

3:33

1.3.3

Standards of Identity ....................................

3:33

1.3.4

USDA Grades ..............................................

3:35

1.3.5

Analytical Methods .......................................

3:37

1.3.6

Codex Alimentarius ......................................

3:39

Good Manufacturing Practice ......................................

3:40

1.4.1

Regulatory Requirements ............................

3:40

1.4.2

Sanitation ....................................................

3:41

1.4.3

Plants and Grounds .....................................

3:47

1.4.4

Employee Training .......................................

3:49

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xxii

Contents
1.5

Product Labeling ..........................................................

3:50

1.5.1

Ingredient Labeling ......................................

3:50

1.5.2

Nutritional Labeling ......................................

3:52

1.5.3

Fortification ..................................................

3:55

1.5.4

Imitation and Substitute Foods ....................

3:57

1.5.5

Open Date Labeling .....................................

3:59

1.5.6

Kosher Certification .....................................

3:59

Packaging .....................................................................

3:60

1.6.1

Functional Needs .........................................

3:60

1.6.2

Materials Testing .........................................

3:62

1.6.3

Tamper-Evident Closures ............................

3:63

1.6.4

Aseptic Packaging .......................................

3:63

1.6.5

Packaged Weight Control ............................

3:64

Distribution ...................................................................

3:65

1.7.1

Shelf Life .....................................................

3:65

1.7.2

Warehousing and Shipping ..........................

3:65

1.7.3

Product Recall .............................................

3:66

Summary ......................................................................

3:67

1.8.1

Importance of Process Controls ...................

3:67

1.8.2

Need to Avoid Recontamination ...................

3:68

Future Developments ...................................................

3:68

1.9.1

The Promise of Biotechnology .....................

3:68

1.9.2

Internationalization of the Dairy


Industry ........................................................

3:69

Proliferation of New Products ......................

3:69

1.10 References ...................................................................

3:70

Biotechnology of Dairy Starter Cultures .....................

3:77

2.1

Introduction ...................................................................

3:77

2.2

Applications and Successes ........................................

3:78

2.2.1

3:79

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

1.9.3

2.

Low-Fat Dairy Products ...............................

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Contents

xxiii

2.2.2

Bacteriocins as Food Preservatives .............

3:80

2.2.3

Bacteriophage Resistance ...........................

3:83

2.2.4

Accelerated Cheese Maturation ...................

3:84

Yesterday and Tomorrow: Tools for


Biotechnology ...............................................................

3:85

2.3.1

Conjugation and Cell Fusion ........................

3:85

2.3.2

Transformation and Gene Delivery


Systems .......................................................

3:88

Manufacture of Heterologous
Proteins .......................................................

3:91

2.4

Regulatory Aspects of Dairy Biotechnology ................

3:92

2.5

Summary ......................................................................

3:95

2.6

References ...................................................................

3:95

Computer Applications: Expert Systems ....................

3:105

3.1

3:106

2.3

2.3.3

3.

Introduction ...................................................................
3.1.1

Artificial Intelligence and Expert


Systems .......................................................

3:106

Relationship to Traditional
Programming ...............................................

3:108

Knowledge-Based Architecture ...................................

3:109

3.2.1

Knowledge Representation ..........................

3:109

3.2.2

Searching and Inference


Strategies ....................................................

3:113

Uncertainty ..................................................

3:116

Building Expert Systems ..............................................

3:117

3.3.1

Feasibility ....................................................

3:117

3.3.2

Knowledge Acquisition .................................

3:118

3.3.3

Tool Selection ..............................................

3:120

Expert Systems and Process Control ..........................

3:121

3.4.1

3:121

3.1.2
3.2

3.2.3
3.3

3.4

Preexpert System Developments .................

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xxiv

Contents
3.4.2

Expert System Applications .........................

3:123

3.4.3

Knowledge Representation in Process


Control .........................................................

3:126

Commercial Examples .................................

3:127

Business and Manufacturing Operations ....................

3:128

3.5.1

Physical Goods Management ......................

3:128

3.5.2

Time Management: Planning and


Scheduling ...................................................

3:130

Computer Integrated Manufacturing ............

3:132

Quality Management Applications ...............................

3:138

3.6.1

Quality Control Programs .............................

3:138

3.6.2

Laboratory Systems .....................................

3:140

3.6.3

Quality Defect Analysis ................................

3:142

Strategic Operations ....................................................

3:143

3.7.1

Simulation ....................................................

3:143

3.7.2

Research and Development ........................

3:146

3.7.3

Training .......................................................

3:149

3.8

Future Trends ...............................................................

3:150

3.9

References ...................................................................

3:151

Dairy Equipment and Supplies ..................................

3:155

4.1

Dairy Equipment and Supplies ....................................

3:156

4.2

Equipment Common to all Dairies ...............................

3:160

4.2.1

Tanks ...........................................................

3:160

4.2.2

Heat Exchangers .........................................

3:171

4.2.3

Pumps .........................................................

3:179

4.2.4

Pipe, Valves, and Fittings ............................

3:195

4.2.5

Centrifuges ..................................................

3:203

4.2.6

Homogenizers .............................................

3:213

4.2.7

Cleaning Dairy Processing Systems ............

3:217

3.4.4
3.5

3.5.3
3.6

3.7

4.

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Contents
4.3

Specialty Equipment ....................................................


4.3.1

5.

xxv
3:241

Ice Cream and Frozen Dessert


Equipment ...................................................

3:241

4.3.2

Butter Manufacture ......................................

3:254

4.3.3

Cheesemaking Systems ..............................

3:256

4.3.4

Concentration and Drying ............................

3:261

4.3.5

Cottage Cheese and Other Cultured


Products ......................................................

3:277

4.3.6

High-Temperature Processes ......................

3:281

4.3.7

Membrane Separation .................................

3:288

Engineering: Plant Design, Processing, and


Packaging ..................................................................

3:295

5.1

Introduction ...................................................................

3:296

5.2

Plant Construction and Arrangement ..........................

3:296

5.2.1

Construction Considerations ........................

3:297

5.2.2

Plant Layout ................................................

3:303

Processing Engineering ...............................................

3:307

5.3.1

Dimensions and Units ..................................

3:307

5.3.2

Fluid Flow Characteristics ............................

3:309

5.3.3

Heat Transfer ...............................................

3:310

5.3.4

Principles of Homogenization ......................

3:316

5.3.5

Material Handling .........................................

3:318

5.3.6

Preventative Maintenance Program .............

3:319

Product Packaging .......................................................

3:320

5.4.1

Fluid Milk Packaging ....................................

3:320

5.4.2

Aseptic Packaging .......................................

3:321

Regulations ..................................................................

3:326

5.5.1

Plant and Equipment ...................................

3:326

5.5.2

Product ........................................................

3:327

Summary ......................................................................

3:327

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

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xxvi

Contents
5.7

Future Developments ...................................................

3:327

5.8

References ...................................................................

3:328

Appendix: Company Listing ..............................................

3:331

A & B Process Systems Corp. to FrigoTech .........................

3:331

Fristam Pumps, Inc. to Quest International ..........................

3:356

Quest International Flavors, Inc. to Zurn


Industries, Inc. ..............................................................

3:385

Index ................................................................................

3:409

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CHAPTER

1
Chemistry and Physics
H. D. GoffandA. R. Hill
1.1 Introduction, 2
1.2 Composition, 5
1.2.1 Proteins, 9
1.2.1.1 Caseins, 9
1.2.1.2 Whey Proteins, 14
1.2.1.3 Enzymes, 15
1.2.2 Lipids, 18
1.2.2.1 Chemical Properties, 18
1.2.2.2 Physical Properties, 19
1.2.2.3 Lipolysis, 22
1.2.2.4 Oxidation, 24
1.2.3 Lactose, 26
1.2.3.1 Biochemical Properties, 26
1.2.3.2 Physicochemical Properties, 26
1.2.4 Minor Components, 28
1.2.4.1 Vitamins, 28
1.2.4.2 Minerals, 29
1.3 Structure, 30
1.3.1 Casein Micelles, 30
1.3.1.1 Properties, 30
1.3.1.2 Stability, 35
1.3.1.3 Aggregation, 38
1.3.2 Fat Globules, 41
1.3.2.1 Native Fat Globule Membrane, 41
1.3.2.2 Recombined Membranes, 44
1.3.2.3 Stability, 46
1.3.2.4 Destabilization, 48
1.4 Physical Properties, 49
1.4.1 Density, 49
1.4.2 Viscosity, 50
1.4.3 Freezing Point, 52
1.4.4 Electrochemistry, 54
1.4.4.1 Electrical Conductivity, 54
1.4.4.2 Oxidation-Reduction Potentials, 55

1.4.5 Surface Tension, 56


1.4.6 Acid-Base Equilibria, 57
L4.7 Heat Capacity and Thermal Conductivity, 60
1.4.8 Optical Properties, 60
1.5 Summary, 61
1.6 Future Developments, 62
1.7 References, 62

1.1 Introduction
A characteristic unique to mammals is their ability to secrete milk as a source of
nutrients and immunological protection for their young. Milk from domesticated
species has also been recognized since prehistoric times as a food source for humans.1 Some of the properties of milk that are still under study today, such as its
ability to clot with chymosin and the ability to turn milk into products such as cheese
and butter, have been known to humans for centuries.2 Consequently, the applications of chemistry and physical chemistry to milk are probably among the oldest
scientific disciplines and are still recognized as very important and integral parts of
the field of food science.
Today, the majority of milk for human consumption is secreted by the domesticated cow, genus Bos, although milk from goats, buffaloes, and sheep, in addition
to human milk, is also consumed in significant quantity.
Milk is defined by the United States Code of Federal Regulations as "the lacteal
secretion, practically free from colostrum, obtained by the complete milking of one
or more healthy cows, which contains not less than 8.25% of milk solids-not-fat and
not less than 3.25% of milkfat".3 Reviews of the composition of goat's milk,4-5
ewe's milk,6 buffalo's milk,7 camel's milk,8 human milk,9 and the milk of other
species 1011 are available in the literature. This chapter is limited to a discussion of
cow's milk.
Milk is synthesized in the mammary gland. An average cow in North America
produces 5400 kg of milk in a 305-day lactation period.
The components of the mammary gland at various magnifications are shown in
Figure 1.1. The alveolus is the milk-producing unit within the gland. In the alveolus,
a single layer of epithelial secretory cells surrounds a central storage area, the lumen,
which is connected to a duct system. These secretory cells are, in turn, surrounded
by a layer of myoepithelial cells and blood capillaries. The raw materials for milk
production are transported via the bloodstream to the secretory cell. Within the cell,
components are synthesized mainly by the endoplasmic reticulum and its attached
ribosomes, which are supplied with energy from the mitochondria and then passed
along to the Golgi apparatus, which is responsible for their eventual movement out
of the cell. Vesicles containing many of the aqueous nonfat components are released

SECMETOW
TISSUE

ONt QUARTER
LOOD
VESSEL

CAMlAMES
CtSTEWf

CONNCCTlVg
TISSUE

touct
LARGE OUC f
VENOUS
BLOOO

OUCT

LUMEN

CAPILLARIES

MVOEPrrMEUAL
CELL
ARTEMAL
BLOOO
ALVEOLUS

LUMEN
I1WUTUN.
LMD
OtKWLET

MCtKMLU
^ytfrtl
- S W
NUCLEUS

MfTOCHQNOfOON

ENDOPIASMC
RETCULUM ,

SECRETORY CELL

Figure 1.1 Bovine mammary gland at various magnifications. (Reprinted from ref. 12,
p. 794, by courtesy of Marcel Dekker.)

by the Golgi apparatus, pass through the cytoplasm and the apical plasma membrane,
and are deposited in the lumen of the alveolus. Lipid droplets, synthesized by the
endoplasmic reticulum, also pass through the cytoplasm and the apical plasma membrane and are deposited in the lumen.
As is discussed further in Section 1.3.2.1, it is believed that the milk fat globule
membrane (FGM) is comprised of the apical plasma membrane of the secretory cell,
which continually envelops lipid droplets as they pass into the lumen. The apical
cell membrane is continually being replaced from endomembrane material synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and transported from the Golgi in the form of
vesicles containing aqueous nonfat components. The vesicle membrane fuses with
the apical cell membrane as the contents of the vesicle are released. Milk components
stored in the lumen of the alveolus are released into the duct system as a result of
hormonal stimulation. The duct systems within the mammary gland, a complex network, flow into the teat cistern from which they are milked. Further details of milk
biosynthesis and mammary physiology are beyond the scope of this chapter and
have been reviewed extensively elsewhere. 13 " 15
Milk is estimated to contain more than 100,000 molecular species. However, the
average gross composition of milk can be simplified to 4.1% fat, 3.6% protein (75%
casein protein and 25% whey protein), 4.9% lactose, and 0.7% ash, with the balance

consisting of water.16 (Details of the composition of milk are covered in Section


1.2.) Variation in milk composition can be caused by inherited characteristics
(breed), physiological characteristics (stage of lactation, pregnancy, age, nutritional
balance, season, and udder health), and milking procedure (within milkings and
between milkings).3
Although milk is a fluid food, it has considerable structural organization (described in further detail in Section 1.3). Milk can be described as:
an emulsion of milkfat globules which contain the milk lipids, fat soluble vitamins,
and the components of the FGM;
a colloidal suspension of casein micelles (which contain casein proteins, calcium,
phosphate, citrate and water), globular proteins, and lipoprotein particles; and
a solution of lactose, soluble proteins, minerals, vitamins, acids, enzymes, and
other components.
Milk plasma is defined as milk minus the milkfat globules, which is close in
composition to separated or skim milk, although separation is never complete. Milk
serum is defined as milk plasma minus casein micelles, which is close to the composition of whey, except for the presence of some proteolytic products from chymosin.16 The casein micelles and the milkfat globules are the principal structureforming constituents that form the basic structural elements of most dairy
products.17'18
Dairy foods make a significant contribution to the total nutrient intake of the
North American population, supplying, for example, one-fourth or more of individuals' protein, calcium, phosphorus, and riboflavin requirements. Dairy foods are an
excellent source of vitamin B 12 as well as an adequate source of vitamin A, thiamine,
niacin, and magnesium. Vitamin D is added to most liquid dairy products; vitamin
A is added to most low-fat fluid products. Only iron, vitamin C, and folacin are
present in somewhat deficient amounts.1219 The nutrient composition of whole milk
is listed in Table 1.1.
From a nutritional viewpoint, milk has been described as nature's most nearly
perfect food, owing mainly to its biological role as the only source of nutrition for
the infant mammal. Milk proteins are slightly deficient in methionine and cysteine,
the sulfur amino acids. Milk lipids are slightly high in saturated fats and cholesterol
and thus may have an impact on cardiovascular disease. The nutritional significance
of milk proteins and lipids has recently been reviewed.19"21
A small but significant part of the population, particularly among African and
Asian peoples, produce less than average intestinal /3-galactosidase. This leads to
lactose intolerance, or malabsorption, which causes diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and
intestinal gas if dairy products are consumed. Lactose intolerance has recently been
reviewed.22
The purpose of this chapter is to serve as a reference for many of the processes
and technologies described in other chapters and volumes of this set. In this chapter,
we review the basics of milk composition and milk structure as they affect the
utilization of milk in industrial practice and provide a comprehensive bibliography
for further reading. This chapter is not designed to be a comprehensive review of

Table 1.1 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF WHOLE MILK


(3.3% FAT)
Nutrient

Amount in 100 g

%RDAa in 250 ml

Protein
Vitamin A
Vitamin C
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B 6
Folacin
Vitamin B 12
Calcium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Iron
Zinc

3.29 g
31RE b
0.94 mg
0.038 mg
0.162 mg
0.85 NEC
0.042 mg
5 |xg
0.357 jig
119 mg
93 mg
13 mg
0.05 mg
0.38 mg

17.2
8.9
4.2
8.2
30.0
13.9
5.4
3.2
30.7
32.0
25.0
10.2
0.9
6.5

From ref. 12, p. 822. Reprinted courtesy of Marcel Dekker.


a

Average Recommended Dietary Allowances for all males and females above
age 11.
Retinol Equivalents: 1 u,g retinol or 6 u,g ^-carotene.
c
Niacin Equivalents: 1 mg niacin or 60 mg dietary tryptophan. Only 10% of the
NE in milk corresponds to niacin.
b

the tremendously growing fields of dairy chemistry and physics. Several very recent
excellent reviews and monographs of aspects of dairy chemistry are available and
recommended for those seeking more detail.16^23"28

1.2 Composition
The gross composition of milk is defined as the fat, protein, lactose, ash, and total
solids content. Gross composition for large numbers of samples is determined by
indirect methods calibrated against chemical methods.29 The most common chemical
methods for milkfat determination are gravimetric (solvent extraction by the Mojonnier or Roese-Gottlieb procedure) or volumetric (the Babcock or Gerber procedure).30 For raw milks, the Babcock procedure produces slightly higher results
(0.021% fat) than does the Mojonnier procedure and has significantly lower interand intralaboratory repeatability.30
Total protein is generally determined as Kjeldahl nitrogen multiplied by the factor
6.38. This factor is still in common use, although a more representative one is 6.34.31
It is also common to report protein as crude protein (total N X 6.38), which overestimates true protein content (protein N X 6.38) by about 4 to 8%.3 The most

Table 1.2 GROSS COMPOSITION OF MILK OF VARIOUS BREEDS, g/100 g3


Breed

Fat

Protein

Lactose

Ash

Total Solids

Holstein
Ayrshire
Guernsey
Jersey
Brown Swiss

3.54
3.95
4.72
5.13
3.99

3.29
3.48
3.75
3.98
3.64

4.68
4.60
4.71
4.83
4.94

0.72
0.72
0.76
0.77
0.74

12.16
12.77
14.04
14.42
13.08

common method of lactose analysis is polarimetric determination of lactose in a


clarified milk extract.32 Lactose is frequently reported (especially in the older literature) as lactose monohydrate, which overestimates the amount of lactose by 5.26%.3
Total solids of milk are most frequently determined by an oven method involving
initial drying on a steam bath followed by further drying in a forced air oven at 98
to 1000C,32 although a longer drying time in the oven without initial boiling off on
the steam bath may be more accurate.33 Ash content is normally determined by dry
ashing at about 5500C.32 Ash content is not equivalent to the total content of salts.
Milk salts are discussed in Section 2.4.
In the determination for payment purposes of the gross composition of producer
milk, the largest source of error is bulk tank sampling error. Standard deviations
associated with bulk tank sampling error of 0.01% for milk protein and 0.093% for
milk fat have been reported.34 Corresponding standard deviations associated with
laboratory analyses were 0.01% for both fat and protein. Milk analysis is discussed
in detail in Chapter 3.
Many factors affect the gross composition of milk. The factors most significant
to the processing of milk and milk products are breed, feed, season, region, and herd
health.35 In the short term, the only factors available to the farmer to alter milk
composition are selection of breed and feed.36 The gross composition of milk of
various breeds is listed in Table 1.2. Note that breeds producing high-fat milk also
produce milk with lower ratios of protein to fat. This is certainly significant to
multiple component pricing37"42 and suggests that genetic selection can achieve
relatively rapid increases in the ratio of milk protein to fat, provided the change is
achieved by lowering fat content.43 A large negative correlation between fat content
and protein/fat ratio but a small correlation between protein content and protein/fat
ratio have also been reported.44 Heritabilities (based on milk records of 32,000 firstlactation cows) of percent composition of milk fat, protein, and protein/fat ratio were
0.61, 0.59, and 0.58.44
The effects of feed on milk composition have been reviewed.45'46 The most important dietary factors are the amount and type of roughage, the forage/concentrate
ratio, and the carbohydrate composition of the concentrates and lipids.46"49 Feeding
frequency does not affect milk composition, provided the total feed intake is constant.50 The greatest effects of feeding are on the concentration of milkfat, with
smaller changes in protein concentration.

Percent

Protein
Fat

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug.Sept.Oct. Nov. Dec.
1988
Figure 1.2 Seasonal variation of protein and fat content of Ontario milk. Primary standard
methods were Mojonnier for fat and semi-micro-Kjeldahl for protein. Protein is total nitrogen
X 6.38. Data represent means of 10,000 herds tested four times each month at the Ontario
Central Milk Testing Laboratory.

In the Northern Hemisphere, maximum annual fat contents occur during the winter months, usually peaking in November or December; minimum fat contents occur
in August as shown in Figure 1.2.51 Seasonal trends in protein contents follow a
similar trend, with some significant differences: the seasonal variation is not as great,
the minimum occurs in July, and the maximum occurs in October (Fig. 1.2).51 These
differences cause seasonal variation of the protein/fat ratio of milk, which is of
significant economic consequence, especially to cheese manufacturing.51 Small seasonal variations in lactose content have also been reported.52 Although there is some
evidence that climatic conditions affect milk composition, the principal effect of
climatic factors is on milk production.53 It is likely that the observed seasonal effects
on milk composition are primarily due to variations in feed and stage of lactation.3'54
Variations in feed and stage of lactation probably also account for most regional
variations in milk composition. Regional variations in the Ontario, Canada, milkfat
composition for the years 1978 to 1988 are shown in Figure 1.3. These data and
earlier unpublished data (Ontario Central Milk Testing Laboratory, Guelph) going
back to 1971 show a continual increase in average fat content of Ontario milk over
time, with little or no increase in protein content. The result is a significant decrease
in the protein/fat ratio of Ontario milk. There has also been a gradual increase in
average lactose content of Ontario producer milks, from 4.80% lactose monohydrate
(w/v) in 1970 to 5.2% (w/v) in 1988.
With respect to herd health, yield and compositional effects of greatest economic

Fat
%

WESTERN
SOUTHERN
NORTHERN
EASTERN
CENTRAL
ONTARIO
1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

Year
Figure 1 3 Regional and annual variation of fat content of Ontario milk. Primary standard
method was Mojonnier. Data represent annual means within each region. Herds were tested
four times per month.

significance are due to mastitis.55 Average yield losses due to udder infection may
exceed 1 kg of milk per cow per day. 56 Somatic cell counts in excess of 300,000
indicate subclinical mastitis.57 In 1989, average somatic cell counts for all Ontario
producer milks were 350,000/mL. (Ontario Central Milk Testing Laboratory,
Guelph, Ontario, Canada). In the United Kingdom, the national average was 390,000/
mL. 58 Elevated somatic cell counts are correlated with reduced lactose content 52 and
a corresponding increase in mineral content to maintain osmotic equilibrium. Casein
content is reduced, but total protein content increases with increasing somatic cell
counts due to increased whey protein content.59 Modest levels of somatic cells may
affect cheese yield 60 due to increased proteolysis, 61 but effects of somatic cell counts
<2,000,000 ml" 1 on cheese texture and flavor are probably more significant than
yield effects. 58
Production aids may also affect milk composition. Supplementation of dairy rations with the antibiotic Flavomycin increases feed conversion efficiency, milk production, and the percent composition of both fat and protein. 62 Like other factors
affecting milk composition, the effect on fat content is greater than on protein content. Numerous authors have reported minimal or no effects of bovine somatotropin
(BST) on gross composition of milk. 63 " 66

1.2.1 Proteins
The nitrogen content of milk is distributed among caseins, whey proteins, and nonprotein nitrogen (NPN), excepting some minor proteins that are associated with the
FGM (Section 1.2.2).
Nitrogen distribution is normally determined by the classical Rowland fractionation,67 which separates caseins from whey nitrogen by precipitation at pH 4.6 and
separates total proteins from whey NPN by precipitation with sodium acetate and
acetic acid at pH 5.0. Based on this procedure, average milk nitrogen distribution is
about 76% casein, 18% whey protein, and 6% NPN. This operational classification
of proteins is still used for both research and process control. However, a classification system of milk proteins based on their amino acid sequences (Table 1.3) has
been developed by the American Dairy Science Association's (ADSA) Committee
on Milk Protein Nomenclature, Classification and Methodology.68 The amino acid
distributions of the principal milk proteins are summarized in Table 1.4.

1.2.1.1 Caseins
The casein content of milk is about 26 g/kg, representing about 80% of milk protein.
The principal casein fractions are asl-casein (10 g/kg), as2-casein (2.6 g/kg),
/3-casein (9.3 g/kg), y-casein (0.8 g/kg), and /c-casein (3.3 g/kg).16 These fractions
are all included in the pH 4.6 precipitate from milk, but y-caseins are now reclassified
as carboxyl terminal fragments of /3-casein. The corresponding N-terminal fragments,formerly classified as proteose-peptones70are also classified as casein
subfractions.68 These fractions result from cleavage of ^-casein by the milk protease,
plasmin. The carboxyl terminal fragments (y-caseins) remain associated with the
casein micelle and are recovered by rennet coagulation and by pH 4.6 precipitation.
The N-terminal fragments are hydrophilic and appear as heat-stable fractions in both
cheese whey and the pH 4.6 supernatant. Carboxyl terminal fragments correspond
to /3-casein subfractions 2, 3, and 4; and the N-terminal fractions correspond to
/3-casein subfractions 5 to 9, as listed in Table 1.3. The N-terminal fractions do not
contain aromatic amino acids (Table 1.4) and, therefore, show no absorbency at
280 nm.
The nomenclature used for the caseins consists of a Greek letter with or without
a numerical subscript to identify the family of proteins; and an uppercase Latin letter
to indicate the genetic variant. Post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation or formation of subfractions are indicated after the genetic variant.68 For example, the notation /3-casein B-5P (fl-105) indicates that the protein belongs to the
/3-family of caseins, is the B genetic variant, contains five phosphate groups, and
represents an N-terminal fragment of /3-casein B from amino acid residues 1 to 105.69
In most breeds of dairy cattle, a sl -casein is >90% variant B. Exceptions are
Guernsey and Jersey cattle, which produce about 75% variant B and 25% variant
C.71 The A variant of /3-casein occurs with nearly 100% frequency in most dairy
breeds, excepting Jersey and Brown Swiss, which produce significant levels of
/3-casein B. Significant effects of milk protein genetic variants on heat stability,72

TaWe 1.3 CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE MILK PROTEINSGENUS BOS (30-35 g/L)69
I. Caseins (24-28 g/L)
A. ctsl-Caseins (12-15 g/L)
1. asl-Casein Xa-8P (genetic variantsA, B, C, D-9P, and E)
2. ctsl-Casein Xa-9P (genetic variantsA, B, C, D-10P, and E)
3. asl-Casein fragments0
B. <xs2-Caseins (3-4 g/L)
1. ots2-Casein XMOP (genetic variantsA, B, C-9P, and D-7P)
2. as2-Casein X M l P (genetic variantsA, B, C-10P, and D-8P)
3. as2-Casein XM2P (genetic variantsA, B, C-IlP, and D-9P)
4. as2-Casein XM3P (genetic variantsA, B, C-12P, and D-10P)
C. P-Caseins(9-ll g/L)
1. P-Casein Xa-5P (genetic variantsA1, A 2 , A3, B, C-4P, D-4P, and E)
2. p-Casein XMP (f 29-209) (genetic variantsA1, A2, A3, and B)
3. p-Casein Xa-(f 106-209) (genetic variantsA2, A3, and B)
4. P-Casein Xa-(f 108-209) (genetic variantsA and B)
5. p-Casein Xa-4P (f l - 2 8 ) b
6. P-Casein Xa-5P (f l-105) b
7. P-Casein Xa-5P (f l-107) b
8. p-Casein XMP (f 29-105) b
9. p-Casein XMP (f 29-107) b
D. K-Caseins (2-4 g/L)
1. K-Casein XMP (genetic variantsA and B)
2. Minor K-Casein X M , -2, -3, etc. (genetic variantsA and B)
Whey proteins (5-7 g/L)
A. p-Lactoglobulins (2-4 g/L)
1. P-Lactoglobulins X a (genetic variantsA, B, C, D, Dr, E, F, and G)
B. ct-Lactalbumins (0.6-1.7 g/L)
1. a-Lactalbumin Xa (genetic variantsA and B)
2. Minor a-Lactalbumins
C. Bovine serum albumin (0.2-0.4 g/L)

n.

(Continued)

renneting properties,73'74 and concentration and distribution of milk components


have been reported.75-76 The potential for genetic engineering of the caseins to modify the behavior of milk during processing has been reviewed.77 The milk proteins
of other species in comparison to bovine milk proteins have also been reviewed.11
Caseins are conjugated proteins with phosphate groups esterified to serine residues. The exceptions are some /3-casein fragments (Table 1.3) which contain no
phosphate. Phosphate groups are important to casein association and the structure
of the casein micelle (Section 1.3.3). Calcium binding by individual caseins is proportional to phosphate content.71 In addition to phosphorylation, about one-third of
/c-casein monomers are glycosylated at threonine 133 (Fig. 1.4).69
Caseins contain high numbers of proline residues, which are distributed relatively
uniformly throughout the polypeptide chains (Fig. 1.4). Proline gives rise to a particular bending of the protein chain and inhibits formation of an ordered, stable
a-helix structure.78 Early literature suggests that caseins have little secondary struc-

Table 1.3 (Continued)


D. Immunoglobulins (0.5-1.8 g/L)
1. IgG immunoglobulins
a. IgG1 immunoglobulins
b. IgG2 immunoglobulins
c. IgG fragments
2. IgM immunoglobulins
3. IgA immunoglobulins
a. IgA immunoglobulins
b. Secretory IgA immunoglobulins
4. IgE immunoglobulins
5. J-chain or component
6. Free secretory component
in. Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) proteins
A. Zone A (MFGM) proteins
B. Zone B (MFGM) proteins
C. Zone C (MFGM) proteins
D. Zone D (MFGM) proteins
IV. Minor proteins
A. Serum transferrin
B. Lactoferrin
C. P2-Microglobulin
D. Mrglycoproteins
E. M2-glycoproteins
F. OL1-AcId glycoprotein or orosomucoid
G. Ceruloplasmin
H. Trypsin inhibitor
I. Kininogen
J. Folate-binding protein (FBP)
K. Vitamin B12-binding protein
V. Enzymes
(See Table 1.5)
a
b
c

X represents the genetic variant.


Genetic variants of these fragments have not been specifically identified.
Nomenclature has not been established for these fragments.

ture.71 However, it has been reported that specified secondary structure in K-caseins
is in the range of about 50 to 75%,79 and there is evidence that native micellar caseins
may have as much as 14% helical structure, 27% /3-structure, and 41% turns, leaving
only 18% unspecified.80 However, there is little evidence of tertiary structure of
caseins, which accounts for the stability of caseins against heat denaturation because
there is little tertiary structure to unfold. Lack of tertiary structure also requires
considerable exposure of hydrophobic residues to water. This accounts for the strong
association reactions of caseins and their insolubility in water.
Both as2-casein and K-casein contain two cysteine residues, but other caseins have
no cysteine. Disulfide linked polymers of K-casein monomers, ranging from trimers
to very large polymers, exist naturally.71 Some covalent dimers (disulfide linked) of
as2- caseins also exist.16 Caseins differ greatly in charge distribution (Fig. 1.4) and
can be distinguished by their sensitivity to calcium precipitation.

Table 1.4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE MAJOR PROTEINS


OCCURRING IN MILK68

Acid
Asp
Asn
Thr
Ser
SerP
GIu
GIn
Pro
GIy
Ala
ViCys
VaI
Met
lie
Leu
Tyr
Phe
Trp
Lys
His
Arg
Pyr or GIu

Casein
A2

7r
Casein
A2

T2Casein
A2

4
5
9
11
5
18
21
35
5
5
0
19
6
10
22
4
9
1
11
5
4
0

4
3
8
10
1
11
21
34
4
5
0
17
6
7
19
4
9
1
10
5
2
0

2
1
4
7
0
4
11
21
2
2
0
10
4
3
14
3
5
1
4
4
2
0

<*s2"

K-

P-

Casein
B

Casein
A

Casein
B

7
8
5
8
8
24
15
17
9
9
0
11
5
11
17
10
8
2
14
5

4
14
15
6
11
25
15
10
2
8
2
14
4
11
13
12
6
2
24
3
6
0

4
7
14
12
1
12
14
20
2
15
2
11
2
13
8
9
4
1
9
3
5
1

6
0

P-

Ot-

Casein
A

Lactoglobulin
A

Lactalbumin
B

2
1
4
7
0
4
11
21
2
2
0
10
4
3
14
3
5
1
3
3
2
0

11
5
8
7
0
16
9
8
3
14
5
10
4
10
22
4
4
2
15
2
3
0

9
12
7
7
0
8
5
2
6
3
8
6
1
8
13
4
4
4
12
3
1
0

The following summary of association characteristics and calcium sensitivites of


casein fractions is based largely on the discussion in ref. 16. The primary structure
of asl-casein consists of two hydrophobic regions (residues 1 to 44 and 90 to 199).
These regions contain all the proline residues, separated by a polar region (residues
45 to 89) that contains all but one of eight phosphate groups (Fig. 1.4). Association
of asl-casein at neutral pH is dependent on both ionic strength and temperature and
is mainly due to hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. asl-Casein can be
precipitated at very low levels of Ca 2+ (7 mM). as2-Casein has a concentration of
negative charges near the N-terminus and of positive charges near the C-terminus
(Fig. 1.4). It is similar to asl-casein with respect to association at neutral pH and
sensitivity to calcium precipitation.
/3-Casein has a highly charged N-terminal region and a hydrophobic C-terminal
region (Fig. 1.4), causing it to behave like a detergent. It is less sensitive to calcium
precipitation than are the a s l - and as2-caseins, and its association is very temperature
dependent, suggesting that hydrophobic interactions are most important. Association
does not occur if the hydrophobic portion of the molecule is cleaved. /3-Caseins are
the most water soluble of all caseins, especially at lower temperatures. /3-Caseins in

a si - en B
SS
as2-cn

p-cnA2
S

K-en B

Residue Sequence Number


Figure 1.4 Location, magnitude (right ordinate), and direction ( ) of charged residues
(pH 6-7), Pro (.), and Cys (s), in caseins, (a) Location of glucide residue, (b) Point of cleavage
by chymosin. (Reprinted from ref. 16 by permission of John Wiley & Sons.)

milk also have a higher isoelectric point (about 5.2) than a sl -caseins (about 4.8),
which is important to the formation of acid gels (Section 1.3.1.3).81
Disulfide-linked polymers of K-casein further associate by noncovalent bonding
to form large polymers with molecular weights of 600,000 to 650,000. These polymers are very stable at physiological pH and cannot be dissociated by changes in
ionic strength or temperature.71 K-Casein is extremely resistant to calcium precipitation and is able to stabilize up to 10 times its own weight of a s - or /3-caseins
against calcium precipitation.16 This stabilizing ability is lost after rennet cleavage
of /c-casein at the Phe 1 0 5 -Met 1 0 6 bond, which results in the formation of a hydrophobic portion called para-K-casein (residues 1 to 105) and a hydrophilic portion
(residues 106 to 169). The hydrophilic fragment is referred to as K-casein glycomacropeptide (GMP), or caseinomacropeptide (CMP). The latter is a better term
because the predominant variants of K-casein are not glycosylated. 71 ' 82 CMP has an
apparent molecular weight of 33,000 by size exclusion chromatography, but dispersion and analysis of aggregates by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel elec-

trophoresis (SDS-PAGE) revealed size-heterogeneous peptides with molecular


weight <18,000. 83
In summary, all caseins self-associate and interspecies aggregation occurs in the
presence and absence of calcium. The order of decreasing sensitivity to calcium
precipitation is as2-, a sl -, /3-, and, finally, /c-, which stabilizes the casein system
against calcium precipitation. Caseins do not form aggregates with whey proteins
except during heat treatment (Chapter 2).

1.2.1.2 Whey Proteins


Proteins appearing in the pH 4.6 supernatant of milk are collectively referred to as
whey proteins. As noted earlier, this operational definition includes N-terminal fragments of casein (Table 1.3), formerly known as proteose-peptone components 8-fast,
8-slow, and 5. A fourth proteose-peptone fraction, component 3, appears in whey
but is the antigenic equivalent of protein fractions isolated from the fat globule
membrane.84'85 Rennet whey also contains the CMP (C-terminal fragment of
/c-casein) which is cleaved by rennet.
The distribution of the principal whey protein fractions (/3-lactoglobulins,
a-lactalbumins, bovine serum albumin, and immunoglobulins) and the identification
of their genetic variants are listed in Table 1.3. Bovine /3-lactoglobulins of Western
breeds are almost exclusively A and B variants, with <i predominance of the B variant
in the most common breeds.71 In Western breeds, a-lactalbumins are almost exclusively variant B. The total concentration of whey proteins in milk is 5 to 7 g/L, not
including about 1.1 g/L of proteose peptones.
/3-Lactoglobulin has two internal disulfide bonds and one free thiol group (Fig.
1.5). It has considerable a-helix and /3-structure and exists naturally as a noncovalently linked dimer. The dimers are further associated to octamers in the isoelectric
region (pH 3.5 to 5.2) but are dissociated to monomers at pH below 3.4.71 The
predominant B variant, which contains one more charged group (aspartic acid residue
64) than the A variant,68 forms octomers less readily, possibly due to increased
electrostatic repulsion. Association in the isoelectric region is preceded by a conformational change, which results in the binding of one proton group per monomer.71
A conformational change, known as the Tanford transition,86 takes place near pH
7.5 and results in the exposure of one previously untitrated carboxyl group and
increased reactivity of the free cysteine group,71 which is important to thermal interactions of milk proteins.87"89 /3-Lactoglobulins may have a physiological role in
vitamin A transport.90
a-Lactalbumin contains eight cysteine groups, all of which are involved in disulfide bonds (Fig. 1.5), and four tryptophan residues (Table 1.4), which account for
its high absorbency at 280 nm. Differences in aromatic amino acid contents permit
rapidfingerprintingof whey proteins by UV scanning spectroscopy.91 a-Lactalbumin has a highly ordered secondary structure, and hydrodynamic data indicate a
compact, spherical tertiary structure.71 At pH <4.0, a-lactalbumin undergoes a conformational change, which can be observed by circular dichroism92 and is accompanied by the release of bound calcium.93 A similar conformational change was

S SH

P-IgB

SS

S S

a-Ia B

Residue Sequence Number


Figure 1.5 Location, magnitude (right ordinate), and direction ( ) of charged residues
(pH 6-7), Pro (.), and Cys (s), in /3-lactoglobulin and a-lactalbumin. (Reprinted from ref. 16
by permission of John Wiley & Sons.)

observed by circular dichroism after removal of calcium from a-lactalbumin at pH


7.5. 93 Magnesium 94 and other metal ions 93 - 95 are also bound by a-lactalbumin. The
conformational change at pH < 4 . 0 results in temperature- and concentrationdependent aggregation of a-lactalbumin.96 Thermal denaturation of a-lactalbumin
is also accompanied by a release of bound calcium, and a-lactalbumin is stabilized
against heat denaturation and aggregtion in the presence of calcium. 97 ' 98

1.2.1.3 Enzymes
Milk contains both indigenous and exogenous enzymes, the latter being mainly bacterial. With respect to dairy processing, the most significant bacterial enzymes occurring in milk are heat-stable Upases and proteinases elaborated by psychrotrophic
bacteria.99"101 Indigenous enzymes of milk, the reactions they catalyze, and their
location in milk are summarized in Table 1.5.
With respect to dairy processing and quality control, the most significant enzymes
are several hydrolases, namely, lipoprotein lipase, plasmin, and alkaline phosphatase.
The functions and significance of these enzymes are briefly described in this section.
Properties and functions of other indigenous milk enzymes have been reviewed. 1 6 1 0 2
Most milk enzymes have pH and temperature optima near physiological values,
with the notable exceptions of alkaline phosphatase and phosphoprotein phosphatase,
which have pH optima of 9.8 and 4.0 to 5.5, respectively. 16 Alkaline phosphatase
activity is used to distinguish raw milk from pasteurized milk because its heat sta-

Table 1.5
ECNo.

ENZYMES OF BOVINE MILK


Enzyme

1.1.1.27

Lactate dehydrogenase

1.1.1.37

Malate dehydrogenase

1.2.3.2

Xanthine oxidase

1.4.3.6

1.11.1.6
1.11.1.7

Amine oxidase (Cu


containing)
Lipoamide dehydrogenase
(NAD + ) (diaphorase)
NADH dehydrogenase
(cytochrome c reductase)
Sulfhydryl oxidase (not
1.8.3.2 thiol oxidase)
Catalase
Lactoperoxidase

1.15.1.1
2.3.2.2

Superoxide dismutase
7-Glutamyl transferase

2.4.1.22

Lactose synthase

2.4.99.1

CMP-A^-acetylneuraminategalactosyl-glycoprotein
sialyl transferase

2.6.1.1

Aspartate aminotransferase

2.6.1.2

Alanine aminotransferase

2.7.1.26
2.7.1.30

Riboflavin kinase
Glycerol kinase

2.7.7.2
2.8.1.1
3.1.1.1
3.1.1.2

FMN adenyltransferase
Thiosulfate sulfur transferase
(Rhodanase)
Carboxylesterase (B-esterase)
Arylesterase (A-esterase)

3.1.1.7

Acetylcholine esterase

3.1.1.8

Cholinesterase

3.1.1.34

Lipoprotein lipase

3.1.3.1
3.1.3.2

Alkaline phosphatase
Acid phosphatase

1.6.4.3
1.6.99.3
1.8

Reaction
+

L-lactate + NAD ^ pyruvate +


NADH 4- H +
L-malate 4- NAD + ^ oxaloacetate 4NADH 4- H +
Xanthine 4- H2O 4- 2O2 ^ uric acid 42O2 + 2H +
RCH2NH2 + H2O 4- O2 ; RCHO 4H2O2 4- NH3
NADH 4- H + 4- lipoamide ? NAD +
+ dehydrolipoamide
NADH 4- H + + acceptors NAD + 4reduced acceptor
2RSH + O2 ^ R-S-S-R 4- H2O2
2H2O2 ^ O2 4- 2H2O
Donor 4- H2O2 ^ oxidized donor +
2H2O
2O2 + 2 H + ^ O 2 + H2O2
L-7-Glutamyl-peptide + amino acid ^
peptide 4- L-glutamyl-amino acid
UDP-galactose 4- D-glucose ^ UDP +
lactose
CMP-7V-acetylneuraminate +
D-galactosyl-glycoprotein ? CMP +
N-acetylneuraminyl-D-galactosyglycoprotein
L-Aspartate + 2-oxoglutarate ^
oxaloacetate + L-glutamate
L-Alanine + 2-oxoglutarate ^ pyruvate
+ L-glutamate
ATP + riboflavin ^ ADP + FMN
ATP 4- glycerol ^ ADP 4- glycerol-3phosphate
ATP 4- FMN ^ FAD 4- pyrophosphate
S 2 Oi" 4- CN- 5 SOf" + SCNR-COOR' 4- H2O ^ ROH + RCOOH
A phenyl acetate 4- H2O ^ a phenol +
acetate
acetylcholine 4- H2O ^ choline
4- acetate
An acylcholine 4- H2O ^ choline +
carboxylate anion
Triglyceride 4- H2O ^ diglyceride 4fatty acid
R-O-PO3H2 + H2O ^ ROH + H3PO4
R-O-PO3H2 + H2O ^ ROH + H3PO4

Location
Plasma

MFGM

MFGM
Serum
Leukocytes
Serum

MFGM
Serum

Plasma

MFGM
Serum
Casein
MFGM
MFGM
(Continued)

Table 1.5 (Continued)


ECNo.
3.1.3.5

5'-Nucleotidase

3.1.3.9

Glucose-6-phosphatase

3.1.3.16

Phosphoprotein phosphatase

3.1.4.1

Phosphodiesterase

3.1.27.5

Ribonuclease (pancreatic)

3.2.1.1

a-Amylase

3.2.1.2

p-Amylase

3.2.1.17

Lysozyme

3.2.1.24

a-D Mannosidase

3.2.1.30

p-W-AcetylD-glucosaminidase

3.2.1.31

p-Glucuronidase

3.4.21.7

Plasmin

3.4
3.6.1.1
3.6.1.3

Acid protease
Inorganic pyrophosphatase
Adenosine triphosphatase
(Mg 2+ activated)
Nucleotide pyrophosphatase

3.6.1.9
4.1.2.13

Fructose-biphosphate
aldolase

4.2.1.1

Carbonic dehydratase
(carbonic anhydrase)
Glucose phosphate isomerase

5.3.1.9

Reaction

Enzyme

A 5' ribonucleotide + H2O ^ a


ribonucleoside + H3PO4
D-Glucose-6-phosphate + H2O ^ Dglucose 4- H3PO4
Protein phosphate -I- H2O ^ protein +
H3PO4
A phosphoric diester + H2O ^ a
phosphoric monoester + alcohol
Endonucleolytic cleavage to 3'
phosphomono- and oligonucleotides
ending in Cp or Up
Hydrolyzes a-1-4 glucan links in
polysaccharides at random
Hydrolyzes a-1-4 glucan links in
polysaccharides by removing
successive maltose units from the nonreducing end
Hydrolyzes the p-1-4 glycosidic bond
between N-acetylgucosamine and Nacetylmuraminic acid units in
mucopolysaccharides
Hydrolyzes a-r>mannosides by removing
a-D mannose from the nonreducing
end
Hydrolyzes chitobiose and higher
analogs and protein derivatives by
removing JV-acetyl-D-glucosamine
from the nonreducing end
A p-D-glucuronide + H2O ^ alcohol +
D-glucuronic acid
Hydrolyzes peptide bond, preferentially
at Lys > Arg
Hydrolyzes peptide bond
H4P2O7 + H2O ; 2H3PO4
ATP + H2O ^ ADP + H3PO4
A dinucleotide + H2O ^
2 mononucleotides
r>Fructose-l,6-phosphate ^
dihydroxyacetone-phosphate +
D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
H2CO3 s CO2 + H2O
D-Glucose-6-phosphate ^ D-fructose6-phosphate

From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.

Location
MFGM
MFGM
Plasma
MFGM
Serum

Serum

Serum

Casein

MFGM

bility is similar to the minimum conditions used for milk pasteurization.103 Two
isozymes, a- and /3-phosphatase, occur in milk. The latter is more abundant and
occurs mainly in the fat globule membrane. Interference by the heat-stable acid
phosphatase is avoided by performing the assay at pH near 10. The /3-isozyme of
alkaline phosphatase is also subject to renaturation, especially in creams, where the
enzyme is more concentrated.16 Residual phosphatase can be distinguished from
reactivated phosphatase by increased activity of the latter in the presence of magnesium.104105 It was reported that heat inactivation of alkaline phosphatase was more
rapid in highly concentrated, ultrafiltered milk rententates.106
Milk lipoprotein lipase (LPL) has been well characterized.16'107"109 Milk LPL is
present mainly in the plasma in association with casein micelles. It does not attack
the fat globule unless the FGM has been damaged or if certain blood serum lipoproteins are present. These lipoproteins, acting as cofactors, enable LPL to attack
the lipoproteins of the FGM. Further discussion of lipolytic breakdown of dairy
products is presented in Section 1.2.2.3.
The principal milk protease is an alkaline serine protease, which is apparently
identical to blood plasmin.16'102 Plasmin is present mainly as plasminogen in fresh
milk, but, with time, it is converted to active plasmin. It has been indicated that the
plasmin content of milk is associated with the process of involution (i.e., the declining phase of milk production) and that administration of BST reduced levels of
plasmin and plasminogen in late lactation.61110 It is well known that increased proteolytic activity is associated with high somatic cell counts, 111112 but the protease
associated with somatic cells is apparently not plasmin.113 Plasmin attacks both
/3-casein and as2-casein. As indicated previously, protein fractions formerly known
as y-caseins and proteose-peptones are plasmin produced fragments of /3-casein.
Plasmin has optimal activity at slightly alkaline pH and 37C. The enzyme is extremely heat stable114 and is responsible for the development of bitterness in pasteurized and ultra-high-temperature processed milk. The distribution of plasmin between cheese and whey is dependent on the pH of whey separation; higher-running
pH causes increased retention of plasmin in the cheese.115

1.2.2 lipids
1.2.2.1 Chemical Properties
The milkfat of ruminants is very complex, due to the diversity of lipid species that
are produced by microbial activity in the rumen and are transported to the milk
secretory cells in the blood stream. 15116 " 118 Other lipids are produced by synthesis
in the secretory cells. 116119 Fatty acids found in milk fat include: (1) saturated even
and odd n-chain acids from 2 to 28; (2) at least 50 branched chain fatty acids; (3)
cis monoenoic fatty acids of 12 and 14 to 24 -chain acids; (4) trans 16 to 24 nchain fatty acids; (5) various positional and geometric isomers of dienes and trienes
of 18, 20, 22, and 24 -chain acids; and (6) small amounts of tetra- and pentanoic
acids (Tables 1.6 and 1.7).116 Short-chain fatty acids (butyric, caproic, caprylic, and
capric) comprise about 11 % by weight of total methyl esters. Quantitatively, the

Table 1.6 FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF BUTTER OIL AS DETERMINED


BY GLC-MASS SPECTROMETRY (WEIGHT PERCENT)
OF TOTAL METHYL ESTERS116
Methyl
Ester
Carbons

Saturates

4
6
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

3.25
2.32
1.85
4.02
0.16
4.15
0.03
11.05
0.95
26.15
0.70
9.60
0.11
0.19
0.06
0.10
0.07
0.06
0.01
0.04

Branched

Monoenes
trans

Iso

Anteiso

0.01
0.08
0.23
0.32
0.33
0.15
0.06
0.04
Trace
Trace

Trace

Other

0.03
0.47
0.08
1.25
0.32
20.40
0.10
0.15
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.02

0.03
0.01
5.34
0.01
0.01
Trace
Trace
0.01
0.01

0.42
0.40

DDL pristanate, 0.01

0.09

DDD pristanate, 0.01


DDL, DDD phytanates, 0.04

0.01

major fatty acids of milk fat are myristic (11%), palmitic (26%), stearic (10%), and
oleic (20%). Saturated fatty acids account for about two-thirds of milk fatty acids
(Table 1.8), with larger quantities of unsaturated fatty acids present during the summer months. The summer and winter mean iodine values of Finnish butter fat have
been reported as 36.1 and 27.6, respectively.120 Estimates of total trans fatty acids
vary widely within the range of 2 to 11%, expressed as elaidic acid {trans 18:1).121
The distribution in milk and some properties of the major milk lipids are summarized in Table 1.8. Triglycerides account for 98.3% of milkfat. It is not known
whether small amounts of free fatty acids occurring in fresh milk are secreted from
the epithelial cell or are the product of early lipolysis. Phospholipids comprise about
0.8% of milk lipids and are mainly associated with FGM. About 0.3% of milk lipid
is sterols, mainly cholesterol, which is located mostly in the core of the fat globule.

1.2.2.2 Physical Properties


The physical properties of milkfat have been summarized as follows: density at 200C
is 915 kg m~ 3 ; refractive index (589 nm) is 1.462 and decreases with increasing
temperature; solubility of water in fat is 0.14% (w/w) at 200C and increases with
increasing temperature; thermal conductivity is about 0 . 1 7 J m - 1 S - 1 K " 1 at 200C;

Table 1.7 FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF BUTTER OIL AS DETERMINED BY


GLC-MASS SPECTROMETRY (A CONTINUATION OF TABLE 1.6)116
Weight Percent of Total Methyl Esters
Methyl Ester Carbons
18
Positional isomers
Conjugated
cis, trans
trans, trans

Dienes

Trienes

0.14
2.30

0.02
0.60

0.70
0.05

di-0.03
tri-0.01

0.03
Trace

0.01
0.13
0.02

0.04
Trace

0.06
0.02

Trace

0.01
0.03
0.02

Tetraenes

Pentaenes

20
Positional isomers

22
Positional isomers

0.10
0.02

0.02
0.02

24
Positional isomers

specific heat at 400C is about 2.1 kJ k g " 1 K" 1 ; electrical conductivity is <10~ 1 2
ohm" l cm" *; and the dielectric constant is about 3.1. 27 Crystallization of lipids and
the resulting effects on fat structure, melting range, and rheological properties have
been reviewed.122"124 The most complete review of the crystallization behavior of
milkfats is ref. 27. The following discussion is based largely on that reference.
The native mixture of milk lipids is solid at room temperature and is, therefore,
properly described as milk "fat" as opposed to "oil," which is liquid at room
temperature. The melting points of individual triglycerides in milk ranges from
75C for tributyric glycerol to 72C for tristearin. However, the final melting point
of milkfat is about 37C because higher melting triglycerides are dissolved in liquid
fat.16 Milkfat crystals occur in a, /3^, /3J and /3 forms, although for slowly cooled
fat, the least stable a form is too transient to be observed.125 Crystal behavior and
melting curves of milkfat are complicated by the diverse lipid composition: trans
unsaturation increases melting points; odd-numbered and branched chains decrease
melting points because they are unable to form dense crystal structures; and variations in chain length also contribute to softer fats. Typical melting curves for summer
and winter milkfat are shown in Figure 1.6. Crystal structure and properties are also
dependent on the state of dispersion, so globular fat behaves very differently from
bulk fat and the crystal behavior of globular fat is affected by globule size. Homogenized recombined milkfat behaves differently because of its uniform lipid composition as opposed to natural fat, which shows wide variation in lipid composition

Table 1.8 AN OVERVIEW OF THE LIPIDS OF FRESH MILK


Component
Fatty Acids

Lipid Class
Neutral glycerides
Triglycerides
Diglycerides
Monoglycerides
Free fatty acids
Phospholipidsa
Lecithin
Ph. ethanolamineb
Ph. serineb
Ph. inositide6
Plasmalogens
Sphingomyelind
Cerebrosidescd
Gangliosidescd
Sterols
Cholesterol
Cholesteryl
esters
Carotenoids +
vitamin A

Alcohol
Residue

Other
Constituent

728
536
314
253

Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol

Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Glycerol
Sphingosine
Sphingosine
Sphingosine

Cholesterol

MW

Phospho
group
Choline
Ethanolamine
Serine
Inositol
Choline6
Choline
Hexose
Hexose8

764
742
784
855
-700
770
770
-1600
387
642

Number

3
2
1

14.4
14.9
15.0
15.8

0.35
0.38
0.36
0.36

2
2
2
2
lf
1
1
1

17.2
17.9
17.8

0.60
1.00
0.80

19.0
20.0

0.20
0.20

16.0

0.40

Percentage
in
Milk Fat
(w/w)
98.7
98.3
0.3
0.03
0.1
0.8
0.26
0.28
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.16
0.1
0.01
0.32
0.30
0.02?
0.002

From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.


Note: Not complete: approximate average values from various sources, x number of carbon atoms; y number of double bonds.
a
A small fraction (e.g., 1%) is present as lysophosphatides.
b
Phosphatidyl ethanolamine + serine = cephalin.
c
Glycolipids.
d
Sphingolipids.
e
Or ethanolamine.
f
Also a fatty aldehyde residue.
8
Also neuraminic acid.

Percentage of
the Lipid In
Core
of
Globule

Globule
Membrane

-100
90?

10?

Milk
Plasma

+
60

10?
65

35

80

70
70?
10

30
30?
10

95?

5?

Solid Fat
(%)

Temperature ( 0 C )
Figure 1.6 Melting curves of milk fat, determined by dilatometry. 1, summer fat, slowly
cooled before the experiment; 2, the same fat, rapidly cooled; 3, winter fat, rapidly cooled.
(From ref. 27 with permission of Pudoc, Wageningen, the Netherlands.)

and melting ranges of individual globules. For example, fat dispersed in natural
globules has a lower mean melting point than bulk fat but, because of widely varying
composition between globules, some dispersed fat has a melting point that is much
higher than the final melting point of bulk fat. These effects are summarized in
Table 1.9.

1.2.2.3 Lipolysis
Hydrolysis of fatty acid esters by the action of lipases results in the common flavor
defect known as lipolytic or hydrolytic rancidity and is distinct from oxidative rancidity. A comprehensive review of flavor impairment of milk and milk products due
to lipolysis has been published by the International Dairy Federation.126
Lipases are unique among enzymes in that they are active at the lipidserum
interface. In milk, lipases are ineffective unless the FGM is damaged or weakened
in some way. Lipolysis may be caused by the lipoprotein lipase (LPL), which is
endogenous to milk, or by bacterial lipases. The principal bacterial lipases that occur
in milk are heat-stable exocellular lipases of psychotrophic bacteria.99'127 However,
the principal psychotrophic bacteria of milk, Pseudomonas sp., do not elaborate
significant quantities of proteases or lipases until cell counts exceed 106 to 108
mL~ ] . 128 In practice, this means that significant elaboration of Pseudomonas lipases
is unlikely to occur except in improperly cleaned raw-milk-handling equipment; and
psychotrophic lipases should not be a serious problem, except possibly in ultra-high-

Table 1.9 FACTORS INFLUENCING CRYSTALLIZATION OF MILK FAT


Effect on

Factors
Fat composition
Lower temp, of
crystallization
Rapid cooling
Cooling in steps
Preliminary cooling to
low temp.
Prolonged at not too
low temp.
Fat in natural globules
as compared to bulk
fat
Smaller globules

Melting Range

Crystallization
Characteristics

Amount of Solid Fat

Yes
Main melting at lower
temp.
Main melting at higher
temp.
More than one melting
max.
Main melting at lower
temp.
More even

Yes
More

Somewhat higher final


melting point

Usually more
Usually less

Smaller
Smaller

More

Often larger;
spherulites
Smaller

Usually more

Larger; solid networks

Less at high temp,


more at low temp.

Smaller; no networks

Still less at high


temp.

Smaller

From ref. 27 with permission of Pudoc, Wageningen, Netherlands.

temperature processed milk, where low levels of heat-stable proteases and lipases
may cause deterioration.129
Cow's milk contains sufficient total lipase activity (mainly LPL) to release about
2 /imol of free fatty acids (FFA) per minute at 37C, but the actual activity during
storage of raw milk at 4C may be as low as 0.002 /imol of FFA min~ l 13 The
following conditions affect the rate of lipolysis in fresh milk: the pH of milk (6.6 to
6.8) and the storage temperature of raw milk (normally <4C) are less than the LPL
optima of pH 8.3 and 37C; about 80% of milk LPL is bound to micellar casein, 10
to 20% is present in the serum, and only 0 to 10% is associated with the fat globule;
milk plasma contains at least two inhibitors of lipolysis; and a lipoprotein is present
in milk, which acts as a cofactor to increase LPL activity.130 The inhibitory effect
of milk plasma is probably due to its effect on the distribution of LPL and can be
reversed by addition of heparin, which causes dissociation of LPL from the casein
micelles.131-132
The properties of the FGM are most important to lipolysis. The observed lactation
effects may be due to reduced contents of phospholipids in the FGM in late lactation.107 Mastitis, which alters milk composition, also increases sensitivity of the fat
globule to lipolysis.133 The lipoprotein cofactor, which is derived from blood, apparently enables LPL to hydrolyse lipoproteins of the FGM and gives LPL access
to triglycerides in the fat globule.107 Other factors that destabilize the FGM, especially agitation and foaming, also promote lipolysis. Churned fat does not appear to
be a good substrate for LPL,134 but lipolysis is accelerated by the replacement of
the native membrane with surface active material (mainly casein micelles and whey

proteins) from the plasma.130 This effect is at least partly due to redistribution of
LPL from the plasma to the FGM and accounts for greatly increased lipolysis after
homogenization. Similarly, experiments with on-farm ultrafiltration demonstrate that
milk must be heated after ultrafiltration to inactivate LPL.135 Milking systems will
promote lipolysis to greater or lesser degrees, depending on the amount of agitation
and aeration that takes place during milking and milk transfer.130 Lipolysis can also
be induced in fresh milk by a temperature cycle of cooling to <5C, warming to 25
to 35C, and recooling to <10C. 107 Such an effect may occur if a large amount of
warm milk is added to a small amount of cooled milk.
About 20% of cows produce milk in which LPL is activated by cooling to < 15C
soon after milking. Lipolysis proceeds without subsequent thermal or mechanical
activation. This effect, frequently referred to as spontaneous lipolysis, is unlikely to
occur in herd milks or in pooled milks because it is prevented by mixing affected
milk with three to five times its volume of normal milk.136 The major conditions
that affect spontaneous lipolysis are: late-lactation milk is more susceptible than
early-lactation milk;137 fresh forage reduces the incidence of spontaneous lipolysis;
more lipolysis occurs during the winter months, but this effect may be related to
feed and lactation effects; and low-yielding cows are more likely to produce spontaneous milk. 107138139 Spontaneous vs. nonspontaneous milk may be determined by
differences in contents of lipolytic inhibitors and activators.
Sensory perception of lipolytic rancidity is strongly affected by the pH of the
product because, at low pH, more free fatty acids are present in the aqueous phase,
where they are more readily tasted.16 In fresh milk, sensory threshold values corresponded to acid degree values (ADV) of 4.1 to 4.5 mmol per 100 g of fat as
estimated by the Frankel and Tarassuk solvent extraction method and 1.85 to 2.05
as estimated by the Bureau of Dairy Industries (BDI) detergent extraction method.140

1.2.2.4 Oxidation
Oxidation of milk and other fats proceeds by the well-known autoxidation reaction124
in three stages: initiation, propagation, and termination. During propagation, antioxidant compounds such as tocopherols and ascorbic acid are depleted while peroxide
derivatives of fatty acids accumulate. Peroxides, which have little flavor, undergo
further reactions to form a variety of carbonyls, some of which are potent flavor
compounds, especially some ketones and aldehydes.
Most methods available to monitor lipid oxidation are unsuitable as an early index
of oxidized flavor development in milk: measurement of peroxides is not useful
because peroxides are unstable intermediates; tests based on colorimetric reaction of
thiobarbituric acid with malonaldehyde show some correlation to sensory values141
but are rather insensitive; and direct measurement of oxygen uptake is suitable only
for controlled experimental conditions.142
In milk, the initiation reactions involve phospholipids present in the FGM. Free
radicals formed from phospholipids are then able to initiate oxidation of triglycerides, especially in the presence of copper and proteins.16 During the winter months
(October to May), when cattle are on dry feed, the incidence of oxidized flavor in

raw producer milks in Ontario is about 20% as determined for 2- to 3-day-old milk
by expert graders (unpublished data). The following summary of conditions affecting
oxidation of lipids and the development of oxidized flavor in milk is based mainly
on several significant reviews.16-128'142"146
Although all milk probably requires some extrinsic factor such as added copper
or light to initiate lipid oxidation, the milk of some cows and herds is said to oxidize
spontaneously, implying that oxidation results from factors intrinsic to this milk
whereas lipid oxidation in normal milk requires activation by extrinsic factors. Significant intrinsic factors affecting milkfat oxidation include (1) metalloproteins such
as milk peroxidase and xanthine oxidase: (2) endogenous ascorbic acid, which acts
as a cocatalyst with copper to promote oxidation; (3) endogenous copper content;
and (4) endogenous antioxidants, mainly tocopherols. Fresh forage is well known to
control spontaneous oxidation, as indicated by obvious seasonal effects on the incidence of oxidized flavor. This effect is probably due to increased levels of endogenous antioxidants. However, attempts to supplement dry forage with tocopherols have had limited success because only about 2% of added tocopherol is
transmitted to the milk. 147148 Most managers, therefore, have concentrated on the
control of extrinsic factors to minimize the extent of oxidation.
Important extrinsic factors include contamination with metals, temperature of
storage, oxygen tension, heat treatment, agitation, light, and acidity. Both copper
and iron may catalyze lipid oxidation, but probably only copper is significant in
milk. Added copper is much more potent than natural copper because a significant
portion of added copper goes directly to the fat globule.16 In some milks, 5 /jig k g " 1
of added copper is sufficient to induce lipid oxidation. Fortification149 or
contamination150 of milk with iron is reported to induce oxidized flavor development.
This seems surprising because iron should be inactivated by proteins in milk.16
Autoxidation of fats is generally increased with higher temperatures; but in raw
milk and low pasteurized milk, this trend is reversed,128 in spite of copper migration
from the fat globule to the plasma at low temperatures.16 Effects of low temperature
on oxidation are normal for processed dairy products. Heating milk causes migration
of copper from the plasma to the fat globule, indicating that oxidation of butter can
be reduced by separating cream before heat treatment and by separating to high fat
contents.16 Heating can also denature metalloproteins and increase the availability
of metals to catalyze oxidation; however, high-heat treatments (in excess of 800C)
stabilize milk against both copper- and light-induced oxidation.151 This effect is
probably due to exposure of sulfhydryl groups of denatured proteins and the release
of hydrogen sulfide, which binds copper as cupric sulfide. The oxygen tension required to permit lipid oxidation in milk is low (0.1 atmosphere oxygen pressure),
and bacterial respiration in normal fresh milk is of no consequence in decreasing
oxidation.152 De-aeration significantly reduces oxidation of packaged whole milk
powder.153
Homogenization drastically reduces the sensitivity of milkfat to both copper- and
light-induced oxidation, probably because oxidation-sensitive membrane phospholipids are displaced. Ultrafiltered milks are also more resistant to oxidation.135

Photooxidation of milk fat is accompanied by depletion of riboflavin, ascorbic


acid, and some amino acids.154"15 So-called sunlight flavor induced by photooxidation is due to oxidation of methionine to methional by photoactivated riboflavin.
Sunlight flavor is, therefore, due to oxidation of proteins but is often confused with
lipid oxidation because the flavor notes are similar. Nonfat retail milks are reported
to show high incidence of oxidized flavor,145 but this effect is most likely sunlight
flavor.

1.2.3 Lactose
1.2.3.1 Biochemical Properties
The lactose content of normal milk is relatively constant at 4.8 to 5.2% lactose
monohydrate. Lower levels occur in colostrum and mastitic milk to offset high mineral levels and maintain osmotic balance.159 Lactose comprises about 52% of milk
solids-not-fat, about 70% of whey solids, and >90% of the solids in milk ultrafiltrate.
Several reviews have appeared on the utilization of lactose.160"162 In addition to
lactose (4-O-/3-D-galactopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose), fresh milk contains other carbohydrates in small amounts, including glucose (1 mg/ml), galactose (1 mg/ml), and
oligosaccharides (0.1 mg/ml).163
Lactose is synthesized in the mammary gland, where the final step is the transfer
of D-galactose to D-glucose by galactosyltransferase in the presence of a-lactalbumin, which acts as an enzyme modifier.164 Lactose is a reducing sugar with the
aldehydic group on the glucose residue. It exists in both a and /3 forms, which are
indicated by interchanging the OH and H on the reducing group. Lactose is optically
active because of its asymmetry, and the a form can be distinguished from the /3
form by its greater rotation of polarized light in the dextro direction.163 Optical
activity is the basis for polarimetric determination of lactose in fresh, nonfermented
dairy products.165 Polarimetry is not useful for fermented products due to interference from lactic acid, which rotates light to the levo direction.
The most important function of lactose in milk and dairy products is its utilization
as a fermentation substrate. Lactose can be hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose by
/3-D-galactosidase (lactase). Elaboration of this enzyme gives lactic acid bacteria a
competitive advantage over many pathogenic and spoilage organisms. It is this property that makes naturally fermented milk a relatively safe product and is the basis
for controlled fermentations in the production of cultured dairy products. Enzymatic
hydrolysis of lactose is used to reduce lactose crystallization in certain products and
to produce lactose-reduced products for persons who do not possess sufficient
lactase.166'167

1.2.3.2 Physicochemical Properties


There are several literature reviews on physicochemical properties of lactose.16'160'163-166'168 Only those properties most important to dairy processing are
discussed here.

Figure 1.7 a-Lactose crystals prepared by scanning electron microscopy. (Courtesy of


A. Smith.)

The a and /3 forms of lactose exist in solution in a temperature-dependent equilibrium, according to Eq. 1.1, where T is temperature in 0 C.
[/3]/[a] = 1.64 - 0.00277

(1.1)

Supersaturated solutions of lactose at temperatures >93.5C crystallize as anhydrous


/3-lactose, which is sweeter than a-lactose monohydrate (a-hydrate).163 At temperatures <93.5C, supersaturated solutions crystallize as a-lactose monohydrate. Mutarotation from /3-lactose to a-lactose occurs as a-lactose is crystallized from solution. Crystals of a-lactose monohydrate form many different shapes, but all are
crystallographically equivalent to the most common "tomahawk" shape (Fig.
1.7).163 The different shapes arise from differential rates of crystallization on the
various crystal faces. The most important variables affecting the rate of crystal
growth and crystal shape is the degree of supersaturation (the ratio of actual concentration to the solubility) and the presence of inhibitors.
In milk, the most important inhibitor is /3-lactose, which inhibits crystallization
on some faces more than others and is largely responsible for the characteristic
tomahawk shape of crystalline a-lactose monohydrate.16 The final solubility of lactose is 15.1 g/100 g of water at 100C and 11.9 g/100 g of water at 00C. In practice,
a-hydrate is likely to crystallize in refrigerated dairy products containing more than
about 13 g lactose per 100 g of water. Amorphous anhydrous lactose (lactose glass)
is formed by rapid drying (e.g., spray-drying of milk or whey) or by rapid freezing.
Lactose glass is extremely hygroscopic and accounts for the caking of skim milk
powder, which occurs at moisture contents greater than about 8%.163 When sufficient

Table 1.10 SOME MINOR COMPONENTS IN FRESH MILK. RESULTS ARE


EXPRESSED AS CONTENTS PER LITER 3'16'169>170
Vitamins

Minerals
Sodium (mg)
Potassium (mg)
Chloride (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Iron (|xg)
Zinc (jig)
Copper (|xg)
Manganese (|xg)
Iodine (u,g)
Fluoride (|xg)
Selenium (|xg)
Cobalt ([Lg)
Chromium (|xg)
Molybdenum (jig)
Nickel (jLg)
Silicon ([ig)
Vanadium (jxg)
Tin (jig)
Arsenic (|xg)

350-900
1100-1700
900-1100
1100-1300
90-140
900-1000
300-600
2000-6000
100-600
20-50
260
30-220
5-67
0.5-1.3
8-13
18-120
0-50
750-7000
tr-310
40-500
20-60

Selected Miscellaneous Compounds


Ethanol (mg)
Formic acid (mg)
Acetic acid (mg)
Lactic acid (mg)
Citric acid (mg)
Phosphoric esters (mg)
Nucleic acids and Nucleotides (mg)

3
10-85
3-50
34-104
1750
300
555

A (jig RE)
D(IU)
E(JJLg)
K(JJLg)
B 1 (jig)
B 2 (JJLg)
Niacin (jig)
B 6 (M^g)
Pantothenic acid (jxg)
Biotin (jig)
Folic acid (jxg)
B 12 (^g)
C(IiIg)

400
40
1000
50
450
1750
900
500
3500
35
55
4.5
20

NPN Compounds
Total NPN (mg)
Urea-N (mg)
Creatine N (mg)
Uric acid-N (mg)
Orotic acid N (mg)
Peptides N (mg)
Ammonia N (mg)
Amino acid N (mg)
Choline (mg)
Carnitine (mg)
Af-Acetylneuraminic acid (mg)

229-308
84-134
6-20
5-8
12-13
32
3-14
39-51
43-285
10-17
120-270

moisture is available, lactose glass forms a-hydrate crystals, which bind powder
particles together.

1.2.4 Minor Components


The contents of some minor components of milk are listed in Table 1.10, including
some vitamins, minerals, nonprotein nitrogenous compounds, phosphoric esters,
ethanol, and some acids.

1.2.4.1 Vitamins
The physiological functions and the activity in milk of vitamins have been reviewed. 1 7 0 1 7 1 Milk contains fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K (Table 1.10). Milk

is an important source of dietary vitamin A; many Western countries require supplementation of skim milk to replace vitamin A removed with the cream. U.S. Government Regulations require 2000IU of vitamin A per quart (1 U.S. quart = 0.95 L).
The actual amounts, however, have been reported to be less and are extremely variable.172 Natural vitamin A activity is derived from retinol and /3-carotene and varies
with the season, due to seasonal variation in /3-carotene,170 which also accounts for
the seasonal variation in the color of milk fat. Vitamin D activity in milk is derived
from cholecalciferol (D3) and ergocalciferol (D2). Vitamin E occurs in milk as atocopherol, an important natural antioxidant. Activities of vitamins D and E in milk
vary with the season or, more directly, with type of forage. Milk contributes a rather
small proportion of the dietary vitamin K in Western diets.
Milk is an important dietary source of water-soluble vitamins B 1 (thiamine), B 2
(riboflavin), B 6 (pyridoxine), B 12 (cyanocobalamin), niacin (nicotinic acid), andpantothenic acid (Table 1.10). All the water-soluble vitamins are quite stable to milk
processing treatments, although riboflavin is extremely sensitive to degradation by
light of wavelengths <610 nm. Light-activated riboflavin is an agent in the development of sunlight flavor in milk (Section 1.2.2.4) and also catalyzes the photodegradation of ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid is the most heat-labile vitamin in milk,
but this is of little consequence because milk is not an important source of dietary
vitamin C.

1.2.4.2 Minerals
Twenty-two minerals are considered essential to human nutrition. All of these are
present in milk, confirming milk's nutritional excellence. 169173174 However, negative factors may also exist. In particular, there is currently concern about iodine
concentrations, which may be elevated by disinfectant iodophors.175"180 There have
also been numerous recent investigations on the presence of radionuclides in milk,
especially 90Sr and 131 L 3 ' 181
Three families of salt constituents may be considered in milk.159 The first includes
sodium (Na), potassium (K), and chloride (Cl), which exist almost entirely as free
ions in milk and are readily diffusible (i.e., are present in milk ultrafiltrate). The
concentrations of these three ions are negatively correlated to lactose, as required
to maintain osmotic equilibrium of milk with blood. Thus, as compared to midlactation, in early lactation, Na and Cl concentrations of milk are higher and lactose
concentration is lower.
A second family includes colloidal calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), inorganic
phosphorus (P1), and citrate. Total concentrations of Ca, Mg, P1, and citrate in milk
plasma are 30.3, 5.2, 21.4, and 9.5 mM, respectively, by calculation.159 On a molar
basis, about two-thirds of the calcium, one-third of the magnesium, one-half of the
inorganic phosphorus, and less than one-tenth of citrate in milk are colloidal (i.e.,
nondiffusible) and mainly present in the casein micelle (Section 1.3.1). Therefore,
concentrations of colloidal Ca, Mg, P1, and citrate are strongly correlated to the casein
content of milk.

Next Page

A third family includes salts, whose concentrations are affected by the natural pH
of milk, namely, diffusible Ca, diffusible Mg, diffusible citrate, Ca2+ , and HPO2TAbout 20 to 30% of diffusible Ca and Mg is present as free ions; the remainder
exists as citrate and phosphate salts. Diffusible Ca, Mg, and citrate concentrations
are positively correlated because Ca and Mg form strong complexes with citrate at
the pH of milk. A negative correlation between Ca 2+ concentration and pH and a
positive correlation between Ca 2+ and HPO 2 - relate to the solubility product of
micellar calcium phosphate. The degree of saturation of micellar calcium phosphate
and the concentration of H2POX are relatively constant. For example, increased
Ca 2+ causes formation of colloidal calcium phosphate, and the level of H2PO^ is
maintained by reaction of HPO2," with H + . Further discussion of acid-base equilibria is presented in Section 1.4.6.

1.3 Structure
1.3.1 Casein Micelles
1.3.1.1 Properties
In their classic monograph on dairy chemistry, Jenness and Patton in 1959 stated
that "Many of the problems of dairy technology revolve around the behaviour of
the (calcium caseinate-phosphate complex) and particularly the aggregation of the
particles by heat, salts, acid, and rennin. Therefore, a study of its composition and
properties is a most important phase of dairy chemistry".182 In the 30 years since
this statement was made, considerable effort has been put into studying the properties
of the casein micelle. The progress to date has recently been reviewed.183"185 The
intricacy of the micelles may be related to their biological functions in milkto
carry a large amount of highly insoluble calcium phosphate to the mammalian young
in liquid form, and to form a clot in the stomach for more efficient nutrition.16'184
The micelle is extremely stable under some conditions of processing, for example,
concentration, ultrafiltration, pelleting, drying,183 but very unstable under others, for
example, acid, chymosin.16 A manipulation of micelle stability gives rise to many
traditional and nontraditional dairy products.17 A summary of the properties and
structure of the casein micelle will be presented here.
About 75% of the proteins in milk are classified as casein protein, that which
precipitates at pH 4.6.68 Most, but not all, of this casein protein exists in a colloidal
particle known as the casein micelle, which contains other components as well as
casein, including calcium, phosphate, citrate, minor ions, lipase and plasmin enzymes, and entrapped milk serum.16 This particle is a calcium-caseinate-calciumphosphate complex, and not a true micelle in the colloidal sense.16 The principal
casein proteins have been identified as asl~, as2-, /3-, and K-casein.184 Their properties
and primary structure have been discussed in Section 1.2.1.1. The identification of
two classes of milk proteins, y-casein and part of the proteose peptone fraction, has
been determined from primary sequencing to be degradation products or incompletely synthesized precursors of /3-casein.68 The molar ratio of proteins within the

Previous Page

A third family includes salts, whose concentrations are affected by the natural pH
of milk, namely, diffusible Ca, diffusible Mg, diffusible citrate, Ca2+ , and HPO2TAbout 20 to 30% of diffusible Ca and Mg is present as free ions; the remainder
exists as citrate and phosphate salts. Diffusible Ca, Mg, and citrate concentrations
are positively correlated because Ca and Mg form strong complexes with citrate at
the pH of milk. A negative correlation between Ca 2+ concentration and pH and a
positive correlation between Ca 2+ and HPO 2 - relate to the solubility product of
micellar calcium phosphate. The degree of saturation of micellar calcium phosphate
and the concentration of H2POX are relatively constant. For example, increased
Ca 2+ causes formation of colloidal calcium phosphate, and the level of H2PO^ is
maintained by reaction of HPO2," with H + . Further discussion of acid-base equilibria is presented in Section 1.4.6.

1.3 Structure
1.3.1 Casein Micelles
1.3.1.1 Properties
In their classic monograph on dairy chemistry, Jenness and Patton in 1959 stated
that "Many of the problems of dairy technology revolve around the behaviour of
the (calcium caseinate-phosphate complex) and particularly the aggregation of the
particles by heat, salts, acid, and rennin. Therefore, a study of its composition and
properties is a most important phase of dairy chemistry".182 In the 30 years since
this statement was made, considerable effort has been put into studying the properties
of the casein micelle. The progress to date has recently been reviewed.183"185 The
intricacy of the micelles may be related to their biological functions in milkto
carry a large amount of highly insoluble calcium phosphate to the mammalian young
in liquid form, and to form a clot in the stomach for more efficient nutrition.16'184
The micelle is extremely stable under some conditions of processing, for example,
concentration, ultrafiltration, pelleting, drying,183 but very unstable under others, for
example, acid, chymosin.16 A manipulation of micelle stability gives rise to many
traditional and nontraditional dairy products.17 A summary of the properties and
structure of the casein micelle will be presented here.
About 75% of the proteins in milk are classified as casein protein, that which
precipitates at pH 4.6.68 Most, but not all, of this casein protein exists in a colloidal
particle known as the casein micelle, which contains other components as well as
casein, including calcium, phosphate, citrate, minor ions, lipase and plasmin enzymes, and entrapped milk serum.16 This particle is a calcium-caseinate-calciumphosphate complex, and not a true micelle in the colloidal sense.16 The principal
casein proteins have been identified as asl~, as2-, /3-, and K-casein.184 Their properties
and primary structure have been discussed in Section 1.2.1.1. The identification of
two classes of milk proteins, y-casein and part of the proteose peptone fraction, has
been determined from primary sequencing to be degradation products or incompletely synthesized precursors of /3-casein.68 The molar ratio of proteins within the

micelle at the time of secretion is approximately a s l : a s2 : (j8 + y): K = 4:1:4:1.3 185


or about 38% a s l -, 10% a s2 -, 36% )8-, and 13% /c-casein.184
The K-casein content requires special consideration. It differs from other caseins
in that it is soluble over a very broad range of calcium ion concentrations. 186 It plays
a unique role during clotting by rennet in that it is cleaved by chymosin at the
Phe 1 0 5 -Met 1 0 6 bond into para-K-casein (residues 1 to 105) and the hydrophilic caseinomacropeptide (residues 106 to 169) fractions. 187 ' 188 On either side of this bond
lies an unusual proline sequence that may account for this unique specificity. 184 An
inverse relationship between /c-casein content and micelle size has been reported. 189 " 191 Micelles in the 154-nm diameter range may contain as little as 4%
K-casein whereas those in the 62-nm diameter range contained up to 12% /c-casein.191
Decreases in a s l -, a s2 -, and /3-casein were noted as K-casein increased. Artificial
micelles can be prepared if a s l - or /3-casein is absent, but not if K-casein is absent. 192
Thus is plays an important role in casein micelle stabilization. The macropeptide
portion, once cleaved, is readily soluble and migrates away from the micelle. The
para-casein micelle, devoid of the CMP, coagulates readily with other para-casein
micelles. The action of rennet on the micelle is discussed further in Section 1.3.1.3.
However, it is important to recognize that K-casein must exist at or near the surface
of the micelle, oriented with easy access of the CMP to cleavage by rennet. Thus,
this macropeptide is thought to exist in a hairlike manner covering the outer surface
of the micelle. 193 " 201 As little as 10% of the K-casein may exist in the hairy layer 200
and the rest of the K-casein may be quite inflexible. 201
About 7% of the dry matter of the micelles consists of inorganic material, principally calcium and phosphate.185 Milk contains approximately 117 mg of calcium
per 100 g of milk. Milk serum contains 40 mg per 100 g of serum, only 32% of the
calcium content. The rest is associated with the casein micelle, approximately 31
mg per gram of dry casein. Likewise, of 203 mg of inorganic phosphate per 100 g
of milk, only 53% is present in the serum and the rest, 37 mg per gram of dry casein,
is associated with the micelle. 16 The micelle also contains 5.6 mg of citrate, 3.3 mg
of K, 1.5 mg of Mg, and 0.9 mg of Na per gram of dry casein. 16 The approximate
composition of the casein micelle is given in Table 1.11.
The micelles may contain as high as 7.9 g of water, 202 or milk serum depleted of
large solute molecules such as globular proteins, 16 per gram of protein. The water
sorption properties of milk proteins have been reviewed. 203 The micelle is more
highly solvated than most globular proteins and therefore has a rather porous structure.184 This hydration water is probably not bound but is characteristic of the packing density of hydrophobic side chains. 202 The voluminosity of the micelles may
range from about 2 ml per gram of casein up to 4 ml per gram of casein, depending
on consideration of the outer hairy layers of the micelle, representing 6 to 12% of
the volume fraction of milk. 194 Measured size from electron microscopy and molecular weight measurements from light scattering studies also indicate a very low
density packing of the casein monomers into the micelle structure.184
Many studies of the size distribution of the micelles have been made using electron microscopy, light scattering, and controlled pore glass chromatography methods. 204 " 206 An approximate distribution is shown in Figure 1.8. The number average

T a b l e 1.11

COMPOSITION OF CASEIN
MICELLES IN COW'S MILK AT
ROOM TEMPERATURE, g/100 g OF
MICELLES, DRY BASIS 183

Component

Content

a sr Casein
cts2-Casein
p-Casein
K-Casein
Casein fragments
Whole casein
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Inorganic phosphate (PO4)
Citrate
Total inorganic material

35.6
9.9
33.6
11.9
2.3
93.3
2.87
0.11
0.11
0.26
2.89
0.40
6.6

Number
frequency
(%)
N

Volume
V

frequency
(%)

Diameter (nm)
Figure 1.8 Examples of the size frequency distribution of casein micelles. Number (Af, lefthand ordinate) and volume frequency (V, right hand ordinate), both in percentage of total per
50-nm class width, against micelle diameter. (From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons.)

diameter has been reported as 25 nm,207 up to 140 run,184 and the volume surface
average diameter as 86 nm.207 The population may be bimodal with a volume surface
average diameter peak at 90 to 180 nm, with a lesser peak at >200 nm,205 although
results vary according to technique used. A small number of very large particles, up
to 800 nm in diameter, and a large number of small particles, maybe representing
submicelles, have been reported.16 The size distribution of the micelles may have
an impact on both nutritional and technological considerations.205'208
The molar ratios of the casein fractions of the micelle given above refer to the
micelle at the time of secretion. However, it has been recognized that some of the
casein fractions, particularly /3-casein, are able to migrate out of the micelle to the
serum phase in a reversible manner without causing collapse of the micellar structure. 209 " 212 This migration is temperature dependent.211 As much as 60% of the
/3-casein has been found in the serum phase after 48 h at 40C.210 This serum /3-casein
is free to interchange with micellar casein.211 These changes, however, are reversible
on rewarming to 37C. This cold dissociation phenomenon has pedagogical impact
on a model for the casein micelle, and also has technological impact, particularly on
the cheese industry, as cheesemaking parameters may be altered210 and enhanced
proteolysis of the /3-casein by plasmin and proteinases of the bacterial microflora
may occur in the serum phase211'213 and may lead to the formation of y-caseins.212
All of the above considerations have led to numerous proposed models for the
casein micelle. The earlier models have been reviewed183'184'192-214"218 and the relevant portions of each have been combined. The most accepted model seems to be
that elaborated by Schmidt. 183 " 185192 Casein micelles consist of a number of smaller
units, referred to as submicelles, which may be 8 to 20 nm in diameter.207'219"221
These have been differentiated by electron microscopy which shows the micelle to
have a "raspberry-like" structure. 183222 " 224 This is shown in Figure 1.9. The size
of the submicelles is not uniform but is governed by concentration, pH, ionic
strength, and temperature.220 They may contain between 15 and 25 casein molecules,185 with molecular weight 250,000 to 2,000,000. The submicelles contain
a hydrophobic core and are covered by a hydrophilic coat much less dense than
globular proteins,202 which is at least partly comprised of the polar moieties of
IOC
/c-casein.
The stoichiometric ratio of caseins as noted above at 37C, varies between
individual submicelles, some being rich in K-casein and others depleted in
/c-casein.226'227 The hydrophilic C-terminus end of /c-casein, the CMP, exists as a
flexible hair, behaving more or less as a random-coil polymer chain.16 The effective
thickness of the hairy layer is at least 7 nm.185 It must be recognized that this Kcasein probably exists as an oligomer of, on average, six molecules.185 Consequently,
steric repulsion would prohibit further aggregation of submicelles to the surface rich
in CMP.228 The recognition that /c-casein exists at the surface of the micelles implies
that submicelles rich in /c-casein occupy a surface position whereas those with less
K-casein are buried in the interior, although K-casein has been isolated from within
the micelle whereas a sl - and /3-casein are scattered throughout the micelle including
the surface. 190192196 ' 202 ' 229 Many hydrophobic patches probably exist on the surface
of the micelle.184

Figure 1.9 Casein micelles (A and B) from yogurt prepared by the fixation method of ref. 225
and examined by scanning electron microscopy with field emission. (Courtesy of A. Smith.)

B
hydrophobic core

GMP "hairy"
layer
K - casein enriched surface

cluster

Figure 1.10 Schematic representation of the casein micelle (A) and submicelle (B).16'183'184

Colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP), probably in the form of C a ^ P O ^ clusters,183 although this remains unclear, 185 ' 230231 acts to aggregate submicelles
into micelles 232 and thus plays a very important role in maintaining the integrity
of the micelles. The micelle may contain hundreds or even thousands of submicelles. 233 Micellar growth would come to an end when the whole surface consists
of K-casein.183'185 The high voluminosity of the micelles implies a loose spongelike
structure with much interstitial water and highly hydrated hydrophilic groups at the
surface,194*234 which probably allows for migration of /3-casein in and out of the
micelle as a function of temperature.211'212 This may also imply a structural role for
a s l - casein. 235 " 237 The model for the casein micelle based on the above discussion
is illustrated in Figure 1.10.
Association of submicelles may occur in the Golgi vesicles within the secretory
cell. Calcium and phosphate pass through the membrane into the Golgi vesicles and
when their concentration is sufficient to form Ca9(PO4)S clusters, micellar aggregation may occur. When the Golgi vesicles fuse to the apical plasma membrane,
micelles are emptied into the alveolar lumen. 183 Micellar growth may continue in
the lumen; micelles of 1 /urn diameter have been observed in this area.205

1.3.1.2 Stability
It should be recognized from the above discussion that a precise mechanism of
formation and ultrastructure of the casein micelle is still uncertain; nevertheless, a
great deal is known about this complex colloidal particle. A number of factors are
responsible for holding this micelle together and giving it stability, including the
role of colloidal calcium phosphate, disulfide bonding, hydrogen bonding, hydro-

phobic interactions, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, and steric
forces, 184 ' 185 - 217 ' 238 and these will be discussed here.
More than 90% of the calcium content of skim milk is either associated in some
way with other ions or found within the casein molecules. 184 There are two distinct
forms of ions associated with the casein micelle: an outer system, perhaps in the
form of a charged double layer, and an inner system not easily washed away. 184 An
amount of calcium approximately equivalent to the number of ester phosphate groups
appears to be bound to the casein monomers. 192 A small amount of calcium is bound
to micellar citrate. The balance of the calcium in the micelle may be in the form of
amorphous tertiary calcium phosphate, Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , found in clusters of Ca 9 (PO 4 )S. 183
It must be prevented from being transformed into a more stable form such as hydroxyapatite by the casein, although small ions such as magnesium, which has also
been isolated from the micelle, may play a role. 231 Casein may also prevent sedimentation of tertiary calcium phosphate.
The exact nature of the colloidal calcium phosphate complex in the micelle is
undetermined, yet its role in casein micelle stabilization is well documented. 185 ' 230
The removal of calcium ions from the micelle causes reversible dissociation of /3and /c-casein from the micelles without micellar disintegration, whereas the addition
of excess calcium favors micellar component aggregation. 232 ' 235 Mineral solubilization at low temperature may be responsible for the dissociation of /3-casein, which
indicates its responsibility for micelle stabilization. 209 ' 235 ' 239 The mineral complex
found in the micelle can be reproduced only when calcium, phosphate, and citrate
are present. 224
The nature of the binding between CCP and casein has been the subject of much
speculation. Various types of covalent bonding have been proposed. 183 The phosphoserine residues of the caseins are potential sites for interaction. Binding may also
be electrostatic, between the negatively charged ester phosphate group of casein and
the Ca 9 (POJ 6 clusters which, with the adsorption of two Ca 2 + ions, are positively
charged. 183 In addition to binding submicelles together, the CCP may be responsible
for a fairly rigid conformation of caseins within the submicelle. 201
Hydrogen bonding between casein monomers in the casein micelle may occur
and hydrogen bonding between ionizable side chains or residues and solvent, water,
exist within the micelle. 184 Many bioproteins, including the milk serum proteins,
exhibit considerable secondary and tertiary structure, in the form of a-helix or
j8-sheet configurations.71 These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds along
the primary backbone of the protein. Spectral investigations such as circular dichroism or infrared spectroscopy of the isolated caseins have shown that these proteins
possess little tertiaiy structure. Also, if a secondary structure is present, it is somewhat disorganized, possibly due to high levels of proline residues 16 which tend to
inhibit the formation of secondary and tertiary structure. It has been stated that at
least 75% of the three major caseins, a s l -, /3-, and K-, exist in an aperiodic conformation. 184 Because little periodic structure occurs in the individual components, the
degree of stabilization of the micelle by a-helix or jS-structure is probably quite low.
However, it has recently been demonstrated by Raman spectroscopy that 40% of
whole casein in submicellar form may have a /3-turn structure.202 The role of hy-

drogen bonding between the various casein components with the micelle is still
unclear.
Disulfide bonds between cysteine residues normally accounts for the development
of, or at least the stabilization of predeveloped, tertiary and possibly quaternary
structure within bioproteins. Both a sl - and /3-casein contain no cysteine residues and
therefore do not enter into disulfide bonding.16 However, as2- and K-casein contain
two cysteine residues each, and therefore the potential for disulfide bridges cannot
be excluded.16 Disulfide-linked aggregates of /c-casein have been isolated from the
micelle, and it is thought that many molecules of /c-casein must exist contiguous to
each other in the micelle in order to form such aggregates.184 It would appear,
however, that if disulfide bridges appear within the micelle, they are not the driving
force for micelle formation.
Hydrophobic interactions result from the presence of apolar amino acid residues
within a protein molecule. These residues are forced out of the solvent, water, and
into the interior of the protein molecule, where they can interact with other apolar
groups. A small gain in entropy and stabilization energy results. Hydrophobic interactions are highly temperature sensitive and are minimized at 5C or less. Hydrophobic interactions are also reduced by increased pressure.184 The caseins rank
among the most hydrophobic proteins71 and thus it should be expected that the
micelle is at least in part stabilized by hydrophobic interactions. Increased pressure
tends to dissociate casein and disrupt casein micelle structure.219'240 Low temperatures also have a disruptive effect on the micelle as evidenced by the cold dissociation
of /3-casein from the micelle212 and by its sensitivity to freezing.184 However, micelles are quite stable to moderate to high temperatures.185 These factors are evidence
for some role of hydrophobic interactions in the stability of the micelle.
Electrostatic interactions between amino acid side chains and ions in solution can
impart reasonable structural stability to a protein. The role of inter- and intramolecular ionic bonds among the casein in stabilization of the micelle is unclear; however,
there are a number of sites for potential ionic bonding within the casein molecules,
and these may play a role in subunit interactions.184 Both calcium and phosphate
are critical for micelle stability, as discussed above. Binding between colloidal calcium phosphate may be electrostatic in nature, as CCP is positively charged and the
casein is negatively charged.183 Due to the number of charged groups on casein
monomers, not all of them can exist at the surface. However, due to the open structure
generally recognized for the micelle, solvent may be available within the micelle
itself.184 Ethanol, for example, tends to decrease solvent interactions and is known
to lower the stability of the micelle.185
Van der Waals forces are always attractive and are formed from the establishment
of a dipole moment as a result of the fluctuating electron cloud about an atom or
molecule. The interaction falls off proportionally to an inverse power of the interparticle distance; however, the proportionality coefficient, the Hamaker constant, is
uncertain.16 The DLVO theory of interparticle stability for lyophobic colloids (after
Deiyagin, Landau, Verwey, and Overbeek) relates London-van der Waals attraction
to electrostatic double layer repulsion as a function of interparticle distance.241 Many
attempts have been made to relate DLVO theory to micelle stability and aggregation

with limited success.185'217'233 Although the casein micelles act in many cases as
lyophobic colloidal particles, their behavior deviates in other cases making stability
and aggregation of micelles very difficult to explain in terms of DLVO principles.233
Steric stabilization results from the presence of adsorbed macromolecules onto a
colloidal particle and the protrusion of molecular chains (called "hairs") from the
particle. This may interfere with interparticle approach through either compression
and thus restriction of freedom of motion and loss of conformational entropy or
through interpenetration of the hairs resulting in either osmotic repulsion or interparticle attraction, depending on the solvation properties and hydrophilic nature of
the hairs.241 As is noted in the preceding discussion, the role of /c-casein at the surface
of the micelle acts to give the micelle a hairy layer associated with the protrusion
of the caseinomacropeptide into solution. Thus it follows that much of the stability
of the micelle to flocculation must be associated with steric stabilization.*
The stability of the micelles usually correlates well with their voluminosity, corresponding to a more extensive hairiness and a stronger steric repulsion. However,
voluminosity also affects the Hamaker constant and consequently van der Waals
forces, and also the electrokinetic or ^-potential, which makes a precise determination of forces difficult.16 At cold temperatures, the dissociation of /3-casein from the
micelle212 may give rise to another source of hairiness and steric stability. This makes
it difficult to assess the relative role of hydrophobic versus steric forces in describing
the stability of the micelles to the action of various environmental factors including
a lack of aggregation by chymosin at cold temperatures.185'245 However, the reduction in hydrophobic bonds may be responsible for the release of the /3-casein from
the micelle, assuming that they play some role in holding the micelle together. The
importance of steric stabilization is discussed further in Section 1.3.1.3. with regard
to aggregation processes, particularly the action of chymosin on the micelle.

1.3.1.3 Aggregation
Although casein micelles are fairly stable, there are at least four technologically
significant ways in which aggregation of casein micelles can be made to occur.185
These include the action of the proteolytic enzyme chymosin on the micelle, such
as in the cheese industry; the aggregation of casein by acid, as in the manufacture
of some types of cheeses and fermented products; aggregation caused by heating;
and the age gelation of micelles, which is important in the preparation of sterilized,
shelf-stable milk products. Each of these will be discussed in some detail.
There are many commercially available milk-clotting enzymes. Of these, calf
rennet, whose active principle is chymosin, rennin (EC 3.4.23.4) is the most common. Also used are bovine pepsin, porcine pepsin, and microbial aspartic proteinases from Mucor miehei, M. pusillus, and Endothia parasitica.246 The milk clotting
ability of aspartic proteinases results from the cleavage of a specific linkage
(Phe105-Met106) of /c-casein.187'188'247 There are three distinct but overlapping stages
during the enzymatic coagulation of milk.217'248~250 Enzymatic cleavage of the
Refs. 185, 193-195, 197, 198, 200, 228, 242-244.

Phe 105 -Met 106 linkage of K-casein results in the formation of the soluble CMP which
diffuses away from the micelle and para-/c-casein, a distinctly hydrophobic peptide
that remains on the micelle.251 This is a relatively quick reaction, the turnover being
100 s~ l in milk, pH 6.7, 300C,16 and seems to be independent of micelle size.208
The loss of the CMP results in decreased steric stabilization of the paracasein,195
and may also result in a reduction in electrostatic repulsive forces and increased
micellar hydrophobicity,187 and leads to the formation of small aggregates and chains
consisting of destabilized paracasein micelles of various lengths, complexed with
calcium.252 Paracasein micelles have much reduced voluminosity and potential,
compared to native casein micelles, but otherwise are not disintegrated.208 The action
of the enzyme on the micelle is unclear.242253 It probably cleaves CMP molecules
fairly randomly,244 although it may cleave a patch or an entire micelle of CMP before
moving on. However, the formation of a reactive site or patch on the micelle is
necessary before aggregation of paracasein micelles can begin. This requires cleavage of > 85% of the CMP,187'188 although this is pH dependent.254-255 Enzymatic
cleavage of CMP through the use of immobilized enzymes has been very difficult
to achieve,256 probably due to the proximity of the Phe-Met bond to the micelle
surface and the orientation of the bond to the enzyme.185
The second stage involves coagulum or curd formation following enzymatic action.257 As a result, the lag time before clotting depends on both the time for enzyme
action and the production of appreciable concentrations of aggregatable material,
namely paracasein micelles.233 The forces of attraction between paracasein micelles
include van der Waals, possibly electrostatic interactions in the form of salt bridges
between positively and negatively charged regions of paracasein micelles, possibly
mediated by Ca 2 + ions or through CCP-like linkages,185 and possibly hydrophobic
bonding. It has been observed that renneted micelles will not aggregate at 5C and
this is often used as evidence for the importance of hydrophobic bonding, although
the temperature dependence of aggregation may also be related to /3-casein dissociation and resulting steric stabilization from /3-casein hairs (see Section 1.3.1.2).
The Ca 2+ concentration and the colloidal/soluble calcium phosphate balance are
critical, as calcium is needed for continued aggregation.245 Renneted micelles nearly
always lead to the formation of a gel rather than a precipitate due to the steric
retardation of the clotting as a result of a restricted number of reactive sites on the
micelle surface and thus a large number of unsuccessful collisions.233'258'259 This
must be related to the action of the enzyme in cleaving a portion of the CMP hairs.
This is illustrated in Figure 1.11.
The final stage in the clotting of milk is not well defined and includes syneresis
and firming of the curd,260""263 a loss of paracasein micelle identity, and nonspecific
proteolysis of caseins in the coagulum.187 The paracasein micelles fuse into larger
units as CCP rearranges throughout the micellar region,264'265 and may be analogous
to binding between submicelles in a casein micelle.266
Micelles can also be destabilized or aggregated by a reduction in pH,267 independent of enzymatic action, as in the manufacture of directly acidified cheeses or
in fermented products. The first consequence of a lowering of the pH below 6.7 is
partial dissolution of CCP and a decrease in micelle voluminosity.254'268 Dissolution

Figure 1.11 Clotting of casein micelles. (A) Surface completely reactive: all collisions will
lead to sticking. (B) Surface only partly reactive: unsuccessful collosion. (C) Surface only
partly reactive: successful collosion. (D) Total surface reactive: dense precipitate. (E) Surface
only partly reactive: loose network. (From ref. 233 with permission of Cambridge University
Press.)

of some of the micelles into submicelles may also occur and has been reported at
pH 5.6. 254 At pH < 5 . 5 , micelles may fuse as the surface potential is lowered. The
potential approaches zero at near pH 5.2. 16 Most of the CCP will be lost at this
pH. Near pH 4.8, nearly all of the CCP is dissolved, and at pH 4.6, the isoelectric
point, the solubility of casein is negligible. 71 - 186 Casein micelles have disintegrated
and casein precipitates.81 Aggregation occurs as a result of entropically driven hydrophobic interactions.268
A further method of micellar destabilization is through heating to temperatures
above the boiling point.269""271 Although casein is not denaturable, casein micelles
irreversibly aggregate. Chemical changes of the casein must occur because the addition of agents that break H bonds, reduce disulfide linkages, and dissolve calcium
phosphate leave the aggregates intact.16 The coagulation time is very pH dependent,
and two distinct behaviors for lots of milk have been shown. 272 Most samples of
milk require a maximum time for heat coagulation at 1400C when adjusted to pH
6.7 and a minimum time at pH 6.9 (type A behavior). However, some milk samples
fail to show minimum and maximum points but instead increase in coagulation time

as pH is increased from 6.2 to 7.4 (type B behavior).185-272 The pH change caused


by heating may be primarily responsible for the heat coagulation phenomena.273 On
heating, the buffer capacity of milk salts change, carbon dioxide is released, organic
acids are produced, and tricalcium phosphate and casein phosphate may be precipitated with the release of hydrogen ions. The pH at the time of coagulation, when
measured at room temperature, is always low, <6.2. Heat coagulation can be prevented by adding alkali to maintain the native pH. In addition, /3-lactoglobulin precipitates onto micelle surfaces274'275 and a /c-casein-/3-lactoglobulin complex that
associates and dissociates from the micelle as a function of pH may be responsible
for the erratic behavior of casein to heat coagulation.269 The effects of heat on milk
proteins will be considered more fully in Chapter 2.
Age gelation of casein micelles is another aggregation phenomenon with both
pedagogical implications about the casein micelle and technological implications in
the production of shelf-stable, sterilized products. Destabilization of casein in milk
which has been treated under UHT conditions, for example, 142C for 5 s, followed
by aging at ambient temperatures for weeks or months, leads to the formation of age
thickening and age gelation.129'276 Usually a sudden sharp increase in viscosity accompanied by visible gelation and irreversible aggregation of the micelles into long
chains forming a three-dimensional network occurs.192 The action of heat-resistant
proteinases, either bacterial in origin or native plasmin enzymes, may be responsible
for proteolysis of casein during storage. However, plasmin may cause dissolution of
casein rather than gelation.16 Proteolysis activity in UHT-treated products has been
reported to be very low, but it has been pointed out that a very limited number of
reactive sites would lead to the formation of a loose gel after considerable time.
However, proteolysis may not be required for gelation. Changes in the protein during
heat treatment, a polymerization of both casein and whey proteins due to Maillard
type or other chemical reactions, or the formation of K-casein-/3-lactoglobulin complexes might also be responsible for age gelation.129-276

1.3.2 Fat Globules

1.3.2.1 Native Fat Globule Membrane


Lipid droplets in milk are covered by a thin membrane, 8 to 10 nm in thickness, that
reduces the lipid serum interfacial tension to very low values, 1 to 2.5 mN/m, preventing the globules from immediate flocculation and coalescence, and protecting
them from enzymatic action.16 The surface area of this membrane in milk is considerable, approximately 80 m2/L of milk.16 Consequently, this membrane has a large
impact on the technical aspects of milk processing.277 The FGM has been extensively
studied and reviewed.27'277""291
Fat droplets appear to originate in the secretory cell of the mammary gland as
small precursor "lipovesicles" in the endoplasmic reticulum and to migrate through
the cytoplasm to apical regions of the cell. These droplets appear to grow during
migration through the cytoplasm by the fusion of lipovesicles with larger droplets.
It is now widely accepted that these lipid droplets acquire the native FGM by budding

directly from the apical cell membrane. 284 The compositional similarity between
milkfat globule membranes and apical cell membranes 286 and electron micrographs
illustrating this budding process within the secretory cell 281 - 284 are strong evidence
for this process. Therefore, the milk FGM is in part, or at least derived from, a lipid
bilayer membrane.
The fat globule may acquire an inner coat of adsorbed molecules as it passes
through the cell cytoplasm before it is enveloped in the cell membrane. 284 Two
principal components of this inner coat material are the enzyme xanthine oxidase
and the glycoprotein butyrophilin, which may have specific functions in the recognition and envelopment of lipid droplets in apical plasma membrane. 281 This tightly
bound inner coat has been observed by electron microscopy and is found as paracrystalline arrays covering only limited areas of and slightly pressed into the triglyceride core. 292 It is possible that other cytoplasmic molecules such as sterols,
phospholipids, gangliosides, and proteins may also be adsorbed to the triglyceride
core prior to envelopment by the cell membrane. 16
Considerable rearrangement of this membrane is thought to occur shortly after
its release into the lumen. 277 - 287 The lipid bilayer membrane of the cell was bordered
on each side by an aqueous environment; however, one side has now been brought
into close contact with the lipid droplet. Part of the more apolar substances of the
membrane may dissolve into the core. Polar substances may dissolve into the serum.
Amphiphilic substances from the milk plasma may adsorb onto the fat globule.
Enzymatic changes of both the lipid and protein portions of the membrane may also
occur. 16
Several methods are available for isolation of the milk FGM, and depending on
the procedure, compositional changes have been found to occur, making quantification of the membrane more difficult. 284 ' 293 - 294 Some authors have reported the
presence of a significant quantity of high melting point glycerides on the innermost
edge of the membrane that are closely associated with the membrane.27-278 This, in
addition to evidence of fat globule birefringence under a polarizing microscope, 295
has led to speculation as to the structural nature of the lipid core and the crystallization characteristics of the globule. 27 - 125 - 296 " 300 It appears that the high melting
glyceride (HMG) fraction and the possibility of a partially crystalline fat globule
existing as a solid shell of HMG and an inner liquid core may be artefacts of the
preparation procedure. 295 ' 301 " 305 On the outermost edge of the membrane, isolation
procedures can also lead to either adsorption of plasma material or desorption of
membrane material, leading to a high degree of variability in the reported composition of the FGM. 294 The estimated average composition of the natural FGM is
given in Table 1.12.
The composition of milk lipids has been discussed in Section 1.2.2.1. More than
95% of the total milk lipid is found in the globule fraction. Approximately 1% of
the total lipids of the globule are associated with the membrane, whereas the remainder are found in the core. The vast majority of the globule core, 98 to 99%, is
comprised of glycerides, mostly triglycerides. 284 The presence of diglycerides in the
core varies, and may be due to either incomplete triglyceride synthesis or to lipolytic
cleavage of fatty acid from the triglyceride.27 In addition to glycerides, the fat globule

Table 1.12 ESTIMATED AVERAGE GROSS COMPOSITION OF NATURAL MILK


UPID GLOBULE MEMBRANES
Components
Protein
Phospholipids
Cerebrosides
Gangliosides
Cholesterol
Neutral glycerides
Hydrocarbons
Ribonucleic acid
Carotenoids
Iron
Molybdenum
Copper
Water
Total

mg per 100 g
Fat Globules
900
600
80
20
40
+
20?
+
0.04?
0.3
0.05
0.01
200?
>1860

mg per m2
Fat Surface

Percent of
Membrane

4.5
3.0
0.4
0.1
0.2
+
0.1
+
2 X 10" 4
15 X 10" 4
2 X 10" 14
0.5 X 10~ 4
1.0

48
33
4
1
2
?
1
7

>9.3

100

11

From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.

core contains some free fatty acids; sterols; phospholipids; glycolipids; carotenoids;
vitamins A, D, E, and K; water; and other miscellaneous components.16 It is highly
probable that these components, including a very large number of different triglycerides, are randomly distributed throughout the core. Crystallization of the globule
may cause a stratification of the HMG to an outer layer, but this is questionable.302*304
It may be that the adsorbed layer acts as the nucleating site for lipid crystallization
to begin.27'297 Some of the lipid in milk cannot be separated by centrifugation, and
this has been termed serum lipid.284 This may be due in part to the presence of very
small globules with dense membraneous layers of a density high enough to cause
them to sediment rather than cream during centrifugation.278
The FGM is responsible for giving the fat globule many of its characteristics in
milk. Consequently, its behavior during processing is of great interest.277 The conditions of the fat globule change greatly after milking, owing primarily to cooling
and crystallization of fat, and agitation. Cooling leads to a migration from fat globules to milk plasma of about 20% of its phospholipid content, and about 30% of its
copper, xanthine oxidase, and other substances.16 When membrane material is lost
due to damage, other amphiphilic molecules in the milk plasma become adsorbed
to the fat globule.16 Foaming can lead to considerable loss of membrane material as
it spreads over the air plasma interface. Action of bacterial enzymes, for example,
phospholipases, may also lead to changes in the membrane. The membrane is responsible for the separation of natural milk lipases from the lipids of the fat globule.
If it is damaged, lipase action can cause lipolytic rancidity to occur in milk. Disruption of globules leads to a greatly increased surface area, causing some desorption
of natural FGM, and considerable adsorption of plasma proteins. This is certainly
the case during homogenization of milk, as will be discussed in the next section.

Due to the amphiphilic nature of many of the membrane components, for example, proteins and phospholipids, isolated FGM material exhibits greatly increased
functional properties such as emulsification and foaming. 306 Dairy products that are
enhanced in membrane material are thus known to have improved functional characteristics. However, this material may oxidize rapidly under improper storage conditions. 307 In the churning of butter, for example, membrane material is lost to the
buttermilk,27 and buttermilk powder can greatly increase whipping and foaming
properties of foods to which it has been added, for example ice cream mix, 308 more
so than skim milk powder. Likewise, recombined milk from butter will be nearly
devoid of natural FGM material, and will form a much different adsorbed layer on
the fat globule as a result of homogenization. 309

1.3.2.2 Recombined Membranes


The natural FGM in raw milk is of tremendous interest; however, in most milk
products, processing steps such as homogenization have greatly changed the characteristics of adsorbed layers onto fat globules. Recombined membranes are much
different than native membranes, and their presence, composition, structure, and
behavior are thus of great interest in dairy processing and dairy products. In discussing size distributions of fat globules, volume surface-weighted average diameters
(dvs) are preferred to number average (d) as the latter are skewed by the large number
of relatively small particles. Volume surface-weighted average diameters relate total
volume to total surface area of the dispersed phase, dvs = 2 N1 d, 3 /2 N1 d\ where
N1 and dt represent number of globules of diameter i. 16 Homogenization creates fat
globules of dys < 0 . 5 ^m, depending on the conditions of homogenization. 310 The
surface area is increased by four- to sixfold or more as a result of this disruption.27'280
Some of the native FGM will remain adsorbed to the fat; 311 ' 312 however, there is
not nearly enough present to cover this newly created surface area. On immediate
disruption, the fat plasma interfacial tension raises to a high level, 15 mN/m, 16 and
amphiphilic molecules in the plasma will quickly be adsorbed to the lipid droplet to
lower this value. This material consists mainly of plasma proteins, and may diffuse
and adsorb within 10 to 100 ms after disruption.302 Figure 1.12 shows an homogenized fat globule with considerable adsorption of casein micelles to its surface.
Several studies have been conducted on recombined milk products, those made
by homogenizing a mixture of skim milk and butterfat,309'313"315 and on homogenized milks 312 - 316 and creams. 317 Adsorbed layers consist mainly of serum proteins
and casein micelles, 313 ' 317 although other molecules such as phospholipid 16 and
lipoprotein complexes different from the native FGM are also found. 312 Spreading
of the casein micelles on the surface of the fat droplet can occur. 313 ' 318 The disruption of the micelle into constituent subunits may also occur as a result of surface
adsorption.317
The surface excess is defined as the protein adsorbed per surface area of fat in
an emulsion. Values reported for fat globules in various aqueous phases include
the following: 20 mg/m 2 in skim milk; 40 mg/m 2 in casein micelle suspensions;
5 mg/m 2 in suspensions of casein subunits; and 1 mg/m 2 whey protein solutions. 309

Figure 1.12 Homogenized milkfat globules (F) prepared by transmission electron microscopy thin sectioning showing adsorbed casein micelles (P) and evidence of internal fat crystallization (arrow).

Surface excess is higher for smaller fat globules in milk plasma, for example,
15 mg/m 2 for globules of diameter 0.4 ^m, and 3 mg/m 2 for d ** 1.6 /x.m 3 1 4 3 1 9
Casein particles may be preferentially adsorbed over serum proteins. 317 Serum proteins have been reported to cover 25% of the globule surface of fat homogenized in
milk solids, but account for only 5% by weight of the membrane protein due to the
different molecular conformations of the two classes of proteins. 314317 This protein
adsorption is irreversible within a limited time frame (hours) but considerable rearrangement of the adsorbed layer occurs as molecules compete for surface space and
as surface denaturation occurs. 302 However, small molecule surfactants can displace
proteins readily from the surface, probably due to a lowering of the interfacial tension. 309 ' 320 ' 321
Heat can also affect the adsorbed layer of recombined fat globules. A higher
temperature during adsorption, up to about 70 0 C, causes a thinner protein layer, 10.7
mg/m 2 at 40 0 C versus 6.0 mg/m 2 at 60 0 C, probably due to a faster rate of casein
spreading.309 However, a heat treatment of the skim milk prior to homogenization
leads to a thicker adsorbed layer, 15 mg/m 2 at a preheating temperature of 95 0 C for
10 min. 309 A significant quantity of /3-lactoglobulin was recovered from the membranes of pasteurized cream. 316 UHT products also exhibited enhanced adsorption
of caseins and serum proteins, particularly /3-lactoglobulin.312 The adsorption of
higher levels of serum proteins after heating results from the partial denaturation of
the proteins87 and the association of serum proteins and caseins as a result of heat
treatments.71'275 Consequently, fat globules can be created with a variety of mem-

N
Number/ ml
(xlOexp-9)

% Lipid

Diameter (jim)
Figure 1.13 Size distribution of lipid globules in milk of a Holstein cow. The number of
globules (N) of various diameters and the percentage of the total lipid present in globules
at indicated diameters are plotted. (From ref. 27 with permission of Pudoc, Wageningen,
Netherlands.)

branes depending on the protein composition of the homogenizing solution and on


the processing conditions. 322

1.3.2.3 Stability
Milk is an emulsion of fat droplets, and no emulsion is thermodynamically stable. 306
Thus the stability of the fat emulsion is a kinetic time-dependent phenomenon. Milk
is known to separate or cream spontaneously and rapidly,302 and many processes
and products involve manipulation of the creaming phenomenon. Emulsion stability
is largely dependent on the size distribution of the globules. In raw milk, fat globules
range in size from 0.1 to 15.0 fjum. The milk emulsion has been found to contain
three distinct populations of fat globules. 323 " 325 These populations may be synthesized differently within the secretory cell. 16 About 75% of the number of globules
in milk are < 1 /nn in diameter, and represent only a small percentage of total milk
fat. Methods for determination of globule size distribution must account for this
population for accuracy of results. 326 A few globules, representing about 2 to 3% of
the fat, are > 12 fxm in diameter. These may arise by coalescence within the lumen
or mammary cistern. 16 Ninety percent of the fat is found in globules in the 1 to 8
/nm range. 284 The size distribution profile for Holstein milk is shown in Figure 1.13.
A calculation of the "average" diameter is difficult as a result of this trimodal
distribution, and many values have been reported. The volume surface average diameter, dvs, calculated as dvs = S N1 d]lX N1 dj, where N1 and dt represent number
of globules of diameter z, is about 3.4 /xm for milk from Holstein cattle.27 This value
relates the surface area of the fat to its volume. The surface area, A, in cm 2 /ml, can
then be calculated as A = 670 G/dvs, where G is the gravimetric fat percentage. The
relative standard deviation of the surface weighted distribution has been found to be

remarkably constant, around 0.5.302 Thus the fat emulsion for raw milk can generally
be characterized by two factors, the gravimetric fat percentage and the average globule diameter, dys. The main factors affecting globule size are breed, individual cow,
and stage of lactation. Milk from breeds with higher fat contents, Jerseys and Guernseys, has been found to have larger fat globules, dvs = 4.5 /xm, than milk from
animals with lower fat content, Holsteins.27 Average globule diameter is reduced as
lactation progresses.284
Stokes' Law predicts that fat globules will cream, due to the differences in densities, p, between the fat, / , and plasma, p, phases of milk (pf 920 kg/m3 at 25C,
pp ** 1030 kg/m3).16 However, the fat globules in cold, raw milk will cream much
faster than is predicted from Stokes' Law based on their size distribution alone.284'302
Sampling of milk for determination of fat content must take this into account. This
fast rate of rise results from the formation of fat globule clusters which may exceed
800 jjim in diameter.280 One of the immunoglobulins in milk, IgM, acts as an agglutinin, for example, flocculating bacteria. IgM forms a complex with lipoproteins
and possibly other components known as cryoglobulin that precipitates onto fat
globules to an increasing extent as temperature is lowered.16'280'302 Once flocculation
of fat globules as a result of cryoglobulin precipitation begins, the speed of globule
rise increases. Smaller globules are thus swept out of the milk plasma by these large
globule clusters whose speed of rising continues to increase.306 The cream layer
forms very rapidly, within 20 to 30 min, in cold milk.27'280 This can easily be redispersed, however, by agitation which causes the cryoglobulin to become associated
with individual globules.16 This agglutinin factor is inactivated by heat or homogenization.302
The stabilization of the fat emulsion in milk is principally achieved through homogenization, which causes the fat globules to become disrupted to form much
smaller globules. Homogenization is performed at temperatures that render the fat
globule completely liquid, a prerequisite for disruption.27 Lipid globules in homogenized milk typically have fat globule diameters of 1 /im or less, and the size
distribution profile is greatly narrowed, causing the speed of globule rise to be similar
for the majority of globules.310 In addition, the formation of the adsorbed layer onto
the nascent globule immediately after homogenization brings the density of the globule closer to that of the continuous phase, again slowing down of the rate of globule
rise.311-318
Creaming rate after pasteurization is much slower than would be predicted from
the Stokes equation. This results from the destruction of the IgM factor (which is
not considered in the Stokes equation), the enhanced adsorption of partially denatured serum proteins to the fat surface as discussed in the next section, and for other
reasons.325 Fat crystallization has also been shown to greatly affect the stability of
the fat globule.327 The coalescence stability of oil-in-water emulsions with crystals
in the disperse phase was decreased by six orders of magnitude over a noncry stalline
emulsion. It was hypothesized that the crystals were protruding into the aqueous
phase, causing surface distortion of the globule which led to rapid coalescence during
shear.328

1.3.2.4 Destabilization
The stability of the milkfat emulsion is an important criterion for the manufacture
of many dairy products. An emulsion is not in a thermodynamic equilibrium because
it is not at its lowest energy state, energy being stored at an interface.241 The forces
acting on a particle in solution include: electrostatic repulsion from the formation of
an electrical double layer around a charged particle; attraction forces, mainly van
der Waals; steric forces from adsorbed macromolecules; hydrophobic forces; and
applied external fields. These must all be accounted for in determining emulsion
stability.241 However, an activation energy for flocculation and coalescence must be
overcome.302 Flocculation generally refers to a reversible aggregation process in
which the individual identities of the particles have been maintained. Coalescence
is the flowing together of two emulsion droplets into one.
In such products as fluid milk or coffee cream, the emulsion must be very stable
and disruption of the natural emulsion through high-pressure homogenization is often
performed to add stability to the fat emulsion.16-329 On the other end of the scale,
flocculation and coalescence are necessary to bring about a complete churning or
separation of the fat phase necessary for butter making.27 The third group of products, represented by heavy cream for whipping or ice cream, requires an emulsion
that is stable in the liquid form but that will undergo flocculation, clumping, and
partial coalescence but not to the point of complete churning when a shear force is
applied.16'27-306'328 The applied force must be sufficient to cause the flocculation to
occur. This requires an input of energy to overcome thermodynamic repulsion between the globules. However, the applied force must not be large enough to complete
the phase inversion.
Different kinds of aggregates of fat globules are recognized. Floccules are easily
redispersed as the fat globules that flocculate keep their identity and are held together
only by weak forces. Fat floccules are formed, for example, in the creaming of raw
milk.328 Clusters are bound together by stronger forces, because the globules may
share part of their interfacial layers. They are more difficult to redisperse. Examples
are clusters that are formed during single-stage homogenization of a milkfat emulsion.330 Clumps of fat globules can form when partially solid/partially liquid globules
are brought into contact.328 If the globules were solid, they would not clump; if the
globules were liquid, they could coalesce into one larger droplet. Clumps of fat
globules are important in ice cream and whipped cream destabilization, and also in
the initial stages of coalescence during buttermaking.27 In all of these products,
a partially crystalline fat globule is necessary for successful manufacture of the
product.280
Three types of aggregation processes can occur: (1) weak attractive forces as
described, for example, by DLVO theory and that may play only a small role in
milkfat emulsion stability or instability, (2) polymer bridging where a macromolecule, such as a protein or polysaccharide, adsorbs onto more than one droplet to
form a particle-particle bridge, and (3) an aggregation process where any part of
the membrane material between two adjacent droplets is disrupted and the aggregate
becomes fat continuous at the site of membrane rupture.328 This clumping phenom-

enon is possible only in partially crystalline emulsions, 302 which accounts at least in
part for the role of temperature in aggregation processes. Polymer bridging via milk
proteins is common in fat protein aggregates found in many dairy products such as
homogenized milk where a casein micelle 330 or a composite of milk proteins 317 can
adsorb onto two or more fat globules simultaneously. Clustering of fat globules
subsequent to homogenization is increased as the fat surface area is increased, either
by an increased fat content as in cream, or by an increased homogenization pressure.27 Clustering is also increased if protein is limiting. 16 The third process is important in terms of milkfat destabilization in ice cream 331 or whipped cream 332 manufacture. Fat destabilization refers to the process of clustering and clumping of the
fat globules which leads to the development of a continuous internal fat network or
matrix or structure in the product.306
The interaction of partially crystalline fat globules with air bubbles is responsible
for the formation of structure in whipped cream and ice cream, for flotation churning
of fat in the manufacture of butter, and for the undesirable formation of a foaminduced fat layer in products such as cream. 16 ' 333 Liquid fat may be disrupted by the
presence of air as a result of spreading and subsequent rupture of the bubble. 16
Electron microscopy techniques have been used to study the whipping of heavy
cream 296 - 306 - 332334 " 337 and the destabilization process in ice cream. 308 ' 320
It was reported that the proteinaceous membrane that envelops the air bubble
during the whipping of heavy cream is penetrated by fat globules as the process
proceeds, and this fat penetration offers foam stability to the whipped product. 335
During the initial stages of whipping, air bubbles are stabilized primarily by /3-casein
and whey proteins with little involvement of fat. 338 ' 339 Adsorption of fat or fat crystals to air bubbles occurred when the fat globule membrane coalesced with the
air-water interface.332'337 Only rarely did fat spread at the air-water interface. The
final cream was stabilized by a cross-linking of fat globules surrounding each air
cell to adjacent air cells thus building an infrastructure in the foam. Fat destabilization
is responsible for the formation of the dryness and smoothness associated with ice
cream, 308 and is promoted by the presence of small molecule surfactants that displace
proteins from the surface of the fat globule, rendering them more susceptible to
flocculation and coalescence. 320 ' 331

1.4 Physical Properties


1.4.1 Density
The density of milk and milk products is used to convert volumetric measurements
to gravimetric or vice versa, to estimate total solids content (e.g., the use of hydrometers to monitor total solids of concentrated milk), and to calculate other physical
properties (e.g., kinematic viscosity). Density is designated p and is expressed as kg
m ~ 3 (SI units). Specific gravity is a dimensionless property defined by density product/density water where the temperature of both product and water must be specified.
Specific gravity is practically equivalent to density if the water temperature is 4C

where its density is 1.000 g ml" 1 (999.972 kg m"3). The density of milk at 200C
is on average about 1030 kg m~ 3 and normally varies within the range of 1027 to
1033 kg m~ 3 . 16
The density of milk is dependent on composition and can be calculated from the
density and mass fraction of individual components. The following equations have
been cited to approximate the density of milk, skim milk, creams, and concentrated
milks.16 Equation 1.2 can be used to estimate density of the product (P) given the
apparent density of each component (Px) and the mass fraction of each component
(mx). At 200C the densities of water, milk fat, protein, lactose, and other components
are 998.2, 918, 1400, 1780, and 1850 kg m"3, respectively.16 Equation 1.3 can be
used to estimate the density of concentrated products (P0) given the density of the
initial unconcentrated milk (P0), the density of water (Pw), and the concentration
ratio (R = total solids of concentrated milk/total solids initial milk).
(1.2)
(13)
The coefficient of thermal expansion of fresh milk of 4.0% fat and 8.95% solidsnot-fat is on average about 0.335 cm3/kg/C in the temperature range of 5 to 400C
but is dependent on temperature340 and temperature history. This value is similar to
the coefficient for water and, therefore, the specific gravity of milk is nearly constant
over this temperature range with a slight decrease in the order of 5 X 10 ~ 5 due to
greater coefficient of thermal expansion for fat than for water.16 At temperatures
>40C there is a slight increase in specific gravity.341 Milk density is also affected
by temperature history which determines the state of the fat. Complete solidification
of milkfat causes a contraction of 70 cm3/kg.16 Frequently, milk density is determined by warming to 400C and then cooling to the specified temperature. This results
in more liquid fat (due to super cooling) and, therefore, lower density values than if
the milk was warmed to the specified temperature.
Table 1.13 shows averages of empirically determined specific gravity values of
some common fluid milk products at several temperatures. The data represent 8000
raw and processed samples analyzed over a 12-month period. Included in Table 1.13
are regression coefficients and intercepts that have been calculated from these data
and can be used to calculate (approximate estimates only) the densities of milks and
creams at the specified temperature given the contents of fat and solids-not-fat in
the product.

1.4.2 Viscosity
Viscosity (or fluidity, which is the reciprocal of viscosity) is an important factor in
determining the rate of creaming, rates of mass and heat transfer, and flow conditions
in dairy processes. For example, recent calculations suggest that viscosity of ice
cream mix may be sufficiently high to maintain laminar flow conditions during

Table L13 DENSITY OF VARIOUS FLUID DAIRY PRODUCTS AS A FUNCTION OF


FAT AND SOUDS-NOT-FAT (SNF) COMPOSITION
Density (kg/m2) at:

Product
Composition
Product

Fat (%)

SNF (%)

4.4C

1O0C

2O0C

38.90C

Producer milk
Homogenized milk
Skim milk, packaged
Fortified skim milk
Half and half
Half and half, fort.
Light cream
Heavy cream
Regression3
Intercept
Fat coefficient
SNF coefficient

4.00
3.60
0.02
0.02
12.25
11.30
20.00
36.60

8.95
8.60
8.90
10.15
7.75
8.90
7.20
5.55

1.035
1.033
1.036
1.041
1.027
1.031
1.021
1.008

1.033
1.032
1.035
1.040
1.025
1.030
1.018
1.005

1.030
1.029
1.033
1.038
1.020
1.024
1.012
0.994

1.023
1.022
1.026
1.031
1.010
1.014
1.000
0.978

1.0027
-0.00042
0.00373

0.9991
-0.00047
0.00403

1.0017
-0.00075
0.00351

0.9955
-0.00102
0.00348

Calculated from data in ref. 342.


a

Density = intercept + (fat coeff. X fat content) + (SNF coeff. X SNF content)

pasteurization with the result that heat transfer may be too slow to ensure adequate
heat treatment.343 The literature on the viscosity of milk has been reviewed.16'341
Viscosity (rf) is the ratio of shearing stress (T = force per unit area) to shear rate
(y = velocity difference divided by distance in reciprocal seconds) assuming laminar
flow with parallel stream lines. For reviews of the principles of viscosity and its
measurement see refs. 118, 344. The c.g.s. or metric unit for viscosity is the poise
(dynes s cm" 2 ) which is the force in dynes c m " 2 required to maintain a relative
velocity of 1 cm s " l between two parallel planes 1 cm apart. The SI unit for viscosity
is N s m~ 2 which is equivalent to Pa s. Ten N s m " 2 equals one poise. With respect
to dairy products, the most commonly used units are centipoise (poise X 10 ~ 2 ) and
mPa s.
Milk and skim milk, excepting cooled raw milk, exhibit Newtonian behavior. For
Newtonian fluids at constant temperature and pressure the viscosity is independent
of the rate of shear, and a plot of shearing stress versus shearing rate is a straight
line passing through the origin. The coefficient or slope of this line is the dynamic
viscosity or simply, viscosity. The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid containing particles
of diverse sizes is described by the Eilers equation345 and is a function of the hydrodynamic volume fraction of the dispersed particles, including all particles at least
an order of magnitude larger than water and the viscosity of the liquid in which the
particles are suspended. In milk the dispersed particles include lactose, whey proteins, casein micelles, and fat globules which are suspended in water with other
small molecules. See ref. 16 for a discussion of the hydrodynamic volumes of milk
components. There are many confounding interactions making generalizations difficult. For example, cooling from 30 to 5C causes increased viscosity of skim milk

due to increased voluminosity of casein micelles whereas at temperatures above


65C, denaturation of whey proteins causes increased viscosity. Voluminosity of
casein micelles is also increased by a decrease or increase in the pH of milk (Section
1.3.1). Useful nomograms that can be used to estimate the density and viscosity of
milks and creams in the ranges of 0 to 50% fat and 40 to 800C have been presented
in ref. 346.
For non-Newtonian or pseudoplastic fluids the apparent viscosity is dependent
on shear rate. Cooled raw milk and creams which are subject to cold agglutination
(Section 1.3.2.4) exhibit reduced viscosity when the globule aggregates are dispersed
by agitation (shear thinning). Shear thinning is also observed if homogenization
clusters are present. Agitation of heavy cream causes increased viscosity (shear thickening) due to partial coalescence of fat globules (partial churning).

1.4.3 Freezing Point


Freezing point is a colligative property that is determined by the molarity of solutes
rather than by the percentage by weight or volume. The ideal molal depression
constant for water as defined by Raoult's law is 1.86 for dilute solutions (i.e., each
mole of solute will decrease the freezing point of water by 1.86C). Freezing point
therefore can be used to estimate the molecular weight of pure solutes or the average
molecular weight of mixed solutes. In the dairy industry, freezing point is used
mainly to determine added water but it can also be used to determine lactose content
in milk,347 estimate whey powder contents in skim milk powder,348 and to determine
water activity of cheese.349
Although milk is not an ideal solution, the molal depression constant of 1.86 can
be used to approximate the contribution of milk components to freezing point depression. Lactose accounts for about 55% of freezing point depression, chloride accounts
for about 25%, and the remaining 20% is due to other soluble components including
calcium, potassium, magnesium, lactates, phosphates, and citrates.350 Freezing point
determinations may be done by the Hortvet procedure351 which uses a mercury in
glass thermometer or, as in most modern instruments, by using a thermistor cryoscope.352 For many years most cryoscopes were calibrated in degrees Hortvet because Hortvet's procedure produced freezing points about 3.7% lower than the correct values in degrees Celsius.353 A formula given by the Association of Official
Analytical Chemists32354'355 for the conversion of 0H to 0C gives lower values than
the true values.353 An alternate formula published by the International Dairy
Federation350 is:
C = 0.96418 H - 0.00085.

(1.4)

Added water may also be estimated from changes in osmotic pressure as measured
by vapor pressure osmometry.356 Vapor pressure is measured as a function of dewpoint depression. A thermocouple detector senses the temperature of a milk sample
at vapor pressure equilibrium in a sample chamber headspace. The results expressed
as milliosmoles per kilogram of water are highly correlated to freezing points and

the procedure356 has been approved by the AOAC for the determination of added
water in milk. 355
The freezing point of milk is usually in the range of - 0 . 5 1 2 to - 0 . 5 5 0 0 C with
an average of about 0.522 0 C. 341 Freezing points of goat's and ewe's milk are
generally lower than that of cow's milk whereas the freezing point of buffalo milk
is similar to that of cow's milk. 350 If the freezing point of unwatered milk is known,
the relationship between added water and freezing point depression is given by Eq.
1.5. If the actual freezing point of the unwatered milk is not known a reference value
can be used.
(1.5)
where
W = percent (w/w) extraneous water in the suspect milk
C = actual or reference freezing point of genuine milk
D = freezing point of suspect milk
5 = the percent (w/w) of total solids in the suspect milk.
For routine added water determinations it is of course important to have a reliable
reference point. Based on a United Kingdom study, it was concluded that fewer than
1 in 1000 samples of genuine or authentic milk (i.e., milk produced under supervised
conditions and certified free of added water) will have a freezing point higher than
- 0 . 5 0 8 0 C and that samples with freezing points higher than this reference point
may be considered to contain added water. 350 The reference point recommended in
1970 by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists is - 0 . 5 0 5 0 C ( - 0 . 5 2 5
H). 3 5 4 This value is based on a North American study of genuine milks 357 and is
still used by most milk testing laboratories in North America. Freezing point results
obtained for Minnesota and Wisconsin herds from 1979 to 1988 showed that the
average freezing point had decreased significantly during this time. 358 The same
authors conducted a comprehensive freezing point survey of herds in Minnesota and
recommended that the reference point for that state should be decreased from the
AOAC value of - 0 . 5 0 5 0 C ( - 0 . 5 2 5 H) to - 0 . 5 1 2 0 C ( - 0 . 5 3 0 H). 3 5 9 In a study of
freezing points of milks in the Netherlands, it was suggested that the reference point
should not be fixed but should vary with season and region. 360
Correct interpretation of freezing point data with respect to added water depends
on a good understanding of the factors affecting freezing point depression. It is
frequently necessary to conduct repeat sampling and/or obtain genuine samples (supervised sampling) from herds showing freezing points near the reference point in
order to eliminate natural causes of abnormally high freezing points. If a repeat
sample has been taken from a herd within 48 h, the suspect milk should not be
considered to have contained added water unless the freezing point of the repeat
sample is at least 0.007 0 C lower than that of the suspect sample. 350 This difference
in freezing point depression corresponds to about 1.2% of added water for milk of
typical total solids content. Numerous references are available on factors affecting
freezing points. 341 ' 361 ' 362 The following summary of these factors is based mainly
on the discussion in ref. 361.

There are small differences in freezing points between breeds (in the order of
0.002 to 0.0070C), with Holstein milks generally having the lowest freezing points.
There is a slight tendency toward lower freezing points in late lactation but it is not
clear whether this effect is independent of feed effects. Similarly, seasonal differences in freezing points are probably due to feed effects. The freezing point of
morning milk tends to be 0.003 to 0.0070C lower than that of evening milk. Larger
differences may be observed if the cattle do not have free access to water at all times.
Variations in the proportions of grains to roughage and fresh versus dry forage have
significant but small effects on freezing point. Udder health (mastitis) also has slight
effects on freezing point. With respect to interpretation of freezing points for added
water determination, the most significant variables are the nutritional status of the
herd and the access to water. Under-feeding causes increased freezing points. Large
temporary increases in freezing point occur after consumption of large amounts of
water because milk is isoosmotic with blood.
The primary sources of nonintentional added water in milk are residual rinse water
and condensation in the milking system. Leaky coolers used to precool milk before
it enters the bulk tank may also be a problem. Recommended procedures to avoid
added water, to determine residual water in milking systems, and to obtain authentic
milk samples for interpretation of freezing points have been reported.350 Soured or
fermented milk is unsuitable for added water testing because the freezing point is
lowered by lactic acid and increased concentrations of soluble minerals. Several
reports suggest that heat treatment of milk, including UHT and retort sterilization,
causes little permanent effect on freezing points350 but it has also been suggested
that freezing points are not a reliable index of added water in processed milk.363

1.4.4 Electrochemistry

1.4.4.1 Electrical Conductivity


Specific electrical conductivity measured in ohm " l cm " l is the reciprocal of specific
conductance (ohm cm). Electrical conductivity has been considered as an index for
mastitic infections, added water, added neutralizes, and milk concentration during
evaporation.341 The main application of interest in recent years has been its use as
an index of mastitic infection.364"366 Changes in electrical conductivity can also be
used to detect the initial stages of micelle aggregation during rennet coagulation of
milk.367 Electrical conductivity begins to decrease at about 60% of clotting time and
continues to decrease for several hours.
The principal ions contributing to the electrical conductivity of milk are sodium,
chloride, and potassium. At 25C the specific conductivity of milk is on avereage
about 0.005 ohm" 1 c m " ! and the normal range is 0.0040 to 0.0055 ohm" 1 Cm" 1 3 4 1
The following conditions affect conductivity.341 Conductivity decreases with increasing fat content so that skim milk has higher conductivity than milk. Whey and
ultrafiltrate have greater conductivity than skim milk. Conductivity changes with
concentration or dilution of milk but the relationship is not simple because of the
effects of concentration on the distribution of minerals between colloidal and dia-

Eh, Eo (V)

raw mik

ascorbate
methylene blue
glutathione

riboflavin

cysteine
hydrogen electrode

Figure 1.14 The redox potential (h) of milk and the standard potentials () of various
systems in relation to pH. (From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.)

lysable phases. Production of lactate ions and solubilization of colloidal minerals


during lactic fermentation increases conductivity.

1.4.4.2 Oxidation-Reduction Potentials


A molecular species is oxidized when it loses electrons and is reduced when it gains
electrons. Loss or gain of electrons may or may not include the transfer of oxygen
or hydrogen. Oxidation-reduction (redox) potential is expressed in volts and designated as Eh. The standard potential when the oxidized (Ox) and reduced (Red)
forms are at equal activity is designated E. Redox potential is measured relative to
the potential of the standard hydrogen electrode which is assigned a value of O V at
pH O. At 25C and one electron transfer Eh is defined as:
!Red])

(1.6)

By convention a larger ratio of [Ox]/[Red] indicates a positive potential. The redox


capacity of the system is determined by the total amount of reactants ([Ox] + [Red]).
E is an index of the potential of the system relative to other systems. When the
value of h is near E the system exhibits poising or a resistance to change in
potential similar to the buffering that occurs in an acid-base system near its pK
value. E values are pH dependent as illustrated for several redox systems of milk

in Figure 1.14. The principles of oxidation-reduction systems and their measurement are described in many chemical texts and a monograph on oxidation-reduction
potentials of biological systems has been prepared.368 The redox potential of milk
is in the range of + 0.2 to + 0.3 V and is mainly determined by dissolved oxygen.341
Milk is essentially oxygen free when excreted but about 0.3 mM O 2 is present after
equilibrium with air is established. Removal of oxygen by nitrogen sweeping lowers
the E of milk to about 0.12 V.16 Decreased oxygen tension by bacterial respiration
is the basis of the methylene blue reduction test for milk bacterial quality.
The other redox systems of significance in milk are ascorbate (0.25 mEq L" 1 )
and riboflavin. Ascorbate in freshly drawn milk is all in the reduced form but during
refrigerated storage is reversibly oxidized to dehydroascorbate which is irreversibly
changed by hydrolysis of the lactone ring to 2,3-diketo-L-gulonate. Oxidation of
ascorbate in the presence of copper and oxygen produces superoxide anion which
in the presence of peroxide is converted to singlet oxygen. Singlet oxygen is probably
responsible for the initiation of lipid oxidation.16 (See also Section 1.2.2.4.) The
small quantity of riboflavin in milk contributes little to redox capacity but is important in photooxidation of milk. When excited to a triplet state by exposure to light
near 450 nM, riboflavin oxidizes the methioine residues in the whey proteins to
methional which is the principal component of "sunlight" flavor in milk. Excited
riboflavin can also oxidize ascorbate, and reduced riboflavin can react with triplet
oxygen to produce singlet oxygen.16
Heat treatment is well known to increase the reducing capacity of milk, mainly
due to activation of protein thiol groups and products of Maillard browning reactions.
Activated thiol groups cause cooked flavor which decreases as cysteine bonds reform
on standing.

1.4.5 Surface Tension


Interfacial tension is the work required to increase the area of contact between two
phases expressed as force per unit length i n N m ' 1 or dynes cm" 1 which is equivalent to mN m~ 1 . Interfacial energy can also be expressed as energy per unit area
in J m~ 2 which is numerically equivalent to N m~ *. If the interface is liquid-solid,
air-liquid, or air-solid the interfacial tension is referred to as surface tension. The
principal interfaces in milk are the fat globule-plasma interface and the air-plasma
interface. Excellent reviews are available on the fat globule-plasma interface of
m i l k

16,369 (

S e e

8 0S e c t i o n

L3-2.)

Factors affecting the surface tension of milk, that is the interfacial tension between
milk and air, have been reviewed341 and there is little new information in the literature. The surface tension of milk is about 50 mN m~ l compared to water which is
72 mN m" 1 (Table 1.14). Surface tension is increased by about 10% in skim milk
and is reduced in cream. AU of the principal milk proteins are strong depressants
and are present in excess so that considerable dilution is necessary to significantly
reduce the surface tension of skim milk; the surface tension of rennet whey is similar
to that of skim milk. The gross composition of buttermilk is similar to skim milk
but its surface tension is decreased (Table 1.14) by higher levels of phospholipids.

Table 1.14 INTERFACIAL TENSIONS (7) OF


VARIOUS INTERFACES IN MILK
COMPARED TO OTHERS
Interface Between Phases

7 (mN m l)

Water-air
22 mM Na laurate in water-air
0.3 mM stearate in water-air
/i-Octane-air
Water-rt-octane
Milk plasma-air
Sweet-cream buttermilk-air
Liquid milk fat-air
Liquid milk fat-water
Liquid milk fat-milk plasma
Liquid milk fat-protein solutions
Milk fat globule-milk plasma
Liquid fat-fat crystal (a modification)

72
43
43
22
51
48
40
34
20
15
10-15
2a
10

From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.


Note: Approximate values at 20 to 4O0C.
a

Measured values range from 1. to 2.5 mN m ~'.

Lipolysis decreases surface tension due to the release of surface active free fatty
acids. Homogenization increases surface tension possibly due to adsorption of surface active substances onto the enlarged fat globule-plasma interface. Cold storage
of milk apparently activates some surface active substance in milk because it effectively lowers surface tension. Normal heat treatments of milk have no effect on
surface tension. The importance of interfacial tension in fat destabilization processes
has been discussed in Section 1.3.2.4.

1.4.6 Acid-Base Equilibria


Both titratable acidity and pH are used to measure milk acidity. pH is a measure of
the activity of the hydronium ion (H 3 O + ) which, according to the Debye-Hiickel
expression, is a function of the concentration of the hydronium ion [H 3 O + ], the
effective diameter of the hydrated ion and the ionic strength (/A) of the solvent. For
solutions of low ionic strength (/x <0.1) hydronium ion activity is nearly equivalent
to [H 3 O + ] which is normally abbreviated to [H + ]. Then, for a weak acid (HA)
dissociating to H + and A~ with a dissociation constant, Kz and p/a equal to log10
K&, the most important relationships are defined by Eqs. 1.7 and 1.8.
(1.7)
(1.8)

Table 1.15 BUFFERING GROUPS IN MILK


Group

Concentration
(mM)

Protein-bound residues
Aspartic acid
Glutamic acid
Histidine
Tyrosine
Lysine
Ester-phosphate
iV-acetylneuraminic acid
Terminal groups

19
50
6
12
20
7
0.5
1.5

Salts
Phosphate8
Citrate3
Phosphate esters3
Carbonate
Various carboxylic acids
Various amines
Lactic acid

21 b
9
2.5
2
2
1.5
50-120 c

4.1
4.6
6.5
9.7
10.5
2.0, 6?
5
3.7, 7.9
3.0, 5.8, 6.6
3.0,4.1,4.8
1.7, 5.9
6.4, 10.1
4.8
7.6?
3.95

From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.


Note: Approximate average concentration, and their estimated (stoichiometric) pK values
in milk.
a
b
c

pA" values from titration with Ca(OH)2.


About 10 mM colloidal phosphate, 11 mM in solution.
In sour milk products.

The buffer capacity (dB/dpH) is the amount of strong acid or base in moles per liter
(strong meaning completely dissociated in the experimental pH range) required per
unit change in pH. Because pH is a dimensionless quantity the units of buffer index
are simply mol/L. When pH equals pK& the weak acid is half dissociated and the
buffer capacity is maximum. For species such as proteins which have numerous
acidic and basic groups, maximum buffering occurs in the region of isoelectric pH
(pi). The principles of pH and its measurement can be found in many chemistry
texts.
Titratable acidity is a measure of the total buffer capacity of milk for the pH range
between the pH of milk and the phenolphthalein end point (about 8.3). The pH of
milk at 25C normally varies within a relatively narrow range of 6.5 to 6.7.341 The
normal range for titratable acidity of herd milks is 13 to 20 mmol L~" *. This corresponds to 0.12 to 0.18% lactic acid but there is practically no lactic acid in fresh
milk and there is no good reason for the North American convention of reporting
titratable acidity as percent lactic acid. Because of the large inherent variation, the
measure of titratable acidity has little practical value except to measure changes in
acidity (e.g., during lactic fermentation) and even for this purpose, pH is a better
measurement.

mM

dpH

2
1
3

HCI
NaOH

PH

PH

Figure 1.15 Examples of titration curves (mAf HCl or NaOH needed to obtain a certain pH)
of milk (1), and of sweet whey (2) and ultrafiltrate (3) made from that milk; the same results
also expressed as buffer index dB/dpH (in mmol L~ l ). (From ref. 16. Reprinted by permission
of John Wiley & Sons.)

The major buffering groups of milk and their p a values are listed in Table 1.15
but the actual pKA values in milk are different due to interactions with other ions. 16
The two most important buffer components of milk are caseins (buffer maximum
near pH 4.6) and phosphate (buffer maximum near pH 7.0). The titration curve for
sweet whey (rennet whey with no culture) indicates a small buffer maximum due to
whey proteins in the range of pH 4.0 to 5.0 (Fig. 1.15). The morphologies of the
titration and buffer capacity curves of milk and milk products are dependent on the
rate of titration because of sluggish equilibrium reactions between colloidal and
dialyzable salts, especially phosphate salts. The rate of titration should, therefore, be
given when titration data are reported. In the region of the phosphate buffer maximum several days are required to obtain final equilibrium between dialyzable and
colloidal calcium phosphates. The most important effects are: (1) Formation of colloidal calcium phosphates greatly increases the buffer capacity of phosphates. (2)
The presence of citrate and caseins promotes the formation of tricalcium phosphates
at pH levels where mono- and dicalcium phosphates would otherwise predominate. 370 " 372 This broadens the phosphate buffer range by moving the calcium phosphate saturation point to higher pH levels. (3) Lactic acid has a pKa near 4.0 so that
fermented dairy products have a large buffer maximum near pH 4.0. (4) Formation
of colloidal calcium phosphates during concentration of milk causes the pH to decrease. This effect does not occur during concentration by ultrafiltration.373 (5) Heating also causes pH reduction due to formation of colloidal phosphate salts. The pH
of milk decreases by about 0.4 units over the range of 20 to 60 0 C. 3 4 1 (6) Concentration of milk salts during freezing causes pH to decrease. 341 (7) The acid-base

properties of cheese whey are largely determined by the pH at the time of draining. 374375 Greater amounts of calcium phosphates and larger calcium/phosphate ratios in acid wheys cause greater buffer capacity and a shift in the phosphate buffer
maximum to lower pH.

1.4.7 Heat Capacity and Thermal Conductivity


Heat capacity is expressed as J kg" l K~~l (SI units) which is equivalent to 1/4186
cal g" 1 0 C" 1 (c.g.s. units). Specific heat is the unit-less quantity of heat capacity
divided by the heat capacity of water. It is nearly equivalent to heat capacity because
the heat capacity of water varies only slightly from 4186 J kg" 1 K" ! (1.000 cal g~ 1
0 1
C' ) over the range of 0 to 1000C. Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat transfer
by conduction in Jm"1 s" 1 K"1 which is equivalent to 1/420 cal cm" 1 s" 1 0 C" 1 .
There are many reviews of the principles and methodology of thermal analysis.376"381 Thermal properties of milk have been reviewed recently.341
Values for skim milk of 3906 J kg - l K " 2 at 00C and 3993 J kg " 1 K " 1 at 500C
have been reported.377 There is a linear increase in the heat capacity of skim milk
from 3965 J kg" l K" l at 500C to 4218 J kg" l K"l at 1400C according to Eq. 1.9
where T is temperature in 0 C. 379
Heat capacity = 2.8147 + 3824

(1.9)

Allowing for variations in data reported by various workers, the heat capacity of
skim milk increases with fair linearity over the entire temperature range of 1 to
1400C. For example, extrapolation of the above equation to 200C gives an estimate
very close to the literature value of 3890 J kg" 1 K"1.16 Heat capacity decreases
with increasing total solids but normal variations in composition of skim milk should
not cause large differences.379
The variation of heat capacity of whole milk and cream with temperature is more
complex than skim milk because of the effect of milk fat. Milk fat has a heat capacity
of about 2177 J kg"J K"1 and a heat of fusion of about 8.37 Jg" 1 . Over the range
of 50 to 1400C where milk fat is liquid the heat capacity of milk can be estimated
approximately by Eq. IA(P79:
Heat capacity = 2.976 X temperature + 3692

(1.10)

Thermal conductivity of water increases from 2 1 8 J m - 1 S - 1 K " 1 at 00C to 244


Jm" 1 S - 1 K " 1 at 1000C. Thermal conductivity of milk increases with temperature
and decreases with increasing total solids. Typical values are 193 Jm""1 S - 1 K " 1
at 37C and 223 J m" ! s" l K" ! at 800C.341

1.4.8 Optical Properties


Optical properties provide the basis for many rapid, indirect methods of analysis
such as proximate analysis by infrared absorbency or light scattering. These aspects
are reviewed in Chapter 3. Optical properties also determine the appearance of milk
and milk products. Light scattering by fat globules and casein micelles causes milk

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to appear turbid and opaque. Light scattering is maximal when the wavelength of
light is near the same magnitude as the particle. Thus, smaller particles scatter light
of shorter wavelengths.16-382"384 Skim milk appears slightly blue because casein
micelles scatter the shorter wavelengths of visible light (blue) more than the red.
The carotenoid precursor of vitamin A, /3-carotene, contained in milk fat, is responsible for the "creamy" color of milk. Riboflavin imparts a greenish color to whey
and its concentration can be measured in whey by its fluorescent emission at 530
nm when exposed to light at 440 to 500 nm.341
Refractive index (RI) is normally determined at 200C with the D line of the
sodium spectrum and is designated 7^0. The refractive index of milk is 1.3440 to
1.3485341 and can be used to estimate total solids (Chapter 3). Contributions of
plasma components to RI are additive. The RI of milk fat is 1.4537 to 1.4552 at
400C but fat globules do not contribute to RI because refraction occurs at the interface
between the air and the plasma.341'385

1.5 Summary
Milk is a very complex liquid consisting of over 100,000 different molecules. It
serves a biological function as the food of the infant mammal and particularly the
milk of the domesticated cow, genus Bos, serves an important role in human feeding
and nutrition. The gross composition of cow's milk is 4.1% fat; 3.6% protein; 4.9%
lactose; 0.7% miscellaneous components including minerals, vitamins, and gases;
and the balance in water. The fat in milk is comprised mainly of triglycerides containing a wide range of fatty acids, which in turn contain a relatively high proportion
of short-chain and saturated fatty acids. The melting range of the fat extends from
37C to -40 0 C. The fat exists in milk in the form of a globule of 3 to 8 /im in
diameter which is coated by a protective membrane. The origin of this membrane is
thought to be the apical cell membrane of the mammary secretory cell. In the raw
state, the membrane acts to protect the milk fat from deleterious reactions such as
the action of lipase enzymes in creating rancidity. However, during processing the
membrane is largely replaced by a layer of amphiphilic molecules that adsorb to the
fat surface. There are many dairy products that derive their structure from milkfat,
including whipped cream, ice cream, and butter.
There are two main categories of milk proteins: the caseins, about 75 to 80% of
the total, and the serum or whey proteins. The four principal casein proteins, a sl -,
a
s2~> -> and /c-casein, are found complexed with tertiary calcium phosphate in a
spherical particle 100 to 300 nm in diameter known as the casein micelle. These
proteins precipitate at pH 4.6. Interactions of micelles are responsible for the formation of structure in many dairy products such as cheeses or fermented products.
The whey proteins, including /3-lactoglobulin, a-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin,
immunoglobulins, numerous enzymes, and the proteose-peptone fraction (see Section 1.2.1.1), are found in the milk serum and are soluble at pH 4.6. Lactose, a
carbohydrate virtually unique to milk, is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. It
has two crystalline forms, a and /3. The a monohydrate form can cause problems in

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to appear turbid and opaque. Light scattering is maximal when the wavelength of
light is near the same magnitude as the particle. Thus, smaller particles scatter light
of shorter wavelengths.16-382"384 Skim milk appears slightly blue because casein
micelles scatter the shorter wavelengths of visible light (blue) more than the red.
The carotenoid precursor of vitamin A, /3-carotene, contained in milk fat, is responsible for the "creamy" color of milk. Riboflavin imparts a greenish color to whey
and its concentration can be measured in whey by its fluorescent emission at 530
nm when exposed to light at 440 to 500 nm.341
Refractive index (RI) is normally determined at 200C with the D line of the
sodium spectrum and is designated 7^0. The refractive index of milk is 1.3440 to
1.3485341 and can be used to estimate total solids (Chapter 3). Contributions of
plasma components to RI are additive. The RI of milk fat is 1.4537 to 1.4552 at
400C but fat globules do not contribute to RI because refraction occurs at the interface
between the air and the plasma.341'385

1.5 Summary
Milk is a very complex liquid consisting of over 100,000 different molecules. It
serves a biological function as the food of the infant mammal and particularly the
milk of the domesticated cow, genus Bos, serves an important role in human feeding
and nutrition. The gross composition of cow's milk is 4.1% fat; 3.6% protein; 4.9%
lactose; 0.7% miscellaneous components including minerals, vitamins, and gases;
and the balance in water. The fat in milk is comprised mainly of triglycerides containing a wide range of fatty acids, which in turn contain a relatively high proportion
of short-chain and saturated fatty acids. The melting range of the fat extends from
37C to -40 0 C. The fat exists in milk in the form of a globule of 3 to 8 /im in
diameter which is coated by a protective membrane. The origin of this membrane is
thought to be the apical cell membrane of the mammary secretory cell. In the raw
state, the membrane acts to protect the milk fat from deleterious reactions such as
the action of lipase enzymes in creating rancidity. However, during processing the
membrane is largely replaced by a layer of amphiphilic molecules that adsorb to the
fat surface. There are many dairy products that derive their structure from milkfat,
including whipped cream, ice cream, and butter.
There are two main categories of milk proteins: the caseins, about 75 to 80% of
the total, and the serum or whey proteins. The four principal casein proteins, a sl -,
a
s2~> -> and /c-casein, are found complexed with tertiary calcium phosphate in a
spherical particle 100 to 300 nm in diameter known as the casein micelle. These
proteins precipitate at pH 4.6. Interactions of micelles are responsible for the formation of structure in many dairy products such as cheeses or fermented products.
The whey proteins, including /3-lactoglobulin, a-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin,
immunoglobulins, numerous enzymes, and the proteose-peptone fraction (see Section 1.2.1.1), are found in the milk serum and are soluble at pH 4.6. Lactose, a
carbohydrate virtually unique to milk, is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. It
has two crystalline forms, a and /3. The a monohydrate form can cause problems in

dairy products such as ice cream and condensed milk due to its relative insolubility.
Of the miscellaneous components, milk contains a number of minerals, including
Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cl, citrate, sulfate, phosphate, and bicarbonate; vitamins, mainly A,
the B vitamins, D, E, and K; and acids, including citrate, formate, acetate, lactate,
and oxalate.

1.6 Future Developments


The title of this chapter reflects the modern trend to study milk as a structured
physical system. Milk chemistry with respect to chemical composition is now quite
advanced (e.g., primary sequences of quantitatively significant proteins are well defined). However, this is only a preliminary step toward understanding the properties
of milk. Future work will increasingly focus on the physciochemical properties of
the structural components of milk and their behavior in milk and milk products
during processing and storage. Current models of casein micelles will be challenged
or refined by advanced microscopy, rheological data, and a greater understanding of
casein molecular biology and the interaction of caseins with milk salts. Much work
has been done to describe the structure of the milk fat globule membrane and the
interactions that occur at the fat globule surface, but more study is needed to adequately describe the factors determining the stability of the milk fat globule to physical, chemical, and enzymatic changes. There will be increased study of minor components such as enzymes and oxidative activators or inhibitors. Study of milk salts
and the factors affecting their distribution in milk will increase our understanding
of milk properties such as heat stability and enzymatic coagulation. One only needs
to peruse the last several volumes of abstracts presented at the American Dairy
Science Association annual meetings, and the numbers of excellent papers presented
at the International Dairy Federation meetings to appreciate the effort being expended into dairy chemistry research. This can only lead to enhanced understanding
of the complex milk system.

1.7 References
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CHAPTER

2
Analyses
Genevieve L Christen
2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

Introduction, 85
2.1.1 Purpose of Analysis of Dairy Products, 85
2.1.2 Sources of Additional Information, 86
2.1.3 Types of Analyses, 86
Sampling, 86
2.2.1 General Comments, 86
2.2.2 Sampling of Liquid Products, 87
2.2.3 Sampling of Dry Products, 88
2.2.4 Sampling of Butter, 88
2.2.5 Sampling of Cheese, 88
Tests for Milk Composition, 89
2.3.1 Fat, 89
2.3.1.1 Gravimetric Methods, 89
2.3.1.2 Volumetric Methods, 91
2.3.1.3 Automated Methods, 94
2.3.2 Total Solids, 96
2.3.2.1 Drying Methods, 96
2.3.2.2 Lactometer Method, 96
2.3.2.3 Automated Methods, 97
2.3.3 Protein, 98
2.3.3.1 Kjeldahl Method, 98
2.3.3.2 Dye-Binding Methods, 99
2.3.3.3 Automated Methods, 99
2.3.4 Lactose ,99
2.3.4.1 Polarimetric Method, 99
2.3.4.2 Gravimetric Method, 100
2.3.4.3 Enzymatic Method, 100
2.3.4.4 HPLC Method, 100
2.3.4.5 Automatic Method, 100
2.3.5 Ash, 101
2.3.6 Vitamins, 101
2.3.7 Minerals, 102
Tests for Milk Quality, 102
2.4.1 Titratable Acidity, 102

2.5

2.6

2.4.2 Added Water, 105


2.4.2.1 General Comments, 105
2.4.2.2 Cryoscopic Methods, 105
2.4.2.3 Vapor Pressure Osmometric Method, 106
2.4.3 Sediment, 106
2.4.4 Antibiotics, 107
2.4.4.1 General Information, 107
2.4.4.2 Bacterial Growth Inhibition Methods, 107
2.4.4.3 Competitive Binding Methods, 109
2.4.4.4 Other Methods, 111
2.4.5 Acid Degree Value, 112
2.4.6 Iodine and Hypochlorites, 113
2.4.7 Aflatoxins, 113
2.4.8 Pesticides, 114
Tests for Abnormal Milk, 115
2.5.1 4 'Cow-Side" Tests, 115
2.5.1.1 California Mastitis Test, 115
2.5.1.2 Conductivity Measurement, 116
2.5.2 Wisconsin Mastitis Test, 116
2.5.3 Somatic Cell Count, 117
2.5.3.1 Direct Microscopic Somatic Cell Count, 117
2.5.3.2 Electronic Somatic Cell Counting Methods, 118
2.5.3.3 Membrane Filter-DNA Method, 120
Mien ^biologic al Methods, 120
2.6.1 Aerobic: Plate Count, 121
2.6.1.1 General Introduction, 121
2.6.1.2 Standard Plate Count, 121
2.6.1.3 Spiral-Plating Technique, 122
2.6.1.4 Rehydratable Film Method, 123
2.6.1.5 Impedimetric Methods, 124
2.6.1.6 Hydrophobic Grid-Membrane Filter Method, 124
2.6.1.7 Pectin-Gel Method, 125
2.6.1.8 Reflectance Colorimetry, 125
2.6.2 Coliform Count, 126
2.6.2.1 General Introduction, 126
2.6.2.2 Most Probable Number, 126
2.6.2.3 Violet Red Bile Agar Methods, 127
2.6.2.4 Rehydratable Film Method, 128
2.6.2.5 Pectin-Gel Method, 129
2.6.2.6 Impedimetric Methods, 129
2.6.2.7 Hydrophobic Grid-Membrane Filter Method, 130
2.6.2.8 Fluorogenic Assay Methods, 130
2.6.3 Tests for Specific Spoilage Bacteria, 131
2.6.3.1 Psychrotrophic Bacteria, 131
2.6.3.2 Lipolytic Bacteria, 132

2.6.3.3. Proteolytic Bacteria, 132


2.6.3.4 Yeasts and Molds, 133
2.6.3.5 Spore-Forming Bacteria, 134
2.6.4 Tests for Specific Pathogenic Bacteria, 135
2.6.4.1 Listeria, 135
2.6.4.2 Staphylococcus aureus, 136
2.6.4.3 Salmonella, 137
2.7 Selected Analytical Techniques for Dairy Products, 139
2.7.1 Assurance of Adequate Pasteurization, 139
2.7.2 Total Solids in Butter and Cheese, 141
2.7.3 Salt in Butter and Cheese, 142
2.7.4 Sorbic Acid in Cheese, 144
2.7.5 Overrun in Frozen Dairy Desserts, 145
2.8 Sensory Analysis, 146
2.8.1 Sensory vs. Chemical and Microbiological Methods, 146
2.9 Summary, 148
2.10 Future Developments, 148
2.11 References, 149

2.1.1 Purpose of Analysis of Dairy Products


Dairy products must conform to specifications established by regulatory agencies,
processors, and consumers. These specifications are for composition, quality, and
shelf life. Analytical techniques have evolved over the last 100 years or so to ensure
conformation to specifications. Historically, volume and fat content have been indicators of the value of raw milk. Dr. Babcock introduced a method for determination
of fat in milk in 1890. This method, slightly modified, remains as one of the primary
techniques of the dairy industry. Other analytical techniques have been developed
and applied to dairy products. Many of these, although serving a useful purpose
when first developed, have since been replaced by improved methodology. Sources
for analytical techniques include university and government laboratories, private
testing laboratories, and suppliers of testing materials and equipment. In this chapter,
all techniques that have or can be applied to dairy products will not be discussed.
Techniques that are widely used or many that have been evaluated in collaborative
studies will be presented. Techniques not mentioned are excluded not for lack of
validity but for lack of space. This chapter is not intended to be a "how-to" manual
for dairy product analyses. Rather it is intended to be a discussion of basic techniques. Section 2.1.2 will direct the reader to sources of step-by-step analytical
methodology.

Laboratory safety and quality control cannot be ignored. However, detailed discussion of either is beyond the scope of this chapter. Information on both topics
should be gathered before attempting any analytical technique. This information,
along with method selection, are the responsibility of the analyst with the assistance
of management.

2.1.2 Sources of Additional Information


There are two primary agencies in the United States that serve to approve and adopt
analytical techniques for the dairy industry. These are the American Public Health
Association (APHA), which published Standard Methods for the Examination of
Dairy Products (SMEDP), Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods and Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, and the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), which published Official Methods of Analysis, Journal of the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, and Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM). On an international level,
the International Dairy Federation (IDF), through its many commissions, adopts
analytical techniques and disseminates them through Bulletins. These publications
should be consulted for detailed information on specific procedures.

2.1.3 Types of Analyses


Dairy products are analyzed by chemical, physical, microbiological, and sensory
methods. Chemical and physical techniques are frequently used to determine milk
composition and quality including the presence or absence of adulterants. Microbiological techniques are used when the analyst is interested in milk quality. Sensory
techniques are used to determine milk quality as well as the acceptability of products.
In this chapter, individual techniques will be discussed under the broad categories
of tests for milk composition, milk quality, and abnormal milk; microbiological
methods; and sensory analysis. Selected analytical techniques for dairy products will
also be discussed. Sampling of dairy products will be covered initially and the chapter will conclude with discussion of some future developments.

2.2 Sampling
2.2.1 General Comments
The results obtained from analysis of any sample are only as good as the quality of
the sample. Incorrect conclusions come from improperly collected or handled samples. Milk and its products are heterogeneous. Care must be taken to ensure adequate
mixing prior to extraction of the sample. Samples change with temperature fluctuations; care must be taken to ensure that the sample is taken at the appropriate temperature and remains at the appropriate temperature until test results are completed.
Sampling is the extraction of a larger approximate quantity of material representative of the whole. The sample usually must be further subdivided by partitioning

into a smaller exact quantity for analysis. The person charged with extraction of the
larger sample must carefully record the necessary information on the sample container, including identification of the sample and date taken. Frequently additional
information may be required including temperature at sampling time, name of person
taking sample, etc. These samples are then transferred to the point of analysis. This
may be as simple as carrying the samples to the laboratory, or as complicated as
storing the samples in appropriate containers and shipping them under appropriate
conditions to a laboratory at some distant point.
Sampling of dairy products is done for several different purposes. The sample
may be needed for chemical, microbiological, or sensory analysis. The end result
determines how the sample is to be taken. Frequently, all three types of tests will be
applied to a sample, so the most stringent specifications should be followed. For
chemical analysis, the container need only be clean and dry to ensure that the sample
is not contaminated with foreign compounds. For microbiological analysis, the container must be clean, dry, and sterile. Frequently, single-use, commercially available
containers are used. For sensory analysis, the container must be clean, dry, sanitized,
and free from odorous compounds.

2.2.2 Sampling of Liquid Products


Raw milk is particularly difficult to sample, as a cream layer forms when the milk
remains quiescent. The milk to be sampled must be thoroughly mixed by pouring
milk in small containers from one to another several times; by plunging bulk samples
several times, moving a submerged plunger from place to place (this is especially
true for cream sampling); or by agitation of bulk samples with a mechanical stirrer.
However, care must be taken to avoid mixing too long or too violently as this could
lead to churning, homogenization, or foaming which will alter final results. The
preferable method of sampling is to use individually wrapped, sterile or presterilized,
plastic, single-service sampling tubes which may be dipped directly into the milk.
Care must be taken not to handle the portion of the container that will contact the
milk.1 Alternatively, sanitized tubes or stainless steel metal dippers may be used to
transfer the sample into sanitized or sterile containers. Direct-line sampling is also
possible, if the lines are equipped with sanitized gaskets that will permit such sampling. The needle of a disposable, plastic, sterile hypodermic syringe can be inserted
through the gasket. Care must always be taken during sampling not to introduce
contamination.
Samples for microbiological analysis must be kept between 0 and 4.4C and
analyzed within 24 h of sampling. Samples for sensory analysis should likewise be
kept between 0 and 4.4C and analyzed as soon as possible. If chemical analysis is
to be done on the same set of samples the portion needed for microbiological and
sensory testing should be removed aseptically first. If only chemical analyses are
required on the samples, they may be chemically preserved with a suitable preservative (e.g., potassium dichromate or bronopol). The samples may then be transported
at ambient temperature. Preserved samples may not be analyzed for bacteria or for
sensory properties.

2.2.3 Sampling of Dry Products


Sampling of dry products presents some challenges, depending on the method of
partitioning within the lot. A sample may be desired that is representative of many
bags within a shipment, or it may be of one sample container as small as an individual
consumer size package or as large as a rail car. Statistically sound sampling plans
must be developed to ensure that the sample is representative of the whole. Once
the sampling plan has been developed, several points need to be considered in sampling of dry products. The first is that dry dairy products are very hygroscopic; they
should be exposed to the atmosphere for a minimal time to avoid moisture adsorption. Generally, a composite sample of several bags or areas within a bulk quantity
is preferred. Care should be taken to prevent moisture adsorption during the compositing process. Dry samples are particularly susceptible to oxidation, and should
be protected from oxygen and light. When the final sample is extracted for analysis
in the laboratory, the composite sample should be mixed by shaking prior to taking
the subsample.

2.2.4 Sampling of Butter


Butter may be sampled directly from the churn, from bulk quantities, or from consumer size prints. Source will determine the exact details of sampling, but the general
procedure is the same. Butter samples should be cooled to between 0 and 4.4C
immediately after sampling. Samples should be placed into sterilized (or sanitized
if for chemical or sensory analyses only) containers. Usually butter is sampled with
a stainless steel butter trier. The trier can be sterilized between samples by wiping
with a clean disposable towel or tissue, dipping in 70% alcohol, and flaming to
remove excess alcohol, and tempered by twice inserting into the butter to be sampled.
If samples are taken only for chemical or sensory examination, the trier can be
cleaned and dried between each sample, without sterilization in alcohol. Sampling
should be accomplished from several different points to ensure a representative mixture. The trier should pass diagonally through the butter from top to bottom, through
the center to obtain a representative sample.

2.2.5 Sampling of Cheese


The sampling procedure applied to cheese depends on its shape, type, and size. In
general, sampling is done with a cheese trier and the sample quantity is >50 g.
Following extraction of the sample, care must be taken to close the hole to ensure
that mold growth does not occur in the rest of the cheese. The hole may be sealed
with a sealing compound such as a mixture of molten paraffin, beeswax, and white
petrolatum (1:1:2) or a mixture of white petrolatum and paraffin (hi). 1 Cheese can
be resealed in a vacuum-heat-sealable plastic pouch.
Cheese sampling in larger than 40-lb blocks is more difficult because cheese cools
slowly from outside to inside and the moisture pattern becomes fixed with the highest
on the outside, the lowest in the center, and the average somewhere in between.2

Exact details on sampling of barrel cheese may be obtained from the National Cheese
Institute (888 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006).
Subsamples are taken following passage of the cheese through a food chopper
three times. Alternatively, the cheese may be cut or shred very finely and mixed.
High moisture cheese samples such as cottage cheese should be in original containers if feasible. Coliform bacteria decrease in number in acid environments so
tests for these organisms should be performed within 24 h after product manufacture.
Samples should always be protected from contamination and stored between 0 and
4.4C. Subsamples of soft cheese which are impossible to grind may be prepared by
homogenizing in a blender. Care should be taken to prevent the sample temperature
from exceeding 250C.

2.3 Tests for Milk Composition


2.3.1 Fat
2.3. Ll Gravimetric Methods
The Roese-Gottlieb procedure involves determining the weight of fat in a sample
following extraction by solvents. This method has been accepted as the international
method for fat determination in milk through an agreement between the International
Dairy Federation (IDF), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
and the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). It is the final action
reference method for fat determination due to the precision of the results. ("Official
methods are designated first action or final action, and, in a few cases, procedures.
A first action method has undergone collaborative study, has been recommended by
the appropriate General Referee and Methods Committee, has been approved interim
first action by the chairman of the Official Methods Board, and has been adopted
official by the Association members at an annual meeting. A method may be adopted
final action a minimum of 2 years after it has been adopted first action, and again,
after it has been recommended by the appropriate General Referee and Methods
Committee and voted on by the Association members at an annual meeting."3).
However, because of the time, expense, and skill required to perform the analysis it
is not commonly encountered in most laboratories.
The Mojonnier ether extraction method is a slightly modified version of the
Roese-Gottlieb method, and has been accepted as a first action procedure by the
AOAC. The two procedures differ in the quantity of ammonium hydroxide used to
dissolve the casein and in the addition of ethanol in the second extraction step. The
second addition of ethanol helps to prevent gelation during extraction. The Mojonnier method is the recommended reference method for the determination of fat content in raw milk for the calibration of infrared milk analyzers.4
The basic procedure for the Mojonnier method is to accurately weigh a sample
of product to be tested (weights vary depending on product; exact weights are given
in ref. 4) into an empty, dry, preweighed Mojonnier flask (Fig. 2.1). Water may be
added to rehydrate or dilute certain products. Ammonium hydroxide is added to

Figure 2.1 Flask, pipette, and drying dish used in the Mojonnier fat determination.
dissolve casein, and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added to help
visualize the interface between the aqueous and the solvent phase. Ethyl alcohol is
added to prevent gel formation when ethers are added. Ethyl ether and petroleum
ether are added separately to dissolve fat. Following addition of each reagent, the
mixture is shaken for a prescribed time in the Mojonnier flask. The flask and its
contents are centrifuged at approximately 600 rpm for at least 30 s to allow phase
separation. Alternatively, layers will separate if allowed to stand for sufficient time.
Once phases are separated, the upper solvent phase is carefully decanted into a
preweighed dish. The analyst must avoid pouring over any of the suspended solids
or aqueous phase. While the second extraction is being performed, the dish may be
placed on a hot plate at 1000C to evaporate the first ether layer. (CAUTION:
ETHER IS EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE. An effective volatile removal system
should be used throughout this procedure.) A second extraction is performed to
remove additional quantities of fat by adding more ethanol and ethers, and repeating
the previous steps. Some high fat products require a third extraction. With this extraction only ethers are added and the previous steps repeated. After the last extraction, the solvents are completely evaporated at <100C to avoid spattering. The
dishes containing the fat are dried completely in a vacuum oven at 70 to 75C under
<20 inches of vacuum until a constant weight is reached (usually slightly more than
7 min). The dishes may be dried in a forced air oven at 102 2C for a minimum
of 30 min. The dry dishes are removed from the oven and placed in a desiccator at
room temperature. Once equilbrated to room temperature, the fat is determined by

weight. Fat percentages are calculated by dividing the weight of the fat by the weight
of the sample and multiplying by 100. Reagent blanks should be run daily and
subtracted from the weight of the fat. Reagent blanks should be from 0 to 0.0020 g
and consistent within batches of reagent. If the blank is <0, errors have been made
and should be identified. If the blank is >0.0020 g, some reagent contains excessive
residue and should be identified and replaced. The same analyst should obtain duplicate results on the same sample within 0.03%. If greater than this, the test
should be repeated.

2.3.1.2 Volumetric Methods


The Babcock method for determination of fat in raw milk was accepted by the AOAC
as an official final action procedure in 1920 and reclassified as a revised first action
procedure in 1989.5 Babcock's original method has been refined over the years to
increase its accuracy and improve its efficiency. The refinements include: (1) the use
of laboratory grade water of a specified temperature to raise the fat column into the
calibrated bottle neck; (2) controlling and standardizing acid addition; (3) use of a
mechanical shaker to aid in digestion of the sample; (4) maintaining a constant
temperature of the product and acid mixture; and (5) improving the accuracy of the
glassware.4
The Babcock fat method is classified as a volumetric method and fat content is
expressed in percentage based on volume of fat measured in specially calibrated
bottles. The method combines physical and chemical reactions to break the oil-inwater emulsion of the milk and release the fat so that it may be collected and measured in the neck of the bottle. The accuracy of the test is dependent on the accuracy
of the transfer pipets used to measure the sample and of the Babcock bottle.
There are a variety of Babcock bottles available and selection is dependent on
the sample type (Fig. 2.2). Skim milk bottles are calibrated between 0 and 0.5% fat
in 0.01% divisions. These bottles are double necked because the sample cannot be
forced down the tiny bore of the fat column. Care must be taken when using these
bottles that during centrifugation the fat is forced up the small bore rather than the
sample introduction neck. Standard Babcock milk bottles are calibrated from 0 to
8% fat in 0.1% increments. The sample is introduced down the same neck in which
the fat is collected. Both skim milk bottles and standard milk bottles are calibrated
for an 18-g sample. Ice cream, cream, and Paley bottles are calibrated for 9-g samples. Ice cream bottles are designed for samples containing between 5 and 20% fat
and are calibrated in 0.2% increments. Cream bottles are designed for samples containing between 10 and 50% fat and are calibrated in 0.5% divisions. Paley bottles
are designed for use with solid samples such as cheese. These bottles are calibrated
from 0 to 20% fat in 0.2% divisions and have a stoppered opening for introduction
of sample. The analyst is responsible for choosing the correct bottle type for the
product being analyzed.
The quantity of liquid product introduced into the test bottle is determined volumetrically. The temperature of the test mixture will determine the volume transferred as liquids expand with heating. In addition, the temperature of the sample will

Figure 22 Babcock bottles commonly found in daily laboratories. (A) Whole milk test
bottle; (B) Skim milk test bottle; (C) Cream test bottle; (D) Paley test bottle.

impact the physical state of the fat. The test mixture should be equilibrated to 38
1C prior to sampling. Specially designed pipettes are used to transfer 17.60 0.05
ml of milk to the bottle with removal of the last drop using a slight air force. Eighteen
grams of milk are transferred based on the volume and the specific gravity of milk.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is added to break the oil-in-water emulsion and to provide
heat to dissolve the fat allowing it to separate by gravity. The specific gravity of the
sulfuric acid is important in controlling the acid/milk reaction temperature. Reference
4 should be consulted for specific instructions on how to adjust the specific gravity
to obtain the desired reaction temperature. If the acid is too weak, the reaction
temperature will be too low and incomplete freeing of the fat will occur, resulting
in low test results. If the acid is too strong, burning of the sample will occur from
too high a reaction temperature, and charred particles will be present in the fat
column that interfere with reading of the results. Other factors that impact the milk/
acid reaction temperature include the amount of acid added, the rate of acid addition
and subsequent swirling, and the temperature of the milk and acid. Person-to-person
differences in technique exist which make it essential to tailor the quantity of acid
added to the technician performing the test.
Following the addition of the acid, the sample and acid are carefully swirled until
the last traces of curd disappear. The samples are then shaken on a mechanical shaker
for at least 1 min after the last bottle is inserted in the shaker. [At this point it is
prudent to include a word of warning about the sulfuric acid. Just as the acid dissolves

the milk protein, it will dissolve human skin (as well as lab coats, shoes, and many
types of countertop materials). Care must be used in handling of the acid. Protective
garments should include rubber gloves, rubber lab apron, and goggles. Care should
be taken to point the bottle neck away from yourself and all others in the lab during
the swirling process. CAUTION: Acid should always be added to milk in the
bottle, not the reverse. Adding aqueous materials to concentrated sulfuric acid
will cause violent reactions which are dangerous.]
When the last sample has shaken a minimum of 1 min, the bottles are transferred
to a heated Babcock centrifuge (600C) where additional heat and centrifugal force
bring the fat to the top of the mixture. Sulfuric acid is much denser than the fat
(approximately 1.83 specific gravity vs. approximately 0.93 specific gravity). The
combined specific gravity of the mixture of sulfuric acid and aqueous components
is approximately 1.43, causing physical separation of the phases.6 Centrifugation
enhances the physical reaction. When the bottles are placed in the centrifuge they
must be counterbalanced. The centrifuge has two rows for bottle placement. Fill the
outer row first, placing the bottles opposite one another in the centrifuge. It has been
the experience of the author that when only two samples are centrifuged, if they are
placed in the inside holders, the necks of the bottles break during centrifugation,
leaving a lost test and a mess to clean. The first centrifugation is for 5 min, the
centrifuge stopped (carefully) and water (600C) added down the side of the bottle
so that it layers underneath the fat, raising it to within 0.6 cm of the base of the
bottle neck. Centrifugation is repeated for 2 min and additional hot water is added
to raise the fat column into the graduated portion of the bottle. The final centrifugation is for 1 min. The bottles are transferred into a water bath where the fat column
is adjusted to 57.5 1C and tempered a minimum of 5 min. The water level in
the bath should be slightly above the top of the fat column. The volume of fat is
determined using calipers placed at the top and the bottom meniscus of the fat column
and carefully transferred so that the lower point rests on the zero mark and the upper
point rests somewhere within the calibrations of the column. The fat content is read
directly in percentage to the nearest 0.05%.
Other fluid products are tested similarly to milk with some modifications. Products such as chocolate milk, ice cream mix, ice cream, and other frozen desserts that
are high in sugar must be handled differently due to the tendency to char.7 Ammonium hydroxide and normal butyl alcohol are incorporated into the reaction mixture
to improve the results. These reagents are also added to improve fat recovery with
cottage cheese samples. Skim milk, low-fat milk, buttermilk, and whey have normal
butyl alcohol included in the reagents to aid in obtaining a fat column free of charred
material. Roccal solution (a 50% concentrate of benzalkonium chloride, U.S.P.) may
serve as a wetting agent to prevent charring of chocolate milk, skim milk, buttermilk,
and whey samples.4
Although not as widely applied in the U.S. as the Babcock test, the Gerber fat
test method is an official alternative first action method of the AOAC5 as well as
being described in SMEDP.4 It is a volumetric test procedure and is applicable to
raw, pasteurized, homogenized, and composite milk samples. It is also used for low-

fat milk and skim milk and as an in-plant control test for frozen desserts.4 The Gerber
procedure is used on a much wider scale in the international community.

2.3.1.3 Automated Methods


As number of samples and labor costs increased, automated methods were developed
for determining fat content. A variety of instruments have been introduced during
the last 30 years, so many that the APHA and AOAC approve instrument performance rather than individual instruments.4'5 There are two basic methods for
automatically determining fat content: turbidimetric and spectroscopic. The turbidimetric method is suitable only for milkfat, whereas multiple components may be
analyzed spectroscopically. Regardless of the method selected, calibration of the
instrument is essential. Both SMEDP and AOAC give performance specifications
for calibration.4^ Calibration samples may be obtained from state and private laboratories and are useful for those labs not routinely performing ether extraction fat
analysis. Once calibrated, performance should be checked daily using six to ten
samples of known fat content (by ether extraction) within the range of the samples
being tested.
Determination of fat content based on turbidity relies on the fact that milkfat
scatters light. The quantity of fat may be estimated if the sample is sufficiently dilute
to remove the interference by casein. Tetrasodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate
(EDTA) disperses colloidal casein particles and the fat is dispersed by homogenization to produce fat globules of uniform size. A beam of light is passed through
the prepared sample in a photocell and light scattering is measured. The amount of
scattering is proportional to the amount of fat. The percentage of fat is reported
directly, often as a printed report generated via computer linkage. This instrumental
method is frequently combined with automatic sampling devices where the sample
is taken from various points in a milk processing line and transported by pumping
to the instrument. The results are obtained and automatically fed to a standardizing
computer that makes adjustments as necessary in the flow of milks of various fat
content to maintain a constant fat content in the finished product.
Laboratories with many samples to test for fat, protein, lactose, and/or total solids
find it economical to invest in a spectroscopic instrument able to estimate these
components automatically. Such instruments are frequently found in laboratories of
cooperatives or Dairy Herd Improvement Associations where the information gained
is provided to dairy farmers (Fig. 2.3). Recently, these instruments have become
more common in cheese plants where multicomponent information regarding milk
has an impact on cheese yields. As the value of milkfat declines and the value of
other components increases, we will see these instruments appear in more dairy
testing laboratories.
The basis of analysis of milk by spectroscopic methodology is that infrared energy
(IR) of specific wavelength is absorbed by the chemical constituent in milk. The
-CH groups in the fatty acid chains absorb at 3.48 /xm whereas the carbonyl groups
in ester linkages of fat molecules absorb at 5.723 |xm. Originally, only ester linkages
were measured to quantify fat, but there was a lack of correlation with gravimetric

Figure 2 3 Equipment for the automatic determination of fat and protein in milk at the TN
DHIA Services Laboratory, Knoxville, TN.

methods. Triglycerides of differing numbers of carbons each have three ester linkages but have different weights. When carbon groups are measured, the variation in
weights is taken into account and the method better correlates with the gravimetric
procedure. The specific absorption of other components will be discussed under those
sections. Like the instrument for measuring fat by turbidity, calibration is the key to
successful results.
Energy of the desired wavelength is created by passing an IR beam through an
optical filter. The filtered beam passes through the milk sample and unabsorbed
energy passes on to the filter. The amount of energy absorbed is proportional to the
concentration of the component in the sample. The IR beam is also passed through
an optical filter which transmits energy at a wavelength where there is minimal
absorption by the component. This beam passes through the milk and on to the
detector. The two signals are compared at the detector and the concentration of the
component determined. Scattering by components in the milk impact the amount of
energy reaching the detector. Degree of homogenization of the sample, either before or during analysis, may impact the results due to variation in scattering by the
sample.4
It is essential that the interior of the instrument remain dry because moisture can
cause changes in optical zero and a shift in calibration.5 Desiccant should be changed

on a daily basis and 3 to 4 h prior to the next use. Calibration should be performed
with the type milk that is to be analyzed; mixtures of milk and cream should not be
used. Abnormal milks should also not be used for calibration. As with all procedures,
it is the analyst's responsibility to ensure that the instrument is working properly, as
malfunctions that affect calibration can cause large errors.5

2.3.2 Total Solids


2.3.2.1 Drying Methods
Total solids represent the components that remain after the complete removal of
water. A prescribed amount of sample is weighed into a preweighed, clean, dry
sample container. For greatest accuracy, weights are determined to the nearest
0.0001 g. Heat is applied to the sample until a constant weight is attained, the sample
is cooled and the weight again determined. Total solids (%) are calculated as the
weight of the sample after drying divided by the weight of the sample before drying
multiplied by 100. Any variations in procedures are in the method of applying heat.
The official final action procedure accepted by the AOAC, ISO, and IDF specifies
dehydration under atmospheric pressure.5 The basic procedure is to precisely weigh
2.5 to 3 g of prepared sample into a weighed flat bottom dish 5 cm or greater in
diameter. The sample is preheated on a steam bath 10 to 15 min, then transferred to
an air oven at 98 to 1000C for 3 h. The dish and sample are cooled in a desiccator,
quickly weighed, and results calculated. Specific precautions to apply to all weight
determinations, particularly very precise ones, are that fingerprints and air vapor
have mass. Once the dishes are predried they should be exposed to the atmosphere
for a minimum amount of time and should be handled only with forceps or tongs.
All cooling should be done in a clean desiccator.
Although, not officially listed among AOAC of SMEDP procedures, there are
several procedures that are applicable to milk for rapid screening but do not serve
as official test methods. Laboratories equipped with Mojonnier fat testing apparatus
also have the capability to determine total solids by the Mojonnier method.6*8 Moisture is removed by predrying the sample on a hot plate at 1800C until the first traces
of brown appear. The sample is completely dried in a vacuum oven (not less than
20 inches) for 10 min at 1000C. Moisture can be approximated using a self-contained
rapid drying procedure that incorporates an IR lamp (not to be confused with the
automated method using IR energy) to dry the sample as it sits on a balance.8 Microwave energy may be used to remove moisture. The use of microwave will be described in Section 2.7.2.

2.3.2.2 Lactometer Method


The lactometer is a special hydrometer designed for determination of specific gravity
in milk. Specific gravity is a physical property of matterthe weight of a specific
volume of material compared to a standard substance. Water at 16C is the standard
for liquids and solids. The average specific gravity of milk is 1.032 but varies de-

pending on the solids-not-fat and the fat content. To determine total solids using a
lactometer, fat content must also be determined. The lactometer is a specially designed weighted instrument that is calibrated in specific gravity units. Reference 4
specifies two types of lactometers, large and small; the choice depends on the type
of milk being tested. The lactometer is allowed to float freely in the milk and specific
gravity is read at the top of the meniscus after the lactometer has come to rest.
Readings should be repeated to ensure accuracy by withdrawing the lactometer just
enough to wipe the stem then slowly immersing it. The cylinder containing the milk
should be of sufficient capacity to allow free movement of the lactometer and allow
it to float in the milk.
Specific gravity is affected by temperature. Therefore, the sample and the lactometer should be at a constant temperature. Cylinders containing the milk should be
equilibrated in a water bath held at 39 1C and deep enough to bring the water
level to within 5 cm of the top of the cylinder. Temperature of the milk should be
recorded at the time of specific gravity determination. The lactometer should be
maintained in the 39C bath (a minimum of 3 min) before immersion, removed just
prior to the test, and wiped dry.
The lactometer is read in increments of 0.2 or 0.5 units and values fall within the
range of 24 to 37. These values are converted to specific gravity by including 1.0
before the lactometer reading. For example, if the lactometer reading were 32.5, the
specific gravity would be 1.0325.
The lactometer degree value read directly from the lactometer is used along with
the percent fat from the Babcock test to calculate total solids using Eq. 2.1 for whole
milk or Eq. 2.2 for skim milk.
% total solids

(2.1)

% total solids

(2.2)

where F = % fat and L = lactometer reading in degrees.

2.3.2.3 Automated Methods


Total solids may be determined using mid-IR spectroscopic analysis indirectly. The
instrument can measure fat, protein, and lactose. The other component of total solids
is ash, which is relatively constant. As with fat determination, calibration of the
instrument is essential. At least eight milk samples should be analyzed for total solids
by air drying. Fat, protein and lactose are determined instrumentally. The constant,
a, is calculated as the difference between the total solids and the sum of the fat,
protein, and lactose. Once a has been calculated it is used in the equation, % total
solids = a 4- % fat 4- % protein + % lactose. Complete details on calibration are
available in ref. 5. Total solids may also be determined in the near IR range in a
similar manner.4

2.3.3 Protein
2.3.3.1 Kjeldahl Method
The Kjeldahl method of protein determination has been the standard method for
determining total nitrogen in foods and feeds since 1883.4 It remains the standard
method for determination of protein in milk and all other methods must correlate
with it. However, because of the time, expense, and skill required to perform Kjeldahl
analyses, it is not routinely done in dairy laboratories. It is essential that it be described here, though, due to its importance as a standard method.
All proteins contain nitrogen. Most food proteins contain 15.7 to 18% nitrogen
with 16% commonly given as the average.9 Analysis of nitrogen content can be
converted to give an estimate of percent protein. The Kjeldahl procedure cannot
differentiate between protein nitrogen and nonprotein nitrogen; thus, for samples
that are extensively proteolyzed, protein content will be overestimated. Nonprotein
nitrogen varies from farm to farm and ranges from 2 to 10% of the total nitrogen
content.10"12 AOAC has recently adopted a new method for determining true protein
in milk that accounts for the nonprotein nitrogen component.13
Traditionally, Kjeldahl nitrogen is determined by digestion of a weighed portion
of milk by heat and sulfuric acid. Mercury is used as a catalyst although alternative
catalysts posing less of a danger to the environment are under investigation. Carbon
and hydrogen in the sample are oxidized; protein nitrogen is reduced and transformed
to ammonium sulfate. Concentrated sodium hydroxide is added in the second step:
the distillation step. With heat, ammonium is liberated and collected as condensate
in a standard acid solution (boric acid). The quantity of nitrogen liberated is determined by back-titration using an acid-base indicator. Complete details for performance of the Kjeldahl method on milk are provided in ref. 4.
The Kjeldahl method is the official final action method for protein determination
accepted by IDF-ISO-AOAC.5 As mentioned previously, nonprotein nitrogen content is included in traditional protein determinations. True protein content is important to cheesemakers because nonprotein nitrogen is lost in whey. Milks high in
nonprotein nitrogen are less valuable to cheesemakers. Although few cheese laboratories perform Kjeldahl nitrogen tests, many now analyze milk for total composition using instrumental methods. Calibration of these instruments is very important.
If the instrument is calibrated to include nonprotein nitrogen, all test results will be
high. Therefore, use of a procedure that excludes nonprotein nitrogen in standardization of the instrument is appropriate. At the 104th AOAC Annual International
Meeting, a method was accepted as official first action in which trichloroacetic acid
precipitates protein nitrogen from milk.13 Nitrogen content of such a precipitate will
represent the true protein content of milk. At the time of the writing of this chapter,
this method was not officially accepted to be used for calibration of instruments,
although it appears that it may be in the future.
There are many adaptations of the Kjeldahl method available on the market speeding digestion, distillation, or titration. Any technique that enhances speed or im-

proves reliability is acceptable. However, it is the responsibility of the analyst to


ensure that the technique conforms with the requirements of the standard method.

2.3.3.2 Dye-Binding Methods


Between the time of the introduction of the Kjeldahl method and the introduction
of mid-IR spectroscopic methods, scientists searched for more rapid methods for
measuring protein. Two methods remain as official today. Both involve the binding
of a dye to protein molecules. The Acid Orange 12 method is an official final action
method of the AOAC.5 This dye binds specifically under acid conditions to free
amino groups, Iysine, the imidazole group of histidine, and the guanidyl group of
arginine. Excess dye is added to milk in a dispenser bottle fitted with a spun-glass
paper inside the cap. The mixture is shaken vigorously and the filtrate dropped into
the cell of an instrument designed to read absorbance. The quantity of free dye is
measured and compared to the total dye available for binding. The less dye in the
filtrate, the higher the protein content of the sample. The procedure can be automated
with the sample filtrate drawn through a flow-through spectrophotometer cell. Calibration curves must be constructed to relate the absorbance values to protein content.
Amido Black 1OB also binds specifically to protein. It has an advantage over Acid
Orange 12 in that there is a greater change in optical density per unit of milk protein.
The Amido Black 1OB procedure has been accepted as an official first action method
for determining protein by the IDF-ISO-AOAC.5
The dye binding capacity of milk protein is not affected by homogenization,
condensing or heating to 32C for 15 min.9 Extensive proteolysis will increase dye
binding because more amino groups are available. Heating milk to the point of
browning will reduce dye binding. The dye-binding test is considered suitable for
normal milk, but not for atypical milks such as colostrum, mastitic, or from very
late in lactation.

2.3.3.3 Automated Methods


Both dye-binding procedures discussed in the preceding section can be automated
and instruments are available for that purpose. Additional automated methods have
been developed that rely on the specific absorbance of protein molecules of IR
energy. The peptide linkages between amino acids of protein molecules absorb at a
wavelength of 6.465 jxm. According to manufacturer's instructions, calibration is
done with at least eight samples of known protein content.5

2.3.4 Lactose

2.3.4.1 Polarimetric Method


Lactose is an optically active compound; it will interact with polarized light to cause
rotation of the plane. The quantity of lactose impacts the degree of rotation. Deter-

mination of lactose by polarimetry has long been the official final method. 5 Other
components of the milk first must be removed via precipitation and filtration. Lactose, in a clear filtrate, is introduced in the polarimeter cell (two different sizes) and
degree of rotation is measured. The quantity of lactose is calculated from the rotation
of the two quantities by formula.4

2.3.4.2 Gravimetric Method


Lactose is a reducing sugar.14 It will react with oxidizing reagents such as copper
sulfate under alkaline conditions. In milk, fat and protein must first be removed by
precipitation and filtration. On heating a portion of the filtrate, cuprous oxide precipitates and the quantity is weighed. Lactose equivalent to the quantity of cuprous
oxide is determined from tabular values (Munson-Walker tables). 3

2.3.4.3 Enzymatic Method


Lactose is a disaccharide of glucose and p-galactose. The enzyme (3-galactosidase
(lactase) hydrolyzes the glucosidic bond to produce free monosaccharides. In an
enzymatic procedure,15 lactose is determined based on this principle. In the procedure, p-galactose is oxidized further by NAD to galactonic acid in the presence of
P-galactose dehydrogenase. The amount of NADH formed is proportional to the
quantity of lactose present initially and can be measured by determining absorbance
at 340 nm. Because this is an enzymatic reaction, time and temperature are very
important in control of results. Assay kits based on this procedure are available
commercially.5

2.3.4.4 HPLC Method


Carbohydrates can be separated and quantitively measured by high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC). 4 A weighed sample is digested with sulfuric acid
and precipitate removed by filtration. The clear, colorless liquid is injected directly
into an Econosphere NH 2 cartridge column (Alltech Assoc, Inc., Deerfield, IL; at
the present time, this method had been evaluated only for this specific column).
Lactose peaks are detected by refractive index and are quantitatively determined
based on the area of the peaks. Standards of a- and (3-lactose must be run for
quantitation. With the incorporation of an autosampler, this procedure can be
semiautomated.

2.3.4.5 Automatic Method


Hydroxyl groups in the lactose molecule interact with IR energy at a wavelength of
9.610 |xm. Lactose can be determined automatically along with fat, protein, and total
solids. 5 The linearity of output signals from the instrument is checked using lactose
solutions and calibration is with milk of known lactose content. The reference
method for lactose standardization is the polarimetric method.

2.3.5 Ash
The ash component of milk is small and is composed primarily of minerals. Ash is
the material that remains after the organic material is removed by very high heating.
Because the sample is exposed to very high heat (550 0 C) for an extended period
(12 to 18 h), choice of ashing crucible is important. AOAC 5 specifies platinum
crucibles for ash determination of milk. It is the best choice of materials, but expensive; thus should be handled with care. Platinum dishes can corrode, especially in
the presence of dirt-containing organic matter. Corrosion from heavy metals can lead
to pitting and hole formation. Platinum crucibles should be touched with platinumtipped tongs and placed, after ashing, on clean porcelain or marble surfaces.9 Care
should be taken in cleaning the crucibles and mechanical washing should be avoided.
In the ashing procedure, approximately 5 g of sample is weighed into a predried,
preweighed platinum dish to the nearest 0.0001 g. The sample is evaporated to
dryness on a steam bath. Once free moisture is removed, the crucible containing the
sample is transferred to an ashing oven at 550 0 C and ignited until the ash is completely free of carbon. The crucible containing the sample is cooled in a desiccator
and weighed. The percent ash is calculated as the weight of the ash divided by the
weight of the initial sample multiplied by 100. Total solids determination can be
combined with ash determination by heating for 3 h in a drying oven, cooling in a
desiccator, and recording the dry weight prior to transferring the sample to the ashing
oven. If the two procedures are combined, platinum dishes should be used for total
solids determination and a 5-g sample used.5

2.3.6 Vitamins
Milk serves as an important source for vitamins A and D. Although whole milk is
naturally adequate in vitamin A, vitamin D content is enhanced through addition at
time of processing. Low-fat milks are low in vitamin A and it must be restored to
original levels. Because these nutrients are added to milk, processors, regulators,
and consumers are concerned that they be present in the specified amount. Recent
changes in nutritional labeling laws require that the quantity of these and other
nutrients be specified on the label. Therefore, determination of these two vitamins
is important to the dairy analyst. The method of choice for determination is HPLC. 4
Equipment costs and ease of analysis are such that HPLC has become almost routine.
Vitamin A is extracted from room temperature milk using absolute ethanol and
hexane combined with centrifugation. Addition of water to the mixture helps in
separation of the aqueous and organic phases. On centrifugation, a hexane top layer
forms containing the vitamin A. An aliquot from this layer is injected into a HPLC
system equipped with a LiChrosorb Si 60 column. The eluting sample is detected
by an absorbance detector with an adjustable wavelength of 313 to 325 nm. Peaks
are recorded and quantified compared to a standard of retinyl palmitate in hexane.
Vitamins D 2 and D 3 can also be measured by HPLC although the procedure is
more complex. 4 The sample first must be saponified and any nonsaponifiable constituents extracted. Then cholesterol is removed from the sample by precipitation.

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Vitamin D is separated in a small chromatographic column on neutral aluminum


oxide and dried. The vitamin D is identified and quantified by HPLC on a reversephase stainless steel column, Vydac 201 TP, equipped with a variable wavelength
detector. USP reference standards for ergocalciferol (D2) and cholecalciferol (D3)
are used for quantification.

2.3.7 Minerals
The ash content of milk serves as an approximation of the total mineral content of
milk. For quantitation of individual minerals in milk, atomic absorption spectrophotometry is the method of choice. Calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, sodium, and potassium may be determined on the same sample by changing
the wavelength and flame conditions.5 The sample is predried at 1000C, ashed at
525C for 3 to 5 h, and cooled. The ash should be white and free of carbon (grey
particles indicate the presence of carbon). Wet ashing is not recommended as potassium is lost in this process. The sample is diluted in nitric acid (1AO and analyzed
in the atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Calibration curves must be prepared for
each mineral. Blanks must be prepared for all reagents and glassware and carried
through the entire process as mineral contamination can occur at any point. Special
care must be given to the quality of water so as not to cause contamination. All
glassware must be cleaned by soaking overnight in 20% nitric acid and rinsed three
times with distilled-deionized water.
Chloride can be determined by titration with silver nitrate (Mohr method).4 Chloride meters are available commercially that automatically titrate chloride ions with
silver ions generated internally. When titration is complete, conductivity of the solution increases which can be sensed by electrodes causing the titration to stop. The
instrument uses the elapsed titration time to calculate the chloride content.4

2.4 Tests for Milk Quality


2.4.1 Titratable Acidity
When held at above-refrigeration temperatures, microorganisms in milk begin to
grow. Some of these organisms produce lactic acid. Traditionally, titratable acidity
has been used as an indicator of milk quality, because there is no lactic acid in fresh
milk. Under current methods of handling and distributing milk, temperatures rarely
are such that lactic acid is produced. If titratable acidity is used as a test to determine
acceptance of milk, temperature, odor, and taste should also be noted. Measurement
of acidity is impacted by any condition that causes a change in the distribution of
calcium phosphate in the sample. Milks high in protein may also have an apparent
high acidity, because charged groups on the protein molecule react with alkali. Normal acidity of fresh milk (apparent acidity) is usually 0.15 to 0.16. If values significantly above normal are obtained, the milk is suspect, but other quality tests (especially taste and odor) should be performed prior to rejection. Several million bacteria

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Vitamin D is separated in a small chromatographic column on neutral aluminum


oxide and dried. The vitamin D is identified and quantified by HPLC on a reversephase stainless steel column, Vydac 201 TP, equipped with a variable wavelength
detector. USP reference standards for ergocalciferol (D2) and cholecalciferol (D3)
are used for quantification.

2.3.7 Minerals
The ash content of milk serves as an approximation of the total mineral content of
milk. For quantitation of individual minerals in milk, atomic absorption spectrophotometry is the method of choice. Calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, sodium, and potassium may be determined on the same sample by changing
the wavelength and flame conditions.5 The sample is predried at 1000C, ashed at
525C for 3 to 5 h, and cooled. The ash should be white and free of carbon (grey
particles indicate the presence of carbon). Wet ashing is not recommended as potassium is lost in this process. The sample is diluted in nitric acid (1AO and analyzed
in the atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Calibration curves must be prepared for
each mineral. Blanks must be prepared for all reagents and glassware and carried
through the entire process as mineral contamination can occur at any point. Special
care must be given to the quality of water so as not to cause contamination. All
glassware must be cleaned by soaking overnight in 20% nitric acid and rinsed three
times with distilled-deionized water.
Chloride can be determined by titration with silver nitrate (Mohr method).4 Chloride meters are available commercially that automatically titrate chloride ions with
silver ions generated internally. When titration is complete, conductivity of the solution increases which can be sensed by electrodes causing the titration to stop. The
instrument uses the elapsed titration time to calculate the chloride content.4

2.4 Tests for Milk Quality


2.4.1 Titratable Acidity
When held at above-refrigeration temperatures, microorganisms in milk begin to
grow. Some of these organisms produce lactic acid. Traditionally, titratable acidity
has been used as an indicator of milk quality, because there is no lactic acid in fresh
milk. Under current methods of handling and distributing milk, temperatures rarely
are such that lactic acid is produced. If titratable acidity is used as a test to determine
acceptance of milk, temperature, odor, and taste should also be noted. Measurement
of acidity is impacted by any condition that causes a change in the distribution of
calcium phosphate in the sample. Milks high in protein may also have an apparent
high acidity, because charged groups on the protein molecule react with alkali. Normal acidity of fresh milk (apparent acidity) is usually 0.15 to 0.16. If values significantly above normal are obtained, the milk is suspect, but other quality tests (especially taste and odor) should be performed prior to rejection. Several million bacteria

per milliliter are necessary to produce detectable developed acidity.6 Common spoilage organisms in today's milk supply, (psychrotrophic bacteria) do not produce lactic
acid, so will go undetected by this method.
Titratable acidity is useful in cultured product manufacturing, where acid development is encouraged, yet controlled. Specifications exist for titratable acidity values
expected during various stages of the cheese-making process. Although lactic acid
is not the only acid present in fermented milks, it predominates and is used as the
basis of calculation of acidity. Either a 9- or an 18-g sample is pipetted (using pipettes
calibrated to contain 9 or 18 g of milk) into a beaker or white-interior titration
casserole. Two volumes of water are used to rinse completely the pipette into the
container. Dry samples can be analyzed by weighing accurately the prescribed
amount of sample and suspending it in water. For most samples, phenolphthalein is
added (0.5 ml) and the sample titrated to the first permanent (30 s) color change to
pink with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide. The concentration of indicator will impact the
results, thus should be a constant amount. Also impacting the results are the amount
of dilution of the sample, the speed of titration, the amount of indicator, and the
temperature of the sample. Therefore, all samples should be titrated as quickly as
possible at room temperature using exact amounts of sample, diluent, and reagents.4
The normality of the sodium hydroxide must be determined exactly (0.1000 AO using
standard acid titration. Alternatively, prepared sodium hydroxide is available from
chemical supply houses. However, it is good lab practice to confirm the normality
of such products occasionally. Some sample may be too dark to accurately observe
the phenolphthalein endpoint. Such samples should be titrated to a pH of 8.3 using
a standardized pH meter and probe.
Formulas are available in ref. 4 for calculation of acidity expressed as percent
lactic acid for various products. Each milliliter of 0.1000 N sodium hydroxide used
in the titration is equivalent to 0.009 g of lactic acid. Specially designed titrators are
available that provide percent titratable acidity directly based on this relationship
(Fig. 2.4).
Sodium hydroxide tends to adsorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When
carbon dioxide is dissolved it produces an acid. Normality may decrease during
storage and should be verified periodically.
If more exact quantities of citric or lactic acid are desired, AOAC5 provides
methods for determination of each. Citric acid is determined by a gravimetric method
whereas lactic acid is determined by a colorimetric method. Both methods are quite
complicated and not applicable to routine analysis.
Titratable acidity is related to the pH of the product. Frequently pH measurements
are determined because the method is nondestructive and rapid. The most critical
part of pH determination is the condition of the pH-sensing electrode. Electrode tips
are made of special hydrogen-sensitive glass. If the tip is scratched or clogged,
improper results will be recorded. Standardization of the pH meter is also important.
Follow pH meter manufacturer's instructions for proper standardization. Standards
covering the range of pH values expected should be used daily to check and standardize the instrument. Preferably, premixed standard buffer solutions within code date
are used. Temperature causes changes in pH; therefore measurements should be at

Figure 2.4 Titration unit used for the determination of titratable acidity in milk and milk
products.
the same temperature as the standardizing buffer. Dairy products contain fat and
protein that clog the electrode. Care must be taken to clean carefully the electrode
as described by the manufacturer. Electrodes should be stored in potassium chloride
solution when not in use, unless it will be several months between uses, in which
case the electrode should be stored dry. Reference 4 gives an excellent description
of problems of and solutions to electrode maintenance.
Liquid samples can be measured directly; dry samples need to be rehydrated.
Cheese samples must be uniform, obtained by first blending or grinding. The sample
is packed into a small container to ensure good electrode contact. The pH of butter
is determined only on the serum (aqueous) phase, obtained by melting the butter and
sampling the lower phase.

2.4,2 Added Water

2.4.2.1 General Comments


The intentional addition of water to milk is illegal. Occasionally, water may accidentally be added to milk through inadequate drainage of equipment or carelessness.
When water is added, molecules in solution, lactose and salts, are diluted. Colligative
properties of a solution are those impacted by number of particles in solution rather
than nature of the particles. These properties are freezing point, boiling point, osmotic pressure, and vapor pressure. Each is relatively easy to measure; freezing point
and vapor pressure are generally employed as measures of water addition. Other
conditions can impact the colligative properties besides intentional water addition,
and surveillance of milk for presence of added water using these methods must be
approached with caution.4 Season of the year, age and health of cow, feed, ambient
temperature, breed, time of milking, access to water, weather, and morning or evening milk have been implicated to have an impact on freezing point. Freezing point
is also affected by fermentation, vacuum treatment, sterilization, and prefreezing of
the sample prior to measurement. Addition of milk solids impacts freezing point.
Milk suspected to have had water added must be confirmed by comparison to an
authentic sample. 5 An authentic sample is one from the same herd as the suspect
sample collected to be certain to exclude water.

2.4.2.2 Cryoscopic Methods


Cryoscopes are instruments that precisely measure the freezing point of a sample.
Pure water freezes at 0 0 C. Solids dissolved in water depress the freezing point to
temperatures less than zero. When solids become more dilute (as with the addition
of water), the freezing point approaches that of pure water. The normal freezing
point of milk is usually taken as - 0 . 5 2 2 0 C .
Cryoscope methods have been available for many years. In early years, methodology was such that freezing points could not be precisely determined. When more
precise instrumentation became available, it was discovered that the freezing points
of standard salt solutions were not exactly as previously reported. Most cryoscopes
are calibrated in terms of 0 H (degrees Hortvet) but results reported in 0 C. It was
originally thought that the two temperatures were equivalent. Now it is known that
they are not equivalent but formulas are available to convert one to the other. Results
reported prior to the discovery of the difference between 0 H and 0 C are not true
freezing points. 4 Methods now use 0 C and results should be reported as such.
The official method of analysis accepted by IDF-ISO-AOAC for determination
of addition of water to milk is the thermistor method. 5 Thermistor cryoscopes were
introduced in 1956. 16 Instead of a large thermometer to record freezing point, a small
thermistor is used and changes in voltage or current detected and reported (usually
as a digital display). The samples are supercooled in a refrigerated bath, cooling is
stopped, and the sample allowed to become isothermal. Crystallization is initiated
by agitation via a seeding rod. Latent heat of crystallization is dissipated as the
sample temperature increases to the freezing point where the temperature stabilizes

and is recorded. The instrument must be standardized using 7 and 10% (w/v) sucrose
solutions which freeze at 0.406 and 0.5980C, respectively. Alternatively, sodium chloride solutions may be prepared. Salt solutions have an advantage over
sucrose because they are not as subject to microbial decomposition and are stable
for a longer period of time. However, freshly prepared sucrose solutions are the
preferred standards.
Percent added water can be estimated from the freezing point based on the commonly held relationship that for each 1% of water added to milk, the freezing point
increases above the baseline by 0.010C. This presumes that the true baseline temperature is known or can be determined. Generally, if the freezing point of a sample
of known origin differs from that of a suspect sample by ^0.0100C, the sample is
considered to be water-free.
Samples that fail to freeze may have a high solids content caused by high acid,
or they may be contaminated with cleaner or sanitizer.4 Samples high in bacteria or
somatic cells may continue to supercool.4

2.4.2.3 Vapor Pressure Osmometric Method


The pressure exerted by the vapor over a substance at equilibrium is called its vapor
pressure. The value is temperature dependent. As solutes increase, vapor pressure
decreases. Conversely as solutes decrease, vapor pressure increases. A vapor pressure
reading of 280 mOsmol/kg has been found to be normal for milk.17 An osmometer
is an instrument that determines vapor pressure. Instruments are commercially available to determine water added to milk although not as commonly used as the thermistor cryoscope.

2.4.3 Sediment
Sediment is the insoluble portion of foreign material that gets into milk from cows,
equipment, or the environment. Because most foreign material is soluble, milk that
is found to be free of sediment is not necessarily "clean." Milk that contains a large
amount of sediment was most likely collected under unsanitary conditions. The
sediment test is usually performed in the laboratory on a known volume of milk. Inline procedures are available for qualitative assessment of sediment. The in-line
method is a screening test to be used during pumping of raw milk from farm bulk
tanks to raw milk transport tanks and not as a substitute for laboratory analysis on
a fixed volume of sample. Reference 5 gives a formula for preparation of coarse
standard sediment disks that combines cow manure, garden soil, and charcoal each
of specific mesh size and in specified proportions. Standard sediment disks are available from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Standardization Branch, Dairy Division or commercially.
Because sediment is insoluble, it is distributed heterogeneously and most tends
to settle to the bottom of the container. Sampling is extremely important to obtain
proper results. Choice of sampling method depends on container type. Off-bottom
samplers are available for 5- and 10-gal cans. For retail containers, the sample is

extracted after thoroughly mixing the container. One-pint or one-gallon samples are
used, again depending on the container size. Care should be observed not to introduce
extraneous material in the sampling process.
The sample is poured into the sediment testing apparatus containing a cotton
sediment pad. Vacuum (limited suction only) is applied below the sediment pad and
milk pulled through the pad. Flow rates vary depending on fat content or clumping,
previous heat treatment, high acidity, abnormal milk, freezing, and amount of sediment. If the sample does not need to be salvaged, it can be diluted with water to
speed filtration. While still wet, the pad is mounted on special-sized paper or stored
in individual, transparent, waxed envelopes. Amount of sediment is determined by
comparing to standards and character by microscopic examination.
Determination of sediment in cheese provides useful information on conditions
during production. However, simple preparation of a cheese slurry is not possible
because casein prevents passage through the filter pad. 18 Natural cheese samples are
ground and dispersed in sodium citrate solution whereas processed cheese samples
are dispersed in a solution of pepsin and phosphoric acid. Samples are heated for
1 h at <60C, as heat-coagulated protein will not pass through the filter pad.

2.4.4 Antibiotics

2A A.I General Information


Antibiotics are drugs administered to dairy cattle to control diseases. If proper precautions are adhered to, antibiotics should not enter the milk supply. Unfortunately,
through faulty practices or lack of understanding, antibiotics do enter the milk supply
and are of concern to processors and consumers. Antibiotic residues may induce
allergic reactions in sensitive individuals, slow starter culture growth, and may create
an environment favorable to resistant bacteria. To prevent antibiotics from entering
the milk supply, each tanker of milk is tested prior to acceptance at the processing
plant. Milk that is contaminated with antibiotics must be discarded. In the last several
years, the number of tests available to detect penicillin and other common antibiotics
has multiplied. Both qualitative and quantitative tests exist; some are applicable for
dairy farmer use to prevent antibiotics from entering the milk supply at the source.
The following discussion will summarize the current technology in antibiotic
testing. It is rapidly changing as monoclonal antibody-based tests, specific for certain
residues, are introduced. Drugs used to treat cattle are constantly being refined and
improved. As this occurs, methods for detecting residues will also be refined and
improved. Reference 19 gives information for 20 different techniques. For more
information, that publication should be consulted.

2AA.2 Bacterial Growth Inhibition Methods


The first methods for detection of antibiotic residues in milk were based on the
inhibition of growth of susceptible microorganisms. A cylinder plate assay method
and a filter paper disc method were described in the early 1940s. 2a ~ 22 Initially, Ba-

cillus subtilis was the organism of choice but in recent years, assays have been
developed that rely on Bacillus stearothermophilus inhibition. Growth inhibition can
be both qualitative and quantitative. These methods are specific for (J-lactams but
most have been collaboratively studied only for penicillin.19 The basis for microbial
inhibition procedures is the presence of clear zones on an agar plate medium to
which bacterial spores have been seeded. The sample to be assayed is placed on the
surface of the agar, either on filter paper disks or in stainless steel cylinders. After
incubation for the appropriate time, zones are measured (to the nearest 0.1 mm) with
calipers. For quantitative determinations, zones of known amount of penicillin are
determined and compared to the sample. Several samples are tested on the same agar
plate. The depth of the agar is important to the sensitivity and reproducibility of the
method. A thin layer is more sensitive than a thick layer. The plates must be allowed
to solidify on a perfectly flat surface so that the agar is the same thickness throughout.
Penicillinase ((i-lactamase) is an enzyme that specifically inactivates penicillin. It is
added to the sample to confirm the presence of penicillin. If a zone of inhibition is
present after the milk is heated to 82C for 2 min and treated with penicillinase,
another inhibitor and not penicillin is present.
In the qualitative B. stearothermophilus var calidolactis disc assay method a
control containing 0.008 IU penicillin/ml is tested on each agar plate, varying the
location on the plate. This reference gives a zone of inhibition of 16 to 20 mm. Plates
are incubated at 64 2C for about 2.5 h. If the zone of inhibition around the disc
containing untreated milk is <12.7 mm, the sample is presumed to be free of inhibitory substances. If the heated milk has a zone of > 12.7 mm but the penicillinasetreated milk has no zone, the milk is positive for penicillin. If the zone sizes are
equivalent from all sample treatments, inhibitors other than penicillin are present. If
penicillinase treatment reduces the zone of inhibition but does not reduce it to zero,
penicillin and other inhibitors are present. If there is no zone around the heat-treated
milk but a zone was present initially, a heat-labile inhibitor may be present. This
disk assay method has been used to successfully detect minimum penicillin G residues of 0.005-0.008 U/ml, as well as ampicillin, cephapirin, and cloxacillin.5 Agar
medium should not be kept more than 30 days at 0 to 4C after sterilization. Once
plates are poured, they should be used within 5 days and should be stored at 0 to
4C in the petri dish plastic sleeve so as to prevent desiccation.
Quantities of (J-lactam antibiotic residue within 0.003 IU/ml of a reference
standard containing 0.016 IU/ml can be quantified in a similar manner.5 The penicillin standard is prepared in inhibitor-free milk and both the sample and the reference are heat treated. It is essential that the standard reference milk sample and the
unknown sample be treated identically during heating. Plates must be incubated
immediately after introducing samples at 64 2C for exactly 2 h and 45 min.
Temperature and time are especially important for quantitative determination of inhibitor. Zones of inhibition between the reference and the sample are compared using
a t test. A t value of > 1.860 indicates with 95% confidence that the sample contains
more than 0.016 IU/ml of penicillin. If the t value is 1.860 or less, but there is a
zone of inhibition around the sample, it is reported to contain 0.016 IU/ml of

(5-lactam or less. If there is no zone of inhibition around the sample, the results are
reported as "(3-lactam negative."
The fact that B. stearothermophilus var. calidolactis produces acid during growth
is utilized in a commercially available procedure (Delvotest; GB Fermentation
Industries, Inc., Charlotte, NC).23'24 Bromcresol purple dye changes from purple to
yellow in the absence of p-lactam inhibitors. If inhibitors are present, the bacteria
do not grow and produce acid; there is no change in the indicator. Test kits are
available for individual samples or for multiple sample analyses. In the multiple test
kit, one plate contains 96 test wells. A plate can be subdivided by the analyst into
six blocks each with 16 cups. Positive (0.008 or 0.010 IU/ml) and negative controls
are prepared with inhibitor-free milk. Samples and controls are added to the ampule
or block of cups and incubated at 64 2C for exactly 2 h and 45 min. Colors are
read through the agar for individual ampules or from the bottom for multitest units.
Samples giving a purple color to all or part of the solid medium should be confirmed
to contain penicillin by heat-treating and penicillinase treatment. Each new lot of
ampules or test kits should be checked prior to use to determine the exact time of
incubation. Occasionally some kits require longer than 2.75 h for complete change
to yellow in the negative control or complete purple in the positive control. The
exact time required for each lot must be determined and used for all tests performed
with that lot. The multitest procedure does not work well with chocolate milk because
chocolate interferes with color reading.
A host of inhibitory substances may be detected with a commercially available
test kit called the BR TEST AS. This method combines agar diffusion and color
reduction techniques, utilizing B. stearothermophilus var. calidolactis spores.25 Drug
residues in excess of the detection limit of the method inhibit metabolism of bacteria
during incubation. When inhibitors are present, test color remains blue. During incubation of inhibitor-free milk, oxidation-reduction reactions within the mixture
cause a change from blue to yellow. The test is useful for raw or pasteurized fluid
milks.
The modified Sarcinia lutea cylinder plate method for detection of penicillin in
milk requires the creation of a standard curve with varying concentrations of penicillin diluted in inhibitor-free nonfat dry milk.19 The basis for the procedure is otherwise similar to the agar diffusion methods using B. stearothermophilus var. calidolactis. One primary difference is that the samples and controls are introduced to
the agar medium by pipetting into stainless steel cylinders resting on the surface of
the agar rather than on filter paper disks. This procedure is sensitive to 0.01 IU/ml
of penicillin.

2.4.4.3 Competitive Binding Methods


Charm Sciences, Inc. (Maiden, MA) has developed a variety of test procedures to
detect inhibitory substances in milk. (This company was originally known as Penicillin Assays, Inc., but has developed other methods so changed their name to represent the family that founded the company.) The original test developed by the
company, the Charm Test, has been modified several times over the years to im-

Figure 2.5 Counting unit for the Charm competitive binding technique. Planchets are
pictured in front of the unit.

prove its sensitivity, accuracy, and expand its selectivity. It was accepted as a final
action procedure for assay of (3-lactams in milk in 1984. 5 The basis for this procedure
is that p-lactam residues have a specific, irreversible affinity for enzyme sites on the
cell wall of microorganisms. In the test procedure, 14C-labeled penicillin and Bacillus
stearothermophilus vegetative cells are combined with the sample. If penicillin is
present in the sample, it competes for binding sites on the bacterial cell wall and
more 14C-label is free in solution. If no penicillin is present in the sample, the labelled
penicillin binds with the cell wall and is removed from solution with centrifugation.
The supernatant fluid is decanted and the bacterial cells containing the bound penicillin are resuspended and transferred to a metal planchet. The planchet is dried and
radioactivity determined in an isotope counting device (Fig. 2.5). Positive and negative controls are prepared and the results from the sample compared to the controls.
Results are available within 15 min and the test is applicable to levels of 0.01 IU
penicillin/ml or p-lactam equivalent.
Many dairy laboratories have converted to the Charm II procedure. This test has
been collaboratively studied and is applicable as a screening procedure for seven
families of antimicrobial drugs. 26 Two different microorganisms are used to provide
necessary binding sites for the seven drug families. Antimicrobial families detected
are p-lactam, tetracyclines, macrolides, streptomycin, novobiocin, sulfonamides, and
chloramphenicol. The method detects biologically active drugs in about 8 min for
one or two families or 15 min for all seven families. Gentamicin can be detected in

a revised version of this procedure but it had not been collaboratively studied at this
time. The Charm II procedure uses a liquid scintillation counting device rather than
a dry sample counter to detect the labeled compound. Normal levels of radioactive
material stored in a testing lab are below the regulated levels for radioactive substances. Most labs do not need a special license to perform usual numbers of this
test. Labeled material may be safely disposed through municipal water treatment
systems with copious amounts of water. The analyst is responsible for ensuring that
levels maintained and disposed are below applicable local and state regulated levels.
A test is also available from Charm Sciences, Inc. that is designed for farm and
small plant testing.19 Reagents are in tablet form; single tests can be easily performed.
The procedure is sensitive to p-lactam antibiotics and all sulfa drugs in raw milk,
milk powder, and pasteurized milk. The equipment is contained within a case for
portability and operates on a 12-V battery.
Another competitive binding method involves the binding of DD-carboxypeptidase (an enzyme) to (3-lactam antibiotics.27 This test is available in a kit as the
Penzyme and Penzyme III procedures (SmithKline Animal Health Products, West
Chester, PA). Enzyme and sample are incubated 5 min at 47 1C, then substrate
[(R)-D-AIa-D-AIa)] is added. Any unbound enzyme is free to react with this substrate.
The substrate is contained in a tablet that produces a yellow color on dissolving.
The mixture is incubated for 15 min at 47 1C. Also contained in the tablet are
reagents necessary to cause the conversion of free D-alanine to pyruvate and H2O2
and produce a color reaction when H2O2 is oxidized. A pink color indicates a negative test, a yellow color indicates an inhibitor residue is present; an orange/yellow
color suggests the possibility of P-lactam residues and the sample should be retested
to verify the result. The test detects P-lactam residues at 0.01 IU/ml in raw milk.
Each new lot of kits should be checked prior to use with penicillin standards. Positive
and negative controls should be run along with all samples.

2.4.4.4 Other Methods


The Spot test (Angenics, Worcester, MA) is an immunological agglutination technique.28 Latex beads coated with specific inhibitory molecules (penicillin-G, cephapirin, or cloxacillin) and antibodies to these inhibitory molecules are mixed with
the milk sample. If inhibitors are present in the milk, the antibody and inhibitorcoated latex beads do not agglutinate. If no inhibitor is present in the milk, visible
graininess is present in the mixture. The test is performed on a glass slide which is
rotated during the reaction. As with all inhibitor tests, positive and negative controls
are performed.
Sulfamethazine can be detected in milk at 1 to 2 ppb using a HPLC technique.29
Sulfamethazine is extracted from milk with chloroform, the chloroform evaporated,
and the residue dissolved in hexane. Sulfamethazine is partitioned into an aqueous
potassium phosphate layer which is extracted and injected directly into a HPLC. The
eluting sample is detected spectrophotometrically at 265 nm. Sulfamethazine adheres
to glassware. Plastic should not be used, and all glassware should be rinsed after
washing with approximately 1 Af HCl.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) are rapidly becoming available


for detection of specific antibiotics in foods. Although each method is unique, they
are similarly antibody-antigen reactions which are visualized by linking with an
enzyme reaction that produces a color. Color indicates the presence or absence of
antibiotic or drug residues. Methods that are being applied to milk at this time include
LacTek screening kit, CITE probe kit, SIGNAL detection test, EZ-SCREEN,
and Agri-Screen.19 Each has specific advantages and disadvantages and must be
evaluated on an individual basis depending on specific requirements for the analysis.

2.4.5 Acid Degree Value


Acid degree value is a measure of the quantity of free fatty acids present in milk.
Milk is composed of a large variety of different fatty acids and contains a high
proportion of short-to-medium-chain length fatty acids which are very flavorful.
Normal milk contains few free fatty acids. Most fatty acids are incorporated into the
milk triglyceride. Under normal circumstances, milk triglyceride undergoes little
decomposition because initially it is protected from the action of milk lipase by fat
globule membrane, and after pasteurization essentially all milk lipase is inactivated.
If milk triglyceride and active lipase combine, hydrolysis results, leading to hydrolytic rancidity (lipolysis). Thomas et al.30 introduced the acid degree value (ADV)
procedure and reported that when milk reached a certain value, most people could
detect the lipolyzed flavor. ADV is defined as the quantity in milliliters of 1 N alkali
required to neutralize the acids in 100 g of fat. Normal raw milk is reported to have
an ADV of 0.25 to 0.40. Milk with an ADV of 1.2 or greater has undergone sufficient
hydrolysis that flavor may be detected by taste or smell by some people.
ADV is determined by first dissolving protein and freeing the fat using detergent.
The fat is separated and a weighed quantity dissolved in a fat solvent (petroleum
ether and Az-propanol). Fat is titrated, using a microburette, to the phenolphthalein
endpoint with dilute alcoholic potassium hydroxide. Blank titrations are performed
for the fat solvent. ADV is calculated using Eq. 2.3.
(ml KOH for sample - ml KQH for blank) X N X 100
weight of fat
Where N = normality of alcoholic KOH solution.
Fat may be measured by volume if the temperature of the fat column is maintained
at 57 3C for 5 min prior to transfer. Weight is calculated by multiplying the
milliliters of fat by the approximate density of the fat at 57C (0.90 g/ml). Weighing
the fat provides more precise results. ADV should be reported to the second decimal only.
Research has shown that although ADV agrees well with sensory results on
laboratory-prepared lipolyzed samples, it does not for farm milk samples.31 Farm
samples with an ADV as high as 3.24 were classified as slightly lipolyzed whereas
a sample with an ADV of 1.07 was classified as moderately lipolyzed by a trained
sensory panel. There was no correlation between ADV and log lipolysis scores (r =

.13; p = .16). However, there was good correlation between ADV and the concentration of the major free fatty acids in the milks (r = .93; p = .0001) indicating
that ADV does measure fat hydrolysis. Therefore, ADV is a useful measure of
hydrolysis of milkfat but should not be used to predict whether or not the sample
will taste lipolyzed. At present, research is underway to develop a method that will
better correlate with sensory results. Until such method is found, laboratories should
use ADV with caution. Milks exhibiting high ADV have undergone fat hydrolysis
and reasons for hydrolysis should be determined. Actual lipolyzed flavor should be
determined by sensory evaluation.
Another frequently used method for determination of free fatty acids in milk is
the copper soap procedure.32'33 Correlation between the copper soap procedure and
flavor of laboratory-prepared samples was high (r = .82 to .83). The procedure also
compared with ADV with a correlation coefficient of .88 to .90. However, the copper
soap procedure is not sensitive to short-chain free fatty acids34 and may suffer from
the same limitations as ADV. The advantage of the copper soap procedure is that it
is a spectrophotometric method; results are not dependent on the perception of color
change by individual analysts.

2.4.6 Iodine and Hypochlorites


Iodine and hypochlorite sanitizers are used throughout the dairy industry to control
microorganisms and improve milk quality. Although these chemicals are essential
to quality, they should not become a part of the milk. Analysis should be performed
periodically to ensure that residual sanitizer is not becoming a part of the finished
product. Iodine content of milk may also be increased through feeding.
Iodine content can be estimated in raw milk using a selective ion electrode.35 The
electrode is sensitive only to iodide ions but total iodine content may be estimated.
The electrode must first be calibrated using eight concentrations of standard potassium iodide in solution. Potential (m V) is determined for each standard and the value
plotted on semilog paper with concentration of the standard on the log scale. Iodide
content of milk is calculated by comparison to standards. Sulfhydryl compounds also
give a response with the iodide electrode. Some processing factors may impact
sulfhydryl compounds. Previous history of processed milks should be known or the
test results are questionable.
Hypochlorites may be measured in milk with a colorimetric procedure if the milk
contains 2.5 ppm copper or less.5 The process is qualitative and involves four steps.
Color is observed and compared to tabular results at each step. Milk that is high in
hypochlorite will change color during the first step and the process can be stopped.
Lower concentrations of hypochlorite require that successive steps be completed.
Differentiation can be made between concentrations that differ by twofold.

2.4.7 Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins are carcinogenic compounds produced by the mold Aspergillusflavus and
other species. The first aflatoxin was'discovered in 1960. Aflatoxin B1 is produced

by growing mold. Aflatoxin M1 is a hydroxylated metabolite of B1 secreted by


mammals who have consumed mold-contaminated feeds. M1 is the type found in
milk and dairy products. This discussion will cover aflatoxins, but other molds produce metabolites equally as toxic. Because it is naturally produced, it is impossible
to ensure that aflatoxin is absent. Tolerance levels have been established, above
which foods are considered unsafe for consumption. Aflatoxin contamination is particularly a problem in areas where the climate is hot and humid, conditions that
promote mold growth. Aflatoxin enters dairy products through the feed of the cow.
However, mold contamination on cheese is a potential source. Performance of such
analysis should be undertaken with caution due to the hazard of working with a
highly potent carcinogen. Aflatoxin analyses are not usually performed routinely in
dairy labs. Such analyses are available on a fee basis from independent testing laboratories or in corporate laboratories of larger organizations.
Aflatoxins are soluble in organic solvents and through a multistep process are
extracted. Samples are concentrated by rotary evaporation under nitrogen and separated by thin-layer chromatography (TLC).36 Once separated, aflatoxins can be detected by long-wavelength ultraviolet light (365 nm). Densitometric analysis of the
TLC plates provides quantitative information if standards are used.
Aflatoxin M1 can be extracted from milk using a Cl8 Sep-Pak (Waters Assoc,
Inc., Milford MA) sample preparation cartridge.37 The extracted aflatoxins are eluted
with ether onto a silica column from which it is eluted with a solvent mixture of
methylene chloride and alcohol. The eluted material is derivatized with trifluoroacetic acid and separated by liquid chromatography. The eluted material is detected
with a fluorescence detector and quantified compared to derivatized aflatoxin
standards.
Aflatoxins may be detected in milk using an ELISA test at residues below 0.5
ppb in <7 min.38'39 These tests are currently used for rapid screening of a large
number of samples and results should be verified using one of the AOAC final action
methods. Self-contained test kits are available that are easily used with little prior
training.3839

2.4.8 Pesticides
Pesticides are a necessary part of today's production agriculture. Without their judicious use, much of our food supply would be lost to insects, weeds, or rodents.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged with approval of pesticides
for specific applications at specific levels. Approved pesticides are published in the
Compendium of Registered Pesticides.40 If the compound leaves a residue on a food,
tolerances are established for maximum permissible levels. The Food and Drug Administration is charged with determination of residues in foods. A compilation of
the methods for detection is given in the Pesticide Analytical Manual41 and in Methods of Analysis42
Residues of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are more likely in dairy products
than are those of organophosphates. The hydrocarbon-based pesticides accumulate
in fat and are very slowly metabolized by the bovine. Exposure is cumulative and

residues may persist long after exposure. Organophosphates are metabolized by the
bovine and the metabolites appear in milk and excreta. They are not accumulated in
the fat of the animal. The metabolites are usually less toxic than the original pesticide.
Regulations permit only selected pesticides around dairy animals. Thus, limited contamination occurs and residues usually remain below detection limits of the methods.
Few laboratories performing routine dairy analyses are equipped to perform pesticide
residue determinations. Laboratories with interest in such information usually contract with specialized analytical laboratories. State and Federal regulatory laboratories are equipped to ensure that amounts remain below action levels.
AOAC provides detailed methodology for detection of 60 different pesticides in
foods and water.42 Both qualitative and quantitative determinations are described
based on chromatographic principles. Multiple residues may be detected simultaneously. Generally, the sample requires extraction and clean-up prior to column
chromatography by either gas or liquid techniques. Detection is frequently via mass
spectrometry for complete identification of pesticide residues at ppb levels.

2.5 Tests for Abnormal Milk


2.5.1 "Cow-Side" Tests
Mastitis is an infection of the mammary gland, induced by invasion of diseasecausing microorganisms. Somatic cells (principally polymorphonuclear leucocytes)
are produced in response to the infection. Somatic cell concentrations in excess of
300,000 per milliliter are commonly considered indicative of mastitis or other abnormality. Cows in very early or very late lactation may have elevated numbers of
somatic cells and respond positively to tests for abnormal milk.

2.5.1.1 California Mastitis Test


The California mastitis test (CMT) is an on-farm screening procedure that responds
to nucleated somatic cells. It is designed to be performed on all four quarters
from one cow simultaneously, but may be applied to bulk-tank and other blended
samples.43
CMT reagent consists of a detergent and acid/base indicator. Somatic cells are
ruptured by the detergent, releasing nuclear material (DNA). Mixing the DNA and
detergent results in precipitation or gel formation that is proportional to the quantity
of DNA present. The more the sample gels, the more somatic cells that are present
in the milk. This test is not intended for diagnosis of mastitis but as a general
screening tool for milk abnormality. Samples that are CMT negative may still be
infected with disease-producing microorganisms.44
Two milliliters of milk is placed into each cup of a special CMT paddle. The
paddle is white, allowing easy observation of thickening and color reaction. At cowside, the 2 ml is estimated and delivered directly from each quarter. An equal portion
of CMT reagent (available from dairy supply sources) is dispensed into the paddle

and the milk and reagent mixed by gently rotating in a circular pattern for 10 s. The
reaction must be scored immediately because it changes over time. Between tests,
the paddle is rinsed with water and excess moisture shaken off. The test may vary
from a slight positive or trace amount when only a very slight precipitate forms and
disappears with continued movement of the fluid, to a strong positive when a gel
forms creating a mass that tends to adhere to the bottom of the cup. Reactions are
associated with somatic cell numbers: trace, 150,000 to 500,000; weak positive,
400,000 to 1,500,000; distinct positive, 800,000 to 5,000,000; and strong positive,
>5,000,000. Cell populations in excess of one million are considered abnormal. An
acid-base indicator allows for detection of alkaline or acid milk. Alkalinity frequently accompanies inflammation whereas acidity is rare.
Some precautions in the performance of CMT determinations include use of fresh
milk. Unrefrigerated milk over 12 h old or refrigerated milk in excess of 36 h old
gives unreliable test results. During storage, DNase hydrolyzes the DNA, making it
unavailable for reaction and leading to false-negative results. Mixing of bulk milk
prior to sampling is critical because somatic cells associate with milkfat. Timing is
critical in reading of test results. After 15 s, weak reactions fade. No more than four
tests should be performed simultaneously because it is impossible to make more than
four readings within 5 s. The CMT reagent may vary. Suppliers should be verified
and reagents used within the prescribed time. CMT results cannot be read in inadequate light. Weak precipitation is not evident if lighting is not sufficient.

2.5.1.2 Conductivity Measurement


Abnormal milk conducts electrical current more readily than does normal milk. In
abnormal milk, lactose (a nonconductor) is depressed whereas milk salts (conductors) increase. Battery-operated conductivity meters are available for mastitis screening.43 High conductivity readings do not correlate with the presence of primary
pathogens but do correlate with somatic cell, lactose, and protein content of milk.45'46
Sodium chloride solution is used to standardize the meter, which should be done at
least weekly. Milk is injected directly from the udder into the cup of the conductivity
meter through a funnel. Conductivity measurements are read from a digital display.
Measurements in excess of five usually indicate abnormal milk, but results must be
confirmed.

2.5.2 Wisconsin Mastitis Test


The Wisconsin mastitis test (WMT) is based on the same principle as the CMT but
is designed for laboratory use. The results are more quantitative than those of CMT.43
Viscosity is created from the reaction of a detergent with cell DNA and has some
of the same limitations as CMT. Exact quantities of sample and reagent are dispensed
into special test tubes equipped with metal caps with an orifice in the center. These
tubes are fitted into a rack that firmly holds the tubes, even when inverted. The tubes
are mixed in the rack within 30 s after addition of reagent to the first sample. Tubes
are mixed in a nearly horizontal position with tilting. The liquid should move back

and forth through the entire length of the tube, making 10 excursions within 8 to
10 s. Vigorous agitation is to be avoided. Temperature control is important and the
samples at the time of inversion should be 24 2C. Within 30 s of initiation of
mixing, the tubes are inverted in the rack. Timing is essential; tubes should be held
in a horizontal position while one waits for the clock to reach a convenient starting
point. The rack should be inverted rapidly but smoothly and held in vertical position
for 15 s. When inverted, the mixture will flow through the orifice in the tube cap.
After 15 s, the tubes are righted, caps removed, and reagent/milk mixture drained in
the tubes for at least 1 min. A measuring device is used to record the length of the
column remaining in each tube. Readings of 21 mm or higher are indicative of
abnormal milk and such tests should be confirmed. Normal milk does not gel but
flows rapidly out of the tube, giving low readings. The size of the orifice will impact
the results as will the size of the tubes. Both should be periodically checked and
tubes discarded if out of specification.

2.5.3 Somatic Cell Count


Results obtained with the previously described tests must be confirmed for the presence of somatic cells. The tests described in this section are accepted confirmation
procedures.

2.5.3.1 Direct Microscopic Somatic Cell Count


The direct microscopic somatic cell count (DMSCC) is the reference method to
which automated methods must be correlated. The accuracy and reproducibility of
the microscopic method is dependent on the training and skill of the technician.47
The procedure is tedious, as individual somatic cells are counted under microscopic
examination. The technique is rapid if only one sample is examined, giving results
in 10 to 15 min. Somatic cell enumeration is usually on raw milk samples. A precisely measured 0.01-ml sample is spread onto the surface of a special glass microscope slide in a thin film. The slide is marked with circular areas of exactly 1 cm2.
The film is air dried and stained with one of three stains approved for cow's milk.
One stain is the Levowitz-Weber modification of the Newman-Lampert stain; tetrachlorethane in 95% ethyl alcohol is the solvent for certified methylene blue chloride dye. A modified stain substitutes the less toxic xylene for tetrachlorethane.
Another variation adds basic fiichsin dye to the basic Levowitz-Weber formulation.
Stains must be stored to prevent evaporation and formation of precipitate. Following
staining, excess stain is removed by resting the edge of the slide in an almost vertical
position on absorbent paper. The slide is dried thoroughly and rinsed in three changes
of tap water at 35 to 45C. After the final wash, the slide is again drained in an
almost vertical position and air dried. The dried, stained film is examined under an
oil-immersion objective with one drop of immersion oil on the film. A binocular
microscope is preferred. The ocular(s) should be calibrated to provide a microscopic
factor of 400,000 to 600,000. The microscopic factor is constant for each microscope
for each analyst, but varies between microscopes and between analysts on the same

microscope. The reciprocal of the microscopic factor represent the fraction of 1 ml


of milk observed in each field (one viewing of the slide). Reference 47 should be
consulted for details on calibrating the microscope.
The preferred method for counting the film is the field-wide single strip method,
a method using as boundaries a single strip the width of the microscopic field and
running across the diameter of the film of milk. Occasionally, when counts exceed
10 per field, they may be estimated by counting fewer fields and using the microscopic factor. If the field-wide single strip method is used, a single strip factor (SSF)
must first be calculated.47 The number of cells counted during one pass over the strip
is multiplied by the SSF, rounded to two significant figures, and reported as somatic
cell count per milliliter.
Only those somatic cells with an identifiable stained nucleus should be counted.
For polymorphonucleated cells, the cell should have two or more discernible nuclear
lobes. Other somatic cells should appear essentially intact. If there is doubt as to
whether or not the cell is intact, it should not be counted.
Slides may be maintained for future reference if stored to avoid dust accumulation. Immersion oil must first be removed by dipping each slide in xylene for 15 to
20 s and allowing the slide to air dry. Films should be protected from dust and other
damage. Care must be taken to prevent insect damage to the film especially during
extended storage.
With the DMSCC procedure, instruments and glassware must be extremely clean
and free of foreign materials. Sterility is not necessary. Exactly 0.01 ml must be
transferred to the microscope slide. To achieve precision, the transferring instrument
must be checked routinely. Care must be taken to dip the sampling device below
any surface film in the sample and the device should be rinsed with sample prior to
taking the final portion. The entire contents of the sampling device must be transferred to the slide.
Even with exacting technique, replicate estimates of somatic cells by direct microscopic examination may vary. Aside from those mentioned in the previous paragraph, other potential sources of error include faulty preparation and staining of
slides; failure of some somatic cells to stain; ratio of amount of milk examined to
the total quantity in question; lack of homogeneity of distribution of somatic cells
in the films; failure to count sufficient number of fields; poor microscopy (including
inadequate or excessive illumination, poor focusing, improper use of filters); films
of irregular depth; eye fatigue; and errors in observations and calculation.47 Fatigue
is a major factor in compromising accuracy and steps should be taken to prevent it
from interfering with the examination, especially when many samples are involved.

2.5.3.2 Electronic Somatic Cell Counting Methods


Somatic cells may be counted electronically with a high degree of correlation with
DMSCC.43 The Coulter counter electronic method functions by counting particles,
and may be semiautomated or automatic. Fat interferes and must first be removed
from the sample. This may be accomplished either by centrifugation or chemically,
although chemical removal is more popular. Fat is dissolved using an aqueous so-

Figure 2.6 Electronic somatic cell counting equipment in use at the TN DHIA Services
Laboratory in Knoxville, TN.

lution of sodium chloride with 12.5 parts of 95% ethanol mixed with Triton X-IOO
(a detergent) and formalin (40% w/v formaldehyde). The mixture is buffered to pH
7.0 with tris-(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane and filtered. The solution is commercially available as Somaton (Coulter Electronics, Inc., Hialeah, FL). The somatic
cells are fixed initially with a solution of formalin containing eosine dye as a visible
indicator of fixation. Somafix is a commercially available fixing preparation (Coulter
Electronics, Inc.). The prepared samples are counted electronically in a calibrated
counting device. Calibration spheres are available commercially. In the automated
procedure, sample dilution, tempering, timing and mixing are incorporated within
the instrument.
There are a number of electronic somatic cell counting methods based on a fluorescent dye technique. The DNA in the cell nucleus reacts specifically with a dye
(ethidium bromide) that fluoresces when excited. The procedure may be automated,
semiautomated, or completely computer-controlled (Fig. 2.6) depending on the
equipment capabilities and funds available for equipment purchase. Regardless of
the degree of automation, each instrument must be calibrated periodically against
the DMSCC. Fresh samples do not give accurate results; therefore, unpreserved milk
must be held at 0 to 4.4C for 24 h but no longer than 72 h before examination.
Preserved milk must be held at least 8 h but not longer than 7 days prior to exami-

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nation. Ethidium bromide solution is very toxic as well as light sensitive. It should
be handled carefully and stored in a light-proof, air-tight bottle for not longer than
60 days. As with the Coulter counter method, fat must be removed using a buffered
detergent mixture. Individual cells are isolated within the instrument and excited by
light, causing the dye to fluoresce. The energy emitted by each nucleus is measured
as an electronic pulse which is then converted to a count representing the number
of somatic cells in the sample. Only somatic cell DNA reacts with the dye reagent
in sufficient quantity to be counted. Intact bacteria will not absorb dye. Dead and
partly degenerated bacteria absorb dye but produce signals of such low intensity as
to be included in the background noise of the instrument.
Factors that interfere with results are insufficient age of samples, inadequate mixing of samples, pipetting errors, loss of ability of cell to absorb dye, and/or degeneration of somatic cells. Cells lose the ability to absorb dye as they age or are exposed
to formalin. Cell degeneration due to bacterial growth, high storage temperatures,
excessive agitation, and freezing is the primary cause of error.
For all electronic cell counting methods, controls should be run at least every
hour during operation and at shutdown to ensure appropriate results. Control samples
are available commercially or may be prepared in the laboratory. They should cover
the entire range of somatic cell counts anticipated and counts should be verified by
DMSCC. Samples that have been previously heated should not be used as controls.43

2.5.3.3 Membrane Filter-DNA Method


Somatic cells may be enumerated rapidly using a combination of membrane filtration
and DNA specific dye.48'49 The method can be automated for rapid determination
of multiple samples. A fluorescent dye (acridine orange) incorporates into cell DNA
which is released by treating the sample with trypsin and triton X-100. The treated
sample is filtered through a polycarbonate filter prior to exposure to the dye. Excess
dye is removed and the sample on the filter fixed to a microscope slide with one
drop of immersion oil. The slide is examined under an ultraviolet microscope and
orange, orange/red, and orange/yellow fluorescing cells counted. The counting process may be automated. As with DMSCC, a microscopic factor must be calculated to
convert counts to cells per milliliter. The illumination of the microscope must be
checked weekly when manual counting is performed. This is done automatically in
the automated procedure.

2.6 Microbiological Methods


Microbial growth is the primary cause for loss of acceptability of milk and milk
products. Milk is a perishable commodity. If not held at refrigerator temperatures,
microorganisms grow. During growth, most microorganisms produce metabolites
that cause the milk to be unacceptable to consumers. Pathogenic bacteria may grow
without visible signs of spoilage; therefore, milk may not be presumed to be safe
unless processed to be so. Milk as it comes from the cow is contaminated with many

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nation. Ethidium bromide solution is very toxic as well as light sensitive. It should
be handled carefully and stored in a light-proof, air-tight bottle for not longer than
60 days. As with the Coulter counter method, fat must be removed using a buffered
detergent mixture. Individual cells are isolated within the instrument and excited by
light, causing the dye to fluoresce. The energy emitted by each nucleus is measured
as an electronic pulse which is then converted to a count representing the number
of somatic cells in the sample. Only somatic cell DNA reacts with the dye reagent
in sufficient quantity to be counted. Intact bacteria will not absorb dye. Dead and
partly degenerated bacteria absorb dye but produce signals of such low intensity as
to be included in the background noise of the instrument.
Factors that interfere with results are insufficient age of samples, inadequate mixing of samples, pipetting errors, loss of ability of cell to absorb dye, and/or degeneration of somatic cells. Cells lose the ability to absorb dye as they age or are exposed
to formalin. Cell degeneration due to bacterial growth, high storage temperatures,
excessive agitation, and freezing is the primary cause of error.
For all electronic cell counting methods, controls should be run at least every
hour during operation and at shutdown to ensure appropriate results. Control samples
are available commercially or may be prepared in the laboratory. They should cover
the entire range of somatic cell counts anticipated and counts should be verified by
DMSCC. Samples that have been previously heated should not be used as controls.43

2.5.3.3 Membrane Filter-DNA Method


Somatic cells may be enumerated rapidly using a combination of membrane filtration
and DNA specific dye.48'49 The method can be automated for rapid determination
of multiple samples. A fluorescent dye (acridine orange) incorporates into cell DNA
which is released by treating the sample with trypsin and triton X-100. The treated
sample is filtered through a polycarbonate filter prior to exposure to the dye. Excess
dye is removed and the sample on the filter fixed to a microscope slide with one
drop of immersion oil. The slide is examined under an ultraviolet microscope and
orange, orange/red, and orange/yellow fluorescing cells counted. The counting process may be automated. As with DMSCC, a microscopic factor must be calculated to
convert counts to cells per milliliter. The illumination of the microscope must be
checked weekly when manual counting is performed. This is done automatically in
the automated procedure.

2.6 Microbiological Methods


Microbial growth is the primary cause for loss of acceptability of milk and milk
products. Milk is a perishable commodity. If not held at refrigerator temperatures,
microorganisms grow. During growth, most microorganisms produce metabolites
that cause the milk to be unacceptable to consumers. Pathogenic bacteria may grow
without visible signs of spoilage; therefore, milk may not be presumed to be safe
unless processed to be so. Milk as it comes from the cow is contaminated with many

microorganisms, including pathogenic bacteria. Little raw milk is consumed in the


U.S. because of the question of its safety. Even when milk is held at refrigerator
temperatures, some microorganisms grow, although relatively slowly and eventually
spoilage will occur. Volume II, Chapter 5, presents detailed information regarding
the various types of microorganisms (both desirable and undesirable) important to
the dairy industry. This section will describe some of the more prominent tests
applied in the testing of milk to ensure a long shelf-life and a safe product.

2.6.1 Aerobic Plate Count


2.6.1.1 General Introduction
Micoorganisms have different requirements for level of available oxygen. Because
milk is a highly aerated product, most common spoilage organisms are aerobic. If
the conditions of storage are converted to anaerobic, aerobic mircroorganisms will
not grow, leaving an environment favorable to less common milk-spoilage organisms. Procedures that will be described in this subsection give an estimate of the
microorganisms most likely to grow under common milk-handling conditions.

2.6.1.2 Standard Plate Count


The standard plate count (SPC) has long been the method of choice for assessing
the quality of milk and its products.50 It is the reference method specified in the
Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance51 and the industry standard for detecting
sources of contamination and determining quality of products. Even though this
method has a long history of use, it is constantly under evaluation. As methods of
milk production, handling, and processing change, its validity as the method of
choice has come under question. SPC is designed to enumerate aerobic organisms
that grow on standard methods agar during a 48 2 h incubation at 32 1C.
This may not be the ideal condition for growth of the organisms that cause milk
spoilage under today's practices. Preliminary incubation has been promoted in conjunction with SPC to provide more useful information about the bacteriological
quality of pasteurized milk. 52
SPC is performed under very precise guidelines regarding equipment, materials,
and incubation to increase accuracy and repeatability.50 However, it is expensive
and time consuming. SPC as described requires that the laboratory have access to
sterilization equipment. Other techniques will be described below that can be performed with materials available commercially, although while initially more expensive, are competitive when labor and laboratory set-up are considered. Because SPC
remains the industry standard, all methods introduced to decrease time and expense
must correlate with it. Cultured dairy products, or products to which bacteria have
been added, are not ordinarily tested by SPC.
Throughout the process of performing this and all other microbiological procedures, the analyst must be certain not to introduce contamination or allow microorganisms present to have an opportunity to grow (prior to incubation). Samples are

diluted in phosphated-dilution water to give a final count of between 25 and 250


colonies on individual petri plates. It may be difficult to know actual numbers of
organisms in samples; serial dilutions are made to bracket the anticipated number.
For most milk samples, dilutions of 1:100 and 1:1000 are prepared. Samples should
be held between 0 and 4.4C for no more than 36 h prior to testing. Samples that
have been frozen should not be tested because accurate determinations are not possible. SPC is a pour-plate technique; the sample is pipetted onto the bottom of an
empty petri dish and tempered medium poured onto it. The medium and sample must
be quickly and carefully mixed to obtain even distribution of bacterial cells while
minimizing splashing on the edges of the plate. No more than 20 min should elapse
between the diluting of the first sample and the pouring of agar on the last plate.
Controls should be run to check sterility of dilution water, medium, pipet, and
petri dishes for each sterilization lot. Air quality plates should be performed for the
laboratory area each morning and afternoon of plating.
Reference 50 provides detailed step-by-step procedures and precautions for performing SPC. It also provides details on counting-plates and reporting results.

2.6.1.3 Spiral-Plating Technique


The spiral-plating technique does not significantly differ from SPC yet has the advantage of requiring less time, equipment, and space.50-53*54 It does, however, require
a spiral plater (Spiral Systems Instruments, Inc., Cincinnati, OH). Bacteria, in suspension, are deposited in an Archimedes spiral on the surface of an agar plate through
a stylus. The tip of the stylus must be exactly parallel to the surface of the agar plate
for reliable results. Bacteria may be enumerated in solutions containing from 500 to
500,000 per milliliter without dilution. The stylus automatically moves from the
center of the plate to the edge while the plate is rotating. As the stylus moves outward,
the volume of mixture dispensed decreases. This change in volume causes a dilution
in the bacteria from the center to the outer edges of the plate. After incubation,
colonies appear along the line where the liquid was deposited. The instrument must
be calibrated against SPC to determine the volume of sample deposited in different
parts of the plate. Counting grids are used to divide the plate into sections for ease
of counting (Fig. 2.7). The counting grid is a 13.2 cm circle divided into four areas
by five concentric circles equidistant along the diameter of the circle. The section
nearest the center is marked " 4 " and the section nearest the edge is marked " 1 " .
The concentric circles are subdivided further into eight 45 octants that are marked
"A" through 44H". The outer ring of two opposite octants are subdivided further
into quarters by two perpendicular lines. After the plates have incubated (48 3 h
at 32 1C), they are individually centered over the grid. Beginning at the edge of
the plate within any octant, the plate is counted toward the center within the octant
until a total of 20 colonies are counted. When 20 colonies are counted, the remainder
of the segment containing the twentieth colony is counted, and the number of the
segment (e.g., "2") is recorded along with the count. The opposite segment is
counted similarly and counts added together. Using the volume determined by cal-

B
1

A
2 3

D
4

E
G

Figure 2.7 Schematic of template for counting plates prepared by the spiral plating method.

ibration against SPC, the number counted is converted to bacteria/ml. Counts are
reported as Spiral Plate Count per milliliter (SPLPC/ml) or estimated SPLPC/ml.
If the count in the first segment exceeds 75 colonies, the total count is reported
to be >500,000/ml and is estimated. If the count in an entire wedge is <20, then
all colonies on the plate should be counted. If there are fewer than 20 colonies on
the entire plate, the count is estimated as <500/ml. Plates with irregular distribution
of bacteria should not be counted because this is indicative of a dispensing error.
Likewise, if spreading colonies cover the entire plate, it should not be counted. If
the spreader covers less than one-half of the plate, only the colonies on the welldistributed, spreader-free area should be counted.
The solution to be dispensed on the plate must be free from particles, as these
clog the dispensing stylus. If suspended material exists after blending, the solution
should settle prior to taking the sample. The depth of the agar plate is important and
must be uniform ( 2 mm throughout). The stylus tip touches the surface of the
agar as it moves across the plate and it must do so at a constant angle without digging
into the agar. The agar plates must be at room temperature when plating begins and
the surface free of water droplets but not dried or cracked. As with all techniques,
controls must be prepared to ensure the sterility of spiral plater and media.

2.6.1.4 Rehydratable Film Method


The Petrifilm SM aerobic count is a plating method using a cold-water-soluble
gelling agent.55'56 The specially prepared plating medium is purchased commercially
(Medical-Surgical Division/3M, St. Paul, MN). A bottom film is coated with nutrients of standard methods agar along with a cold-water-soluble gelling agent. A
flexible top film is coated with a gelling agent and 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride
as an indicator. Colonies are stained red with the dye for ease of counting. One
milliliter of diluted or undiluted sample is plated in the center of the bottom layer,

the upper film carefully rolled into place, and the sample distributed with pressure
from a plastic spreader. The plates should be placed on a flat surface for even distribution of the sample. The sample is spread over approximately 20 cm2. The gelling
agent solidifies in minutes and the plates are incubated as with SPC. Plates may be
stacked up to 10 high during incubation with the clear side up. The top film helps
to eliminate spreading colonies. When bacteria grow, they reduce the tetrazolium
indicator with differing abilities, giving various shades of red. The film base has
approximately twenty 1-cm squares to aid in counting. Plates are counted and results
reported in a manner similar to SPC.
This method requires dilution of samples; however, laboratories can purchase
prepared dilution blanks, disposable pipettes, and the Petrifilm plates. Minimal
space is required and an autoclave is unnecessary. Petrifilm plates take up much
less space than do standard petri plates; thus incubator space is less, as is the volume
of material to be disposed following the test. The initial cost of the plates may be
higher, but if one considers labor savings, the final cost is less per sample.

2.6.1.5 Impedimetric Methods


This method is an instrumental method (Vitek Systems, Inc., Hazelwood, MO) that
relies on measurement of changes in capacitance, conductance, or total impedance
associated with metabolic activity of bacteria growing on agar surfaces.57'58 The
procedure is used to measure SPC in raw milk. It has also been used in conjunction
with preliminary incubation to estimate shelf-life of processed milk.60 As bacteria
grow, they convert nonelectrolytes such as lactose to electrolytes such as pyruvic
acid. The conversion from nonelectrolytes to electrolytes causes a change in the
ability of the medium to conduct current. Microbial populations of <10 6 CFU/ml
cause minimal change in the impedance signal. Once populations exceed this value,
metabolic products such as fatty acids, amino acids, and organic acids are present
in sufficient quantity to impact the impedance signal. When this occurs, the instrument registers the change as a detection time (DT). Large initial populations of
bacteria have a shorter DT than do small populations. The instrument is calibrated
against SPC to determine the relationship between DT and bacterial populations.
Initial populations of 104 mesophiles or psychrotrophs in milk can be detected within
about 4 or 24 h, respectively.50
The instrument is computer controlled. The financial investment required for initial purchase must be weighed against the saving in time to detect bacteria. Positive
and negative controls must be performed routinely to ensure the reliability of the
instrument.

2.6. L 6 Hydrophobic Grid-Membrane Filter Method


The hydrophobic grid-membrane filter technique (QA Laboratories, Ltd, Toronto,
Ontario) is a most probable number method for estimating bacteria in many foods.54
It has been studied for application to milk and dairy products.60'61 Bacteria are distributed into individual compartments of known and equal size that are created by

hydrophobic lines in a grid pattern. The bacteria are filtered onto the membrane (0.45
jxm pore size) using vacuum. The membrane is transferred onto the surface of agar
medium and nutrients diffuse through the membrane, providing energy for bacterial
growth. The plates are incubated as with SPC and counted.
Samples containing paniculate material must be prefiltered. Raw milk and skim
milk may be diluted and filtered directly through the hydrophobic grid membrane.
Other fluid products must be pretreated with an enzyme solution to remove colloidal
material and allow for filtration.
Tryptic soy-fast green agar is dispensed in 18-ml portions into 100 X 15 mm
petri dishes. The surface of the medium must be dry when the membrane is applied.
The membrane is aseptically applied with a rolling motion to prevent the entrapment
of air bubbles between the agar and the filter.
Colonies on the surface of tryptic soy-fast green agar will be various shades of
green. Counts are made of the number of squares containing one or more colonies
rather than actual number of colonies present. Squares containing colonies are considered positive. The number of positive squares can be converted to a most probable
number by formula taking into account the dilution factor.50

2.6.1.7 Pectin-Gel Method


The pectin-gel method uses pectin as a gelling agent instead of agar.62 Petri plates
are available commercially that are pretreated with pectin-gelling agent (RCR Scientific, Inc., Goshen, IN). Low-methoxy pectin is combined with nutrient ingredients. CaCl2 acts as the gelling agent and is spread on the bottom of the petri dish in
a thin agar base. Gelation occurs at room temperature when liquid medium is added
followed by addition of diluted or undiluted sample. Gelling time is 30 to 40 min,
but sample and nutrient mixture should be mixed immediately after placing on the
plate. Sample should not be applied to the plate prior to the addition of the liquid
medium because this will lock bacteria onto the surface of the plate and they will
not be distributed evenly throughout the medium. Once the plates are prepared, the
procedure is the same as for SPC. Medium and gelling agent are available commercially as kits. The advantage of this procedure over SPC is that the medium is at
room temperature, preventing heat stress to microorganisms by hot agar.

2.6.1.8 Reflectance Colorimetry


Reflectance colorimetry is an instrumental method (Wescor, Inc., Logan, UT) applicable to estimating initial counts of microorganisms.50'63'64 Bacteria growing in
aerobic count medium reduce triphenyltetrazolium chloride, producing a color
change in the medium. The instrument responds to color changes occurring in proportion to initial populations. Bacteria populations of approximately 107 are necessary before the instrument can respond. Response is possible in clear, turbid, or
opaque medium. Time is recorded for the instrument to respond and is inversely
proportional to the initial numbers of microflora in the sample. Milk with low bacterial numbers requires preincubation for precise estimates of populations.

When pasteurized milk is tested for shelf-life, benzalkonium chloride is added to


reduce interference from Gram-positive microflora.50 Samples are determined in
duplicate by pipetting 200 u.1 into 50 jxl of aerobic count medium in sterile microtest
plates (96 wells, flat bottoms). Raw milk samples are preincubated at 7C for 48 h
in the aerobic count medium prior to placing in the instrument. Pasteurized milk
samples are preincubated in the container at 210C for 18 h. Changes in reflectance
following either preincubation is usually within 24 h.

2.6.2 Coliform Count

2.6.2.1 General Introduction


The coliform group of bacteria comprises all aerobic and facultatively anaerobic,
Gram-negative, non-spore-forming rods able to ferment lactose with the production
of acid and gas at 32 or 35C within 48 h (the temperature of incubation should be
specified in reporting of results).65 The acid- and gas-producing ability provides a
means of selectively identifying coliform organisms among other contaminants. CoIiforms are heat sensitive. Presence of coliforms in pasteurized milk products is indicative of improper heat treatment or postpasteurization contamination. However,
absence of coliforms does not ensure freedom from postpasteurization contamination
with pathogenic organisms. Tests on raw milk are to be interpreted differently from
tests on pasteurized product, as a few coliforms could be expected in raw product.
Coliforms are acid sensitive; tests on cultured products should be within 24 h of
processing because counts decrease markedly thereafter. Coliforms may be presumed
to be present following one of the several tests described below. If found, presence
should be confirmed by checking for gas production in 2% brilliant green bile broth.
The test is considered completed when material from positive 2% brilliant green bile
broth tubes is streaked on eosin-methylene blue (EMB) agar. On EMB agar, coliform
colonies are dark or have dark centers and colorless peripheries and a green-metallic
sheen. Pure cultures isolated from this agar should ferment lactose and consist only
of Gram-negative, non-spore-forming rods.65
Coliform bacteria may be stressed, but not killed, by heat processing. Given time,
such bacteria may regenerate and begin to grow in milk products. Liquid media
methods are better able to detect stressed organisms than are solid media methods.66
Liquid media methods sacrifice some precision in estimation of total numbers
present.

2.6.2.2 Most Probable Number


Although distribution of microorganisms in contaminated foods may be homogeneous, they are more likely to be on the surface or at isolated points randomly located
throughout the food. The most probable number (MPN) technique presumes uniform
distribution of microorganisms. Fat prevents homogeneity, leading to decreased
accuracy and reproducibility of MPN in milk samples compared to water. MPN is
most useful in estimating low numbers of bacteria (< 10 per milliliter or gram). When

microbial density is so low that the sample cannot be diluted, participate matter may
interfere with plating.67 MPN allows for direct measurement of large quantities of
undiluted paniculate samples. MPN results are less accurate than plating procedures
if pure cultures are used.
MPN is a multiple tube dilution technique. Subsamples of the product are distributed in three or five tubes, at three consecutive dilutions. Ideally, the tubes with
the larger portions will show growth while those with the lowest portion will not. 67
Coliform populations are expected to be low in milk. Therefore, an undiluted sample,
a 1:10 dilution, and a 1:100 dilution are commonly used. One-milliliter portions of
undiluted or diluted sample are placed in tubes containing lauryl sulfate tryptose
(LST) broth. In the bottom of the tubes are inverted durham tubes that will reveal
the presence of gas. The ratio of sample volume to medium volume should be maintained at one part sample to ten parts medium. Three tubes for each dilution are used
under normal conditions. However, when the average coliform count is 1/ml, the
distribution is such that about 37% of 1-ml portions will contain no coliforms. Three
tubes at each dilution may not be adequate under these conditions. If five portions
of the same sample are distributed, completely negative results may be expected
< 1 % of the time. 65 Five tubes are preferred when low numbers are expected. Tubes
are incubated for 24 2 h at 35 1C. Turbidity indicates growth; displacement
of liquid in the inverted durham tube indicates gas production. Tubes that are positive
after 24 h should be recorded and confirmatory tests begun. Negative tubes should
be incubated for another 24 2 h and examined. The total number of tubes at each
dilution showing growth after 48 3 h incubation at 35 1C are recorded.
Presumptive MPN is calculated from tables65 and reports expressed as "presumptive
coliform (MPN)*' per gram or milliliter. Coliform bacteria should be confirmed by
transferring a loopful from each positive LST broth tube to 2% brilliant green bile
broth tubes. Gas production after 48 3 h at 35 1C confirms the presence of
coliform bacteria. If required, the test may be completed by streaking on EMB agar
to confirm the presence of typical colony morphology and appearance. Gram stain
should show negative rods.

2.6.2.3 Violet Red Bile Agar Methods


Coliforms are frequently enumerated in the dairy industry on violet red bile agar.
The choice of method depends largely on the number of microorganisms anticipated.
Other considerations are materials required, laboratory facilities, and labor available.
When five or more coliform colonies appear on single plates, counts are usually
more precise than are counts obtained by using five fermentation tubes. 68 One or
two plates, each containing 1 ml of undiluted sample generally are sufficient. For
increased sensitivity on samples routinely <5/ml, a larger sample may be used. Up
to 4 ml of sample may be plated if the VRB agar quantity is increased to 15 to 20
ml. 65
Violet red bile agar should not be sterilized by autoclaving. Media is prepared by
heating to boiling for 2 min. Inadequate dispersion of VRB agar may cause the
medium to appear grainy, to gel at a higher temperature, or to not completely solidify.

The VRB agar must be tempered to 44 to 46C prior to pouring plates. Hot VRB
agar may injure heat-sensitive coliforms.
The sample is placed in the center of a sterile petri dish, tempered VRB agar
poured, and the sample and agar mixed. No more than 20 min should elapse between
diluting the first sample and pouring the last plate. The VRB agar and sample mixture
should be allowed to solidify on a flat surface (5 to 10 min). An overlay of 3 to 4
ml of agar is poured on the top of the solidified medium and distributed evenly over
the surface. This overlay prevents the growth of colonies on the surface. Plates are
incubated in an inverted position for 24 2 h at 32 1C. Dark-red colonies
measuring 0.5 mm or more in diameter on uncrowded plates are counted. Preferably
only plates containing between 15 and 150 coliforms are counted. If colonies are
crowded or noncoliforms are suspected, confirmation of lactose fermentation may
be performed as described in the confirmed test under MPN techniques. The test
may be completed as described previously, if desired.
Frequently, processed dairy foods contain injured coliforms and these have difficulty growing under the inhibitory conditions of VRB agar. A modified procedure
may be employed using a pour-plate technique. The sample is first plated in about
10 ml of tryptic soy agar (a noninhibitory medium).65 After solidification, an overlay
of double strength VRB agar is applied (10 ml). The plates are incubated and counted
as previously described. Results are reported as from the modified VRB procedure.

2.6.2.4 Rehydratable Film Method


Petrifilm coliform count plate is a rehydratable film containing violet red bile
nutrient, a cold-water-soluble gelling agent, and 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride
indicator dye.69-70 One milliliter of diluted or undiluted sample is pipetted into the
center of the film and the plastic upper film gently rolled into place. A plastic
spreader, flat side down, is used to distribute the sample evenly over the approximately 20-cm2 area. The plates are left undisturbed on a flat surface for 1 min while
the gel solidifies. The plates are incubated in stacks of no more than 10 plates at 32
1C for 24 2 h. The upper film traps gas bubbles formed by coliforms, giving
an additional indication of their presence. Red colonies with one or more gas bubbles
associated with them are counted. Red colonies without gas bubbles are not coliforms. The ability to determine gas formation makes this procedure more discriminatory than the VRB method. Confirmation of ability to ferment lactose with the
production of gas is generally unnecessary.
Petrifilm coliform plates can be used with most dairy products.65 When used
for determination of coliform organisms in cheese, citrate buffer cannot be used as
a diluent because it inhibits gas production.
Petrifilm plates occupy much less space than do a comparable number of petri
dishes. Less incubator space is required and less volume of waste is generated for
disposal. This method also eliminates the possibility of heat shocking coliforms
during enumeration because the gelling agent is cold water soluble.

2.6.2.5 Pectin-Gel Method


This medium is available commercially as VRB Redigel and pretreated plates that
solidify at room temperature.71 Liquid medium containing VRB nutrients and pectin
are provided in one tube. Pretreated petri dishes contain a thin layer of CaCl2 in
agar. The procedure has advantages over traditional VRB coliform determination in
that all media is at room temperature, preventing the possibility of heat-shocking
coliforms during the plating process. Liquid medium is transferred into the pretreated
plates first and the plates swirled to cover the bottom. Plates must be used within 5
min. Inoculum is added to the liquid medium in the plate; the pipet tip is touched
once to a dry spot on the inside wall of the plate, above the liquid level, after
dispensing the sample. The plate is immediately rocked and rotated to thoroughly
mix the sample with the pectin gel. The sample should not be pipetted into the plate
before the liquid medium is added. It would be locked into one spot on the plate
and individual colonies could not be enumerated. Once the sample has been mixed,
the plates are allowed to solidify on a level surface and overlayed with 3 to 4 ml of
liquid medium. Once the overlay has solidified, the plates are incubated at 32
1C for 24 2 h. Colonies that are suspected to be coliforms are pink-to-red in
appearance. Five colonies from each plate should be confirmed to be coliforms by
transferring to 2% brilliant green bile broth and checking for gas production.
As with the Petrifilm coliform method, the Redigel method requires a minimum
of laboratory equipment and technical skill. The reagents are available as kits; if
undiluted samples are evaluated, the only additional equipment required is sterile,
disposable plastic pipettes and an incubator.

2.6.2.6 Impedimetric

Methods

Coliforms may be determined instrumentally with the same equipment used for
impedimetric determination of total aerobic bacteria. The results are presumptive for
the presence of coliform organisms. The method has been evaluated for raw and
pasteurized milk, cream, and ice cream.72 The sample is initially mixed with coliform
broth medium73 and preincubated for 3 h at 35C. The mixture is shaken and 1.5 ml
transferred into each of two impedance modules. Impedance is monitored during
incubation in the instrument for 24 h at 35C. The broth medium is selective for
coliform growth. As the organisms grow, they produce metabolites that alter the
signal received by the instrument. The greater the number of coliforms present, the
more rapidly the instrument responds to a change in signals. Low coliform populations require longer impedance times. Results are reported as impedance coliform
count per milliliter or gram. Presence of coliforms should be confirmed.
Several hundred samples can be handled by the instrument simultaneously. The
instrument provides printed results that can be labelled as unacceptable, borderline,
or within specifications. When large numbers of samples are evaluated, the instrument is cost effective; the labor involved with counting plates is eliminated.

2.6.2.7 Hydrophobic Grid-Membrane Filter Method


The hydrophobic grid-membrane filter method for detecting coliforms is similar to
that for determining total aerobic bacteria but a different medium is used for incubation. A membrane filter imprinted with hydrophobic material in a grid pattern
provides individual compartments of equal and known size. Growing organisms are
trapped within the compartments and number of positive squares are counted. The
procedure is a most probable number technique and total estimates of bacteria are
determined with a formula.
This procedure has been modified so that both total coliforms and Escherichia
coli may be determined from one membrane. 74 Whole milk, low-fat milk, chocolate
milk, evaporated milk, cream, cottage cheese, and ice cream must first be pretreated
with a trypsin solution. Without this treatment, the samples will not pass through
the membrane filter. Skim milk, cheddar cheese, and butter can be tested without
enzyme pretreatment.65 Samples are passed through the membrane filter and the
membrane is transferred to the surface of a lactose monensin glucuronate agar plate.
No bubbles should be trapped between the filter and the agar. After incubation at 35
I 0 C for 24 2 h, squares that contain one or more blue colonies are counted.
Any shade of blue is considered positive. The number of positive squares is converted to an MPN using a formula65 and reported as MPN of total coliform bacteria/
ml or g.
If the number of E. coli present in the sample is of interest, the filter can be
transferred to the surface of a predried-buffered MUG-agar plate. MUG is a fluorogenic substrate, 4-methylumbelliferyl-p-D-glucuronide. E. coli produce P-glucuronidase, an enzyme capable of degrading MUG. The MUG-agar plate with the
membrane filter on top is incubated for an additional 2 h at 35C. If E. coli are
present, they will fluoresce blue-white under long-wavelength (366 nm) UV light.
Only those colonies that are large and fluoresce blue-white are considered positive.
The number of squares containing such colonies is recorded and converted to an
MPN by formula.65

2.6.2.8 Fluorogenic Assay Methods


There are several commercially available fluorogenic assay methods. Medium can
readily be prepared from individual ingredients in laboratories so equipped. 65 ' 75 ' 76
Each is specific for E. coli rather than the coliform group. Very few organisms
produce the enzyme (i-glucuronidase. Even fewer produce a positive reaction in
lauryl tryptose broth and produce the enzyme. E. coli is one of the few. When the
substrate 4-methyl-umbelliferyl-p-D-glucuronide (MUG) is incorporated into nutrient medium, the activity of the enzyme may be detected by observing fluorescence.
If E, coli are present, the enzyme cleaves the MUG substrate, producing a compound
that fluoresces under long-wavelength UV light. The test results are read as positive
or negative and may be quantified by incorporating fluorogenic substrate into lauryl
sulfate tryptose broth tubes in the MPN technique described previously. Tubes that

show gas formation and fluoresce under long-wavelength UV light are considered
positive.

2.6.3 Tests for Specific Spoilage Bacteria

2.6.3.1 Psychrotrophic Bacteria


Psychrotrophic bacteria are those that are capable of growth at 7C or less regardless
of their optimal growth temperature. These organisms may be capable of growing
at from subzero temperatures to temperatures as high as 37 to 45C. 59 Some pathogenic bacteria isolated from milk are psychrotrophic; Listeria monocytogenes is an
example. Psychrotrophic bacteria enter milk from equipment, water, and dirt. They
grow during storage of milk in farm bulk tanks and processor raw milk silos. They
are the most common spoilage microorganisms in today's milk supply. The majority
of psychrotrophic bacteria are Gram-negative and these are inactivated by proper
pasteurization. However, some Bacillus spp. are psychrotrophic and may survive
pasteurization. The latter grow more slowly in milk than do Gram-negative organisms. Although most psychrotrophic bacteria are inactivated by pasteurization, they
have been shown to produce heat-resistant enzymes that survive pasteurization and
exhibit their effects in products held for longer periods of time such as cheese and
ultra-high-temperature pasteurized (UHT) milk. Defects in milk associated with the
growth of psychrotrophic bacteria include staleness, bitterness, fruitiness, uncleanliness, and rancidity. The presence of psychrotrophic bacteria in significant numbers
following pasteurization is indicative of postpasteurization contamination.
The traditional test for psychrotrophic bacteria in milk is similar to the aerobic
plate count except that incubation is at 7 1C for 10 days. This is much too long
an incubation period to provide useful information, as most products are consumed
prior to obtaining results. Faster methods for estimating psychrotrophic populations
include incubation at 21C for 25 h or 18C for 45 h 77 ' 78 , using selective medium,
or incubating samples at elevated temperature prior to performing an aerobic plate
count. The most useful information on shelf-life seems to be provided by preliminary
incubation of the samples prior to plating.52
In performance of psychrotrophic bacteria counts, one must take special care that
the molten agar medium is cooled to 45 1C before pouring plates. 59 Hot medium
can inactive bacteria and prevent their enumeration.
Gram-negative bacteria can be estimated using a selective medium containing
crystal violet tetrazolium in standard methods agar. Plates are incubated at 21
I 0 C for 48 3 h. Gram-negative bacteria appear as red colonies. 59
Gram-negative bacteria may also be estimated by impedance detection. Dairy
Gram-negative agar is available commercially that is combined with the sample in
an impedance detection module. The sample must first be preincubated at 18C for
18 h in plate count broth (20 ml each of sample and plate count broth). Impedance
detection time is determined and quantity of bacteria in the sample estimated from
a standard curve prepared with crystal violet tetrazolium agar as the reference
method. 59

Although Listeria monocytogenes is a psychrotrophic bacteria, it will not be detected by the techniques described above. Special procedures must be followed and
these will be described in the section on pathogenic bacteria.

2.6.3.2 Lipolytic Bacteria


Many bacteria that cause spoilage of milk and its products produce enzymes that are
capable of hydrolyzing milkfat to fatty acids and mono- and diglycerides. Free fatty
acids produce a flavor defect known as lipolyzed (or hydrolytic rancidity) (see Section 2.4.5). Some persons are very sensitive to this defect whereas others do not
respond to it. Those who respond usually find the defect undesirable. Some lipases
are heat resistant and can cause problems in long-term storage products such as
cheese and butter.
Several methods are available for enumeration of lipolytic microorganisms.59
Spirit blue agar has been recommended in SMEDP because of ease of preparation
of the medium and interpretation of the results. Victoria blue butterfat agar has been
used, particularly in other countries.79'80 Spirit blue agar is available commercially
and should be prepared as instructed by the manufacturer. The medium is sterilized
and cooled to 50 to 55C prior to the addition of 3% lipase reagent (available commercially). Lipase reagent consists of tributryrin in an emulsifying agent. Lipase
reagent must be thoroughly mixed in the medium. Tributyrin frequently undergoes
spontaneous hydrolysis, resulting in total clearing of the medium. Dispersion of
lipase reagent by sonification helps eliminate this problem. One to two percent lipase
reagent is added and when the medium is sonified sufficiently it changes from translucent blue to nearly opaque bluish-white. The sonifier probe must be sterilized by
flaming with alcohol. Ten to twelve milliliters of prepared medium are added to
sterile petri plates and allowed to solidify.
Sample (0.1 ml) is spread on the surface of the solidified medium. Plates are
incubated, inverted, at 32 1C for 48 3 h. To increase recovery of psychrotrophic bacteria, the plates may be incubated at 21 I0C for 72 h. Lipolytic bacteria
have a clear zone under and around them. These colonies are counted and reported
as lipolytic count per gram or milliliter.
Tributyrin is a true fat and the simplist triglyceride occurring in natural fats and
oils. Some microorganisms will hydrolyze tributyrin but not other triglycerides leading to overestimation of lipolytic bacteria. It is, however, the substrate of choice for
screening lipolytic microorganisms of potential importance in foods.80 Presence of
lipolytic microorganisms suggests contamination or mishandling of the product and
the source should be identified.

2.6.3.3 Proteolytic Bacteria


Proteolytic bacteria growing in milk degrade milk protein. Frequently this degradation is accompanied by bitter flavor and possibly gelation. At a minimum, breakdown fragments too small to be incorporated into cheese curd result in reduced
cheese yields. High content of proteolytic bacteria is indicative of potential quality

problems and unsanitary production practices. As with lipolytic bacteria, although


the organism is usually heat-sensitive, the enzymes are heat-resistant and can cause
quality problems in long-shelf-life products. Proteolytic bacteria can be detected by
ability to hydrolyze caseins. One frequently used method is to incorporate 100 ml
of 10% sterile skim milk into 1 L of melted standard methods agar immediately
prior to pouring plates.59 The sample is introduced using a pour-plate technique. The
plates are incubated for 48 to 72 h at 32 1C. Prior to counting, the plates are
flooded for 1 min with a solution of 1% hydrochloric acid or 10% acetic acid. The
acid is poured from the plates and colonies surrounded by clear zones counted.
The skim milk agar method is not sensitive to weakly proteolytic organisms and
frequently produces false-positive reactions due to growth of acid-producing organisms. Standard methods caseinate agar is preferred to prevent these difficulties.59
Standard methods agar serves as a base but it is prepared in 0.015 M citrate solution
rather than water. A 2% solution of sodium caseinate is prepared in citrate solution.
The two solutions are combined and sterilized. Separately a 1 M CaCl2 solution is
prepared and sterilized. Twenty milliliters of the sterile calcium chloride solution is
added to 1 L of molten agar and mixed just prior to pouring plates. The medium is
dispensed to give a thickness of 2 mm in the petri dishes. Sample (0.1 ml; diluted
or undiluted) is spread on the surface with a sterile, bent-glass rod. Plates should be
dried for 15 min prior to incubation. Plates may be dried by setting lids slightly ajar
but in such a manner as to prevent contamination from the atmosphere. Plates are
incubated for 48 to 72 h at 32 I0C or for 72 h at 21 1C. Proteolytic colonies
will be surrounded by a white or off-white zone; highly proteolytic colonies will be
surrounded by a clear inner zone with a white halo.
Results are reported as proteolytic count per gram or milliliter. The type of
medium and the incubation time and temperature must be designated in reporting of
results. Many organisms are highly proteolytic. Frequently, crowded plates will be
almost completely clear and it will be difficult to determine which colonies are
proteolytic. Higher dilutions should be used to prevent this. Plates of more than 80
colonies each are difficult to read accurately. For weakly proteolytic organisms,
longer incubation times are suggested to improve the sensitivity of the method.

2.6.3.4 Yeasts and Molds


The presence of yeasts and molds in dairy products is indicative of unsanitary conditions. Yeasts and molds frequently contaminate dairy products through airborne
routes. Thus, routine sampling of air for yeast and mold content may be helpful to
determine exposure of product to these organisms. Mold contamination is especially
a problem in cheese manufacturing operations. Proper sanitation of equipment eliminates them as a source of contamination. Protection of open product from exposure
and separating areas where yeast and mold are expected (such as corrugated containers) from product packaging areas can help control exposure.
Traditionally, acidified agar medium has been the method of choice for enumeration of yeasts and molds in dairy products (acidified potato dextrose agar). However,
current literature indicates that medium containing antibiotics to suppress bacteria

is preferable.59 Antibiotic medium allows for improved recovery of injured cells,


less interference from bacteria, and less precipitation of food particles that interfere
with counting. However, if cells are not stressed, both acidified medium and antibiotic medium yield similar results.81
IDF recommends a medium containing chloramphenicol in a glucose-yeast extract agar. This medium is particularly useful for the recovery of injured yeast.59
Antibiotic plate count agar is prepared by adding 2 ml of antibiotic solution per
100 ml of standard methods agar. Antibiotic solution contains 500 mg each of chlortetracycline-HCl and chloramphenicol in 100 ml of sterile phosphate-buffered solution. The antibiotic solution needs no further sterilization and may be stored for
up to 2 months at 5C without loss of inhibitory action.59 Yeast and mold counts are
more accurate if surface-plating techniques are used. Pour-plating may be used if
yeast alone are of interest or if nonstressed mold cells are being detected.59 With
surface-plating techniques, 0.1 or 0.2 ml is spread on the surface of predried plates
with a sterile bent-glass rod. One milliliter may be spread on the surface of three
plates to increase sensitivity. Plates should not be inverted for incubation. Plates are
incubated at 25C for 5 days.
Potato dextrose agar is available commercially and is acidified by addition of
10% tartaric acid. Final pH of the medium should be 3.5 0.1. Yeast extract-dextrose-chloramphenicol agar (the medium recommended by IDF) is also available
commercially and prepared as directed. Dichloran-rose bengal-chloramphenicol
agar is available commercially as well. It has been reported to be useful for enumeration of molds when the sample contains species of Rhizopus and Mucor. These
two species tend to overgrow plates with their rapid spreading-type growth. Rose
bengal and dichloran restrict the growth of spreading fungi without reducing fungal
counts.59

2.6.3.5 Spore-Forming Bacteria


Spore-forming bacteria are a potential problem because spores are more resistant to
heat than vegetative cells. Bacillus sp. are the most common spore-formers found in
raw milk. Sweet-curdling of pasteurized milk and coagulation of canned evaporated
milk may be caused by the outgrowth of Bacillus spores. High numbers of sporeforming bacteria in milk may indicate unsanitary practices. However, initial mesophilic spore count of raw milk has not been found to be a good indicator of the
potential shelf-life of pasteurized product.82 Enumeration of spores requires that
vegetative cells be inactivated and spores activated. This is accomplished by submerging the sample containers in hot (800C) water. The entire contents must be
submerged to inactivate vegetative cells that may survive on the lip of the container
during heat treatment.
Sample (200 ml) is placed in a sterile screw-cap Erlenmyer flask that is sealed
with masking tape to prevent airborne contamination. A flask equipped with a thermometer inserted through a rubber stopper must be heated along with the sample to
record temperature changes. Flasks are placed in a water bath at 82C and agitated
during exposure. When the thermometer in the control flask registers 79C, the tern-

perature of the water bath is lowered to 80 0 C. When the thermometer registers 80 0 C,


the flasks are maintained at that temperature for an additional 12 min. The flasks are
cooled immediately in an ice bath. The flasks are aseptically opened to prevent
contamination and samples plated on standard methods agar containing 0.1% soluble
starch. If mesophilic spore-formers are being enumerated, the plates are incubated
at 32 1C for 48 h; for psychrotrophic spore-formers, the plates are incubated at
7 10C for 5 to 7 days. If more than one plate is required for each sample, a
separate flask should be heat treated for each. Multiple sampling from the same flask
encourages contamination.59

2.6.4 Tests for Specific Pathogenic Bacteria


2.6.4.1 Listeria
Although Listeria monocytogenes has been recognized as a human and animal pathogen for over 60 years, it was not until 1981 that the first confirmed foodborne
listeriosis outbreak occurred.83 In 1985, a major outbreak was traced to the consumption of Jalisco-brand Mexican-style cheese in California and caused 47
deaths. 84 Listeriosis affects only a small percentage of the population but causes high
mortality in those affected, especially newboms, elderly, and immunocompromised
individuals. It can cause spontaneous abortion. The presence of Listeria in dairy
products and dairy processing plants has come under increased surveillance since
the 1985 outbreak. Its isolation from any source within a processing plant can lead
to removal of product from the market. Hence, there has been considerable interest
in methods for detection of Listeria in recent years. Although its optimum temperature for growth is 30 to 37C, Listeria is capable of growing at refrigerator temperatures, making it an even more serious threat to dairy products. Detection of
Listeria requires preenrichment for sufficient populations. This technique increases
the likelihood of contamination of the environment; therefore, Listeria isolation generally should not be performed in a food processing plant.
The FDA 8 5 recently revised its procedure for detecting Listeria in foods. 86 A
25-ml or 25-g sample is blended with 225 ml of enrichment broth until thoroughly
mixed. The mixture is incubated for 2 days at 30 0 C. After 24 h and again after 2
days, a portion is streaked onto Modified Oxford (MOX) agar and onto lithium
chloride-phenylethanol-moxalactam agar. MOX agar is preferred over modified
McBride agar because it helps suppress growth of competitive organisms. It also
produces Listeria colonies with black pigmentation and a black halo, making identification easier. Competitors may produce weakly brownish-black colonies but this
takes longer than 2 days. On lithium chloride-phenylethanol-moxalactam agar, Listeria appear "sparkling" blue or white when examined under oblique-transmitted
light. Quantification of populations is impossible; only positive or negative results
are reported. Typical colonies are selected and identified by classic biochemical tests.
Serotype is determined and pathogenicity may be determined. Not all Listeria are
pathogenic; however, their presence in pasteurized dairy products indicates postpasteurization contamination or improper pasteurization.

Several rapid methods are available for presumptive identification of Listeria. An


ELISA kit is commercially available.87 The FDA, using a virulence gene, were the
first to develop a DNA probe.84 The probe is located with a radioactive tracer. A
similar probe is commercially available for Listeria detection. The protocol requires
a preliminary enrichment step for 22 to 26 h. Also available commercially is a
colorimetric assay using a solid-phase extraction system. This is an enzyme-linked
system.88 Hydrophobic grid-membrane filters have been used as a solid support to
screen for Listeria monocytogenes.*9

2.6.4.2 Staphylococcus aureus


Staphylococcus aureus is more commonly associated with cheese than any other
dairy product. Properly pasteurized cheese milk will not contain staphylococci, and
normal acid development and aging for 60 days are effective in destroying these
organisms should they be present. It is not the viable organisms that produce illness
but the toxins produced during growth. Although the organism is inactivated by
proper pasteurization, the toxin is heat resistant. Milk that has been stored under
conditions to allow growth of the organism prior to pasteurization may be suspect.
Large numbers of S. aureus in pasteurized milk cheese indicate unsanitary production practices. It is difficult to separate toxin-producing from non-toxin-producing
strains of S. aureus. Generally, a coagulase reaction of 4 H- indicates the presence
of toxigenic S. aureus.90
Detection of S. aureus does not require preenrichment. Actual numbers may be
determined. Sample (1 ml) is spread on three plates of Baird-Parker agar medium.
After inoculum has dried on the surface of the plates, they are inverted and incubated
for 45 to 48 h at 35C. Typical 5. aureus colonies are "circular, smooth, convex,
moist, 2-3 mm in diameter on uncrowded plates, gray to jet-black, frequently with
light-colored (off-white) margin, surrounded by opaque zone and frequently with an
outer clear zone".90 Colonies thought to be S. aureus are transferred into small tubes
containing 0.2 to 0.3 ml of brain heart infusion broth. A portion is transferred to a
suitable maintenance medium for repeat tests if questionable results are obtained.
To the remaining broth, 0.5 ml of reconstituted coagulase plasma is added. The
mixture is incubated at 35C and examined periodically for clot formation over a
6-h period. A firm, complete clot that stays in place when the tube is inverted is
considered positive for S. aureus. Supportive tests to confirm the presence of
S. aureus include several biochemical tests and production of thermostable nuclease.
The latter is thought to be as specific as the coagulase test but should be used as
confirmation rather than as a substitute.
The solid medium method is applicable to products expected to contain 10 or
more S. aureus per gram. If numbers are suspected to be less, a MPN technique is
preferred.54 This method is also useful in foods suspected to contain large populations of competing species. Fifty grams of sample are blended with 450 ml of phosphate-buffered dilution water and serial dilutions made. One milliliter of each test
dilution is transferred to each of three tubes containing trypticase soy broth with
10% NaCl and 1% sodium pyruvate. The tubes are incubated for 48 h at 35C. One

loopful of medium from tubes showing growth is transferred to Baird-Parker agar


plates (the surface of the plate should be dry). The plates are streaked for isolation
and incubated at 35 to 37C for 48 h. Typical colonies on Baird-Parker agar are as
described above. One or more typical colonies should be confirmed by performing
the coagulase test described previously. Coagulase-positive cultures are considered
to be S. aureus and results are reported as MPN of S. aureus per gram from MPN
tables.
Although the presence of viable S. aureus cells is indicative of potential public
health hazard, it is the presence of enterotoxin that confirms this. Enterotoxin at
concentrations of 0.1 to 0.01 jxg per ml may be detected by a microslide gel-double
diffusion test.54 Coagulase-positive cells are cultured and harvested to produce culture fluid suspected to contain enterotoxin. This culture fluid is transferred to one of
five exactly spaced wells on a microscope slide containing gel diffusion agar. Antisera to the toxin is placed in a well in the center of the slide. Reference enterotoxin
is placed in a well adjacent to the well containing the sample. If the analysis is for
two staphylococcal enterotoxins simultaneously, one well will contain reference for
one enterotoxin and the opposite well will contain the reference for the other enterotoxin. If only one enterotoxin is of interest, then only one well contains the reference
enterotoxin and three wells contain sample mixtures. The slides are incubated for
48 to 72 h at room temperature in covered petri dishes containing moist sponge strips
to prevent drying and cracking of the agar. Following incubation, the slides are
examined for lines of precipitation under light against a dark background. During
the test process, the antisera diffuses away from the center well through the agar.
The solution in the sample wells and in the reference well also diffuses out. When
the antisera contacts enterotoxin for which it is specific, precipitation appears as an
arc in the agar. On each slide there should be a positive reaction between the antisera
and the reference enterotoxin. The more concentrated the enterotoxin in the sample,
the closer the arc appears to the well containing the antisera. Reference 54 should
be consulted for exact interpretation of results. Foods suspected to contain enterotoxin may be analyzed following extraction and separation of the toxin from the
food material. The procedure is described in detail in ref. 54.
There are several other methods for detecting enterotoxins produced by S. aureus.
Using some methods, enterotoxin may be detected in foods within a day. Each is a
variation of an immunological technique and include reverse passive Latex agglutination, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, reverse passive hemagglutination,
and radioimmunoassay. The various methods have recently been reviewed.91

2.6.4.3 Salmonella
Salmonella are probably the most serious threat to consumers of milk and its products. Salmonella are commonly associated with raw milk but may also enter the milk
supply from human exposure and through contaminated water. Exposure to contamination by other warm-blooded animals, especially rodents and birds, may also serve
as a route of entry. The presence of Salmonella, even in low numbers, can lead to
illness or even death, especially in the very young or very old. Unlike S. aureus,

Salmonella cells cause illness. The cells are inactivated by pasteurization; their presence is indicative of incomplete pasteurization, mixing of raw and pasteurized milk,
or postpasteurization contamination. Like Listeria, Salmonella are difficult to detect
and preenrichment procedures must be used for isolation. Preenrichment generally
should not be performed in a food processing plant. Salmonella has been the subject
of intense study for many years. There is a tremendous body of literature regarding
methods of detection. If the reader is interested in more information than is provided
here, the IFT Food Microbiology Division presented an excellent symposium on the
subject.92
Current methodology for the isolation and identification of Salmonella from foods
consists of five basic steps.93 The first step is preenrichment. In this step, the food
sample is enriched in a nutritious, nonselective medium to allow for repair of injured
cells. For milk samples, preenrichment is usually done in a 1% aqueous solution of
brilliant green dye for 24 2 h at 35C. Brilliant green provides some inhibition.
Some batches of dye are especially toxic; each batch should be tested prior to use
to ensure satisfactory results. The second step is selective enrichment. Portions of
the preenriched sample are transferred to selenite cysteine broth and tetrathionate
broth and both incubated for 24 2 h at 35C. In this step, the sample is enriched
further in a growth-promoting medium containing selectively inhibitory reagents.
Salmonella grow under these conditions but growth of other bacteria is restricted.
The third step is selective plating on solid medium. Growth of bacteria other than
Salmonella is restricted and typical colonies of Salmonella may be identified. A
loopful of culture from each selective enrichment broth culture is transferred to each
of three selective solid media: xylose-lysine-desoxycholate (XLD) agar, Hektoen
enteric agar, and bismuth-sulfite agar. The plates are incubated for 24 2 h at
35C. Salmonella colonies appear differently on each of the selective medium. On
XLD agar, colonies are pink with black centers. Many have large, glossy black
centers or appear to be almost completely black. On Hektoen enteric agar, colonies
are blue-green to blue with or without black centers. On bismuth-sulfite agar, colonies are brown, gray, or black and frequently have a metallic sheen. The latter
medium should be examined at 24 and 48 h because it turns from brown to black
during incubation. The fourth step is biochemical screening. Commercially available
biochemical identification test kits may be used. This step is necessary td eliminate
most organisms other than Salmonella and provides tentative generic identification
of cultures. Finally, the cultures appearing to be Salmonella through the first four
steps are serologically identified to provide specific identification. The final step is
an immunological procedure using antisera to specific parts of the Salmonella organism. This entire procedure requires approximately 1 week to complete.
Because of the importance of Salmonella detection to the safety of foods, procedures that provide information more rapidly than 1 week have been developed.
There are several methods described in ref. 54 for screening samples for the presence
of Salmonella. Most still require preenrichment to achieve populations sufficient to
detect. The following methods were listed by AOAC54 at the time of this writing.
The fluorescent antibody screening method is a microscopic technique which
suggests that Salmonella may be present.94 However, other members of the family

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Enterobateriaceae may also react. The method must be followed rigorously, as


errors at any point can lead to invalid results. Interpretation of fluorescence of stained
cells should be by an analyst with prior training or experience. From selective enrichment medium (incubated for 4 h rather than 24), cells may be stained and examined within one additional hour. Positive samples should be confirmed by biochemical testing and serotyping.
The hydrophobic grid-membrane filter screening method95 is similar to methods
previously described. Preenrichment is as described earlier; selective enrichment is
for 6 to 8 h. The enriched sample is filtered through two hydrophobic grid-membranes. One membrane is placed on the surface of selective-lysine agar while the
other is placed on the surface of Hektoen enteric agar. Both are incubated 24 2 h,
the former at 43 0.50C and the latter at 35C. Salmonella on selective-lysine agar
appear blue-green, blue, or purple, flat but not watery or mucoid. On Hektoen enteric
agar, they appear black or green with black centers. Colonies suspected to be Salmonella should be confirmed by biochemical and serological testing.
Several ELISA procedures are available for screening foods for the presence of
Salmonella?6"100 Some methods use a colorimetric assay to detect the presence of
the organism; others use fluorescence. Each is an immunological reaction between
Salmonella-specific antibodies in the kit and Salmonella in the sample. Preenrichment is required. The methods are for screening and positive samples must be confirmed. There is some cross-reactivity with non-Salmonella organisms.
There are two DNA hybridization screening methods accepted by AOAC54 at the
time of this writing. Preenrichment and selective enrichment (but for less time) are
still required. In one procedure, bacteria are collected on membrane filters by vacuum
filtration.101 The collected bacteria are treated to release DNA; it is denatured and
fixed to membrane filters. Filters are incubated with hybridization solution containing
radiolabelled Salmonella-specific DNA molecules. If Salmonella are present in the
sample, the probe will attach to it; unbound probe is washed away and radioactivity
measured with a beta detector. Radioactivity on the filter above threshold levels is
indicative of the presence of Salmonella. Because of concern in handling radioisotopes, alternative visualization procedures have been developed. In a similar DNA
hybridization method, the probe is labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)
and horseradish peroxidase anti-FITC antibodies are used to amplify the bound
probe.102 Visualization is by reacting the peroxidase with a chromogen; a blue color
is produced that is measured spectrophotometrically. Test kits are commercially
available for this reaction (Organon Teknika Corp., Durham, NC).

2.7 Selected Analytical Techniques for Dairy Products


2.7.1 Assurance of Adequate Pasteurization
Temperature recorders should be installed on all pasteurizers to ensure that time and
temperature requirements are being met. In the absence of direct access to recorded
information or if mixing of raw and pasteurized milk is suspected, the phosphatase

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Enterobateriaceae may also react. The method must be followed rigorously, as


errors at any point can lead to invalid results. Interpretation of fluorescence of stained
cells should be by an analyst with prior training or experience. From selective enrichment medium (incubated for 4 h rather than 24), cells may be stained and examined within one additional hour. Positive samples should be confirmed by biochemical testing and serotyping.
The hydrophobic grid-membrane filter screening method95 is similar to methods
previously described. Preenrichment is as described earlier; selective enrichment is
for 6 to 8 h. The enriched sample is filtered through two hydrophobic grid-membranes. One membrane is placed on the surface of selective-lysine agar while the
other is placed on the surface of Hektoen enteric agar. Both are incubated 24 2 h,
the former at 43 0.50C and the latter at 35C. Salmonella on selective-lysine agar
appear blue-green, blue, or purple, flat but not watery or mucoid. On Hektoen enteric
agar, they appear black or green with black centers. Colonies suspected to be Salmonella should be confirmed by biochemical and serological testing.
Several ELISA procedures are available for screening foods for the presence of
Salmonella?6"100 Some methods use a colorimetric assay to detect the presence of
the organism; others use fluorescence. Each is an immunological reaction between
Salmonella-specific antibodies in the kit and Salmonella in the sample. Preenrichment is required. The methods are for screening and positive samples must be confirmed. There is some cross-reactivity with non-Salmonella organisms.
There are two DNA hybridization screening methods accepted by AOAC54 at the
time of this writing. Preenrichment and selective enrichment (but for less time) are
still required. In one procedure, bacteria are collected on membrane filters by vacuum
filtration.101 The collected bacteria are treated to release DNA; it is denatured and
fixed to membrane filters. Filters are incubated with hybridization solution containing
radiolabelled Salmonella-specific DNA molecules. If Salmonella are present in the
sample, the probe will attach to it; unbound probe is washed away and radioactivity
measured with a beta detector. Radioactivity on the filter above threshold levels is
indicative of the presence of Salmonella. Because of concern in handling radioisotopes, alternative visualization procedures have been developed. In a similar DNA
hybridization method, the probe is labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)
and horseradish peroxidase anti-FITC antibodies are used to amplify the bound
probe.102 Visualization is by reacting the peroxidase with a chromogen; a blue color
is produced that is measured spectrophotometrically. Test kits are commercially
available for this reaction (Organon Teknika Corp., Durham, NC).

2.7 Selected Analytical Techniques for Dairy Products


2.7.1 Assurance of Adequate Pasteurization
Temperature recorders should be installed on all pasteurizers to ensure that time and
temperature requirements are being met. In the absence of direct access to recorded
information or if mixing of raw and pasteurized milk is suspected, the phosphatase

test is used. The original test for application to dairy products was introduced in
1933.103 It has undergone many subsequent changes for increased rapidity, sensitivity and accuracy. At present, three basic adaptations are popular and these will be
presented.
Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme found in milk naturally. The quantity varies
with season, breed of cow, stage of lactation, and milk yield.104 The enzyme is
inactivated at time and temperature combinations just above those necessary to inactivate non-spore-forming pathogenic microorganisms. The quantity of enzyme
present may be easily assayed using one of several colorimetric methods. Properly
pasteurized milk will be negative for phosphatase immediately following heat treatment. Reactivation of the enzyme has been observed in products stored at temperatures above 4.4C for extended periods. Certain microorganisms contaminating the
product postpasteurization also have been found to produce phosphatase. Previously
these were thought to be more heat resistant than milk phosphatase. However, heat
resistance of microbial phosphatase is variable depending on the type of microorganisms. Because of this variability, the alkaline phosphatase test has limited application in some cheeses where microbial phosphatase is present. Application of the
phosphatase test to cream and butter must be done with caution. Reactivated phosphatase is a particular problem in these products. Phosphatase is inactivated by the
acid environment of buttermilk and yogurt; hence, the method has limited usefulness
in such products.
Phosphatase cleaves ester linkage of phosphate-containing substrates when incubated at proper temperature and pH. Substrates have been found that produce a
color on hydrolysis. The amount of color is proportional to enzyme concentration.
At present three substrates are popularly used.
Disodium phenyl phosphate has been used for the longest period.105"107 When
alkaline phosphatase acts on this substrate at pH 9.8 0.2, phenol and sodium
phosphate are released. The phenol may be visualized by reacting with 2,6-dichloroquinone chloroimide and copper sulfate. Indophenol is produced; it is blue. This
reaction is the basis for the Scharer rapid phosphatase test.108 This test procedure is
very sensitive. Trace amounts of phenol from other sources will interfere with the
test results. All glassware, stoppers, and reagents must be phenol-free. Stoppers and
glass-washing detergent are primary sources of phenolic compounds. Glassware
must be thoroughly cleaned and rinsed. It should be protected from contamination
during storage.
A second substrate is dicyclohexylamine phenolphthalein monophosphate.109
When this substance reacts with alkaline phosphatase at pH 10.15, phenolphthalein
is released. At the pH of the reaction, phenolphthalein will be pink. This procedure
is commonly known as the Rutgers phosphatase test and is used for screening purposes only.
A third substrate is fluorophos R (Advanced Instruments, Inc., Needham, MA).
When reacted with alkaline phosphatase at pH 10.0 0.05, fluoroyellow is released.110'111 Fluoroyellow is highly fluorescent and its rate of production may be
monitored continuously over a short interval with a fluorometer (excitation at 439

nm; emission at 560 nm). The method is applicable to a wide variety of dairy products but each must be calibrated separately.
Positive and negative controls should be performed for all methods. Each may
be adapted- for measurement of microbial or reactivated phosphatase. For specific
details on methods, ref. 104 should be consulted.

2.7.2 Total Solids in Butter and Cheese


The solids content of butter is approximately 83.5%; of this, 80.5% is fat and the
remainder protein, carbohydrate, and ash. Because of the high fat content, spattering
during heating may be a problem. If the analyst is concerned only with total solids,
sand may be added to the sample to help control this. Determination of fat requires
that moisture first be removed. If the two tests are to be done in combination, sand
cannot be used and spattering must be controlled by attention to the sample to prevent
overheating. A sample of 1.5 to 2.5 g of salted butter or 2 to 6 g of unsalted butter
is weighed into a preweighed flat-bottom dish with a diameter of 5 cm or greater.
The sample is dried to a constant weight in an oven kept at the temperature of boiling
water. This method is the IDF-ISO-AOAC procedure and is applied internationally.5
The boiling point of water varies with location, so it must be determined based on
the local altitude. Total solids are determined by weighing the cooled, dried sample
and dividing the dried weight by the initial weight and multiplying by 100 to express
the value in percentage. Precautions described in determination of total solids of
milk by drying methods should be considered.
Total solids in cheese may be determined by one of several methods. For most
cheeses, drying in a vacuum oven is the reference method. Some cheeses contain
large quantities of volatile substances along with water. Blue cheese is an example.
Such products will have erroneously low total solids results if determined by drying.
A distillation method is described in ref. 5 as the preferred method for such products.
Vacuum oven determination of total solids in cheese requires that a 2- to 3-g
sample be weighed into a flat-bottom metal dish with a diameter larger than 5 cm
and a tight-fitting slip-in cover. The dishes must be predried and stored in a desiccator
until used. Weights are determined for the empty dish and lid. Processed cheese and
high moisture cheese should be predried on a steam bath prior to placing in the
vacuum oven. The vacuum oven is maintained at 100 2C and a pressure of less
than or equal 100 mm mercury (13.3 kPa). Samples are dried to a constant weight
(4.75 h 15 min). During drying, a slow current of air is admitted to the oven to
remove moisture. SMEDP* calls for drying the air by passing through a calcium
sulfate moisture trap whereas AOAC 5 recommends sulfuric acid. Flow rate should
be about 117 ml/min or approximately two bubbles each minute through the sulfuric
acid. When samples are dry, vacuum is slowly released and dry air admitted to the
oven. If this process is done too rapidly, lids will pop off the containers and results
will be in error. Dishes are removed from the oven using tongs, then cooled in a
desiccator for at least 30 min and reweighed. Total solids are calculated as the
residual weight divided by the initial weight. The results are multiplied by 100 to
express results in percentage.

Total solids in cheese may be determined in a forced-draft oven. For natural


cheeses the forced-draft oven is equilibrated at 100 2C. Processed cheeses should
not be determined using force-draft methodology. Disposable aluminum moisture
dishes are predried for at least 3 h at 1000C. Fiber glass covers are predried for 1 h
at 1000C. Both are stored in a desiccator until used. Cheese sample (3.0 0.5 g) is
weighed into the predried pan and transferred to a forced-draft oven. Drying time is
16.5 0.5 h. After drying, cooling, and weighing, total solids are calculated as
described for the vacuum oven.
Microwave energy has been used to remove moisture from cheese. The time to
do so is significantly decreased. Results are affected by the time, sample size, position of sample in oven, and energy of the oven. Because microwave ovens vary
from unit to unit, each must be evaluated individually. Power setting and time may
vary between units and with age of the unit. Most units are equipped with an internal
balance, and results are automatically reported. Care must be taken to cover the
sample to prevent spattering. Exact power settings and time should be determined
with samples of various total solids content and compared to results of the same set
of samples determined by vacuum oven drying. Controls should be routinely run to
ensure that power drifts or interruptions are not distorting results. Microwave determinations are especially useful for in-process determination of moisture because
results may be obtained in minutes rather than hours. Processed cheese samples are
uniformly sized using a circular cutter giving a 4 to 4.5 cm circle with a thickness
of 1.5 to 2 mm.

2.7.3 Salt in Butter and Cheese


The concentration of salt (sodium chloride) in butter and cheese is important for
consumer acceptance and product stability. Salt acts as a preservative. It should be
present at a sufficient concentration to be effective. However, current nutrition trends
are toward decreasing the consumption of sodium. Therefore, content of salt is being
reduced in many products. Amount present must be stated on the label, especially
if a reduction from normal is claimed. Analytical techniques are available to ensure
that the content of salt is as declared.
The chloride ion of sodium chloride reacts stoichiometrically with the silver cation of silver nitrate. In products such as butter and cheese, the chloride must first be
freed from the product matrix so that the titration can be performed. Because the
molecular weights of sodium chloride and silver nitrate are known, the concentration
of chloride may be determined from the quantity of silver nitrate needed to reach an
end point. The end point may be determined colorimetrically or potentiometrically.
Salt in butter and other high fat spreads may be determined after fat and moisture
are removed.4 Once the fat and moisture are removed, the solids are dissolved in hot
water. A portion of the solution is titrated with OA N silver nitrate to the first visible
pale red-brown color lasting 30 s. Potassium chromate is added as an indicator. The
end point is sharper if titration is performed under a yellow light. The percent sodium
chloride may be calculated using Eq. 2.4.

_ ml AgNO3 X N AgNQ3 X dilution vol X .0585


C X ml titrated
(2.4)
where C = initial weight of sample.
The value 0.0585 represents the number of equivalents of sodium chloride titrated
by each milliliter of a one normal solution of silver nitrate. Alternatively, a 5-g
(weighed to the nearest 10 mg) sample may be dissolved in 100 ml of boiling water,
cooled to 50 to 55C, and titrated directly.5
The Volhard method5 for determining total chloride was developed in the mid1930s.112'113 In cheese, salt is bound within a matrix and must be released before it
can be titrated. The method is a back titration. Excess silver nitrate is added to a
weighed 3-g sample. Nitric acid and water are added along with one clean boiling
chip and the sample heated to boiling. As the solution boils, 15 ml of 5% potassium
permanganate is added in 5-ml portions. Addition of potassium permanganate during
the heating process causes the solution to become yellowish and clear. When clear,
the solution is cooled and filtered into a 200-ml volumetric flask. All material adhering to the filter paper is transferred by washing with water. The solution is diluted
to 200 ml and excess silver nitrate titrated with potassium thiocyanate (0.100 AO.
Saturated ferric ammonium sulfate acts as an indicator (the end point is the first pale
red-brown color that persists for 30 s). A blank is prepared substituting 2 g of water
for the sample. Equation 2.5 is used to determine percent chloride and Eq. 2.6 is
used to determine percent sodium chloride (salt).
% chloride =

% salt =

[(ml X Af AgNO
3) - (ml X W KSCN)] X 0.0355 X 100
E
grams of sample
(2.5)

[(ml X N AgNO3) - (ml X N KSCN)] X 0.0585 X 100


grams of sample
(2.6)

There are several points of caution to be observed during performance of the


Volhard procedure. Toxic fumes are generated so all procedures after weighing the
sample must be performed under a fume hood. Eye protection should be worn. When
potassium permanganate is added to the boiling solution, extreme care must be
exercised. The permanganate should be poured down the side of the flask in small
portions. If poured into the center of the boiling mixture, hot acid solution might
spatter on the analyst.
Total chlorides may be determined potentiometrically using a silver chloride electrode.5 This method is recommended by IDF-ISO-AOAC. Two to five grams of
cheese are suspended with blending in 30 ml of water at approximately 55C. The
salt must be released from the cheese matrix by treating with nitric acid but the
sample does not require heating nor any additional solutions. The mixture is titrated
with standardized silver nitrate114 to the end point (determined as the inflection point

in the titration curve115). Percent chloride is calculated using Eq. 2.7 and percent
sodium chloride (salt) is calculated using Eq. 2.8.
^ .,
HiIAgNO3 X WAgNOJ3 X 0.0355 X 100
% chloride =
^grams of sample

(2.7)

,
ml AgNO3 X N AgNO3 X 0.0585 X 100
% salt =
grams of sample

(2.8)

Chloride may also be titrated automatically with silver ions generated coulometrically from a silver electrode.4 When a constant direct current voltage is applied
across a pair of silver electrodes immersed in a dilute sample, silver ions are released.
Chloride ions in the sample precipitate as silver chloride. On titration of all chloride
ions, excess silver ions cause the conductivity of the mixture to rise. Electrodes sense
the rise in conductivity and stop the titration. Quantity of chloride ions present is
directly proportional to the elapsed titration time. As with previous methods, chloride
ions must be released from the cheese matrix with nitric acid. Moisture content of
the sample must be known because it contributes to the dilution volume. The instrument must be checked daily for accuracy in calibration using a known chloride
standard. Lack of reproducibility is most commonly due to dirty electrodes in the
instrument or inaccurate pipetting.4

2.7.4 Sorbic Acid in Cheese


Sorbic acid and its potassium and calcium salts are widely used as an antimycotic
agent in cheese. When applied properly and in reasonable amounts, their presence
does not affect taste or aroma. Permissible level and application method vary
throughout the world and between cheese types. The following methods are suggested for determining sorbic acid content in cheese products.
The final action procedure described by AOAC is a spectrophotometric
method.116 It is applicable to fresh dairy products such as cottage and mozzarella
cheeses, sour cream, and yogurt. A portion of cheese is suspended in metaphosphoric
acid solution with the aid of a high-speed blender. The mixture is filtered and the
filtrate extracted with a mixture of petroleum and anhydrous ether. The aqueous
layer is discarded and the ether layer is dried with the addition of anhydrous sodium
sulfate. Absorbance of the dried ether layer is determined at 250 nm. Known concentrations of sorbic acid are used to construct a standard curve. Other materials
may be present that absorb at 250 nm. Confirmation that absorbance at 250 nm is
due to sorbic acid is by adding some potassium permanganate solution. Absence of
a peak at 250 nm that was previously present confirms that sorbic acid was present.
Sorbic acid may also be determined by a distillation-oxidation procedure.116 Concentration of sorbic acid in the final mixture is determined spectrophotometrically
against known standards of sorbic acid. Sulfuric acid and manganese sulfate are
added to 1.5 to 2.0 g of sample in a distillation tube. The mixture is distilled and
condensate collected. The condensate serves as the sample. It, along with solutions
containing known amounts of sorbic acid, are heated with sulfuric acid and potas-

sium dichromate in a boiling water bath. The tubes are cooled and thiobarbituric
acid is added. The tubes are returned to the boiling water bath. After 10 min, the
tubes are removed, cooled, and absorbance determined at 532 nm. Concentration of
sorbic acid is determined from a standard curve.

2.7.5 Overrun in Frozen Dairy Desserts


Overrun is defined as the volume of ice cream obtained in excess of the volume of
mix.7 It is usually expressed as a percentage. The increase in volume is due mostly
to the incorporation of air during the freezing process. The amount of air incorporated
depends on the legal requirements of the market; the type of ice cream being
processed; the composition of the mix and the way it is processed; and the desired
body, texture, and palatability of the final product.7 Too much air will produce a
fluffy product; too little air will produce a heavy, soggy product.
There are two basic ways to calculate percentage overrun and each has three
variations.7 Choice of method depends on desired end results. Overrun may be calculated by volume. The simplest and perhaps most widely used formula is for plain
ice cream (Eq. 2.9) or when an approximation is all that is required for a flavored
ice cream. The plant overrun formula (Eq. 2.10) calculates overrun as a percentage
of the flavored mix and is more accurate and useful for cost studies. This formula
is especially useful for bulky-flavored ice creams. Finally the formula for overrun
on plain mix (Eq. 2.11) is used to determine the overrun as a percentage of the plain
mix. Flavorings and colorings add little to overrun and are excluded in Eq. 2.11.
Overrun may also be calculated by weight. This method relies on determination
of the density of the mix and ice cream. The volume does not have to be one gallon
as given in the examples. It must be the same for all weights within the formula.
Frequently, a smaller, sturdy container is used to contain the mix and later a portion
of the frozen product. As with calculation of overrun by volume, there are three
variations for calculation of overrun by weight. The first is the simple formula (Eq.
2.12) and is useful for plain ice cream or when only an approximation is desired.
The plant overrun formula (Eq. 2.13) calculates the overrun as a percentage of the
flavored mix. With this formula, the weight of the flavored mix is taken rather than
the weight of the plain mix. This formula is more accurate when the flavoring material alters significantly the density of the mix. The final variation for calculating
overrun by weight is a formula that relates the weight of the flavored mix to the
volume of plain mix (Eq. 2.14).
overrun % =

volume of ice cream volume of mix


X 100
volume of mix

(2.9)

overrun % =
volume of ice cream (volume of mix + volume of flavor)
;
T^
;
TTt

volume of mix + volume of flavor

10

(2.10)

overrun % =
volume of ice cream (volume of mix + volume of flavor)
volume of plain mix
(2.11)
overrun % =

weight of 1 gal mix weight of 1 gal ice cream


~
X 100
weight of 1 gal ice cream
(2.12)

overrun % =
weight of 1 gal flavored mix weight of 1 gal ice cream
weight of 1 gal ice cream
(2.13)
overrun % =
Equation 2.13 X

volume of plain mix 4- volume of flavor


,

X 100
:
volume of plain mix
(2.14)

For quality control purposes, frequent weighing of filled packages is required.


The net weight necessary to achieve the desired overrun is determined, usually from
Eq. 2.13. Desirable gross weight is determined by including the weight of the packaging container. Comparison to the desired weight is then made frequently during
the production run.
For regulatory purposes, AOAC describes two procedures for determining overrun in finished product where original mix formulation is not available.5 Ice cream
is removed from its container and weighed to the nearest 1 to 2 g. Then the ice
cream is entirely submersed in a container filled with kerosene. The container is
equipped with an overflow spout through which the displaced kerosene flows into a
graduated cylinder. The displaced kerosene is weighed and the net weight of the
kerosene is divided by its specific gravity and designated as V. The weight per unit
volume of the ice cream is calculated from the weight of the ice cream multiplied
by 8.345 divided by V. An alternative method involves the displacement of a measured weight of a solution of polysorbate 80 by a volume of preweighed ice cream
in a specially fitted plastic desiccator. The weight per unit volume of the ice cream
is determined by comparing the weight of the filled container before and after the
ice cream was placed in it to the weight of the piece of ice cream in air.

2.8 Sensory Analysis


2.8.1 Sensory vs. Chemical and Microbiological Methods
Thus far, individual components of milk and dairy products have been discussed as
though they existed separately. In reality, they exist together and it is the interactions

among the various components that give us the products we recognize. It is only
through sensory analysis that we can evaluate the many interactions among components. Sensory evaluation is the ultimate test for acceptance of milk and its products. Sensory evaluation cannot measure the amount of fat, although we can perceive
the richness of high fat milk, and the watery mouth-feel and bluish color of skim
milk. Neither can sensory evaluation determine the number of psychrotrophic microorganisms in the milk. We can, however, detect their activity by a bitter taste or
fruity odor. Quality may also be impacted by hidden characteristics such as vitamin
A content or presence of aflaxtoxin or pesticides. Again sensory evaluation cannot
provide us with much information regarding these characteristics. Sensory evaluation
is a category of food quality of its own merit. It provides the producer and processor
with a guide to the consumer acceptance of the food. Milk may meet regulations in
regard to fat content, be free of antibiotics and pesticides, and have low numbers of
bacteria, but if the cow has consumed onions prior to milking and that flavor transfers
into the milk, it will be unacceptable. At present, we have no better way to detect
defects such as this except by sensory evaluation.
Evaluation of sensory properties is affected by personal preference. Every individual does not respond to stimuli in the same manner. Complicating the matter even
further, every individual does not respond to the same stimuli in the same manner
on all occasions. With training and experience, individuals develop skills that help
to overcome variations. Sensory evaluation must be done in such a manner that the
results are statistically valid. Frequently, in the dairy industry we rely on evaluation
by someone who has always done the evaluation with no verification that they are
responding to the correct stimuli. Use of reference samples and participation in
training sessions with known samples is most useful to be certain that what one
person calls rancid, for example, is the result of the same reaction that some one
else calls rancid.
Problems with sensory evaluation procedures should not prevent the dairy industry from using sensory evaluation frequently at all levels of production, processing,
and distribution. It is the best tool we have to measure the final quality of our
products. However, we need to use the tool correctly to be certain that the results
produced are not misleading. One of the biggest problems with sensory evaluation
is bias. In training students for dairy products judging team, the author has experienced that all too often novices cannot perceive a defect until told it is there. This
same bias may enter into product evaluation if not careful. When looking for a defect,
it can frequently be found; or conversely, if we hope the defect is not there, it
probably will not be. For this reason, sample preparation should be so as to avoid
associating sample identification with a particular lot, producer, or production run.
Chapter 3 specifically addresses sensory evaluation of dairy products. The dairy
industry has a long history of product evaluation. Let it not forget that it is ultimately
the sensory characteristics that sell its products.

2.9 Summary
This chapter has addressed the many methods of analyzing milk and its products.
Every possible method has not been addressed. Methods most commonly found in
dairy laboratories have been addressed in some detail. The choice of method depends
on the desired results. The analyst, with the aid of management, is charged with the
responsibility of selecting the method best suited to their needs. Milk and its products
are analyzed for chemical composition, physical characteristics, microbiological
quality, and sensory characteristics. Each is a measure of the quality of the product.
Results obtained from any analysis are no better than the quality of the sample.
Sampling must be done so as to be representative of the whole.
Tests for milk composition include those for fat, total solids, protein, lactose, ash,
vitamins, and minerals. Traditional and automated procedures have been described.
Tests for milk quality include those for titratable acidity, added water, extraneous
material, antibiotics, acid degree value, sanitizers, and aflatoxins and pesticides.
Tests for abnormal milk include the California and Wisconsin mastitis tests and
somatic cell counts.
Microbiological quality may be evaluated by many different techniques. Total
aerobic plate count gives an indication of total microflora and is the standard of
acceptance for raw and pasteurized milks. Coliform bacteria give an indication of
sanitary quality of milk. Properly pasteurized milk should have a very low coliform
count. A variety of methods exist for determining coliforms in milk. Specific spoilage
microorganisms found in milk and its products include psychrotrophic bacteria, those
capable of growing in refrigerated milk; lipolytic bacteria, those that degrade milk
fat; and proteolytic bacteria, those that degrade milk protein. Yeasts and molds and
spore-forming bacteria may also cause spoilage of dairy products. Milk and its products are good vehicles for pathogenic microorganisms. Listeria, S. auerus, and SaImonella are often associated with raw milk. Each bacteria is heat sensitive; if found
in pasteurized product an error has occurred in processing. Volume II, Chapter 5,
provides additional information on the microbiology of milk and its products.
Several selected analytical techniques for dairy products were described. Tests
for assurance of adequate pasteurization are especially important given the growing
attention to food safety. Methods to quantify total solids and salt in butter and cheese
as well as sorbic acid in cheese were described. Standards for overrun in frozen
desserts are legally specified. Methods for determining overrun in the plant and on
finished product were described.
Finally, the relationship between sensory evaluation and chemical and microbiological tests was briefly discussed. Detailed information on sensory evaluation is
available in Chapter 3.

2.10 Future Developments


Analytical techniques for dairy products have made significant advancements since
the introduction of the Babcock test in 1890. We will see more, although perhaps

not as dramatic, during the next century. As we learn more about the molecular
structure of compounds, we will likely see increased use of DNA probes as tools to
analyze materials specifically of interest. Computer-integration of processing and
analytical results will likely increase. As increasing amounts of data become available, the only way it can be managed is with computers. Robotics have entered the
laboratory environment. This will likely continue, especially for repetitive actions.
Equipment will likely be down-sized as space becomes more valuable. Laboratories
will require more educated employees to handle the sophisticated equipment and
masses of computer-based data. Educational institutions need to prepare graduates
to meet the challenges of the future by developing logical thinking abilities and
computer skills, along with technical knowledge and scientific facts.

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technique for the direct enumeration of somatic cells in fresh and formalin-preserved milk. / . Dairy
Res. 48:239-246.
49. Pettipher, G. L., and U. M. Rodrigues. 1983. Semi-automated counting of bacteria and somatic
cells in milk using epifluorescence microscopy and television image analysis. Appl. Environ.
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50. Houghtby, G. A., L. J. Maturin, and E. K. Koenig. 1992. Microbiological count methods. In R. T.
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51. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services. 1980. Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, no.
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53. Peeler, J. T., J. E. Gilchrist, C. B. Donnelly, and J. E. Campbell. 1977. A collaborative study of
the spiral plate method for examining milk samples. /. Food Prot. 40:462-464.
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55. Ginn, R. E., V. S. Packard, and T. L. Fox. 1984. Evaluation of the 3M dry medium culture plate
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56. Ginn, R. E., V. S. Packard, and T. L. Fox. 19S6 Enumeration of total bacteria and conforms in
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57. Firstenberg-Eden, R. A., and M. K. Tricarico. 1983. Impedimetric determination of total mesophilic
and psychrotrophic counts in raw milk. J. Food Sci. 48:1750-1754.
58. Firstenberg-Eden, R. A. 1984. Collaborative study of the impedance method for examining raw
milk samples. / . Food Prot. 47:707-712.
59. Frank. J. F., G. L. Christen, and L. B. Bullerman. 1992. Tests for groups of microorganisms. In
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60. Entis, P. 1986. Hydrophobic grid membrane filter method for aerobic plate count in foods: collaborative study. /. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 69:671-676.
61. Entis, P., and P. Boleszczuk. 1986. Use of Fast Green FCF with tryptic soy agar for aerobic plate
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62. Roth, J. N. 1988. Temperature-independent pectin gel method for aerobic plate count in dairy and
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64. Zmarticki, S., T. C. Yuan, and G. H. Richardson. 1991. Improved estimations of total and psychrotrophic microflora in raw milk using reflectance colorimetry. / . Food Safety 11:189-196.
65. Christen, G. L., P. M. Davidson, J. S. McAllister, and L. A. Roth. 1992. Coliform and other
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69. Ginn, R. E., V. S. Packard, and T. L. Fox. 1986. Enumeration of total bacteria and coliforms in
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70. Nelson, C. L., T. L. Fox, and F. F. Busta. 1984. Evaluation of dry medium film (Petrifilm VRB)
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71. Roth, J. N., and G. L. Bontrager. 1989. Temperature-independent pectin gel method for coliform
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72. Firstenberg-Eden, R., M. L. Van Sise, J. Zindulis, and P. Kahn. 1984. Impedimetric estimation of
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77. Oehlrich, H. K., and R. C. McKellar. 1983. Evaluation of an 18C/45-hour plate count technique
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78. Griffiths, M. W., J. D. Phillips, and D. D. Muir. 1980. Rapid plate counting techniques for enumeration of psychrotrophic bacteria in pasteurized double cream. / . Soc. Dairy Technol. 33:8-10.
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81. Henson, O. E., P. A. Hall, R. E. Arends, E. A. Arnold, Jr., R. M. Knecht, C. A. Johnson, D. J.
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83. Schlech, W. F., Ill, P. M. Lavigne, R. A. Bortolussi, A. C. Allen, E. V. Haldane, A. J. Wort, A. W.
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85. Lovett, J., and A. D. Hitchins. 1989. Listeria isolation. In R. B. Read, Jr. (ed.), Bacteriological
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86. FDA. 1990. Fed. Regist. 55:38953-38954.
87. Mattingly, J. A., B. T. Butman, M. C. Plank, and R. J. Durham. 1988. Rapid monoclonal antibodybased enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Listeria in food products. / . Assoc.
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88. King, W., S. Raposa, J. Warshaw, A. Johnson, D. Halbert, and J. D. Klinger. 1989. A new colonmetric nucleic acid hybridization assay for Listeria in foods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 8:225-232.
89. Peterkin, P. L, E. S. Idziak, and A. N. Sharpe. 1989. Screening DNA probes using the hydrophobic
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91. Bergdoll, M. S. 1990. Analytical methods for Staphylococus aureus. Intl. J. Food Microbiol
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95. Entis, P. 1985. Rapid hydrophobic grid membrane filter method for Salmonella detection in selected
foods: collaborative study. / . Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 68:555-564.
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Enzyme immunoassay for detection of Salmonella in foods: collaborative study. /. Assoc. Off.
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97. Flowers, R. S., M. J. Klatt, B. J. Robison, J. A. Mattingly, D. A. Gabis, and J. H. Silliker. 1987.
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98. Curiale, M. S., M. J. Klatt, B. J. Robison, and L. T. Beck. 1990. Comparison of colorimetric
monoclonal enzyme immunoassay screening methods for detection of Salmonella in foods.
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99. Flowers, R. S., M. J. Klatt, and S. L. Keelan. 1988. Visual immunoassay for detection of Salmonella
in foods: collaborative study. / . Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 71:973-980.
100. Flowers, R. S., M. J. Klatt, S. L. Keelan, B. Swaninathan, W. D. Gehle, and H. E. Chandonnet.
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102. Curiale, M. S., M. J. Klatt, and M. A. Mozola. 1990. Colorimetric deoxyribonucleic acid hybridization assay for rapid screening of Salmonella in foods: collaborative study. J. Assoc. Off. Anal.
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cheese and application of the test to fluid milk. / . Dairy Sci. 29:737-749.
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30:909-920.
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108. Scharer, H. 1953. Scharer modified phosphatase methods. / . Milk Food Technol. 16:86-88.

109. Kleyn, D. H., and S. H. C. Lin. 1968. Collaborative study of a new alkaline phosphatase assay
system for milk. /. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 51:802-807.
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113. Stone, C. B. 1937. Report on cheese. / . Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 20:339-341.
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Chapter 47. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA.

CHAPTER
3

Sensory Evaluation
of Dairy Products
Lynn V. Ogden
3.1 The Senses, 158
3.1.1 Introduction, 158
3.1.2 Taste, 159
3.1.3 Smell, 162
3.1.4 Sight, 163
3.1.5 Hearing, 165
3.1.6 Touch, 166
3.2 Sensory Evaluation Techniques, 166
3.2.1 Introduction, 166
3.2.2 Affective Testing, 168
3.2.3 Discrimination Testing, 170
3.2.4 Descriptive Analysis, 171
3.3 Application of Sensory Analysis to Dairy Products, 174
3.3.1 The Philosophy of Judging of Dairy Products, 175
3.4 Descriptive Sensory Defects of Dairy Products, 175
3.4.1 Fluid Milk and Cream, 175
3.4.2 Cottage Cheese, 185
3.4.3 Butter, 198
3.4.4 Ice Cream and Related Products, 214
3.4.5 Cheese, 229
3.4.6 Cultured Products, 243
3.4.7 Yogurt, 254
3.4.8 Dry Milk, 267
3.5 References, 274

3.1 The Senses


3.1.1 Introduction
Human senses are classified into five primary modalities: sight, hearing, touch smell,
and taste.1'2 These have been further subclassified to include temperature sensation,
pain, hunger, thirst, fatigue, balance, loudness, pitch, hue, brightness, and contrast
to name a few. A total of 22 subdivisions of the senses are generally recognized.3
Specialized organs on and in the human body respond to stimuli and send messages
about the stimuli via the central nervous system to specialized areas of the brain.
The retina in the eye with its rods and cones is the visual receptor, the taste buds in
the tongue are the taste receptors, and the olfactory tissue at the top of the nasal
cavity detects smells. The organ of Corti in the ear is the hearing receptor, and the
nerve network that branches into human tissue is responsible for the sense of touch.4
It is by these senses that what we know about our environment has been received
into our consciousness.5
The term modality is a more technically precise term for sense. A group of impressions detected by one organ combine to form a sense. The sense of smell, for example, is a modality. Dudel classifies not only the five senses as modalities but also
the subsenses temperature, vibration, pain, equilibrium, thirst, hunger, shortness of
breath, and visceral sensation within each modality.4 The subsenses are known as
qualities. Vision for example has the qualities of hue and brightness, while taste has
the qualities of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. The term stimuli refers to environmental,
chemical, or physiological factors that elicit sensory impression of certain qualities.4
A combination of sensory impressions is integrated into a sensation. Interpretation
of those sensations with respect to experience is perception. For example, judgment
as to the ideality of the intensity of a quality in a particular setting is a perception.5
Two products may have an equal intensity of the quality sweetness but one product,
such as bread, will be perceived as too sweet whereas a cake will be perceived as
not sweet enough. In analyzing human response, scientists have distinguished between objective and subjective physiology. Responses of the nervous system to a
stimulus are objective sensory physiology whereas perceptions and expressions of
those perceptions are subjective sensory information.4 Sensory analysis of foods
involves the use of statistics to treat data obtained from those subjective judgments.
Quantitative relationships have been developed relating objective and subjective
responses.4
As the intensity of a stimulus increases various types of threshold values can be
detected objectively and subjectively. These have been valuable tools in establishing
the relationship between the magnitude of a stimulus and sensations perceived. The
amount of stimulus that is required to perceive sensation is the detection threshold,
stimulus threshold, or absolute threshold designated as RL.3 In objective measurements, the amount of stimulus needed to achieve this threshold is the reference unit.
Stimulus levels for other degrees of sensation are expressed as multiples of that.4
Above the absolute threshold, the difference threshold can be determined. It is the
stimulus difference necessary to produce a change in sensation and is often desig-

Taste Pore

Epithet
Microvilti
Sensory cells
Synapse
Perigemmal
cell
Basal cell

Supporting
cell

Neural afferencies
id

Figure 3.1 A human taste bud and its structure and innervation. The microvilli of the sensory
cells protrude into a fluid-filled space in the taste pore. Only two afferent fibers are drawn,
while actually about 50 fibers branch within just one taste bud, which has its cells (about 40
to 70) assembled like the slices of an orange. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 7.)

nated as DL. The minimum amount of stimulus that results in correct recognition of
the quality of the stimulus is the recognition threshold. The magnitude of stimulus
above which increases in intensity are not detected is the terminal threshold.3 The
subjective measurements are the verbal or written information obtained from the
taster whereas the objective measurements are obtained by measuring the frequency
of action potentials of neurons. The RL is the weakest stimulus intensity that results
in a change in frequency of action potentials and the DL is amount of stimulus
change that produces a frequency change of the action potentials of a neuron.6
Taste and smell are chemical senses in that the organs that sense taste and smell
respond to chemical stimuli. Sight, hearing, and touch are physical senses responding
to physical stimulation such as electromagnetic radiation, sound waves, and contact
or pressure.

3.1.2 Taste
Taste receptors are flower-bud-shaped groups of 30 to 70 sensory cells at different
stages of maturity plus basal and supporting cells (Fig. 3.1) located on moist surfaces
in the oral cavity and pharynx. A fluid-filled pore is lined with microvilli that are
attached to the ends of the sensory cells. Each of the active sensory cells in the taste
bud have microvilli that are exposed to the pore. The cells of the taste bud are

Papillae foliataePap. fili formeP


s ap. vallataPap. fungifor mis

Taste budsVallatedRinsing glandsTaste Striated


(vonEBNERI nerves muscles
ditch

Figure 3.2 Taste papillae on the human tongue from surface and sectioned view. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 9.)

innervated with about 50 afferent nerve fibers.7'8 Most of these taste buds are on the
tongue, usually on the surface of or in the folds around papillae (nipplelike protrusions) (Fig. 3.2). There are four types of papillae. The filiform papillae are most
numerous, with about 1000 on the surface of the tongue. No taste buds are associated
with them. About 7 to 14 vallate papillae each about 5 to 7 mm in diameter are
located in a V-shaped line between the anterior surface and the base of the tongue
(Fig. 3.3). As many as 200 taste buds are located in the vallated ditch around each
papillae. About a hundred fungiform papillae, 3 mm high and 0.3 to 2 mm in diameter, are located over the surface of the tongue except for an area in the center.
Fungiform papillae may have several taste buds on their surface but half of the
fungiform papillae have no taste buds associated with them. Foliate papillae are
located on the side edges of the tongue. Each person has 15 to 20 of these papillae
with about 10 taste buds each (Table 3.1). 10 A few taste buds not associated with
papillae are located on the soft palate, pharynx, and larynx embedded in the mucous
membrane.11
The four qualities that can be sensed by the taste receptors are sweet, sour, salt,
and bitter.5 Different areas of the tongue vary in sensitivity to these qualities. Bitter
is best sensed on the back of the tongue, the sides of the tongue are most sensitive
to the sour taste, and sweet and salty are best sensed on the tip of the tongue (Fig.

INNERVATED BY:
N. lingualis
(tngeminus. N. Y..
Chorda tympani.N.Ml
v.

SWEET
SALTY
fungiform papillae
SOUR
filiform
papillae
BITTER
foliate
papillae
vallate
papillae
"Tonsilla
lingualis"
I= bottom
or base of
the tongue I

N.glossopharyng.( N.IX)
N. vagus ( N. X. N. laryng. sup.)
Figure 3 3 Scheme of the tongue surface showing the distribution of the taste papillae, the
innervation, and the areas of maximal sensitivity for each taste quality. (Reproduced with
permission from ref. 10.)

Table 3.1

HUMAN TONGUE PAPILLAE AND THEIR TASTE BUDS


IN ADULTS

Circumvallate

(P. vallatae)
Foliate

Number of
Papillae

Taste Buds
per Papilla

Taste Buds in
AU Papillae

8-12
(7-14)
15-20

100-200

1000-1500

=-10

150-200

0-4

300-400

(P.foliatae)
Fungiform

-100

(P.fungiformes)
Filiform
(P. filiformes)

=-1000

Reproduced with permission from ref. 10.

THE SENSE OF SMELL

Olfactory nerve

Trigeminal
nerve

Trigeminal
nerve

Figure 3.4 A representation of the lateral wall of the human nasal cavity showing the nasal
turbinates and distributions of olfactory and trigeminal nerves. (Reproduced with permission
from ref. 13.)

3.3). Taste receptors are able to sense multiple qualities but they are somewhat
specialized in that they respond better to some qualities than others.10
Some individuals are taste-blind to some qualities. Blakesly and Fox demonstrated that approximately 30% of subjects are blind to the bitter taste of phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and the lack of taste acuity for that quality is an inherited trait.12
They also demonstrated taste-blindness for other substances.

3.1.3 Smell
The sense of smell in man results from stimulation of chemoreceptors on the olfactory and trigeminal nerve systems. The olfactory epithelium is located in the dorsoposterior or upper rear of the nasal cavity (Fig. 3.4) and is yellow in color as
opposed to the pink color of the respiratory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is
covered with cilia that extend into the mucous layer. Four types of cells make up
the tissue: receptor neurons, microvillar cells, supporting cells, and basal cells (Fig.
3.5). A ciliated protrusion of the receptor neuron at the mucosal surface is called the
olfactory knob.15 The microvillar cells also appear to be sensory neurons with microvilli extending into the mucosal layer.14 The basal cells give rise to new receptor
cells. Bowman's glands below the olfactory epithelium secrete mucous through ducts
to the mucosal layer. The supporting cells also secrete fluid.16 Volatile odorant molecules smaller than 400 MW dissolve in the mucus before reacting with the receptor

Cilia
Mlcrovllli

Olfactory
knob

Mlcrovillar
ceil
Olfactory
receptor
neuron

Supporting
cell
Basal cell
Lamina
Axon
propria
Figure 3.5 A representation of the structure of the human olfactory epithelium. (Reproduced
with permission from ref. 14.)

cells.17'18 The axons of the olfactory receptor neurons from each nasal cavity travel
through the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb in the brain.19-20 This olfactory
system is very sensitive, responding to very low concentrations of some chemicals.
A typical threshold for allyl mercaptan is 107 molecules per milliliter. It is also very
discriminating. A trained perfumer can distinguish 150 to 200 odor qualities.21 Because the olfactory tissues are out of the mainstream of nasal airflow, odorants reach
them by turbulent eddies that are maximized by "sniffing." Odor sensations are not
noticed when the breath is held. To enhance the sense of smell, a subject must
" s n i f f air that has been in contact with the food. It also helps to move air out
through the nose while food is in the mouth.5
The trigeminal nerves respond to chemical irritants such as ammonia, ginger,
horseradish, onion, chili peppers, and menthol. Sensations experienced in the mucosa
of the mouth and nose include coolness, heat, and pungency. Usually the concentrations required are much higher than those required by the olfactory system, but it
is difficult for subjects to separate trigeminal sensations from olfactory and gustatory
ones.

3.1.4 Sight
Vision is an extremely important component of sensory perception of foods. Attractive appearance of dairy products enhances acceptability. Colors are almost inseparably associated with flavors. Coloring some flavors atypically makes recognition
difficult.
The eye is a complex instrument complete with a clear cornea to protect the iris
and lens, a clear liquid called the aqueous humor between the cornea and the lens,
an adjustable lens that focuses an image on the retina at the back of the orb, an iris

Optic array

. Fovea
Blind spot

Pupil
Cornea
Lens
Iris

Optic nerve

Retina

Retinal image
Rod

Retina

Cone

Optic arr^y (distribution of light


^i the eye): the proximal stimulus distribution

Light
Connective
cells

Figure 3.6 The eye, showing the lens, retina, blind spot, and optic nerve. The fovea is a
small region, central in the retina, that is highly sensitive to detail and consists entirely of
cones. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 22.)
to adjust the amount of light falling on the retina, and a clear liquid medium called
the vitreous humor through which the light passes from the lens to the retina (Fig.
3.6). The retina, which covers much of the back of the eye, contains rods which
detect 400 to 700 nm light and cones which are sensitive to the wavelength of light
enabling us to see color. When the rhodopsin pigment in the rods is exposed to light,
it produces a nerve impulse as it is chemically changed. Color vision of the cones
is explained by the Young-Von Helholtz theory that three types of receptors are
present each of which is sensitive to one of the primary colors. Stimulation of the
three receptors at different relative intensities results in color sensation. Impulses
from the rods and cones travel through the optic nerve to the brain where the sensation is perceived and interpreted.22"24 Cone vision is trichromic and the color of
any light can be matched by mixing red, green, and blue monochromatic primary
light in a suitable blend of intensities. 25 There is also an opposing mechanism in
which green is opposite red, blue is opposite yellow, and black is opposite white. 26
Modem colorimeters use these three coordinates to define the hue (color), value
(lightness), and chroma (saturation) of the light coming into the eye from an object. 27
The eye adapts to the level of light supplied by constriction or dilation of the pupil
and adjustment of the sensitivity of the retina.23 It also adapts to the wavelength.
When the eye is exposed to bright monochromatic light, sensitivity to that hue is
suppressed and it begins to appear more dull. When this occurs, a white surface will
appear momentarily to be the opposite hue. For example, after several seconds of
exposure to bright blue it will begin to appear more dull. At a glance, white will
momentarily appear to be yellow.
Appearance of objects will be affected by the extent to which objects transmit,
diffuse, or reflect light. Clear materials allow light to pass through them (water).

Auricle
Cartilage
Mastoid Ceils
Malleus

Semicircular
Canals

Incus
Vestibule

Vestibular N
Facial N

Cochlear N

Internal
Auditory
Canal
Cochlea

External
Auditory
Canal

Round
Window
Stapes
Drum
Membrane
Mastoid Tip

Cross Section of
Eustachian Tube

Figure 3.7 A semidiagrammatic drawing of the ear. (Reproduced with permission from ref.
29.)

Colored clear materials absorb some wavelengths of light and alter color (colored
gelatin dessert). Translucent materials allow the passage of light but diffuse it (fruit
juices) and opaque materials reflect diffused light (milk) and may absorb some wavelengths to alter color (cheese). Some light may be reflected to the eyes without
diffusion, resulting in highlights and giving a glossy appearance.79

3.1.5 Hearing
A diagram of the human ear is shown in Figure 3.7. Vibrations carried through air
or through the bones of the head cause the eardrum or tympanic membrane to vibrate,
and the vibrations are transmitted via the small bones in the middle ear to the inner
ear where the vibrations are converted to hydraulic motion in the fluid of the cochlea.
The spiral-shaped cochlea is divided along its length by the basilar membrane and
the vestibular membrane. Numerous hair cells are located along the basilar membrane. The vibrations cause the basilar membrane to move as a traveling wave. That
motion stimulates the hair cells, causing them to send impulses to the brain. The
impulses travel along the auditory nerve to the brain. In an adult the detectable
frequency range is 30 to 15,000 Hz but the most sensitive range is 500 to 4000
Hz. 30 ' 31
When crisp or crunchy foods are consumed, it is expected that the sounds that
are generated will be an important factor in texture perception of that food. Loudness

and discontinuity of the sound have been established as the two basic criteria for
distinguishing food sounds. "Loud," "snap," and "crackly" were shown to be
related to crispness. Loudness was closely associated with crispness but not so
closely associated with firmness.32 The sound is helpful but not essential to the
perception of crispness. Subjects had no difficulty in judging crispness when a blocking noise was used to mask the sounds and they were able to judge the crispness
accurately when listening to a recording of the sounds. Biting a crisp food gives
auditory and tactile sensations which can both be used to judge crispness.3334 Few
dairy products produce snapping or crunching noises as they are consumed so contributions of hearing to their sensory evaluation are probably minor. Experienced
judges can sometimes determine the number and size of eyes in Swiss cheese by
tapping the outside of the cheese and the amount of free water in "leaky" butter by
the "slushing" sound made as the plug is reinserted into the hole from which it was
drawn.5

3.1.6 Touch
A variety of types of nerve endings are responsible for the sensation of touch. Figure
3.8 shows the free nerve endings in the skin, epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous
tissue. They include the tactile discs, Meissner corpuscles, end bulbs of Krause,
Ruffini endings, Pacinian corpuscles, and the nerve endings around the hair follicle.
These nerve endings are responsible for the "somesthesis" sensations we call touch,
pressure, heat, cold, itching, and tickle. These nerves are sensitive in the mouth, lips,
and tongue, making detection of small forces and pressures easy during eating. Deep
pressure or "kinesthesis" is felt through the nerve fibers in the joints, tendons, and
muscles. They sense tension resistance and relaxation. These nerves in the hand,
tongue, and jaw are used to sense the pressure and tension used to manipulate,
deform, rupture, and masticate food. These nerves combined are very good at distinguishing particle size, crispness, hardness, elasticity, brittleness, fluid viscosity,
and temperature and are significant in our sensory perception of foods.30 The trigeminal nerves which have already been covered and are so important to our taste
and smell could properly be considered part of our sense of touch.

3.2 Sensory Evaluation Techniques


3.2.1 Introduction
For hundreds of years, the quality of dairy products has been known to be linked to
feeding and milk handling practices. A relationship between certain feeds and milk
flavor was established early. Turnips for example were known to give an "ill" flavor
to butter.36 Product grades and score cards were developed. Attention was drawn to
sensory quality of dairy products in 1916 when a collegiate butter judging contest
was initiated with nine teams participating. Milk and cheddar cheese were added to
the contest the next year. Over the years, vanilla ice cream, cottage cheese, and

Meissner's corpuscle
Tactile discs Free nerve endings
Sebaceous gland Smooth
Dermis
Epidermis
muscle
Hair
End bulbs of Krause

Nerve ending Subcutaneous Padnian


fat
corpuscle
wound hair

Duct of Ruffini
ItNMt gland ending

Figure 3.8 Composite diagram of the skin in cross-section. Tactile sensations are transmitted
from the variety of nerve endings, for example, the free nerve endings and the tactile discs
in the epidermis, and the meissner corpuscles, end bulbs of Krause, Ruffini endings, and
pacinian corpuscles in the dermis. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 35.)

Swiss style strawberry yogurt were added. With the exception of a few war years,
the contest has been held annually. Fifty-nine schools have fielded teams with as
many as 33 participating in 1956. 5 ' 37 Several regional collegiate contests are also
held each year. At the high school level, the Future Farmers of America conducts
an annual state and national dairy foods evaluation contest. These have served to
give thousand of students training in the recognition of dairy product defects, their
causes, and control.
Many other food industries have developed their *'expert" tasters resources.
These experts obtained experience through the years and were charged wih the responsibility of determining the material blend or judging the quality of raw materials.
They also judge the quality of finished product and identify sources of problems and
suggestions for correction when the products are less than perfect. These experts
include the perfumers, flavorists, brew masters, wine makers, and coffee and tea
tasters. In most of these industries, such as the dairy industry, scorecards and point
systems have been developed to help set standards.38

With the growth of the food industry and the expansion of product lines within
companies, it has become almost impossible to have dependable expert judges of all
products. It has been necessary to develop sensory evaluation systems that are more
universally applicable. Sensory evaluation of foods in general with methodology
appropriate for either consensus or statistically sound evaluation of foods began to
develop in the 1940s and 1950s at the U.S. Army Quartermaster Food and Container
Institute in Chicago.39'40 Development began also in the private sector. The Arthur
D. Little Company pioneered descriptive analysis by developing a Flavor Profile
Method that uses a consensus of a small group of people who are trained to the
product in a way that is universally applicable. The single expert was replaced with
five or six trained people.41 The University of California at Davis began to offer
courses on sensory evaluation in the 1950s. The literature at that time reflects significant development in the application of sensory evaluation. Discrimination tests
were developed by Boggs and Hansen,42 Girardot et al.,43 and Peryam et al.39 Ranking and hedonic scales began to be used for consumer acceptance information. Committee E-18 of the American Society for Testing Materials, the Food and Agriculture
Section of the American Chemical Society, the European Chemoreception Organization, and the Sensory Evaluation Division of the Institute of Food Technologists
got involved by organizing activities focusing attention on sensory evaluation and
measurement of flavor and publishing information assisting the food industry in
application of the new techniques.40 These methods are all applicable to dairy product evaluation.

3.2.2 Affective Testing


Affective testing is acceptance testing. Its objective is to determine the degree of
consumer acceptance or preference for a product. Usually it is determined relative
to a product such as an existing product, or an acceptable successful product. The
ideality of certain easily understood attributes can be judged by consumers using
their concept of ideal as the standard.
Hedonic scales are used to rate the degree of liking of products. An example of
a nine-point hedonic scale is shown in Figure 3.9. There are a wide variety of hedonic
or liking scales that can be and have been used. Recommended scales are balanced
with an odd number of choices, with the middle choice being neutral "Neither like
nor dislike." Choices above neutral are positive, with the top being "Like extremely" and the choices below neutral being negative and balanced with those
above and the bottom being "Dislike extremely." The data can be treated parametrically, yielding means and standard deviations. Liking of products can be compared using the t test or analysis of variance (ANOVA). Parametric treatment assumes that data are distributed normally and that intervals on the scale are equal.
There has been considerable discussion about the validity of these assumptions but
the practical value of this approach continues to be demonstrated. The data can be
converted to preference or ranking and analyzed binomially.40'44'45
Another affective tool is preference testing. Panelists have the opportunity in
preference testing to tell which of two samples they prefer (paired comparison) or

Please check a box indicating your feeling about this product.

Like extremely
Like very much
Like moderately
Like slightly
Neither like nor dislike
Dislike slightly
Dislike moderately
Dislike very much
Dislike extremely
Figure 3.9 An example of the nine-point hedonic scale. The subjects indicate to what extent
they like or dislike the sample by checking a box by the most correct statement.

Please check a box indicating your feeling about


the moistness/dryness of this product
Much too moist
Slightly too moist
Just about right
Slightly too dry
Much too dry
Figure 3.10 An example of a Just-about-right scale. The purpose of the judgment is to
establish how close to ideal a product is in an easily understood attribute. The subject checks
the box by the statement that best describes his or her feelings about the correctness of the
level of that attribute.

to rank more than two samples in order of preference. It is important that each sample
is tasted first and last its share of the time to avoid order bias. Analysis of the paired
comparison test utilizes binomial statistics. Tables are available giving the number
of subjects that must prefer one sample given a certain number of participants for
the preference to be significant.46 When ranking is used, tables and formulas are
available showing the rank sum difference required for significantly different ranking
given the number of samples compared and number of panelists used. 47
An effective tool to determine the ideality of easily understood attributes is the
Just-about-right scale. This is the three- or five-point scale with "Just about right"
being the middle response with balanced descriptors of the attribute extremes going
up and down from ideal (Fig. 3.10). Stone suggests two methods of analyzing the

data to determine if each product deviates significantly from ideal and one method
to determine if the samples deviate from one another in ideality.40 One involves
using the binomial table of Roessler et al. (p = 0.5, two-tailed) to determine if the
number of judgments on one side of ideal is more than can be explained by chance.46
The number of nonideal judgments is n and the number on one side of ideal is found
in the column under the appropriate confidence level.
The appropriate type of panelist for all affective tests is a "naive" consumer, one
who has no knowledge of the objective of the comparison or the technology involved
in making the products. The subjects may be screened to be representative of the
demographics of a certain target consumer group. Trained panelists who are used in
descriptive or discrimination tests should not be used because of their analytical
approach which may bias affective judgments.40

3.2.3 Discrimination Testing


Discrimination testing is a very useful sensory evaluation tool that enables one to
determine if a perceived difference exists between two products. Often it is preliminary to other types of testing. If no perceived difference exists, it is not necessary
to determine which one is preferred or what the difference in the descriptive characteristics are.40 If a development objective is to have no perceived difference, this
test can establish that the objective has been met and subsequent sensory testing may
not be necessary. There are several methods that may be used to establish whether
there is a perceived difference. Methods include paired-comparison, duo-trio, and
triangle tests.
The paired comparison test is a two-sample test with the task being to determine
whether the products are the same or different, or it may be to choose which of the
two samples has more of a particular attribute. When the subject is asked if the
products are the same or different, it is important that half the panelists receive
samples that are the same and half receive samples that are different. In interpreting
the data, the number of correct choices are compared with the number of correct
selections that can be explained by chance. When the assignment is to indicate which
sample has more or less of a certain attribute, it is assumed that the subject recognizes
that attribute in the product. It is important that the attributes be simple and easily
recognizable. If the number of correct selections if greater than can be explained by
chance, one can conclude that the samples are different. Interpretation involves binomial statistics. A table and formula for the significant number of correct judgments
is published by Roessler et al.46 The correct table and formula would be those where
the probability of being right by chance in one selection is one in two (p = 0.5). It
is a one-tailed test. The tail of interest is being correct more frequently than can be
explained by chance. The other tail not of interest is being wrong more frequently
than can be explained by chance. Protection against a type I error (finding difference
when none exists) is selected by selecting the column with the appropriate a. An a
of 0.05 would allow for a 5% chance of a type I error.48
The duo-trio test was developed by Peryam and Swartz as a way to minimize
the number of comparisons that have to be made.39 The subject is given a reference

sample and two coded samples. One of the coded samples is the same as the reference
sample. The subject is asked to indicate which sample is the same as (or different
from) the reference. In variations of the test, the reference sample may be removed
after it is tasted to force the use of memory for comparison. Reliance on memory
decreases the sensitivity of the test. The same sample may be used as the reference
through the entire test, or each sample may take its turn as the reference. It is important that the order of tasting the two samples be rotated so that each sample is
tasted immediately after the reference with equal frequency. The data are evaluated
using the same formula and tables as for paired comparisons.46 The probability of
being correct on one decision is one in two (p = 0.5) and interest is in one tail
(being right more frequently than can be explained by chance).
The most frequently used discrimination test is the triangle test. It was initially
developed by a beer company.49 In this test, the panelist is presented three coded
samples. Two are the same and one is different. The panelist evaluates all three and
determines which one is different or which two are most alike. This test requires
more tasting than the others. Three pairs are compared in making the judgment.
Again binomial statistics are used to evaluate the results. The probability of being
right by chance (p) in one selection is one in three and it is a one-tailed test (the
probability of being wrong more frequently than is explained by chance is the tail
that is not of interest).40 The table and formula provided by Roessler et al. are used
to determine when the frequency of correct selection exceeds chance.46
Subjects for discrimination tests should like the product, be familiar with the test
procedure, have frequent practice with the test, have a record of exceeding chance
in choosing correctly in previous tests, and have no specific knowledge about the
samples.40 The number of panelists used should be no more than 40 and may be as
few as 12 to 15. Too many panelists will result in significant differences when the
differences are very subtle and of no practical importance. Too few will allow for a
large type II error (finding no difference when difference exists).30'48
It is important to guard against unintended differences. For example, it is easy to
have slight temperature, serving amount, piece shape or size, or color differences
that are not intended. Panelists are playing a game and will look for any clues that
will reveal the different sample. If a conclusion is reached, due to inadvertent hints
that samples are different when they are not, the results can be misleading and
expensive. Further development or costly consumer or descriptive testing may be
mandated.

3.2.4 Descriptive Analysis


Descriptive analysis is the process of developing a total sensory description of a
product. In its complete form it involves identifying each flavor, aroma, and textural
quality detectable in the product and quantifying each. The time sequence of the
detection of the qualities can also be included in the profile. Affective judgments as
to the desirability of the sensory qualities are generally not a part of descriptive
analysis. It is important that the panel members are highly trained to recognize all
of the qualities of the product and to use a standardized terminology to describe

them. Developing and proving a descriptive panel requires skill on the part of the
leaders, and dedication, time, patience, and attention to detail on the part of panel
leaders and panelists. 30 ' 40 Several methods of descriptive analysis have been developed. Three that represent the development of descriptive analysis and slightly different philosophies are the Flavor Profile, Texture Profile, and Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA).
The Flavor Profile method was developed by Arthur D. Little, Inc. in the late
1940s. A small panel of four to six trained judges analyze a product's perceived
aroma and flavor qualities, and their order of detection, intensity, and aftertaste. They
also assess the degree to which various flavor or aroma characteristics fit together
and their appropriateness in the product and call this characteristic amplitude.41'50
Prospective panelists are screened for their ability to detect and discriminate tastes
and odors. Their interest and availability and ability to work with a group are assessed in a personal interview. Selected panelists are trained with product examples
that represent the extremes of the different qualities that may be encountered. Product
is made with a variety of ingredients and processes to produce a wide variety of
product. In the actual evaluation session, trained panelists first evaluate a product
individually while seated together around a table. The results are reported to the
panel leader who leads a discussion that results in a consensus profile. More than
one sample can be profiled in a session but they are done one at a time without
tasting back and forth. Once a panel is trained, profiles can be obtained easily. 10 ' 40
General Foods developed the Texture Profile method to do for texture analysis
what the Flavor Profile method had done for flavor and aroma. 51 " 53 It was different
from flavor profiling in that the terminology for different texture qualities was
standardized (Table 3.2). The anchors used to standardize the scales were also predefined. Odd numbered categorical scales for each quality were developed. Later
quality descriptors were added for semisolid foods, beverages, 54 ' 55 and skin-feel
products.56 Prospective panelists are screened based on interest, availability, and
attitude. They are further selected on the basis of ability to discriminate known
textural differences in the product to be tested. They are introduced to the principles
involved in the product to be tested. An evaluation of a product after the panel is
trained involves independent evaluation by each panelist using one of a number of
possible scales, then the generation of a panel verdict. The verdict may be obtained
by discussion and group consensus similar to the method for obtaining a flavor profile
or by statistical analysis of the data.
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis was developed to overcome weaknesses in the
descriptive test previously described. It was designed to be responsive to flavor,
aroma, and texture simultaneously, to be applicable to a broad range of products, to
be quantitative in evaluation of panelists' qualifications and in development of profiles, to use a small number of panelists, and to have flexible panel-generated terminology. Subjects are qualified before participation. They must be available and be
users of the product class. They must demonstrate ability to perceive differences
within the class of products and to articulate those differences. The terms used to
describe qualities may be available from previous work. If so, the panel learns and
experiences the definitions of all the qualities. If not, the terms describing the qual-

Table 3,2

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEXTURAL PARAMETERS AND


POPULAR NOMENCLATURE
Mechanical Characteristics

Primary Parameters
Hardness
Cohesiveness

Popular Terms

Secondary Parameters

Brittleness
Chewiness
Gumminess

Viscosity
Elasticity
Adhesiveness

Soft, firm, hard


Crumbly, crunchy, brittle
Tender, chewy, tough
Short, mealy, pasty, gummy
Thin, viscous
Plastic, elastic
Sticky, tacky, gooey

Geometrical characteristics
Class

Examples

Particle size and shape


Particle shape and orientation

Gritty, grainy, coarse, etc.


Fibrous, cellular, crystalline, etc.
Other Characteristics

Primary Parameters
Moisture content
Fat content

Popular Terms

Secondary Parameters

Oiliness
Greasiness

Dry, moist, wet, watery


Oily
Greasy

Reproduced with permission from ref. 52.

P l e a s e m a r k this line in a position that indicates how


w e a k / f i r m you feel this yogurt body to b e .

Extremely
weak

Extremely
firm

Figure 3.11 An example of a horizontal line scale used by descriptive panelists to indicate
the strength of a particular flavor or aroma quality. The subjects marks the position of the line
that describes the intensity of the quality.

ities are selected and defined by the panelist as they train. Reference materials that
are examples of the qualities are used to aid in definition of qualities. When evaluating actual product, if new qualities are found, the panel reconvenes to define and
train on that quality. Scales used are horizontal lines of a consistent length with word
descriptors at or near the ends (Fig. 3.11). Intensity always increases from left to
right and the subject marks the line at a position that is appropriate for the intensity
of the quality. Evaluation during training and on actual product is done individually

Aftertaste
Bitterness
Aroma

Malt Flavor

Sweet

Crunch
(final)

Sour
Crunch
(initial)

Figure 3.12 Visual display of the sensory characteristics based on the results of a Quantitiative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) test. For each characteristic, the relative intensity increases
as it goes further from the center. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 40.)

and usually in isolated sensory booths to ensure independent analysis. Replicate


samples are included so that ANOVA can be applied to evaluate the panelists' consistency as well as to statistically compare the intensity of qualities of the different
samples. The panelists who are best able to replicate themselves on all the qualities
and who agree best with the rest of the panel on each of the qualities are best qualified
to evaluate product. Usually between 8 and 12 qualified subjects constitute a panel.
The product QDA profile is a listing of the qualities and the means for each of those
qualities. Significance of difference between samples in each quality is obtained by
ANOVA.40 Multiple-range tests are applied to establish the significance of differences between multiple samples. Profiles of individual samples can be shown in a
number of formats. A "spider web" format is shown in Figure 3.12. Each quality
is depicted as a "spoke" of a wheel with its length being indicative of the intensity
of the quality. With the ends of the "spokes" connected, a shape is formed that is
distinct. A change of intensity in one attribute produces a readily distinguishable
difference in shape.

3.3 Application of Sensory Analysis to Dairy Products


The system for evaluating dairy products for defects was developed long before the
generally applicable tools of affective, difference, and descriptive analysis. These

Next Page
newer generally applicable tools are as useful for dairy products as they are for other
foods and are essential when sensory information needs to be quantified for research
purposes. Any treatment of sensory analysis of dairy products without their mention
would be incomplete. The remainder of this chapter, however, will focus on evaluation of dairy products for defects or judging of dairy products. This ability, although
not designed for statistical analysis or research, is still very useful to dairy product
manufacturers, enabling them to recognize defects, identify causes and take corrective action.

3.3.1 The Philosophy of Judging of Dairy Products


Judging of dairy products is related to descriptive analysis. It is similar in that flavor
(including aroma), texture, and appearance can all be evaluated. It is similar too in
that the names of the qualities and their definitions are standardized. The quality
terms and definitions have evolved over the years with USDA and industry "experts" involved and a committee of collegiate coaches, who serve as the American
Dairy Science Committee on Dairy Product Evaluation, periodically modifying the
terms and definitions. It is different from descriptive analysis in that normal ideal
base qualities of the products are not identified and only the defects are noted. The
judges score the products on flavor, texture, and appearance. Score ranges are established for each defect. Defects that are indicative of serious problems have lower
score ranges than less serious defects. Higher scores in that range are given if the
defect is slight and scores at the lower end of the range are given when defects are
pronounced. In the event of multiple defects, the score is based on the defect that
would result in the lowest score. In that way, scoring takes into account the magnitude and seriousness of the defects as determined by these "experts." No attempt
has been made to tie the scores to consumer acceptance of the products.

3.4 Descriptive Sensory Defects of Dairy Products


3.4.1 Fluid Milk and Cream
3.4.1.1 Introduction
Fluid milk is the material from which all other dairy products are made. Defects in
milk will cany over into those products so it is important that these defects be
recognized first. Coaches of collegiate judging teams spend a generous amount of
time on fluid milk because the defects of milk are closely related to the resulting
defects in products, and because "doctoring" milk to simulate the defects is relatively easy. 5 A wide variety of fluid milk and cream products are available. A listing
of products is shown in Table 3.3. Complete evaluation of fluid milk can include
examination and scoring of a sediment disk, evaluation of the package, storage temperature, and bacteria count.5 Table 3.4 shows flavor defects that can be found in
milk and the range of scores that can be assigned. A score card that includes all these
important defect descriptors is shown in Figure 3.13. It is based on a possible 25

Previous Page
newer generally applicable tools are as useful for dairy products as they are for other
foods and are essential when sensory information needs to be quantified for research
purposes. Any treatment of sensory analysis of dairy products without their mention
would be incomplete. The remainder of this chapter, however, will focus on evaluation of dairy products for defects or judging of dairy products. This ability, although
not designed for statistical analysis or research, is still very useful to dairy product
manufacturers, enabling them to recognize defects, identify causes and take corrective action.

3.3.1 The Philosophy of Judging of Dairy Products


Judging of dairy products is related to descriptive analysis. It is similar in that flavor
(including aroma), texture, and appearance can all be evaluated. It is similar too in
that the names of the qualities and their definitions are standardized. The quality
terms and definitions have evolved over the years with USDA and industry "experts" involved and a committee of collegiate coaches, who serve as the American
Dairy Science Committee on Dairy Product Evaluation, periodically modifying the
terms and definitions. It is different from descriptive analysis in that normal ideal
base qualities of the products are not identified and only the defects are noted. The
judges score the products on flavor, texture, and appearance. Score ranges are established for each defect. Defects that are indicative of serious problems have lower
score ranges than less serious defects. Higher scores in that range are given if the
defect is slight and scores at the lower end of the range are given when defects are
pronounced. In the event of multiple defects, the score is based on the defect that
would result in the lowest score. In that way, scoring takes into account the magnitude and seriousness of the defects as determined by these "experts." No attempt
has been made to tie the scores to consumer acceptance of the products.

3.4 Descriptive Sensory Defects of Dairy Products


3.4.1 Fluid Milk and Cream
3.4.1.1 Introduction
Fluid milk is the material from which all other dairy products are made. Defects in
milk will cany over into those products so it is important that these defects be
recognized first. Coaches of collegiate judging teams spend a generous amount of
time on fluid milk because the defects of milk are closely related to the resulting
defects in products, and because "doctoring" milk to simulate the defects is relatively easy. 5 A wide variety of fluid milk and cream products are available. A listing
of products is shown in Table 3.3. Complete evaluation of fluid milk can include
examination and scoring of a sediment disk, evaluation of the package, storage temperature, and bacteria count.5 Table 3.4 shows flavor defects that can be found in
milk and the range of scores that can be assigned. A score card that includes all these
important defect descriptors is shown in Figure 3.13. It is based on a possible 25

Table 3.3 A USTING OF FRESH MILK AND CREAM


PRODUCTS WITH FAT CONTENT IN
PARENTHESES57
Half and half (10.5-18%)
Light cream (18-30%)
Light whipping cream (30-36%)
Heavy cream (s*36%)

Whole milk (2*3.25%)


Skim milk (<0.5%)
l%Milk(l%)
2% Milk (2%)

Table 3.4

THE ADSA SCORING GUIDE FOR OFF-FLAVORS


ON MILK AND CREAM
Intensity of Defect

Flavor Criticisms3
Acid
Bitter
Cooked
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
Garlic/onion
Lacks freshness
Light induced (oxidized)
Malty
Metallic (oxidized)
Rancid
Salty
Unclean

Slight

Definite

Pronounced

3
5
8
6
5
9
5
5
8
6
5
5
4
8
3

1
3
8
4
3
8
3
3
7
4
3
3
1
6
1

0b
1
6
1
1
7
1
1
6
1
1
1
0
4
0

Source: American Dairy Science Association, 1990.


a
"No criticisms'' is assigned a score of 10. Normal range is 1 -10 for salable product.
b
An assigned score of 0 (zero) is indicative of unsalable product.

points with 10 possible on flavor, three on sediment, five on package, five on bacteria
count, and two on temperature. The electronic score card now used in collegiate
competition in which only flavor is judged is shown in Figure 3.14. The flavor of
milk is usually judged after sediment, closure, and container are judged. This treatment will cover only flavor. For information on how the other factors are judged see
Bodyfelt.5 To best judge flavor, the milk or cream should be tempered to 12.8 to
18C. The judge should swirl the bottle and then smell the milk or cream. Swirling
serves to mix the sample and to spread a fine film on the inside of the container
which gives maximum opportunity for volatiles to fill the headspace. A small amount
of sample should be poured into a clean odorless container. Glass is preferred but
plastic or paper is acceptable. The judge should then take a sample into his or her
mouth, and move it around in the mouth making sure to coat all the surfaces of the

SCORE CARD FOR MILK QUALITY


Product:

Date:
1

Flavor 10
No criticism
10

Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-10

Sediment 3
Package 5

No criticism
5
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5

Bacteria

SAMPLE NO.
4
6
5

Criticism
Score
Acid
Astringent
Barny
Bitter
Cooked
Cowy
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
Garlic/onion
Lacks freshness
Malty
Oxidized light induced
Oxidized metal induced
Rancid
Salty
Unclean

Score
Score
Container bulging/distorted
Dented/defective
Dirty inside
Dirty outside
Leaky
Not full
Closure defective
Coating flaky/cracked
Heat seal defective
Illegiblejjrinting
Labeling/code incorrect
Lip chipped
Cover not waterproof
Unprotected

Score
Standard plate count
Coliform count
Keeping quality

Temperature 2
Temperature (0F or 0C)
Total score of
each sample
Desired
% Fat content (%)
Desired
% Solids not fat (%)
Under/over filled
Titratable acidity
Functional
and other
tests performe:d
on samples

Score
Score

Signatures of evaluators

Figure 3.13 A modified and expanded version of the ADSA milk score card. (Reproduced
from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
M
I PROPER
MARKS

PROPER
MARK

ERASE CHANGES CLEANLY AND


COMPLETELY
OO NOT MAKE ANY STRAY MARKS

MILK

NCS Tm
i e-Opcti* MP30-73629-321 A2400
SAMPLE NUMBER

WTTER

NO
CRT
IC
IS
I M FEO
10
FLAT

NORMAL
RANGE
1-10

GARUC/0NI0N
MALTY
waomo - Mm*, Mouotft
SAtTY

BODY AND
TEXTURE
NO
CRITICISM
5

NORMAL
RANGE
1-5

APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRITICISM
5

NORMAL
RANGE
1-5

Figure 3.14 Collegiate contest milk score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission
of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

mouth from the front to deep in the back down to the throat, noting any off-flavors.
While the sample is in the mouth, airis moved up through the nose to enhance odor
detection. The sample should then be expectorated and a few moments allowed to
observe aftertaste. Aftertaste and aroma sensation are enhanced by exhaling slowly
through the nose. Swallowing sample is not advised. According to Bodyfelt,5 the
flavor of whole milk should be pleasant and sweet and with neither a foretaste nor
an aftertaste other than that imparted by the natural richness. A listing of flavor
criticisms with a scoring guide is shown in Table 3.4. A list of these defects, and
their verbal descriptions, causes, and methods of preparing training samples follows.

3.4.1.2 Flavor Defects


Acid or Sour Milk
Description. Acid or sour is detected by both the senses of taste and smell. The
tip of the tongue is sensitive to the "peeling" or "tingling" sensation. A general
feeling of "cleanliness" and enhanced ability to taste is part of the sensation. Other
flavors such as diacetyl may accompany acid as byproducts of fermentation.5
Cause. Acid or sour milk is a result of bacterial action on lactose converting it to
lactic acid. It can be produced by culture organisms such as Lactococcus lactis ssp.
lactis, or Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris or by any other lactic acid fermenting
organism that purposely or accidentally is present in milk and is allowed to grow.
Training Sample Preparation. Small amounts of lactic acid can be dissolved in
milk until the desired intensity of acid is obtained. Addition of 25 5 to 10 ml of
fresh cultured buttermilk can be added to 575 ml of fresh milk. It should be prepared
1 or 2 days before tasting and held refrigerated until use.5 Usually a diacetyl flavor
accompanies the acid flavor.

Astringent
Description. This sensory defect is actually a tactile sensation. Other descriptive
words used are mouth coating, dry, puckery, chalky, and powdery. It is classified
here with flavor because it is sensed when the product is taken into the mouth. It is
not a common defect in beverage milk. After expectoration, the lining of the mouth
may feel shriveled or puckered.
Cause. Not all the causes are known but it is usually associated with high heat
treatment of milk that has caused some aggregation of milk proteins. A specific
particle size of milk proteins or other milk constituents is thought to be responsible
for the sensation.
Training. Green persimmon or alum are extreme examples of astringency. They
may be used to demonstrate the sensation.

Barny
Description. The flavors ' 'cowy," ' 'barny," and * 'unclean'' seem to be quite alike
but differ in intensity and cause. The descriptive term "barny" is quite accurate,

referring to the typical smell of a poorly maintained bam atmosphere. It is noticed


immediately after the milk is expectorated.5
Cause. The smells of the barn are thought to be transmitted to the milk through
the cow's respiratory system when cows are stabled and milked in a foul smelling
barn environment.
Training. Trainees could be taken to some milking operations and the atmospheric
aroma noted. Milk could be collected from cows that are kept in this type of closed
environment, lab pasteurized, and used soon after as training samples.

Bitter
Description. Bitter is a taste sensation with no associated aroma. It is detected at
the base of the tongue. The reaction time is fairly slow so it is most strongly sensed
after the milk is expectorated. The intensity builds and it is hard to rinse away and
refresh the tongue. It seems to be a component of "rancid" and "soapy" flavors.5
Cause. It is generally acknowledged that some protein fragments taste bitter. These
fragments can be produced by enzymatic breakdown of milk proteins. Enzyme
sources in milk are likely psychrotrophic microorganisms that have grown in the
cool milk. Milk that is stored at temperatures at or slightly above 4C for several
days will become bitter if these contaminating organisms are present. Under those
conditions they will grow to large populations and release proteases. Certain weeds
consumed by the cow will also impart bitterness to the milk. Conditions that produce
rancidity may be to blame for bitterness that is a component of rancidity.
Preparation of Training Samples. Traces of quinine dihydrochloride or quinine
sulfate added to milk will give a clean bitter flavor. A 1 % stock milk or water solution
can be made and added at the rate of 1 to 2 ml per 600 ml of milk.5

Cooked
Description. Four kinds of heat-induced flavors have been recognized: sulfurous,
rich, caramelized, and scorched. All are easily identified.58 They are detected immediately as the sample is placed in the mouth and are usually considered to be
pleasant. The sulfurous and rich descriptors are common in milk. The detection of
a cooked egg white smell is characteristic of this defect.
Cause. The mild sulfurous flavor develops when milk reaches 76C to 78C.59 This
is slightly above HTST pasteurization temperatures. Its development is associated
with the breaking of disulfide bonds and the development of conditions that discourage oxidation. The more severe flavors of scorched and caramelized develop at
higher temperatures and by a different mechanism and are not normal in beverage
milk. The heated flavor is what remains after cooked milk is stored cold for a period
of time. Caramelized flavor frequently intensifies and becomes more objectionable
with age.5

Preparation of Training Samples. Fresh pasteurized/homogenized milk is heated


to 800C and held for 1 min and then cooled.5 This can be done on a plate pasteurizer,
in a water bath, or in a pan on a stove top with continual stirring.
Cowy
Description. Usually a "cowy" flavor suggests a cows-breath-like odor and a
chemical aftertaste. It seems to be associated with the presence of acetone bodies in
milk.5
Cause. Cows that have acetonemia or ketosis will give milk with this off-flavor
defect.

Feed
Description. A "feed" flavor is aromatic and sometimes pleasant. After the milk
is expectorated a mild aftertaste of "cleanliness" can be present that disappears
rather quickly, leaving the mouth free of off flavors. Cowy, barny, and unclean
flavors by contrast persist with an accompanying unpleasant or "dirty" aftertaste.
Feed flavor varies with the type of feed consumed. The odor is characteristic of
the feed.5
Cause. High-volume roughage feeds consumed within 3 h of milking impart flavors
and aromas to the milk.5 Silage, some hays, and brewery waste are particularly
notable for this. A change of feed from dry hay to fresh green pasture often initiates
a strong feed flavor in the milk. If 3 h is allowed to pass between consumption and
milking, almost all feed flavors are absent from the milk.5
Preparation of Training Samples. An alfalfa flavor can be simulated by adding
and placing 2 to 3 g of alfalfa hay in 100 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized
milk and holding for 20 min. The milk is then strained through a cheesecloth or
paper towel and used as a stock solution. To 575 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized milk, add 20 to 35 ml of this stock milk solution. Grass or corn silage
can be used to prepare feed flavored milks in the same manner.5

Fermented/Fruity
Description. This defect is detected by its odor which resembles the odor of sauerkraut, vinegar, pineapple, or apple. There will also be an unpleasant flavor that will
linger long after the sample has been expectorated.
Cause. This flavor is often found in bulk raw milk after lengthy storage. Certain
microorganisms such as Pseudomonas fragi and other Pseudomonas species are
among those that produce aromatic fermentation products.60
Preparation of Training Samples. Bodyfelt suggests the preparation of a stock
solution of 1% ethyl hexanoate. About 1.0 to 1.25 ml of this solution is added to
600 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized milk.5

Flat
Description. Flat milk gives a watery sensation or a lack of flavor richness. No
aroma is associated with flat flavor but the lack of sweet and salty notes becomes
apparent immediately as the milk enters the mouth and the subtle thinner mouth feel
may also be notable.5
Cause. Flat flavor is generally caused by dilution with water. It can happen at the
farm or in the plant by allowing too much rinse water to pass into the milk before
it is diverted. Purposeful dilution with water is also possible.
Preparation of Training Samples. To prepare slightly flat samples add 75 to 100
ml of good quality tap water to 500 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized milk.
For definite flat use 110 to 120 ml of water to 485 ml of milk.5

Foreign
Description. The term *'foreign" is used to describe a number of flavors that are
imparted by addition of detergents, disinfectants, and sanitizers to milk. The flavor
is characteristic of the chemical that has been added. The flavors are atypical of milk
and do not develop in milk. In some cases the chemical may be detected by smell
but in others it may not be detected until it is tasted.
Cause. Adding milk to a vat or running milk through piping that has been washed
or sanitized but not rinsed can cause a foreign flavor especially if allowed to comingle
with a considerable amount of liquid containing the chemical. Other possible causes
include treating the udder with ointments or medication, contamination with insecticides, and drenching the cow with chemical treatments.
Preparation of Training Samples. Bodyfelt et al. suggests that a foreign flavor
may be created by adding 3 to 4 ml of twofold vanilla extract to 600 ml of milk and
that a foreign flavor caused by sanitizer can be produced by adding 1.0 ml of a 5%
sodium hyperchloride solution to 600 ml of good quality milk.5 Samples can be
made by adding traces of other nontoxic chemical cleaners and sanitizers to milk at
low concentrations.

Garlic/Onion (Weedy)
Description. These flavors are identified by their characteristic pungent flavor and
aroma and persistent after taste.
Cause. Milk is tainted with these flavors during the warm months when cows are
feeding in pastures that are infested with onion, garlic, or other weeds that impart
these flavors to the milk. They are especially strong when the cows consume these
plants shortly before they are milked.
Preparation of Training Samples. To produce a definite garlic/onion intensity, add
0.15 g of garlic or onion salt or two drops of extract to 600 ml of good quality
pasteurized and homogenized milk. Vary the amounts to get the desired flavor
strength.

Lacks Freshness
Description. This flavor lacks descriptive characteristics. It suggests the loss of
fine taste qualities typically noted in good milk. It is not as pleasantly sweet and
refreshing or as free of an aftertaste as is typically desired in milk. Frequently lowfat milks when compared with whole milk will exhibit this characteristic.
Cause. The ' 'lacks freshness" characteristic is often considered to be early stages
of the development of oxidized or rancid flavor or it could be the beginning of
degradation by psychrotrophic bacteria.
Preparation of Training Samples. This characteristic is often present in milk that
is approaching its pull date about a week and a half to two weeks after processing.
It can also be simulated by addition of 10 to 15 g nonfat dry milk powder to
600 ml of pasteurized and homogenized milk.5
Malty
Description. As is suggested by the descriptive term, this flavor is suggestive of
malt. Malt, which is grain (barley) softened by steeping and allowed to germinate,
has this characteristic flavor. This flavor can be detected by smelling or tasting the
milk and is often accompanied by or is the forerunner of an acid taste.5
Cause. This flavor in milk is usually caused by the growth of Streptococcus lactis
ssp. lactis var. maltigenes bacteria. They grow well when the temperature is allowed
to rise above 18.2C for 2 to 3 h.60
Preparation of Training Samples. This flavor can be easily transferred from malted
cereals to milk. A stock solution is made by soaking 15 g of Grape Nuts in 100 g
of milk for 30 min. The milk is filtered through cheesecloth or a napkin. Thirteen
milliliters of the stock solution is added to 590 ml of pasteurized and homogenized
milk to give a malty flavored milk of definite intensity.

Oxidized (Metal-Induced)
Description. This flavor is a result of lipid oxidation that is induced by catalytic
action of certain metals. Other synonymous terms are metallic, oily, cappy, cardboardy, stale, tallowy, painty, and fishy. It is characterized by an immediate taste
reaction on placing the sample in the mouth and a moderate aftertaste. A puckery
mouth feel characterizes high-intensity oxidized flavors. It is similar to the flavor of
metal foil, a rusty nail, or an old penny.5
Cause. The presence of this flavor usually means that some corrodible metal has
come in contact with the milk. It usually can be traced to a fitting or some piping
that is made of "white" metal. For years, dairy plants and equipment have been
made entirely of stainless steel to avoid the development of this defect. Oxidation
of the phospholipids that were originally in the fat globule membrane is blamed for
the majority of the flavor. Two oxidative products, 2-octenal and 2-nonenal, have
this characteristic flavor at <1 ppm.61

Preparation of Training Samples. The flavor can be generated by soaking clean


pennies in milk until the flavor intensity reaches the desired level. Another method
is to prepare a 1% stock solution of CuSO4 and add the following amounts to 600
ml of milk: 0.75 ml for slight, 1.2 ml for definite, and 1.8 ml for pronounced. These
samples are held refrigerated for 1 to 2 days before use.5

Oxidized (light-Induced)
Description. Synonymous descriptive terms that have been used for this flavor are
burnt, burnt protein, burnt feathers, cabbagey, and medicinal. Some synonymous
terms designating cause are light-activated and sunlight flavor.
Cause. Two reactions are involved in the development of this flavor which develops when milk is exposed to sunlight or fluorescent lights. One is produced by lipid
oxidation as described for metallic oxidized flavor, and the other by amino acid
degradation involving riboflavin. It is proposed that methionine is degraded to
3-methylthiopropanal (methional) by a Strecker degradationlike reaction yielding
ammonia and carbon dioxide.36'62 Methional has an odor similar to that of lightexposed milk. Without riboflavin methional does not develop.36
Preparation of Training Samples. Milk with the light-induced oxidized flavor can
be prepared by exposing milk in clear or translucent containers to bright direct
sunlight for 8 to 15 min. The shorter times will produce slight levels of the defect
and the longer time will give definite and pronounced levels.5 Similarly the flavor
can be produced by exposing milk to bright fluorescent light for 2 to 8 h. Overnight
exposure next to a 40-watt fluorescent light will produce pronounced flavor. Less
intense samples can be prepared by diluting strongly flavored samples.

Rancid
Description. There are several characteristics of rancid off-flavor. There is a characteristic odor derived from volatile fatty acids that have been hydrolyzed from the
fat. Immediately after putting the sample in the mouth, the objectionable flavor may
not be apparent but as the sample reaches the back of the mouth, soapy, bitter, and
possibly unclean flavors are perceived. The soapy and bitter notes reside long after
the sample is expectorated. A high percentage of prospective judges do not detect
or have a high threshold for the soapy and bitter notes.5
Cause. Rancid flavor is usually caused by disrupting the milk fat globule while
active lipase is present. The lipase enzyme, which catalyzes the deesterification of
the fatty acids from the glycerol, is able to get to its substrate when the fat globule
membrane is disturbed. This happens when raw milk is held static in a running
centrifugal pump, when raw milk is homogenized before it is pasteurized, or when
raw milk is inadvertently mixed with homogenized milk. It may also occur when
microorganisms, particularly psychrotrophs, produce and release Upases into homogenized milk.5
Preparation of Training Samples. Rancid milk can be prepared by adding equal
quantities of raw milk to freshly pasteurized and homogenized milk and holding

several hours cold while the flavor develops. Bodyfelt suggests mixing 100 ml of
raw milk with 100 ml of pasteurized and homogenized milk in a Waring blender or
a similar mixer for 2 min, then making it up to 600 ml with pasteurized and homogenized milk. He suggests making it up 2 to 3 days ahead and holding cold while
the flavor develops. In both cases, it is important to heat the milk to 700C for 5 to
10 min and cool after the flavor has developed.5

Salty
Description. The descriptive term "salty" is commonly known and a good term
to describe this flavor. It is perceived quickly on placing the sample in the mouth.
No aroma or odor accompanies the salty flavor. It lends a cleansing feeling to the
mouth.5 The author perceives the salty sensation as "warm" and lacking refreshing
character.
Cause. Cows in the advanced stages of lactation and cows that have clinical stages
of mastitis often have high salt content in their milk and a salty flavor. Comingled
milk seldom has an abnormal salt level nor a salty taste.
Preparation of Training Samples. Add a pinch of sodium chloride at a time to
pasteurized and homogenized milk while stirring to dissolve the salt until it is at the
desired strength.

Unclean
Description. Milk with an "unclean" flavor is readily noted when the sample
enters the mouth. The flavor and odor are offensive, suggesting extreme staleness,
mustiness, putrid, "dirty sock," or spoiled. The flavor fails to clean up after the
milk is expectorated.
Cause. This flavor develops in milk when psychotropic bacteria are allowed to
grow to high numbers in milk and particularly when held at temperatures above
7.2C. The presence of psychrotrophs is usually due to poor on-farm sanitation. High
numbers are generally due to poor bulk tank cooling.
Preparation of Training Samples. To find ' 'unclean'' flavored milk, examine several samples of milk that are beyond their pull date. If the flavor is not found, incubate
them for 4 to 12 h at room temperature and reexamine them. When an exemplary
sample is found, it may be maintained in the refrigerator and used as an inoculum
for production of future training samples.5

3.4.2 Cottage Cheese

3.4.2./ Introduction
Cottage cheese is a curd that is formed by the acid coagulation of pasteurized skim
milk. The acid may be formed by lactic acid bacteria that are added to the milk
which consume lactose and convert it to lactic acid.63 In one successful method, part

of the acid is added to the milk as acid and the rest is added as an acid anhydride
which slowly converts to acid and drops the pH of the quiet skim milk to the isoelectric pH where the curd forms.64 The curd is cut into cubes, cooked to expel the
whey and firm the curd, washed to cool the curd and remove lactose, then salted
and creamed. The cream contains enough fat to bring the final fat content to the
desired level which is commonly 2% or 4%. It is sometimes cultured with lactic
acid fermenting and flavor producing bacteria to add flavor and extend shelf life.
Variations on the process will produce various curd sizes or a curd mass called
''baker's" cheese. These products are held below 40C throughout distribution and
consumed within 2 to 3 weeks.5
Good creamed cottage cheese should have a clean, slightly acidic flavor with a
slight cultured or "diacetyl" flavor. It should be slightly salty sufficient to give a
balanced flavor. The body should have a meaty consistency without being too firm
or rubbery. As the product is masticated, the texture should be smooth. The curd
particles should appear fairly uniform in size and shape without shattered curd. The
cream should adhere to the curd particles and give moderate but not excessive gloss
or sheen.
A listing of defects that can be found in cottage cheese and the resulting score
ranges is shown in Table 3.5. The ADSA contest score card is shown in Figure 3.15
and the Collegiate Contest Scorecard is shown in Figure 3.16.

3.4.2.2 Flavor Defects


Bitter
Description. Bitter is a taste sensation with no associated aroma. It is detected at
the base of the tongue. The reaction time is fairly slow so it is most strongly sensed
after the cottage cheese is expectorated. The intensity builds and it is hard to rinse
away and refresh the tongue.
Cause. Cottage cheese that is stored at temperatures at or slightly above 4C for
several days will become bitter when psychrotrophic organisms are present. Under
those conditions they will grow to large populations and release proteases. Certain
weeds consumed by the cow will also impart bitterness to cottage cheese made from
the milk.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Solutions of 1% quinine sulfate may be
added to creamed cottage cheese. Add 2 ml/lb for a slight and 4 for definite.5

Cooked
Description. A sulfurous aroma is detected as the product is smelled and may be
sensed soon after the sample is placed in the mouth. The flavor is usually considered
to be pleasant. The detection of a cooked egg white smell is characteristic of this
defect.

Table 3.5 THE ASDA SCORING GUIDE FOR SENSORY DEFECTS OF


CREAMED COTTAGE CHEESE
Intensity of Defect
Slight

Definite

Pronounced

Flavor criticisms8
Acid (high)
Bitter
Diacetyl
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
High salt
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks freshness
Malty
Metallic
Musty
Oxidized
Rancid
Unclean
Yeasty

9
7
9
9
5
9
7
9
9
9
6
5
5
5
4
6
4

7
5
7
7
3
8
4
8
7
5
4
3
3
3
2
3
1

5
1
6
5
1
7
1
7
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Body and texture


Firm/rubbery
Gelatinous
Mealy/grainy
Overstabilized
Pasty
Weak/soft

4
3
4
4
3
4

2
2
2
3
2
3

1
1
1
2
1
2

Appearance and color


Free cream
Free whey
Lacks cream
Matted
Shattered curd
Slimy

4
4
4
4
4
2

2
2
3
2
3
0b

1
1
2
1
2
0

Source: American Dairy Science Association, 1990.


a
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 10 for flavor and 5 for body and appearance. Normal
range is 1-10 for flavor and 1-5 for body and appearance for salable product.
b
An assigned score of 0 (zero) is indicative of unsalable product.

Cause. This flavor can originate from high heat treatment of the skim milk before
cottage cheese is made for the creaming mixture that is added to the curd.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Wash the cream from cottage cheese curd
and replace it with half and half that has been heated sufficiently to 8O0C. Salt curd
and cream to taste.

CONTEST COTTAGE CHEESE SCORE CARD


A.D.S.A. Contestant No:
SAMPLENO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Criticisms

Date:

Flavor

10

Contestant Score
Score
Grade

No criticism
10

Normal range
1-10

Body and
texture
5

Criticism
Acid (high)
Bitter
Diacetyl
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat
Foreign
High Salt
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks freshness
Malty
Metallic
Musty
Oxidized
Rancid
Unclean
Yeasty
Contestant score
Score
Grade

No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Appearance
and color 5

Criticism
Firm/rubbery
Gelatinous
Mealy/grainy
Pasty
Weak/soft
Contestant score
Score
Grade

No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5

Package
Score

Criticism
Free cream
Free whey
Lacks cream
Matted
Shattered curd
Slimy
Surface discolored
Translucent
Unnatural color
Allowed perfect
in contest
Total score of
each sample
Total grade
per sample

Source: American Dairy Science Association (1987)

Final grade
Rank

Figure 3.15 The ADSA contest score card for the sensory evaluation of cottage cheese.
(Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

PRCONTESTANT NO DAU

MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
VM NO:TMNCIl <S*tVf
PROPER
M
I PROPER
MARK
MARKS

COTTAGE
CHEESE

ERASE CHANGES CLEANLY ANO


COMPLETELY
DO NOT MAKE ANY STRAY MARKS
CRITICISMS
FLAVOR

NCS Tnra-Opcti* MP30-7363S-321 A2400


SAMPLE NUMBER

COOKED
NO
CRITICISM

FEtO

10
RAT
NORMAL

HtGHACtD

RANGE
1-10

LACKS WN6 ftAVO


MAtTY
MUTY
RANCID
YEASTY

BODY A N D
TEXTURE
NO

OELATWOUS

CRITICISM
5

OVERSTABIUZED

KWJUgcfoTSl
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
A N D COLOR
NO

FREE WHEY

CRITICISM
5

MATTfO

NORMAL
RANGE

1-5

Figure 3.16 Collegiate contest cottage cheese score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with
permission of the ADSA, Champaign, EL.)

Diacetyl
Description. Diacetyl is a pleasant and desirable ' 'buttery" flavor in cottage cheese
and cultured products. This description is for situations where the flavor overpowers
acidity and other flavor and aroma notes.
Cause. This results when Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis var. diacetylactis or Leuconostoc sp. has grown better or faster than the lactic culture so that excessive flavor
and aroma components have been produced.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Slight or definite cottage cheese can be
simulated by adding 0.1 or 0.2 ml of food grade diacetyl to 400 g of creamed cottage
cheese.5 A stock solution of diacetyl in milk can be made to make measurement
easier.

Feed
Description. Feed flavor in cottage cheese is a result of feed flavor in the milk
from which it is made or the milk from which the creaming solution was made. A
"feed" flavor is aromatic and sometimes pleasant. After the cottage cheese is expectorated a mild aftertaste of "cleanliness" can be present that disappears rather
quickly, leaving the mouth free of off-flavors. Feed flavor varies with the type of
feed consumed. The odor is characteristic of the feed.5
Cause. High-volume roughage feed within 3 h of milking impart aromas to the
milk. Silage, some hays, and brewery waste are particularly notable for this. A
change of feed from dry hay to fresh green pasture often initiates a strong feed flavor
in the milk. Almost all feed flavors disappear if 3 h is allowed to pass between
consumption and milking.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Half and half can be treated to have a feed
flavor as described in the section on milk and cream. The treated cream can be added
to creamed cottage cheese or to washed curd. A little salt may be needed to give a
typical salt flavor level.1

Fermented/Fruity
Description. A "whiff" of a freshly opened package of cottage cheese with this
defect will be suggestive of pineapple, apples, bananas, or strawberries. The taste
will confirm those qualities but coming on late may be an unpleasant, lingering
aftertaste.
Cause. Some psychrotrophic bacteria produce these characteristic aromatic compounds. The package will be near its sell-by date or will have been stored at slightly
elevated temperatures.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of 1 Vi tsp of banana or pineapple
yogurt to 400 g of cottage cheese will simulate fermented/fruity flavor. Addition of
1 to 11A ml of 1% aqueous solution of food grade ethyl hexanoate to 400 g of cheese
will give slight to definite levels of this flavor.65

Hat
Description. The absence of characteristic flavor and aroma is called "flat." The
absence of culture or diacetyl flavor and absence of salt gives that impression.
Cause. Insufficient flavor producing culture in the cream and insufficient salt will
give this flavor. The early stages of oxidized flavor may tend to give a flat taste and
aroma. The delayed flavor perception may give the impression of a metallic flavor.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. The flat flavor may be simulated by washing
the curd and replacing the cream with half and half. Salt may be added but less than
enough to give the optimum saltiness.

Foreign (Chemical, Medicinal)


Description. A foreign off-flavor is one that is entirely unlike any off-flavor that
might be anticipated to develop in cottage cheese.
Cause. Most of these atypical flavors are caused by cleaning compounds, chlorine,
iodine, or phenol. Any one of many compounds that are inadvertently added to
product or whose fumes are absorbed by product may be responsible for the flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Foreign flavor caused by sanitizer can be
produced by adding 1A ml of a 5% sodium hyperchloride solution to 300 ml of good
half and half.5 That cream could be lightly salted to taste and used to cream good
quality washed cottage cheese curd. In the same manner, traces of other nontoxic
chemical cleaners and sanitizers could be used to taint cream which in turn will taint
cottage cheese.

High Acid (Sour)


Description. Acid is a normal component of good cottage cheese flavor. It is a
clean and sharp sensation that generally cleans up well and leaves no aftertaste.
When it gets high enough that the flavor predominates over other natural components
of the flavor and covers the desirable flavors, it should be criticized.
Cause. The culture organism can slowly work on remaining lactose in the curd
until it is gone. High moisture facilitates this acid production. If the curd is insufficiently washed, then lactose will be present in the curd and this defect will develop.
Preparation of Samples for Training. For a slight high acid defect, add 15 to
20 ml of cultured skim milk to 385 g of cottage cheese. For a definite acid flavor
intensity use 30 to 40 ml of cultured.skim milk in 365 g of creamed cheese.

High Salt
Description. The "high salt" flavor is characterized by a sharp, biting sensation.
The reaction and adaptation time are both short. The initial piercing sensation subsides and it is replaced by copious flow of saliva.

Cause. High salt is a formulation error resulting from addition of excessive salt to
the creaming mixture or the curd or both. The proper amount is 0.6% to 1.0%.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Salty cottage cheese can be made by adding
an additional Vi to 1% additional salt to properly salted, good quality creamed cottage
cheese. Stir and allow to dissolve.

Lacks Fine Flavor (Acetaldehyde)


Description. This is a "green" or "green apple" or plain yogurt flavor atypical
of the mild diacetyl or buttery flavor that is characteristic of cottage cheese.
Cause. An improper lactic culture has been used to make the cream dressing or a
contaminating lactic culture has grown up that produced a lot of acetaldehyde. Yogurt has a characteristic acetaldehyde flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Cottage cheese that has this defect can be
made by adding a tsp. of plain yogurt to 400 g of cottage cheese.5

Lacks Freshness (Stale or Storage)


Description. This is a group of closely related off-flavors. All are related to the
age of the product. Stale is a more obvious, more intense version of lacks freshness.
Lacks freshness just lacks the refreshing fresh flavor of recently made product. Storage flavor is the changing of character due to absorption of flavors from the products
and materials stored around it.
Cause. Lacks freshness and stale defects are caused by the occurrence of microbiological and chemical changes resulting in deterioration of typical flavor. This is
expected to occur to even the best product near the end of its 2- to 3-week shelf life.
Occasionally this will begin prematurely due to contamination of the product or
storage at elevated temperatures. The storage flavor is sometimes called absorbed
flavor. It is due to absorbed flavors of products that are stored in the same refrigeration unit.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Low-fat cottage cheese may demonstrate
this defect. One could also obtain cottage cheese samples that are near their pull date
and screen them to select samples that demonstrate the lacks freshness or stale defect.
Malty
Description. This flavor resembles malted milk or the flavor of Grape Nuts cereal.
A sourness may accompany the malty flavor. The malting process of steeping barley
and allowing it to start to sprout causes this flavor to develop. It generally has a
quick reaction time and the aftertaste is not prolonged.
Cause. The bacteria Streptococcus lactis spp. lactis var. maltigenes produces that
defect in milk if it is able to grow.

Preparation of Samples for Training. Half and half or milk may be soaked in
Grape Nuts for 30 min and then filtered through a paper towel. The filtrate is added
to and stirred into good flavored cottage cheese. Sufficient is added to give the level
of intensity desired.66
Musty
Description. This is a serious but seldom encountered defect that resembles the
aroma of a damp, poorly ventilated cellar.
Cause. This defect is due to the growth of a variety of microbial contaminants
including molds. The curd may have become contaminated with Pseudomonas taetrolens which are psychrotrophic bacteria. Poor plant sanitation is responsible for
allowing them into the product and marginal cooling temperatures are responsible
for allowing their outgrowth.5
Training. No method is suggested in the literature for preparation of samples.
Exemplary samples may be found among survey samples that have been held beyond
their pull date or held at slightly elevated temperatures.

Oxidized, Metallic Oxidized, Sunlight Oxidized


Description. These three flavors are grouped together because they are thought to
be chemically related.' 'Metallic'' has a slight astringent character and a ' 'rusty nail''
like taste. "Oxidized" has a flavor similar to wet cardboard or paper. "Sunlight"
flavor is described as burnt, burnt protein, burnt feathers, cabbagey, and medicinal.
Cause. AU three flavors are thought to be due to milk fat autoxidation in the cream
used to produce the cottage cheese cream. It can be catalyzed by traces of copper or
corrodible metal. "Sunlight" flavor also is caused by exposure to sunlight or fluorescent lights which causes an amino acid degradation involving riboflavin. Methional produced in the reaction may cause the flavor.5
Preparation of samples. For "metallic" flavor add 3 to 3 ml of 1% aqueous
CuSO4-5H2O solution to 5 ml of milk or half and half which in turn is added to
400 g of creamed cottage cheese. Allow 24 h for the flavor to develop. A sunlight
oxidized flavor can be developed by exposing milk or half and half to bright fluorescent light for 6 h and then adding that to the creamed cottage cheese.

Rancid
Description. "Rancidity" in cottage cheese as in milk may be described as an
astringent, puckery feeling at the base of the tongue and throat. A bitter and soapy
aftertaste may be associated with it. There is a slow response time to this flavor.
After expectoration it is difficult to clean the flavor out of the mouth.
Cause. This flavor is due to enzymatic action of lipase on milk fat. Ester bonds
are broken, leaving free fatty acids and mono- and diglycerides. The shorter free
fatty acids, particularly butyric, are flavorful. Mid-length fatty acids taste soapy. Raw

milk contains lipase and some psychrotrophs produce lipase. Conditions are ideal
for lipolytic action when these enzymes are present and when the fat is disturbed
and new interface is produced. Inadvertent mixing of raw and freshly homogenized
milk is such a case. Homogenized milk in which psychrotrophic organisms have
grown to great numbers is another. If the cottage cheese cream has been subjected
to those conditions, rancidity will probably occur.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Add rancid milk, prepared according to the
directions in the section on milk, to the creamed cottage cheese mixture. Be sure the
rancid milk has been laboratory pasteurized. Try 10 to 15 ml in 400 g of creamed
cottage cheese.

Unclean
Description. The terms "dirty" and "dirty sock" have been used to describe this
flavor. The flavor of limburger cheese has been used to simulate it. An "unclean"
flavor is readily noted when the sample enters the mouth. The flavor and odor are
offensive suggesting extreme staleness, mustiness, putrid, or spoiled. The flavor fails
to clean up after the cottage cheese is expectorated.
Cause. This flavor develops in cottage cheese when psychrotrophic bacteria are
allowed to grow to high numbers in milk and particularly when held at temperatures
above 7.2C. The presence of the psychrotrophs is usually due to poor on-farm
sanitation and the high numbers are generally due to poor bulk tank cooling.5
Preparation of Training Samples. To obtain product with this defect, screen several old cottage cheese samples for unclean flavor. If none are unclean, subject them
to 4 to 12 h at room temperature, then rescreen the samples looking for this defect.

Yeasty (Vinegarlike)
Description. The "yeasty" and "earthy" flavor and aroma reminiscent of rising
bread dough is a good demonstration of the "yeasty" flavor. It is often associated
with an acetic acid or "vinegar" flavor.
Cause. Growth of yeast is usually responsible for this flavor but it may be due to
bacterial fermentation. Certain kinds of psychrotrophic bacteria can be responsible
for this objectionable off-flavor. It is due to poor sanitation and lack of temperature
control.67-68
Preparation of Samples for Training. High-quality half and half could be purposely inoculated with yeast and sugar and allowed to ferment for a few hours at
room temperature until the flavor begins to develop. It could be lightly salted and
used to cream cottage cheese to give it this defect. This flavor and aroma can be
learned by smelling and tasting yeast leavened bread dough as it is rising.

3.4.2.3 Body and Texture Defects


Description and probable causes for body and texture defects are listed here. Preparation of samples to simulate the defects is extremely difficult. It is recommended

that a number of commercial samples be surveyed. There will likely be product


readily available that exemplifies the body and texture defects.

Rrm/Rubbery
Description. Curd that is too firm will be overly resistant to deformation between
the roof of the mouth and the tongue. Resistance to mastication will also be noticed.
Cause. Firm curd may be due to use of too much rennet, curd cooking temperatures
that are too high, cooking the curd for too long, or pH too high at the time of setting
or cutting too soon.

Gelatinous
Description. Sticky or ' 'jellylike'' translucent curd is indicative of this defect. The
curd may resemble tapioca pudding. A bitter flavor may also be present.
Cause. This defect is usually due to growth of psychrotrophic bacteria in the cottage cheese. The product is often unpalatable and unsalable. An attempt to make a
cottage cheese product with rennet without sufficient acid will result in gelatinous,
translucent curd.5

Mealy/Grainy
Description. This very common defect can be detected by masticating the curd and
then pressing the curd against the roof of the mouth with the tongue and noticing
the presence of gritty or cornmeallike sensation. Another way to detect this defect
is to knead washed curd and smear it between the fingers. The kneaded curd should
be silky smooth. A rough gritty mass is indicative of this defect.5
Cause. This defect is caused by overdeveloping the acid during curd formation or
too low a moisture level in the curd. It can also be caused by nonuniform cutting of
the curd, uneven heating during cooking, cooking too fast, inadequate agitation during cooking, or allowing portions of the curd to come in contact with hot surfaces
during cooking.5

Overstabilized (Slick)
Description.
coating.

Individual curd particles will be surrounded by a thick, pasty, slick

Cause. The use of too much stabilizer in the cottage cheese dressing is the cause
of this defect. Processors will often thicken the dressing excessively in an attempt
to minimize free cream or free whey. Reduction in the amount of stabilizer in the
cream will usually overcome this defect.

Pasty
Description. Other descriptors for this defect are sticky and doughy. This is closely
associated with and considered to be the advanced stages of soft and weak curd
(discussed next). The curd particles tend to stick together in clumps.5
Cause.

See the causes of weak/soft curd(next).

Weak/Soft (Mushy)
Description. Weak and soft curd is high in moisture. The curd offers too little
resistance to deformation when pressed between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth. Rather than the desired meaty texture, the curd has almost no body and
reduces to a liquid on minimal mastication.
Cause. Conditions that encourage excessive water to be retained in the curd thereby
giving a weak curd are excessively high pasteurization temperatures of the skim milk
which denatures the whey protein and predisposes them to bind more water, cutting
the curd too late after the curd is excessively firm and the pH is too low thereby
hindering expulsion of water during cooking, curd cooking temperatures too low,
and overdressing the curd.5

3.4.2.4 Appearance and Color Defects


Free Cream
Description. When creamed cottage cheese is placed on a plate in a mound, as
with an ice cream scoop, the cream should cling to the curd with minimal cream
running free at the base of the mound of curd. Excessive cream flowing out on the
plate is evidence of this defect.
Cause. Conditions that can cause the free cream defect are excessively firm curd
that does not absorb cream, insufficient washing of the curd after cooking, cutting
the curd while the pH is too high thereby producing firm nonadsorbing curd, and
too rapid a temperature rise during cooking causing the surface of the curd to resist
the adsorption of cream.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Add half and half or whole milk to creamed
cottage cheese until the amount and viscosity of the cream is sufficient to give a
zone of free cream around a dollop of cottage cheese.

Free Whey
Description. No clear solution should be evident at the edges of the cream at the
base of a dollop of cottage cheese. Presence of a clear solution is evidence of this
defect and that destabilization of the cream has occurred.
Cause. Free whey can be caused by the following conditions: undercooked curd
that is retaining excessive amounts of whey, insufficient washing of the curd such

that excessive whey is still present in the curd, and cutting the curd at too high a
pH, making it unable to adsorb liquid.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Add sufficient whey from wheyed off buttermilk, yogurt, or even tap water to cottage cheese so that clear fluid appears at the
edge of the cream when a dollop of the product is placed on a plate.

Lacks Cream
Description. When insufficient cottage cheese cream is added to the curd, it will
appear dry and no cream at all will run to the bottom of a mound or scoop of cottage
cheese.
Cause. This problem is generally caused simply by under-creaming. It is often
done purposely for food service customers to avoid any free cream and to facilitate
a mound of cottage cheese that does not flow or flatten.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect may be staged by obtaining
some uncreamed curd and blending it with ideal product to give the appropriate
appearance. Dry curd may be obtained by rinsing cottage cheese curd free of cream
with warm water and then draining off the water.

Matted
Description. Ideally the curd particles in cottage cheese should be individual. Curd
exhibiting the matted defect will have curds tightly stuck together into large clumps.
Cause. Conditions that will cause matted curd are cutting of the curd at too high
a pH so that the curd will be sticky during the initial stages of cooking, insufficient
agitation during the first stages of cooking so that curd particles are allowed to matt,
or cooking the curd too rapidly so that high moisture curd will become sticky and
tend to clump.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect is so common that finding some
matted curd will be quite easy. Matted curd can be ' 'planted'' on a dollop of creamed
cottage cheese to demonstrate this defect.

Shattered Curd
Description. Ideal cottage cheese will have curd particles of uniform size with no
fine particles or "dust." These curd particles can be observed on the creamed surface
of the curd. Usually this defect is not called unless at least four or more curd dust
particles are present on each curd particle. They can also be seen on the back of a
spoon used to sample cottage cheese.5
Cause. Shattering of curd to cause these fine particles can be caused by the following conditions: excessive heat treatment of skim milk causing the curd to be
fragile, cutting at too low a pH when the curd mass has set to some extent making
it difficult to cut without shattering, low-solids milk producing fragile curd, overly

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severe agitation, excessive amounts of coagulator use, and rough handling of curd
during draining, creaming, pumping, and packaging.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect is also common. Examples of
this problem will probably be easy to find in commercial cottage cheese. The more
difficult task will be to find a sample that is free of this defect. Such a sample could
be made by washing curd free of cream on a sieve that allows the passage of curd
dust, then recreaming with half and half.

3.4.3 Butter

3.4.3.1 Introduction
Butter is made by agitating chilled cream to first form granules and then a butter
mass. The butter mass is drained of serum (buttermilk) and it may be washed. The
mass is worked to reduce the size of the water droplets, and to disperse and dissolve
salt. Butter may be made in a churn but most is made in continuous butter makers
that take in a steady stream of cream, perform all the operations, and produce a
steady stream of butter and buttermilk.
As defined in the Code of Federal Regulation, butter contains no less than 80%
milk fat and is made from pasteurized cream.20 The majority of the butter marketed
in the United States is sweet cream butter made from cream with a titratable acidity
of 0.20% or less. If acid has developed in the cream to higher acidities, then the
product is sour cream butter. Cultured butter is made by adding lactic cultures that
produce aromatic butter flavored compounds to the cream just before churning. Salt
is generally added to butter. Lightly salted butter contains about 1.5% salt.5 A number of spreads emulate butter. Margarine, butter-margarine blends, and reduced fat
spreads are currently available. Their sensory properties vary widely and, although
their defects are not treated here, they should be free of off-flavors and perform as
intended. Butter is the standard for these other spreads and the list of possible defects
that apply to butter can occur in them.
Butter is sampled with a curved bladed double-edged tool known as a trier that
is inserted into the block of butter, rotated 180, and removed. It extracts a cylinder
of butter for examination. The butter on the trier is passed slowly under the nose
while inhaling. The aroma is noted. The color uniformity is next evaluated. The
judge then examines the body and texture by pressing the ball of the thumb against
the sides of the butter cylinder until it breaks. The smoothness of the break is noted
as is the presence or absence of beads of water and the clarity of any water. The
judge then breaks off a piece of butter from the end of the plug, usually with a
spatula, and places it into the mouth. The sample is chewed while it melts in the
mouth. As it is melting, the presence of grit or undissolved salt is noted between the
teeth by biting down. It may be observed between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth. The melted sample is moved around in the mouth while noting flavors and
aromas. The sample is then expectorated. The judge then notices if any aftertaste or
off flavor persists. The trier is then cleaned with a soft cloth or paper towel.5

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severe agitation, excessive amounts of coagulator use, and rough handling of curd
during draining, creaming, pumping, and packaging.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect is also common. Examples of
this problem will probably be easy to find in commercial cottage cheese. The more
difficult task will be to find a sample that is free of this defect. Such a sample could
be made by washing curd free of cream on a sieve that allows the passage of curd
dust, then recreaming with half and half.

3.4.3 Butter

3.4.3.1 Introduction
Butter is made by agitating chilled cream to first form granules and then a butter
mass. The butter mass is drained of serum (buttermilk) and it may be washed. The
mass is worked to reduce the size of the water droplets, and to disperse and dissolve
salt. Butter may be made in a churn but most is made in continuous butter makers
that take in a steady stream of cream, perform all the operations, and produce a
steady stream of butter and buttermilk.
As defined in the Code of Federal Regulation, butter contains no less than 80%
milk fat and is made from pasteurized cream.20 The majority of the butter marketed
in the United States is sweet cream butter made from cream with a titratable acidity
of 0.20% or less. If acid has developed in the cream to higher acidities, then the
product is sour cream butter. Cultured butter is made by adding lactic cultures that
produce aromatic butter flavored compounds to the cream just before churning. Salt
is generally added to butter. Lightly salted butter contains about 1.5% salt.5 A number of spreads emulate butter. Margarine, butter-margarine blends, and reduced fat
spreads are currently available. Their sensory properties vary widely and, although
their defects are not treated here, they should be free of off-flavors and perform as
intended. Butter is the standard for these other spreads and the list of possible defects
that apply to butter can occur in them.
Butter is sampled with a curved bladed double-edged tool known as a trier that
is inserted into the block of butter, rotated 180, and removed. It extracts a cylinder
of butter for examination. The butter on the trier is passed slowly under the nose
while inhaling. The aroma is noted. The color uniformity is next evaluated. The
judge then examines the body and texture by pressing the ball of the thumb against
the sides of the butter cylinder until it breaks. The smoothness of the break is noted
as is the presence or absence of beads of water and the clarity of any water. The
judge then breaks off a piece of butter from the end of the plug, usually with a
spatula, and places it into the mouth. The sample is chewed while it melts in the
mouth. As it is melting, the presence of grit or undissolved salt is noted between the
teeth by biting down. It may be observed between the tongue and the roof of the
mouth. The melted sample is moved around in the mouth while noting flavors and
aromas. The sample is then expectorated. The judge then notices if any aftertaste or
off flavor persists. The trier is then cleaned with a soft cloth or paper towel.5

Table 3.6

U.S. GRADE CLASSIFICATION OF


BUTTER ACCORDING TO FLAVOR
CHARACTERISTICS5
Grade Classification
by Flavor6

Identified Flavors
by Grading3
Feed
Cooked
Acid
Aged
Bitter
Coarse
Flat
Smothered
Storage
Malty
Musty
Neutralizer
Scorched
Utensil
Weed
Whey
Old cream

AA

Sc
D

S
S
S
S
S
S
S

D
D
D

D
D
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
D

Source: Code of Federal Regulations (1987).


3
When more than one flavor is discernible the lowest classification
b
establishes the grade.
U.S. Butter Grade as determined by offic
cial USDA grading standards.
Defect intensity: S = slight;
D = definite; P = pronounced.

The USDA grades much of the butter produced in the United States. Before 1977,
butter scoring was on a 100-point scale. Now only the letter designation is used. The
point system is still occasionally referenced. Grade AA butter scored 93 or more
points, A grade required 92 points, and B grade required a minimum of 90 points.
Table 3.6 shows flavor grades that are assigned based on flavors present and their
intensity. The only flavor defects allowed in Grade AA butter are slight feed and
cooked. Any other flavors result in downgrading. Table 3.7 shows how many derating points are assigned for body, color, and salt defects. Derating up to 1A total
points does not reduce the grade below the assigned flavor grade. Each 1A derated
point beyond that reduces the butter one additional grade.20
The American Dairy Science Association uses a 25-point system with 10 points
for flavor, 5 for body and texture, 5 for color and appearance, 3 for salt, and 2 for
the package. In collegiate contests only the flavor is judged. The ADSA Flavor
scoring guide is shown in Table 3.8 and a body and texture guide is shown in Table
3.9. A sensory scorecard using a 25-point system is shown in Figure 3.17 and the
Collegiate Contest Butter Score Card is shown in Figure 3.18.

Table 3.7

CHARACTERISTICS AND DISRATINGS


FOR BODY, COLOR, AND SALT FOR
U.S. BUTTER GRADES5
Disratingsb

Butter
Characteristics

Body
Crumbly
Gummy
Leaky
Mealy or grainy
Short
Weak
Sticky
Ragged boring

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2

Color
Wavy
Mottled
Streaked
Color specks

0.5
1
1
1

1
2
2
2

Salt
Sharp
Gritty

0.5
1

1
2

a
b

U.S. Butter Grade as determined by official USDA grading standards.


Defense intensity: S = slight; D = definite; P = pronounced.

3.4.3.2 Flavor Defects


Acid
Description. Acid and sour are synonymous and refer to a sharp taste on the tip of
the tongue as well as an associated "sour" aroma. The sour taste is quickly detected
as the sample is placed in the mouth. The acid flavor cleans up quickly after the
sample is expectorated, leaving no aftertaste.
Cause. Acid tasting butter usually is a result of churning overripe or acid cream.
It may be caused by leaving too much ripened buttermilk in the butter after churning.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Acid butter or butter with any of the defects
may be obtained by surveying product on the market or by asking processors to be
on the watch for exemplary product. It can be made by culturing cream with Streptococcus lactis ssp. lactis organisms until it is overly ripe and then churning the
cream. Acid butter can be kneaded together with good butter to obtain product with
the desired level of acid.

Table 3.8

THE ADSA SCORING GUIDE FOR SENSORY


DEFECT OF BUTTER (SUGGESTED FLAVOR
SCORES FOR DESIGNATED DEFECT INTENSITIES)5
Intensity of Defect

flavor Criticisms3

Slight

Definite

Pronounced

Acid (sour)
Bitter
Cheesy
Coarse
Feed
Flat
Garlic/onion
Metallic
Musty
Neutralizer
Old cream
Oxidized
Rancid
Scorched
Storage
Unclean (utensil)
Whey
Yeasty

6
6
3
8
9
9
3
4
5
5
6
4
4
7
6
5
6
4

5
5
2
7
8
8
2
3
4
4
5
3
2
5
5
4
5
3

4
4
1
6
6
7
1
1
2
3
4
2
1
3
4
3
3
2

Source: American Dairy Association, 1990


a
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 10. Normal range is 1-10 for salable product.

Bitter
Description. Bitterness is recognized by the sense of taste alone. Once the butter
sample has melted in the mouth, it can be best detected when the sample is moved
to the back center of the tongue where the taste buds are most sensitive to bitter.
Cause. Bitterness in butter may be caused by action of certain microorganisms or
enzymes, consumption of certain feeds or weeds by the cow, impurities in the salt
added to the butter, and inappropriate use of some neutralizes.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Quinine sulfate has strong, clean, bitter
flavor in very dilute concentrations. Addition of 1 to 2 ml or 1% quinine sulfate
solution to a pint of cream before churning will result in bitter butter. Alternatively,
quinine sulfate solution can be kneaded into butter. The level of bitterness can be
adjusted by kneading bitter and good butter together in appropriate ratios.

Cheesy
Description. Cheesy butter resembles cheddar cheese in flavor and aroma. The
flavor is noticed immediately after the sample is placed in the mouth. It also lingers
after the sample is expectorated. Clean up of the flavor is slow.

Table 3.9 A SUGGESTED SCORING GUIDE FOR BODY AND TEXTURE


AND COLOR AND APPEARANCE IN BUTTER
Intensity
Slight5

Moderate

Definite

Strong

Body and texture defect*


Crumbly
Gummy
Leaky
Mealy or grainy
Ragged boring
Short
Sticky
Weak

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Color and appearance defect3


Color specks
Foreign material
Mold
Mottled
Streaky
Surface faded/high
Unnatural
Wavy

3
0
0
3
3
4
0
4

2
0
0
2
2
3
0
3

1
0
0
1
1
2
0
2

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1

Pronouncedc

oe
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Reproduced with permission from ref. 5.


a
b
"No criticism" is assigned a numerical score o f ' 5 . " Normal range is 1 to 5 for a salable product.
Highest
c
assignable score for a defect of slight intensity.
Highest assignable score for a defect of pronounced intensity.
d
However, a sample may be assigned a score of " 0 " (zero) (unsalable product).
a dash () indicates that the
c
defect is unlikely to be present at this intensity level.
When a product is determined to be unsalable for a given
sensory defect, a " 0 " (zero) numerical score is assigned to the sample for the quality attribute(s) in question.

Cause. This flavor results when soured cream is held refrigerated and proteolytic
organisms are allowed to grow. When this cream is churned, cheesy butter results.
Tendency to develop this flavor is related to the curd content of the butter. Washing
the butter well as it is being churned is a precaution against cheesy flavor.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Cheesy flavored butter can be made by
adding cheddar cheese flavor to cream prior to churning or by kneading cheese flavor
solution into softened butter. It should be tried with a variety of cheese flavors to
ensure that one will have the desired flavor.

Coarse
Description. Coarse butter is one that lacks the pleasing, delicate flavor that is
typical of good quality fresh butter. It is really employed when the butter lacks the
typical flavor but no other criticism is appropriate. It can be considered the early
stages of the "old cream" or "storage" defects but no particular defect has developed, only a flavor that is off ideal.

Cause. Coarse butter generally results when cream that is a little old and perhaps
slightly acidic is churned. The defects are not strong enough to be criticized as old
cream, acid, or storage.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Blending a little slightly aged cream with
high quality cream and then churning may result in product that will be criticized
as coarse. This defect is quite prevalent among the products on the market. It should
not be hard to find product that has this defect.
Feed
Description. Feed flavors can usually be detected using the sense of smell, then
verified by tasting. They are flavors reminiscent of the feeds eaten by the cow.
Cause. Feed flavor in product is a result of consumption of feeds within 3 h of
milking. Some feeds are particularly potent. Fresh clover and alfalfa are potent in
this respect. The spring of the year when the cow goes on pasture is a vulnerable
time.
Preparation of Samples for Training. An alfalfa flavor can be simulated by adding
and holding 2 to 3 g of alfalfa hay to 100 ml of fresh pasteurized and homogenized
milk for 20 min. The milk is then strained through a cheesecloth or a paper towel
and used as a stock solution. To 575 ml of fresh pasteurized cream add 20 to 35 ml
of this stock milk solution. Grass or corn silage can be used to prepare feed flavored
milks in the same manner. The cream is then churned into butter which will have a
feed flavor corresponding to the material used.5
Flat
Description. When the full characteristic buttery flavor is lacking the flavor is
considered to be flat. It is noticed very soon after the sample has been placed in the
mouth and as the sample melts and is moved around in the mouth. It is not to be
confused with a low or unsalted flavor. It is possible for the salt to be absent but the
diacetyl and volatile acid flavor notes to be sufficiently present. Lack of salt does
suppress the butter flavor though.
Cause. Lack of diacetyl and volatile acids are the cause of flat butter. Excessive
washing of butter granules can result in flat tasting butter. Consumption of certain
feeds has been blamed for milk fat with a low level of volatile flavors. A slight
cooked flavor to the cream or culturing the cream are effective ways to give butter
some flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Flat butter can be prepared by kneading
good quality butter in cool clean water to remove some of the water-soluble flavor
components.

Garlic/Onion
Description. The distinctive odors and flavors characteristic of garlic or onion are
the trademarks of this defect. Both are quite odorous and similar in butter that has

BUTTER SCORE CARD


Date:

Product:

SAMPLE NO.
1
Flavor 10
No criticism
10

Unsalable
0
Normal
range
1-10

Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5

Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5
Salt 3
No criticism
3
Unsalable
0

Score
Crumbly
Greasy
Gummy
Leaky
Mealy/grainy
Ragged boring
Salvy
Sticky
Weak

Color and
appearance 5
No criticism
5

Score

Criticism
Acid/sour
Bitter
Cheesy
Coarse
Cooked
Feed
Fishy
Flat
Foreign
Garlic/onion
High salt
Malty
Metallic
Musty
Neutralizer
Old cream
Oxidized
Rancid
Storage (aged)
Tallowy
Unclean (utensil)
Weedy
Whey
Yeasty

Body and
texture
5
No criticism
5

Score
Color specks
Foreign material
Mold discoloration
Mottled
Streaky
Surface faded/high color
Unnatural
Wavy

Score
Excessive (too high)
Gritty
Uneven distribution

Figure 3.17 Suggested score card for the sensory evaluation of butter. Used with permission.5

BUTTER SCORE CARD (cont.)


Product:

Date:
SAMPLENO.

Package and
finish
2
No criticism
2
Unsalable
O

Total 25
Laboratory
parameters3

Score
Exposed product
Package and liner
Careless
Damaged
Dirty/Unsanitary
Not protective
Printing defective
Unattractive
Rough Finish
Total score of
Score
each sample
Fat content (%)
Weight (Ib)
Proteolytic count (per g)
Yeast and mold count (per g)
Coliform count (per g)
Free fatty acid
7-day (21C) keeping quality

Signature of evaluators:
a

The laboratory parameters are not scored; they provide information that helps determine
the legal status and company specifications of the product.

Figure 3.17 (Continued)

been warmed to body temperature in the mouth. The aftertaste is persistent and cleanup difficult.
Cause. Consumption of onion or garlic by the cow will result in milk with this
defect. Butter made from the resulting cream will likewise have the defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Garlic and onion flavored butter is easy to
prepare by kneading a little onion or/and garlic powder or salt into butter.

High Salt/Briny
Description. The acceptable range of saltiness in butter is broad. Calling this defect
is appropriate when the salt level is "beyond the range of acceptability." Government graders have a category for salt and call the defect "sharp salt." If salt is the
only flavor noticed on tasting a butter sample, then the defect may be called.5
Cause. The problem may be too much salt or poor distribution of the salt. The
normal range is extremely broad.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of salt above 3 to 4% may be
sufficient to produce this defect. The salt should be kneaded into a slightly wanned
butter mass until all the salt crystals dissolve.

PRCONTESTANT NO DATF

MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
UIHOJWNCILWtV ~
M
I PROPER
PROPER
MARK
MARKS

BUTTER

ERASE CHANGES CLEANLY AND


COMPLETELY
DO NOT MAKE ANY STRAY MARKS
CRITICISMS
FLAVOR

NCS Trans-Opcit* MP30-73S32-321 A2400


SAMPLE NUMBER

NO mrmm
CRT
IC
IS
I M COARSE
10
FLAT

NORMAL
RANGE
1-10

HIGH SALT
MUSTY
OLDCRSAM
RANCIO
STORAGE
WHEY

BODY AND
TEXTURE
NO
CRT
IC
IS
IM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRT
IC
IS
IM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
Figure 3.18 Collegiate contest butter score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission
of the ADSA, Champaign, DL.)

Metallic
Description. This flavor defect, as the name suggests, gives a slight puckery or
astringent feeling to the mouth interior similar to putting a nail in the mouth and
allowing the saliva to flow and contact it. The flavor is detected right after the butter
is placed in the mouth. Strength of the flavor becomes more intense as the sample
warms in the mouth. A bitter aftertaste may develop after the sample is expectorated.
Cause. This defect is caused by allowing cream to be in direct contact with copper
or corrodible metal. Contact need not be for an extended time. One corrodible metal
fitting in a system through which the cream is pumped may be sufficient to give the
cream and the resulting butter the flavor. Rusty cream cans or cans from which the
tin has been abraded can cause the defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Metallic butter can be made by developing
metallic cream and churning it to butter. Clean pennies may be soaked in cream until
the flavor intensity reaches the desired level, or 1 ml of a 1% stock solution of
CuSO4 can be added to 600 ml of cream. The cream is held refrigerated for 1 to 2
days for the flavor to develop. The cream is then churned into butter.5

Musty
Description. The musty off-flavor of butter resembles the odor of potatoes, a
swamp, or a poorly ventilated cellar. Hay that is put up a little damp will develop
this smell. It becomes evident after the sample has warmed in the mouth a while
and after the sample has been expectorated. The flavor lingers and is difficult to
clean out of the mouth.
Cause. Morgan attributed musty butter to the growth of Pseudomonas taetrolens
and the production of 2-methoxy-3-alkylpyrazine by it. Other causes are storing
cream in a poorly ventilated musty environment; consumption of musty feed, slough
grass, or stagnant water by the cow; or use of poorly cleaned equipment.60
Preparation of Samples for Training. It is not recommended that any of the above
media be added to cream or butter to produce this flavor. Screening a large number
of samples to find a musty sample is one possibility. The musty smell can be taught
by smelling musty feed or an enclosed musty cellar.

Neutralizer
Description. Different neutralizes have slightly different flavors. It is an alkaline,
baking soda, or soda cracker flavor. Bitterness is often part of the profile. It is best
detected after the sample has melted in the mouth or after the sample has been
expectorated and air is inhaled through the mouth. The aftertaste does not easily
clean up.
Cause. Neutralization of the acid in cream before churning used to be a common
practice and is still practiced to some extent. This defect is the result of adding

excessive quantities or highly concentrated solutions of neutralizes to cream made


necessary by high levels of acid. The resulting butter will have this defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Neutralizer flavored butter can be made by
acidifying cream to about pH 6.0, directly with lactic acid or by culture growth, then
neutralizing the cream to pH 6.8 with a sodium bicarbonate solution or another
neutralizer. Butter made from that cream will have the neutralizer flavor.

Old Cream
Description. ' 4OId cream" is a characteristic flavor of cream that has aged and lost
its fresh, sweet, clean flavor. Butter with this flavor has a characteristic staleness that
is reminiscent of the background smell in a creamery that does not practice the best
sanitation. The flavor of such a sample becomes evident after the sample begins to
melt in the mouth. It is noticeable after the sample is expectorated and the flavor
lingers in the mouth.
Cause. The descriptor "old cream" is indicative of the cause. The effect of age
may have been accelerated by poorly cleaned equipment or high storage temperatures.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Usually samples of butter can be found that
have this defect. Samples can be made by allowing cream to age and making butter
from the aging cream. The aging can be accelerated by storage at temperatures above
4C.

Oxidized
Description. This defect could be used to describe a whole family of flavor defects
that result from the oxidation of lipids in butter or cream. Other related descriptive
terms used are: oily, tallowy, painty, fishy, and storage. Generally fishy, tallowy,
metallic, and storage are used separately to describe different versions of these flavors. Oily butter is not seen much so the "oxidized" term here is used to describe
a cardboardlike flavor that develops as a result of metal-induced oxidation. It is also
used to describe a surface taint that develops on exposed surfaces. Because most
tasting is done on samples drawn from deep in the block, the latter is not often seen.
Cause. This defect develops on the oxidation of butter fat by free radical degradation that results in the production of short-chain aldehydes, ketones, and acids as
the fatty acids break down.
Preparation of Samples for Training. These samples are difficult to stage. A large
number of samples obtained from various sources could be stored in the refrigerator
and evaluated periodically. Some of them should develop exemplary oxidized flavor.

Rancid
Description. Flavor notes that are part of the rancid flavor are soapy, bitter, and
butyric acid. It is sensed at the back of the tongue and takes 10 to 20 s to reach full

impact. After the sample is expectorated, the aftertaste remains strong for several
minutes and requires rinsing and time to clean up.
Cause. Rancidity is the result of the enzymatic action of lipase on fat. Ester linkages
connecting fatty acids and glycerol are broken, forming fatty free acids and their
salts. These free fatty acids are very flavorful and are responsible for the soapy flavor.
Raw milk contains active lipase. Psychrotrophic growth also can produce lipase. The
fat surface is available for lipolytic action especially if the globules are disrupted as
happens in homogenization or in a centrifugal pump.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Adding fatty acids with carbon lengths of
4 to 10 in minute amounts to butter and kneading them into the butter mass will
produce this effect. Addition of lipase to butter in very small amounts and allowing
time for lipolysis will produce rancid butter. Butter made from raw cream will develop a rancid flavor. After the flavor develops, it should be pasteurized and allowed
to resolidify before it is tasted.

Scorched
Description. Scorched cream has a caramelized or burnt flavor. A caramelized or
toffee flavor is characteristic of this defect. It is an extreme version of the cooked
defect.
Cause. Scorched flavor is caused by pasteurization of cream at extremely high
temperatures or for too long a time in the presence of developed acidity. The problem
is aggravated by burn-on that may occur during the heating.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Scorched butter can be made by developing
some ripened cream with a pH of 6.0 to 6.4 and bringing it to a boil on the stove.
The cream is chilled for 12 h and churned into butter.

Storage
Description. Butter with this characteristic lacks the desirable sensory characteristics that are present in and associated with fresh butter. No one particular flavor
defect is evident but very low levels of several defects are probably involved. This
quality is a difficult one to describe.
Cause. Even the best butter, as it ages, will lose the delicate notes that are associated
with fresh butter. Low levels of several degradative processes are simultaneously at
work slowly and over a long period of time. The best butter will develop this flavor
more slowly than lower quality butter. It will develop more quickly at higher storage
temperatures than at below 4C.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A careful screening of commercial butter
samples will probably produce samples with this defect. A number of good quality
butter samples could be placed in storage and evaluated periodically. Given enough
time, one or more of the samples is likely to develop this characteristic.

Tallowy
Description. This is one of the lipid oxidation related defects. As the name suggests,
this flavor resembles the taste and odor of oxidized tallow. Generally it is on the
surface of the butter and can be detected by smelling the surface of the butter. The
tallowy aroma is quite noticeable in the mouth and nose immediately after the sample
has been expectorated.
Cause. The extensive degree of oxidative degradation of the unsaturated fatty acids
in milk fat is responsible for the tallowy off-flavor. It is developed in butter that is
held at high storage temperatures in the presence of light. Contamination with traces
of copper or iron will catalyze the development of the defect. Because it is a surface
effect, it is most often found in retail butter that is sold in pound or quarter pound
units where the surface to volume ratio is high.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Add 1.0 ml of 1% CuSO4 to 600 ml of
cream, then churn it to butter. Place that butter under lights and evaluate periodically
for intensity of tallowy flavor. Remove when the desired intensity is achieved.

Unclean/Utensil
Description. Other descriptive terms used to describe this flavor are "dishrag"
and *'dirty sock." Its odor is most unpleasant and its strength intensifies as it warms
up in the mouth. The flavor remains in the mouth after the sample is expectorated.
Characteristics described in milk as ' 'barny'' and' 'cowy'' are placed in this category
if found in butter.
Cause. Psychrotrophic growth in cream may cause this defect in butter made from
that cream. Poor handling and sanitation practices are responsible for their entry into
the cream. Elevated storage temperatures facilitate their growth.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Kneading a little limburger cheese into
butter can give a character similar to this. The smell of sour dishcloths or dirty socks
is a good way to begin to teach the flavor. Purposeful introduction of psychrotrophs
from various sources into good quality cream followed by holding at 5 to 100C until
flavors develop will produce a variety of defects in cream. Churning of one of these
that has developed this characteristic will produce an exemplary sample of butter.

Whey
Description. Whey flavor is somewhat similar to the combined coarse and acid
defects of butter. There is a moderate odor and aftertaste that is typical of cheese
whey.
Cause. Butter made from cream separated from whey will have this defect. It will
be more prevalent if it is poorly washed after it is churned. The flavor will be carried
into blends of whey cream butter and fresh cream butter. The amount that can be
blended into high quality butter without being detected is limited. The condition of

the whey affects the strength and character of the flavor. Cream taken immediately
from fresh whey will not have as pronounced a flavor defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A sample of whey cream can be obtained
and churned in a mixer to give whey cream butter that will exhibit the defect. Alternatively, whey can be added to cream before it is churned. Samples will be
stronger if the butter is not washed.

Yeasty
Description. The yeasty flavor and aroma is like the smell of yeast leavened bread
dough as it rises. It has a fruity, vinegary, flavor and a fragrant aroma. The flavor is
evident when the sample is first taken into the mouth but as the sample warms the
flavor becomes more evident.5
Cause. Yeasty butter is caused by byproducts of yeast fermentation that have occurred in abused cream.
Preparation of Samples for Training. High quality cream could be purposely
inoculated with yeast and sugar and allowed to ferment for a few hours at room
temperature, chilled, and churned into butter.

3.4.3.3 Body and Texture Defects


Crumbly
Description. Crumbly butter does not hold together when pressure is exerted on
it. The fat particles lack cohesion. Some of the butter will adhere to the trier. It
appears dry rather than waxy. It is always difficult to cut into neat patties.
Cause. Large fat crystals and a deficiency of liquid fat are associated with crumbly
butter. If the cream is held for a long time at the churning temperatures, fat crystals
may grow large, tending to give crumbly butter. It is more prevalent in the winter
when cottonseed meal and alfalfa is fed and the melting range of the butterfat rises.5

Gummy
Description. Gummy butter tends to stick to the roof of the mouth. It gives a
gumlike impression and resists melting as it warms up in the mouth.
Cause. Gumminess in butter is considered to be due to an abnormally high percentage of high-melting-point triglycerides causing a firmer than normal butter mass.
It is more prevalent where cottonseed products are fed as a protein supplement. It is
also more prevalent in the winter months when the melting range of butterfat is
naturally higher.5

Leaky
Description. Leaky butter exhibits droplets of moisture on the back of the trier and
on the newly cut surface of the butter immediately after the sample is removed.

Cause. Leaky butter is a result of insufficient working of the butter mass after
churning and washing. The working is necessary to reduce the size of the water
droplets sufficiently to retain them in the butter through cutting, kneading, and printing. Properly worked butter will have a waxy texture.5

Mealy or Grainy
Description. Mealy or grainy butter is detected by compressing a sample of partially melted butter between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. If it has a grainy
feel like corn meal mush it has this defect.
Cause. Mealy or grainy butter is caused by improperly neutralizing cream before
churning or by allowing fat to "oil off" during the butter making process. Oiling
off can occur during thawing of frozen cream or during remelting of butter rework
into heated cream.

Ragged Boring
Description. Butter that exhibits this defect cannot be easily drawn from a block
of butter with a trier. It seems to roll from the trier rather than the trier cutting a
distinctly formed plug. It is undesirable because of the anticipated problems that will
be encountered in cutting.
Cause. Ragged boring is caused by slow cooling after pasteurization, holding temperatures high for a long period of time prior to churning. Any process condition
that interferes with the formation of close knit waxy textured butter will contribute
to this defect.5

Short
Description. Short bodied butter lacks the desirable characteristics of plasticity and
waxiness. When pressure is placed on the plug with the thumb, the butter will tend
to break.
Cause. Short butter is caused by high-melting-point fats, an extremely low curd
content in the butter, manufacturing practices that cause some of the milk fat to be
melted during the process, and rapid cooling of recently made butter to extremely
low temperatures.

Sticky
Description. Sticky butter adheres to the trier and appears to be quite dry. When
a plug is drawn, it appears to be "rough." A cold trier aggravates the problem. It
generally goes together with a crumbly defect.
Cause. This defect occurs when the fat has a higher than usual melting range. It
therefore occurs in the fall and winter. It is a feed-related defect appearing when
cows are fed alfalfa. Churn temperatures and churn working conditions affect the
occurrence of the sticky defect.

Weak
Description. Weak butter has a quicker than usual meltdown and a softness of
body. It is difficult to get a good plug of weak butter. When pressure is applied to
the butter in the plug, there is no distinct breaking point.
Cause. Weak butter can be caused by incomplete fat crystallization. It may either
be a result of churning before cream has had a chance to completely crystallize or
a higher than usual level of low-melting-point triglycerides.

3.4.3.4 Color and Appearance Defects


Color Specks
Description. The color specks defect is the appearance of black, green, red, white,
or yellow specks in the body of the butter.
Cause. Specks in butter can be pure solidified butter oil, curd particles, copper
salts (green), iron salts (black), and undissolved butter coloring (yellow).5
Foreign Material
Description. The presence of any material that is not normally found in butter,
seen or unseen, has the foreign material defect. These materials may be discrete
particles or added chemicals.
Cause. Carelessness in allowing objects or chemicals to enter butter is the general
cause. Many routes are possible, for example, dirt or sanitizers from the churn or
ammonia from a compressor leak.
Mold
Description. As the descriptive term states, the mold defect refers to visible mold
on the butter. Because mold is aerobic, it can only grow on food surfaces and when
exposed to oxygen.
Cause. Mold spores are everywhere but growth on a food surface can be prevented
by packaging in such a way that air is excluded, using mold inhibitor on the surface,
or by killing the mold under the package barrier next to the food.5
Mottled, Streaky, or Wavy
Description. Mottled butter has areas of lighter or deeper shades of yellow on the
surface of the butter. Streaks on butter are recognizable as an area of light color
surrounded by more highly colored butter. Wavy butter has an unevenness of color
that appears as waves of different shades of yellow.5
Cause. Mottling, streaking, and waviness in butter are all caused by insufficient
working of the butter that may be aggravated by poor mechanical condition of the
churn and incomplete incorporation of reworked butter into the butter mass.

Surface Color Faded/High


Description. The acceptable color window is quite broad but this defect can be
called if the butter is colored excessively and is a brighter yellow than would ever
occur when cows consume grass as the only roughage or if the color is unusually
lacking.
Cause. Faded color could be caused by bleaching due to storage under lights. High
color could result from excessive color addition.

Unnatural Color
Description. Unnatural color is reserved for cases where the color of the butter is
not in the characteristic yellow window naturally expected for butter. Shades such
as a yellow-green or red would be criticized as unnatural.
Cause.

Use of colors other than yellow to color butter causes this defect.

3.4.4 Ice Cream and Related Products


3.4.4.1 Introduction
Ice cream is defined in the Code of Federal Regulation, Title 21. 6 9 It is a food
produced by freezing, while stirring, a pasteurized mix that consists of one or more
of a list of specified milk-derived ingredients plus sweeteners, stabilizers, emulsifiers,
flavorings, and color agents. Because it can contain such a variety of ingredients
from a broad range of sources, it is susceptible to flavor and texture defects that they
can bring to the product. The different sweeteners have a range of sweetening power
along with other flavors. They also depress the freezing point based on their molality
in the mix. Small molecular weight sugars (monosaccharides) depress the freezing
point much more per percent of sweetener than do the large molecular weight (disaccharides) or low dextrose equivalent (DE) corn syrups (polysaccharides). Stabilizers bind water, give meltdown resistance and bite, and hinder the growth of ice
crystals to ensure smoothness. Emulsifiers reduce the size of air cells and accelerate
the churning of the fat globules so that the product is whipped to maximum dryness
and rigidity as it exits from the freezer and enters the package. These agglomerated
fat globules are thought to be responsible for the sensation of richness. Emulsifier
can also bring undesirable flavors to the ice cream, especially if it has oxidized to
some extent before use. The quality and amount of flavoring are extremely important
to the quality of the product.5
The ice cream should be tempered or equilibrated to 18 to 15C to facilitate
dipping and moderate the numbing coldness of the product while retaining its product
characteristics. An ice cream dipper, scoop, or spade should be available to collect
the sample from the container. If meltdown is to be observed, a small sample should
be placed in a clean petri dish 5 min or so before the product is to be evaluated.
Because ice cream changes state so fast, the judge must be ready to evaluate the
product rather quickly. A systematic sequence of observations is suggested.5 First

the container is examined. Container type, condition, and defects are observed. The
color of the ice cream is then noted. The intensity and hue should be natural and
typical of the flavor. A sample of the ice cream is then collected with a dipper. The
way the product cuts and feels as the dipper moves through the product is noted.
The heaviness or fluffiness is noted. The scoop of product is placed on a small plate.
Very little aroma is released from the cold product so smelling the product contributes little. A small sample is placed in the mouth with a spoon. Metal or plastic
spoons are preferred because of their neutral taste. A large sample will remove too
much heat from the mouth and delay the recovery from the temporary cold-induced
numbness. Examinations of the body, texture, and flavor take place simultaneously
and rapidly. The judge bites down on the sample and notes the presence and size of
ice crystals. A bit of ice cream is pressed against the roof of the mouth, melting the
sample quickly while the judge notes the smoothness, coarseness, coldness, and the
presence and absence of sandiness. As the mouth warms, flavors will begin to
brighten as the numbness leaves. First the fundamental tastes of sweet, salt, and sour
will appear, followed by aromas. The sample is then expectorated and the rapidity
with which the flavor "cleans up" is observed. The urge to swallow product should
be resisted. Perception is soon lost when one starts to consume product. The melting
quality should now be noted by observing the melting sample in the petri dish. The
judge should notice if the form and original size of the scoop of ice cream has been
maintained, and whether melted liquified product appears creamy, curdled, foamy,
or watery.5
In competition, vanilla ice cream is judged. Being the mildest flavor, defects can
be most easily detected in it. Most of the defects not specific to vanilla will be present
but perhaps less detectable in ice cream of other flavors made with the same mix.
A complete scorecard based on a 20-point scale with 10 points for flavor; 5 for
body and texture; 5 for color, appearance, and package; 3 for melting quality; and
2 for bacterial count, is shown in Figure 3.19. A flavor and body scoring guide is
given in Table 3.10, and an appearance scoring guide is given in Table 3.11. The
Collegiate Contest Ice Cream Score Card is shown in Figure 3.20. Only flavor, body,
and texture are judged in the Collegiate Contest.

3.4.4.2 Flavor Defects


Acid
Description. An acid or sour flavor is characterized by a sharp tingling sensation
on the tip or top of the tongue accompanied by a clean refreshing mouth feel. The
acid flavor cleans up quickly after the sample has been expectorated. There may be
other flavors accompanying the acid that are not so clean.5
Cause. Acid flavor is a result of microbial growth that has converted lactose to
lactic acid. It may have developed in one of the ingredients used to make the mix
or in the mix after formulation.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Acid ice cream can be simulated by adding
a cup of cultured skim milk or yogurt to a quart of commercial vanilla flavored ice

Product:
Flavor:

ICE CREAM SCORE CARD


Date:
SAMPLE NO.

Criticism
Flavor
10
Score
Flavoring system
No criticism
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks flavoring
= 10
Too high flavor
Unnatural flavor
Sweetners
Lacks sweetness
Unsalable
Too sweet
= 0
Syrup flavor
Processing
Cooked
Normal range
Dairy ingredients
= 1-10
Acid
Salty
Lacks freshness
Old ingredient
Oxidized
Metallic
Rancid
Whey
Others
Storage (absorbed)
Stabilizer/emulsifiei
Neutralizer
Foreign

10

5 Score
Body and texture
Coarse/icy
No
Crumbly
criticism
Fluffy
= 10
Gummy
Unsalable
Sandy
= 0
Soggy
Normal range
Weak
= 1-5

Figure 3.19 A modified version of the ADSA ice cream score card. (Reproduced from ref.
5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

cream mix and then freezing it in a batch or home freezer. It may be packaged and
hardened, then tempered before use.

Cooked
Description. Cooked ice cream is very common. It has a rich custard or scalded
milk flavor. It may have the flavor of condensed milk. More intense versions are
scorched, caramel, or burnt.
Cause. Cooked flavor can result from any of the milk ingredients having received
a high or long heat treatment or from high heat treatment of the mix itself. Double

ICE CREAM SCORE CARD (cont.)


Date:

Product:
Flavor:

SAMPLENO.
Criticisms

10

Color, appearance
Score
and package
No
Dull color
criticism Non-uniform color
= 10
Too high color
Unsalable Too j?ale color
= 0
Unnatural color
Damaged container
Normal
Defective seal
range
Ill-shaped container
= 1-10
Soiled container (dirt)
Soiled container (product)
Underfilled
Over filled
Score
Melting quality 3
Curdy
No
criticism Does not melt
Flaky
= 3
Unsalable Foamy
Watery
= 0
Wheyed off
Normal
range
= 1-5
Bacterial content 2 Score
Standard plate count
Coliform count
Total

25

Total Score
of each sample
Total solids (%)
Fat content (%)
Net weight (lbs/gal)
Overrun (%)
Signatures of evaluator(s):

Figure 3.19 (Continued)

pasteurization of the dairy ingredients will cause a cooked flavor to develop. Some
processors purposely give the mix a high heat treatment for the rich "old fashioned"
flavor that it gives.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A cooked flavored ice cream can be simulated by reheating a commercial mix to 85C for 30 min on the stove with vigorous
stirring. After chilling, it can be frozen in a batch or home freezer.

Lacks Fine Flavor


Description. This term is used to describe ice cream that is good but for some
reason just falls short of excellent flavor. The flavor balance may be off, or the

Table 3.10

THE ADSA SCORING GUIDE FOR SENSORY DEFECTS OF


ICE CREAM (SUGGESTED FLAVOR AND BODY AND
TEXTURE SCORE FOR DESIGNATED DEFECT
INTENSITIES)
Intensity of Defect
Slight

Definite

Pronounced

4
9

2
7

0b
5

8
9
8
9
8
6
6
6
4
8
7

6
8
6
8
7
4
4
4
2
7
6

4
7
4
7
6
2
2
1
0
5
4

9
9
9
7

8
8
7
6

7
7
5
4

4
4
3
4
2
4
4

2
3
2
2
1
3
2

1
2
1
1
0
2
1

51

Flavor criticism
Acid (sour)
Cooked
Flavoring:
Lacks flavoring
Too high
Unnatural
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks freshness
Metallic
Old ingredient
Oxidized
Rancid
Salty
Storage
Sweetener:
Lacks
Too high
Syrup flavor
Whey
Body and texturec
Course/Icy
Crumbly (brittle, friable)
Fluffy (foamy)
Gummy (pasty, sticky)
Sandy
Soggy (heavy)
Weak (watery)

Source: American Dairy Science Association, 1990.


a
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 10. Normal range is 1-10 for salable product.
b
An assigned score of 0 (zero) is indicative of unsalable product.
c
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 5. Normal range is 1-5 for salable product.

vanilla flavor may be a little off. This is a catch-all last resort descriptor that is used
only for minor shortcomings if none of the other terms will describe the problem.5
Cause. The causes are as varied as the reasons for the less-than-ideal flavor possibilities. The most likely cause will be a slightly deficient vanilla blend.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Screening vanilla flavorings for one that is
slightly deficient and using that flavoring at the recommended level is a possible
way to stage this flavor. Blending some imitation and high quality flavor in various

Table 3.11 A SUGGESTED SCORING GUIDE FOR COLOR, APPEARANCE,


AND PACKAGE OF VANILLA ICE CREAM
Intensity of Defect
Defect3

Slight5

Moderate

Definite

Strong

Dull color
Nonuniform color
Too high color
Too pale color
Unnatural color
Soiled container
Product on container
Underfill/overfill
Damaged container
Defective seal
Ill-shaped containers

4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
3
2
4

3
3
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
1
3

2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
0
2

Pronounced0
d
d

1
0
1
1
0
0
1

0
0
d

0
0
0
0

Reproduced with permission from ref. 5.


a
"No criticism" is assigned a score of 5. Normal range is 1-5 for a salable product. An assigned score of 0 (zero)
is indicative of an unsalable product.
b
Highest assignable score for defect of slight intensity.
c
Highest assignable score for defect of pronounced intensity.
d
A dash () indicates that the defect is unlikely to occur at this intensity level.

proportions and freezing mixes with each will give a good range of samples from
which to choose. It will also afford a variety of qualities of flavors for demonstration.

Lacks Flavoring
Description. This descriptor is for ice cream that is flat or deficient in the amount
of flavoring. The ice cream may be sweet and free from any off-flavors but it lacks
the characteristic delicate flavor of an excellent vanilla at the desired intensity.5
Cause. The most probable cause of ice cream that lacks flavoring is inadequate
amount of vanilla or flavoring. It could also be caused by inferior vanilla.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Vanilla ice cream that lacks flavoring can
be made by adding half the recommended amount of top quality flavor to a good
commercial mix and freezing in a batch or home freezer.

Lacks Freshness
Description. This is a moderate general off-flavor in ice cream or frozen desserts
that can have various characteristics but principally takes the edge off the fresh
perfect taste of the product.
Cause. This defect can be caused by a little slightly stale powdered milk, slightly
stale whey, some slightly old cream, or some milk with the lacks freshness defect.
Products that show stronger intensities of these defects are criticized for "old ingredient."5

CONTFSTANT M
I O DATE

MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
Vmt NO. 3 HNCIt ONLV

IMPROPER
MARKS

PROPER
MARK

ICE CREAM

ERASE C H A N G E S C L E A N L Y A N D
COMPLETELY
D O N O T M A K E A N Y STRAY M A R K S

CRITICISMS

NCSTrM-OpcitMP3O-73533-321 A2400
SAMPLE NUMBER

FLAVOR

COOKtD
NO
CRITICISM

LACKS FLAVORJMG

10

LACKSSVWtTWESS
NORMAL

OLD INGREDIENT

RANGE
1-10

RANCID
STORAGE
TOOMKiHFLAVCW
WNATURALaAVW

BODY AND
TEXTURE
NO

CRUMStY

CRITICISM
5

GUMMY
SOGGY

NORMAL
RANGE
1-5

APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRITICISM
5

NORMAL
RANGE
1-5

Figure 3.20 Collegiate contest ice cream score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

Preparation of Samples for Training. Dissolve some slightly stale powdered milk
at the rate of about 1 to 5% in some good quality commercial ice cream mix. Freeze
in a batch or home freezer and harden.

Lacks Sweetness
Description. The name of this defect is very descriptive. It is noted quickly on
putting the sample in the mouth as a flat or bland taste. An adequate amount of
sweetener would bring out the full flavor.
Cause. The cause of this defect is obvious. Either the formula or formulator is in
error in making a sweetener deficient mix. When developing formulas, it is important
to realize that different sweeteners have different relative sweetness per unit of
weight. One of the sweetest nutritive sweeteners is fructose and some of the least
sweet are lactose and corn syrup solids.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A simple mix can be formulated from
scratch as follows: 560 g or 36% fat cream, 1200 g of milk, 125 g of fresh powdered
milk, and 115 g of sucrose. The mix should be pasteurized, chilled, and then frozen
in a batch or home freezer. As this sample is for flavor only, ingredients to modify
the texture are not used. This sample may or may not be homogenized.

Metallic
Description. This flavor is characterized by a puckery mouth feel or a flavor similar
to a rusty nail or an old penny.
Cause. The mix or one of its dairy ingredients most probably came in contact with
copper or iron. These ions catalyzed a free radical lipid oxidation. Dairy plant equipment that comes in contact with dairy products is free of copper and corrodible metal
because of the potential for this defect.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A 2000-ml aliquot of ice cream mix can be
treated with 3 ml of a 1% CuSO4 solution and held for 1 to 2 days while the flavor
develops before freezing in a batch or home ice cream freezer.

Old Ingredient
Description. Old ingredient flavors are many. Most common are a stale protein
flavor or old milk or old cream flavors.
Cause. This defect descriptor is reserved for off-flavors brought to the mix from
the ingredients. Among the causes of old ingredient flavor are stale milk powder,
stale whey powder, or stale or oxidized stabilizer from extended storage; old cream
or old milk from age or psychrotrophic growth; and fermented syrup.
Preparation of Samples for Training. The stale ingredient flavors can be simulated
by dissolving a few percent of a stale milk or whey powder into a good commercial
ice cream mix. A stale emulsifier or stabilizer could be dry blended with a little

sugar and added to a commercial mixer at half the recommended level. Old cream
also could be added to a finished mix at about 20% of the weight of the mix. Another
approach would be to make simple mixes using aged ingredients with the aged or
stale flavors that are needed. All these small batches can be frozen in a batch or
home freezer.

Oxidized
Description. Some synonymous terms are cardboard or papery, cappy, tallowy,
and painty, representing variations of related flavors that are given the same descriptor. Metallic oxidized is listed separately but is related and considered to be one of
this group of related flavors.5
Cause. Exposure of ingredient milk or finished mix to sunlight or fluorescent lights
will produce the cardboard flavor. Use of fat products in which the butterfat has
undergone autoxidation produces tallowy and painty flavors.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Mix or milk from which mix will be made
can be placed under fluorescent light for 12 to 24 h prior to freezing. Oxidized butter
oil can be made by spiking it with a little rancid soy oil and allowing the flavor to
develop for a few days before the oxidized oil is emulsified into a mix.

Rancid
Description. Rancid ice cream, like milk, will have a delayed reaction. It comes
on late and is detected on the back of the tongue. It is a very objectionable flavor,
tasting soapy and unclean with some bitter notes. It is somewhat masked in ice cream
by the sweetness and flavoring but the lingering aftertaste and slow clean up will be
evident.5
Cause. Rancidity in any dairy product is caused by the action of lipase on butterfat
which releases soapy tasting free fatty acids and their salts. It occurs when lipase,
from either raw milk or psychrotrophic growth, comes in contact with a new fat
surface. The fat surface is created by homogenization or violent agitation as in a
centrifugal pump.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Rancid milk can be made by mixing raw
and freshly pasteurized milk and allowing lipolysis to proceed for a day or so. That
milk is laboratory pasteurized and used to make a small sample of mix that is subsequently frozen.

Salty
Description. The term salty is recognizable as one of the basic tastes. It is detected
quickly on the tip of the tongue as the product is placed in the mouth. There is no
aroma associated with the salty taste. The sensation is "warm" as opposed to refreshing. It cleans up quickly after the ice cream is expectorated.
Cause. Salty ice cream has, as the descriptor implies, too much salt in the mix. It
may be coming from salted butter when it is used as the butterfat source; from high

levels of concentrated whey, whey solids, or milk solids; or there could be just too
much salt in the formula.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Salty ice cream can be made easily by
adding extra salt to a mix before freezing, or by working a little extra salt into
softened ice cream prior to tasting.

Storage
Description. This descriptor is used for a family of defects so it is not a response
to one flavor. One description is the lack of fresh, bright, refreshing flavor with no
particular defects obvious. In this definition it is quite similar to "lacks freshness"
except that this is for more severe cases. Another is the presence of flavors that have
been absorbed from the environment such as ammonia, smoke, or chemicals.
Cause. The term storage refers to flavors that develop during storage of mix or ice
cream. The loss of bright refreshing flavor due to extended storage is one cause.
Another is the presence of aromatic materials in the freezer with the ice cream which
are absorbed into the ice cream.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. The best source of this flavor would be a
good sample of ice cream that has been stored for a year or two. If several samples
are put away for the future and evaluated a year or two later, it is likely that some
good examples of storage flavor will be among them.

Syrup Flavor
Description. Descriptive synonyms for the syrup are marshmallow, molasseslike,
and malty. It has been described as a low level of burnt sugar taste. It is often
associated with a gummy body.5
Cause. Sucrose gives a clean sweet taste free of any side flavors. Corn syrups bring
with them other flavors. Modest levels of com syrup can be used in normal practice
without this defect being evident, but it becomes evident when high levels are used.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This flavor can be simulated by dissolving
an extra 5% of 36 or 42 DE corn syrup solids into a good commercial mix prior to
freezing.

Too High Flavor


Description. When this occurs, this flavor is best recognized when the sample is
first placed in the mouth. The flavor is sharp and harsh and the desired balance of
vanilla flavors with the other flavors is not achieved.5
Cause. As the descriptor states, this defect is caused by too high a level of vanilla
in the mix.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Vanilla ice cream with too high a flavor can
be produced by adding 25 to 50% more than the recommended level of high quality
vanilla to the mix before it is frozen.

Too Sweet
Description. Ice cream that is too sweet is recognized by the candylike taste. The
sweetness overpowers the flavor and fails to achieve an ideal blend of flavors. Excessive sweetness detracts from the refreshing quality of a good ice cream.5
Cause.
mix.

When ice cream is too sweet, excessive sweetener has been added to the

Preparation of Samples for Training. An additional 2 to 5% sucrose can be added


to and dissolved into a good quality commercial mix prior to freezing to simulate
ice cream that is too sweet.

Unnatural Flavor
Description. There are two types of unnatural flavor. One is a taste that is not in
agreement with the label. If it is labeled vanilla but has a hint of butterscotch, unnatural flavor would be the appropriate criticism. The other is presence of flavor
notes that are out of balance with the blend of flavors. Sometimes when imitation
vanilla is used to boost and extend real vanilla, there will be an initial sharp, piercing,
burning sensation on the tongue that is not present with good quality vanilla.
Cause. The cause for misflavored ice cream is usually error on the part of the ice
cream maker either in adding the wrong flavor or in misjudging the change over
point between flavors as it is being frozen and trying to save too much ice cream
near the change over. The cause of poorly balanced unnatural flavor is the less than
ideal flavor blend that is used to flavor the ice cream. It occurs more frequently in
Category 2 and 3 vanilla ice creams.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Both types of unnatural flavored ice cream
can be simulated. The misbranded type can be achieved by blending some of another
flavor into the vanilla while the ice cream is softened. Creating the poorly balanced
flavor involves making several batches of vanilla using selected blends of flavors
and choosing those that have flavors with examples of the defect.

Whey
Description. The whey flavor in vanilla ice cream is similar to the flavor of graham
crackers or stale condensed milk usually accompanied by a slightly salty taste.70
Cause. Federal standards limit the maximum concentration of whey solids in ice
cream to 25% of the MSNF.69 That amount may not hurt the quality of product
when good quality whey is used, but lesser amounts will be detected when the
concentrated or dried whey is of poor quality.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Dissolve 2 to 4% dried whey into commercial ice cream mix before freezing in a batch or home ice cream freezer.

3.4.4,3 Body and Texture Defects


Coarse/Icy
Description. This defect is evident when the evaluator bites down on the ice cream.
The incisors are held slightly apart by the ice crystals until a little more pressure is
exerted and the crystals give with a crunchy sound that can be heard through the
bones of the head. The feeling is transitory and disappears quickly as the product
melts. The product feels unusually cold.
Cause. The coarse/icy defect is caused by large ice crystals that form due to slow
hardening, high holding temperatures, or cycling temperatures up to near freezing
and then back down again. Product that is frozen quickly with stirring and is subsequently hardened at very low temperatures will have very small ice crystals and a
smooth texture. When product is held at higher temperatures near freezing, there is
a lot of movement of water out of and into crystals and more liquid water. Under
these conditions, the small crystals will shrink and the large ones will grow. These
large crystals are responsible for the coarse/icy texture.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. This is such a common defect that examples
of it will be found by surveying a few commercial samples. The defect can be
generated by holding good quality ice cream at around 80C or cycling it between
- 8 and -20 0 C.
Crumbly
Description. The crumbly defect can also be described as brittle and friable. Ice
cream with this defect falls apart as it is dipped. It appears dry and open and ice
cream particles remain in the scoop.5
Cause. Crumbly ice cream is caused by too low a solids level in the mix, by too
high an overrun, or by inadequate stabilization.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A training sample could be made by diluting
a commercial ice cream mix 25% with milk before freezing. The defect could be
aggravated by absence of stabilizers. The mix formula suggested for the lacks sweetness defect should be crumbly when frozen. Half the milk powder could be left out
to aggravate the defect.
Fluffy
Description. Fluffy, foamy, or spongy ice cream is light in weight for the volume.
It does not offer the usual resistance to dipping of normal ice cream. The texture
may be more open than usual and the ice cream is compressible. It melts slowly and
yields a small amount of liquid.
Cause. This defect is caused by excessively high overrun. It will be evident when
the overrun exceeds 100% or when volume of air in the ice cream exceeds the volume
of the mix.

Preparation of Samples for Training. A small continuous freezer is the best equipment for making fluffy samples because of overrun control capability. While running
regular vanilla, increase the overrun to above 100%, preferably to 150%, or just long
enough to collect samples, then return it to normal overrun.

Gummy
Description. Gummy body is sometimes called pasty, sticky, or elastic. It is the
opposite of crumbly. The ice cream holds together so well that it resembles taffy.
As the scoop is pulled across the surface, the ice cream tends to "curl" behind the
scoop. It should be criticized only when the stickiness will interfere with the dipping
of the product. If corn syrup is the cause, it will be accompanied by a syrup flavor.5
Cause. This defect is caused by excessive use of stabilizers or corn syrup solids
in the ice cream mix.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect can be caused by the addition
of about 5% extra 36 or 42 DE corn syrup solids to a commercial ice cream mix
prior to freezing in a batch or home ice cream freezer.

Sandy
Description. Sandy or gritty ice cream has a lack of smoothness and a grittiness
that remains on the tongue long after the ice cream has melted and been expectorated.
The grittiness feels like fine grains of sand that resist being dissolved.
Cause. Crystals of lactose account for the grainy, slow dissolving particles. The
form with the lactose content of the mix is high usually due to the high level of use
of whey solids in the mix coupled with elevated storage temperatures or cycling
storage temperatures that encourage the growth of the lactose crystals.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Very fine lactose crystals can be blended
into softened ice cream to simulate the texture of sandy ice cream.

Soggy
Description. Soggy ice cream has a heavy, doughy, puddinglike body. A given
volume of ice cream seems heavier than expected. In the mouth it feels colder than
normal.5
Cause. This defect can be caused by too high a solids content in the mix, too much
stabilizer, or too low an overrun.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of 5% extra nonfat milk solids,
5% corn syrup solids, or reducing the overrun to 20 to 30% will tend to give ice
cream with the soggy defect.

Weak
Description. Weak or watery ice cream melts unusually quickly to an uncharacteristically thin fluid. It disappears in the mouth much more quickly than is expected.

It is easily compressed with a spoon or a scoop. It has a tendency to be coarse and


icy and crumbly.5
Cause.

Low solid mix or unstabilized mix will tend to result in weak ice cream.

Preparation of Samples for Training. Dilution of a commercial ice cream mix


with 20 to 30% of its volume of milk or water will tend to result in a weak ice cream
after it is frozen in a batch or home ice cream freezer. Formulation of a mix from
scratch with a reduced quantity of stabilizer will tend to produce weak and crumbly
ice cream.

3.4.4.4 Color and Appearance


Dull Color
Description. Other terms used to describe this defect are dead, soiled white, or
gray. If it is obviously caused by ground vanilla beans and is accompanied by little
bean flecks, it should not be criticized.5
Cause. Dirty equipment is usually the cause of dull colored ice cream. Lubricant
or corrosion that is allowed to come in contact with the ice cream mix will discolor it.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Just a trace of black food coloring can be
added to commercial mix to cause this defect in finished ice cream.

Nonuniform Color
Description. Nonuniform color is the variation in color shade from one portion of
the sample to another. For example, the cream color of vanilla ice cream may change
in shade from the bottom to the top of the carton.
Cause. This defect is usually associated with product age.5 Bleaching effects can
also cause this effect where a portion of the surface is exposed to light.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Two ice cream samples with different shades
of color can be softened and blended together with very little stirring.

Too High Color


Description. The high color defect refers to uncharacteristically bright color for
the flavor. It is objectionable because it gives an "artificial" impression or an impression of cheapness, lack of understanding, and lack of care on the part of the
manufacturer.5
Cause. The high color defect is obviously caused by the addition of too much or
too bright a color to the ice cream mix.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Vivid colored ice cream can be made by
adding excessive amounts of color to the mix.

Too Pale Color


Description. This defect refers to an uncharacteristically light color. For vanilla, it
refers to a white color that conveys an impression opposite of richness.
Cause. The pale color is caused by the absence or deficiency of color in the ice
cream mix.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A pale colored sample of ice cream can be
obtained by pulling a sample of commercial mix before the color is added. An
alternate way is to use the formula suggested under lacks sweetness and leave the
color out before it is frozen in a batch or home ice cream freezer.

Unnatural Color
Description. Unnatural color is a color that is not characteristic of the flavor of the
ice cream.5 For example, purple cherry ice cream or vanilla with a red tint would
be unnatural color.
Cause. Unnatural colored ice cream is caused by the addition of a color that is not
characteristic of the flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Addition of tumeric or caramel color to
vanilla ice cream prior to freezing would result in unnatural colored vanilla ice
cream.

3.4.4.5 Melting Quality


To evaluate the melting quality of ice cream, a small scoop of product is placed on
a petri plate or dish and allowed to warm up. Its appearance is noted periodically as
it melts. High quality ice cream should melt in 10 to 15 min. Mix should flow from
the ice cream as it melts to a smooth uniform and homogeneous liquid.

Curdy
Description. Ice cream that has a curdy melt down will separate into small distinct
pieces rather than a smooth uniform white liquid. The surface may appear to have
dry, irregular shaped curd particles.5
Cause. Curdy appearing ice cream can be caused by one or more of the following
conditions that has destabilized the protein: high acid, high temperature-time, unfavorable salt balance, and certain emulsifiers or stabilizers.5

Does Not Melt


Description. The descriptor is quite adequate in characterizing this defect. A scoop
of ice cream put out at room temperature holds its shape or resists slumping and
running for longer than 10 to 15 min as it warms to room temperature.5

Next Page

Cause. Slow melting ice cream can be caused by certain stabilizers and emulsifiers,
high overrun, old ice cream, and several other processing and ingredient interactions
that promote gelation of the body of ice cream.
Foamy
Description. Foamy or frothy meltdown is noticed as a mass of large stable air
bubbles when the sample is completely melted.
Cause. Foamy ice cream can be caused by high overrun and by emulsifiers that
effectively stabilize foam.5
Watery
Description. This melting defect is a low resistance to melting with the melted mix
being of a thin and watery consistency.
Cause. Watery or fast melting ice cream is associated with low solids mixes and
coarse, weak bodied ice cream or ice milk.
Wheyed Off
Description. Ice cream with this defect will develop a ring of clear greenish or
bluish fluid collecting around the edges of the scoop of ice cream early in the meltdown test. It may be observable in the mix before freezing.5
Cause. This is a common problem in concentrated mixes and mixes that are stored
for long periods before use. It is more common in mixes that have been abused
(excessive stirring, aerated, old).

3.4.5 Cheese
3.4.5.1 Introduction
There are at least 400 varieties of cheese with as many as 2000 names. A general
definition that applies to all these varieties is a dairy product made by coagulation
of milk, with or without its full complement of fat, removing the soluble portion
known as whey, and concentrating the insoluble portion into a semisolid cheese
mass known as curd. The whey is composed of water, lactose, proteins that are
soluble under the conditions of coagulation, and soluble minerals or ash. Some fat
usually is present also. The curd is composed primarily of casein and milk fat. It
also contains minor amounts of water-soluble materials dissolved in the water portion
of the curd. Variations that result in so many different types of cheese include type
of milk, method of coagulation (acid or enzyme), culture characteristics, amount of
water retained in the curd, method of cutting and handling the curd, fresh consumption versus ripening, and presence or absence of surface ripening organisms. Specific
definitions for several types of cheese are given in the Code of Federal Regulations,
Title 21 Part 133.71

Previous Page

Cause. Slow melting ice cream can be caused by certain stabilizers and emulsifiers,
high overrun, old ice cream, and several other processing and ingredient interactions
that promote gelation of the body of ice cream.
Foamy
Description. Foamy or frothy meltdown is noticed as a mass of large stable air
bubbles when the sample is completely melted.
Cause. Foamy ice cream can be caused by high overrun and by emulsifiers that
effectively stabilize foam.5
Watery
Description. This melting defect is a low resistance to melting with the melted mix
being of a thin and watery consistency.
Cause. Watery or fast melting ice cream is associated with low solids mixes and
coarse, weak bodied ice cream or ice milk.
Wheyed Off
Description. Ice cream with this defect will develop a ring of clear greenish or
bluish fluid collecting around the edges of the scoop of ice cream early in the meltdown test. It may be observable in the mix before freezing.5
Cause. This is a common problem in concentrated mixes and mixes that are stored
for long periods before use. It is more common in mixes that have been abused
(excessive stirring, aerated, old).

3.4.5 Cheese
3.4.5.1 Introduction
There are at least 400 varieties of cheese with as many as 2000 names. A general
definition that applies to all these varieties is a dairy product made by coagulation
of milk, with or without its full complement of fat, removing the soluble portion
known as whey, and concentrating the insoluble portion into a semisolid cheese
mass known as curd. The whey is composed of water, lactose, proteins that are
soluble under the conditions of coagulation, and soluble minerals or ash. Some fat
usually is present also. The curd is composed primarily of casein and milk fat. It
also contains minor amounts of water-soluble materials dissolved in the water portion
of the curd. Variations that result in so many different types of cheese include type
of milk, method of coagulation (acid or enzyme), culture characteristics, amount of
water retained in the curd, method of cutting and handling the curd, fresh consumption versus ripening, and presence or absence of surface ripening organisms. Specific
definitions for several types of cheese are given in the Code of Federal Regulations,
Title 21 Part 133.71

This treatment will use cheddar and closely related cheese as the standard. Cheddar is the most common type of cheese produced in the United States. It is usually
made from pasteurized cow's milk by adjusting the temperature to about 32C and
adding a lactic culture (usually Lactococcus lactus spp. lactus or Lactococcus lactus
spp. cremorus and chymosin or a related milk coagulant. Annatto color may be added
to give deeper orange color. When the milk gel forms, it is cut into small pieces and
warmed to drive the water out of the curd. During cooking the acid begins to develop.
When some acidity has developed, the whey is drained and the curd is allowed to
matt. Matted curd is cut into slabs that are moved and piled as more acid develops.
The slabs of curd stretch and flatten under the weight of curd above. The oriented
protein fibers give a "chicken breast" texture to the curd. This process is called
cheddaring. In an alternative process the curd is not allowed to matt but is stirred
continually as the acid develops. That method lends itself to mechanical handling.
When sufficient acid has developed the slabs are milled into cubes, salted, placed in
hoops, and pressed into blocks. Stirred curd is already in small pieces, so it is salted,
hooped, and pressed. Blocks of cheese are sealed in plastic or wax to exclude air
and prevent mold growth and aged for a time varying from a few months to a few
years depending on the sharpness desired in the cheese.
A skilled cheese maker knows how to manipulate the process to achieve the target
composition and character. He knows how to avoid phage build up as the culture is
developing acid, and he knows the value of and uses good sanitation practices as
the cheese is being made.
Before examining and grading cheese, the sample is tempered to 10 to 15.5C.
Proper tempering is critical for observation of some attributes. The first procedure
is visual examination of the cheese and packaging materials. The judge notes whether
the sample is neat, attractive, clean, and symmetrical. He looks for evidence of mold
growth where air may have had access to the cheese surface. A sample of cheese is
removed from the block with a trier similar to the one described in butter judging.
The trier is a double-edged curved blade that is pushed into the block, turned 180,
and removed bringing with it a tapered cylinder of cheese. The sample is preferably
taken from the top and about halfway to the center from the sides. The plug is passed
under the nose and the judge notes any aroma. The top 1 to 2 inches is then broken
off the pushed into the hole to partially protect the block from mold growth, drying,
and cracking. The judge examines the cheese cylinder for clean cut surfaces or
featherlike edges as if it were cut with a dull knife. Color is then observed. It should
be bright, clear, and uniform, free from faded areas or mottling, dark or light seams.
It should be somewhat translucent rather than opaque. The judge then looks for
mechanical openings. Their shape and the inside appearance should be noted. A
rounded glossy inner surface is indicative of gas while rough irregular inner surfaces
indicate poor pressing and curd knitting. The judge then takes the ends of the plug
by the tips of the fingers and bends it until it breaks. The plug may show shortness
which is resistance to bending followed by an abrupt break, or weakness when it
will bend until the ends nearly touch. The judge now takes a piece of cheese from
the plug and applies pressure on it between the thumb and forefinger followed by
manipulation into a uniform ball. The thumb is then pushed into the ball and re-

moved, noting adherence to the thumb or stickiness. If the ball tends to fall apart
under the thumb's pressure, it is crumbly or curdy. The warm molded cheese is now
ready for a second pass at aroma detection. The ball should be placed under the nose
and smelled. A small unworked portion of the plug is placed in the mouth for tasting.
It is chewed, rolling it around in the mouth while observing the taste and aroma
sensations, until a semiliquid state is achieved. The judge then expectorates the
sample and observes the aftertaste. The trier is cleaned with a soft cloth or a paper
towel prior to evaluation of another sample. The judge may freshen his mouth with
ambient temperature salt water, grapes, or an apple. He may wish to retaste the best
sample in the lot to standardize his tongue on * ideal." Experienced judges learn
enough from looking at the sample and evaluating its body and texture that tasting
is just reinforcing what they have already learned.5
A scoring guide for flavor and body/texture defects is shown in Table 3.12. The
ASDA cheddar cheese score card is shown in Figure 3.21 and the Collegiate Contest
Score Card is shown in Figure 3.22. Appearance and color are not judged in the
collegiate contest.
Much of the cheese sold in the United States is sold and priced based on government grade. Graders employed by the Dairy Grading Branch of the Poultry and
Dairy Quality Division, Food Safety and Inspection Service of the USDA assign
letter grades based on guidelines summarized in Table 3.13.

3.4.5.2 Flavor Defects


Bitter
Description. The bitterness is a delayed sensation sensed at the base of the tongue.
It is somewhat distasteful, resembling quinine or caffeine. It tends to persist long
after expectoration.
Cause. Bitterness is found most often in aged cheese that has had time to break
down. It is associated with excessive acidity, excessive starter, starter with strong
proteolytic activity, excessive moisture, and microbial contaminants due to poor
sanitation.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Usually a sample of bitter cheese can be
found on the market or at a cheese plant. Bitter processed cheese can be staged by
adding 1 to 2 ml of a 1% stock solution of quinine sulfate to 600 g of hot melted
cheese. Add 10 g of sodium citrate as an emulsifying salt. Stir to incorporate the salt
and quinine and cool.

Fermented/Fruity
Description. The fruity off-flavor resembles the flavor of overripe pineapples or
apples. This sweet aromatic flavor intensifies as the cheese gets older and may evolve
into an unclean off flavor. The fermented flavor is suggestive of acetic acid or
vinegar.5

Table 3.12 THE ADSA SCORING GUIDE FOR SENSORY DEFECTS OF


CHEDDAR CHEESE (SUGGESTED FLAVOR AND BODY AND
TEXTURE SCORES FOR DESIGNATED DEFECT
INTENSITIES)
Intensity of Defect
Slight

Definite

Pronounced

Flavor criticism
Bitter
Fermented/fruity
Flat, lacks flavor
Garlic, onion, weedy
Heated, cooked
High acid, sour
Moldy, musty
Rancid, lipase, putrid
Sulfide, skunky
Unclean, dirty
Whey taint, sour whey
Yeasty

9
8
9
6
9
9
7
6
9
8
8
6

7
6
8
4
8
7
5
4
7
6
7
4

4
5
7
1
7
5
3
1
4
5
5
1

Body and texture criticisms5


Corky, dry
Crumbly, friable
Curdy, rubbery
Gassy
Mealy, grainy
Open
Pasty, sticky
Short
Weak, soft
Pasty
Weak/soft

4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
4

3
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
3

2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2

Source: American Dairy Science Association, 1990


a
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 10. Normal range is 1-10 for salable product.
b
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 5. Normal range is 1-5 for salable product.

Cause. This flavor defect is sometimes but not always associated with high moisture, pasty, weak-bodied cheese. The fruity flavor is thought to be due to the presence
of ethanol-forming microorganisms in the cheese milk or in the culture. Esters
formed from the ethanol combining with organic acids are responsible for the fruity
note and acetic acid generated is responsible for the fermented note.71"73-83 Low
acid or low salt also encourage the development of this flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Fermented/fruity cheese can usually be
found in a survey of a large number of samples. The flavor can be simulated in milk
by the addition of a small amount of pineapple juice. A small amount of processed
cheese can also be spiked with pineapple juice just before cooling to simulate this

CONTEST CHEDDAR CHEESE SCORE CARD


A.D.S.A. Contestant No:

Date:

Flavor

10

Criticisms
Contestant Score

SAMPLE NO.
3
4
6
5

TOTAL
GRADES
7

Score
Grade

No criticism
= 10

Normal range
= 1-10

Body and
texture
5

Criticism
Acid
Bitter
Feed
Fermented/fruity
Flat/lacks flavor
Garlic/onion
Heated
Moldy
Rancid
Sulfide
Unclean
Whey taint
Yeasty

Contestant score

Score
Grade
No criticism
5
Normal
range
1-5

Criticism

Corky
Crumbly
Curdy
Gassy
Mealy
Open
Pasty
Short
Weak

Allowed perfect
in contest
Allowed perfect
Finish
in contest
Total score
Total
in each sample
Total grade
per sample
Source: American Dairy Science Association (1987)
Color

Final grade
Rank

Figure 3.21 The ADSA contest cheddar cheese score card for sensory defects. (Reproduced
from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

!CONTESTANT NO

MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
X W H O 3 MWCIL

M
I PROPER
MARKS

DATE

6KlY-

PROPER
MARK

CHEDDAR
CHEESE

ERASE CHANGES CLEANLY AND


COMPLETELY
DO NOT MAKE ANY STRAY MARKS
CRITICISMS
FLAVOR

NCS Trana-Opeit* MP30-73530-321 A2400


SAMPLE NUMBER

FEEO
NO

CRITICISM FLAT/LACKS RAVOR


10
HEATED
NORMAL
RANGE
1-10

MOtOY
SUtFIDC
VWiYTAWT

BODY AMD
TEXTURE
NO

CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
AND COLOR
NO
CRITICISM
5
NORMAL
RANGE
1-5

Figure 3.22 Collegiate contest cheddar cheese score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with
permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

flavor. Addition of 1 to 11A ml of 1 % aqueous solution of food grade ethyl hexanoate


to a 400-g batch of processed cheese will produce cheese with this flavor.

Flat/Lacks Flavor
Description. The descriptive term is accurate. Lack of flavor is noticed soon after
the sample is placed in the mouth. Odor and flavor are hardly detected either.
Cause. It is common for young cheese to have this defect because time is required
for cheese flavor to develop. The full flavor of cheese is due to the presence of acid
together with products of microbial and enzymatic breakdown products of the fat
and protein in the cheese. Some causes of the defect are lack of acid production, use
of low fat milk to make cheese, excessively high cooking temperatures that destroy
enzymes, curing at too cold a temperature, or too short a curing period.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Flat cheese has to be found by surveying
product that is available on the market or in the plant. A sample can generally be
found.

Garlic/Onion
Description. This flavor resembles that of garlic, onions, or leeks and usually has
a characteristic odor. The flavor builds up in the mouth and is very hard to wash out
after the sample has been expectorated.
Cause. Cheese will have the onion/garlic defect when it is made with milk that
has the defect. Milk is tainted with these flavors during the warm months when cows
are feeding in pastures that are infested with onion, garlic, or other weeds that impart
these flavors to the milk. They are especially strong when the cows consume these
plants shortly before they are milked.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Samples with this defect can be produced
by making a small experimental batch of cheese from milk with the actual or simulated defect. Alternatively a small batch of processed cheese can be made by melting
800 g of cheese with 16 g of sodium citrate and a small amount of onion or garlic
powder.

Heated
Description. The heated or cooked cheese flavor is different from the clean cooked
flavor of milk. It resembles the odor of spoiled milk or the odor of melted Bakelite
plastic. It is suggestive of the unclean odor and of heated whey.

High Acid
Description. Lactic acid is one of the normal flavor notes in cheddar cheese. Only
when the strength of the acid flavor overpowers the other flavor notes of the cheese
is it considered a defect. The normal pH range of cheddar cheese is 5.15 to 5.45. At
pH values below 5.15 the acid defect may be evident. The acid or sour flavor is

Table 3.13 A SUMMARY OF U.S. GRADES OF CHEDDAR CHEESE

Grade

General Description of Medium-Cured to Aged Cheddar

AA

Flavor:
Fine, highly pleasing very slight feed flavor permitted.
Body and texture:
Firm, solid, smooth, compact, close, translucent, few small mechanical
or sweet holes permitted, no gas holes.
Color:
Uniform, tiny white specks if aged and very slight seaminess permitted.
Finish:
Sound rind well-protected and smooth, even-shaped.
Flavor:
Pleasing, may possess limited feed, or acid or bitter flavor (if aged).
Body and texture:
Reasonably solid, compact, close and translucent, few mechanical holes
not large or connected, limited to two sweet holes per plug, no gas
holes.
Color:
Slight white lines or seams. May be very slightly wavy.
Finish:
Sound firm rind, well protected but may possess to a very slight degree
a soiled surface or mold growth; may be slightly lopsided, have high
edges or rough, irregular surface.
Flavor:
May possess certain limited undesirable flavors according to age.
Body and texture:
Texture may be loose and open and have numerous sweet holes,
scattered yeast and other scattered gas holes, pinny gas holes not
permitted.
Color:
May possess about the same defects as Grade A except to a greater
degree.
Finish:
Rind sound, may be slightly weak, but free from soft spots, rind rot,
cracks, or openings, bandage may be uneven, wrinkled but sound,
surface may be rough, unattractive, but have good protective coating;
paraffin may be scaly or blistered; no indication that mold has entered
the cheese; may be huffed, lopsided, or have high edges.

Approximate
Score or
Score Rangea

93 or above

92

90-91

characterized by a sharp tingling sensation on the tip or top of the tongue accompanied by a clean refreshing mouth feel.5
Cause. The acid flavor can be caused by the development of excessive lactic acid
during the making of the cheese, excessive retention of moisture that encourages
(Continued)
continued bacterial growth, retention of whey and lactose in the curd that provides
lactose for the production of lactic acid, the use of excessive starter, and the lack of
enough salt in the finished curd.5

Table 3.13
C

(Continued)

Flavor:
May possess somewhat objectionable flavors and odors with a certain
increase in tolerance according to age and degree of curing.
Body and texture:
May be loose with large connecting mechanical openings; have various
gas holes and body defects with limitations varying with the degree of
curing; must be sufficiently compact to permit drawing a full plug.
Color:
May possess various defects, but not to the extent that the color is
unattractive.
Finish:
Rind may be weak, have soft spots, rind rot, cracks, and openings, with
certain limitations varying with degree of curing. Bandage may be
uneven, wrinkled, but not torn; may have rough unattractive
appearance, paraffin scaly or blistered; mold permitted, but not evidence
that mold has entered the cheese; may be huffed, lopsided, and have
pronounced high edges.

Reproduced with permission from ref. 5.


These are the approximate numerical scores of each U.S. grade if scored by the score-card system. The U.S. grades are
reported in letter grades only.
a

Preparation of Samples for Training. High acid cheese is such a common defect
that good training samples will generally be found in a screening of products obtained from the market or the plant.

Moldy
Description. A moldy or musty flavor will resemble the smell of a damp potato
cellar that is poorly ventilated. The slightly unclean flavor tends to persist after the
sample has been expectorated.5
Cause. The most frequent cause is mold growth on the surface of the cheese due
to the availability of air at that surface during prolonged storage. Cheese packaging
is designed to exclude air at the surface of the cheese but if pinholes in the package
allow entry of oxygen, mold growth is inevitable.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Moldy cheese is easy to find or make. A
block of cheese loosely wrapped in plastic can be placed in the refrigerator for several
weeks. After a lawn of mold has grown on the cheese, cut off that mold and a thin
layer of cheese under it. The cheese under that is likely to have a moldy flavor.

Rancid
Description. A rancid flavor in cheese is characterized by a short reaction time, a
prominent odor that persists after expectoration, and an unpleasant, persistent, soapy,
bitter aftertaste. The volatile short-chain fatty acids can usually be smelled.5 A very
small amount of this flavor is part of a good cheese flavor, but amounts over and
above that are very disagreeable and indicative of problems.

Cause. Rancid cheese is a result of lipase enzyme action on milk fat. The lipase
may be from the raw milk or from psychrotrophic organisms growing in the milk.
Breaking up of the fat globules exposes new fat surfaces on which the lipase can
act. Inadvertent homogenization of raw milk or excessive agitation of raw milk in a
pump or tank can cause rancidity in the milk and resultant cheese. Late lactation or
mastitic milk can also become rancid.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A small lot of rancid cheese can be made
from milk that was homogenized several hours before pasteurization.

Sulfide
Description. Sulfide, skunky, or spoiled egg flavored cheese has a characteristic
flavor similar to water with a high sulfur content. The sulfury odor is noticed in the
nasal cavity when the air is slowly exhaled through the nose while working the
cheese in the mouth. The flavor is often accompanied by a sticky, pasty body.5
Cause. Release of the sulfur from the proteins in the cheese during aging is normal
and is part of the normal cheese flavor profile. Excessive release of sulfur due to
unbalanced microbial and enzymatic breakdown is the cause of the sulfide flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Incorporation of a trace of sodium bisulfide
into a small batch of processed cheese will simulate this flavor. It could also be
incorporated into grated or ground cheese and molded into a cold pressed mass. Be
careful not to allow asthmatic judges to taste the sample as some asthmatics may
have sensitivities to sodium bisulfate.

Unclean
Description. The unclean defect lacks a definitive sensory description. Unclean
flavored cheese will have a dirty, lingering, unpleasant aftertaste that persists long
after the sample has been expectorated. It is difficult to get the mouth to taste clean
again. It may occur in conjunction with high acid, bitter, and whey taint. It has been
described as a "dirty sock" taste.
Cause. Poor quality or old milk used for cheese manufacture is the cause of unclean
cheese. Proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes from the psychrotrophic bacterial growth
are responsible for the undesirable fermentations that occur during the aging of the
cheese.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A small lot of cheese can be made from
unclean milk to produce cheese that will have this defect. Alternatively a small
amount of limburger cheese may be added to a small batch of process cheese or
grated cheddar cheese to simulate the defect.

Whey Taint
Description. Whey taint has been described as a slightly sweet, slightly dirty, sour
whey flavor with a taste and odor characteristic of fermented whey. Some judges

describe it as an unclean flavor superimposed over a fermented/fruity flavor. The


flavor is noticed almost immediately upon placing the sample in the mouth. The
body will often have the characteristics of high moisture cheese and it may be accompanied by a white seams.5
Cause. Whey taint cheese is caused by poor whey expulsion from the curd and the
entrapment of whey around the blocks as the cheese is cheddared.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Whey taint cheese is fairly common and
chances are good that a survey of a number of commercial samples will produce
some with this defect. Cheese can be made to develop this defect by soaking a small
amount of fresh curd in whey, pressing into a block, and aging.

Yeasty
Description. Yeasty flavor is characterized by a sour bread dough, earthy taste, and
the aroma of rising bread dough. Yeasty flavor is noticed immediately as the sample
is placed in the mouth. It is often accompanied by a gassy body in the cheese.
Numerous holes in the cheese with regular spherical shape and shiny inside surfaces
are evidence of gas production and yeast.5
Cause. Yeasty flavor cheese is caused by yeast contamination and yeast growth in
the cheese. The yeast may have been introduced into the milk after pasteurization or
into the cheese curd during manufacture due to uncleanliness of workers or equipment.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Exposing trainees to the flavor and aroma
of rising bread dough is a good demonstration of the flavors and aromas that will
be found in yeasty cheese, A small batch of yeasty cheese can be purposely made
by contaminating the milk with yeast prior to the cheesemaking process. A small
amount of sucrose may be added to provide food for the yeast.

3.4.5.3 Body and Texture Defects


Corky
Description. When cheese is corky, difficulty may be experienced in plugging the
cheese with a trier due to resistance to penetration. The extracted plug resists deformation when pressure is applied to the plug by the thumb. When deformed slightly by
such pressure there is a tendency to recover the original shape. When a piece of cheese
is worked between the thumb and forefinger, the cheese does not work into a smooth
paste but instead tends to curl up and be distributed in irregular patches. This defect is
associated with dryness, opaque appearance, white seams, or acid cut color.5
Cause. This defect is most often found in cheese that is low in moisture, low in
fat, or young. It can also be caused by too little acid production in the curd.

Crumbly
Description. Crumbly or friable cheese tends to fall apart when sliced. Thin slices
are very difficult to cut without breaking. A plug of such cheese tends to break easily.
It is often accompanied by a mealy texture and acid cut and white seam color defects.
Cause. This body tends to develop in high acid and aged cheese. It also occurs in
cheese that has been frozen.5

Curdy
Description. Curdy cheese has the properties of fresh cheese curd. It is firm and
elastic and, when deformed by finger pressure, tends to spring back into its original
shape. It is accompanied by a flat undeveloped flavor.
Cause. This is a common body characteristic of *'green" cheese. Normally as
proteolysis occurs and the cheese ages, this characteristic will disappear.

Gassy
Description. Gassy cheese will contain regularly distributed holes about the size
of a pinhead with shiny internal surfaces. Usually the holes are concentrated near
the center of the block of cheese. They are often accompanied by a fruity flavor.5
Cause. Gassy cheese is caused by growth of gas-producing organisms in the
cheese. Lactococcus lactis spp. lactis var. diacetylactus or Leuconostoc sp. bacteria
will cause gassiness. Coliforms introduced into the cheese due to unsanitary practices
may also cause this defect. In some types of cheese this characteristic is encouraged
and the cultures are selected to accomplish gas and flavor production.5

Mealy
Description. When mealy cheese is worked between the thumb and forefingers
there is a lack of uniform smoothness. The body is interrupted with hard grains of
cheese and it spreads in irregular patches over the forefingers. It is also felt in the
mouth as the cheese is worked into a paste and rubbed against the roof of the mouth
with the tongue. It is generally accompanied by a dry texture with less than the usual
elasticity and a sharp flavor. White particles may be visible.5

Open
Description. Open cheese has mechanical openings throughout the body. These
openings are irregular in shape and occur at the curd interface. The inside surfaces
of these openings are dull in appearance, unlike the shiny inside surface of gassy
cheese. This defect is not accompanied by any particular flavor defect.5
Cause. Open cheese is the result of unfavorable pressing conditions that prevent
the cheese curds from completely knitting and closing. Press pressures that are too
low or curd temperatures that are too cool at pressing will cause this defect.

Pasty
Description. It is difficult to get a full, well rounded plug of pasty cheese. The
shape is easily distorted by pressure on the plug by the thumb. There is almost no
elasticity. When worked between the thumb and forefingers, it breaks down too
easily into a pasty sticky mass that adheres to the fingers.
Cause. High acid or high moisture cheese is often pasty. Contamination with atypical microorganisms may also be responsible for the unusually fast and complete
breakdown of the cheese body causing the defect. It is often accompanied by a
fermented/fruity flavor.5

Short
Description. A plug of cheese with a short texture shows a lack of elasticity. Rather
than flexing when it is bent, it breaks easily. It is often accompanied by high acid
flavor or a dry or open texture.5
Cause. Shortness can be caused by openness in the body that weakens the curd or
dryness that makes the cheese less flexible. It may also be caused by incomplete
development and aging of the body.

Weak
Description. Weak-bodied cheese offers little resistance as the cheese plug is cut
and drawn. Very little thumb pressure on the plug of cheese will break the curd. It
is often accompanied by whey taint, unclean, or fermented/fruity flavor.
Cause. Weak cheese is caused by retention of too much moisture or whey in the
curd as it was made. The high moisture encourages the growth of unwanted organisms in the cheese, giving the unclean or fermented/fruity flavors.5

3.4.5.4 Color Defects


Acid-Cut
Description. Cheese with acid-cut color defect generally appears bleached, faded,
dull, and lifeless. A thinly cut slice of cheese is opaque and lacks translucency.
Cause. Cheese having the acid-cut color almost always high acid or sour flavor caused
by incomplete removal of whey or moisture from the curd. The residual lactose in the
curd is sufficient to allow excessive lactic acid development in the curd.5

Atypical Color Specks


Description. Cheese with this defect has white, black, or red specks or red blotches
on the outside surface or the freshly cut inner surface of the cheese.
Cause. Carelessness during the manufacture of cheese is responsible for dirt or
rust specks being allowed into the milk or cheese curd during manufacture.5 Specks

of undissolved annatto can be present if the color solution has been destabilized. A
little residual calcium chloride solution in the container to which annatto is added
will cause coagulation of the color that may carry through to the finished cheese.

Color Too High


Description. This defect is characterized by high color intensity such as deep orange
hue of the cheese. No particular flavor or textural defects accompany high color.5
Cause. Excessive amounts of color added to the milk are responsible for this defect.
A deep color also develops on the surface of precut cheese when it becomes warm.
Mottled
Description. Cheese with the mottled color defect has irregularly shaped areas of
light and dark color with one shade blending into the other. Often the acid-cut defect
is evident certain areas with normal color between those areas.5
Cause. This defect may be the result of high moisture whey soaked curd being
pressed together with normal curd such that the color defect tends to develop in
some areas more than others. It may also be due to unusual microbial growth. When
unusual microbial activity is the cause, yeasty, or fermented/fruity flavors are likely
to accompany the defect. When nonuniform acid production is the cause, the cheese
with the acid-cut defect will have an acid flavor. The defect may be caused by
admixing curd with slightly different color intensities.5

Light Seams
Description. Cheese with the light seam or wavy defect is interlaced with lightcolored lines around each original piece of curd. It is most noticeable on a freshly
cut surface. This defect may be accompanied by short body or crumbly texture.
Cause. This defect is a result of physically altered curd surfaces before hooping.
The surface may be covered by free fat due to too warm a temperature or excessive
forking. The curds may be dried due to moisture evaporation, or may be unevenly
salted due to poor dissolution of salt locally.5

Dark Seams
Description. Unlike the light seamed cheese, cheese with this defect has a darkened
band of color between the curd particles. The dark band appears to be wider than
the seam itself and is very obvious on freshly cut cheese surfaces.80
Cause. The reason for the dark appearance of the cheese in the seam is not known.
Seamy cheese results when milk is warmed to cheesemaking temperatures in the cheese
vat. It is avoided by bringing the milk into the vat at cheesemaking temperatures.80

White Specks
Description. Cheese with this characteristic has distinct white specks interspersed
throughout the mass of the cheese. The specks vary in size and may be so small that

close examination is necessary to detect them. The larger specks may be detected in
the mouth. The presence of these specks is associated with a fully developed flavor.5
Cause. White specks are indicative of mature cheese. They generally contain calcium lactate and tyrosine. The accumulation of tyrosine is indicative of the breakdown to protein associated with the aging process. Colder storage temperatures favor
the growth of these particles.5

3.4.5.5 Finish Defects


High or Uneven Edges
Description. Cheese showing this defect has edges that are not square and symmetrical. They tend to curl under onto the end of the cheese, creating a protected
area for mold to start growing. These thin long edges are usually quite dry and they
do not cure properly.5

Lopsided, Misshapen
Description. Cheese with this defect has nonparallel sides and ends as a result of
uneven distribution in the hoops coupled with nonuniform pressure across the hoop.
Part of such a block may be undepressed and have a weak body and open texture.5

Uneven Sizes
Description. Cheese blocks should be uniform in size and well within tolerances for
that style of cheese. This defect is called when the size variation becomes large.
Carelessness in uniformly filling the hoops is the cause of this defect. Blocks of uneven size result in excessive trim loss when the blocks are cut to uniform retail sizes.5

3.4.6 Cultured Products

3.4.6.1 Introduction
Through the ages a natural way to preserve milk was to allow lactose-fermenting
organisms to grow in the milk, producing lactic acid and sometimes alcohol. With
the pH reduced, spoilage organism growth was discouraged. A variety of products
resulted from the various starting materials and treatments applied. In many cultures,
these fermented dairy products are preferred over fresh milk. The souring process
thickens the body and generated desirable and interesting flavors in addition to offering extended shelf life and improved safety. Consumption of cultured products is
growing in progressive countries where fresh fluid milk is preferred, due to health
philosopies, trends toward ethnic foods, and changing tastes.5
Products in this class include starter cultures, buttermilk, cultured skim milk, and
sour cream. Yogurt is considered a cultured product, but it is so different in character
that it is treated separately. Judging of these cultured products is not very well
developed. This is partly due to the lack of popularity of the products and the wide

variety of cultured products and opinions about what their characteristics ought to
be. The USDA does not grade cultured products and they are not (except for yogurt)
judged in competitive situations. Before shaking, the body of cultures to be used for
the manufacture of cultured products should be firm and show only a minimal
amount of whey. When the container is tilted, the product should break away cleanly
from the side and reveal an intact "liverlike" body. When stirred, it should break
down to a smooth body. It should have enough body to mound when held in a spoon.
When spread thinly, it should be free of lumps. The flavor blend should include acid
and diacetyl (buttery) notes and it should clean up nicely after expectoration. No
foreign or atypical flavor notes should be present.5 Cultured buttermilk should have
the same features as starter culture. Culture organisms used include Streptococcus
lactis ssp. lactis, or Streptococcus lactus ssp. cremorous or Lactococcus lactis ssp.
lactis var. diacetyllactis with Leuconostoc citrovorum or Leuconstoc dextranicum.
Cultured sour cream has similar properties except that it is more viscous due to the
18% or more milk fat content. Milk or cream for either is pasteurized with extra
heat treatment to improve water-holding capacity. Cream may be single-stage homogenized warm after pasteurization but before the culture is added. This clusters
the fat globules and gives body to the product.5
A suggested score card complete with defect terminology appropriate for the
range of cultured products is shown in Figure 3.23. A scoring guide is shown in
Table 3.14.

3.4.6.2 Flavor Defects


Astringent
Description. This sensory defect is actually a tactile sensation. Other descriptive
words are mouth coating, dry, puckery, chalky, and powdery. It is classified here
with flavor because it is sensed when the product is taken into the mouth. It is not
a common defect in beverage milk. After expectoration, the lining of the mouth may
feel shriveled or puckered.5
Cause. Not all the causes are known but it is usually associated with high heat
treatment of milk that has caused some aggregation of milk proteins. A specific
particle size of milk proteins or other milk constituents is thought to be responsible
for the sensation.5

Bitter
Description. The bitter off-flavor is detected after the sample has been in the mouth
for some time and then expectorated. The bitter flavor need not be accompanied by
any unusual aroma.
Cause. Contaminating organisms are the expected cause of bitterness in cultured
products. Breakdown of proteins into bitter peptides by these proteolytic organisms
is usually responsible.5

CULTURED DAIRY PRODUCT SCORE CARD


Product:
Buttermilk
Kefir.
Other.
Sour cream
SAMPLE NO.
1 2
3
4
5
6

Date:
Place:

Flavor

10

Normal range
1-10

No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5

Criticisms
Score
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Cheesy
Coarse (harsh)
Cooked
Fermented
Foreign
Green (Acetaldehyde)
High acid (sour)
Lacks acid (flat)
Lacks culture flavor
Lacks freshness
Metallic/oxidized
Rancid
Salty (too high)
Sauerkraut-like
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Unclean
Vinegar-like
Yeasty

No criticism
10

Body and
texture

Score
Curdy
Gassy
Grainy/gritty
Lumpy
Too firm (Over-stabilized)
Too thin (weak)

Figure 3,23 A suggested score card for the sensory evaluation of cultured milk products.
(Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission).
(Continued)

Cheesy
Description. Cheese cultures lack the typical cultured flavor and generally have a
proteolytic flavor note and a slightly bitter aftertaste.5 The flavor and aroma are
similar to that of Cheddar cheese.
Cause. This flavor also is a result of contamination of the culture with proteolytic
microorganisms and a breakdown of the protein and fat into components that give
the cheese flavor.

Appearance

5
Score
Churned fat
Dull (Lacks gloss)
Lacks uniformity
Unnatural color
Wheyed-off (Syneresis)

No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5

Product
Acidity

Score
% Titratable acidity
PH

Container and
3
Closure

Score
Short-fill
Over-fill
Soiled
Dusty

Total
Score

25

Score
per Sample

Evaluators:

Figure 3.24 (Continued)

Coarse
Description. This descriptor is one that has a broad meaning and multiple causes.
It refers to a general lack of delicate appeal, flavor balance, or bouquet that constitutes a well balanced cultured flavor. It may have excessive acid or just be lacking
in some of the volatile compounds that are needed for good balance.5
Cause. Culture strains that lack the ability to produce some of the important flavor
compounds may be the cause of coarse flavor. That may be due to improper culture
selection inappropriate propagation methods. It may also be due to overripening and
be accompanied by high titratable acidity.5

Fermented
Description. The fermented flavor describes a culture or cultured product that has
an acetic acid or vinegar flavor note.
Cause. Organisms that produce acetic acid in considerable quantities are responsible for the fermented flavor of cultures or cultured products.5

Foreign
Description. The term foreign is used to describe a number of flavors that are
imparted by addition of detergents, disinfectants, and sanitizers to milk or products
made from milk. The flavor is characteristic of the chemical that has been added.
The flavors are atypical of dairy products and do not develop in them. In some cases
the chemical may be detected by smell but in others it may not be detected until it
is tasted.5
Cause. Adding milk or milk product to a vat or running milk through piping that
has been washed or sanitized but not rinsed can cause a foreign flavor especially if
allowed to comingle with a considerable amount of liquid containing the chemical.
Other possible causes include treating the udder with ointments or medication, contamination with insecticides, and drenching the cow with chemical treatments.5

Green
Description. Green or acetaldehyde flavored cultures or cultured products have the
flavor of green apples. Acetaldehyde is a normal product of cultures and a normal
note in the flavor profile of cultures and cultured products, especially yogurt. When
the flavor is unbalanced because of the intensity of the green apple flavor it is said
to be green.5
Cause. Green flavor is caused by inappropriate cultures or cultures that have produced excessive amounts of acetaldehyde.

High Acid
Description. A sharp acid taste in cultured products is common and expected in
cultures and cultured products. It is detected by a sharp tingling sensation on the tip
of the tongue almost immediately after the product is placed in the mouth. It can be
accompanied by a lack or an excess of cultured flavor. Only if it is out of balance
and excessive for the product is it considered a defect.
Cause. The acid flavor is caused by the conversion of lactose to lactic acid by the
culture organisms. It becomes excessive by allowing the culture or product to
overripen before it is cooled. In a product, if the acid is excessive relative to the
other flavors, citrate may be necessary to assist in production of other flavors, the
inoculation rate of the lactic acid fermenter may be excessive, or the incubation time
too long.5

Lacks Acid (Hat)


Description. This defect refers to a lack of the normal amount of acidic flavor in
cultures or cultured products. Without sufficient acid the culture or cultured product
tastes flat. The flavor is accompanied by a higher pH or lower titratable acidity than
normal.
Cause. The low acid flavor is caused by the production of too little acid. That may
be the result of too short an incubation time, inactivity of the culture, or incubation

Table 3.14 A SUGGESTED SCORING GUIDE FOR THE SENSORY


DEFECTS OF CULTURED MILK PRODUCTS WITH ASSIGNED
SCORES FOR DESIGNATION DEFECT INTENSITIES
Intensity of Defect
Slight5

Definite

Pronounced0

Flavor defects3
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Coarse (harsh)
Cooked
Fermented (vinegary)
Foreign41
Green (acetaldehyde)
High acid (sour)
Lacks acid (flat)
Lacks freshness
Metallic/oxidized
Rancid
Salty (too high)
Sauerkraut-like
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Unclean
Yeasty

7
8
8
8
9
7
6
8
9
9
8
6
4
9
7
8
4
5

5
5
5
6
8
5
3
7
8
8
7
4
2
8
6
7
2
3

3
2
2
4
6
2
(f
6
7
7
6
2
0
6
5
5
0
0

Body and texture defectsf


Curdy
Gassy
Grainy/gritty
Lumpy
Too firm (overstabilized)
Too thin (weak)
Wheyed-off (syneresis)

4
4
4
4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(Continued)

temperatures either too high or too low for the specific culture involved.5 Inactive
culture can be due to sanitizers that have residual activity such as quarternary ammonia, phage specific to the culture, or a culture with poor viability. It can also be
due to lack of nutrients in the media to support growth.

Lacks Culture Flavor


Description. This defect is characterized by the absence of cultured aroma and
flavor. Often the flavor is a sharp high acid taste instead of the balanced cultured
flavor. Cultured products that have this defect have little or no flavor appeal.
Cause. This defect could be due to inappropriate culture strains, improper culture
handling, or presence of general microbial inhibitors or inhibitors specific to the

Table 3.14 (Continued)


Appearancef
Churned fat
Dull (lacks gloss)
Lacks uniformity
Surface growth
Unnatural color
Wheyed-off (syneresis)

4
4
4
1
4
4

3
3
3
0
3
3

2
2
2
0
2
2

Product acidity8
PH
% Titratable acidity
Container and closureh

Reproduced with permission from ref. 5.


a
"No criticism" for flavor is assigned a score of 10. Normal range is 1-10 for a salable prodb
c
uct.
Highest assignable score for defect of slight intensity.
Highest assignable score for
defect of pronounced intensity. A score of 0 (zero) may be assigned if the defect renders the product
d
unsalable.
Due to the variety of possible foreign off-flavors, suggesting a fixed scoring guide is
not appropriate. Some foreign flavor defects warrant a 0 (zero) score even when their intensity is slight
c
(e.g., gasoline, pesticides, lubricating oil).
An assigned score of zero (0) indicates an unsalable
f
product.
"No criticism" for body and texture and appearance categories is assigned a score of 5.
g
Normal range for either category is 1-5 for a salable product.
"No criticism" for product acidity
is assigned a score of 2; penalty point deductions for pH or % T.A. would have to be devised for each
h
cultured product evaluated by this scoring system. Normal range is 1 - 2 for a salable product.
"No
criticism" for container and closure is assigned a score of 3; penalty point deductions would have to be
devised for any assessed defects or criticisms. Normal range is 1-3 for a salable product.

flavor producing strains. If acid is being produced then the problem is with the flavor
producing organisms.5

Metallic/Oxidized
Description. The first impression when tasting metallic or oxidized culture or cultured product may be that the sample is flat but as the sample is held in the mouth,
a sort of puckery cardboard, papery off-flavor may become evident.5 The flavor is
similar to that of a copper coin. It tends to remain in the mouth after the sample has
been expectorated.
Cause. This flavor is due to autoxidation in the milk used to produce culture or
cultured products. It can be catalyzed by traces of copper or corrodible metal that
has come in contact with the product.

Rancid
Description. There are several characteristics of rancid off-flavor. There is a characteristic odor derived from volatile fatty acids that have deesterified from the fat.
Immediately after putting the sample in the mouth, the objectionable flavor may not
be apparent but as the sample reaches the back of the mouth, soapy, bitter, and
possibly unclean flavors are perceived. The soapy and bitter notes reside long after
the sample is expectorated. A high percentage of prospective judges do not detect
or have a high threshold for the soapy and bitter notes.5

Cause. Rancid flavor is usually caused by disrupting the milk fat globule while
active lipase is present. The lipase enzyme, which catalyzes the deesterification of
the fatty acids from the glycerol, is able to get to its substrate when the fat globule
membrane is disturbed. This happens when raw milk is held static in a running
centrifugal pump, when raw milk is homogenized before it is pasteurized, or when
raw milk is inadvertently mixed with homogenized milk. It may also occur when
microorganisms, particularly psychrotrophs, produce and release Upases into milk
or cultured products from which it is made.5

Salty
Description. The descriptive term "salty" is commonly known and is a good term
to describe this flavor. It is perceived quickly on placing the sample in the mouth.
No aroma or odor necessarily accompanies the salty flavor. It lends a cleansing
feeling to the mouth.5
Cause. Salty flavor can come from the milk but in cultured product is most often
due to excessive salt added to the product.

Unclean
Description. The unclean defect lacks a definitive sensory description. Unclean
flavored culture or cultured product will have a dirty, lingering, unpleasant aftertaste
that persists long after the sample has been expectorated. It is difficult to get the
mouth to taste clean again. It may occur in conjunction with bitter flavor. It has been
described as a "dirty sock" taste.
Cause. Poor quality or old milk used for cultured product manufacture is the cause
of unclean cultured product. Proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes from the psychrotropic bacterial growth are responsible for the undesirable fermentations that occur
during culturing or storage.

Yeasty (Cultured)
Description. The "yeasty" and "earthy" flavor and aroma reminiscent of rising
bread dough is a good demonstration of the "yeasty" flavor. It is often associated
with an acetic acid or "vinegar" flavor.
Cause. Growth of yeast is usually responsible for this flavor but it may be due to
bacterial fermentation by certain kinds of psychrotrophic bacteria. It is due to poor
sanitation and lack of temperature control.67

3.4.6.3 Body and Texture Defects


Curdy
Description. Curdy buttermilk or sour cream appears to have a rough nonhomogeneous body. Curds can be seen on the lip of the container after pouring out some

of the sample and are also obvious when a small portion of the product is diluted
with water. Visible curd particles settle to the bottom of the container. The curdy
defect is associated with a thin body.5
Cause. Curdy texture is a result of low level of milk solids in the product base,
movement or agitation of the coagulum during incubation, or inappropriate cultures
for the product.
Gassy
Description. When cultures and cultured products that should be free of gas have
this defect, there are excessive bubbles in the broken curd or streaks in unbroken
coagulum where gas is escaping. If whey has separated, it will collect under or in
the middle of the buoyant curd. The product will develop carbonation flavor. These
characteristics are normal in buttermilk. It is a defect when it is found in sour cream
and most other cultured products.5
Cause. Some cultures are gas producers. Those in buttermilk that produce flavor
components are also gas producers, so gassiness is normal in buttermilk. It is not
desirable in most cultures and cultured products. When it is out of place, it is usually
due to contamination with gas-producing contaminant organisms such as coliforms
or yeast. Unclean, fermented/fruity, yeasty, or earthy flavor defects will usually
accompany microbial contamination. Gassiness can also be due to the selection of
inappropriate starters.5

Grainy/Gritty
Description. Gritty and grainy sour cream is detected in the mouth. Small particles
in the body of sour cream are detected by pressing the top of the tongue against the
roof of the mouth and noting a mealy feel.
Cause. A grainy defect in cultures or cultured products is often due to incompletely
dissolved dry ingredients in the product base.5
Lumpy
Description. Lumpy cultures or cultured products have large lumps of firm curd
interspersed throughout the product. The body may otherwise be normal.
Cause. Lumpiness is an aggravated case of the curdy defect caused by premature
agitation of the product as it is being incubated. Low solids in the product mix favors
the curdy and lumpy defect.5

Ropy
Description. Ropy cultures and cultured product tends to string out as the product
is poured or spooned. When product is poured, a continuous string of the product
stretches from the container to the product below like thin syrup or mucus. It does

not plop and break. When a spoon full is lifted from the surface as it is poured the
same effect is observed.
Cause. Ropy defect is usually due to polysaccharide producing bacteria in the
culture. In some cultured products this internal stabilization system is desirable.
Dutch yogurt is famous for its ropy characteristics and some types of domestic yogurt
utilize this type of culture. It is considered a defect when it is excessive or unwanted
and is likely due to contamination with inappropriate gum-producing organisms.5 It
can also be due to partially broken down stabilizers. Some types of starch, for example, are stringy or can be made to be so by excessive shear.

Too Finn
Description. Product is too firm when it has excessive viscosity and resists pouring.
In the case of sour cream it refers to the inability to stir it with a brittle, lightweight
plastic spoon without breaking the spoon. Another way to judge sour cream in the
original container is to insert a spoon or small spatula near the edge of the product
and twist it. If the entire contents of the container turns with the spoon, it is too firm.
The product may appear dull and lack the usual sheen.5
Cause. Product that is too firm is generally due to excessive use cf stabilizers or
excessive solids levels in the product mix.

Too Thin
Description. Weak-bodied cultures and buttermilk are observed by tilting the intact
coagulum to a 45 angle. If the product breaks and flows, it is too weak. The broken
agitated curd will break and flow too readily when it has lower than typical viscosity.
Low culture titratable acidity ^0.75 often accompanies this defect. Weak buttermilk
drips and splashes similar to water and exhibits a dull appearance. It is quite subject
to wheying off. Weak sour cream is too thin to spoon onto a potato and once there
will not mound and stay in place. It is too thin to have a generous amount cling to
a chip when used as a dip.
Cause. Thin cultured products can be due to understabilization or too low a solids
level in the product mix. It can also be caused by heat treatment of the mix insufficient to denature the whey proteins and potentiate their natural stabilizing ability.
Other possible causes are impaired culture activity or excessive proteolytic activity.5

3.4.6A Appearance Defects


Dull
Description. This defect occurs in sour cream and is observed as a dull matt appearance to the surface of the product. Sour cream should have a glossy sheen or
silky appearance.
Cause.

A dull appearance often accompanies a thick, overstabilized body.5

Next Page

Lacks Uniformity
Description.
appearance.

This defect is called when the product lacks a homogeneous uniform

Cause. Nonuniform appearance is generally caused by incomplete mixing of the


ingredients or absence of or inadequate homogenization of the product mix.

Surface Growth
Description. This defect is easily observed. When colonies or microbial growth
are observed on the undisturbed surface of the coagulum or in the headspace of a
cultured product, this defect is called. It is found only in product that has been stored
refrigerated for weeks.
Cause. Product with this defect has been contaminated due to unsanitary practices
after processing and prior to or at the filler. The surface of the product serves as the
growth medium and air in the headspace supports the growth of the aerobic yeasts
and molds. Consumer product can develop this defect when product is opened and
partially used, then recovered and placed back in the refrigerator and forgotten.

Unnatural Color
Description. This is a rare defect. It may be present in sour cream as a snowy white
appearance lacking the usual cream color. It may be present in buttermilk-containing
butter granules that are too light in color to have the necessary contrast. Any time
the color of the product is not within the normal range, it is appropriate to assign
this defect.
Cause. White sour cream and pale butter granules are caused by lack of carotene
in the butterfat. The carotene content is low in the winter when the cows are in the
feed lot. Other cases of off color may be due to inadvertent inappropriate coloring
of the product.5

Wheyed-Off
Description. This defect is observed in unbroken coagulum as a shrunken coagulum with free whey around the edges or pooled on areas on the top of the curd.
In buttermilk the whey may be found under the floating curd.
Cause. This defect is caused either by understabilization or by inability of the milk
proteins to hold the water. Selection of appropriate stabilizers and stabilizer levels
will help discourage syneresis. Proteins can be made to hold a maximum amount of
water by increasing the pasteurization temperatures or holding times to denature the
whey proteins.5

Previous Page

3.4.7 Yogurt

3.4.7.1 Introduction
Yogurt is the oldest known fermented milk product dating back to at least 5000 B.C.
It has been a staple for people in eastern Mediterranean countries and has been known
by at least 13 different names. It grew in popularity in Europe in the early 1900s
after claims that it would prolong life were circulated. It was successfully introduced
into the United States in 1939 on the east coast.5 Flavored, fruited, and sweetened
varieties have grown in popularity throughout the United States.
Two bacteria, Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus salaverious ssp. thermophilous, work together in warm (29 to 45C) milk to produce
this acidic "green apple" flavored product. Body varies from thin and drinkable to
thick and custardlike.5-81'82 Traditionally the milk used had been boiled to increase
the solids, add body, and prevent syneresis. The same effects are now achieved by
fortification with powder, condensation by vacuum or membrane, then applying a
heat treatment to the mix to denature the whey proteins to improve water binding
and prevent syneresis.5'63'74 The federal definition of yogurt specifies the cultures,
sets the minimum fat, solids, and acidity levels, and allows pasteurization after culturing.75 It also lists allowable sweeteners. Recently, aspartame was approved for
use in yogurt.76
Yogurt is a comparatively new product in the United States, so procedures for its
evaluation are new and not yet as uniform as for the other products. The USDA does
not grade yogurt and collegiate judging of strawberry prestirred yogurt began in 1977.
As a rule, 6- or 8-oz. single serving units are evaluated. The cartons are covered or
placed inside another carton to conceal their identity. Temperature of evaluation is
between 1.7 and 100C to standardize the effect of temperature on body. Before the
sample is disturbed, the top of the sample is examined for surface growth, shrinkage
away from the sides of the container, and wheying off. Color and overall appearance
are observed in the undisturbed sample. Some product is then spooned onto a plate.
With the spoon full of sample, it is held up to eye level and examined. A moderate
mounding is desired. The spoonful of product is examined for several color, appearance, body, and texture qualities. The aroma is observed and the sample is placed in
the mouth. In the mouth, the yogurt is manipulated while observing several body,
texture, and flavor qualities. Initial, midpoint, and delayed taste sensations are noted.
The basic tastes are observed first, then the aromatic flavors emerge as the product
warms. The sample is expectorated and aftertaste and' * clean up" are noted.5
The ADSA score card for Swiss-style flavored yogurt is shown as Figure 3.24,
the scoring guide is shown in Table 3.15, and the Collegiate Contest Yogurt Score
Card is shown as Figure 3.25.

3.4.7.2 Flavor Defects


Acetaldehyde
Description. Synonymous descriptive terms for acetaldehyde flavored yogurt are
coarse, green, and green apple flavor. Acetaldehyde is a normal component of yogurt

CONTEST SWISS STYLE YOGURT SCORE CARD


Flavor:
Date:

Flavor

Costumer No.
A.D.S.A.

10

No criticism
10

Normal range
1-10

Body and
texture
5

Criticisms
Contestant
Score
Score
Grade
Criticisms
Acetaldehyde (coarse)
Bitter
Cooked
Foreign
High acid
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks flavoring
Lacks freshness
Lacks sweetness
Low acid
Old ingredient
Oxidized
Rancid
Too high flavoring
Too sweet
Unnatural flavoring
Unclean

SAMPLE NO.
4
5
6

Total
Grades

Contestant
score
Score
Grade

No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5
Appearance 5

Criticisms

Gel-like
Grainy
Ropy
Too firm
Weak

Contestant score
Score
Grade

No criticism
5
Normal range
1-5

Criticisms
Atypical color
Color leaching
Excess fruit
Free whey
Lacks fruit
Lumpy
Shrunken
Surface growth

Total score of
each sample
Total grade
per sample
Source: American Dairy Science Association (1987)

Total

Final grade
Rank

Figure 3.24 The ADSA contest score card for swiss-style yogurt. (Reproduced from ref. 5,
with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

Table 3.15

THE ADSA SCORING GUIDE FOR SENSORY DEFECTS OF


SWISS-STYLE YOGURT (SUGGESTED FLAVOR, BODY
AND TEXTURE, AND COLOR AND APPEARANCE SCORES
FOR DESIGNATED DEFECT INTENSITIES)
Intensity of Defect
Slight

Definite

Pronounced

Flavor criticisms
Acetaldehyde (green)
Acid (too high)
Acid (too low)
Bitter
Cooked
Foreign
Lacks fine flavor
Lacks flavoring
Lacks freshness
Lacks sweetness
Old ingredient
Oxidized/metallic
Rancid
Too high flavoring
Too sweet
Unclean
Unnatural flavoring
Yeasty

9
9
9
9
9
8
9
9
8
9
7
6
4
9
9
6
8
6

7
7
8
7
8
7
7
8
7
8
5
4
2
8
8
4
6
4

5
5
6
5
6
6
5
7
6
7
3
1
0b
7
7
1
4
2

Body and texture criticisms0


Gellike
Grainy/gritty
Ropy
Too firm
Weak, too thin

4
4
3
4
4

3
3
2
3
3

2
2
1
2
2

Appearance criticisms0
Atypical color
Color leaching
Excess fruit
Free whey
Lacks fruit
Lumpy
Shrunken

4
4
4
4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2
2
2
2

Source: American Dairy Science Association, 1990


a
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 10. Normal range is 1-10 for salable product.
b
An assigned score of 0 (zero) is indicative of unsalable product.
c
"No criticisms" is assigned a score of 5. Normal range is 1-5 for salable product.

MARKING INSTRUCTIONS
unwosHNca^y
PROPER
M
I PROPER
MARK
MARKS
ERASE CHANGES CLEANLY AND
COMPLETELY
DO NOT MAKE ANY STRAY MARKS
CRITICISMS
FLAVOR

PRCOMTESTANT NO DATE
SWISS STYLE
YOGURT

NCS Trana-Opcti* MP30-73S2S-321 A2400


SAMPLE NUMBER

R(TTEB

NO
CRITICISM FOREKSN
10
NORMAL

LACKS FWE FLAVOR


LACKS <SMftSS

RANGE
1-10

LQWACID

OXlOiXCO
TOO HKSsK $UWORlNG
MNWAfUWAt n>VQ8*6

ViASTV

BODY A N D
TEXTURE
NO

GRAtNY

CRITICISM
5

TOOFWM

NORMAL
RANGE
1-5
APPEARANCE
A N D COLOR
NO

COLOR LEACHiMO

CRITICISM
5

NORMAL
RANGE

EXCtSSFRUtT

L A C K S FRUIT
SHRUNKEN

1-5

Figure 3.25 Collegiate contest swiss style yogurt score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with
permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

flavor but when it overpowers the other flavor note, it is a defect. The characterizing
flavor should predominate with acid, acetaldehyde, and sweetness filling in.
Cause. Acetaldehyde is produced by the Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus
culture organisms at incubation temperatures above 37.8C. In plain yogurt, typical
acetaldehyde levels are 5 to 40 ppm. The threshold is about 12 ppm. Overripening
at higher incubation temperatures may produce excessive amounts of acetaldehyde
and produce this defect. Lack of sweetener will also allow the acetaldehyde flavor
to come through too strongly.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Demonstration samples can be prepared by
adding acetaldehyde at about 30 to 60 ppm into strawberry-prestirred yogurt. A little
stock solution can be made in milk which is added to the yogurt dropwise while
stirring until the flavor is at a desired level.

Bitter
Description. Bitter is one of the basic taste sensations that does not necessarily
have an associated aroma. It is detected at the base of the tongue. The reaction time
is fairly slow so it is most strongly sensed after the yogurt is expectorated. The
intensity builds and it is hard to rinse away and refresh the tongue.
Cause. Bitter yogurt results from contaminated yogurt cultures, poor quality milk
ingredients that have been contaminated with psychrotrophic microorganisms, or
extremely poor quality fruit or flavoring.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Solutions of 1% quinine sulfate may be
added to yogurt. Add 2 ml for a slight and 4 for definite.5

Cooked
Description. A mild sulfur-like, slightly nutty, cooked egg white flavor may occasionally be encountered in yogurt. Yogurt and fruit flavors are effective masking
media so the cooked defect has to be strong to be noticed. It is objectionable only
when definite or pronounced. It may detract from the intended refreshing characteristic of the yogurt. It is most easily detected when the yogurt lacks acid or lacks
flavoring.
Cause. Yogurt mix is usually given a severe heat treatment to denature the whey
proteins and give syneresis resistance and body to the product. This treatment develops a cooked flavor. The strength of the competing and covering flavors determines whether or not the cooked flavor will be noticed.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Yogurt mix can be heated to 900C and held
for 30 min prior to cooling and culturing. It can be broken and cooled at pH 4.5,
lightly flavored, and lightly sweetened prior to tasting.

Foreign
Description. An off-flavor that is entirely unlike any off flavor that might be anticipated to develop in yogurt. This descriptor is reserved for the flavors introduced

by inadvertently added chemical. The expected characteristics are as varied as the


chemicals that might be causing the flavors.
Cause. Most of these atypical flavors are caused by cleaning compounds, chlorine,
iodine, or phenol.5 Any one of many compounds that are inadvertently added to
product or whose fumes are absorbed by product may be responsible for the flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. A version of foreign flavor caused by sanitizer can be produced by adding 1A ml of a 5% sodium hyperchloride solution to
300 ml of good yogurt. In the same manner, traces of other nontoxic chemical
cleaners and sanitizers could be used to taint cream which in turn will taint cottage
cheese.5

High Acid
Description. Yogurt is a tart product normally. This defect refers to cases where
the tartness is overpowering the other flavors in the system. The high acid defect is
often confused with the '' green apple" o r ' ' acetaldehyde'' defect. High acid flavored
yogurt is usually below pH of 3.8. It usually dissipates quickly and leaves a refreshed
feeling in the mouth.
Cause. High acid yogurt is caused by an extended incubation period, high incubation temperatures, or insufficient cooling at the end of the incubation and flavoring
process. Other acids in the fruit flavoring can contribute to the excessive acid defect.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. High acid is a common defect in yogurt.
Food training samples are probably available on the retail shelf. If samples need to
be generated, it can be done by making a small batch of yogurt and incubating until
the pH drops well below 3.8. It can also be made by adding citric, malic, or lactic
acid to a sample of good quality yogurt sufficient to reduce the pH into that range.

Lacks Fine Flavor


Description. This defect refers to a flavor system that is out of balance. Adjustments
in the flavoring system, the quantity of flavoring, the acid level, or the acetaldehyde
level are probably all that would be necessary to balance the flavor and achieve a
pervect score. It is not far enough off in any one of those factors to be called high
or low acid, acetaldehyde, or lacks flavor.
Cause. Slight deficiencies or excesses in the acid, acetaldehyde, or flavor level are
to blame for this defect.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A survey of samples available on the market
is the best way to find samples with this defect. It is a fairly common defect. One
might also blend excellent product one at a time with products that have acetaldehyde, high acid, low acid, or lacks flavoring defects.

Lacks Flavoring
Description. This defect is characterized by a weak characterizing flavor impact.
Sweetness, acid, and acetaldehyde flavor overpower the characterizing flavor.5

Cause. The cause of this defect is obviousthe use of too little flavor either purposefully or accidentally. Because good fruit is expensive, the temptation is to minimize the amount that is added. Carrying this too far will result in yogurt that lacks
flavoring.
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect can be simulated by blending a
good quality yogurt with plain yogurt and sweetening to the appropriate level. The
proportions blended will depend on the flavor intensity of the good yogurt and the
degree of this defect desired.

Lacks Freshness
Description. Yogurt with this defect is characterized by a stale aftertaste. The flavor
of aged milk powder or whey powder is evident in the finished product. This flavor
comes on late after the product has been in the mouth a while. The stale aftertaste
remains in the mouth after the sample has been expectorated. When the flavor becomes
so strong that it is no longer a background flavor, the term old ingredient is used.
Cause. The cause of the lacks freshness defect is usually the use of old stale
powdered milk or condensed milk to build the solids of the yogurt mix. It can also
be due to the use of old stale fruit in the flavoring system.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. If a sample demonstrating this defect cannot
be found on the market, one can be made by formulating a small batch of yogurt at
home or in the laboratory and purposely using stale powdered milk to build the body
to about 12 to 14% milk solids. Another quicker method is to incorporate stale
ingredients into finished yogurt. Stirring a small amount of powder into good flavored yogurt may make a reasonably representative sample. The amount of stale
powder used is adjusted to achieve the desired intensity of flavor. The powder is
worked to a paste in a small portion of the yogurt and then mixed into the sample.

Lacks Sweetness
Description. There is a broad range of sweetness that is acceptable in flavored
yogurt. Usually 4% to 12% sucrose is needed to balance the acid and the intensity
of the characterizing flavor. When the amount of sweetener is insufficient, this defect
is called. It is one of the more confusing yogurt flavors because experts and consumers are not necessarily in agreement as to what is an appropriate level of
sweetener.
Cause. The lack sweetness defect is caused by insufficient sweetener in the flavored
yogurt to balance and enhance the other flavors of yogurt.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. This defect can be simulated by blending
an ideal yogurt with plain unsweetened yogurt and then adding flavors sufficient to
give a good characterizing flavor and not adding additional sweetener.

Low Acid
Description, Yogurt that has a low acid defect lacks the tart, refreshing character
of normal yogurt. It tends to taste more like a neutral pudding than yogurt. The pH
of low acid product will be above 4.5.
Cause. Low acid yogurt may be caused by imbalanced yogurt culture with a scarcity of acid-loving Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus organisms, underactive
cultures due to an inhibitor, insufficient heat treatment of the base, or excessive
sweetener level.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Demonstration product can be made by
formulating a small laboratory or home batch and purposefully cutting short the
incubation by breaking, flavoring, and cooling as soon as the coagulum is formed
at around pH 4.6. It can be accentuated by adding a little excess sweetener.

Old Ingredient
Description. Old ingredient is an extension of the lacks freshness defect. When the
stale flavor becomes very obvious and predominates over the acid, acetaldehyde,
and characterizing flavors and the sweetness, this descriptor is applied. The stale
flavor masks the expected refreshing flavor of the yogurt.
Cause. Use of stale milk powder, whey powder, or condensed milk in the yogurt
mix is probably the cause of old ingredient defects. It is occasionally caused by stale
stabilizer or emulsifier.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. A sample demonstrating this defect can be
made by making a small batch or yogurt at home or in the laboratory and purposely
using stale powdered milk to build the body to about 12 to 14% milk solids. Another
quicker method is to incorporate stale ingredients into finished yogurt. Stirring 2 to
4% stale powder into good flavored yogurt may make a reasonably representative
sample. The powder is worked to a paste in a small portion of the yogurt and then
mixed into the sample.

Oxidized
Description. Oxidized yogurt has cardboard, tallow, or metallic flavors. It is very
uncommonly noticed because of the masking effect of the strong yogurt flavor.
Cause. Oxidized yogurt is caused by the use of ingredients in the mix that have
developed the defect. The metallic oxidized defect is caused by the presence of
corrodible metal in the lines or tanks that come in contact with the mix. These metal
ions catalyze lipid oxidation. The sunlight oxidized flavor is caused by exposure of
milk to sunlight or fluorescent lights, causing a reaction that involves the riboflavin
and causing the cardboard or burnt feathers flavor. That flavor is common in retail
milk.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Oxidized yogurt can be made by generating
oxidized milk either by exposure to sunlight or exposure to copper or CuSO4

followed by a period for development of the flavor, and then using that milk to make
a small batch of yogurt. An alternate method would be to add about 10 to 20% of
intensely oxidized milk to good quality yogurt.

Rancid
Description. There are several characteristics of rancid off-flavor. There is a characteristic odor derived from volatile fatty acids that have deesterified from the fat.
Immediately after putting the sample in the mouth, the objectionable flavor may not
be apparent but as the sample reaches the back of the mouth, soapy, bitter, and
possibly unclean flavors are perceived. The soapy and bitter notes reside long after
the sample is expectorated. A high percentage of prospective judges do not detect
or have a high threshold for the soapy and bitter notes.5
Cause. Rancid flavor is usually caused by disrupting the milk fat globule while
active lipase is present. The lipase enzyme, which catalyzes the deesterification of
the fatty acids from the glycerol, is able to get to its substrate when the fat globule
membrane is disturbed. This happens when raw milk or product mix is held static
in a running centrifugal pump, when raw milk is homogenized before it is pasteurized, or when raw milk is inadvertently mixed with homogenized milk which is
subsequently used as an ingredient for yogurt. In making yogurt it is quite possible
that raw and homogenized ingredients are mixed inadvertently. It may also occur
when microorganisms, particularly psychotrophs, produce and release lipases into
dairy ingredients used to make yogurt.5
Preparation of Training Samples. Rancid milk can be prepared by adding equal
quantities of raw milk to freshly pastuerized and homogenized milk and holding
several hours cold while the flavor develops.5 The rancid milk can either be used as
an ingredient to make a small batch of yogurt normally or pasteurized rancid milk
can be blended into good quality finished yogurt at the rate of 10 to 20%.

Too High Flavoring


Description. Yogurt with this defect has too intense a characterizing flavor. It may
be excessively aromatic and quite out of balance. What are supposed to be delicate
flavor notes seem harsh.
Cause. Miscalculation or lack of control in blending flavor materials or in adding
those flavors to yogurt are responsible for excessive flavor.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Yogurt fruits generally come complete with
the flavorings included. Excessive fruit/flavor blend can be added to the yogurt to
simulate this flavor. In this case both the show of fruit and the flavor would be
excessive. One could obtain just the flavor from the fruit supplier or a flavor house
and add an extra dose of flavor to ideally flavored and fruited yogurt.

Too Sweet
Description. When the sweetness of the yogurt is so strong that it overpowers the
flavor system and the acid, it is criticized for this defect. The sweetness should be

just enough to complement the berry or fruit flavors and balance the acid but not
strong enough to cover it.
Cause. This is a common defect of yogurt in the United States. Our sweet tooth
encourages many yogurt makers to add excessive sweetener, thinking that the consumer finds it more acceptable. It may also be caused by formulation error.
Preparation of Samples for Training. Ideal yogurt can be made to exemplify this
defect by adding an additional 5% sucrose and stirring until it is dissolved.

Unnatural Flavoring
Description. Yogurt is unnaturally flavored when the character of the flavor does
not agree with the flavor on the label.5 For example, when the strawberry yogurt
tastes like cherry or when banana flavor has found its way into the vanilla yogurt it
is unnaturally flavored. The flavor may not be identifiable but also not characteristic
of the labeled flavor.
Cause. Unnatural flavoring can be caused by inadequacies in the flavor source or
use of uncharacteristic flavor enhancers or other natural flavors (WONF) that are
intended to extend the flavor but succeed only in changing its character. Another
cause is lack of control or changes in the process will alter the flavor and cause this
defect.
Preparation of Samples for Training. There are a lot of possible variations of this
defect. A good judge would need to be able to recognize departures from normal
flavor. One could obtain a good set of characterizing flavor systems without fruit
from flavor houses and add traces to good quality yogurt to give uncharacteristic
flavor notes. With a little more effort, fruit and color systems without flavor could
be made or obtained. Addition of a fruit and color system of one character and a
flavor system of another would result in good training samples.

Unclean
Description. Unclean flavored yogurt is noticeable, unpleasant, and serious. The
judge will note a dirty flavor or unpleasant aftertaste that lingers after the sample
has been expectorated. It discourages a consumer or a judge from taking a second
taste. A "dirty sock" or limburger flavor would be classified as unclean.
Cause. The unclean flavor is due to the proteolysis of proteins producing volatile
products. Some of the amines such as putricine or cadaverine produced are particularly offensive.5
Preparation of Samples for Training. Working a little limburger cheese into a
thin paste and blending it into the yogurt will give product with an unclean character.

Yeasty
Description. The "yeasty" and "earthy" flavor and aroma reminiscent of rising
bread dough is a good demonstration of the "yeasty" flavor. It is often associated
with an acetic acid or "vinegar" flavor.5

Cause. Growth of yeast is usually responsible for this flavor but it may be due to
bacterial fermentation. Certain kinds of psychotrophic bacteria can be responsible
for this objectional off flavor. It is due to poor sanitation and lack of temperature
control.67-68
Preparation of Samples for Training. Having students smell and taste rising bread
dough will acquaint them with the flavor and aroma of products that have this
character.

5.4.7.3 Body and Texture Defects


Gellike
Description. When yogurt has this gellike defect, a spoonful of yogurt viewed at
eye level will have a high ridge with sharp edges and tend to jiggle like a gelatin
dessert when it is moved. Product released from an inverted cup will retain the shape
of the cup. It may have a higher degree of gloss than normal and "slick'' gelatinlike
mouth feel. As the product is eaten, it offers some resistance and breaks apart into
small chunks. That texture dulls some of the refreshing characteristics expected in
yogurt.5
Cause. The gellike defect is caused by excessive use of gelatin or other gel-forming
stabilizers. It is often done purposely to give the product stability and resistance to
syneresis through distribution. Some manufacturers believe the consumer actually
prefers that type of yogurt.

Grainy
Description. The grainy defect is best detected in the mouth. Small hard grains
will be evident in the body of the yogurt as the tongue is pressed and rubbed against
the roof of the mouth.
Cause. Grainy yogurt can be caused by incomplete hydration of dry ingredients
into the mix, acid development that is too rapid or excessive, incubation temperature
too high, homogenization at too high a temperature, excessive amounts of culture,
inappropriate stabilization system, or improperly blended yogurt base with fruit.5

Ropy
Description. Ropy yogurt tends to string out as the product is poured or spooned.
When product is poured, a continuous string stretches from the container to the
product below like thin syrup or mucus. It does not plop and break. When a spoon
is immersed and lifted 5 to 8 cm above the yogurt surface, the yogurt strings and
stretches like taffy or glue.
Cause. Ropy defect is usually due to polysaccharide producing Lactobacillus delveccii ssp. bulgaricus strains in the culture.5 In some yogurt products this internal
stabilization system is desirable. Dutch yogurt is famous for its ropy characteristics

and some types of domestic yogurt utilize this type of culture for stabilization. It is
considered a defect when it is excessive or unwanted and is likely due to contamination with inappropriate gum-producing organisms. It can also be due to partially
broken down stabilizers. Some types of starch, for example, are stringy or can be
made to be so by excessive shear.

Too Firm
Description. When yogurt exceeds the consistency of a light custard it is too firm.
A spoonful of yogurt viewed from the side at eye level will appear rounded and
mounded high. In the mouth it gives the impression of heavy pudding and does not
give the refreshing feeling of the ligher bodied product.
Cause. Yogurt that is too firm is generally due to excessive use of stabilizers or
excessive solids levels in the product mix.5

Weak
Description. Weak yogurt has a thin consistency. When a spoonful is viewed from
a side profile, the product is not mounded in the spoon and the surface is flat. Some
of the spoon's contents may spill over the edge of the spoon. When spooned or
poured out into a dish or on a plate it flattens and does not mound at all.
Cause. Causes of weak yogurt are understabilization, low levels of milk solids in
the mix, under-incubation such that the product has not fully ripened, or too low a
pasteurization temperature to convert the protein system into a good water binder.5

3.4.7.4 Appearance and Color Defects


Atypical Color
Description. When the hue or intensity of the yogurt color does not match the
labeled flavor, it has the atypical color defect. This defect is also called when the
color is dull or has a gray appearance or when the product is under-colored. The
acceptable range is very broad. Strawberry yogurt exhibits this defect if it is almost
white, bright pinkish red, or too blue.
Cause. Atypical color for strawberry Swiss-style yogurt is caused by color addition
that makes the yogurt too light, too vivid, too blue, or too pink. The use of recommended levels of high quality flavorings and colorings at an appropriate pH, following the supplier's recommendations, will usually give an appropriate color.

Color Leaching
Description. The color-leaching defect applies to flavors that have piece integrity
when the color in the pieces migrates to the yogurt. It becomes obvious when the
yogurt is spooned and the color from the pieces streaks across the cut surface of the
yogurt.

Cause. Leaching color is difficult to prevent and is most obvious when the fruit is
highly colored. It is aggravated by large fruit and berry pieces, colors that are not
acid stable in the pH range of 3.8 to 4.3, and incomplete blending of the fruit with
the yogurt base before the filling operation.5
Excess Fruit
Description. Since the fruit portion of yogurt is very expensive, this defect is not
encountered often. When it does occur, the yogurt will have an excessive show of
fruit. The cut surface of the yogurt will have more than the typical number of fruit
pieces and it will likely be accompanied by a higher level of color. The body may
be somewhat weak due to the dilution of the yogurt with excessive fruit.5
Cause. The cause for excess fruit is usually operator error. Rarely does a manufacturer purposely load the product down with excessive fruit. It may also occur due
to incomplete blending of fruit and yogurt so that the fruit is concentrated in portions
of the yogurt.
Free Whey
Description. The free whey defect refers to the expulsion of a clear fluid (whey)
from the curd. An undisturbed cup of yogurt exhibiting this defect will have clear
fluid around the edges or/and a puddle of whey on the top of the gel. When the cup
is tipped, it will run to one side and be more easily seen. In disturbed product it will
puddle in the depressions where the product has been spooned out. In the collegiate
contest, this judgment is made in an undisturbed cup.
Cause. Tendency for yogurt to syneresis or whey off is aggravated by excess or
insufficient acid development, disruption of the yogurt by shaking or inverting the
carton, low milk solids, or insufficient heat and holding time during pasteurization
to give needed water binding character to the protein system.5
Lacks Fruit
Description. In berry or fruit flavored yogurt, there is expected to be a certain show
of fruit. When the product is spooned or cut, a number of pieces are exposed on the
surface to give the impression that a reasonable amount of fruit was used in the
flavoring. A scarcity of fruit or berry pieces on that cut surface is indicative of this
defect. It is common to have a good flavor impact but very little fruit.
Cause. This defect is generally caused by economizing on fruit and using too little
flavoring material or too few pieces in the flavoring material. It may also be caused
by incomplete blending of the flavoring material with the ripened yogurt mix before
the filling process began yielding portions of yogurt that were not sufficiently
fruited.5

Lumpy
Description. Lumpy yogurt is characterized by its resistance to stirring to a smooth
texture. Instead, it forms individual lumps resist breaking up and smoothing out. It
is usually accompanied by a gellike body.
Cause. Lumpy appearance in yogurt and gelled body often go together and have
similar causes. They are caused by excessive use of gelatin or other gel-forming
stabilizers. It is often done purposely to give the product stability and resistance to
syneresis through distribution.5

Shrunken
Description. This defect is characterized by the pulling away of the coagulum from
the sides of the cup due to the contracting of the coagulum mass. It looks like the
product has been reduced in volume. It is usually accompanied by the collection of
free whey in the space that is created.
Cause. Tendency for yogurt to shrink is caused by some of the factors that cause
free whey to develop. It is aggravated by excess acid development and by low milk
solids in the mix.5

3.4.8 Dry Milk

3.4.8.10 Introduction
Removal of water is an effective way of preserving dairy products. The low water
activity arrests the growth of spoilage organisms. Drying minimizes the weight and
volume making shipping and storage more efficient. Drying also makes possible
addition of dairy products to formulated dry or concentrated mixes. Baking mixes,
baby formulas, and drink mixes are examples of products that contain dried dairy
products and only dried products would do.
Several drying processes are available. Drum drying, spray drying, and freeze
drying are examples. By far the most commonly practiced is spray drying. A concentrated (vacuum evaporated) mixture is pumped through an atomizer which finely
divides the liquid into droplets that are ejected into a down draft of hot dry air. With
the large surface area per unit volume and high temperatures, the water evaporates
in seconds. Before the droplet hits the wall of the dryer, it is dry enough that it will
not stick to surfaces. The dry particles are separated from the air by gravity and by
centrifugal force in cyclones. The residual is removed by porus bags through which
the air flows and in which the powder collects. Temperatures of air-powder mixtures
in the dryer are reduced by evaporative cooling so that the final dry powder need
not be very hot in a well balanced system.
Some dried products may tend to ball up when water is added, making it difficult
to rehydrate. Powders may be instantized to overcome this difficulty.77'78 The commonly used method involves exposing cascading powder to steam or a fine water
mist. The particles are partially rewetted and as they fall to the bottom of the

Table 3.16 U.S. GRADE CLASSIFICATION OF NONFAT DRY MILK


(RELIQUIHED BASIS) BASED ON FLAVOR AND ODOR
Flavor Classification
Flavor Characteristics
Bitter
Chalky
Cooked (spray and instant)
Feed
Flat
Oxidized
Scorched
Roller
Spray and instant
Stale
Storage
Utensil

U.S. Extra Grade

U.S. Standard Grade3

Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight

Slight
Definite
Definite
Definite
Definite
Slight

Slight

Definite
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight

Reproduced with permission from refs. 5 and 28.


a
Applies only to spray and roller process. Only one grade. "U.S. Extra." is recognized for instant
nonfat dry milk.

chamber, they stick to one another and pile up in a loosely packed porus layer. This
material is redried and ground. The more open structure and the crystalline lactose
facilitates controlled, complete, and rapid rehydration.
Some commonly dried milk products are skim milk, milk with varying fat contents, buttermilk, whey, yogurt, and cheese. Standards of Identity for dry whole milk
and nonfat dry milk are found in The Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. 5 7 Grading
standards for dried milk, cream, and whey are found in Title 7.28 Two grades are
established, Extra and Standard. Beverage nonfat dried milk must meet the standards
for Extra Grade. The flavor and appearance criteria for the two grades of nonfat
dried milk are shown in Table 3.16 and Table 3.17 respectively. In addition to the
flavor and appearance criteria, there are compositional and microbiological criteria.
These criteria vary only slightly for dried whole milk.
A suggested dry milk products score card is shown in Figure 3.26 and a scoring
guide is shown in Table 3.18. The flavor and appearance defects not already covered
in other products are described below.

3.4.8.2 Flavor Defects


Scorched
Description. The flavor of scorched milk is more intensive than cooked. It is a
flavor that is associated with burnt protein. A characteristic burnt aftertaste is also
part of the flavor profile.
Cause. Scorched flavor is likely to occur in dried products that were dried under
excessive heat or stayed in the drying chamber or remained on the contact surfaces

Table 3.17 U.S. GRADE CLASSIFICATION OF NONFAT DRY MILK


BASED ON PHYSICAL APPEARANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Classification
Physical Appearance
Characteristics3
Dry Product
Lumpy
Unnatural color
Visible dark particles
Spray
Roller
Instant
Reliquified
Grainy
Spray
Roller
Instant

U.S. Extra Grade

U.S. Standard Grade6

Very slight0

Slight
Slight

Very slight
Slight

Slight
Definite

Slight

Slight
Slight

Reproduced with permission from refs. 5 and 28.


a
In general, the dry product shall be white or light cream in color and shall not exceed the intensities
of other characteristics as indicated.
b
Applies only to spray and roller process. Only one Grade, "U.S. Extra" is recognized for instant
nonfat dry milk.
c
Instant product must be reasonably free-flowing (i.e., pours in a fairly constant, uniform stream
from the open end of a tilted container or scoop).

too long. It is often accompanied by the presence of scorched particles and darkening
of the color. It is more commonly associated with roller dried powder than spray
dried powder.5

Stale
Description. Stale powders are the source of stale flavors in so many other dairy
products in which milk powders are used. Other descriptors used are lacks freshness,
glue like, storage. It is a very distinctive flavor that gets meaning and definition at
the first taste of reconstituted stale milk powder. A darkening of the powder follows
the development of stale flavor. The stale flavor will be noted before any darkening
occurs.
Cause. Oxidation of the milk proteins and the milk fat in powders is difficult to
prevent because of the vast surface area and the intimate contact with oxygen in the
air. This flavor develops even in nitrogen-packed powders because of the presence
of some oxygen. If the solution to this problem was found, the acceptability of dried
products would take a giant leap forward.5

Chalky
Description. Chalky milk powder refers to powder that, when rehydrated, has the
feel of fine insoluble chalk particles. It is as much an objectionable mouth feel

SENSORY EVALUATION OF CONCENTRATED AND DRY MILK


Date:

Product:

SAMPLE NO.
1
Flavor

No criticism
10

Unsalable
0

Normal range
1-5

No criticism
5
Unsalable
0
Normal range
1-5

Package

Score
Dry product:
Caked
Dark particles
Lumpy
Unnatural color
Reconstituted
Product:
Churned particles
Dark particles
Grainy
Undispersed lumps

Score

No criticism
5
Unsalable 0
Normal range
1-5

Score
Criticism
Acid
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Cooked
Feed
Fermented
Flat
Foreign
Gluey^
Metallic
Neutralizer
Oxidized/tallowy
Rancid (lipolysis)
Salty
Scorched
Stale
Storage
Unclean/utensil
Weedy

10

Physical
appearance

Ruptured vapor
Barrier
Soiled
Unsealed

Figure 3.26 A suggested dry milk products score card. (Reproduced from ref. 5, with permission of the ADSA, Champaign, IL.)

SENSORY EVALUATION OF CONCENTRATED AND DRY MILK (cont.)


Product:

Date:
1

Laboratory
tests
5
No criticism
5

Unsalable 0

Score
Fat (%)
Moisture (%)
Titratable acidity
(% Lactic acid)
Solubility index (ml)
Bacterial estimate
(per gram)
Coliform (per gram)
Direct microscopic
Clump count (per g)
Scorched particles (mg)
Dispersibility (modified
Moats-dabbah method, %]
Phosphatase test
Micrograms phenol/ml
Undenatured whey protein
Nitrogen (mg/g)
Oxygen content {%)
Copper (ppm)
Iron (ppm)
Vitamin A (i.u.)
Vitamin D (i.u.)
Alkalinity of ash
(ml/lOOg)
Protein content (%)
Mesh (screen %)
Ash, phosphorus fixed (%)
Lead (ppm)
Yeast and mold (per 0.1 g)
Thermophiles (per g)
Reducing sugars (as
lactose %)
Staphylococcus
(coagulase positive)
Salmonella (in 100 g)

Signatures:

Figure 3.26 (Continued)

SAMPLE NO.
4
5
6

Table 3.18 A SUGGESTED SCORING GUIDE FOR THE FLAVOR OF DRY MILK
(RELIQUIHED BASIS)
Scores for a Given Intensity3
Defect
Acid
Astringent
Bitter
Chalky
Cooked
Feed
Fermented
Rat
Foreign*1
Gluey
Metallic
Neutralize/
Oxidized/tallowy8
Rancid (lipolysis)
Salty
Scorched
Stale
Storage
Unclean/utensil
Weedy

Slight5

Moderate

Definite

Strong

2
8
6
8
9
8
6
9
2
2
4
0
4
5
7
4
4
7
5
3

1
7
5
7
8
7
5
8
1
1
3
0
3
4
6
3
3
6
4
2

0
6
4
6
7
6
4
7
0
0
2
0
2
3
5
2
2
5
3
1

0
5
3
5
6
5
3
6
0
0
1
0
1
2
4
1
1
4
2
0

Pronounced0
0

0-4
0-2
0-4
5
0-4
0-2
e

0
0
0
0
0
0-1
0-3
0
0
0-3
0-1
0

Reproduced with permission from ref. 5.


"No criticism" is assigned a score of 10. Normal range is 1-10 for a salable product.
b
Highest assignable score for a defect of slight intensity.
c
Highest assignable score for a defect of pronounced intensity. However, a sample may be assigned a score of 0 (zero)
if the defect makes the product unsalable.
d
Due to the variety of foreign off-flavors, suggesting a fixed scoring range is not appropriate. Some foreign off-flavors
warrant a score of 0 (zero) even if their intensity is slight (i.e., gasoline, pesticides, lubricating oil).
e
The defect is unlikely to be present at this intensity level.
f
The use of neutralizes is not authorized except in whey. However, dry, sweet-type whey must have an alkalinity of
ash not to exceed 225 ml of 0.1 N HCl per 100 g.
g
When an oxidized off-flavor has progressed to the tallowy stage, the assigned flavor score should be 0 (zero).
a

sensation as it is an off-flavor. The sensation is particularly noticeable after the


product has been expectorated.
Cause. Not all the causes are known but it is usually associated with high heat
treatment of milk that has caused some aggregation and loss of solubility of milk
proteins. A specific particle size of milk proteins or other milk constituents are
thought to be responsible for the sensation.5

Neutralizer
Description. Different neutralizes have slightly different flavors. It is an alkaline,
baking soda, or soda cracker flavor. Bitterness is often part of the profile. It is best
detected after the sample has been in the mouth a while or after the sample has been

expectorated and air is inhaled through the mouth. The aftertaste does not easily
clean up.
Cause. Neutralizes are legal to add to whey to bring the pH to neutral before
drying. It is not legal to add to other dairy products prior to drying. These alkaline
neutralizes have a characteristic flavor that is detectable in the finished product.

3.4.8.3 Appearance Defects


Caked
Description. When the powder sets into a hard rock it is considered caked. The
caked mass breaks off into small hard units but not into powder again. Grinding or
sifting is necessary to restore it to a powder.5
Cause. Caking happens in extended storage where a sealed container goes through
temperature cycles. These temperature cycles cause relative humidity cycling to
occur. When the storage temperature is cold, the relative humidity may get high
enough to condense a thin layer of water around each particle. That water dissolves
a small amount of material. Then when the temperature warms, the relative humidity
drops in the bag, the water dries, and the solutes solidify. After several of these
cycles the powder particles are welded together by the solidified solute material.
Lumpy
Description. Lumpy powder lacks homogeneity in appearance. Small hard lumps
the size of wheat grains are present in powder that may be normal otherwise.
Cause. The lumps are caused by insufficient drying, a dripping spray nozzle, or
powder exposed to moisture-laden air. The resulting clumps are subsequently dried
to hard oversized particles.5 It should not be confused with the caking of the powder
into large chunks.

Unnatural Color, Browned, or Darkened


Description. This defect refers to the darkening or browning of the product as it
ages. It first turns off white to cream and then to gradually darkening brown color.
It is associated with a distinctive old or stale off flavor.
Cause. Nonenzymatic browning or lactose caramelization are the expected causes
of browned or darkened milk powder. The little bit of moisture that is present in
milk powder works very slowly at ambient temperatures to develop this color while
generating flavors that render the milk powder inedible.

Visible Dark Particles


Description. This defect is characterized by the presence of small dark particles
throughout the milk powder.
Cause. Usually dark particles are the result of burned-on product that has sloughed
off and carried into the finished product. It is most common in drum dried powder

where the traces of product might ride around the drum several cycles then be scraped
into the product.5 In other drying processes, any hot surface could collect and darken
product which later falls into the final product. Dark particles could also be introduced in other ways.

3.5 References
1. Brown, E. L., and K. Deffenbacher. 1979. Perception and the Senses, p. 57. Oxford University
Press. New York.
2. Coren, S., C. Porac, and L. M. Ward. 1978. Sensation and Perception, p. 112. Academic Press, New
York.
3. Amerine, M. A., R. M. Pangbom, and E. B. Roessler. 1965. Principles of Sensory Evaluation of
Food. Academic Press. New York, 602 pp.
4. Dudel, J. 1981. General sensory physiology, psychophysics. In R. F. Schmidt (ed.), Fundamentals
of Sensory Physiology, pp. 1-30. Springer- Verlag, New York.
5. Bodyfelt, F. W., J. Tobias, and G. M. Trout. 1988. The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products, pp.
11-478. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
6. Zimmerman, M. 1981. Neurophysiology of sensory systems. In R. F. Schmidt (ed.), Fundamentals
of Sensory Physiology, pp. 31-80. Springer-Verlag. New York.
7. Altner, H. 1981. Physiology of taste. In R. F. Schmidt (ed.), Fundamentals of Sensory Physiology,
pp. 220-227. Springer-Verlag, New York.
8. Murray, R. G., and Murray, A. 1967. The fine structure of the taste buds of rhesus and cynomolgus
monkeys. Anat. Rec. 19:327-353.
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10. Plattig, K. H. 1988. The sense of taste. In J. R. Piggott (ed.), Sensory Analysis of Foods pp. 2 - 3 ,
11-15. Elsevier, New York.
11. Fabman, S. I. 1967. Structure of chemoreceptors. In H. W. Schultz, E. A. Day, and L. M. Libbey
(eds.), Chemistry and Physiology of Flavors, pp. 25-51. AVI, Westport, CT.
12. Blakeslee, A. F., and A. L. Fox. 1932. Our different taste worlds. / . Hered. 23:96-110.
13. Maruniak, J. A. 1988. The sense of smell. In J. R. Piggott (ed.), Sensory Analysis of Foods, pp. 2 - 3 ,
11-15. Elsevier, New York.
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epithelium reveals a new cell type: the microvillar cell. Brain Res. 253:39-46.
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Sensory Physiology, Chemical Senses I, pp. 27-58. Springer-Verlag, New York.
16. Getchell, M. L., B. Zielinski, J. L. DeSimone, and T. V. Getchell. 1987. Odorant stimulation of
secretory and neural processes in salamander olfactory mucosa, / . Comp. PhysioL A 160:155-168.
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18. Getchell, M. L., G. L. Heck, J. A. DeSimone, and S. Price. 1980. The location of olfactory receptor
sites: inferences from latency measurements. Biophys. J. 29:397-412.
19. Allison, A. C, and R. T. Warwick. 1949. Quantitative observations on the olfactory system of the
rabbit. Brain 72:186-197.
20. Code of Federal Regulations. 1991. Title 7, Part 58, Subpart P, Paragraphs 58.2621-582635. U.S.
Standards for Grades of Butter. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C.
21. Harper, R. 1972. Human Senses in Action, pp. 238, 250, and 255. Churchill-Livingstone, London.
22. Hochberger, J. E. 1964. Perception. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
23. McNamara, B. P. 1968. Vision. In Basic Principles of Sensory Evaluation, ASTM STP 433, pp.
19-23. American Society for Testing Materials.
24. Brown, J. L. 1965. The structure of the visual system. In C. H. Graham (ed.), Vision and Visual
Perception. J. Wiley & Sons, New York.
25. Stiles, W. S. 1978. Mechanism of Colour Vision. Academic Press, London.

26. Hurvich, L. M. 1981. Color Vision. Sinaver Associates, Sunderland Massachusetts.


27. Christie, J. S. 1977. On-machine measurement of chromatic aspects of appearance. J. Tech. Assoc.
Pulp Paper lndust. 60:119-121.
28. Code of Federal Regulations. 1990. Title 7 Part 58. Dried Dairy Products. Grading Standards. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
29. Kling, J. W., and L. A. Riggs. (eds.). 1971. Woolworth & Schlosberg's Experimental Psychology,
3rd edit. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.
30. Meilgaard, M., G. V. Civille, and B. T. Carr. 1987. Sensory Evaluation Techniques, VoI I. Chemical
Rubber Company Press, Boca Raton, FL.
31. Silbiger H. R. 1968. Hearing. Basic Principles of Sensory Evaluation, ASTM STP 433, pp. 24-29.
American Society for Testing Materials.
32. Christensen, C. M., and A. M. Vickers. 1981. / . Food ScL 46:574.
33. Vickers, Z. M. 1984. /. Texture Stud. 15:49;157.
34. Vickers, Z. M. 1985. J. Texture Stud. 16:85.
35. Geldard, F. A. 1972. The Human Senses, 2nd edit. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
36. Demick, P. S. 1982. Photochemical effects on flavor and nutrients of fluid milk. Can. Inst. Food
Sci. Technol. J. 15:247-256.
37. Weigold, G. 1981. Building Dairy Careers in the Collegiate Dairy Products Evaluation Contest.
Brochure published by the Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, Rockville, MD.
38. Hinreiner, E. H. 1956. Organoleptic evaluation by industry panelsthe cutting bee. Food Technol.
31:62-67.
39. Peryam, D. R., F. J. Pilgrim, and M. S. Peterson, (eds.). 1954. Food Acceptance Testing Methodology. National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
40. Stone, H., and J. L. Sidel. 1985. Sensory Evaluation Practices. Academic Press, New York.
41. Caul, J. F. 1957. The profile method of flavor analysis. Adv. Food Res. 7:11 -40.
42. Boggs, M., and H. L. Hansen. 1949. Analysis of foods by sensory difference tests. Adv. Food Res.
2, 219-258.
43. Girardot, N. E., D. R. Peryam, and R. Shapiro. 1952. Selection of sensory testing panels. Food
Technol. 6:140-143.
44. Jones, L. V., D.R. Peryam, and L. L. Thurstone. 1955. Development of a scale for measuring soldiers
food preferences. Food Res. 20:512-520.
45. Peryam, C. R., and Pilgrim, F. J. 1957. Hedonic scale method of measuring food preferences. Food
Technol. 11:9-14.
46. Roessler, E. B., R. M. Pangborn, J. L. Sidel, and H. Stone. 1978. Expanded statistical tables for
estimating significance in paired-preference, paired-difference, duo-trio and triangle tests. J Food
Sci. 43:940-947.
47. Basker, D. 1988. Critical values of difference among rank sums for multiple comparisons. Food
Technol. 42:79.
48. Huntsberger, D. V. 1961. Elements of Statistical Inference, p. 143. Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
49. Helm, E., and B. Trolle. 1946. Selection of a taste panel. Wallerstein Lab. Commun. 9:181-194.
50. Cairncross, S. E., and L. B. Sjostrom. 1950. Flavor profilesa new approach to flavor problems.
Food Technol. 4:308.
51. Brandt, F. L, and M. E. Terry, 1963. Texture profile method. / . Food Sci. 28:404-410.
52. Szczesniak, A. S., M. A. Brandt, and H. H. Friedman. 1963. Development of standard rating scales
for mechanical parameters of texture and correlation between the objective and the sensory methods
of texture evaluation. / . Food Sci. 28, 397-403.
53. Szczesniak, A. S. 1963. Classification of textural characteristics. / . Food Sci 28:385-389.
54. Civille, G. V., and I. H. Liska. 1975. Modifications and applications to foods of the General Foods
sensory texture profile technique, J. Texture Stud. 6:19.
55. Civille, G. V., and A. S. Szczisniak. 1973 Guidelines to training a texture profile panel. J. Texture
Stud. 4:204.
56. Schwartz, N. 1975. Method to skin care produts. J. Texture Stud. 6, 33.
57. Code of Federal Regulations. 1990. Title,21. Part 131. Milk and Cream Products. U.S. Government
Printing Office. Washington, D.C.

58. Shipe, W. F., R. Bassette, D. D. Deane, W. L. Dunkley, E. G. Hammond, W. J. Harper, D. H. Kleyn,


M. E. Morgan, J. H. Nelson, and R. A. Scanlan. 1978. Off-flavors in milk: nomenclature, standards,
and bibliography. / . Dairy Sci. 61:855.
59. Gould, I. A., and H. H. Sommer. 1939. Effect of heat on milk with special reference to the cooked
flavor. Mich. Agr. Exp.Sta. Tech. BuL 164.
60. Morgan, M. E. 1976. The chemistry of some microbiologically induced flavor defects in milk and
dairy foods. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 18:953.
61. Jenness R., and S. Patton. 1959. Principles of Dairy Chemistry, p. 337. John Wiley & Sons, New
York. pp. 337.
62. Hoskin, J. C. 1979. Sensory Evaluation and Riboflavin Analysis of Milk Held in Light-Exposed OneGallon Containers. M.Sc. Thesis. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
63. Kosikowski, F. W. 1977. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods, 709 pp. Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
64. Loter, I., H. G. Dissly, and R. E. Schafer. 1973. Improved Cheese Manufacture Process, U.S. Patent
No. 1,400,927.
65. Morgan, M. E. 1970b. Microbial flavor defects in dairy products and methods for their simulation.
II. Fruity flavor. / . Dairy Sci. 53:273.
66. Morgan, M. E. 1970a. Microbial flavor defects in dairy products and methods for their simulation.
I. Malty flavor. /. Dairy Sci. 53:270.
67. Bodyfelt, F. W. 1981a. Sensory and shelf-life characteristics of cottage cheese treated with sorbic
acid. In Proc. Biennial Marschall Intl. Cheese Conf Madison, WI.
68. Bodyfelt, F. W. 198 Ib. Temperature control monitoring for cottage cheese plants. Dairy Rec. 82:84.
69. Code of Federal Regulations. 1990. Title 21-Food and Drugs, Part 135Ice Cream and Frozen
Desserts. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C.
70. Bodyfelt, F. W. 1979. Ice cream qualitywho should be the judge? Natl. Ice Cr. Retail. Assn.
Production Tips. March.
71. Code of Federal Regulations. 1990. Title 21. Part 133. Cheeses and Related Cheese Products. U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
72. Bills, D. D., M. E. Morgan, L. M. Libbey, and E. A. Day. 1965. Identification of compounds
responsible for fruit flavor defect of experimental cheddar cheeses. J. Dairy Sci. 48:1168.
73. Bodyfelt, F. W. 1967. Lactic Streptococci and the Fruity Flavor Defect of Cheddar Cheese. M.S.
Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 118 pp.
74. Tamime, A. Y., and R. K. Robinson. 1985. Yogurt Science and Technology. Pergamon Press, New
York. 431 pp.
75. Code of Federal Regulations. 1990. Title 21. Part 131.200 Yogurt. U.S. Government Printing Office.
Washington, D.C.
76. Code of Federal Regulations. 1990. Title 21. Part 172.804 Food Additives. U.S. Government Printing
Office. Washington, D.C.
77. Graham, D. M., J. T. Hutton, and J. M. Mclntire. 1981. Concentrated and dry milks and wheys in
the third quarter of the 20th century. J. Dairy Sci. 64:1055.
78. Hall, C. W., and T. I. Hedrick. 1971. Drying Milk and Milk Products, 2nd ed. AVI, Westport, CT.
338 pp.
79. Zapsalis, C , and R. A. Beck. 1985. Food Chemistry and Nutritional Biochemistry, pp. 574-576.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
80. Williams, L. H., and L. V. Ogden. 1990. Effect of warming cold milk in the vat on occurrence of
a dark seam defect in cheddar cheese. / . Dairy Sci. 71:8-10.
81. Connolly, E. J., C. H. White, E. W. Custer, and E. R. Vedamuthu. 1984. Cultured Dairy Foods
Quality Improvement Manual. American Cultured Dairy Products Institute. Washington, D.C, 40 pp.
82. Duthie, A. H., K. M. Nilson, H. V. Atherton, and L. D. Garrett. 1977. Proposed score card for yogurt.
Cultured Dairy Prod. J. 12:10.
83. Vedamuthu, E. R., W. E. Sandine, and P. R. Elliker. 1966. Flavor and texture in Cheddar cheese.
II Carbonyl compounds produced by mixed-strain lactic starter cultures. / . Dairy Sci. 49:151.

CHAPTER
4

Functional Properties
of Milk Proteins
Olivier Robin, Sylvie Turgeon, and Paul Paquin
4.1 Introduction, 278
4.2 Composition and Principal Physicochemical Properties of Major Milk
Proteins, 280
4.2.1 Major Protein Components in Milk, 280
4.2.2 Principal Physicochemical Properties of Milk Proteins, 281
4.3 Major Functional Properties of Milk Proteins, 282
4.3.1 Water-Protein Interactions, 282
4.3.1.1 Hydration/Rehydration Properties, 284
4.3.1.2 Solubility, 289
4.3.2 Protein-Protein Interactions, 292
4.3.2.1 Rheological Behavior of Protein Dispersions, 292
4.3.2.2 Gelling Properties of Globular Proteins, 297
4.3.3 Protein-Surface Interactions, 302
4.3.3.1 Interfacial Properties of Milk Proteins, 303
4.3.3.2 Dispersed Systems: Emulsions and Foams, 309
4.3.3.3 Flavor Binding, 324
4.4 Some Selected Processing Effects on the Functional Properties of Major Milk
Proteins, 325
4.4.1 Effects of Heat Treatments, 325
4.4.1.1 Effects on Caseins, 325
4.4.1.2 Effects on Whey Proteins, 328
4.4.2 Membrane Separation Processes, 329
4.4.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO), 330
4.4.2.2 Nanofiltration (NF), 330
4.4.2.3 Ultrafiltration (UF), 331
4.5 Conclusion, 332
4.6 Acknowledgments, 333
4.7 References, 334

4.1 Introduction
Dairy quotas, prospects for dairy product prices, enormous stockpiles of skim milk
powder and butter, the new eating habits of Occidental consumers, and ever stricter
environmental laws have resulted in an increasing demand for versatile ingredients,
principally proteins, possessing appropriate functional properties.1'2 Proteins, and
specifically milk proteins, are important, not only because they possess a wide range
of dynamic functional properties, but also because they are easily isolated from raw
milk, provide essential amino acids, show versatility during processing, and possess
the capacity to form network structures and stabilize emulsions and foams.3-4 A better
understanding of the functional properties of milk proteins has led to or contributed
to the development of new prospects for meeting consumer expectations (light products), and those of health (body, pharmacological, infant nutrition, enteral, or parenteral products) and beauty professionals (cosmetic products), or simply for a better
management of the raw product.1'5"7
The use of milk proteins to give food desirable organoleptic or textural properties
is strongly influenced by their functional properties. Functionality is defined as "any
property of a food, or a food ingredient, except its nutritional ones, that affect its
utilization."8 Cheftel et al.,9 and Lorient10 propose a more accurate definition by
classifying functional properties of proteins into three major groups:
1. Properties depending on the behavior of proteins in water: water-protein interactions which include water adsorption, hydration, wetting, solubility, and viscosity.
2. Properties depending on interactions between macromolecules: protein-protein
interactions, which include structural properties, and covalent or ionic intermolecular associations.
3. Properties depending on interactions with amphiphilic molecules or with a gas
phase: protein-surface interactions which include emulsifying and foaming properties, and flavor binding.
If this classification has the merit of being succinct and reasonably complete,
these three categories are not, however, mutually independent: gelation involves not
only protein-protein interactions but also protein-water interactions.3
Because of the diversified nature of milk proteins (amino acid composition, tridimensional structure), the study of the functional properties of proteins cannot be
dissociated from the study of the physicochemical properties of proteins and of the
relationships between structure and functional properties in food systems, that is,
taking into consideration the importance of various inter-/intramolecular forces/
interactions (e.g. covalent, electrostatic, hydrogen, hydrophobic) which ultimately determine the functional properties of proteins as they do for any other molecule.11'13
Furthermore, these inter-/intra-molecular forces/interactions, and consequently functional properties, are closely related to the environmental conditions (e.g., pH, temperature, ionic strength, salt composition and species, presence of other solutes, etc.)
and the modifications due to processing that are involved in obtaining and utilizing
a protein ingredient (thermal, physical, chemical, and biological treatments).14

Table 4.1 FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF MILK PROTEINS IN VARIOUS FOOD SYSTEMS


Examples of
Related Product

Examples of
Milk Protein
Ingredient Used

Emulsification, stabilization,
resistance to feathering

Low fat spreads


UHT coffee cream
Whipped topping

Sodium caseinate
Sodium caseinate
Sodium caseinate

Water/fat holding,
emulsification, foaming, texture,
appearance

Cake
Cookies

Whey
Lactic casein

Solubility at different pH, heat


stability, viscosity, stabilization,
removal of phenolic compounds

Chocolate drinks
Red wine (Cabernet)

Whey
Casein

Confectionery

Emulsification, dispersibility,
stabilization

Marshmallow
Meringue

Casein
Whey

Dairy products

Emulsification, foaming,
viscosity, gelification,
coagulation, fat/flavor binding

Ice-cream
Fruit yoghurt
Processed cheese

Sodium caseinate
Sodium casemate
Casein

Meat products

Emulsification, gelation,
cohesiveness, water/fat holding

Ham products
Sausage

Whey
Casein

Food System
Group
Analogue of
dairy products

Bakery

Beverages

Functional Properties

Adapted from Refs. 49, 50, and 51.

Therefore, depending on the protein itself and various environmental and processing factors, the functional properties of proteins can induce a wide variety of
physical states on the foods in which they are contained (e.g., liquid, solid, gelled,
emulsified, dispersed, etc.), as well as confering characteristic organoleptic properties
and determining shelf-life.
The functional behavior of caseinate and whey concentrates and relationships
between functionality and structure in aqueous solutions or in model systems are
generally well known and have been the subject of many comprehensive and detailed
reviews: Kinsella,15 de Wit,16 Cheftel and Lorient,17 Fox and Mulvihill,18'19 de Wit,20
Kinsella,14 Cheftel et al.,9 Kinsella and Fox,21 Modler,22-23 Morr,24 Leman and Kinsella,25 Vuillemard et al.,26 Paquin and Dickinson,27 Tornberg et a/.,28 Lorient et
al.29 Various symposia and books have also been devoted more specifically to the
functional properties of macromolecules and proteins: Pour-El,30 Cherry,31'32 Dickinson and Stainsby,33'34 Mitchell and Ledward,35 Brash and Horbett,36 Fox,37 Lorient
et a/.,38 Kinsella and Soucie,39 Parris and Barford,40 Harris,41 Larsson and Frieberg.42
The abundance of references in this field is explained in great part by the fact
that the primary and tridimensional structures of the six major milk proteins
(a s l - as2-, /3-, and K-caseins, /3-lactoglobulin, and a-lactalbumin) are known.43"48
Although there is great difficulty in determining the relationship between simple
solution functionality and complex food system functionality, many different protein
ingredients are used in a wide range of foods. Table 4.1 shows a number of food

applications where milk protein ingredients are used.49'51 It is well known that in all
these food systems (e.g., cheese, cream, ice cream, etc.) interactions will occur between the milk proteins and other components naturally present in the formulation.
To be able to develop and to increase the utilization of milk proteins, a better knowledge of molecular behavior in mixtures is necessary. Such a basic understanding
would not only lead to the development of better processing techniques so as to
retain or improve the functional properties of proteins but would also lead to the
development of the functional properties of underutilized food proteins.
In this chapter, we emphasize a nonmathematical, molecular description of milk
protein functionality. Some equations have nevertheless been used. Although they
describe approximate phenomena, they have been used to illustrate the chapter and
to clarify some concepts. A more basic detailed, and necessarily mathematical account of the underlying basic concepts, is given by Franks,52-53 Dickinson and
Stainsby,33 Becher,54-55 and Bird et al.56
After a succinct review of the various physicochemical properties of milk proteins, basic principles underlying their functional properties, in relation to their environment, will be evoked on the basis of the numerous studies previously mentioned, and on recent work discussing interactions between proteins and nonprotein
molecules. Due to the interests of the authors, particular attention will be paid to
protein-surface interactions. Then, in a third section, the effect of some physical
processes on the functional properties of milk proteins will be briefly discussed.
Finally, some present and future trends in the field of research and development
involving the functional properties of milk proteins will be presented. It is not intended that this chapter should be an exhaustive review of the extensive literature
on the functional properties of milk proteins. There has consequently been a conscious attempt at selection, although it is hoped that no important aspects of this
large subject have been ignored.

4.2 Composition and Principal Physicochemical


Properties of Major Milk Proteins
A more detailed review of the composition and physicochemical properties of milk
proteins can be found in the first chapter of this book.

4.2.1 Major Protein Components in Milk


Normal bovine milk contains 30 to 35 g of protein/Liter.9 The two principal types
of milk proteins are caseins and whey proteins.
Caseins constitute 76 to 86% of the total milk protein. They are generally found
in milk in the form of spherical and macromolecular complexes containing inorganic
material, principally calcium phosphate, called micelles.57"59 Caseins comprise four
primary proteins, a sl -casein, as2-casein, /3-casein, and K-casein (Table 4.2), with
different genetic variants of each, and several minor proteins originating from postsecretion proteolysis of the primary caseins.44'45

Table 4.2 CONTENT OF MAJOR PROTEIN


COMPONENT IN MILK
Content of Protein in Milk

Protein Type

Protein or Polypeptide

Casein
asl-Casein
as2-Casein
/3-Casein
K-Casein
y-Casein
Whey protein
/3-Lactoglobulin
a-Lactalbumin
Bovine serum albumin
Immunoglobulins
Proteoses peptones

Weight Contribution
(g/L)
24-28
12-15

3-4
9-11
3-4
1-2
5-7
2-4
1-1.5
0.1-0.4
0.6-1.0
0.6-1.8

Adaptedfromref. 9.

Whey proteins represent 14 to 24% of milk proteins and are in solution in the
serum phase of the milk, normally in monomer or dimer form. In milk, the ratio of
whey proteins to casein micelles is about 1500:1.16 The major whey proteins
(Table 4.2) are jS-lactoglobulin (/3-Ig), a-lactalbumin (a-la), bovine serum albumin
(BSA), immunoglobulins (Ig-G, Ig-A, Ig-M), and proteose peptones (PP-3, PP-5,
PP-8 fast, PP-8 slow).45'60 There are several minor proteins including lactotransferrin, lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, glycoprotein, and serum transferrin, as well as casein
degradation products.44'45

4.2.2 Principal Physicochemical Properties of MUk Proteins


The caseins and whey proteins can be distinguished on the basis of their physicochemical properties (Table 4.3).51 Caseins, micellar or not, are very sensitive to pH
(insoluble at pi 4.6), and to the presence of di- or polyvalent salts and are heat stable,
whereas whey proteins are soluble in acid solutions and can be denatured by heat.3
Casein molecules have a particular amphiphilic nature arising from a separation
between hydrophobic clusters and negatively charged regions along the peptide
chain. Caseins have a relatively small number of cysteine residues so the occurrence
of disulfide cross-linkages is infrequent. Consequently, all casein molecules are disordered with little secondary structure.3 This lack of disulfide bridge stabilization
renders a sl - and j8-caseins very dependent on pH and on the presence of divalent
cations; in neutral or basic media, their voluminosity increases considerably.19 This
gives them exceptional viscous and interfacial properties.61'28 Heat has little effect
on casein molecules as they are already in an open and extended form.3

Table 4.3 PRINCIPAL PHYSICOCHEM1CAL


PROPERTIES OF MAJOR PROTEIN
COMPONENTS IN MILK
Properties

Protein Type
Casein

Contains strongly hydrophobic regions


Contains little cysteine
Random coil structure
Heat stable
Unstable in acidic conditions

Whey proteins

Balance of hydrophilic and hydrophobic residues


Contains cysteine and cystine
Globular structure, much helical content
Easily heat denatured
Stable in mildly acidic conditions

FromRef. 51.

Whey proteins are a much more diverse group than the caseins. They are much
more structured than caseins due to a more uniform distribution of amino acid types
along their peptide chains and the presence of disulfide bridges (higher quantities of
cysteine), and are not greatly affected by pH and salts. Their compact structure gives
to them the ability to form thick and sticky interfacial films (especially at pi 5.2 for
/3-lg) even if their ability to adsorb to interfaces is lower than that of caseins;25 this
results in good emulsifying and foaming properties at all pH values.29 As do most
globular proteins, whey proteins, and particularly /3-lg, gel easily with heat due to a
modification of the spatial structure (hydrophobic interactions, disulphide bridge
exchange).62"64

4.3 Major Functional Properties of Milk Proteins


The functional behavior of milk proteins (Table 4.4) is principally a function of14'29:
1. Their behavior in water in relation to their spatial structure and their physicochemical properties (voluminosity, surface hydrophobicity, amphipolarity), and
2. Their flexibility in relation to spatial structure and water content.
The following sections present a summary of the functional properties of milk
proteins (caseins and whey proteins) taken mainly from previously cited references.

4.3.1 Water-Protein Interactions


Various aspects of the physical chemistry of water-protein interactions with special
reference to foods have been thoroughly reviewed by Lumry,65 Kuntz and Kauf-

Table 4.4 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF MAIN MILK PROTEINS


Caseins

Properties

Whey Proteins

Hydration

Very high water binding with glue


formation at high concentration.
Minimum at pi

Water binding increasing with protein


denaturation

Solubility

Insoluble at pi

Very soluble at every pH. Insoluble at


pH 5 if thermodenaturated

Viscosity

Very viscous solutions at neutral and


basic pH. Lowest viscosity at pi

Not very viscous solutions except if


thermodenaturated

Gelation

No thermal gelation except in presence


of calcium. Micelle gelation by
chymosin

Thermal gelation from 700C: influence


of pH and salts

Emulsifying
properties

Excellent emulsifying properties


especially at neutral and basic pH

Good emulsifying properties except at


pH 4-5 if thermodenaturated

Foaming
properties

Good overrun but low foam stability: K


> P > sl

Good overrun and excellent foam


stability /3-lg > a-Ia

Flavor
binding

Good flavor binding

Retention very variable with the


denaturation

From Ref. 29.

man,66 Chou and Morr,67 Rockland and Stewart,68 Damodaran and Kinsella,69 Kinsella,14 Simatos and Multon,70 Kinsella and Fox,21 Franks,71 Hardman,72 Morr,73
and Kneifel et al?A
Water, the major constituent of milk (87%), is not only a solvent but also plays
a key role in determining the three-dimensional structure of proteins as well as
determining many of the functional properties of proteins in foods. These properties
come into play during processing (rehydration of protein ingredients normally preserved dry, emulsification, foaming, cheese processes, etc.) and when the food product is consumed.15'75 The dominant role played by water is principally due to its
many unique properties, related to its structure (two areas of positive charge and an
equal one of negative charge in a tetrahedral arrangement). Compared to other molecules of similar molecular weight, water has larger values of heat capacity, melting
and boiling point, surface tension, heats of fusion, vaporization, and sublimation
than would be expected from its components.71 The higher values are related to the
extra energy needed to break the intermolecular hydrogen bonds between water
molecules.76
Under the general term hydration, Kinsella,15 includes some other practical functions performed by milk proteins such as wettability, water adsorption, voluminosity,
swelling, dispersibility, and solubility. Water-protein interactions also affect other
functional properties of proteins such as rheological behavior, thickening, gelling,
emulsifying, and foaming properties, dough formation, etc.21 Therefore, depending
on the affinity of a protein for water, a polymer will either be readily soluble or form
a viscous solution, a colloidal suspension, a precipitate, a coagulum, or a gel. Finally,

Table 4.5 APPROXIMATE aw LEVELS


OF SOME DAIRY
PRODUCTS AT 25C
Food Product
Dried milk products
Butter, unsalted
salted
Sweetened condensed milk
Cheese, hard
soft
fresh
Cream
Frozen desserts
Condensed milk products
Fermented milk products
Milk and whey

aw
0.1-0.3
>0.99
0.91-0.93
0.77-0.85
0.86-0.87
0.96-0.98
0.98-0.99
>0.99
0.97-0.98
0.98-0.99
0.97-0.99
0.996

From Ref. 80.

because the number and the type of polar or ionized groups and conformational
factors necessarily affect water-protein interactions, any environmental factor that
will affect either polarity or conformation may also affect water-protein interactions.77

4.3.1.1 Hydration/Rehydration Properties


Definitions and General Considerations
Many terms have been used to describe the uptake of water by proteins, including
water hydration capacity, water-holding capacity, water absorption, water-imbibing,
and water binding;50*14 this diversity is related to the variety of methods used to
measure water-protein interactions.21'74 However, all of them describe the amount
of water that can be bound or retained by a protein matrix under defined conditions
and this is generally expressed as g of H2O/g of dry protein.19*78
Availability of water in a given system can be evaluated using a thermodynamic
quantity, the water activity (a w ), defined as the reactivity of water in solution at
constant temperature and pressure.79 This quantity is usually measured as the partial
pressure of water above the sample (P), over the vapor pressure of the pure water
(P0) at the same temperature and may vary between zero (in a water-free system)
and 1 (in bulk water).
(4.1)
Approximate values of aw of some dairy products are given in Table 4.5. The addition
of water to a protein can be represented by a sorption isotherm (Fig. 4.1). Sorption

WATER CONTENT (%)

in!

Il

WATER ACTIVITY (a w )
Figure 4.1 Generalized water sorption showing water uptake of a protein as a function of
equilibrium relative humidity or water activity (aw). Region I is a region of adsorption and
highly bound water, region II contains adsorbed and some multilayer water, and region III
contains these plus physically entrapped bulk water. (From Ref. 21.)
isotherms of many products are described in the literature, but there are often important differences between isotherms proposed for the same product. This results
essentially from an insufficient standardization of the methods used, and from a great
sensibility to the preparation of the tested products (pH, salts, product structure, etc.).
In sorption isotherms three zones are generally distinguished (Fig. 4.1)21: (1) in
region I, water fixes to the most hydrophilic groups of proteins; (2) the second one
corresponds to the hydration of uncharged polar groups; and (3) in region III where
interaction forces between water and dry materials are lower than in the previous
two, water is essentially retained by capillary forces.
At low water activity (0 < aw < 0.3), 0.04 to 0.09 g of K2OJg of protein are
adsorbed. In the case of caseinates and /3-lg, approximately 0.06 and 0.07 g of H2OZg
of protein respectively are adsorbed.21 At higher water activity (aw = 0.92), globular
proteins bind approximately 0.5 g of H2O/g of protein. Sodium caseinate and /3-lg
follow this trend with 0.4 and 0.3 g of H2OZg of protein respectively, whereas casein
micelles bind larger amounts of water, that is, 2 to 4 g of H2OZg of protein.21'73 This
larger amount of water is due to the mechanical entrapment of water in the micellar
matrix (via calcium phosphate) and to the binding of water by the hydrophilic part
that protrudes from the surface of the micelle.73
A large number of equations (more than 75 according to van der Berg and Bruin79)
have been proposed to describe water activity and its estimation in food systems:
While each model has its advantages for particular systems, none provides accurate

predictions of moisture sorption data over the complete range of #w. The Guggenheim, Anderson, de Boer (GAB) equation has been suggested as the best describing
the region II moisture sorption isotherm for most foods.79-81 This equation is considered as the most satisfactory by many authors.82 In addition, this term correlates
well with the rate of many degradative reactions and is used as an indicator of food
perishability.9
Complementary information on the immobilization states of water with respect
to proteins has been provided by Chou and Morr67 who divided the three previous
regions into six states. Definitions of these various forms of water-protein associations with the corresponding a w are given in Table 4.6.21 The first is structural water
in which hydrogen bonding to the protein stabilizes the native three-dimensional
conformation. This water is not available for chemical reactions. The second type
of water is monolayer water which fills the first adsorbed layer around the protein.
Monolayer water is attached to specific water-binding sites through hydrogen bonds
or electrostatic interactions. This water is also not available as a solvent, but may be
available for certain reactions. The third type of bound water is unfreezable water
which represents the total water clustered around each polar group. This water may
include both structural and monolayer water. The remaining three types of water
associated with proteins are not as well defined as the first three. The fourth type of
water is that which is associated with proteins via hydrophobic hydration. This type
of water has been described as clathrate-type or ice-like structured water, but the
real nature of this water is not entirely clear.71 A fifth type is capillary water which
is held physically or by surface forces and which acts as a solvent; this water is
available for chemical reactions. It is the main type of water found in cheese curd.75
The sixth type of water is called hydrodynamic water. This water, which is transported along with protein molecules, has the physical properties of normal water.
Trying to define and categorize the types of water associated with proteins is necessary but difficult because it implies a sharp demarcation between different states
of *'bound" water associated with the protein which have unusual physical properties and "normal" water loosely associated with the protein. Furthermore, this
problem of definition is also a methodological one, because the numerous methods
used to study the interactions of water with proteins often describe different types
of bound water. One should not loose sight of the fact that water associated with
proteins is a continual transition from highly-structured monolayer water molecules
bound to specific groups to the unordered liquid water at the periphery of the multilayers, and that it is difficult to know where one type of water ends and another
begins.21-71'75 Consequently, at the present time, there is no uniform set of definitions
to describe these states: water molecules interact with each other and with proteins
in many ways.83 Other researchers76'84 define only three types of water: constitutional, interfacial, and bulk phase water. Constitutional water corresponds to structural water; interfacial water is made up of vicinal water (the first one or two molecules adjacent to proteins), and multilayer water (the next few layers of water
molecules). Interfacial water would correspond to monolayer, unfreezable, and hydrophobic hydration water.75 Bulk phase water, which is the remaining water as-

Table 4.6 CLASSIFICATION OF WATER ASSOCIATED WITH PROTEINS


AT INCREASING WATER ACTIVITIES (aj
Structural water:

(flw < 0.05)

Water hydrogen bonded to specific groups and which participates in


stabilization of structure (10 to 20 H2O molecules/protein); unavailable for
chemical reactions

Monolayer water:
(0.05 < aw < 0.2)

The first adsorbed water monolayer hydrogen bonded to protein groups;


unavailable as solvent, may be available for chemical reactions (4 to 9 mg of
H2O/g of protein)

Unfreezable water:
(0 < aw < 0.9)

This includes all water that does not freeze at normal temperature (0.3 to
0.5 g of H2O/g of protein); amounts varies with polar amino acid content and
includes some water available for chemical reactions

Hydrophobic
hydration water:
(0.1 < aw < 0.25)

Structured cage-like water surrounding apolar residues; involved in


stabilization of protein structure

Capillary water:
(0.5 < aw < 0.95)

Water mechanically trapped by surface forces in the protein molecule; similar


to bulk water in physical properties

Hydrodynamic
hydration water:
(flw > 0.99)

Water "loosely" surrounding the protein and that is transported with the
protein during diffusion (centrifugation); properties of normal water

From Refs. 3, 21, and 67.

sociated with proteins, constitutes the major type of water. It may be physically free
as in diluted protein dispersions or entrapped as in gels. More recently, Kneifel et
al.14 proposed dividing the water held in a protein into two main types: (1) that
bound to the molecule and no longer available as a solvent, and (2) that entrapped
in the protein matrix or in a corresponding comatrix (fat, polysaccharide). The first
type can be regarded as adsorbed water and the second as retained water.

Environmental Effects on Hydration/Rehydration Properties


De Moor and Huyghebaert85 reported that the amount of water bound by whey
powders and demineralized whey powders is generally low. However, the protein
component of these powders has a high water-holding capacity. The evaluation of
the amount of water bound by a protein depends not only on the protein itself
(composition of amino acid residues, conformation) but also on environmental conditions (pH, ionic species and composition, temperature).
Amino acid residue composition necessarily affects the hydration properties of
proteins because some amino acids bind more water than others. Proteins that contain
large amounts of polar or ionized groups (carboxylic, hydroxyl, and thiol side chains)
will tend to bind a large amount of water. The number of polar or ionized group
will affect the rate and the extent of water binding to proteins. In contrast, apolar

amino acid residues (aliphatic and aromatic side chains) which show a low affinity
for water molecules are preferentially buried in the interior of the protein molecule
and are not available for interactions with the solvent. 3 ' 86
The amount of water bound by ionized or polar groups is affected by the steric
availability of hydration sites. The unfolding of a protein molecule from a globular
conformation to a random coil results in an increase of the net area surface and thus
in an increase of availability of extra hydration sites due to the exposure of more
ionized or polar amino acid residues and peptide bonds.3 Practically, protein unfolding has relatively little effect on the amount of water bound by a protein. Usually,
there is an increase of 0.02 to 0.1 g of H2CVg of protein.21 Depending on the extent
of unfolding, it may also result in a decrease of hydration capacity because of increasing protein-protein interactions.21
Another important parameter that affects the amount of water associated with a
protein is the net charge on the protein molecule. These charges that give rise to
electrostatic repulsions (the concept of electrical diffuse double layers) may provide
a driving force to stabilize particles in solution or in colloidal dispersion (see ProteinSurface Interactions).
pH is a factor that affects the net charge on a protein. At the isoelectric point (pi),
the number of positive and negative charges is equal; that is, the net surface charge
equals zero, and therefore the hydration capacity is lower. Moreover, this decrease
in repulsive forces and in the hydration shell favors attractive forces leading to
protein-protein interactions.
The nature and the concentration of salts also affect the hydration properties of
proteins by their effects on electrostatic interactions. At low electrolyte concentrations, the amount of water bound to proteins increases with increasing electrolyte
concentration. For high electrolyte concentrations, the amount of water bound decreases because of the suppression of the electrical double layer surrounding the
protein molecule; this is directly related to the hydration of the ion and hence to its
ability to separate water molecules from the protein molecules: ions with smaller
unhydrated radii (larger charge density) have larger hydrated radii and thereby
produce a greater degree of dehydration of the protein (Hofmeister or lyotropic
series). 21 ' 69
Temperature has a major effect on hydration properties because, from a thermodynamic standpoint, in nearly all dairy products water absorption is an exothermal
process; that is, the partial molal enthalpy of mixing has a negative sign. 79 ' 87 Therefore, a decrease in temperature causes an increase in equilibrium water content and
thereby in hydration properties.80 So, as expected, heating of proteins in most studies
decreases hydration.88'89 Bech, 90 however, reported enhanced water-holding capacity
by whey proteins after severe heat treatment. Preheating of the base milk prior to
the manufacture of sodium caseinate leads to a concomitant adsorption of whey
proteins onto caseins, increasing the water-holding capacity of the product. This
effect was thought to be due to the thermal denaturation of the whey proteins, creating a spongelike surface on the casein, which retains more water than a caseinate
powder produced from unheated milk. However, skim milk powder subjected to
varied heat treatments did not show different a water-holding capacity.78

Measurement of Hydration/Rehydration Properties


Numerous techniques have been used to study water-protein interactions. These
methods have been reported and listed by Bull and Breese,91 Labuza,92 Franks,71
Chou and Morr,67 Patel and Fry,93 Schnepf,75 and more recently by Kneifel et al?A
Chou and Morr67 have grouped the methods into four categories depending on the
main properties of the protein-water interactions. The first group includes methods
related to the thermodynamic properties of water (e.g., enthalpy, entropy, free energy, <zw, freezing and boiling points), and uses methods such as sorption isotherms.
The second group of techniques measures kinetic properties; that is, the mobility of
water as it associates with a protein, and changes in proteins that are effected by
protein-water interactions. Specific techniques are used to evaluate kinetic properties
such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), dielectric dispersion, laser light scattering, and intrinsic viscosity. The third group of methods are spectroscopic techniques which measure the nature and strength of hydrogen bonds. These methods
include infrared and Raman spectroscopy, and NMR. The fourth group provides
information on the average position and orientation of water molecules and includes
light and X-ray scattering, as well as neutron diffraction. However, many of the
above techniques are only of academic interest for most food technologists. Kneifel
et al.74 have proposed differentiating methods according to whether they measure
water adsorption (Baumann apparatus, viscosimetry, farinographic techniques, rehydration tests, sorptions isotherms) or whether they measure water retention (centrifugation test, differential scanning calorimetry, filtration procedure). Table 4.7
(Kneifel et al.14) lists the most important methods used and the underlying principles.
However, more work should be done to standardize methodologies for evaluating
hydration properties. Two types of procedures for water absorption and retention
properties are presently under investigation by the committee on the functional properties of milk proteins of the International Dairy Federation.

4.3A.2 Solubility
Definition and General Considerations
Solubility in aqueous systems is a valuable predictor of other functional properties
of dairy protein-containing ingredients. Solubility is related to the dispersibility of
protein ingredients in water, and to environmental conditions. Solubility can also be
used to provide information on protein denaturation (e.g., at pH 4.6 for whey proteins) caused by processing and storage and thereby to predict the usefulness of the
powder in food applications (beverages, yogurt, emulsions, foams, etc.).14'50 Solubility itself, however, is no guarantee of useful functionality. Indeed, foaming may
be best exhibited by proteins at their isoelectric point, where they are also least likely
to remain in solution.93 Practically, solubility (g of dry protein/100 g of H2O) is the
amount of protein in a sample that goes into solution or into colloidal dispersion
under specified conditions and is not sedimented by low centrifugal forces.3

Table 4.7 PRINCIPAL METHODS USED FOR PROTEIN


HYDRATION MEASUREMENTS
Method

Principle of the Method

Examples of
Tested Products

Reference
94

Bauman apparatus

Based on the measure of the uptake


of water by a sample at equilibrium

Whey protein
concentrate

Farinographic
techniques

Based on the constant dough weight


method which allows the calculation
of several farinographic
characteristics

Milk powder,
casemates,
coprecipitates

Rehydration test

Based on the spectrometrical


measurements of the change in
transmission density of the dispersed
protein as function of time

Milk proteins

95

Based on the measure of the weight


uptake after exposure of the dry
protein sample to an atmosphere of
defined relative humidity

Casein

96

Viscosimetry

Based on the increases of viscosity


with the water uptake

Milk protein
concentrate

97

Centrifugation test

Based on the weight of liquid


released after centrifugation

Caseinate,
whey protein
concentrates

98

Differential scanning
calorimetry

Based on the record the difference


of enthalpy change that occurs
during heat treatment, between a
sample and a reference

Whey protein
concentrate

88

Filtration procedure

Based on the volume of released


water after equilibration of the
powder with excess water

Sodium
caseinates

78

Casein micelles

99

Sorption isotherms

NMR

89

From Ref. 74.

Generally proteins are soluble in water when electrostatic or hydration repulsion


between proteins is greater than the driving forces for hydrophobic interactions.
Thus, the polar and ionizable groups of proteins largely confer water solubility.

Environmental Effects on Solubility


As previously noted, the solubility of proteins depends on many factors including
the inherent properties of the protein itself as well as on environmental factors (ionic
strength and ion species, pH, temperature, presence of other solutes).
The effect of salts on the solubility of proteins has been extensively studied and
also exploited as a mean of protein isolation.77 If salt is added progressively, protein

solubility increases (salting-in) and subsequently, after passing through a maximum,


starts to decrease {salting-out). The salting-in process is usually considered as a net
increase of protein solubility on the basis of nonspecific electrostatic interactions
between a.charged molecule and its environment.3'50 However, Arakawa and
Timasheff 10 revealed that the salting-in effect of yS-lg by NaCl is strongly related
to a preferential interaction of this salt with the protein. On the other hand, the
effectiveness of various salts in inducing salting-out depends very strongly on the
type of salt used, as indicated by the so-called Hofmeister series.101 Sodium caseinate
can be salted out at ionic strengths above 0.2 M NaCl,3 but the solubility of whey
proteins, because of their low tendency toward association, is not that drastically
dependent on ionic strength or pH.102 pH, by affecting the charges borne by proteins,
affects their solubility. Caseinates are often completely soluble at pHs above 5.519
and a solution containing 15 to 25% protein can be readily prepared at pH 6 to 8.
The isoelectric point (pi), which is generally related to the pH of minimum solubility
of proteins, is usually observed between pH 4.5 and 5.5. The solubility of sodium
caseinate increases to 90% above pH 4.5. Whey protein concentrates are less soluble
at the pi although solubility always exceeds 60%. 102 Solubility is minimal at the pi
unless the net charge on the proteins is controlled in part by highly hydrated cations
such as Mg2 + , Ca2 + , and Na + . In the latter situation, coagulation occurs when the
H + concentration is great enough to replace the hydrated cations. The more Ca2 +
present, the greater the H + concentration required to cause coagulation.3
Increasing the temperature progressively disorders both protein and solvent by
disruption of hydrogen and ionic bonds which destabilizes protein structures and
causes unfolding (reversible or irreversible). Generally, in the case of an irreversible
unfolding, protein-protein interactions are enhanced, resulting in aggregation and
precipitation.3'50 Dairy protein fractions are susceptible to heat denaturation in different ways. Caseins show an unusual heat stability. A 3% caseinate solution at
pH 7 can be heated at 1400C for at least 60 minutes without significant aggregation
of the proteins occurring.19
Other factors such as surfactants, organic solvents (especially water miscible),
pressure, and other substances such as enzymes, polysaccharides, etc., by modifying
protein structure, affect the balance of intermolecular forces that control protein
solubility.3 Back et al.103 have shown that various polyols and sugars can stabilize
proteins against heat denaturation by strengthening water structure which indirectly
strengthens the hydrophobic interactions that stabilize protein conformations.

Solubility Measurements
The various techniques used to determine the solubility of milk proteins and milk
protein ingredients have been summarized by Fox and Mulvihill.18 However, because solubility is an important functional property in the evaluation of proteins,
standard methods are needed. Patel and Fry93 reported that two standard methods
exist for determining solubility, namely the Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI)104 and
the Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI).105 The International Dairy Federation (IDF)

has accepted a procedure for the determination of the NSI for use as an international
standardized technique for all milk protein ingredients.
In fact, both methods give an indication of protein dispersibility rather than true
solubility.93 The PDI method involves high-shear blending for mixing proteins with
water whereas the NSI procedure employs more gentle mixing. In both techniques
dispersion is followed by low-speed centrifugation to remove insoluble solids. In
the NSI and PDI methods, the protein content of the sample, and of the "soluble"
fraction, is estimated by determining the Kjeldahl nitrogen content, and the solubility
is expressed as a simple percentage.

4.3.2 Protein-Protein Interactions


Proteins play an important role in controlling the texture of many food products.
Consequently, the rheological and gelling behaviors of proteins are important determinants of their functional properties.

4.3.2.1 Rheological Behavior of Protein Dispersions


Definitions and General Considerations
Studies of the rheological properties of proteins are important because106'50 (1) they
allow investigation of the conformation (shape) and interactions (hydration, aggregation) of proteins in solution, (2) they make it possible to reduce functional properties to physicochemical characteristics, and (3) they provide a tool for process
monitoring and control.
If proteins display a varied and complex rheological behavior, this can be interpreted as fundamentally the result of the combined contribution of the hydrodynamic
volume, both size and shape, and interactions of the protein particles as schematically
represented in Fig. 4.2 (Rha and Pradipasena106).
The viscosity of a protein solution is concentration dependent.107"109 Menjivar
and Rha108 proposed a model that described the rheological behavior of globular
proteins in solution over a wide range of concentrations (Fig. 4.3). In this model
each protein is composed of a molecular core (hydrated volume) and an interactive
volume whose viscoelasticity is represented by Voigt models; Voigt models consist
of a spring and a dashop in parallel.56 The molecular core is the volume of a swollen
quarternary structure. The interactive volume includes the effect of hydrodynamic
and electrostatic interactions. In this model, three separate relationships between
protein concentration and viscosity are distinguished, (1) in very dilute, (2) in semiconcentrated, and (3) in concentrated protein dispersions.
1. The viscosity of very dilute and undenaturated protein (globular or random
coil) dispersions, without interactions between protein molecules, is governed by the
shape and size of the molecules according to Einstein's equation.110411:
(4.2)
where r]s and rj0 are viscosities of the suspension and of the continuous phase respectively, /3 is a shape factor (representing the axial ratio of the equivalent ellipsoid

SIZE
Molecular weight
Hydration
HYDRODYNAMIC
VOLUME

SHAPE
Conformation

RHEOLOGY
OF
PROTEINS

PACKING

INTERACTIONS
Disulfide linkage
Electrostatic force
Van der Waals force
Hydrogen bond
Hydrophobic interaction
Steric hindrance

ASSOCIATION
DISSOCIATION
DEFORMATION

Figure 4.2 Influence of various factors on the rheology of proteins. (From Ref. 106.)

DILUTE REGIME

INTRINSIC VISCOSITY
REGIME
Tl r = 1 + [ T l ] C

CONCENTRATED
REGIME

(C[Tl])

V V C [ T l ] , C/[CJ)

Cch

'Or
MINIMUM
"Interactive volume"

Concentration (C)

log zero-shear viscosity

[T|] Z hydrodynamic
volume

log zero-shear viscosity

Reduced viscosity

MAXIMUM
"Interactive volume"

Concentration (C)

Concentration (C)

Figure 4.3 Descriptive model of rheological behaviour of proteins. (From Ref. 108.)

or rod, = 2.5 for a spherical uncharged particle), and (f> is the volume fraction of
the protein in solution.
The intrinsic viscosity [rf], is defined as the viscosity that exists when the molecules are completely isolated, that is, when the concentration of the protein approaches zero.
(4.3)
and is an indication of the hydrodynamic shape and size of the protein in solution.106
Consequently intrinsic viscosities of isolated proteins have been widely studied as a
means of establishing their molecular dimensions. Mulvihill and Fox77 collated some
values of [rf] for individual milk proteins under various environmental conditions.
2. When protein concentration increases, deviations from Einstein's equation are
observed: they translate the change from dilute to semiconcentrated systems, and
are due to the presence of hydrodynamic interactions between protein molecules.
These deviations occur above a particular protein concentration, defined as the charateristic concentration (cch) which is estimated from:
(4.4)
For /3-lg, on the basis of 1/[Ty], Pradipasena and Rha112 have estimated that the
semiconcentrated region began above 10%. Above cch, the zero shear rate viscosity
no longer increases linearly but increases exponentially with protein concentration
(Fig. 4.3). The relative viscosity r)T of spherical particles in the semiconcentrated
region may be represented by a series expansion:
(4.5)
where It1 is the second virial coefficient.
3. The viscosity of concentrated protein solutions is governed by the excluded
volume and by interactions between suspended particles. This region starts at a socalled critical concentration (ccr), at which the zero shear rate viscosity approaches
infinity (Le., a yield stress is observed). The value of c cr can be estimated from a
modified Mooney equation113 using concentration instead of volume concentration
and replacing the shape factor by the intrinsic viscosity.
(4.6)
The critical concentration is equivalent to # m , the maximum packing fraction in the
Mooney equation.108 For /3-lg, Pradipasena and Rha112 have estimated that the concentrated region corresponds to levels above 30%. The advantage of using the parameters cch and cCT is that they provide information about the nature of the protein
and the extent of the intermolecular interactions in solutions over a wide range of
concentrations.50-106

At concentrations > ~ 1 5 % casemates form highly viscous solutions, and at concentrations >~~20%, even at high temperature, the viscosity of solutions is so high
that it is difficult to process them.77 In contrast, undenaturated whey proteins, due
to their compact globular shapes, form much less viscous solutions.50-77 For protein
dispersions (caseinate and whey) containing < 12%, Hermansson,114 and Towler115
have shown that their behavior is Newtonian, that is, that a linear relationship is
observed between the shear stress (T) and the rate of shear strain (s):
(4.7)
At higher concentrations, above 12% and 18 to 20% for caseinates and whey proteins, respectively, dispersions show a more pseudoplastic Theological behavior.
Flow properties are better described by a power law,
(4.8)
where K is the consistency index and n is the behavior index (0 < n < 1). The
consistency index increases strongly with concentration.

Environmental Effects on the Rheological Behavior


of Protein Dispersions
The viscosity of protein dispersions is a function of various parameters related to
production (especially pH) and to processing conditions (concentration, pH, salt
nature, thermal treatments, etc.). 116117 Furthermore, chemical modifications allow
modifications of physicochemical properties such as flow properties and consequently functional properties.3
The variation of protein solution viscosity as a function of pH is highly complex,117 and is strongly related to the nature of the cation used. In the presence of
sodium hydroxide, Hayes and Muller118 have observed a quick increase of the viscosity when the pH increases from 6.9 to 9.5, then a quick decrease for pHs higher
than 9.5. These observations were confirmed by Purri et al.119 and Hermansson114
who place the maximum degree of viscosity near pH 10.8-11 and 9.8-10 respectively.
Purri et al.119 explained this increase in viscosity by the gradual neutralization of
acidic groups, which leads to the formation of growing amounts of strongly hydrated
caseinates. The decrease in viscosity after complete neutralization would be due to
a loss of the casein structure. In the presence of ammonium hydroxide,118 a plateau
of viscosity is obtained at pHs between 6.5 and 9. Purri et al.119 have compared
different caseinates and have observed that the degree of viscosity follows the series
NH 4 + , Na + , Ca2 + , with the lowest degree of viscosity occurring in the presence of
Ca 2 + . Purri et al.119 attributed the higher values in the presence of ammonium ions
to the formation of hydrogen bonds between particular functional groups of casein,
such as phenol and e-amino groups. The addition of calcium to sodium caseinate
increases viscosity, especially at pHs > 7, but at pHs < 7 the addition of calcium
at a concentration of > 8 mg/g causes a decrease in viscosity, presumably due to
micelle formation.77 At lower pHs, Korolczuk97 has reported an increase in viscosity
when the pH decreases. This effect is explained on the basis of electrostatic repul-

sions; in caseins containing more carboxylic and phosphate groups than amine
groups, the net positive charge in acidic solution is lower than the net negative charge
in basic solution. Consequently, the probability of aggregate formation is higher in
acidic solution, thus resulting in a higher viscosity of these solutions.
Moreover, casemate viscosity increases with ionic strength.117 The addition of
sodium chloride leads to a strong increase in viscosity, but only for sodium caseinate
concentrations > 10%.114 Colas117 reported the existence of a patent120 using soluble
aluminum salts to increase viscosity. Indeed, the addition of 1.5% hydrated aluminum sulfate multiplies the viscosity of a 12% sodium caseinate solution by 100; this
trivalent cation probably allows a larger reticulation of the protein by the formation
of ionic bridges.117
The viscosity of casein and caseinate solutions decreases as the temperature increases.116 However, the magnitude of this classic phenomenon is strongly affected
by the pH and by the presence of Ca 2 + ions. In the case of sodium caseinate, at
pH 7, the Andrade relation is confirmed: a linear relationship exists between log
viscosity and the reciprocal of absolute temperature.115-118121'122 The decrease in
viscosity correlates with a decrease in hydration capacity.123 This relation is not,
however, confirmed when calcium is added to the solution:121 viscosity decreases
quickly when the temperature increases from 30 to 38C, then stays constant to 570C
where a gel forms. At acidic pH (2.4 to 2.9), the situation is slightly different:123 the
viscosity of solutions decreases when the temperature increases from 25 to 600C,
and the hydration capacity remains practically unchanged; between 60 and 800C,
viscosity and hydration capacity increase. As previously mentioned, this increase
can be explained by a decrease in the net charge of proteins at pH values lower than
the pi; moreover, hydrophobic interactions increase with temperature. These two
phenomena contribute to the formation of aggregates, and an increase in viscosity.117
The viscosity of whey concentrates in the range from 25% to 40% depends strongly
on the composition and preheat treatment of the whey.50 This appears to be caused
mainly by the rate of crystallization of the lactose in the concentrates.124
Limited proteolysis by proteinases such as plasmin 125126 or treatment with disulfide reducing or sulfydryl blocking agents127 can also markedly reduce the viscosity of caseinates.

Measurement of the Rheological Behavior of Protein Dispersions


Due to the extensive nature of the subject, the following section is far from exhaustive. The main rheometer classes can be classified as: 56 ' 128
1. Rheometers operating under stationary conditions. They work essentially as
viscosimeters to determine viscosities and r-s rheograms of liquid substances. In
these rheometers, the sample is submitted to laminar shear forces, independent of
time. The following types of rheometers fall into this category:
Couette-type rheometers in which the sample is sheared between two solid surfaces, one at rest, and the other mobile.

Poiseuille-type rheometers in which the shearing movement is due to the application, at the ends of a cylindrical tube containing the sample, of a pressure differential. In most cases, this pressure differential is given by the action of gravity.
Viscosimeters with falling or rolling spheres whose applications are limited (they
allow only the study of rigorously Newtonian liquids), but the are very well known
and relatively widely used.
2. Rheometers that work under transitory conditions which allow the study of
the viscoelastic properties of material. They are essentially two types of transitory
rheometers:
Creep compliance rheometers. In creep compliance testing, a small constant stress
(r) is applied to the sample, and the resulting strain (s) is followed with time.
Stress relaxation rheometers. In a stress relaxation experiment, a small constant
strain (e) is applied to a given sample, and the resulting stress (T) is followed over
time.
3. Dynamic rheometers. In dynamic testing, conditions are used that will not
alter the structure of a material and will satisfy the requirements of a linear viscoelasticity theory based on infinitesimal strains and strain rates where the ratio of
stress to strain is a function of time (frequency) alone, and not of stress magnitude.116
From the curves obtained for a given sample, the elastic and viscous components
known as the dynamic shear storage modulus (G', which describes the elastic nature
of the material) and the dynamic shear loss modulus (G", which describes the viscous nature of the material) can be determined. Two other parameters can also be
evaluated, the loss tangent expressed as tang S = G "/G' and the dynamic viscosity
tf = GVw, where co is the oscillatory frequency. Generally, two types of devices
are used according to whether or not the movement is conserved:
Rheometers with forced oscillations which can function over a large range of
frequencies or at a particular frequency.
Rheometers with free oscillations which allow the measurement of low viscosities
by studying the breaking point.
These latter two sets of rheometers (2 and 3) are also particularly well adapted
to studying the rheological behavior of viscoelastic foods such as gels.
In addition, some rheometers can operate under stationary, transitory, or dynamic
conditions, if optional equipment is also used.

4.3.2.2 Gelling Properties of Globular Proteins


Definitions and General Considerations
There are many processed foods (cheese, firm yogurt, etc.) in which proteins act as
gelling agents and provide a desirable texture.12 Although they hold large amounts
of water, one of their characteristic features is to behave as solids while retaining
many of the properties of their liquid component.129 On quickly applying and removing a very small stress, a gel reversibly loses its form, in the manner of an elastic

body with a low modulus of elasticity. Flow may occur, but only above a finite yield
stress.33
The gel structure usually takes one of the following two forms:33'77
1. Polymer network. The gel structure is provided by a well-ordered, three dimensional cross-linked macromolecular network, or matrix made up of cagelike unit
structures of uncoiled polypeptide segments that interact at specific points and
are able to retain large amounts of water due to specific intermolecular forces
(covalent, hydrogen, and hydrophobic). Gels of this type are formed by globular
proteins, and polysaccharides.
2. Aggregated dispersion. The gel structure consists of a highly aggregated dispersion of colloidal particles. Intuitively, it is reasonable to think that aggregation
tends to occur more frequently when concentrations are high and pH is in the
isoelectric range. Clotting of milk is an example of this type of gelation.
A clear distinction between these two types of gels is rather difficult however,
especially when hydrocolloids are implicated in the gelation process.33 To define
more clearly the gelation process, de Gennes130 has proposed distinguishing two
types of Theological behavior: (1) strong gelation, and (2) weak gelation.
If crosslinks, once formed, remain intact for a finite time under stress, gelation is
considered to be strong. In contrast, when crosslinks are not strong enough to resist
a small stress, the system is said to exhibit weak gelation.
The gelation process of globular proteins can be caused by heat denaturation or
by any other process (changes of pH, addition of salts, action of enzymes, etc.) that
converts proteins to a state that favors intermolecular protein interactions.
The next section is restricted to heat induced gelation of globular whey proteins.62'63'131"134
From statistical theories of gelation129'135'136 the process of gelation is described
as the formation of an infinite network of trifunctional and bifunctional units
(Fig. 4.4). If initially there are f reactive sites per molecule, when a critical fraction
ac of these have reacted the weight-average molecular weight diverges to infinity:
this is the gel point. If the aggregation process is random, theory predicts that f and
ac are related by the equation:129
(4.9)
At this stage, a gel fraction and a sol fraction coexist. However, the sol fraction
decreases as the gel fraction increases beyond a c . Moreover, the sol fraction can
disappear, and the gel rigidity can eventually increase with time if crosslinking proceeds far enough.62
Heat induced gelation of globular proteins is a two-step process involving:137
(1) an activation (or denaturation) step, and (2) an association step
heat

heat and/or cooling

A
B

A
A

Linear Chain

Branching point

BA

B
.A
AB

AB

BB

BB

BA

BA
A
B
AB
BA

Gel matrix
Figure 4.4 Formation of an infinite gel matrix. (Adapted from Ref. 129.)

where x is the number of protein molecules, P N is the native protein, and P D is the
denatured protein.
The initial stage corresponds to a conformational alteration or unfolding of the
secondary and tertiary structures due to a decrease in intermolecular forces. This
unfolding is induced by an increase in temperature. The denaturation temperature or
gelling point (T d ) is the point at which the extent of the reaction is equal to 0.5 and
[PNI = [PD]- 1 3 8 Th e magnitude of this unfolding is a function of temperature as well
as of environmental factors. The unfolding increases, in general, the exposition of

hydrophobic (favoring aggregation) and thiol residues, and favors formation or exchange of disulfide bridges (irreversible gels).
The subsequent polymerization process is affected by the capacity of the protein
surface for intermolecular interactions and requires a balance between proteinprotein interactions, protein-solvent interactions, and attractive/repulsive forces between adjacent polypeptidic chains.133 Hydrophobic interactions (favored at high
temperature), bridges with Ca 2 + or other divalent salts, hydrogen bonds (favored
during cooling) and disulfide bridges represent attractive forces. Electrostatic repulsions, principally at pHs higher than pi, and protein-water interactions, act to keep
polypeptide chains separated.9 If protein-protein interactions are too weak (repulsive
forces predominate), viscosity will increase, but the fluid can always flow: a gel,
strictly speaking, cannot form. In contrast, if protein-protein interactions are too
strong (attractive forces predominate), the network will collapse and water will be
expelled from the structure.139
The functional properties of gelling proteins such as gelation time and the rigidity
modulus are related to several factors:133'140 (1) the nature of the protein, the lowest
concentration of protein required to form a gel and desired gel texture, (2) the conditions required for gelation (temperature pH, ions), and (3) matrix geometry, flexibility of the polymer, and strength of the junctions (chemical nature and extent of
protein-protein interactions).
Experimentally, protein concentration determines both the likelihood of gel formation and also the characteristics of the gel that forms. If the protein solution is
heated below a concentration sometimes designated as the critical concentration,62
and which varies according to the protein utilized, gelation will not occur. Indeed,
when the protein concentration is too low, a protein network is difficult to establish:
protein-protein interactions tend to be intramolecular rather than intermolecular and
a gel network cannot be established. As protein content increases, the likelihood of
intermolecular interactions increases, and at the critical concentration proteins form
a coagulum or at the temperature that initiates the gelation process (generally between 70 and 85C), or during cooling.63-137139
The firmness of gels and the gelation speed increase with the protein content and
the heating temperature up to i20C102'141-142 due to a higher probability of proteinprotein interactions. The temperature at which gelation begins decreases as the protein concentration increases; solutions containing 3 or 9% of j3-lg (pH 6.6, 1% of
NaCl) begin to gel at 82 and 75C, respectively. Solutions containing 1 or 5% of
BSA (pH 6.6, 1% of NaCl) gel at 82 and 77C, respectively.143 Under the same
conditions of pH and ionic strength, a-la does not form a gel, even at a concentration
of 20%. 143

Influence of Environmental Factors


Gelation of globular proteins are largely influenced by media conditions (e.g., pH,
salt nature, presence of other solutes, etc.). An increase of pH of /3-lg solutions from
8.7 to 9.0 decreases the temperature at which gelation begins,16-94144 decreases the
rate of gelation,141 and beyond pH 7.5 to 8.0 decreases gel firmness.145 A decrease

of pH, in the acid zone, from 5.0 to 4.0 leads to a decrease in the temperature at
which gelation begins, from 700C to 500C. However, the observed increase in viscosity may be due to aggregation rather than real gelation.16'94'146
An increase in NaCl concentration to 0.5 M leads to an increase in viscosity,147
or in gel firmness (10% whey proteins, pH 7.0, 80C/30 min or 100C/15 min respectively),145 but generally leads to a decrease in water-holding capacity as soon
as the NaCl concentration goes above 0.3 M.148 The presence of 1 or 2 M NaCl
increases the temperature at which gelation begins (10% whey proteins, pH 7.0,
85C/30 min).147 After heating of /3-lg solutions (9%, pH 2.5, 90C/30 min), in the
presence of NaCl 0.2 M, Harwalkar and Kalab149 obtained gels with a regular matrix
and particles of small size. At higher ionic strength (0.4 M NaCl), the presence of
voluminous aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm) can be detected by electronic microscopy.149
The addition of CaCl2 leads to an increase in gel firmness (10% whey proteins, pH
7.0, 100C/15 min) up to a concentration of 0.04 M (with a maximum at 0.011 M),
but is associated with a decrease in the elasticity and water-holding capacity of the
gel.150 When the protein concentrate is dialysed, the gels obtained are firmer, more
elastic, and more translucid than those prepared with the nondialyzed protein concentrate.148
The presence of reducing agents inhibits gelation.151 With a series of whey protein
concentrates, a positive correlation has been established between the gelifying power
on the one hand and the sulfhydric group content and protein solubility at pH 4.5
on the other.151 The addition of cysteine to a concentration of 40 mM decreases gel
quality (10% proteins, pH 7.0, 100C/15 min):150 gel firmness is maximum at a
cysteine concentration of 9.7 mM, but the cohesiveness, the elasticity, and the waterholding capacity of the gel decrease.
The addition of sucrose delays gelation and increases the temperature at which
gelation begins; however, gels with a smooth texture, similar to a baked custard, can
be obtained in the presence of 30% sucrose (5% ultrafiltered and diafiltered whey
proteins, 115C/5 min). 152153
The presence of other milk proteins can modify the gel quality obtained; for
example, gels prepared from whey protein concentrates (10%, pH 7.0, 85C/10 min)
are more opaque and less elastic than those obtained from purified /3-lg.63 Under the
effect of heat, /3-lg can form complexes with other milk proteins. Doi et al.154 have
obtained a gel by heating a solution containing 5% /3-lg and 5% /c-casein (pH 7.1,
70 mM KCl, 90C/10 min), but separate solutions of /3-lg and of a-casein do not
gel under the same conditions. Similarly, these authors155 have obtained a gel from
a solution containing 2.5% a-la and 2.5% /c-casein (pH 7.6,0.4 NaCl, 90C/30 min),
but a solution of a-la alone, under the same conditions, does not gel.

Measurement of Gelling Properties


The Theological and textural properties of gels are important properties for determining acceptance. They are measured when the food is exposed to a certain stress
and shear strain rate and therefore Theological measurements are considered relevant for characterizing texture on a nonsensorial level. A large number of instru-

Next Page

merits and techniques have been developed for measuring Theological and textural
properties.56-156'157 Furthermore, texture profile measurements as defined by
Szczesniak158-159 have so far served as bridge between fundamental rheological principles and popular nomenclature. Various techniques can in general be separated in
the analyses using small, nondestructive strains (i.e., sample deformation) and destructive techniques (i.e., sample rupture).133
In the first case, rheological characteristics using small, nondestructive strains
allows a dynamic measurement of rheological transitions. Changes in rigidity or
shear modulus (stress/strain), storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G") can be
measured as a function of time or temperature. These rheological characteristics of
a viscoelastic body are independent of size and shape, and can be determined by a
large variety of methods.133-160

4.3,3 Protein-Surface Interactions


The boundary between two homogeneous phases is not to be regarded as a simple
geometrical plane, on either side of which extend the homogeneous phases, but rather
as a lamina or film with a characteristic thickness; the material in this "surface
phase" has properties differing from those of the materials in the contiguous homogeneous phases.161 Here we are especially concerned with the interfaces between
two immiscible or partly miscible liquids (emulsions), and between a liquid and a

gas (foams).
It is a matter of everyday experience that two immiscible liquids rapidly separate
into two distinct phases and consequently the adage, "like oil and water." The reason
why oil and water alone, after being mixed by shaking, separate so quickly is that
this intense agitation, by inducing the dispersion of one phase (dispersed phase)
under droplet form in the other (continuous phase), also induces an extensive increase
of the interfacial surface and therefore of the free energy of the system. In following
symbols, if y is the force per unit of length tending to contract such a surface or
interfacial tension, and if S, T, P, V, A, //,, and n refer respectively to entropy,
absolute temperature, pressure, volume, surface area, chemical potential, and number
of moles in the system, then
(4.10)
where G represents the total Gibbs free energy of the system. At constant temperature
and pressure and for a given number of moles in the system, this reduces to
(4.11)
As interfaces between phases necessarily have a positive free energy, the variation
of the free energy of the system is reduced by coalescence (4.11). Coalescence is
an irreversible phenomenon because the surface area of the new droplets is less than
the sum of the surface areas of the two colliding droplets. The effects of Brownian
motion, arising from the distribution of thermal energy between the molecules of
the system, combined in real systems, to the movements caused by density differences (sedimentation or creaming), which put droplets into contact, and to van

Previous Page

merits and techniques have been developed for measuring Theological and textural
properties.56-156'157 Furthermore, texture profile measurements as defined by
Szczesniak158-159 have so far served as bridge between fundamental rheological principles and popular nomenclature. Various techniques can in general be separated in
the analyses using small, nondestructive strains (i.e., sample deformation) and destructive techniques (i.e., sample rupture).133
In the first case, rheological characteristics using small, nondestructive strains
allows a dynamic measurement of rheological transitions. Changes in rigidity or
shear modulus (stress/strain), storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G") can be
measured as a function of time or temperature. These rheological characteristics of
a viscoelastic body are independent of size and shape, and can be determined by a
large variety of methods.133-160

4.3,3 Protein-Surface Interactions


The boundary between two homogeneous phases is not to be regarded as a simple
geometrical plane, on either side of which extend the homogeneous phases, but rather
as a lamina or film with a characteristic thickness; the material in this "surface
phase" has properties differing from those of the materials in the contiguous homogeneous phases.161 Here we are especially concerned with the interfaces between
two immiscible or partly miscible liquids (emulsions), and between a liquid and a

gas (foams).
It is a matter of everyday experience that two immiscible liquids rapidly separate
into two distinct phases and consequently the adage, "like oil and water." The reason
why oil and water alone, after being mixed by shaking, separate so quickly is that
this intense agitation, by inducing the dispersion of one phase (dispersed phase)
under droplet form in the other (continuous phase), also induces an extensive increase
of the interfacial surface and therefore of the free energy of the system. In following
symbols, if y is the force per unit of length tending to contract such a surface or
interfacial tension, and if S, T, P, V, A, //,, and n refer respectively to entropy,
absolute temperature, pressure, volume, surface area, chemical potential, and number
of moles in the system, then
(4.10)
where G represents the total Gibbs free energy of the system. At constant temperature
and pressure and for a given number of moles in the system, this reduces to
(4.11)
As interfaces between phases necessarily have a positive free energy, the variation
of the free energy of the system is reduced by coalescence (4.11). Coalescence is
an irreversible phenomenon because the surface area of the new droplets is less than
the sum of the surface areas of the two colliding droplets. The effects of Brownian
motion, arising from the distribution of thermal energy between the molecules of
the system, combined in real systems, to the movements caused by density differences (sedimentation or creaming), which put droplets into contact, and to van

der Waals forces of attraction which pull droplets together, causing them to
coalescence.162

To prevent rapid breakdown of an oil-in-water dispersion, as with, any other


emulsion type or foam, it is necessary to add a third componentemulsifier or
surfactantwhich, from its amphiphilic nature, spontaneously adsorbs at the interface and prevents or at least reduces contacts leading to coalescence by introducing
intermolecular forces of a repulsive nature.163 The adsorption of emulsifiers including proteins is spontaneous because it is thermodynamically favorable. Indeed, emulsifiers minimize their contribution to the free energy of the system by decreasing
interfacial tension (4.11), that is, they adopt an orientation such that the hydrophobic
groups (usually hydrocarbon chains) tend whenever possible, to adopt a position in
the oil phase, whereas hydrophilic groups (such as -OH, -CO2H) are in a lower
energy state in the aqueous phase.33

4.3.3.1 Interfacial Properties of Milk Proteins


Definitions and General Considerations
Proteins and, a fortiori, milk proteins are, from their chemical nature, surface active
compounds. However, the adsorption of proteins differs from that of low molecular
weight emulsifiers. In the first place, there are many possible regions of interaction
with an interface along a protein chain so that the energy of adsorption is large even
if the energy of adsorption for each individual region is small. Second, if absorbed
macromolecules are flexible, they can adopt a large number of configurations at the
interface. However, entanglements with neighboring molecules generally prevent
the state of lowest energy being attained.164 Fig. 4.5 165 shows the configuration of
a protein chain at an oil/water (O/W) interface. Only a fraction of the molecule is
in direct contact with the surface in the form of trains. The remainder protrudes into
the two contiguous homogeneous phases, as the three dimensional loops and tails,
to form an interfacial region that is much thicker than the width of the chain. The
proportion between the train and loop regions determines, in part, the interfacial
efficiency of proteins.166 Consequently, one can predict that not very structured,
flexible proteins such as /3-casein will be more surface active than a rigid globular
protein such as /3-lg or a-la. During adsorption, contacts between surface and solvent,
and between protein segments forming future trains and solvent are decreased and
replaced by direct contact between surface and protein segments.164 The enthalpy
of adsorption being positive, and the free energy of adsorption being negative (spontaneous process), the process of adsorption for proteins and other polymers is dominated by the change of entropy. This includes the change in the configurational
entropy of the proteins and the entropic change resulting from the solvent released
from the surface and the protein.33
Experimentally, the kinetics of protein adsorption can be monitored by following
the time dependence of the surface concentration (F) or the surface pressure (/T).
The pressure surface is defined as
(4.12)

NATIVE

DENATURED

Tail

Train

OIL
WATER

Loops
Figure 4.5 Orientation of proteins at an interface. Schematic representation of nonpolar (O),
polar ( ) , and neutral (@) residues of protein. (From Ref. 165.)

where yo and y are the interfacial tensions in the absence and in the presence of
emulsifier.167 Fig. 4.6 168 gives typical results and shows the changes in Hand Ffor
/3-casein and &gg white lysozyme (which is almost homologous with a-la) at the air/
water (A/ W) interface, at room temperature. For the disordered and flexible /3-casein,
changes in TI and Tare closely coupled (Fig. 4.6a). However, with lysozyme which
is a very rigid globular protein, the J7-t curve shows an initial period of "induction",
and moreover /7 is still increasing significantly when F has attained its steady state
value (Fig. 4.6b). The presence of the induction period in the /T-t curve has been
observed by others 169 in dilute solutions, and is not entirely clear in terms of molecular behavior. 170 One explanation assumes that this induction time corresponds
to an accumulation of protein segments near the interfacial region before the adsorption occurs. 171
According to Cumper and Alexander, 172 and MacRitchie, 173 the increase of TI
with time can be attributed to three molecular processes: (1) the diffusion of protein

n(mNnr 1 )

r(mgnr 2 )

(a)

t(h)

n(mNm" 1 )

r(mgm" 2 )

(a)

(b)

t(h)
(b)

Figure 4.6 Adsorption of ^-casein and lysozyme at the A/W interface. The surface concentration F (O) and the surface pressure II () are plotted against the time (t) for protein
adsorption at 200C, pH 7, and ionic strength = 0.1 mol dm"3, (a) (3-casein, initial concentration = 7.3 X 10"4 kg m~3. (b) lysozyme, initial concentration = 7.6 X 10~4 kg m~3.
(From Ref. 168.)

molecules to the surface, (2) the spreading or unfolding of adsorbed protein molecules, and (3) the conformational rearrangement of adsorbed protein molecules.
At the outset, protein chains must arrive at an interface by simple molecular
diffusion. De Feijter and Benjamins171 have shown that this statement is true only
for the very early stages of the process, that is, when JT ^ 1 mNm" 1 . They also
drew the conclusion that this diffusion-controlled period coincides with the induction
period. Benjamins et al.174 reported diffusion coefficients ranging from 3.3 to 0.7
X 10" 1 0 m 2 ^ " 1 for several proteins, with 0-casein being adsorbed much more
rapidly than /c-casein or BSA.
For adsorption to occur, only a small section of the macromolecule needs to enter
the interfacial region. In addition, the area of contact that is needed is very small
(1.0 to 1.75 nm2) and is not related to the total size or molecular conformation.175

(a)

(b)

(C)

Figure 4.7 Schematic representation of the protein adsorption at liquid interfaces: (a)
P-casein at ATW interface: (1) T < 1 mg m~ 2 , (2) Tsat > T > 1 mg m" 2 , (3) T = T8^,
(4) T > T5^. (b) p-casein at O/W interface: (1) - (4) as in (a), (c) lysozyme at AAV interface:
(1) T < 2 mg m" 2 , (2) T > 3 mg m" 2 , (3) T = Tsat, (4) T > Tsat. Tsat = surface concentration
at primary layer saturation. (From Ref. 178.)

Although protein adsorption is a thermodynamically favorable process, the attainment of an equilibrium state, that is, of an equilibrium interfacial conformation, can
take time; Kim and Kinsella 176 who studied the ability of BSA to lower the superficial tension, reported that the equilibrium surface pressure was attained only after
24 h. Castle et a!.177 reported that very slow but continuous structural changes, as
indicated by surface rheological parameters, take place in adsorbed protein films
over a period of several days. If flexible proteins arrive at their equilibrium conformation quickly, it is not generally the case for globular proteins. Films, and principally concentrated ones, can contain protein chains with different degrees of unfolding (Fig. 4.7). 178 Consequently, films are not in an equilibrium state and
rearrangements of proteins with individual trains desorbing and others adsorbing
occur to obtain the lowest energy state. 179 Moreover, adsorbing proteins are affected
by the already adsorbed proteins. The latter exert an energy barrier made up of a
physical barrier due to dynamic rearrangements of loops and tails on the aqueous

side and an electrical barrier, unless the system is very close to the pi. 164 This effect
is probably related to multilayer formation. However, further "adsorption" may
occur, but solely through protein-protein interactions, as shown schematically in Fig.
4.7d.178 An issue that has been under much debate is whether protein adsorption is
irreversible at the interface.170 Cohen Stuart et a/.180"182 have proposed a theoretical
model; MacRitchie183 has shown experimentally the reversibility of protein adsorption. Norde et al.1S4 reported BSA, adsorbed on various adsorbents, could be removed, totally or in part, by adjusting the pH or ionic strength, or by adding a
displacer. For rigid proteins, where the conformational changes on adsorption are
small, this is a matter to consider during the experiments. However, for more unfolded proteins with many attachments at the interface, the energy requirements for
desorption are very unfavorable. Thus, within the time limits of most experiments,
protein adsorption can be regarded as irreversible.2833

Environmental Effects on Interfacial Properties


Beginning with Jackson and Pallansch,185 surface and interfacial properties of individual milk proteins have been extensively characterized (see reviews of Kinsella,14 Leman and Kinsella,25 and Tornberg et <z/.28). Jackson and Pallansch185 found
that the interfacial activity of different milk proteins, at a butter-oil/water (O/W)
interface at 400C, decreases in the order /3-casein > monodispersed casein micelles
> BSA > a-la > a-casein > /S-Ig. These results are consistent with the previous
discussion, indicating that caseins may have better interfacial properties than native
whey proteins, but thermal unfolding may improve the emulsifying properties of
whey proteins.3*29 Mitchell et al.186 continued these studies in more detail by following the surface pressure developed by the six major milk proteins, at the airphosphate buffer (A/W) interface (pH 7,1 = 0.1, T = 25C) as a function of area
(J7-A isotherms), subphase concentration (il-C isotherms), and time (/7-t isotherms).
With the exception of BSA, the /7-A relationships were independent of the structure
of the proteins and were not affected by heating or urea treatment, whereas the
/T-C and JFT-t isotherms are strongly dependent on these conditions. This suggested
that the protein molecules, with the exception of BSA, unfold to some extent on
adsorption at the interface. The TT-C isotherms for open and flexible K structures
such as /3-, a sl -, and /c-caseins superimposed exactly. The /7-t isotherms strongly
reflected protein structure and showed that caseins, especially /3- and a sl -caseins,
are more rapid in lowering surface tension than whey proteins and give rise to a
large surface pressure (JI). The order of effectiveness, expressed in y after
50 minutes at a protein concentration of 10" 3 wt%, was as follows: /3-casein
(22 mN m " J ) > a sl -casein (16 mN m~ l ) > K-casein (15 mN m" 2 ) > j3-lg (13 mN
m~ 2 ) > a sl -la (12 mN m ~ J ) > BSA (8 mN m " ! ) . This order of effectiveness does
not completely fit with that observed by Jackson and Pallansch185 at the O/W interface. More precisely, /3-lg is more surface active than BSA at the A/W interface.
The latest result was also reported by Tornberg and co-workers.187188 Tornberg et
al.2* reported some results on the interfacial activity of /3-, a-, and /c-caseins at the
air-water interface (protein concentration of 10" 3 wt%, pH 7, I = 0.2 M NaCl,

T = 4C). The a- and /c-caseins are similar in activity, whereas /3-casein gives rise
to a quicker and larger surface tension. Britten et aL189 have also shown similar
properties of interfacial measurements of casein micelles and their fractions.
The surface Theological properties of adsorbed films of milk proteins are sensitive
to pH. Dickinson,27 studying time-dependent surface viscosities for casemate films
adsorbed at the O/W interface from 10 ~ 3 wt% buffered protein solutions at pH 3
and 7, reported that the surface viscosity under acidic conditions is an order of
magnitude higher than that measured at neutral pH. These results, consistent with
bulk Theological measurements,97190 showed that, at similar concentrations, acidic
casein solutions are much more viscous than neutral sodium casemate solutions.
In practice, however, it is rare that only one type of protein is involved in real
systems. One can imagine that a competition for the various adsorption sites exists
between the various sources of food macromolecules. Musselwithe191 reported the
preferential adsorption of caseins at the O/W interface, at 44C, from an aqueous
solution containing, in the same proportion, two disordered macromolecules: gelatin
and casein; the surface pressure isotherm being close to that of the casein alone.
Recently, Dickinson et al.192 have confirmed Musselwithe's work. Murray,193 by
studying the behavior of 50:50 mixtures containing /3-lg and another milk protein
(/3-, K-casein or a-la) has reported that the isotherms for the mixed films cannot be
simply related to the isotherms of the individual proteins. With the /3-lg H- /3-casein
mixture, it was suggested that /3-casein prevents the unfolding of /3-lg at the interface.
Dickinson et al.,192 studying the adsorption of a sl , /3-caseins and various casemates
onto polystyrene lattices, have shown that the more hydrophobic /3-casein is more
surface active than asl-casein and that caseinates have surface properties intermediate between these two. This suggests that these components adsorb independently
and not competitively. Recently, Dalgleish and coworkers 194195 have provided information on possible conformations of milk proteins (/3-casein and /3-lg) when
adsorbed onto polystyrene lattices. If many studies have been carried out with milk
proteins, alone or in mixture, relatively less work has been done with proteins and
low molecular weight lipophilic emulsifiers. Paquin et al.,196 and Laliberte et al}91
have investigated the behavior of mixed films of monoglycerides (GSM)/sodium
caseinates and GMS/casein at the A/W interface. Results exhibited a high surface
pressure region dominated by GMS, and in areas where there was only a small
contribution from proteins. This contribution arises from the hydrophobic portion of
the casein molecules which stick into the lipophilic (GMS) matrix at high surface
pressure. This model is consistent with the interpretation of results obtained by Courthaudon et al. (1991, personal communication) on a model emulsion system containing
casemate + C12E2 at the n-tetradecane/W interface.
The alternative to competition is cooperation. Larichev et a/.198 found that complexes of BSA with dextran sulfate produced more stable decane/W emulsions than
BSA alone.

Measurements of Interfacial Properties


Various techniques can be used to study interfacial properties (see general textbooks
on the physical chemistry of surfaces).

The ring of du Noiiy and the capillary rise methods seem unsatisfactory for timedependent solutions. 187 For studying the adsorption of proteins at interfaces, the
Wilhelmy plate technique is the most commonly used method 1 6 8 ' 1 7 1 1 7 6 - 1 7 8 1 8 6 1 8 9 ' 1 9 9
and, operates on the following principle. A very thin plate is attached to an arm of
a balance and the additional pull on the plate, when it becomes partly immersed, is
equal to the product of the perimeter and the surface tension. 161 Compared to the
pendant drop and the drop volume method, one of the advantages is that continuous
measurements can be performed as a function of time. 28 The pendant drop and the
drop volume method, respectively based on the shape of the drop and on the volume
(or weight) of a liquid drop that detaches itself from the tip of a vertical tube are
less often used. 188 ' 200 ' 201 Tornberg187 has adjusted the drop volume technique to be
able to follow the time dependence of the lowering of surface tension by proteins.
Another set of methods mainly represented by the Langmuir film balance are also
widely used to study adsorption from solutions or the spreading of monolayers. This
technique involves measuring the film pressure surface directly, rather than calculating it from surface tension differences (4.12). The Langmuir balance is composed
of a trough of inert material whose surface is swept by barriers to clean the surface
and to compress monolayers. By means of this arrangement, it is possible to vary
the area of a spread monolayer and directly measure the corresponding film pressure.
However, althouth the Langmuir is quite a simple device, obtaining unambiguous
results is far from simple. Anyone interested in considering this type of experiment
should consult the more detailed description given by Games. 202

4.3.3.2 Dispersed Systems: Emulsions and Foams


Emulsions and foams are, by definition (4.11), unstable systems. However, the addition of emulsifiers (low molecular weight emulsifiers and/or macromolecules) allows one to control the kinetics of the instability processes that lead to the breakdown
of emulsions and foams by modifying surfaces forces. The latter, as do all static
forces, act between particles and depend on particle separation (h). Such forces are
affected by the properties of both the particles and the separating medium. 203 Since
emulsions and foams are colloidal systems, their behavior is governed by the general
aspects of colloidal science, as well as specific factors relating to the presence of
proteins at the interfaces. There are three main mechanisms or forces which are
generally used in considering the stability of colloidal systems; two are based on the
interactions between charged droplets, and the third depends on steric considerations.
Detailed reviews on interparticle forces can be found in Mahanty and Ninham, 204
Dickinson and Stainsby,33 Israelachvili,11 de Gennes, 205 Fisher and Parker,163 and
Bergenstahl and Claessom. 203
Forces between molecules and particles caused by interactions between permanent and induced dipoles and other multipoles (Keesom, Debye, and London interaction forces) are collectively known as van der Waals forces. The classic omnipresent London interactions (induced dipole-induced dipole) are dominant attractives
forces over the distances that are important when considering dispersed system stability. 162 De Boer 206 and Hamaker,207 by integrating the van der Waals forces acting

ELECTROSTATIC
REPULSION

Primary minimum

POTENTIAL ENERGY (kT)

Primary maximum

Secondary
minimum
VANDERWAALS
ATTRACTION

DISTANCE OF SEPARATION (nm)


Figure 4.8 Potential energy versus distance separation curve for a pair of electrostatically
stabilized droplets; also shows the separate contributions of the electrostatic and van der Waals
components. (From Ref. 162.)

between the individual atoms making up the particles, calculated the attractive potential VA between two spheres of equal radius (a):
(4.13)
if h < < a where AH is the Hamaker constant which depends on the density and the
polarisability of the material making up the particles.208 In principle, this constant
can be calculated, but in practice the estimation of this constraint is fraught with
considerable uncertainty, especially as the structures of the particles become more
complex.204'209*210 Although not exact, this equation indicates the character of the
attractive force which increases more and more rapidly as the droplets approach one
another (Fig. 4.8).162 A more accurate theory was developed 20 years later by Lifshitz and coworkers211'212 which described the van der Waals forces as originating
from spontaneous electromagnetic fluctuations. This theory, in contrast to the
Hamaker and de Boer approach, takes into account many body effects, temperature
dependence, and effects due to the finite speed of light, and to continuous medium.
It turns out that the van der Waals forces between identical particles are always
attractive, whereas such forces, according the latter theory, may be repulsive between
particles having different chemical compositions.163 In practice however, this theory

remains quite difficult to apply. The range of van der Waals forces of attraction in
an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions is of the order of 20 nm; at greater distances, the
effects of van der Waals potential would be roughly countered by Brownian motion
of the particles.163
To impart stability to colloidal systems, it is necessary to have repulsive forces
between dispersed particles as strong as, and comparable in range to, the everpresent
van der Waals forces. In dispersed systems, this may be achieved by acquiring an
electric layer through the ionization of characteristic groups of adsorbed proteins
(e.g., -CO 2 " and -NH 4 + groups) or through the adsorption or dissolution of small
ions.33 Electroneutrality of the whole system requires that the net charge on the
dispersed particles be balanced by oppositively charged ions (counterions) whose
concentration decreases as one moves away from the charged surface; ions of the
same charge (coions) are repelled near the surface. The region of unequal counterand coions surrounding the charged surface is called the electrical double layer. This
double layer can be regarded as consisting of two regions (Stern theory): an inner
region of strongly adsorbing ions, and an outer region where charges are diffusely
distributed according to a balance between electrical forces and random thermal
motions.11-33 Since all proteins carry some net charge, it is certain that adsorption
of proteins to an interface will lead to the formation of double layers around the
emulsion or foam droplets. It is the interaction of these double layers, as two such
particles approach, which leads to a mutual repulsion. This mutual repulsion can
also be understood as an osmotic pressure effect: the excess concentration of counterions in the space between the double layers produces a local osmotic pressure
difference between the interacting layers and the bulk solution.213 The range of the
electrostatic forces is of the order of the ' 'thickness" of the electrical double layer
which is usually characterized by the Debye-Hiickel length (1/K):
(4.14)
where s r and e o are the permitivities of the vacuum and the continuous phase, respectively. K the Boltzmann constant; T is the absolute temperature; e is the electronic charge; and c and Z are the concentration and charge number of the ions in
the continuous phases, respectively.167 Calculations of the energy of the electrostatic
repulsions require numerous assumptions about the conditions at the surface of the
particles when they interact, but Derjaguin and Landau,214 and Verwey and
Overbeek213 have demonstrated that it is possible to roughly estimate solutions for
the energy of electrostatic interactions between two charged particles by considering
either particles which are large and have thin double layers (that is, where Ka > >
1), or which are small and have large double layers (that is, KQ.
1). In the case
of protein-stabilized emulsions, it is clear that the first of these cases is applicable,215
and so one of the best known solutions, only valid for low surface potentials (if/ <
25 mV), derived by Derjaguin and Landau214 is given by:
(4.15)

where is ip the surface potential. Verwey and Overbeek213 have published tables of
VR using more exact solutions valid for higher surface potentials. This equation,
however, indicates that the electrostatic repulsion falls off exponentially with distance (Fig. 4.8). The range is very sensitive to the ionic strength of the continuous
phase since K is proportional to the square root of the electrolyte concentration.
Typically, l//c would fall from 100 nm at 10~ 5 M to 1 nm at 10" ] M for a univalent
electrolyte.
The total interaction energy VT between colloidal particles can be calculated by
adding the van der Waals attractive forces and the double-layer repulsive potentials
(4.13 and 4.15). This theory, independently derived by Derjaguin and Landau,214
and by Verwey and Overbeek,213 and known as the DLVO Theory, is undoubtedly
one of the greatest steps forward in understanding the stability of colloidal system.
Schematic results such as those in Fig. 4.8 162 show how the forms of the functions
for VA and VR combine to give a maximum repulsive potential so that particles are
prevented from coalescing. From equations (4.13) to (4.15), it is clear that the stability of electrostatically stabilized droplets depends on the height of the primary
maximum (Fig. 4.8) which in turn depends on the surface potential (#), the range
of the double layer (K), and the Hamaker constant (AH). As a rough rule, if the
primary maximum exceeds approximately 15 kT (kT is the average energy expected
from local thermal fluctuations), a dispersion is "absolutely" stable with respect to
coagulation into the primary minimum.33 Furthermore, if the secondary minimum
(Fig. 4.8) is sufficiently deep, 2 kT or more, then when the droplets come together
they will form aggregates with a lifetime dependent on the depth.162 These aggregates of droplets are generally easily dispersed by agitation.179 If the DLVO Theory
has the merit to be entirely quantitative, it unfortunately can rarely explain emulsion
stability in many food emulsions because double-layer forces are not very important.216 Typical food emulsions stabilized by proteins or hydrocolloids have small
surface charge densities corresponding to low zeta potentials, normally between 1
and 20 mV.203 Also, in many food emulsions the electrolyte concentration is rather
high, which reduces the Debye-Hiickel length and consequently the electrostatic
repulsion.179
The third major mechanism by which the stability of colloidal systems can be
influenced is due to the presence of flexible polymers {i.e. disordered or denatured
proteins) on particle surfaces or in solutions which affect forces acting between these
particles. These steric forces can be strong enough to provide a metastable thermodynamic equilibrium and prevent droplets from approaching closely enough for
the attractive van der Waals interactions to be sufficiently powerful to permit coagulation.215 Models describing the interaction between irreversibly adsorbed flexible polymers have been described by Flory,217 de Gennes,205'218 and by Scheutjens
and Fleer.219"221 The interactions between polymer/polymer segments of adsorbed
macromolecules may generate a repulsive effect due to an entropic contribution to
the free energy, rather than being a true repulsive potential, for two reasons. Firstly,
the approach of two interacting droplets may compress the surface layers of adsorbed
macromolecules. This compression, by diminishing the volume available to the
macromolecule, produces a loss of configurational entropy {i.e. macromolecules are

constrained to be effectively less flexible). Secondly, the adsorbed macromolecules


of two approaching particles can interpenetrate, and in is case the entropy of intermixed macromolecular chains is not favoured by a close approach.205'215 Therefore,
adsorbed flexible macromolecules tend to promote stability of colloidal systems.
Relatively recent studies by Pargesian, Rand and co-workers,222"225 by Pashley,226 and by Marra and Israelachvili227"228 have experimentally shown that a further strong repulsive force can be generated between two surfaces covered with
hydrated macromolecular groups when they are brought close together in an aqueous
environment. This interpenetration of the adsorbed layers may disrupt the binding
water of the macromolecules, and will contribute unfavourably to the overall free
energy of aggregation. These short-range forces become measurable at about 3 nm,
and decrease exponentially with distance according to Parsegian and coworkers. 222 " 225 The forces described by Marra and Israelachvili227'228 have a more complex functional form. Despite these differences, explained mainly on the basis of
different experimental conditions, the hydration forces are strong enough to prevent
adhesion of lecithin bilayers.227'228
Two further mechanisms are also associated with the presence of adsorbed and
nonadsorbed macromolecules, namely (1) polymer bridging, and (2) depletion
flocculation.
1. Polymer bridging occurs when the polymer concentration is low or when the
time of adsorption is short, for instance, during homogenization processes.33'229 Consequently, bridging gives arise to an attraction force at relatively large separation
distances, that is, comparable to the length of the adsorbed polymer chain that protrudes into the solvent. As the surface concentration increases the effect of bridging
polymers becomes less important, whereas adsorbed polymer/polymer interactions
become more important.
2. Depletion flocculation arises when the particle surfaces are sufficiently close
together that the nonadsorbed dissolved macromolecules cannot fit between them,
and the concentration of macromolecules between the surfaces is therefore lower
than the bulk concentration. This produces an osmotic attractive force that tends to
drive particles together.230 At sufficiently high nonadsorbed dissolved macromolecule concentrations, theory also predicts that forces induced by free macromolecules
can actually change from attractive to repulsive, leading to what has been called
depletion stabilization.231"233
Although, in practice, it is extremely difficult to quantitatively estimate colloidal
interaction between dispersed particles, some trends can often be infered. Table
4.8 234 summarizes the primary factors (particle size, pH, ionic strength, etc.) involved. Furthermore, modem developments in the theory of stability of colloidal
systems include additional factors, especially the effects the steric forces, and a more
precise definition of the interaction forces.11163'205

Emulsifying Properties
Definition and Formation of Emulsions. Emulsions as well as foams are dispersed
systems; they contain two distinct phases. According to the traditional definition,235

Table 4.8 VARIABLES AFFECTING THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF COLLOIDAL


INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SPHERICAL PARTICLES IN AN AQUEOUS
MEDIUM. A STAR DENOTES THAT THE VARIABLE IS IMPORTANT.
ALL VARIABLES, EXCEPT PARTICLE SIZE, MAY IN TURN AFFECT
THE COMPOSITION OF THE SURFACE LAYER
Variable
Particle size
Particle material
Surface layer
pH
Ionic strength
Solvent quality

van der Waals Attraction

Electrostatic Repulsion

Steric Repulsion

*
*

(*)

(*)

*
*
*

(*)
*

From Ref. 234.

emulsions are colloidal dispersions of liquid droplets in a second immiscible liquid


phase. If the continuous phase is water, they are termed oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions (e.g., milk, cream, mayonnaise, etc.); the opposite arrangement is called a
water-in-oil (W/0) emulsion (e.g., margarine, butter, etc.). However, this classic
definition is too narrow to include most food emulsions; many of which are in fact
considerably more complex: the dispersed phase can be partially solidified as in
dairy products and the continuous phase may also contain crystalline material, as in
ice cream, or it may be a gel as in many desserts. In addition, air bubbles may have
been incorporated as in whipped creams. Also, a good proportion of the droplets
may be beyond colloidal size.236
Emulsions are formed when one liquid is dispersed in another by supplying external energy, as, in the vast majority of cases, the free energy of an emulsion is
higher than that of the separated liquid phases. During emulsification, large droplets
fragment into smaller ones under nonuniform stresses. Three main origins of droplets
deformation and disruption can be identified: (1) laminar flow, (2) turbulent flow,
and (3) cavitation. A very comprehensive and detailed review on the formation of
emulsions have been given by Walstra;229 only a short summary will be presented
here.
1. Laminar flow can be obtained by simple shearing, but
2. In most emulsifying devices (e.g. homogenizer), the flow conditions are turbulent, and inertial forces, now predominant, can lead to droplet breakdown. The
effects of turbulent flow on droplets is discussed by Davies.237 The theory is mainly
due to Kolmogorov. Turbulence is characterized by the presence of eddies which
have a wide range of sizes. The kinetic energy of the eddies is transferred to successively smaller eddies until the energy is dissipated as heat from the smallest
eddies. According to the theory of local isotropic turbulence (Kolmogorov scale),
the smallest diameter (I0) of the eddies is given by:
(4.16)

where sip is the energy density per unit mass and 77/p is the kinematic viscosity of
the continuous phase. Taking dmax as the largest droplet diameter remaining unbroken, it follows that:
(4.17)
if Cl0141x > I0 and Re high. This equation is not exact because uncertainties exist in
the value of the constant C, depending on the homogenizer used. This equation
indicates the dependence of the droplet size on the energy density, and once again,
on the importance of the interfacial tension.
3. Cavitation is the phenomenon of formation and collapse of small vapor bubbles in a liquid.238 A high velocity fluid may produce a local negative pressure which
leads to the formation of a cavity. As the cavity implodes, it produces a microscopic
shock wave. If the collapsing cavity is in the vicinity of a large droplet, part of the
dispersed phase is sucked toward the shrinking void.33 The cavitation mechanism
is particularly important in ultrasonic emulsification,229238 and during microfluidization.239'240
The occurrence of these different types of flow is dependent on the size of the
emulsifying device and emulsifying intensity (s). Moreover, the adsorption process
of an emulsifier such as a protein in a classic emulsifying device such as the homogenizer probably occurs in less than a millisecond.229 This implies that: (1) much
of the protein emulsifier is transported to the O/W interface by convection rather
than diffusion, and (2) it is very unlikely that an adsorption equilibrium is obtained.
Walstra and Oortwijn241 have quantified the kinetics of adsorption of milk proteins during homogenization. In contrast to diffusion-controlled adsorption, the convective mass transport rate increases with the size of the protein molecule or aggregate (e.g., micelle). Consequently, it is difficult to extrapolate the behavior of protein
components as measured in diffusion-controlled experiments to that in real emulsions or foams.
Stability and Environmental Effects on Emulsion Stability. Despite the adsorption
of emulsifiers at interfaces, emulsions as well as foams are inherently thermodynamically unstable. Consequently, emulsion stability should be considered as a kinetic concept: the "stability" being obtained when the number and the arrangement
of droplets change very slowly with time.242 Loss of stability has several possible
manifestations in emulsions. One may identify five major distinct phenomena which
are creaming, flocculation, coalescence, Oswald ripening, and phase inversion.
Ostwald ripening is the growth of larger droplets at the expense of smaller ones due
to mass transport of small dispersed particles through the continuous phase. Small
particles have a greater solubility than larger ones due to the effect of the particle
curvature on the surface free energy.33'234 However, Ostwald ripening is usually
insignificant in food emulsions due to the extremely low mutual solubilities of triglycerides and water. Phase inversion is the abrupt change in state from an O/W
emulsion to a W/0 emulsion. If emulsion phase inversion can sometimes be expected
(e.g., butter making), it differs from the other phenomena in requiring large amounts

of dispersed phase, mechanical energy, and in being a composite process, usually


involving both flocculation and coalescence.242'243 This leaves us with the three
major primary forms of instability (1) creaming, (2) flocculation, and (3) coalescence, which will be considered in the next section. Those interested are, however,
invited to consult the reviews of Mulder and Walstra,243 Dickinson and Stainsby,33
Tadros and Vincent,244 Dickinson,242 and Walstra.234
Processes of Emulsion Destabilization. 1. Creaming. Creaming is a gravitational (or eventually centrifugational) separation of oil droplets into a more concentrated, and most of the time, distinct layer at the top of an emulsion sample, with no
related change to the droplet size distribution.242 In a very dilute (dispersed phase
volume fraction, <f> < 0.05) Newtonian medium of viscosity (77), the creaming speed
(V) of an isolated spherical droplet, rigid and uncharged, can be evaluated by the
well-known Stokes expression:
(4.18)
where Ap is the density difference between the two phases, and g is the gravitational
acceleration. For a system with a = 1 mm, Ap = 0.2 g.cm" 3 , and 17 = 1 mPa.s,
the particles move about 5 cm/day.33 The Stokes formula states that creaming in a
dilute unaggregated emulsion can be inhibited in three ways. The most obvious is
to reduce droplet size (V a a2) by high pressure, and/or repeated homogenization.229
However, even after intense homogenization, there is always a residual amount of
undisrupted droplets which produce some creaming.242 Creaming can also be eliminated by giving the dispersed (p d ), and continuous (pc) phases the same densities.
However, a combination of legal and toxicological constraints leave little room to
manoeuvre in this area. Furthermore, the density of the adsorbed protein/emulsifier
layer (p a ) is usually different from those of continuous (pc), and dispersed phases
(Pd)- Typically p^> pc> p d for an O/W protein stabilized emulsion. Furthermore,
because the thickness of the adsorbed layer is more or less independent of the droplet
size,164 emulsions with a high protein load (e.g., homogenized milk), the smallest
droplets being more dense than the dispersion medium, can never be creamed, even
in a centrifuge.245 Consequently, a high protein load inhibits creaming by reducing
the droplet size during emulsification, and the density difference between the two
phases, as well as having positive effect on flocculation and coalescence. The third
way of affecting the creaming rate (V) is to increase the viscosity of the continuous
phase. Creaming is completely stopped if the yield stress has a value > 2 a g |Ap|
which corresponds to 102 Pa for emulsions.229
The usefulness of this relation (4.18) is, however, restricted to limited cases,
because it does not take into account a large number of additional factors such as
multiparticle hydrodynamic interactions, polydispersity, non-Newtonian behavior of
the continuous phase, etc. 33 ' 243 ' 246 In particular, creaming of cold fresh milk is much
more rapid than that predicted by the Stokes formula because of the flocculated state
of the fat globules due to agglutinins. At moderate, or high <P, the Stokes formula
cannot be used, and creaming estimations become semiempirical; Barnea and

Mizrahi247 have proposed an equation which fits experimental data for a wide range
of systems.
2. Flocculation. Flocculation is the aggregation of dispersed droplets to form
small or large flocculates with no associated change in the individual droplet size.242
This phenomenon may occur if the interaction free energy between two droplets is
negative at certain separation distance: the lower the potential energy minimum
(secondary minimum, Fig. 4.8), the more stable the flocculates once formed.244 Flocculates are generally readily redispersed by gentle agitation. Flocculation may occur
for several possible reasons, including bridging of droplets by emulsifiers, aggregation of proteins initially adsorbed on different droplets, inadequate or excessive
homogenization.242-248 The flocculation rate can be roughly estimated from the product of a frequency factor (i.e., How often do the particles encounter one another?),
and a probability factor (i.e., How long do they stay together?).234 If the first factor
is easily predicted for some simple cases (e.g., Brownian motion, simple
flows),249'250 the second factor, being a function of the total interaction energy, is as
was previously mentioned, more difficult and often impossible to estimate if the
composition of the surface layer is unknown. Consequently, at present, there is no
way to quantify reliably the extent of flocculation in food emulsions.
3. Coalescence. Coalescence is the coming together of creamed or flocculated
droplets to form larger droplets. The limiting situation is a complete breakdown of
the emulsion into two partly immiscible liquid phases.242 Coalescence can be distinguished from flocculation by its irreversibility with respect to dilution, stirring,
change of pH, and so on. According to classical theories, the coalescence process is
initiated by the formation of a small hole in the thin film between a pair of droplets
in close proximity and the Laplace pressure then causes the pair to flow quickly
together.244 Coalescence in a concentrated emulsion, or a creamed layer is greatly
increased by fat crystallisation, especially in the presence of agitation.251'252 In relation to shelf life, coalescence is usually totally unacceptable when seen by the
consumer as release of free fat; however, during eating, coalescence has a positive
role in ensuring the desirable release of flavor components in the mouth (e.g., the
perception of butter saltiness).
Walstra234 has designated a separate category of instability that he called partial
coalescence. This type of instability can occur in emulsions containing fat crystals
which tend to aggregate into nonspherical clumps, held together by "necks" of
liquid fat, rather than flowing together into larger spherical droplets. Partial coalescence, by forming nonspherical aggregates and semi-solid networks, is accompanied
by large changes in emulsion rheology. This phenomenon is readily induced by
subjecting a concentrated suspension of semicrystalline fat globules to shear flow,
that is, during churning of cream. On heating a partially coalesced emulsion, the
crystals melt, and the clumps become large spherical droplets.
These various changes, namely creaming, flocculation, and coalescence, affect
one another as schematically shown in Fig. 4.9.243 Creaming may be enhanced by
any of the others. Coalescence rarely occurs unless the particles are creamed or
flocculated. Creaming may enhance the rate of flocculation. Stirring disturbs creaming, but enhances the rate of flocculation.234

COARSER DISPERSION

Rapid creaming

Coalescence

Rapid creaming

Flocculation

FINER

EMULSION
(MILK)

Coalescence
Flocculation

increased

Slow creaming

Disruption

SEPARATION OF PHASES
Figure 4.9 Schematic representation of the main destabilization processes of emulsions. The
case of milk. Fat is grey. (From Ref. 243.)

Table 4.9 MAIN PHYSICOCHEMICAL FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD


EMULSION STABILITY

Droplet size
Droplet size distribution
Volume fraction of dispersed phase
Density difference between phases
Viscosity (rheology) of continuous phase
Viscosity (rheology) of adsorbed layer
Thickness of adsorbed layer
Electrostatic interaction between droplets
Macromolecular interaction between droplets
Fat crystallization
Liquid crystalline phases

Creaming

Flocculation

Coalescence

***
***
***
***
***

**
**
***

***

**
**
***

***
**
***
***
**
**
***
**

*** = Generally important; ** = often important; * = sometimes important


From Ref. 242.

Finally, the composition of the oil phase in food emulsions sometimes produces
fat crystals consisting of oil, water, and low molecular weight emulsifier, in the
interfacial region. There is some evidence that these ordered layers, by influencing
the van der Waals interactions between droplets, can stabilize O/W and W/O emulsions,253 and also that stability is correlated with mesophases in the oil-wateremulsifier phase diagram.254 However, according to Darling and Birkett,255 the
mechanism probably does not operate in most food systems because the lipid emulsifier concentration (e.g., mono-, di-glyceride, etc.) is far too low for lipid crystals
to develop at the O/W interface.
Factors Affecting Emulsion Stability. Numerous studies on emulsions has allowed identification of the main physical factors affecting emulsion stability. Table
4.9 242 summarizes the main ones with their relative importance to creaming, flocculation, and coalescence.
Another important aspect of protein stabilized emulsions is that their behavior is
pH-dependent. Particularly at the pi, proteins having no net charge, the charge-based
contributions to repulsion will be minimal. Consequently, proteins tend to coagulate,
and therefore it is expected that their surface Theological parameters will be maximal.256 Steric stabilization will also be minimized at the pi, because the proteins will
be in their most compact form.215 Some authors such as Nielsen et al.257 using
gelatin, and Biswas and Haydon258 using BSA, have nevertheless demonstrated the
contrary, that is, that emulsion stability could be higher at the pi. It is thought that
the higher surface coverage or protein load at the pi and the structure of proteins
give cohesive films that enhance stability.215 At lower pH values, proteins may show
a distinct dependence on pH. BSA shows increasing emulsifying activity as the pH
is increased from 4 to 9, and then decreases sharply as the protein conformation
changes.259"261 However, according to Waniska et al.,261 /3-lg in the range of pH

3-8 does not undergo a change in its emulsifying capacity, although it does undergo
conformational changes.
The protein hydrophobicity of whey proteins can vary with pH, in that their
surfaces become less hydrophobic as the pH increased.262
Finally, proteins are susceptible to change with the ionic strength of the solution:
increasing the ionic strength diminishes charge-based interactions between proteins
and consequently produces the same effect as changing the pH towards the pi. 263 ' 264
Measurement of Emulsifying Properties. The tests used for the evaluation of
the emulsifying properties of proteins can be separated into two categories. The first
provide direct information on emulsifying potential. The second provide estimations
of the effects of proteins on the stability of protein-stabilized emulsions (ES). However, a "complete" characterization of the emulsifying properties of proteins requires both of these approaches. In the first category of methods, one can include
(1) the emulsifying capacity (EC) and (2) the emulsifying activity index (EAI).
1. The EC measurement is probably the most popular test;28 the maximum amount
of fat emulsified by a protein dispersion just prior to the inversion point is determined. The EC method originally developed by Swift et ai,265 has been widely
used, although it has been modified in certain respects. Comparisons between
results from different laboratories are difficult to make due to the fact that this
type of test is greatly affected by the type of stirrer used, stirring rate, rate of fat
addition, types of fat or oil, and emulsifying temperature. Hailing256 has critically
reviewed this method. Vuillemard et al.266 have proposed a standardized procedure to measure the EC max .
2. The EAI, as presented by Pearce and Kinsella260 is a rough estimate of the dispersed particle size of the emulsion, based on the interfacial area (calculated via
turbidity) per unit of protein. The EAI measures the ability of the protein to help
in dispersing the oil phase.
In the second set of methods, emulsion stability (ES) can be evaluated by measuring of the rate at which an emulsion creams or breaks. The rates of these changes
can be measured by determining (1) the distribution of oil droplets, and (2) by an
estimation of the fat or water content in the upper or lower part of the emulsions.
1. The droplet particle size distribution can be determined in various ways such as
optical and electron microscopy,267'268, optical imaging,269 centrifugal sedimentation, Coulter counter,270-271 spectroturbidimetric techniques,260'270'272 and photon correlation spectroscopy.273
2. Direct estimation of the emulsion instability by following the degree of fat separation can also be determined by a vast range of procedures.274"278
Other methods measuring the dielectic constant of the upper part of the emulsion,279 or the electrical conductivity of emulsions280 have also been proposed.
Finally, numerous methods for accelerating the separation process by centrifugation, heating, etc., have been proposed to evaluate the long term stability of emulsions.274""277'281"283 However, these methods must be used with caution because, as

Table 4.10

COMPARISON OF THE MAGNITUDE OF VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS


IN FOAMS AND EMULSIONS
Order of magnitude

Property
Particle diameter (m)
Particle volume fraction
Density difference (kg m"3)
Compressibility of dispersed phase (N" ] m2)
Interfacial tension (Nm" 1 )
Laplace pressure (Nm" 2 )
Solubility of dispersed phase in continuous phase

Value in foams

Value in emulsions

10" 4 to3 X 10" 3


0.5 to 0.97
103
KT 5
0.03 to 0.05
e.g., 102
2.2 vol %

2 X 10" 7 to 10" 5
0.01 to 0.8
10 to 100
5 X 10-l0
10" 3 to 10" 2
e.g., 104
0(O/W)
0.15 vol% (W/O)

Void and his group284'285 demonstrated unequivocally in the case of centrifugation,


the stability of emulsions under normal conditions cannot be predicted from their
behavior under accelerated conditions. Nondestructive methods using ultrasonic
waves286 or a light beam287 have been proposed recently.
There is such a multitude of experimental conditions and of equipment to evaluate
emulsifying properties, that it is difficult to compare methods and the results obtained.261'277

Foaming Properties
Definition and Formation of Foams. Various aspects of foams including physical
chemistry, production, investigation techniques, as well as some food examples can
be found in Akers.288 More recently a very comprehensive and detailed review on
foam stability has been published by Prins.289
What foams and emulsions have in common is that both are dispersions of one
fluid into another. However, from a physical point of view, there are several quantitative differences between the two (Table 4.10).234 All these differences, including
the fact that foam bubbles can be easily deformed, have important consequences for
the relative rates of instability phenomena in the two types of dispersions.289
Foams, as emulsions, are dispersed systems and depending on the volume ratio
of gas to liquid, one can distinguish between (1) a concentrated polyhedric foam and
(2) a dilute bubbly foam.
1. In a polyhedric foam, the volume ratio is so large that bubbles are deformed and
press against each other to form a kind of honeycomb structure (e.g., beer foam).
2. In a bubbly foam, however, the amount of gas is so small that bubbles can retain
their spherical shape (e.g., ice cream and chocolate mousse).
Furthermore, foams can be produced essentially according to three main processes
by: (1) agitation of a given amount of liquid in an unlimited amount of air;

(2) agitation of a mixture of a gas and liquid in which both volumes are determined,
and (3) allowing gas to penetrate the liquid in the foam of bubbles.
In the first process, the amount of air is, in principle, unlimited. Air is introduced
into the liquid in the form of large bubbles which are diminished in size as the result
of mechanical agitation (e.g., whipping egg white or cream).
In the food industry, aeration in a continuous process (type 2) is often performed
by first injecting the required amount of gas into a given amount of liquid. Bubbles
are formed at an orifice, and they leave the orifice with a size that is determined,
among other things, by the viscous forces exerted on them and by the streaming
liquid. Later, in the same apparatus, these bubbles are diminished in size by means
of a pin tiner, a whipping rod, or a static mixer. Chocolate mousse and ice cream
are examples of foods produced in this way.
Gas bubbles may be formed in a type (1) process using two different procedures: *
(a) gas is generated in situ in the liquid, which means that the liquid has to be
saturated with gas. Bread baking is an example of this type of gas bubble production
where carbon dioxide is generated by yeast cells; (b) the liquid is not saturated with
gas, and the bubbles are created by heterogeneous nucleation. Foam production in
beer and other carbonated beverages are examples of this type of gas production.
What all the above processes have in common is that, under dynamic conditions,
the system is not at equilibrium. Therefore, the bubble surfaces and the films between
the bubbles are not in equilibrium. Consequently, the behavior of the bubbles and
the films can be understood only in the context of a dynamic system. In foams, an
important parameter is the dilational viscosity which measures the ability of a liquid
surface to resist disturbance:
(4.19)
where r)s is the surface viscosity, Ay is the increase in interfacial tension, and
dlnA / dt is the relative rate of the surface area.
It should be pointed out here that T]S is not constant. A decrease in its value has
a corresponding decrease in lnA/dt for liquid foodstuffs such as beer or milk.289

Stability and Environmental Effects on Foaming Properties


A dairy foam may be defined as a structure in which a gaseous phase is stabilized
in a matrix where a significant proportion of the principal components are of milk
origin.290 It is a colloidal system in the sense that the thin films separating adjacent
gas cells in a foam are usually of colloidal dimensions. In a bubbly foam (e.g.,
mousse), the amount of gas incorporated is low enough for the bubbles to retain
approximately their spherical shape. This contrasts with a polyhedral foam (e.g.,
meringue, beer foam) in which the gas-to-liquid ratio is so large that the bubbles are
pressed against each other in a honeycomb-type structure.
Foam stability involves the mechanical resistance to the deformation of the network surrounding the air cells. Permanent food foams are stabilized by macromolecules, usually proteins or particles (usually fat globules). As gas dissolves into the
aqueous phase from a bubble, its surface area decreases, and, as there is negligible

desorption of adsorbed macromolecules or particles, there is a decrease in surface


tension that stabilizes the Laplace pressure difference across the film, and so the
bubble stops shrinking.234-289 In dairy foams, adsoiption of proteins is important in
the trapping of air cells, but long-term stability is generally achieved not by adsorbed
protein films alone but by a network of partly aggregated fat globules or associated
polysaccharide gum molecules.
Development of the whipped cream structure involves a build-up of interactions
between clumped milk fat globules and air bubbles.290 The dairy foam is stabilized
by clumped fat globules held together by liquid fat exuded from shear-disrupted
globules. Churning to butter occurs if the fat-globule membrane is too weak, or if
the liquid fat content is too high. This is avoided by aging the cream prior to whipping
at about 4C in order to achieve a high level of fat crystallinity. During whipping,
the maximum overrun is reached at about 75% of the whipping time giving the
maximum cream stiffness. Whipped cream has a small yield stress, so it can support
a few centimeters of its own weight. In the absence of additives, the lowest fat content
that will give a stable whipped cream with a satisfactory texture is 30 to 35 wt %.
The whipping behavior of homogenized dairy cream is inferior to that of natural
cream, but it can be enhanced by the addition of low-molecular-weight emulsifiers
(derivatives of monoglycerides). In synthetic dairy creams or toppings, this leads to
a hybird protein-emulsifier layer adsorbed at the oil-water interface.

Measurements of Foaming Properties


The two main attributes of foams are foam stability, and foam power or capacity.
Foam stability is a measure of the rate of liquid leakage from the foam or the rate
of a decrease in foam volume with time. Foam power or capacity is a measure of
the increase in foam volume upon the introduction of gas into the protein solution.75
These characteristics can be measured according to the procedure developed by
Phillips et al,291 or by conductivity (Kato et al.).292 However, difficulties exist in
making these measurements as foam stability depends on the thickness and strength
of the adsorbed film at the A/W interface.293 Changes in film thickness may occur
before any leakage from the foam or any change in volume. Foam power or capacity
is partially dependent on the method used to introduce the gas into the protein
solution.291 To overcome difficulties in characterizing foam stability and capacity.
Townsend and Nakai294 attempted to measure the chemical properties of proteins in
bulk solution and correlate these measures with foaming capacity and foam stability.
They found that there was a good correlation between foaming characteristics and
the flexibility of the protein, viscosity, and average hydrophobicity; not just surface
hydrophobicity as the proteins uncoils.
However, to be able to have a better idea of the foaming capacity of milk or
modified milk proteins, tests on model system need to be done as well. The USDA
group on functionality has proposed a standardized procedure for whipped cream
and syneresis analysis. This type of model system is the best one to evaluate interactions between proteins and other components in foaming processes for dairy
products.

4.3.3.3 Flavor Binding


Definition and General Considerations
The flavor of a food is believed to be one of the most important factors that leads
to the acceptance or rejection of that food by the consumer. Knowledge about the
various interactions of flavors in complex multicomponent systems is essential in
controlling food acceptance. Some work has been done on flavor-protein interactions. Proteins such as soy proteins, BSA, and /3-lg can bind small volatile compounds such as alcohols, amines, aldehydes, and ketones. In the case of soy proteins,
these interactions are responsible for the unacceptable beany flavor.295 Furthermore,
the binding of desirable flavors by proteins, for example, in formulated soups,296
can cause problems in determining the appropriate level of flavoring.
Proteins have different binding affinities depending on their composition (conformation, charge, hydrophobicity, etc.) and on the nature of the volatile compound.
A study with selected aldehydes and ketones has demonstrated an increase in binding
with increasing chain length, suggesting hydrophobic interactions297'298 and changes
of binding in relation to the position of the functional group. Some conformational
changes in proteins are induced upon binding and more hydrophobic amino acid
residues become available for further binding.297 According to Solms et al,299 apolar
volatile compounds penetrate and interact with the hydrophobic core of the protein,
thus displacing intra or intermolecular protein-protein hydrophobic interactions. This
protein destabilization can result in a change in the protein solubility.
BSA and /3-lg bind flavor compounds and have been used as models to study
flavour-protein interactions because their molecular and physical properties are more
easily described.300 The three-dimensional structure of BSA, forming hydrophobic
grooves, can easily accommodate binding of several apolar molecules.300 Damodaran and Kinsella298 reported approximately six binding sites for small volatile
molecules on BSA. Lubas et aL301 have studied BSA-alcohol interactions and suggested the formation of interactions between alcohols and protein stabilized by hydrogen bonds involving -OH groups of the alcohols and the peptide groups of the
protein.
/3-lg possessed one primary binding site per monomer. This binding site can be
related to a hydrophobic pocket consisting of an eight-stranded antiparallel j8-barred
flanked on one side by an a-helix.47 This tridimensional structural pattern is common
to proteins involved in strong interactions with small hydrophobic molecules such
as the retinol binding protein. Modification of the structure of /3-lg with urea, reduction of disulfide bonds, or ethylation reduced binding of flavor compounds reflecting the importance of native structure in determining binding affinities.297

Environmental Effects on Flavor Binding


As flavor binding behavior is very dependent on the conformational state of proteins,
pH and salts at conditions that will modify structure can alter binding properties. In
the presence of anions that destabilize hydrophobic regions in the protein (e.g., Br",
SCN", Cl 3 CO 2 "), the binding affinity of nonpolar ligands to the protein would be

Next Page

weak compared to the affinity in the presence of stabilizing anions (e.g., F ,


SO 4 2 -). 302
Heat induced changes on conformation also change binding behavior of proteins.
Upon heat treatment at 75C for 10 and 20 min, the binding affinity of /3-lg for
2-nonanone was reduced and the number of sites for binding was increased.303 This
was related to conformational changes and aggregation of /3-lg.

Measurement of Flavor Binding


Methods for the measurement of flavor binding have recently been reviewed by
Wilson.304 Flavor binding is usually determined by equilibrium measurements using
headspace analysis, membrane dialysis, and solvent extraction techniques.

4.4 Some Selected Processing Effects on the Functional


Properties of Major Milk Proteins
The functional properties of milk proteins depend on the molecular structure, and
consequently on every factor which may modify the molecular structure, including
the source of the milk, the type of protein (caseins and whey proteins), and the
processes used for the preparation or isolation of the milk proteins.29'305"307 Cheftel
and Lorient,17 Kinsella,14 Harper,308 and especially Schmidt et al?09 have suggested
that essentially every step in the processing of milk protein products is important,
either directly or indirectly, in determining the final functional properties of milk
proteins. Major processing steps that have been reported to affect the functional
properties of major milk proteins are given in Table 4.11. However, in many instances, the mechanisms(s) by which a processing step changes functionality is not
understood.
In this section, the effect on proteins and their functional properties of two processing effects (heat treatments and filtration processes) are briefly discussed.

4.4.1 Effects of Heat Treatments


Heat processing is generally considered to be one of the most important single factor
influencing functionality, more particularly, whey protein functionality.64'308"314
However, much of the effect of heat thermal treatment depends on the degree of the
treatment and on media conditions (pH, presence of ions such as Ca2 + ). Some of
the contradictory results could possibly be explained by differences in heat treatment
parameters (Lorient et al 1991).29

4.4.1.1 Effects on Caseins


Caseins in micellar form, and especially sodium casemates, are exceptionally thermostable; typically, milk withstands heating at 1400C at pH 6.7 for 20 minutes before
coagulation occurs and sodium caseinates withstands heating at 1400C for at least

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weak compared to the affinity in the presence of stabilizing anions (e.g., F ,


SO 4 2 -). 302
Heat induced changes on conformation also change binding behavior of proteins.
Upon heat treatment at 75C for 10 and 20 min, the binding affinity of /3-lg for
2-nonanone was reduced and the number of sites for binding was increased.303 This
was related to conformational changes and aggregation of /3-lg.

Measurement of Flavor Binding


Methods for the measurement of flavor binding have recently been reviewed by
Wilson.304 Flavor binding is usually determined by equilibrium measurements using
headspace analysis, membrane dialysis, and solvent extraction techniques.

4.4 Some Selected Processing Effects on the Functional


Properties of Major Milk Proteins
The functional properties of milk proteins depend on the molecular structure, and
consequently on every factor which may modify the molecular structure, including
the source of the milk, the type of protein (caseins and whey proteins), and the
processes used for the preparation or isolation of the milk proteins.29'305"307 Cheftel
and Lorient,17 Kinsella,14 Harper,308 and especially Schmidt et al?09 have suggested
that essentially every step in the processing of milk protein products is important,
either directly or indirectly, in determining the final functional properties of milk
proteins. Major processing steps that have been reported to affect the functional
properties of major milk proteins are given in Table 4.11. However, in many instances, the mechanisms(s) by which a processing step changes functionality is not
understood.
In this section, the effect on proteins and their functional properties of two processing effects (heat treatments and filtration processes) are briefly discussed.

4.4.1 Effects of Heat Treatments


Heat processing is generally considered to be one of the most important single factor
influencing functionality, more particularly, whey protein functionality.64'308"314
However, much of the effect of heat thermal treatment depends on the degree of the
treatment and on media conditions (pH, presence of ions such as Ca2 + ). Some of
the contradictory results could possibly be explained by differences in heat treatment
parameters (Lorient et al 1991).29

4.4.1.1 Effects on Caseins


Caseins in micellar form, and especially sodium casemates, are exceptionally thermostable; typically, milk withstands heating at 1400C at pH 6.7 for 20 minutes before
coagulation occurs and sodium caseinates withstands heating at 1400C for at least

Table 4.11

PROCESSING-RELATED VARIABLES THAT MAY AFFECT


THE FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF CASEIN AND WHEY
PROTEIN PRODUCTS
Effect on Functionality
Caseins
Whey Proteins

Processing Variables
Thermal treatment
Forewarming
Milk pasteurization
Milk sterilization
Evaporation and concentration
Dehydration
Pretreatment before fractionation
Lipid removal
pH adjustment
Fractionation and isolation
Technique used
Miscellaneous factors (pumping, storage, etc.)
Cheese processing
Starter used
Coagulant used
Process modifications (cooking temperature,
calcium chloride, water washing, etc.)
Storage factors
Casein or whey storage conditions
Casein or whey protein product storage
conditions
Sanitation factors
Microbiological load
Antimicrobial agent added

Direct
(a)

Indirect
(b)

+
+
+
+
+

Direct
(a)

Indirect

+
+

+
+

(+)

(+)
+

+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

(+)
(+)

(+)
(+)

+
+

+
+

(b)

+
+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+

a: Direct protein conformation or denaturation effect,


b: Indirect protein effect or effect on compositional factors
+ : Variable has an effect; : Variable has no effect.
Adapted from Refs. 9, 64, 308, 309, 312.

60 minutes.312 The remarkable stability of caseins at high temperatures is principally


due to the low levels of secondary and tertiary structures.
From a physicochemical point of view, heating or cooling milk above or below
physiological temperature causes a shift in the calcium phosphate equilibrium which
affects some properties of milk, especially rennet coagulability. On cooling, colloidal
calcium phosphate (CCP) dissolves, and some casein, especially /3-casein, dissociates from the micelles,315'316 contributing to the increase in the rennet coagulation
time (RCT) of milk observed during cold storage. Conversely, on heating, the soluble
/3-casein reassociates with the micelles and the RCT is reduced.312 Furthermore, heat
treatments in the range of 80-150C, such as preheating of milk, in-container sterilization, and UHT processes, induce changes in caseins such as (1) dephosphory-

Table 4.12 SOME HEAT-INDUCED CHANGES IN


MILK PROTEINS
Protein Type or Structure

Modifications

Caseins

Dephosphorylation
Proteolysis
Covalent bond formation

Micellar structure

Zeta-potential
Hydration changes
Association-dissociation

Whey proteins

Unfolding-aggregation
Disulfide interchange

lation, (2) proteolysis, (3) covalent bond formation, and (4) changes in casein micellar structures, etc. (Table 4.12) which differ only in rate and not in nature.312
1. Casein is completely dephosphorylated in 5 h at 1200C and approximately
50% dephosphorylation occurs within 1 h.317 Milk concentration increases the rate
of dephosphorylation; preheating has no effect on the rate of dephosphorylation of
unconcentrated milk but reduces the rate for concentrated milk.318 Dephosphorylation, which reduces protein charge, might be expected to affect the heat stability of
milk but its specific contribution has not been quantified.313
2. Although the nature of the proteolysis products formed on heating has not
been studied in detail,312 some authors have reported the appearance of glycopeptides
in milk heated at temperatures >50C, 319 and of peptides similar to the glycomacropeptide after a treatment at 1200C for 20 minutes.320 Furthermore, formation
of nonprotein nitrogen from milk proteins at temperatures >100C is almost linear
with time; 10 to 20% of total nitrogen is solubilized after 5 h at 1200C317 or 60
minutes at 135C.321
3. During heat treatment of proteins, reactions can occur between reactive side
chains of some amino acids, such as Iysine and cysteine, and other amino acid
residues, carbohydrates, or lipids. The browning that occurs when milk is heated at
temperatures > 1000C is a consequence of the Maillard reaction between the carbonyl
group of lactose and the e-amino group of lysine.
4. Heating milk causes a number of changes in casein micelles such as the aggregation of casein micelles during UHT sterilization.322""324 This increase in casein
micelle size probably results from the combined effects of the heat denaturation of
whey proteins and their deposition onto micellar surfaces and from the increase in
micellar calcium which may lead to calcium bridges between micelles.324 The increase in micelle size during heating is also accompanied by a large increase in the
number of very small particles.325'326 These particles may be formed by the breaking
up of casein micelles327"329 due to the removal of colloidal calcium by soluble citrate.
The citrate is normally neutralized by soluble calcium but calcium phosphate precipitates when the milk is heated. Finally, at normal pH, milk coagulation occurs at
14O0C after about 20 minutes. The heat stability of milk, which is considerable

economic importance, is influenced by many compositional factors as well as processing effects.313-330-331 In the case of pH, Rose 332 ' 333 showed that the heat coagulation time-pH profile of most milks (type A) showed a maximum at approximately
6.7 and a minimum at 6.9. The pH effect in milk coagulation is a function of
K-casein concentration on micelle surfaces and the /3-lg concentration in the milk
serum. The minimum appears to be due to the dissociation of K-casein from the
casein micelles at pH >6.9 while the maximum is related to the presence of /3-lg.
Some milk samples from individual cows fail to show minimum and maximum
points on the curve, but instead coagulation time increases as the pH increases from
6.2 to 7.4: such milk is referred to as "type B " . Tessier and Rose 334 eliminated the
minimum in the curve of type A milk by adding K-casein, thus converting it to type
B. They also converted type B milk to type A by salting out some K-casein or by
adding /3-lg.

4.4.1.2 Effects on Whey Proteins


Heating globular proteins causes them to unfold and this unfolding is accompanied
by an endothermal heat effect (heat uptake). This effect may be observed by differential scanning calorimetry as a function of temperature or time.335 Table 4.12
presents the denaturation characteristics of some whey proteins.
1. /3-lactoglobulin. With a denaturation temperature of 78C, /3-lg is the most
stable of the serum proteins. A second thermal change appears near 14O0C caused
by the breakdown of disulphide bonds and additional unfolding of the molecule.335
The heat denaturation of /3-lg is pH dependent. After an acidic heat treatment (pH
2.5,900C, 10 to 15 minutes), /3-lg is still soluble. Two molecular species are present:
one (60%) is soluble at pH 4.5 and is identical to native protein; the other (40%),
insoluble at pH 4.5, has been irreversibly denatured but without aggregation, probably due to the electrostatic repulsions at this pH.336-337 Heating at pH 4.5 (70 to
85C, 15 to 30 minutes) resulted in a denatured /3-lg insoluble throughout the pH
range. Proteins are aggregated due to the formation of intermolecular disulphide
bonds. Heat treatments at neutral pH have also been examined. At 800C, pH 6.8 to
7.5, /3-lg is partially denatured without aggregation and loss of solubility. It seems
that thiol groups, unmasked and activated at pH >6.8, initiate intramolecular disulfide rearrangements that stabilize the molecule.335
2. a-lactalbumin. With a denaturation temperature of 62C, a-la is the least stable
whey protein, but requires the most heat per gram for unfolding. It has long been
assumed that a-la. was the most stable serum protein due to the reversibility of the
heat denaturation at pH 6. Recent studies have clearly shown that the reversible
denaturation of a-la is due to calcium ion dissociation and reassociation from the
protein338 which is a calcium metalloprotein. Solubility studies on purified whey
proteins as a function of pH and temperature showed that a-la is insoluble from pH
3.5 to 5. A solubility minimum is attained at pH 4.2 which corresponds to the
isoelectric point of a-la.339 The partial, reversible thermal denaturation of a-la and
its effect on the solubility of the protein at reduced pH values has been exploited in
the development of a process for whey protein fractionation.340-341

A large variety of heat treatments have been studied to increase the utilization of
whey proteins17'23'26'342"344 as well as the impact of heat treatments inherent to the
processing of milk such as pasteurization. Indeed, even mild heat treatments such
as standard pasteurization have been shown to affect the functionality of whey protein concentrates.345-346 Morr345 reported that pasteurization (72C for 15 seconds)
of cheese whey increased the foaming of a cheese whey concentrate at both pH 4.5
and pH 9.0, whereas the pasteurization of acid whey decreased the foaming of an
acid whey protein concentrate. Mangino et ai346 studying these same products,
found that the binding of alkanes by whey protein concentrates was increased by the
pasteurization of both types of whey.
Lorient et al.29 have studied the emulsifying and foaming properties of purified
a-la and /3-lg as a function of heat treatment and pH. The two proteins show improved emulsifying activity when heated at 700C for 30 minutes at acid or neutral
pH; the activity of /3-lg is always higher. When heated at 900C for 60 minutes,
emulsifying activity is only improved at acid pH. As for foaming properties, the
combined effects of pH and heat treatment appear to be different for the two proteins;
a positive effect when heated at basic, neutral or isoelectric pH for /3-lg, and an
negative effect a-la (especially at pH 2). Conversely, the foaming properties of
a-la are improved at pH 2-5.

4.4.2 Membrane Separation Processes


New developments in membrane separation processes and their application in the
dairy industry have opened up new possibilities both for the production and utilization of milk protein ingredients. The use of classical isolation methods such as
precipitation with acid, heat or chemicals, and isoelectric coagulation, affect the
native state of milk proteins and thus their functional properties. Conversely, the use
of membrane processes for separation or concentration is based on differences in the
physical characteristics of milk components such as their molecular weight. As a
consequence, the native state of the proteins is not altered.347'348
Membrane separation processes are generally divided into four categories according to the molecular size of the retained solutes. Fig. 4.10348 shows schematically
the spectrum of particle sizes encountered in various dairy systems in relation to
alternate filtration-based separation processes available to the dairy industry. Information on recent engineering advances involving these processes may be found
elsewhere.349"352 For the purpose of this monograph, the following names and meanings as defined by Jelen348 are used.
Microfiltration (MF) being more specifically used to remove large particles such
as casein fines, microorganisms, or microbial spores, fat globules, somatic cells,
phopholipoprotein particles, etc. (Fig. 4.10) from whey or milk is not treated in the
following section. However, recent information on the influence of operating parameters, and applications of MF in the dairy industry may be found in Olesen and
Jensen,353 Pedersen,354 and Pearce et al.355

Particle Size
(Hin)
Approx. Molecular
Weight (D)

io !

Particle
Characteristics
Approx. Flux
(L/m2h)
Approx. Operating
Pressure (Bar)

Relative size of
milk systems
components

io' 3

io'<

Ionic

io 3

30

40

30

Ions

io!O5

10*

Molecular

Macromolecular

100

1000

Microparticular

Cellular

300
1

20

Vitamins

Bacteria
Whey Protein Aggregates, Cheese Fines

UF
NF

Yeasts, Molds

Fat Globules

Casein Micelles

Salts

RO

10

510 5

Whey Proteins

Lactose/Derivat.

Process for
Separation

io- !

Traditional Filtration

MF

Figure 4.10 Spectrum of application of membrane separation processes in the dairy industry.
(Adapted from Ref. 348.)

4.4.2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO)


In reverse osmosis (RO), a purified liquid is separated from the feed solution, which
contains solutes (usually low molecular weight salts) or other liquids. The use of
RO is increasing in the dairy industry for many reasons. First, the concentration of
food process356 streams to 10 to 25% total solids can, in some cases, be accomplished
at lower cost with RO than with evaporation. Second, low temperature concentration
by RO minimizes loss of volatile flavor components and adverse changes in heatsensitive food components. RO can also be used to treat effluent streams to produce
reusable water.
Fouling is a major problem for the RO of whey. Calcium salts, especially calcium
phosphate, are primary foulants.357'358 Whey pretreatments (acidification, heat treatment) to remove or reduce the effects of calcium salts have been studied to improve
performance. However, as explained in a preceding section, the effect of these treatments on whey functionality must be considered.

4.4.2.2 NanoMtration (NF)


The main emerging applications for the dairy industry of NF is for the partial demineralization of whey-like materials.359"360 Since NF is used mainly for the removal of mineral ions that contribute to the osmotic pressure in dairy systems,361*362
the operating pressure reported for some of the experimental uses is lower than the
pressures used in RO.

4.4.2.3 Ultrafiltration (UF)


The traditional application of UF is for the separation and fractionation of individual
milk proteins from lactose and minerals. There are many other industrial uses, consistent with the size exclusion specificity of the process, including the standardization
of milk protein content,363 the production of milk concentrates (casein, casemates,
coprecipitates, etc.),347 or the production of cheese.358'364"369 Information on various
recent applications of UF in the dairy industry may be found elsewhere.347-363'369-370
In the subsequent sections only some classical examples on the use of this process
for protein concentration and the resulting functional properties are dealt with.
1. Ultrafiltration of milk. The composition of ultrafiltered whole or skim milk
retentate as a function of the concentration factor varies in the following ways:
increase in the content of total solids, fat (for whole milk), and protein, and decrease
in the lactose content. Depending on the degree of concentration, there is a corresponding variability in the composition of the concentrate. Distribution of the individual nitrogen fractions is modified during UF. The proportions of casein and whey
protein increase with the concentration factor due to the corresponding decrease in
all the other nitrogen fractions (NPN). Green et al?lx reported that with an increasing
concentration factor the proportion of casein in the micellar form decreases to a
small extent (from 98.8 to 86.1% of total casein). This phenomenon may be due to
an increased interaction with fat in the more concentrated milk. However, Shrilaorkul
et al.372 also noted a decrease in the average diameter of the casein micelles in
ultrafiltered skim milk (3X; 5X) and related it to the change in the composition of
casein and minerals, particularly calcium and phosphate. Casein micelle size distribution in milk is important as it is related to the stability of milk to heat and rennet
coagulation373 and affects the rheological properties of milk products.
Retentates resulting from the UF of milk display different properties from those
of the original milk. There is a change in flow properties (increased viscosity) with
the increasing content of solids. A problem associated with this high degree of
viscosity is that air bubbles in the retentate are not released quickly and may become
incorporated into the product giving a spongy texture.367 Concentration by UF 6X
causes formation of aggregates that do not break upon dilution even during prolonged
storage and can only be disrupted by homogenization at pressures in excess of 200
bars.374
The heat stability of milk protein concentrates is also different, as they are more
susceptible to denaturation than whey proteins.375 With a heat treatment at 75C for
5 minutes of denaturation increases from 31% in skim milk to 64% in UF retentates
with a concentration factor of 4.4:1. 376 However, the soluble milk proteins resulting
from the UF of milk will usually keep their original functional properties to a large
extent and the functional properties of the concentrates may even be improved as a
result of the higher protein content.
2. Application of UF to cheesemaking. The main application of UF technology
in cheesemaking is for the standardization of protein content, especially for the
production of Camembert in France377 and UF Feta in Denmark.378 The application
of UF technology in cheesemaking is usually linked to the expectation of obtaining

an increased yield due to a better recovery of fat and protein. However, if in most
cases UF technology allows substantially better yields, in some cases there has been
no yield improvement over traditional cheesemaking.366 Apart from extra yield, UF
technology has other potential advantages compared to thermoseparation technology.
The UF process is simple, allows on accurately control total solid content, and is
less sensitive to pH variations.369
The important factor is the kind of cheese being made and the amount of syneresis
that must take place in the cheesemaking process after UF is complete. Cheesemaking parameters such as calcium and lactose concentration have to be considered when
UF milk is used. Cheeses made from precheese normally possess a stronger buffering
power than that associated with traditional cheese of the same type, making it more
difficult to attain the optimum low pH which controls texture, quality, and spoilage
bacteria.358
UF can also be used to concentrate the milk to total protein concentration ratios
not exceeding 2:1, after which cheesemaking proceeds in the traditional manner. The
resulting cheeses usually satisfy existing standards of identity, but yield increases
are modest.
3. Ultrafiltration of whey. Whey is ultrafiltered to concentrate the native whey
proteins to obtain powders with varying protein content. Although whey protein
concentrates have been produced since 70, their full potential has not been realized
due to variations in functional properties.379"383 A recent survey of commercial whey
protein concentrates (WPC) and whey protein isolates (WPI), confirmed a high degree of variability in gross composition, individual protein composition, physicochemical properties, and flavor of WPC.385 A number of whey pretreatment methods
have been developed to improve UF membrane flux rates and increase overall recovery. Some pretreatments have led to real improvement such as (1) the clarification
procedure for acid and sweet wheys developed by de Wit et a/.379'384 involving the
precipitation of bacteria and lipids at pH 4.6; (2) microfiltration prior to UF to clarify
and remove the fouling components;386'387 and (3) delipidation by thermocalcic aggregation.341-388'389 Pretreatments are important because they can modify the protein
retention ratio and consequently the composition and the functional properties of the
WPC.389 WPC composition is also altered by the concentration factor reached during
the UF and the diafiltration step which lowers the lactose/protein and salt/protein
ratios.
For whey protein concentrates produced by UF processes, pretreatment processes
induce protein/calcium interactions, and storage can induce changes in protein
conformation due to differences in the functionality of whey protein products.309
Mangino et at.346 found that ultrafiltration increased the hydrophobicity of the whey
protein concentrates as measured by alkane binding. Harris et al.390 reported that
ultrafiltration caused a slight increase in surface hydrophobicity.

4.5 Conclusion
Certain techniques that can be used to modify the functional properties of dairy
proteins such as cross-linking with transglutaminase, succinylation, phosphorylation,

amidation and esterification, thiolation, glycosylation, etc.,261-391 396 will not be discussed because, as far as we know, they have not gone beyond the experimental
stage.26-308
Chemical treatments can be used to substantially modify the functional properties
of milk proteins.397 However, there is some doubt as to the negative effects on
nutritional value as well as to the presence of trace amounts of the chemicals remaining after the treatment which limits the use of chemically modified proteins for
the present.
The development of physical treatments for the concentration and separation of
milk proteins will allow the industrial-scale production of enriched protein fractions
that are relatively pure and that have specific nutritional properties. The physiological
or functional properties of certain sequences,5'6'396'398"403 and the infinite possibilities for generating new sequences by enzymatic hydrolysis makes it possible to
envisage significant advances in high value-added industries (parapharmaceutical,
cosmetic).7-404 The transformation of milk proteins into a wide range of food ingredients will allow the use of previously surplus protein, will meet the requirements
of the food industry in terms of functionally specific ingredients and will allow the
dairy industry to compete a better footing with other protein sources. Competition
from vegetable proteins has become very stiff, with proteins from vegetable sources
already in a dominant position for many food ingredients:26 it is primordial that the
dairy industry will be able to provide ingredients with superior functional properties
to once again become the principal source of ingredients for the food industry.405
Consequently, to optimize the use of milk protein as a food ingredient, more
research is still needed on:
1. Investigation of individual functional properties and factors affecting them;
2. Obtaining a better understanding of the manner in which protein/ingredient interactions affect the properties of foods that contain milk protein products;
3. Standardization of methods for testing functionality both in aqueous systems and
in model food systems, with more attention to standardization of model food
systems in the future; and
4. Processing-induced effects on functionality, with emphasis on fractionation, concentration, drying, and storage.

4.6 Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Dr. Michel Britten, Dr. Sylvie Gauthier, Dr. Yves Pouliot,
and Dr. Jean-Christophe Vuillemard for reading the manuscript and for their helpful
comments. Their excellent advice, however, was not always followed and we must,
therefore, accept full responsibility for any remaining errors and shortcomings. We
would also like to thank Mrs. Raymonde Gosselin for typing the manuscript and
Mr. Gene Bourgeau for editorial assistance. Finally, we also thank editors and authors who have given permission to copy tables and figures from published works.
Furthermore, although this chapter was a team effort, we would like to underline
more specifically that, under the supervision of Paul Paquin (Director of the Dairy

Sciences Research Center, Universite Laval, Quebec), Olivier Robin was responsible
for the section dealing with "Protein-Protein and Protein-Surface Interactions," and
Dr. Sylvie Turgeon for the section dealing with "Some Processing Effects."

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APPENDIX

Product Listing
This appendix lists alphabetically those products and services most commonly used
by the dairy and food industries. Under each product or service, this appendix provides the names of companies that provide those products and services. The address
and a description of each company are provided in the Appendix of Volume III.
The data have been reproduced from the 1992/1993 Directory of Membership
Products and Services, copyrighted by the Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, Inc. Reproduced with permission.
Advertising: Alimentos Procesados
Magazine; The Cheese Reporter Pub. Co.,
Inc.; Putman Food Group; Food
Engineering Magazine; Food Products &
Equipment Mag.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Your Favorite Producers, Inc.
Air Curtains: Heritage Equipment Co.;
The King Company; Spraying Systems Co.;
Superior Industries of Nebraska; Westcoast
Engineering Co.
Air Eliminators: Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; The Clark Reliance
Corporation; Marlen Research Corporation;
Sani-Matic Systems; Scherping Systems;
The Schlueter Company

Food Ingredients, Inc.; IDEXX


Laboratories; Minnesota Valley Testing
Labs.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; SmithKline
Beecham Animal Health; Weber Scientific

Architects (Licensed/AIA): Edward


A. Bonelli & Associates; Grand Rapids
Cabinet Company; Hertel, Johnson, Eipper
& Stopa; Hixson Architects/Engineers;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Mead & Hunt; Schipke
Engineers, Inc.; Shambaugh and Son, Inc.;
Simons-Conkey; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Sverdrup Corporation; Tecton
Contracting Corp.; United Engineers &
Constructors

Architectural, Related Services:


Air S y s t e m s : ACUair Air Systems;
Aquionics, Inc.; Automatic Inspection
Systems Ltd.; Balston, Inc.; GEA Wiegand;
The King Company; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Mondomix Holland B. V.;
Nu-Con Equipment; Rite Coil, Inc.;
Stoelting, Inc.; Sullair Refrigeration, Inc.;
Zander Filter Systems, Inc.
Antibiotic Detection: Charm Sciences
Inc.; Dairy and Food Labs, Inc.; Flockton
Analytical Management Inc.; Gist-brocades

Edward A. Bonelli & Associates; Hertel,


Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; J A I Engineers;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Mead & Hunt; The
Omega Company; Schipke Engineers, Inc.

Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/


Components: Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Aquionics, Inc.; Astec; Automation
Packaging, Inc.; Autoprod Inc.; Robert
Bosch Corp.; Combibloc, Inc.; DASI
Industries, Inc.; Dover Brook Associates;

DuPont Canada Inc.; Ensopack Ltd.;


ERCA; Fleming Packaging Corp.; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); Great
Lakes Corp.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.; Len E.
Ivarson, Inc.; The King Company; King
Engineering Corp.; Liqui-Box Corporation;
MicroPure Filtration; Milliken Packaging;
Pall Corporation; Purity Packaging, Ltd.;
Remy L.C.; Sasib Corporation of America;
Scholle Corp.; Seepex US, Inc.; Serac Inc.;
Spartanburg Steel Products, Inc.; Tetra Pak
Inc.; Thielmann Container Systeme GmbH;
TMCI Industries, Inc.; White Knight Pkg.
Corp.; Wisner Manufacturing Corp.; Zander
Filter Systems, Inc.

Aseptic Processing Equipment


High Acid: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Astec;
Autoprod Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; DASI Industries, Inc.;
Ensopack Ltd.; Feldmeier Equipment,
Inc.; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); Heerema Company; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Liqui-Box
Corporation; Marlen Research
Corporation; Mondomix Holland B. V.;
Paul Mueller Company; Sanchelima
International Inc.; Scott Turbon Mixer,
Inc.; Serac Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; Stephan Machinery Corp.;
Stork Food Machinery, Inc.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Terlet N.V.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.;
Walker Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.;
Waukesha Fluid Handling; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.
Juice: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group;
Astec; Ensopack Ltd.; FR Manufacturing
Corp. (FranRica); Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Liqui-Box Corporation;
Spartanburg Steel Products, Inc.; Stephan
Machinery Corp.; TMCI Industries, Inc.;
White Knight Pkg. Corp.; Zajac
Equipment Supply

Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;


DASI Industries, Inc.; Dover Brook
Associates; Ensopack Ltd.; Feldmeier
Equipment, Inc.; FR Manufacturing
Corp. (FranRica); G/H Products Corp.;
Heerema Company; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Liqui-Box Corporation;
Marlen Research Corporation;
Mondomix Holland B. V.; Paul Mueller
Company; Remy L.C.; Rossi & Catelli
SPA; Sanchelima International Inc.; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; Stephan Machinery Corp.;
Stork Food Machinery, Inc.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Terlet N.V.; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.; Waukesha
Fluid Handling; White Knight Pkg.
Corp.; Wisner Manufacturing Corp.

Auctioneer: Michael Fox Auctioneers,


Inc.
Bacterial Detection: bioMe*rieux
Vitek, Inc.; Consolidated Laboratories, Inc.;
Dairy and Food Labs, Inc.; Dover Brook
Associates; Flockton Analytical
Management Inc.; Foss Food Technology
Corp.; Minnesota Valley Testing Labs.;
NASCO International, Inc.; The National
Food Laboratory, Inc.; Nelson-Jameson,
Inc.; Promega Corp.; Radiometer America,
Inc.; 3M Microbiology Products; VICAM
SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY; Weber
Scientific
B a g - I n - B o x : ADCO Manufacturing,
Inc.; Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group;
Bonar Plastics, Inc.; Robert Bosch Corp.;
Erie Crate & Mfg. Co.; FR Manufacturing
Corp. (FranRica); General Films, Inc.;
Hayes Machine Company, Inc.; Heat and
Control, Inc.; International Dairy
Equipment; Jefferson Smurflt Corporation;
Liqui-Box Corporation; Parish
Manufacturing, Inc.; Scholle Corp.

Bagging Equipment & Supplies:


Low Acid: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Astec;

Robert Bosch Corp.; Damrow Company,


Inc.; DuPont Canada Inc.; DYCO; Eskimo

Pie Corp.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.; Ideas in


Motion, Inc.; Minigrip/Zip-Pak Inc.; Niro
Hudson, Inc.; Purity Packaging, Ltd.;
Sanchelima International Inc.; Viskase
Corporation; Zorn Packaging, Inc.
Belting: KVP Systems, Inc.; Texas
Rubber Supply, Inc.; Wright Rubber &
Gasket Co.

Blending & Batching Equipment


Liquid: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.; Amer.
Ingredients/Breddo Likwifier; Beaver
Metals Inc.; Bran & Luebbe, Inc.; BS&B
Safety Systems, Inc.; Chemicolloid
Laboratories Inc.; Chemineer Kenics;
DSI Process Systems; ESE Inc.;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; Flowdata,
Inc.; Fowler Products Co.; The Foxboro
Company; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); Gelber Industries; GOAVEC;
Groen; Hartel Corp.; Heerema Company;
Invalco; Kistler-Morse Corp.; Maselli
Measurements, Inc.; Micro Motion, Inc.;
Mondomix Holland B. V.; Paul Mueller
Company; Penberthy; Precision Stainless,
Inc.; Repete Corp.; S. J. Controls, Inc.;
Scherping Systems; Scott Turbon Mixer,
Inc.; Seepex US, Inc.; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Stephan Machinery
Corp.; TCI-BRETCO, Inc.; Terlet N.V.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.; The
Van Tone Company; Walker Stainless
Equip. Co. Inc.

Liquid/Powder: A & B Process


Systems Corp.; Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Amer. Ingredients/Breddo
Likwifier, APV Crepaco, Inc.; BS&B
Safety Systems, Inc.; Chemicolloid
Laboratories Inc.; DSI Process Systems;
ESE Inc.; The Foxboro Company; Gelber
Industries; GOAVEC; Groen; Hartel
Corp.; Heerema Company; Heritage
Equipment Co.; Kistler-Morse Corp.;
Kusel Equipment Company; Lake

Process Systems, Inc.; Lowe Industries,


Inc.; Mondomix Holland B. V.; Paul
Mueller Company; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Penberthy; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Process Automation
Engineering, Inc.; Repete Corp.; S. J.
Controls, Inc.; Scherping Systems; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; Stephan Machinery
Corp.; Tri-Clover, Inc.; The Van Tone
Company; Walker Stainless Equip. Co.
Inc.; Zajac-Equipment Supply
Powder: BS&B Safety Systems, Inc.;
DSI Process Systems; ESE Inc.; The
Foxboro Company; Groen; Kistler-Morse
Corp.; Kosempel Mfg. Company; Lowe
Industries, Inc.; Paul Mueller Company;
Nu-Con Equipment; Repete Corp.; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Stephan Machinery
Corp.; Vac-U-Max; White Knight Pkg.
Corp.

Blow Molding Equipment:


DESCORP/Dairy Equip. & Service; Double
R Enterprises; DYCO; Forest Mechanical
Products Corp.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;
Johnson Controls, Inc.; Plastics USA
Corporation; Stork Food Machinery, Inc.

Boilers: INDEECO/HYNES;
International Dairy Equipment; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Miura Boiler
Co., Ltd.
Bottled W a t e r : D & L Manufacturing
Co., Inc.; Hess Machine Co.

Bottles
Carriers/Handles: Anchor Glass
Container Corp.
Glass: Anchor Glass Container Corp.;
Owens-Illinois, Inc.

Plastic Returnable: Double R


Enterprises; G. E. Plastics; Liqui-Box
Corporation

Plastic Single Service: Bercon


Packaging; Double R Enterprises; G. E.
Plastics; Liqui-Box Corporation;
Northern Eng. & Plastics Corp.; E.S.
Robbins Corporation; Solvay Polymers,
Inc.

Box/Carton Forming Equipment:


ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.; Automation
Packaging, Inc.; Benz & Hilgers GmbH;
Robert Bosch Corp.; Cannon Equipment;
Combibloc, Inc.; Durable Packaging Corp.;
Economy Folding Box Corp.; Eskimo Pie
Corp.; Field Container Corp.; FMS
Manufacturing Company; G. W. Haab
Company, Inc.; Hayes Machine Company,
Inc.; O. G. Hoyer AJS; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.;
James River Corporation; Mead Packaging;
Moen Industries; NIMCO Corp.; Odenberg
Engineering Inc.; Oracle Packaging, Inc.;
Pure-Pak, Inc.; Purity Packaging, Ltd.;
Remy L.C.; Stork Food Machinery, Inc.;
Wolf Packaging Ltd.
B o x e s : ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.;
Edmeyer, Inc.; Electromate Enclosures;
Ensopack Ltd.; Fold-Pak Corp.; Polar Tech
Industries

Brokerage Services: Sun industries,

Buildings
Storage: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Harnischfeger Engineers,
Inc.; Hertel, Johnson, Eipper & Stopa;
Hixson Architects/Engineers; Process
Dynamics, Inc.; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Tecton Contracting Corp.;
Webber/Smith Associates, Inc.

Butter Making & Packaging


E q u i p m e n t : ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Benz & Hilgers GmbH;
Delkor Systems, Inc.; Fords-Holmatic, Inc.;
Hassia U.S.A., Inc.; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.;
Marlen Research Corporation; Mondomix
Holland B. V.; Neos, Inc.; Osgood
Industries Inc.; Portion Packaging, Inc.;
Purity Packaging, Ltd.; Sanchelima
International Inc.; SIG Swiss Industrial
Company; TMCI Industries, Inc.

Cabinets
Display/Frozen: Catta 27 S.R.L.;
Excellence Commercial Products;
Frigidaire Commercial Products Co.;
Gram Equipment of America, Inc.;
Master-Bilt Products; SaniServ; Silver
King Division; Sun Industries, Inc.;
Universal Marketing, Inc.

Inc.

Display/Refrigerated: Catta 27
B r u s h e s : Dairy Industry, Inc.; Midwest
Dairy Supply; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;
Remco Products Corporation; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Sparta Brush Co., Inc.;
Special Products, Inc.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; Weber Scientific

Buckets and Pails


Metal: The Schlueter Company
Plastic: Bonar Plastics, Inc.; Cardinal
Packaging; Letica Corp.; Louisiana
Plastics, Inc.; Ropak Corporation; The
Schlueter Company; Venture Packaging,
Inc.; Virginia Design Packaging Corp.;
W R H Industries, Ltd.

S.R.L.; Excellence Commercial Products;


Frigidaire Commercial Products Co.;
Gram Equipment of America, Inc.;
Kosempel Mfg. Company; Master-Bilt
Products; Silver King Division; Sun
Industries, Inc.; Universal Marketing,
Inc.

Storage/Frozen: Catta 27 S.R.L.;


Excellence Commercial Products;
Frigidaire Commercial Products Co.;
Gram Equipment of America, Inc.;
Grand Rapids Cabinet Company; MasterBilt Products; Polar Industries; Polar
Tech Industries; Silver King Division;
Sun Industries, Inc.; Superior Industries
of Nebraska; Universal Marketing, Inc.

Capping & Closing


Equipment: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Autoprod Inc.;
Blackhawk Molding Co., Inc.; BS&B
Safety Systems, Inc.; Can Snap Co.;
DESCORP/Dairy Equip. & Service;
Edmeyer, Inc.; Enercon Industries
Corporation; Federal Mfg. Co.; Filler
Specialties, Inc.; Fogg; Fords-Holmatic,
Inc.; Forest Mechanical Products Corp.;
Fowler Products Co.; Gram Equipment
of America, Inc.; Heerema Company;
O. G. Hoyer A/S; Mammoth Containers;
MicroPure Filtration; Midwest Dairy
Supply; Modern Packaging, Inc.; Neos,
Inc.; Northern Eng. & Plastics Corp.;
Osgood Industries Inc.; Remy L.C.;
Virginia Design Packaging Corp.
Supplies: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Blackhawk Molding Co.,
Inc.; Cap Snap Co.; Enercon Industries
Corporation; Fleming Packaging Corp.;
Liqui-Box Corporation; Louisiana
Plastics, Inc.; Neos, Inc.; Northern Eng.
& Plastics Corp.; Owens-Illinois, Inc.;
P.I. Dynaseal; Quality Closures &
Packaging Div.; Solvay Polymers, Inc.;
Sun Industries, Inc.

Cargo Restraint Systems: Supreme


Corporation

Carton/Form/Load/Close/Seal:
ACCU-TECH Machinery Company, Inc.;
ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.; Benz &
Hilgers GmbH; DESCORP/Dairy Equip. &
Service; Hayes Machine Company, Inc.;
Mead Packaging; Moen Industries; Sasib
Corporation of America; Wolf Packaging
Ltd.

Case Packer, Stacker &


Unstacker: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.;
Allen Bradley Co., Inc.; Automation
Packaging, Inc.; Benz & Hilgers GmbH;
Cannon Equipment; Dairy Conveyor Corp.;

Delkor Systems, Inc.; DuPont Canada Inc.;


DYCO; Edmeyer, Inc.; FMS Manufacturing
Company; GMFanuc Robotics Corp.; Gram
Equipment of America, Inc.; G. W. Haab
Company, Inc.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.;
Heerema Company; O. G. Hoyer A/S; HSI
Company, Inc.; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Mead Packaging;
Odenberg Engineering Inc.; Purity
Packaging, Ltd.; Remy L.C.; Sasib
Corporation of America; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
United Dairy Machinery Corp.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply
C a s e s : Belleview, Inc.; Erie Crate & Mfg.
Co.; Langer Manufacturing Company;
Rehrig Pacific Company, Remy L.C.; The
Van Tone Company; W R H Industries,
Ltd.

Centrifuge Parts: BS&B Safety


Systems, Inc.; Centrico, Inc.; Kosempel
Mfg. Company; On-Line Instrumentation,
Inc.; Separators, Inc.; Special Products, Inc.;
Weber Scientific
C e n t r i f u g e s : Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Centrico, Inc.; Heerema Company;
International Dairy Equipment; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Stan Keck
Company; M. G. Newell Company, Inc.;
Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; On-Line
Instrumentation, Inc.; Separators, Inc.; R. D.
Smith Company, Inc.; Special Products,
Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; Weber Scientific

Cheese Cutters: ACCU-TECH


Machinery Company, Inc.; C & R, Inc.;
Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; Food Tools,
Inc.; International Dairy Equipment; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Len E. Ivarson,
Inc.; Millerbernd Design & Fabrication;
Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company; Sani-Matic Systems; The
Schlueter Company; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.

Cheese Making: ACCU-TECH


Machinery Company, Inc.
Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group; APV
Crepaco, Inc.; Chalon-Megard S.A.; Crellin,
Inc.; Damrow Company, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; Feldmeier
Equipment, Inc.; Gist-brocades Food
Ingredients, Inc.; Heerema Company;
Heritage Equipment Co.; International
Dairy Equipment; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Koch Membrane Systems,
Inc.; Kusel Equipment Company; Marlen
Research Corporation; Mondomix Holland
B. V.; The NutraSweet Company; Odenberg
Engineering Inc.; Rhone Poulenc/Marschall
Products; Rossi & Catelli SPA; Sanchelima
International Inc.; Scherping Systems;
Schreiber Foods, Inc.; Seepex US, Inc.;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.; Stoelting,
Inc.; Tebel-M.K.T. b.v.; The Van Tone
Company

Cheese Packaging: Autoprod inc.;


Curwood, Inc.; Deklor Systems, Inc.; FordsHolmatic, Inc.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.; Heat
and Control, Inc.; Ilapak, Inc. - Verpaco
AG; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.; Jefferson Smurfit
Corporation; Louisiana Plastics, Inc.;
Milprint Inc.; Minigrip/Zip-Pak Inc.;
Modern Packaging, Inc.; Raymond Morin
USA, Inc.; Neos, Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company; Odenberg Engineering Inc.;
T. D. Sawvel Company; Schreiber Foods,
Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.; Venture
Packaging, Inc.; Viskase Corporation
C h i l l e r s : Airco Gases; Chester-Jensen
Company, Inc.; FrigoTech; Intec, Inc.; Paul
Mueller Company; M. G. Newell Company,
Inc.; Northfield Freezing Systems, Inc.;
NuTemp, Inc.; Odenberg Engineering Inc.

Cholesterol Reduction & Fat


Modification Tech: The OmegaSource
Corporation

Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals: Alconox, Inc.; Diversey
Corp.; DuBois USA; Alex C. Fergusson

Inc.; H. B. Fuller Company; Hydrite


Chemical Co.; Midwest Dairy Supply;
Nelson-Jameson, Inc.
Hand Cleansers: Diversey Corp.;
DuBois USA; Alex C. Fergusson Inc.;
H. B. Fuller Company; Hydrite Chemical
Co.; HydroCal, Inc.; Midwest Dairy
Supply
Manual & COP: Alconox, Inc.;
Diversey Corp.; Dober Chemical
Corporation; DuBois USA; Alex C.
Fergusson Inc.; H. B. Fuller Company;
Girton Manufacturing Co.; Heliose
Research Corp.; O. G. Hoyer A/S;
Hydrite Chemical Co.; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Klenzade, A Service of
Ecolab Inc.; Lake Process Systems, Inc.;
Midwest Dairy Supply; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Penberthy; SaniMatic Systems; The Schlueter Company;
Seepex US, Inc.; Sparta Brush Co., Inc.;
Strahman Valves, Inc.

Mechanical & CIP: A & B Process


Systems Corp.; Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Anbroco, Inc.; BS&B Safety
Systems, Inc.; C & R, Inc.; Custom
Control Products, Inc.; Diversey Corp.;
Dober Chemical Corporation; DuBois
USA; Electrol Specialties Co.; Alex C.
Fergusson Inc.; H. B. Fuller Company;
G/H Products Corp.; Girton
Manufacturing Co.; Hartel Corp.;
Heerema Company; Heliose Research
Corp.; Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Hovap
International (Holland); Hydrite
Chemical Co.; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co.,
Ltd.; Klenzade, A Service of Ecolab Inc.;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Marriott
Walker Corp.; Midwest Dairy Supply;
Millerbernd Design & Fabrication; M. G.
Newell Company, Inc.; Niro Hudson,
Inc.; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; The
Partlow Corp.; Penberthy; Pick Heaters,
Inc.; Relco Unisystems Corporation; Rio
Linda Chemical; Sani-Matic Systems;

The Schlueter Company; Seepex US,


Inc.; Spray Master Technologies;
Spraying Systems Co.; W. M. Sprinkman
Corp.; Strahman Valves, Inc.; T & S
Brass And Bronze Works, Inc.;
Techniserv, Inc.; Tenor Company, Inc.;
Tri-Clover, Inc.; Tuchenhagen North
America, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; The Van Tone Company; WCR
Incorporated; Wisner Manufacturing
Corp.

Equipment; Numeric Computer Systems;


Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; Process
Dynamics, Inc.; Purity Packaging, Ltd.;
Relco Unisystems Corporation; Ross
Computer Systems Inc.; Shambaugh and
Son, Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.; United
Dairy Machinery Corp.; United Engineers
& Constructors

Computer Hardware: Norand


Corporation

Clothing & Uniforms: NelsonJameson, Inc.; Refrigiwear, Inc.; Riverside


Manufacturing Co.; Samco Sportswear
Company

Coding Equipment: Cardinal


Packaging; Codeck Manufacturing Inc.;
Domino Amjet, Inc.; Edmeyer, Inc.; Fas-Co
Coders Inc.; Fredricks Marking Products
Co.; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Signet
Marking Devices; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Videojet Systems Int'l, Inc.
Colloid M i l l s : APV Gaulin, Inc.;
Chemicolloid Laboratories Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; Greerco Corp.;
Midwest Dairy Supply; Oakes & Burger Of
Ohio, Inc.; Scott Turbon Mixer, Inc.;
Stephan Machinery Corp.; The Van Tone
Company; Waukesha Fluid Handling

Comminution Equipment: Rossi &


Catelli SPA; Seepex US, Inc.

Complete Systems: A & B Process


Systems Corp.; ABB Kent-Taylor; ACCUTECH Machinery Company, Inc.; Allen
Bradley Co., Inc.; Custom Control
Products, Inc.; DYCO; FR Manufacturing
Corp. (FranRica); GMFanuc Robotics
Corp.; Grenco Process Technology B.V.;
Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Hassia
U.S.A., Inc.; Honeywell, Inc.; Hovap
International (Holland); Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Membrane System
Specialists; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Nu-Con

Computer Software: ABB KentTaylor; Allen Bradley Co., Inc.; Babson


Bros. Co.; Data Specialists, Inc.; ESE Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Harnischfeger
Engineers, Inc.; Honeywell, Inc.;
International Software Systems Inc.;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; MicroLog; Norand
Corporation; Numeric Computer Systems;
Repete Corp.; Resource Optimization, Inc.;
Ross Computer Systems Inc.; Seiberling
Associates, Inc.; Span Instruments, Inc.;
Sverdrup Corporation; Tech-Con, Inc.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.; United
Engineers & Constructors
C A D S y s t e m s : Hixson Architects/
Engineers; International Software Systems
Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; United Engineers
& Constructors

Construction
Materials: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; Chem-Pruf Door Company, Inc.;
Chemgrate Corp.; Dimetrics, Inc./Talley
Industries; Drehmann Paving & Flooring
Co.; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Jones
Environmental, Inc.; Mead & Hunt;
Sauereisen Cements Company; Stogsdill
Tile Company; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Tecton Contracting Corp.;
Tufco International, Inc.; United
Engineers & Constructors
Plant: Advanced Insulation Concepts,
Inc.; Big-D Construction Corporation;

Edward A. Bonelli & Associates;


Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; Jones
Environmental, Inc.; Mead & Hunt; PSI,
Process Systems Inc.; Shambaugh and
Son, Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation; Tecton
Contracting Corp.; United Engineers &
Constructors; Webber/Smith Associates,
Inc.

Associates; Eden Systems, Inc.; Eskimo


Pie Corp.; Heat and Control, Inc.; Arthur
D. Little, Inc.; The National Food
Laboratory, Inc.; NIMCO Corp.; Osgood
Industries Inc.; Polar Tech Industries;
Sealright Co., Inc.; Simons-Conkey;
Sverdrup Corporation; Sweetheart
Packaging, Inc.; Tindall Packaging, Inc.;
United Engineers & Constructors; Wolf
Packaging Ltd.; Zimmer Paper Products
Inc.

Turnkey Operations: ADI Systems


Inc.; Big-D Construction Corporation;
Edward A. Bonelli & Associates;
HydroCal, Inc.; PSI, Process Systems
Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation; Tufco
International, Inc.; United Engineers &
Constructors

Consultants
Education/Seminars: Barclay &
Associates; The Creative Factory, Inc.;
Data Specialists, Inc.; Data Specifics
Corporation
Finance: Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Rhawn
Enterprises, Inc.
Management: The Foxboro Company;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Arthur D. Little,
Inc.; The Omega Company; Tom Sloan
& Associates, Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation
Marketing: The Cheese Reporter Pub.
Co., Inc.; DCA Food Industries, Inc.;
Heinz Nutrition Products; Horton
International, Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.;
Arthur D. Little, Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company; Putman Food Group (A);
Sealright Co., Inc.; Tom Sloan &
Associates, Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates
PR/Advertising: The Cheese Reporter
Pub. Co., Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company; Putman Food Group (A)
Packaging: Astec; Custom-Made
Packaging, Inc.; Dover Brook

Personnel: Cook Associates, Inc.;


Dunhill of Iowa City, Inc.; Tom Sloan &
Associates, Inc.; WCR Incorporated
Sanitation: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; Consolidated Laboratories, Inc.;
Dairy and Food Labs, Inc.; Diversey
Corp.; Dober Chemical Corporation;
Dover Brook Associates; Drehmann
Paving & Flooring Co.; DuBois USA;
Alex C. Fergusson Inc.; H. B. Fuller
Company; Hertel, Johnson, Eipper &
Stopa; Int'l. Machinery Exchange, Inc.;
J A I Engineers; Klenzade, A Service of
Ecolab Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Lake
Process Systems, Inc.; Arthur D. Little,
Inc.; The National Food Laboratory, Inc.;
The Omega Company; Rio Linda
Chemical; Seiberling Associates, Inc.;
Simons-Conkey; Sverdrup Corporation;
United Engineers & Constructors

Site Location: Alabama Power


Company; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Mead &
Hunt; The Omega Company; Sverdrup
Corporation; United Engineers &
Constructors
Technical: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; ABB Kent-Taylor; Aromas Y
Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Babson Bros.
Co.; Consolidated Laboratories, Inc.;
Dairy and Food Labs, Inc.; Data
Specialists, Inc.; Data Specifics
Corporation; Dover Brook Associates;
Duensing Engineering Group, Inc.; Eden
Systems, Inc.; Falco Stainless Steel

Equipment; Heinz Nutrition Products;


Hess Machine Co.; Hixson Architects/
Engineers; Horton International, Inc.;,
Int'l. Machinery Exchange, Inc.; J A I
Engineers; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Arthur D.
Little, Inc.; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Mead & Hunt;
Membrane System Specialists; The
National Food Laboratory, Inc.; Niro
Hudson, Inc.; Odenberg Engineering
Inc.; The Omega Company; Process
Dynamics, Inc.; PSI, Process Systems
Inc.; Schipke Engineers, Inc.; Seiberling
Associates, Inc.; Simons-Conkey; Tom
Sloan & Associates, Inc.; Straight-OMatic; Sverdrup Corporation; Sweetheart
Packaging, Inc.; Tech-Con, Inc.;
Techniserv, Inc.; Tuchenhagen North
America, Inc.; United Engineers &
Constructors; Vrymeer Cocoa &
Chocolates; Webber/Smith Associates,
Inc.

Containers
Composite: Sealright Co., Inc.; Tetra
Pak Inc.
Cups & Lids: Cardinal Packaging;
Champion International Corp.; Fleming
Packaging Corp.; Genpak Canada; Label
Makers Inc.; Letica Corp.; Louisiana
Plastics, Inc.; Raymond Morin USA,
Inc.; Polytainers, Inc.; Portion Packaging,
Inc.; Purity Packaging, Ltd.; Quality
Closures & Packaging Div.; Sealright
Co., Inc.; Solo Cup Company;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.; Virginia
Design Packaging Corp.
Insulated: Bonar Plastics, Inc.; Polar
Industries; Polar Tech Industries; Solo
Cup Company
Metal: Alloy Products Corp.; Kosempel
Mfg. Company; Langer Manufacturing
Company; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Spartanburg Steel Products,
Inc.; Walter Stocklin AG; Thielmann
Container Systeme GmbH

Paperboard: Burd & Fletcher


Company; Champion International Corp.;
Combibloc, Inc.; DYCO; Economy
Folding Box Corp.; Ensopack Ltd.; Field
Container Corp.; Fold-Pak Corp.; James
River Corporation; Keyes Fibre Co.;
Letica Corp.; NIMCO Corp.; Oracle
Packaging, Inc.; Pure-Pak, Inc.; Sealright
Co., Inc.; Solo Cup Company;
Somerville Packaging; Sweetheart
Packaging, Inc.; Tetra Pak Inc.; Tetra
Pak Materials Inc.; Westvaco
Corporation
Plastic: AEP Industries, Inc.; Airlite
Plastics Co.; Belleview, Inc.; Bercon
Packaging; Bonar Plastics, Inc.; Cardinal
Packaging; Double R Enterprises;
DYCO; Erie Crate & Mfg. Co.; G. E.
Plastics; Genpak Canada; Iowa Rotocast
Plastics, Inc.; Letica Corp.; Liqui-Box
Corporation; Louisiana Plastics, Inc.;
Mammoth Containers; NASCO
International, Inc.; Nestle Dairy Systems;
Northern Eng. & Plastics Corp.; Parish
Manufacturing, Inc.; Polar Industries;
Polytainers, Inc.; Portion Packaging, Inc.;
Purity Packaging, Ltd.; Remco Products
Corporation; E.S. Robbins Corporation;
Ropak Corporation; Sealright Co., Inc.;
Shamrock Industries, Inc.; Solo Cup
Company; Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.;
Venture Packaging, Inc.; Virginia Design
Packaging Corp.; Viskase Corporation

Control/Control Systems
Automation: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.;
Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group;
Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; Custom
Control Products, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Data Specialists, Inc.;
Electrol Specialties Co.; ESE Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Foss Food
Technology Corp.; The Foxboro
Company; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); Gelber Industries; Hartel

Corp.; Honeywell, Inc.; Int'l. Machinery


Exchange, Inc.; K-Patents; Koch
Membrane Systems, Inc.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Lake Process
Systems, Inc.; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Lumenite Electronic;
Maselli Measurements, Inc.; Masterleo,
Inc.; MicroLog; Milltronics, Inc.;
Monitor Manufacturing; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Numeric Computer
Systems; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.;
Palmer Instruments, Inc.; PSI, Process
Systems Inc.; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; Reliance Electric Company;
Repete Corp.; Rosemount Incorporated;
S. J. Controls, Inc.; Scherping Systems;
Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; SimonsConkey; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Sverdrup Corporation; Tech Con, Inc.;
Techniserv, Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.;
United Engineers & Constructors;
Viatran Corp.; Webber/Smith Associates,
Inc.; Zajac Equipment Supply
CIP: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
ABB Kent-Taylor; Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Anbroco, Inc.; Anderson
Instrument Co., Inc.; Bran & Luebbe,
Inc.; BS&B Safety Systems, Inc.;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
Custom Control Products, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Diversey Corp.; Dober
Chemical Corporation; Electrol
Specialties Co.; ESE Inc.; Feldmeier
Equipment, Inc.; Alex C. Fergusson Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; The Foxboro
Company; GEA Wiegand; Global
Stainless Ltd.; Hartel Corp.; Harry
Holland & Son Inc.; Honeywell, Inc.;
Hovap International (Holland); Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Klenzade, A
Service of Ecolab Inc.; Lake Process
Systems, Inc.; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Masterleo, Inc.; Oakes &
Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; The Partlow Corp.;
Relco Unisystems Corporation; Repete

Corp.; Rosemount Incorporated; S. J.


Controls, Inc.; The Schlueter Company;
Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation;
Tech-Con, Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Tenor
Company, Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.;
United Dairy Machinery Corp.; United
Engineers & Constructors; Viatran Corp.

Computer Process: ABB KentTaylor; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Autoprod


Inc.; Custom Control Products, Inc.;
Damrow Company, Inc.; Data
Specialists, Inc.; Electrol Specialties Co.;
ESE Inc.; Fischer & Porter Company;
The Foxboro Company; Hartel Corp.;
Honeywell, Inc.; Int'l, Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; K-Patents; Kusel
Equipment Company; Lake Process
Systems, Inc.; Maselli Measurements,
Inc.; MicroLog; Numeric Computer
Systems; Process Automation
Engineering, Inc.; PSI, Process Systems
Inc.; Relco Unisystems Corporation;
Repete Corp.; Rosemount Incorporated;
S. J. Controls, Inc.; Scherping Systems;
Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; Span
Instruments, Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation;
Tech-Con, Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.;
United Engineers & Constructors; The
Van Tone Company; Viatran Corp.
Environmental: Allen Bradley Co.,
Inc.; Edward A. Bonelli & Associates;
Escort Instruments Of America, Inc.;
ESE Inc.; Fischer & Porter Company;
Hixson Architects/Engineers; Honeywell,
Inc.; Industrial Accessories; K-Patents;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Lizardos
Engineering Associates, PC; MicroLog;
Process Dynamics, Inc.; Sverdrup
Corporation; United Engineers &
Constructors; Viatran Corp.

Instrument/Monitoring: ABB KentTaylor; Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.;


Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.; Bentley

Instruments, Inc.; Bran & Luebbe, Inc.;


CEM Corporation; Custom Control
Products, Inc.; Custom Fabricating &
Repair, Inc.; Diversey Corp.; Eaton
Corp.; Electrol Specialties Co.; Escort
Instruments Of America, Inc.; ESE Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Foss Food
Technology Corp.; The Foxboro
Company; Gelber Industries; Hartel
Corp.; Honeywell, Inc.; Ingold
Electrodes, Inc.; Invalco; K-Patents;
Katrina, Inc.; King Engineering Corp.;
Kusel Equipment Company; Liquid
Scale, Inc.; Liquid Solids Control, Inc.;
Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC;
Lumenite Electronic; Maselli
Measurements, Inc.; MicroLog;
Milltronics, Inc.; Monitor Manufacturing;
Palmer Instruments, Inc.; The Partlow
Corp.; Perten Instruments N. America,
Inc.; Repete Corp.; Rosemount
Incorporated; S. J. Controls, Inc.;
Scherping Systems; Shambaugh and Son,
Inc.; Span Instruments, Inc.; Tech-Con,
Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Tuchenhagen
North America, Inc.; Viatran Corp.
Level: ABB Kent-Taylor; Anderson
Instrument Co., Inc.; Custom Control
Products, Inc.; ESE Inc.; Fischer &
Porter Company; The Foxboro Company;
Gelber Industries; Harry Holland & Son
Inc.; K-Patents; King Engineering Corp.;
Kistler-Morse Corp.; Liquid Scale, Inc.;
Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC;
Masterleo, Inc.; MicroLog; Milltronics,
Inc.; Monitor Manufacturing; M. G.
Newell Company, Inc.; Oakes & Burger
Of Ohio, Inc.; Penberthy; Repete Corp.;
Rosemount Incorporated; S. J. Controls,
Inc.; Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; TechCon, Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Viatran
Corp.
Microprocess: ABB Kent-Taylor;
Custom Control Products, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Electrol
Specialties Co.; ESE Inc.; Falco Stainless
Steel Equipment; Fischer & Porter

Company; The Foxboro Company; FR


Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); Hartel
Corp.; Honeywell, Inc.; HSI Company,
Inc.; K-Patents; Kusel Equipment
Company; MicroLog; The Partlow Corp.;
Reliance Electric Company; Repete
Corp.; Rosemount Incorporated;
Scherping Systems; Shambaugh and Son,
Inc.; Span Instruments, Inc.; W. M.
Sprinkman Corp.; Sverdrup Corporation;
Tech-Con, Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; TriClover, Inc.; Viatran Corp.
Panel: Accurate Metering Systems,
Inc.; Allen Bradley Co., Inc.; Custom
Control Products, Inc.; Electrol
Specialties Co.; Electromate Enclosures;
ESE Inc.; Fischer & Porter Company;
Hartel Corp.; Heerema Company;
Honeywell, Inc.; Hovap International
(Holland); K-Patents; Lake Process
Systems, Inc.; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; Repete Corp.; Shambaugh
and Son, Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation;
Tech-Con, Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; TriClover, Inc.; Viatran Corp.

Pasteurization: A & B Process


Systems Corp.; ABB Kent-Taylor;
Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.;
Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.; Custom
Control Products, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Electrol
Specialties Co.; ESE Inc.; Falco Stainless
Steel Equipment; Feldmeier Equipment,
Inc.; The Foxboro Company; Hartel
Corp.; Honeywell, Inc.; Kusel Equipment
Company; Lumenite Electronic;
Masterleo, Inc.; MicroLog; Oakes &
Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; The Partlow Corp.;
Relco Unisystems Corporation;
Scherping Systems; Shambaugh and Son,
Inc.; R. D. Smith Company, Inc.;
Sverdrup Corporation; Tech-Con, Inc.;
Techniserv, Inc.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; Viatran Corp.
Pressure: ABB Kent-Taylor; Anderson
Instrument Co., Inc.; BS&B Safety

Systems, Inc.; Custom Control Products,


Inc.; Electrol Specialties Co.; ESE Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; The Foxboro
Company; Gelber Industries; Harry
Holland & Son Inc.; K-Patents;
Masterleo, Inc.; MicroLog; Oakes &
Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; Palmer
Instruments, Inc.; The Partlow Corp.;
Rosemount Incorporated; S. J. Controls,
Inc.; Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; Span
Instruments, Inc.; Tech-Con, Inc.;
Techniserv, Inc.; Viatran Corp.
Temperature: ABB Kent-Taylor;
ACUair Air Systems; Anderson
Instrument Co., Inc.; Custom Control
Products, Inc.; Electrol Specialties Co.;
Escort Instruments of America, Inc.; ESE
Inc.; Fischer & Porter Company; The
Foxboro Company; Harry Holland &
Son Inc.; K-Patents; Masterleo, Inc.;
MicroLog; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio,
Inc.; Palmer Instruments, Inc.; The
Partlow Corp.; Rosemount Incorporated;
Tech-Con, Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Viatran
Corp.

Conveyor Systems: Fogg


Conveyors
Accumulators: Automatic Inspection
Systems Ltd.; Automation Packaging,
Inc.; Bevco Conveying Systems; Carrier
Vibrating Equipment Inc.; Custom Metal
Designs, Inc.; FMS Manufacturing
Company; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.;
Ideas in Motion, Inc.; Kusel Equipment
Company; KVP Systems, Inc.; Stainless
Steel Fabricating Inc.
Air: Automatic Inspection Systems
Ltd.; Custom Metal Designs, Inc.; Dairy
Conveyor Corp.; Edmeyer, Inc.;
Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Ideas in
Motion, Inc.; Industrial Accessories;
Marriott Walker Corp.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Niro Hudson, Inc.;
Nu-Con Equipment; Stoelting, Inc.; VacU-Max

Belt: ACCU-TECH Machinery


Company, Inc.; ADCO Manufacturing,
Inc.; Automatic Inspection Systems Ltd.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; C & R, Inc.; Catta
27 S.R.L.; Cintex of America, Inc.;
Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Custom Metal Designs, Inc.; Dairy
Conveyer Corp.; DESCORP/Dairy
Equip. & Service; DSI Process Systems;
DYCO; FreesTech International Ltd.;
Frontier Technology, Inc.; Harnischfeger
Engineers, Inc.; Hi-Speed Checkweigher
Co., Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; HSI
Company, Inc.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;
KVP Systems, Inc.; Lanmar Associates,
Inc.; Millerbernd Design & Fabrication;
Neos, Inc.; Purity Packaging, Ltd.;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.;
Stoelting, Inc.; Straight-O-Matic;
Superior Label Systems, Inc.; The Van
Tone Company; Wisner Manufacturing
Corp.; Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.
Chain: ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.;
Automatic Inspection Systems Ltd.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; Bevco Conveying
Systems; Daido Corporation; Dairy
Conveyor Corp.; DSI Process Systems;
DYCO; Edmeyer, Inc.; Filler Specialties,
Inc.; FreesTech International Ltd.;
FrigoTech; Harnischfeger Engineers,
Inc.; Heritage Equipment Co.; HSI
Company, Inc.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;
KVP Systems, Inc.; Neos, Inc.; M. G.
Newell Company, Inc.; Purity Packaging,
Ltd.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.; Stainless
Steel Fabricating Inc.; Stoelting, Inc.;
Superior Label Systems, Inc.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply
Magnetic: Bevco Conveying Systems;
Cesco Magnetics/Q-Controls;
Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Hi-Speed
Checkweigher Co., Inc.
Plate: Dairy Conveyor Corp.; DYCO;
Edmeyer, Inc.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; FrigoTech; Harnischfeger

Engineers, Inc.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;


Straight-O-Matic
Roller: Automatic Inspection Systems
Ltd.; Beaver Metals Inc.; Dairy
Conveyor Corp.; Edmeyer, Inc.;
Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; HSI
Company, Inc.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;
KVP Systems, Inc.; Millerbernd Design
& Fabrication; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.;
Stoelting, Inc.; Wisner Manufacturing
Corp.
Screw: Beaver Metals Inc.; C & R,
Inc.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Edmeyer, Inc.; Enterprise Steelfab, Inc.;
Frontier Technology, Inc.; Harnischfeger
Engineers, Inc.; HydroCal, Inc.;
Industrial Accessories; KVP Systems,
Inc.; Marriott Walker Corp.; Niro
Hudson, Inc.; Nu-Con Equipment;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.
Spiral: Carrier Vibrating Equipment
Inc.; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; KVP
Systems, Inc.; Northfield Freezing
Systems, Inc.
Unscramblers: Bevco Conveying
Systems; Custom Metal Designs, Inc.;
Fogg; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.;
O. G. Hoyer A/S; Kusel Equipment
Company; Omega Design Corp.
Vacuum: Automatic Inspection
Systems Ltd.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;
Industrial Accessories; Niro Hudson,
Inc.; Nu-Con Equipment; Stoelting, Inc.;
Vac-U-Max

Cookers/Kettles
Batch: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; Cherry-Burrell
Process Eqpmt. Div.; Chester-Jensen
Company, Inc.; GOAVEC; Groen; Paul
Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.; Millerbernd

Design & Fabrication; Paul Mueller


Company; M. G. Newell Company, Inc.;
Precision Stainless, Inc.; Scott Turbon
Mixer, Inc.; Stephan Machinery Corp.;
Walker Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.
Continuous: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Groen; Len E. Ivarson,
Inc.; Mondomix Holland B. V.; Pick
Heaters, Inc.; Scott Turbon Mixer, Inc.;
Sine Pump Div.; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.
Pressure: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
GOAVEC; Groen; Paul Krohnert Manuf.
Ltd.; Paul Mueller Company; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Scott Turbon Mixer, Inc.

Trunion: Groen
Vacuum: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; Feldmeier
Equipment, Inc.; GOAVEC; Groen;
Heerema Company; International Dairy
Equipment; Kosempel Mfg. Company;
Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Rossi & Catelli SPA;
Scherping Systems; Scott Turbon Mixer,
Inc.; Sine Pump Div.; Stephan
Machinery Corp.; Terlet N.V.; The Van
Tone Company; Viatec - Process Storage
Systems; Walker Stainless Equip. Co.
Inc.

Coolers & Proofers: Bevco


Conveying Systems; Carrier Vibrating
Equipment Inc.; FrigoTech; GOAVEC;
Intec, Inc.; Master-Bilt Products; Northfield
Freezing Systems, Inc.
Crates: Tulip Corporation

Culture Cabinets: Frigidaire


Commercial Products Co.

Custom Development
Food: American Fruit Processors;
Burghof Engineering & Mfg. Co.; Diehl
Specialties International; The Foote &
Jenks Corporation; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; Grain Processing
Corp.; Integrated Ingredients; Interbake
Foods; The National Food Laboratory,
Inc.; The OmegaSource Corporation;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.; Vrymeer
Cocoa & Chocolates, Div. of; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.

United Engineers & Constructors; Venjex


Corp.; Walker Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.;
Zajac Equipment Supply

Cutting Machines, Slicers: Food


Tools, Inc.
D i e s : Signet Marking Devices

Dispensing Eqpt., Retail: StraightO-Matic


Milk Dispensers: Silver King
Division; Sun Industries, Inc.

Custom Fabrication: A & B Process


Systems Corp.; ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.;
Allegheny Bradford Corporation; Alloy
Products Corp.; Anbroco, Inc.; Art's
Welding, Inc.; Automation Packaging, Inc.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; Bevco Conveying
Systems; Carrier Vibrating Equipment Inc.;
Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; DCI,
Inc.; Dimetrics, Inc./Talley Industries; DSI
Process Systems; Electrol Specialties Co.;
Electromate Enclosures; Enterprise Steelfab,
Inc.; Frontier Technology, Inc.; Global
Stainless Ltd.; Grand Rapids Cabinet
Company; Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Ideas
in Motion, Inc.; Industrial Accessories;
Int'l. Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Irving
Polishing & Mfg. Co., Inc.; Kosempel Mfg.
Company; Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.;
Kusel Equipment Company; Lake Process
Systems, Inc.; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Paul Mueller Company; Neos,
Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Northland Process
Piping; Nu-Con Equipment; Osgood
Industries Inc.; Polar Tech Industries;
Precision Stainless, Inc.; PSI, Process
Systems Inc.; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; Robert-James Sales, Inc.; C. E.
Rogers Company; T. D. Sawvel Company;
The Schlueter Company; Scott Turbon
Mixer, Inc.; Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; ST
International, Inc.; Stainless Fabrication,
Inc.; Stainless Products, Inc.; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; Stoelting, Inc.; Techniserv,
Inc.; Top Line Process Equipment Corp.;

Soft Serve Products: Grand Rapids


Cabinet Company; SaniServ
Dollies & C a r t s : Cannon Equipment;
The Haynes Manufacturing Co.; Heritage
Equipment Co.; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Paul Mueller Company; Remco
Products Corporation; Sani-Matic Systems;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.
D o o r s : Advanced Insulation Concepts,
Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries, Inc.; Butcher
Boy Corporation; Custom Quality Products,
Inc.; Enviro Division; Jamison Door
Company; Relco Unisystems Corporation;
E.S. Robbins Corporation; Superior
Industries of Nebraska; Zer-O-Loc, Inc.

Drying Equipment
Continuous Vacuum: Industrial
Accessories
Conveyor/Convection: Carrier
Vibrating Equipment Inc.; FrigoTech;
Industrial Accessories; C. E. Rogers
Company
Drum/Rotary: Kosempel Mfg.
Company; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication
Fluid Bed: APV Crepaco, Inc.; Carrier
Vibrating Equipment Inc.; Damrow

Company, Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Relco


Unisystems Corporation; C. E. Rogers
Company; Stork Food Machinery, Inc.
Microwave: CEM Corporation
Roller: C. E. Rogers Company
Spray: APV Crepaco, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Marriott Walker Corp.;
Niro Hudson, Inc.; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; C. E. Rogers Company;
Scott Turbon Mixer, Inc.; Spraying
Systems Co.; Stork Food Machinery,
Inc.; H.B. Taylor Company; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.

Electrical Enclosures: A & B


Process Systems Corp.; Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; Allen Bradley Co., Inc.;
Art's Welding, Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.;
Eaton Corp.; Electrol Specialties Co.;
Electromate Enclosures; Industrial
Accessories; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Relco Unisystems Corporation;
The Schlueter Company; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Daniel
Woodhead Company
EIectrodialysis: Horton International,
Inc.; Ionics, Inc.

Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies: Bevco Conveying
Systems; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Bran & Luebbe, Inc.; Dover
Brook Associates; DSI Process Systems;
Duensing Engineering Group, Inc.; Eden
Systems, Inc.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; Global Stainless Ltd.; Grenco
Process Technology B.V.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; Horton
International, Inc.; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; J A I Engineers; Jones
Environmental, Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Lizardos

Engineering Associates, PC; Mead &


Hunt; The Omega Company; PSI,
Process Systems Inc.; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; Schipke Engineers, Inc.;
Seiberling Associates, Inc.; Shambaugh
and Son, Inc.; Stahlman Engineering
Corp.; Superior Industries of Nebraska;
Sverdrup Corporation; Techniserv, Inc.;
United Engineers & Constructors;
Webber/Smith Associates, Inc.
Plant: Edward A. Bonelli & Associates;
Custom Metal Designs, Inc.; Dover
Brook Associates; DSI Process Systems;
Duensing Engineering Group, Inc.; Eden
Systems, Inc.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; Global Stainless Ltd.; Grenco
Process Technology B.V.; Hartel Corp.;
Hertel, Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; Harry Holland &
Son Inc.; J A I Engineers; Jones
Environmental, Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.;
Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC;
Mead & Hunt; M. G. Newell Company,
Inc.; The Omega Company; PSI, Process
Systems Inc.; Schipke Engineers, Inc.;
Seiberling Associates, Inc.; Shambaugh
and Son, Inc.; Simons-Conkey; Tom
Sloan & Associates, Inc.; Stahlman
Engineering Corp.; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Sverdrup Corporation;
Techniserv, Inc.; Tecton Contracting
Corp.; Tetra Pak Inc.; United Engineers
& Constructors; Webber/Smith
Associates, Inc.; Zajac Equipment
Supply

Engraving Equipment and


Services: Signet Marking Devices
Enrobers: O. G. Hoyer A/S Straight-OMatic

Environmental Control
Aseptic Air: ACUair Air Systems;
Aquionics, Inc.; Astec; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; The King
Company; Lizardos Engineering

Associates, PC; Zander Filter Systems,


Inc.
HVAC: ACUair Air Systems; Edward
A. Bonelli & Associates; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; The King
Company; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; MicroLog; NuTemp,
Inc.; Patterson Fan Co.; Rite Coil, Inc.;
Shambaugh and Son, Inc.
Plate Fin Coils: The King Company;
Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC;
NuTemp, Inc.; Rite Coil, Inc.

Proc. Cool/Heat Air: ACUair Air


Systems; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Edmeyer, Inc.; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; The King
Company; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; NuTemp, Inc.; Patterson
Fan Co.; Rite Coil, Inc.; Shambaugh and
Son, Inc.

Equipment
Leasing: Bevco Conveying Systems;
Dimetrics, Inc./Talley Industries; Len E.
Ivarson, Inc.; NuTemp, Inc.; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Tindall Packaging, Inc.; Wolf
Packaging Ltd.

Remanufactured: ACCU-TECH
Machinery Company, Inc.; Automation
Packaging, Inc.; Edmeyer, Inc.; Frontier
Technology, Inc.; Heritage Equipment
Co.; Int'l Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Len
E. Ivarson, Inc.; Stan Keck Company;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; NuTemp,
Inc.; Osgood Industries Inc.; C. E.
Rogers Company; Separators, Inc.;
Sharon Manufacturing Co., Inc.;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.; Tindall
Packaging, Inc.; Venjex Corp.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Wolf Packaging
Ltd.
Repair: Anderson Instrument Co, Inc.;
Automation Packaging, Inc.; Edmeyer,

Inc.; Frontier Technology, Inc.; Heritage


Equipment Co.; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.;
Stan Keck Company; Paul Mueller
Company; North Atlantic Equipment
Sales; Osgood Industries Inc.; Polar
Container Corporation; Relco
Unisystems Corporation; C. E. Rogers
Company; Separators, Inc.; Sharon
Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; Straight-O-Matic;
Tindall Packaging, Inc.; Walker Stainles
Equip. Co. Inc.; WCR Incorporated;
Wolf Packaging Ltd.

Evaporators & Vacuum Pans


Batch/Pan: GEA Wiegand; Groen;
Int'l. Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Marriott
Walker Corp.; C. E. Rogers Company;
Rossi & Catelli SPA; Terlet N.V.
Falling Film: Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; APV Crepaco, Inc.;
Damrow Company, Inc.; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); GEA
Wiegand; Marriott Walker Corp.; C. E.
Rogers Company; Stork Food
Machinery, Inc.; WCR Incorporated
Plate: APV Crepaco, Inc.; Dole
Refrigerating Company; GEA Wiegand;
Paul Mueller Company; WCR
Incorporated
Rising Film: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Groen; Int'l. Machinery
Exchange, Inc.; WCR Incorporated
Scraped Surface: Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); Groen; Terlet N.V.

Explosion Protection Equipment:


Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.; BS&B
Safety Systems, Inc.

Fillers & Sealers: Astec; Autoprod


Inc.; Benz & Hilgers GmbH; Robert Bosch

Corp.; Burghof Engineering & Mfg. Co.;


Cap Snap Co.; Cherry-Burrell Packaging
Eqpt.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
DuPont Canada Inc.; Edmeyer, Inc.;
Ensopack Ltd.; Federal Mfg. Co.; Filler
Specialties, Inc.; Fogg; Fords-Holmatic,
Inc.; Fowler Products Co.; General Films,
Inc.; Genpak Canada; Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.; Heat
and Control, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; Ideas
in Motion, Inc.; International Dairy
Equipment; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.; Liqui-Box
Corporation; Mammoth Containers;
Milliken Packaging; Modern Packaging,
Inc.; Nestle Dairy Systems; NIMCO Corp.;
Osgood Industries Inc.; Portion Packaging,
Inc.; Pure-Pak, Inc.; Purity Packaging, Ltd.;
Remy L.C.; Sanchelima International Inc.;
Sasib Corporation of America; Scholle
Corp.; Sealright Co., Inc.; Serac Inc.;
Shamrock Industries, Inc.; W. M.
Sprinkman Corp.; Stork Food Machinery,
Inc.; Stormax International, Inc.; Tindall
Packaging, Inc.; Wisner Manufacturing
Corp.
Aseptic Containers: Aromas Y
Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Combibloc, Inc.;
Dover Brook Associates; ERCA; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); GASTI
Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH; Hassia
U.S.A., Inc.; Liqui-Box Corporation;
Spartanburg Steel Products, Inc.; Stork
Food Machinery, Inc.; TMCI Industries,
Inc.; White Knight Pkg. Corp.
Bag-in-Box: FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); Liqui-Box Corporation;
Parish Manufacturing, Inc.; T. D. Sawvel
Company
Bottle Type: Federal Mfg. Co.; FordsHolmatic, Inc.; GASTI
Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH
Flexible Package: Dover Brook
Associates; DuPont Canada Inc.; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); GASTI
Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH; Hassia

U.S.A., Inc.; Ilapak, Inc.Verpaco AG;


Liqui-Box Corporation; Osgood
Industries Inc.
Form-Fill-Seal: Cherry-Burrell
Packaging Eqpt.; H. S. Crocker Co.;
Dover Brook Associates; DuPont Canada
Inc.; ERCA; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); Hassia U.S.A., Inc.; Ilapak,
Inc.Verpaco AG; Liqui-Box
Corporation; NIMCO Corp.; TMCI
Industries, Inc.
Paper Containers: Benz & Hilgers
GmbH; Cherry-Burrell Packaging Eqpt.;
Damrow Company, Inc.; DESCORP/
Dairy Equip. & Service; Dover Brook
Associates; Ensopack Ltd.; FordsHolmatic, Inc.; GASTI
Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH; NIMCO
Corp.; Osgood Industries Inc.; Pure-Pak,
Inc.; Sharon Manufacturing Co., Inc.;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.; Tetra Pak
Inc.

Plastic Pre-Formed Containers:


Benz & Hilgers GmbH; Cardinal
Packaging; DESCORP/Dairy Equip. &
Service; Fords-Holmatic, Inc.; GASTI
Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH; Osgood
Industries Inc.; Portion Packaging, Inc.;
Sasib Corporation of America; T. D.
Sawvel Company; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Venture Packaging, Inc.

Filters
Air: ACUair Air Systems; Anbroco,
Inc.; APEX Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.;
Astec; Balston, Inc.; Industrial
Accessories; King Engineering Corp.;
MicroPure Filtration; Nu-Con
Equipment; Osmonics, Inc.; Pall
Corporation; Swagelok Company; TriClover, Inc.; Zander Filter Systems, Inc.
Liquid: Anbroco, Inc.; Balston, Inc.;
Frontier Technology, Inc.; Gelber
Industries; Harry Holland & Son Inc.;

MicroPure Filtration; Midwest Dairy


Supply; M. G. Newell Company, Inc.;
Osmonics, Inc.; Pall Corporation;
Robert-James Sales, Inc.; Sani-Matic
Systems; Spraying Systems Co.;
Swagelok Company; L. C. Thomsen,
Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.; U.S. Filter;
Membrane Products Grp.
Milk: Alloy Products Corp.; Babson
Bros. Co.; Global Stainless Ltd.;
MicroPure Filtration; Midwest Dairy
Supply; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Pall
Corporation; Sani-Matic Systems; The
Schlueter Company; W. M. Sprinkman
Corp.; L. C. Thomsen, Inc.; Tri-Clover,
Inc.; The Van Tone Company
Fittings: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
Alloy Products Corp.; Anbroco, Inc.; APN,
Inc.; Art's Welding, Inc.; Bowman
Distribution; Bradford Castmetals, Inc.;
Dairy Industry, Inc.; Defontaine, Inc.; G/H
Products Corp.; Gelber Industries; Global
Stainless Ltd.; Harry Holland & Son Inc.;
IMEX; International Dairy Equipment;
Jensen Fittings Corporation; Midwest Dairy
Supply; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Northland
Process Piping; Robert-James Sales, Inc.;
Rostra Industrial Couplings; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; The Schlueter Company;
Special Products, Inc.; Stainless Products,
Inc.; Swagelok Company; L. C. Thomsen,
Inc.; Titan Industries; Top Line Process
Equipment Corp.; Tremcar, Inc.; Tri-Clover,
Inc.; Tubesales; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; Valvinox, Inc.; VNE Corporation;
Waukesha Fluid Handling; Waukesha
Specialty Company; Wright Rubber &
Gasket Co.

Flexible Packaging: DuPont Canada


Inc.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.; Hueck Foils, Inc.;
Liqui-Box Corporation; Minigrip/Zip-Pak
Inc.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Zimmer Paper
Products Inc.; Zorn Packaging, Inc.

Floor Plates & Drains: Art's


Welding, Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.;

Chemgrate Corp.; Drehmann Paving &


Flooring Co.; Kusel Equipment Company;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Stogsdill Tile
Company

Flooring & Supplies: Atlas Minerals


& Chemicals, Inc.; Chemgrate Corp.;
Drehmann Paving & Flooring Co.;
Sauereisen Cements Company; Stogsdill
Tile Company; Stonhard, Inc.; Tufco
International, Inc.

Flow Meters
Flow Control: Accurate Metering
Systems, Inc.; Anbroco, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; EXAC
Corporation; Fischer & Porter Company;
Flowdata, Inc.; G/H Products Corp.;
Gelber Industries; Harry Holland & Son,
Inc.; Honeywell, Inc.; Invalco; K-Patents;
Masterleo, Inc.; Micro Motion, Inc.;
Midwest Dairy Supply; Milltronics, Inc.;
Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; The
Partlow Corp.; Process Dynamics, Inc.;
Rosemount Incorporated; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Scherping Systems;
Schlumberger Industries; Special
Products, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; Zajac Equipment Supply

Freeze Concentration Equipment:


Grenco Process Technology B.V.

Freezers
Batch: SaniServ; Emery Thompson
Machine & Supply Co.
Continuous: FrigoTech; Niro Hudson,
Inc.; Northfield Freezing Systems, Inc.
Ice Cream: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Catta
27 S.R.L.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; FrigoTech; Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; Greerco Corp.; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; O. G. Hoyer A/S;
Intec, Inc.; International Dairy

Equipment; Master-Bilt Products;


Northfield Freezing Systems, Inc.; The
NutraSweet Company; Processing
Machinery & Supply; Rite Coil, Inc.;
SaniServ; Shambaugh and Son, Inc.;
Stoelting, Inc.; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Emery Thompson Machine &
Supply Co.; Webber/Smith Associates,
Inc.; Wisner Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac
Equipment Supply; Zer-O-Loc, Inc.;
Zero-Temp, Inc.

Processing/Hardening: Airco Gases;


Catta 27 S.R.L.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; Frigidaire Commercial Products
Co.; FrigoTech; Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; Greerco Corp.; O. G.
Hoyer A/S; HSI Company, Inc.; Intec,
Inc.; Northfield Freezing Systems, Inc.;
Rite Coil, Inc.; SaniServ; Superior
Industries of Nebraska; Webber/Smith
Associates, Inc.; Zer-OLoc, Inc.; ZeroTemp, Inc.
Storage: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; Edward A. Bonelli & Associates;
Catta 27 S.R.L.; FreesTech International
Ltd.; Frigidaire Commercial Products
Co.; Gram Equipment of America, Inc.;
Grand Rapids Cabinet Company;
Greerco Corp.; Harnischfeger Engineers,
Inc.; Hixson Architects/Engineers; HSI
Company, Inc.; International Dairy
Equipment; The King Company; MasterBilt Products; Polar Tech Industries; Rite
Coil, Inc.; Silver King Division; Superior
Industries of Nebraska; Supreme
Corporation; Tecton Contracting Corp.;
Webber/Smith Associates, Inc.; Zer-OLoc, Inc.; Zero-Temp, Inc.

Frozen Dessert
Mixes: Frostline Foods

Frozen Desserts Pkg.


Dairy: Autoprod Inc.; Catta 27 S.R.I.;
Creative Flavors, Inc.; Custom-Made

Packaging, Inc.; DCA Food Industries,


Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp.; Field Container
Corp.; Grenpak Canada; Grain
Processing Corp.; Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; Heat and Control, Inc.;
Heinz Nutrition Products; O. G. Hoyer
A/S; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.; James River
Corporation; Leaf, Inc.; Louisiana
Plastics, Inc.; Mammoth Containers;
Milliken Packaging; Neos, Inc.; Nestle
Dairy Systems; The NutraSweet
Company; Osgood Industries Inc.; Parish
Manufacturing, Inc.; Remy L.C.; Ropak
Corporation; Sealright Co., Inc.;
Shamrock Industries, Inc.; Somerville
Packaging; Stormax International, Inc.;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.; Venture
Packaging, Inc.; Zimmer Paper Products
Inc.; Zorn Packaging, Inc.
Non-Dairy: Autoprod Inc.; CustomMade Packaging, Inc.; Grenpak Canada;
Grain Processing Corp.; Heat and
Control, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; Len E.
Ivarson, Inc.; Leaf, Inc.; Louisiana
Plastics, Inc.; Mammoth Containers;
Milliken Packaging; Neos, Inc.; Nestle
Dairy Systems; The NutraSweet
Company; Osgood Industries Inc.; Parish
Manufacturing, Inc.; Ropak Corporation;
Stormax International, Inc.; Sweetheart
Packaging, Inc.; Venture Packaging, Inc.;
Zimmer Paper Products Inc.; Zorn
Packaging, Inc.
Fruit: Maran Groves Corp.

Frozen Desserts/Novelty
Equipment
Cakes/Fancy/Molded Catta27 SRL.
Cone, Cup, Tube: Autoprod Inc.;
Catta 27 S.R.L.; DCA Food Industries,
Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp. Gram Equipment
of America, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S;
Milliken Packaging; Mondomix Holland
B. V.; Osgood Industries Inc.; Portion
Packaging, Inc.; Processing Machinery &

Supply; Stormax International, Inc.;


Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.
Extrusion: Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; Osgood
Industries Inc.; Processing Machinery &
Supply; Straight-O-Matic
Molding: Alliance Food Equipment
Corp.; Cardinal Packaging; Catta 27
S.R.L.; DCA Food Industries, Inc.; Gram
Equipment of America, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer
A/S; Duane D. Poulterer Corporation;
Processing Machinery & Supply;
Straight-O-Matic

Slice/Sandwich: S. H. Bates
Company; Gram Equipment of America,
Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; Interbake Foods;
Popsicle Industries Ltd.; Processing
Machinery & Supply; Straight-O-Matic
Gaskets & Seals: APEX Packing &
Rubber Co. Inc.; G/H Products Corp.; The
Haynes Manufacturing Co.; IMEX;
Industrial Accessories; Jensen Fittings
Corporation; Midwest Dairy Supply;
Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Newman Sanitary
Gasket Company; Robert-James Sales, Inc.;
Sani-Tech Incorporated; Sharon
Manufcturing Co., Inc.; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Stainless Products, Inc.;
L. C. Thomsen, Inc.; Top Line Process
Equipment Corp.; Tri-Clover, Inc.; WCR
Incorporated; Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.;
Zajac Equipment Supply

Gravies & Sauces: Frostiine Foods


Hand Tools: Remco Products
Corporation

Heat Exchangers
Infusion: APV Crepaco, Inc.; The
Clark Reliance Corporation; DASI
Industries, Inc.; GEA Wiegand; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Wolf Packaging Ltd.

Injection: APV Crepaco, Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; The Clark
Reliance Corporation; FR Manufcturing
Corp. (FranRica); GEA Wiegand; Kusel
Equipment Company; Marlen Research
Corporation; Penberthy; Pick Heaters,
Inc.; Sani-Matic Systems; T & S Brass
And Bronze Works, Inc.
Plate: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group;
Anbroco, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Catta
27, S.R.L.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; Chester-Jensen Company,
Inc.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Dole Refrigerating Company; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; GEA
Wiegand; GOAVEC; Heerema
Company; Heritage Equipment Co.;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; International
Dairy Equipment; Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co.,
Ltd.; Kold-Hold Div. of Tranter, Inc.;
Kusel Equipment Company; Paul
Mueller Company; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Oakes & Burger Of
Ohio, Inc.; On-Line Instrumentation,
Inc.; Sanchelima International Inc.; R. D.
Smith Company, Inc.; Special Products,
Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; WCR Incorporated; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply
Scraped Surface: Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; Anbroco, Inc.; APV
Crepaco, Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); GOAVEC; Groen; Heritage
Equipment Co.; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.;
Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.; Lake
Process Systems, Inc.; Mondomix
Holland B. V.; M. G. Newell Company,
Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Rossi & Catelli
SPA; Sine Pump Div.; Special Products,
Inc.; Terlet N.V.; Venjex Corp.; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.
Tubular: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Allegheny Bradford Corporation;

APV Crepaco, Inc.; Astec; Babson Bros.


Co.; Chemineer Kenics; Cherry-Burrell
Process Eqpmt. Div.; Chester-Jensen
Company, Inc.; Damrow Company, Inc.;
Falco Stainless Steel Equipment;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); GEA
Wiegand; Girton Manufacturing Co.;
Heritage Equipment Co.; INDEECO/
HYNES; Kusel Equipment Company;
Marriott Walker Corp.; Paul Mueller
Company; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Northland
Process Piping; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; C. E. Rogers Company;
Rossi & Catelli SPA; Sani-Matic
Systems; Scherping Systems; The
Schlueter Company; Stork Food
Machinery, Inc.; TCI-BRETCO, Inc.;
Top Line Process Equipment Corp.;
United Industries, Inc.; Venjex Corp.;
VNE Corporation; Walker Stainless
Equip. Co. Inc.

Heat Recovery Systems: ACUair Air


Systems; Babson Bros. Co.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.;
GEA Wiegand; Girton Manufacturing Co.;
The King Company; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Marriott Walker Corp.;
Paul Mueller Company; Niro Hudson, Inc.;
Stork Food Machinery, Inc.; TCI-BRETCO,
Inc.

Gaulin, Inc.; APV Rannie Inc.; Benz &


Hilgers, GmbH; Bran & Leubbe, Inc.; Catta
27 S.R.L.; Chemicolloid Laboratories Inc.;
Dairy Industry, Inc.; Greerco Corp.;
Heerema Company; Heritage Equipment
Co.; International Dairy Equipment; Len E.
Ivarson, Inc.; Midwest Dairy Supply; M. G.
Newell Company, Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.;
Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; On-Line
Instrumentation, Inc.; Processing Machinery
& Supply; R. D. Smith Company, Inc.;
Special Products, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman
Corp.; Stephan Machinery Corp.; Stork
Food Machinery, Inc.; TCI-BRETCO, Inc.;
United Dairy Machinery Corp.; The Van
Tone Company; Wisner Manufacturing
Corp.; Zajac Equipment Supply

Hoses/Hose Assemblies: APEX


Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.; Dairy Industry,
Inc.; Dayco Products Inc.; Midwest Dairy
Supply; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Oakes &
Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; Salem-Republic
Rubber Company; Sani-Tech Incorporated;
Texas Rubber Supply, Inc.; Titan Industries;
Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.; Zajac
Equipment Supply

Humidity Indicators &


Controllers: Escort Instruments Of
America, Inc.; MicroLog; Palmer
Instruments, Inc.

Heat Transfer Fluid, Food

Ice Making/Building Equipment:

G r a d e : Carrier Vibrating Equipment Inc.;


INDEECO/HYNES; Paratherm Corporation

Circulation: INDEECO/HYNES

Advanced Insulation Concepts, Inc.;


Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Girton
Manufacturing Co.; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; NuTemp, Inc.; Straight-OMatic; Tecton Contracting Corp.

Electric: INDEECO/HYNES

Industrial Development: Alabama

Immersion: INDEECO/HYNES

Power Company; Lauderdale Econ.


Dvlpmnt. Authority

Heaters

Hinges, Stainless Steel: Art's

Ingredient Feeders: APV Crepaco,

Welding, Inc.

Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.; Carrier Vibrating


Equipment Inc.; Catta 27 S.R.L.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; Fluid
Metering, Inc.; Gram Equipment of

H o m o g e n i z e r s : Alfa-Laval Food &


Dairy Group; APV Crepaco, Inc.; APV

America, Inc.; Heritage Equipment Co.;


O. G. Hoyer A/S; International Dairy
Equipment; Lake Process Systems, Inc.;
Mondomix Holland B. V.; Nu-Con
Equipment; Processing Machinery &
Supply; T. D. Sawvel Company; Scherping
Systems; Vac-U-Max; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply

Ingredients
Antioxidents: Hydrite Chemical Co.;
Lucas Meyer, Inc.; Odenberg
Engineering Inc.

Baked ProductsCones: FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Interbake


Foods; Leaf, Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.

Baked ProductsCookies: S. H.
Bates Company; Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Hesco
Inc.; Interbake Foods; Leaf, Inc.; The
NutraSweet Company; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Sunshine Biscuits, Inc.;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.

Baked ProductsWafers: S. H.
Bates Company; Interbake Foods;
Popsicle Industries Ltd.; Sunshine
Biscuits, Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.

Beverage & Beverage Bases:


American Fruit Processors; Bell Flavors
& Fragrances, Inc.; Consolidated Flavor
Corp.; Diehl Specialties International;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation; The
Foote & Jenks Corporation; Fruitcrown
Products Corporation; Golden Select
Foods Company; Grain Processing
Corp.; Green Spot Company; Indian
River Foods, Inc.; International Fruit,
Inc.; Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert
Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus; Nog
Incorporated; The NutraSweet Company;
Rocket Products, Inc.; Edgar A. Weber
& Company

Bulking Agents: American MaizeProducts Co.; FMC Corporation; Grain


Processing Corp.; National Stabilizers,
Inc.; The NutraSweet Company; A. E.
Staley Mfg. Company; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.
Candies: Creative Flavors, Inc.;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation;
Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Leaf, Inc.; Pecan
Deluxe Candy Company Inc.; Ropak
Corporation; Star Kay White, Inc.; Van
Leer Chocolate Corp.

Chocolate & Cocoa: Ambrosia


Chocolate; S. H. Bates Company;
Blommer Chocolate Company;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Controlled
Food Systems, Inc.; Creative Flavors,
Inc.; DCA Food Industries, inc.; Diehl
Specialties International; E D & F Man
Cocoa Products; Eskimo Pie Corp.;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation; Food
Producers International; The Benjamin P.
Forbes Co.; Gerkens Cocoa;
Germantown Manufacturing Co.; GMI
Products, Inc.; Golden Select Foods
Company; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Hershey
Chocolate USA; International Dairy
Equipment; Leaf, Inc.; Limpert Brothers,
Inc.; The Masterson Company, Inc.;
David Michael & Co., Inc.; natra US,
Inc.; Nog Incorporated; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Ramsey Laboratories,
Inc.; Schoemaker USA, Inc.; Star Kay
White, Inc.; Sun Industries, Inc.; J.M.
Swank Company, Inc.; H.B. Taylor
Company; C. J. Van Houten & Zoon,
Inc.; Van Leer Chocolate Corp.; Vrymeer
Cocoa & Chocolates; W.L.M. Bensdorp
Co.; Edgar A. Weber & Company;
Wilbur Chocolate Co.

CoatingsChocolate: Ambrosia
Chocolate; Blommer Chocolate
Company; Creative Flavors, Inc.; DCA
Food Industries, Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp.;
Fantasy-BlankeBear Corporation; Food
Producers International; Golden Select

Foods Company; Kraus & Company,


Inc.; Leaf, Inc.; The Masterson
Company, Inc.; natra US, Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Popsicle Industries Ltd.;
John B. Sanfilippo & Son, Inc.; Shade
Foods, Inc.; Sun Industries, Inc.; C. J.
Van Houten & Zoon, Inc.; Van Leer
Chocolate Corp.; Vrymeer Cocoa &
Chocolates; Wilbur Chocolate Co.

CoatingsConfection: Ambrosia
Chocolate; S. H. Bates Company;
Blommer Chocolate Company; Creative
Flavors, Inc.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; Golden Select Foods
Company; Leaf, Inc.; The Masterson
Company, Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
Popsicle Industries Ltd.; John B.
Sanfilippo & Son, Inc.; Shade Foods,
Inc.; C. J. Van Houton & Zoon, Inc.;
Van Leer Chocolate Corp.; Vrymeer
Cocoa & Chocolates; Wilbur Chocolate
Co.

Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Nog Incorporated;


O.S.F. Corporation; Quest Int'L,
Bioproducts Group; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Rhone Poulenc/Marschall
Products; H.B. Taylor Company; The
Van Tone Company; Vrymeer Cocoa &
Chocolates
Culture Media: Rhone Poulenc/
Marschall Products; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Troy Biologicals, Inc.
Cultures: CHR. Hansen's Laboratory,
Inc.; Integrated Ingredients; Quest Int'L,
Bioproducts Group; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Rhone Poulenc/Marschall
Products; Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.;
Vivolac Cultures Corp.

Curing & Pickling Agents: Hydrite


Chemical Co.; J.M. Swank Company,
Inc.

Dough Conditioners: Clofine Dairy


CoatingsProtective: Atlas
Minerals & Chemicals, Inc.;
Germantown Manufacturing Co.; Gistbrocades Food Ingredients, Inc.; The
Masterson Company, Inc.; Pecan Deluxe
Candy Company Inc.; Sauereisen
Cements Company; Van Leer Chocolate
Corp.; Wilbur Chocolate Co.

Products, Inc.; The Foote & Jenks


Corporation; Hydrite Chemical Co.;
National Stabilizers, Inc.; Rich Products
Corp.; Star Blends Division; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.
Drying Agents: Star Blends Division

Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts:


Cocoa Powder, Blended: Bunge
Foods; Consolidated Flavor Corp.; E D
& F Man Cocoa Products; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Green Spot
Company; natra US, Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Van Leer Chocolate Corp.;
Wilbur Chocolate Co.

Colors & Coloring Adjuncts:


Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Beck
Flavors; Bunge Foods; CHR. Hansen's
Laboratory, Inc.; Consolidated Flavor
Corp.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation;
Food Producers International; The Foote
& Jenks Corporation; Kerry Food
Ingredients; Kraus & Company, Inc.;

Bunge Foods; Clofine Dairy Products,


Inc.; Continental Colloids, Inc.;
Controlled Fod Systems, Inc.; Crest
Foods Co., Inc.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; Germantown Manufacturing
Co.; Hydrite Chemical Co.; International
Dairy Equipment; Kerry Food
Ingredients; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
Lucas Meyer, Inc.; David Michael &
Co., Inc.; National Stabilizers, Inc.;
Quest Int'L, Bioproducts Group;
Stabilized Products, Inc.; Star Blends
Division; The Van Tone Company
Enzymes: CHR. Hansen's Laboratory,
Inc.; Gist-brocades Food Ingredients,

Inc.; Integrated Ingredients; NelsonJameson, Inc.; Quest Int'L, Bioproducts


Group; Rhone Poulenc/Marschall
Products; Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.;
Stabilized Products, Inc.; Star Blends
Division
Fat Substitutes: Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; FMC Corporation; Hesco
Inc.; Integrated Ingredients; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company; Quest Int'L, Bioproducts
Group; Quest International Flavors, Inc.;
A. E. Staley Mfg. Company; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa &
Chocolates
Fats & Oils: Clofme Dairy Products,
Inc.; Gerkens Cocoa; Hesco Inc.;
International Dairy Equipment; Michigan
Milk Producers Assn.; natra US, Inc.;
The NutraSweet Company; The
OmegaSource Corporation; A. E. Staley
Mfg. Company; J.M. Swank Company,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates

& Jenks Corporation; Fruitcrown


Products Corporation; Green Spot
Company; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'L
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food
Ingredients; Kraus & Company, Inc.;
Limpert Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
The Masterson Company, Inc.;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
O.S.F. Corporation; Pecan Deluxe Candy
Company Inc.; Popsicle Industries Ltd.;
Quest Int'L, Bioproducts Group; Quest
International Flavors, Inc.; Ramsey
Laboratories, Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Shade Foods,
Inc.; Star Blends Division; Star Kay
White, Inc.; H.B. Taylor Company;
Templar Food Products; Universal
Flavors Int'L Inc.; The Van Tone
Company; Vanlab Corporation; Virginia
Dare Extract Co., Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa
& Chocolates; Edgar A. Weber &
Company; The Zipp Manufacturing
Company

Flavor AgentsNatural: American


Firming Agents: Controlled Food
Systems, Inc.; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; Michigan Milk
Producers Assn.

Flavor Agents & Adjuvants:


Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; CHR.
Hansen's Laboratory, Inc.; The Foote &
Jenks Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Green Spot Company; Int'L
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food
Ingredients; Popsicle Industries Ltd.;
Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Universal Flavors Int'L
Inc.; Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.

Flavor AgentsArtificial: Aromas


Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Beck Flavors;
Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Eskimo Pie
Corp.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation;
Food Producers International; The Foote

Fruit Processors; Beck Flavors; Bell


Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; CHR.
Hansen's Laboratory, Inc.; Consolidated
Flavor Corp.; Crest Foods Co., Inc.;
Eskimo Pie Corp.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Golden Gem Growers, Inc.;
Green Spot Company; Guernsey Dell,
Inc.; Integrated Ingredients; Int'L Flavors
& Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food
Ingredients; Kraus & Company, Inc.;
Limpert Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
The Masterson Company, Inc.;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nielsen-Massey
Vanillas, Inc.; Nog Incorporated; O.S.F.
Corporation; Pecan Deluxe Candy
Company Inc.; Popsicle Industries Ltd.;
Quest Int'L, Bioproducts Group; Quest
International Flavors, Inc.; Ramsey
Laboratories, Inc.; Rich Products Corp.;

Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Seco Dairies Of Florida,


Inc.; Shade Foods, Inc.; Star Blends
Division; Star Kay White, Inc.; H.B.
Taylor Company; Templar Food
Products; Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.;
The Van Tone Company; Vanlab
Corporation; Virginia Dare Extract Co.,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates;
Edgar A. Weber & Company; The Zipp
Manufacturing Company

Flavor AgentsNatural/Essential
Oil: Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.;
Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Caulkins
Indiantown Citrus Co.; Consolidated
Flavor Corp.; Crest Foods Co., Inc.;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation; The
Foote & Jenks Corporation; Green Spot
Company; Indian River Foods, Inc.; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kraus &
Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Orange-co of
Florida, Inc.; Popsicle Industries Ltd.;
Quest International Flavors, Inc.;
Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Silver Springs Citrus;
Sunkist Growers, Inc.; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.; H.B. Taylor Company;
Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.; Virginia
Dare Extract Co., Inc.; The Zipp
Manufacturing Company

Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts:
American Fruit Processors; Beck
Flavors; Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Golden Gem Growers, Inc.;
Green Spot Company; Guernsey Dell,
Inc.; Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert
Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus; The
Masterson Company, Inc.; McCormick
Flavor Group; David Michael & Co.,
Inc.; Nielsen-Massey Vanillas, Inc.;

O.S.F. Corporation; Orange-co of


Florida, Inc.; Quest International Flavors,
Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Star Kay White, Inc.;
J.M. Swank Company, Inc.; Universal
Flavors Int'l. Inc.; Vanlab Corporation;
Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.; Edgar A.
Weber & Company

Flavor AgentsNatural/Spices:
Beck Flavors; Bell Flavors & Fragrances,
Inc.; Cargill, Inc.; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Golden Gem Growers, Inc.;
Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kraus
& Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
Lyons-Magnus; McCormick Flavor
Group; David Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.; H.B. Taylor Company;
Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.

Flavor AgentsNature Identical:


Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Beck
Flavors; Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
CHR. Hansen's Laboratory, Inc.;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation; The
Foote & Jenks Corporation; Fruitcrown
Products Corporation; Green Spot
Company; Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances,
Inc.; Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert
Brothers, Inc.; McCormick Flavor
Group; David Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Star Kay
White, Inc.; Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.;
Vanlab Corporaton; Virginia Dare
Extract Co., Inc.

Flavor AgentsProcess/Reaction
Flavor: Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos
S.A.; Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
The Foote & Jenks Corporation; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kraus &
Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;

Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Star Kay White,


Inc.; Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.;
Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.
Flavor Bases: American Fruit
Processors; Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos
S.A.; Beck Flavors; Bell Flavors &
Fragrances Inc.; Bunge Foods; CocaCola Foods; Consolidated Flavor Corp.;
Creative Flavors, Inc.; DCA Food
Industries, Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp.;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation; Flavors
From Florida, Inc.; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Gerkens Cocoa; Golden
Gem Growers, Inc.; Grain Processing
Corp.; Green Spot Company; Guernsey
Dell, Inc.; Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances,
Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients; Kraus &
Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
Lyons-Magnus; The Masterson
Company, Inc.; McCormick Flavor
Group; David Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Pecan Deluxe Candy
Company Inc.; Popsicle Industries Ltd.;
Ramsey Laboratories, Inc.; Rich Products
Corp.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Rocket
Products, Inc.; Sanofi Bio-Industries,
Inc.; Seco Dairies Of Florida, Inc.; Shade
Foods, Inc.; Star Kay White, Inc.; Sun
Industries, Inc.; J.M. Swank Company,
Inc.; Templar Food Products; Universal
Flavors Int'l. Inc.; Virginia Dare Extract
Co., Inc.; Edgar A. Weber & Company,
The Zipp Manufacturing Company

Flavor Enhancers: American Fruit


Processors; Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos
S.A.; Beck Flavors; Bell Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Consolidated Flavor
Corp.; Eskimo Pie Corp.; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; The Foote &
Jenks Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Green Spot Company;
Integrated Ingredients; Int'l. Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert
Brothers, Inc.; McCormick Flavor

Group; David Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog


Incorporated; Ramsey Laboratories, Inc.;
Rhone Poulenc/Marschali Products;
Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Schreiber Foods, Inc.;
Stabilized Products, Inc.; Star Blends
Division; Star Kay White, Inc.; J.M.
Swank Company, Inc.; H.B. Taylor
Company; Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.;
Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.; Vivolac
Cultures Corp.; Edgar A. Weber &
Company

FlavorsAppl. Alcohol: Aromas Y


Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances,
Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients; Kraus &
Company, Inc.; Limpert Brothers, Inc.;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Star Kay White, Inc.;
H.B. Taylor Company; Universal Flavors
Int'l. Inc.; Virginia Dare Extract Co.,
Inc.; Edgar A. Weber & Company

FlavorsAppl. Bakery: Aromas Y


Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Consolidated Flavor
Corp.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation;
Flavors from Florida, Inc.; The Foote &
Jenks Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Golden Select Foods
Company; Green Spot Company;
Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'l. Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Leaf, Inc.;
Limpert Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nielsen-Massey
Vanillas, Inc.; Nog Incorporated; Pecan
Deluxe Candy Company Inc.; Quest
International Flavors, Inc.; Robertet
Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.;
Star Blends Division; Star Kay White,
Inc.; J.M. Swank Company, Inc.; H.B.
Taylor Company; Universal Flavors Int'l.

Inc.; Van Leer Chocolate Corp.; Vanlab


Corporation; Virginia Dare Extract Co.,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates;
Edgar A. Weber & Company

FlavorsAppl. Confectionary:
Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Flavors From
Florida, Inc.; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Green Spot Company;
Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'l. Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Leaf, Inc.;
Limpert Brothers, Inc.; McCormick
Flavor Group; David Michael & Co.,
Inc.; Nielsen-Massey Vanillas, Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Star Blends
Division; Star Kay White, Inc.; H.B.
Taylor Company; Universal Flavors Int'l.
Inc.; Van Leer Chocolate Corp.; Vanlab
Corporation; Virginia Dare Extract Co.,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates;
Edgar A. Weber & Company

FlavorsAppl. Dairy Products:


Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Bunge
Foods; Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Diehl
Specialties International; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Flavors From
Florida, Inc.; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Golden Select Foods
Company; Green Spot Company;
Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'l. Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Leaf, Inc.;
Limpert Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nielsen-Massey
Vanillas, Inc.; Nog Incorporated; Pecan
Deluxe Candy Company Inc.; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Quest International
Flavors, Inc.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;

Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Shade Foods,


Inc.; Star Blends Division; Star Kay
White, Inc.; H.B. Taylor Company;
Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.; Van Leer
Chocolate Corp.; Vanlab Corporation;
Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.; Vrymeer
Cocoa & Chocolates; Edgar A. Weber &
Company

FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices:


American Fruit Processors; Aromas Y
Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Bunge Foods; Cargill,
Inc.; Consolidated Flavor Corp.; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Flavors From
Florida, Inc.; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Green Spot Company; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; International
Fruit, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
Quest International Flavors, Inc.;
Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Star Blends Division;
Star Kay White, Inc.; H.B. Taylor
Company; Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.;
Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.; Vrymeer
Cocoa & Chocolates; Edgar A. Weber &
Company

FlavorsAppl. Purees/Toppings:
Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.; Bell
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Bunge
Foods; Consolidated Flavor Corp.;
Creative Flavors, Inc.; FantasyBlankeBaer Corporation; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; International
Fruit, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert
Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
Pecan Deluxe Candy Company Inc.;

Quest International Flavors, Inc.;


Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Star Blends Division;
Star Kay White, Inc.; Universal Flavors
Int'L Inc.; Virginia Dare Extract Co.,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates;
Edgar A. Weber & Company

FlavorsAppl. Sauce &


Variegate: Aromas Y Sabores
Tecnicos S.A.; Bell Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Bunge Foods;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Creative
Flavors, Inc.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer
Corporation; Food Producers
International; The Foote & Jenks
Corporation; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Golden Select Foods
Company; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Int'l.
Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food
Ingredients; Kraus & Company, Inc.;
Limpert Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
McCormick Flavor Group; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Nog Incorporated;
Pecan Deluxe Candy Company Inc.;
Robertet Flavors, Inc.; Sanofi BioIndustries, Inc.; Star Blends Division;
Star Kay White, Inc.; Universal Flavors
Int'l. Inc.; Virginia Dare Extract Co.,
Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates;
Edgar A. Weber & Company

Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert


Brothers, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus; The
Masterson Company, Inc.; David
Michael & Co., Inc.; Milne Fruit
Products; Nog Incorporated; Quest
International Flavors, Inc.; Ramsey
Laboratories, Inc.; Rich Products Corp.;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Schoemaker
USA, Inc.; Seco Dairies Of Florida, Inc.;
The J. M. Smucker Company; Star Kay
White, Inc.; J.M. Swank Company, Inc.;
Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.; Virginia
Dare Extract Co., Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa
& Chocolates; Wawona Frozen Foods;
The Zipp Manufacturing Company
Humectants: A. E. Staley Mfg.
Company

Juices & ConcentratesBlends:

Jenks Corporation; Grain Processing


Corp.; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Hesco Inc.;
The OmegaSource Corporation

American Fruit Processors; S. H. Bates


Company; Bell Flavors & Fragrances,
Inc.; Caulkins Indiantown Citrus Co.;
Clermont Inc.; Coca-Cola Foods;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Eskimo Pie
Corp.; Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation;
Flavors From Florida, Inc.; Fruitcrown
Products Corporation; Golden Gem
Growers, Inc.; Green Spot Company;
Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
International Fruit, Inc.; Lyons-Magnus;
Milne Fruit Products; Orange-co of
Florida, Inc.; Premier Juices, Inc.; Sanofi
Bio-Industries, Inc.; Silver Springs
Citrus; The Zipp Manufacturing
Company

Fruits & Fruit Products: Allen Fruit

Juices & ConcentratesCitrus:

Co., Inc.; American Fruit Processors;


S. H. Bates Company; Bunge Foods;
Clermont Inc.; Consolidated Flavor
Corp.; Creative Flavors, Inc.; DCA Food
Industries, Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp.;
Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation; Flavors
From Florida, Inc.; Food Producers
International; Fruitcrown Products
Corporation; Guernsey Dell, Inc.; Indian
River Foods, Inc.; Int'l. Flavors &
Fragrances, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;

S. H. Bates Company; Bell Flavors &


Fragrances, Inc.; Cargill, Inc.; Caulkins
Indiantown Citrus Co.; Coca-Cola Foods;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Eskimo Pie
Corp.; Fruitcrown Products Corporation;
Golden Gem Growers, Inc.; Green Spot
Company; Indian River Foods, Inc.;
International Fruit, Inc.; Juice Farms,
Inc.; Lyons-Magnus; Marbo Inc.;
Orange-co of Florida, Inc.; Premier
Juices, Inc.; Rocket Products, Inc.; Sanofi

Formulation Aids: The Foote &

Bio-Industries, Inc.; Seco Dairies Of


Florida, Inc.; Silver Springs Citrus;
Sunkist Growers, Inc.
Juices & ConcentratesFruit:
American Fruit Processors; S. H. Bates
Company; Bell Flavors & Fragrances,
Inc.; Cargill, Inc.; Clermont Inc.;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Fruitcrown
Products Corporation; Golden Gem
Growers, Inc.; Green Spot Company;
Int'l. Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
International Fruit, Inc.; Kerry Food
Ingredients; Lyons-Magnus; Marbo Inc.;
Milne Fruit Products; Nog Incorporated;
Orange-co of Florida, Inc.; Premier
Juices, Inc.; Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.;
Silver Springs Citrus; Vrymeer Cocoa &
Chocolates
Leavening Agents: Hydrite Chemical
Co.; J.M. Swank Company, Inc.
Lubricants & Release Agents: Ace
Chemical Products, Inc.; Chem-Trend
Inc.; The Haynes Manufacturing Co.;
Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Shepard Bros.;
R. D. Smith Company, Inc.; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.
Modified Whey Products: Clofine
Dairy Products, Inc.; Creative Flavors,
Inc.; J.M. Swank Company, Inc.

PH Control Agents: Airco Gases;


Controlled Food Systems, Inc.; Crest
Foods Co., Inc.; Hydrite Chemical Co.;
Stabilized Products, Inc.
Preservatives: Aromas Y Sabores
Tecnicos S.A.; Dairy and Food Labs,
Inc.; Hydrite Chemical Co.; Integrated
Ingredients; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; J.M.
Swank Company, Inc.
Processing Aids: Chemicolloid
Laboratories Inc.; Crest Foods Co., Inc.;
Germantown Manufacturing Co.; Hydrite
Chemical Co.; National Stabilizers, Inc.
ProteinsAnimal: Clofine Dairy
Products, Inc.; Controlled Food Systems,
Inc.; Crest Foods Co., Inc.; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; GMI Products, Inc.;
Hesco Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
Michigan Milk Producers Assn.; The
NutraSweet Company; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.
ProteinsVegetable: Clofine Dairy
Products, Inc.; Kerry Food Ingredients;
National Stabilizers, Inc.; The
NutraSweet Company; A. E. Staley Mfg.
Company; J.M. Swank Company, Inc.
Sequestrants: Hydrite Chemical Co.

Nutrient Supplements: American


Fruit Processors; Clofine Dairy Products,
Inc.; The OmegaSource Corporation

Solvents & Vehicles: Ace Chemical


Products, Inc.; Aromas Y Sabores
Tecnicos S.A.; Hydrite Chemical Co.;
Shepard Bros.

Nuts: Creative Flavors, Inc.; Golden


Select Foods Company; Guernsey Dell,
Inc.; Jimbo's Jumbos, Inc.; Navarro
Pecan Co., Inc.; Pecan Deluxe Candy
Company Inc.; S.N.A. Nut Company;
John B. Sanfilippo & Son, Inc.; Santa
Cruz Valley Pecan Co.; Shade Foods,
Inc.; Superior Nut Company, Inc.; J.M.
Swank Company, Inc.; Tracy-Luckey
Co., Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates;
Young Pecan Shelling Co., Inc.

Stabilizers & Thickeners: American


Maize-Products Co.; Bunge Foods;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Continental
Colloids, Inc.; Controlled Food Systems,
Inc.; Creative Flavors, Inc.; Crest Foods
Co., Inc.; DCA Food Industries, Inc.;
Eskimo Pie Corp.; FMC Corporation;
The Foote & Jenks Corporation;
Germantown Manufacturing Co.; GMI
Products, Inc.; Kelco Division; Kerry
Food Ingredients; David Michael & Co.,

Next Page
Inc.; National Stabilizers, Inc.; Popsicle
Industries Ltd.; Quest Int'L, Byproducts
Group; Ramsey Laboratories, Inc.;
Rhone Poulenc/Marschall Products;
Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.; Stabilized
Products, Inc.; A. E. Staley Mfg.
Company; Star Blends Division; J.M.
Swank Company, Inc.; The Van Tone
Company

Surface Active Agents: Germantown


Manufacturing Co.; Gist-brocades Food
Ingredients, Inc.; Star Blends Division

Surface Finishing Agents: Hydrite


Chemical Co.; J.M. Swank Company,
Inc.

SweetenersNon-Nutritive: DCA
Food Industries, Inc.; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; McNeil Specialty
Products Co.; National Stabilizers, Inc.;
The NutraSweet Company; J.M. Swank
Company, Inc.

SweetenersNutritive: American
Fruit Processors; American MaizeProducts Co.; DCA Food Industries, Inc.;
Grain Processing Corp.; The NutraSweet
Company; A. E. Staley Mfg. Company;
J.M. Swank Company, Inc.

Synergists: Germantown
Manufacturing Co.
Texturizers: American Maize-Products
Co.; Controlled Food Systems, Inc.;
FMC Corporation; Germantown
Manufacturing Co.; Grain Processing
Corp.; National Stabilizers, Inc.; Sanofi
Bio-Industries, Inc.

Vanilla & Vanillin: Beck Flavors;


Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Elan Vanilla
Farms; Food Producers International;
The Foote & Jenks Corporation;
Fruitcrown Products Corporation; Green
Spot Company; Guernsey Dell, Inc.;

Kraus & Company, Inc.; Limpert


Brothers, Inc.; McCormick Flavor
Group; David Michael & Co., Inc.;
Nielsen-Massey Vanillas, Inc.; Nog
Incorporated; O.S.F. Corporation; Rich
Products Corp.; Robertet Flavors, Inc.;
Star Kay White, Inc.; H.B. Taylor
Company; Universal Flavors Int'L Inc.;
Vanlab Corporation; Virginia Dare
Extract Co., Inc.; Edgar A. Weber &
Company
Inks, Printing: Deco Coatings Corp.;
Zorn Packaging, Inc.

Inspection Equipment: Anbroco,


Inc.; Automatic Inspection Systems Ltd.;
Cesco Magnetics/Q-Controls; Cintex of
America, Inc.; Escort Instruments Of
America, Inc.; The Foxboro Company, Heat
and Control, Inc.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;
Ingold Electrodes, Inc.; Liquid Sampling
Systems; MicroLog; Perten Instruments N.
America, Inc.; Safeline Metal Detection
Inc.; Total Quality Corp.; Weber Scientific;
Wilco Precision Testers

Installation & Start-Up Services:


A & B Process Systems Corp.; Anbroco,
Inc.; Carrier Vibrating Equipment Inc.;
Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Damrow Company, Inc.; Data Specialists,
Inc.; DSI Process Systems; Duensing
Engineering Group, Inc.; Industrial
Accessories; Masterleo, Inc.; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Northland Process Piping;
Nu-Con Equipment; Oakes & Burger Of
Ohio, Inc.; PSI, Process Systems Inc.;
Relco Unisystems Corporation; C. E.
Rogers Company; Seiberling Associates,
Inc.; Stoelting, Inc.; Sverdrup Corporation;
United Engineers & Constructors; Zajac
Equipment Supply

Instantizers/Agglomerators: Lucas
Meyer, Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Star Blends
Division; Stork Food Machinery, Inc.

Previous Page

Instruments
Analytical: ABB Kent-Taylor;
Advanced Instruments, Inc.; Balston,
Inc.; Bentley Instruments, Inc.;
bioMerieux Vitek, Inc.; Bran & Luebbe,
Inc.; CEM Corporation; Charm Sciences
Inc.; Data Specifics Corporation; Escort
Instruments Of America, Inc.; Fischer &
Porter Company; Flockton Analytical
Management Inc.; Foss Food Technology
Corp.; The Foxboro Company; Ingold
Electrodes, Inc.; Ionics, Inc.; K-Patents;
Katrina, Inc.; Stan Keck Company;
Liquid Solids Control, Inc.; Maselli
Measurements, Inc.; MicroLog; Moisture
Systems Corp.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;
North Atlantic Equipment Sales; Perten
Instruments N. America, Inc.; Promega
Corp.; Rosemount Incorporated;
Sartorius Instruments; Span Instruments,
Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Trebor Industries,
Inc.; Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.;
VICAM SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY;
Weber Scientific

Inventory Control: Allen Bradley


Co., Inc.; AWA Advanced Wrhse.
Automation Inc.; Data Specialists, Inc.;
FreesTech International Ltd.; Harnischfeger
Engineers, Inc.; Kistler-Morse Corp.;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; Liquid Scale, Inc.;
Milltronics, Inc.; Norand Corporation;
Numeric Computer Systems; Ross
Computer Systems Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.

Labeling Equipment & Supplies:


ACCU-TECH Machinery Company, Inc.;
Cardinal Packaging; Domino Amjet, Inc.;
Hi-Speed Checkweigher Co., Inc.; KDV
Label Company, Inc.; Lord Label &
Manufacturing Co.; Parish Manufacturing,
Inc.; Polar Tech Industries; Carl Strutz &
Co., Inc.; Sun Industries, Inc.; Superior
Label Systems, Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.; Tindall Packaging, Inc.; Van Dam Intersleeve

Labels & Label Supplies: H. S.


Crocker Co.; Custom-Made Packaging, Inc.;

Ferro Corporation; Lord Label &


Manufacturing Co.; Owens-Illinois, Inc.;
Polar Tech Industries; Sun Industries, Inc.;
Superior Label Systems, Inc.; Sweetheart
Packaging, Inc.

Laboratory Analysis & Testing


S e r v i c e s : ADI Systems Inc.; Dairy and
Food Labs, Inc.; Data Specialists, Inc.; Data
Specifics Corporation; DQCI Services, Inc.;
Flockton Analytical Management Inc.;
Katrina, Inc.; Minnesota Valley Testing
Labs.; The National Food Laboratory, Inc.;
Radiometer America, Inc.; Rosemount
Incorporated

Laboratory Equipment &


S u p p l i e s : Advanced Instruments, Inc.;
Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.;
bioMerieux Vitek, Inc.; Consolidated
Laboratories, Inc.; Dairy and Food Labs,
Inc.; Data Specifics Corporation; Fiske
Associates; Flockton Analytical
Management Inc.; Fluid Metering, Inc.;
Ingold Electrodes, Inc.; International Dairy
Equipment; Stan Keck Company; Kusel
Equipment Company; Liquid Scale, Inc.;
Mondomix Holland B. V.; NASCO
International, Inc.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;
North Atlantic Equipment Sales; Palmer
Instruments, Inc.; Perten Instruments N.
America, Inc.; Radiometer America, Inc.;
Sartorius Instruments; Seepex US, Inc.;
Swagelok Company; Trebor Industries, Inc.;
Troy Biologicals, Inc.; VICAM SCIENCE
TECHNOLOGY; Weber Scientific
L i c e n s e P r o g r a m s : Creative Flavors,
Inc.; DCA Food Industries, Inc.; Heinz
Nutrition Products; Hershey Chocolate
USA; Interbake Foods; Nestle Dairy
Systems; The OmegaSource Corporation

Lifts, Gates & Loaders: Cannon


Equipment; Straight-O-Matic; Thieman
Tailgates; Venco Manufacturing, Inc.

Lighting
Non-Protective: Trojan, Inc.; Daniel
Woodhead Company

Protective: Trojan, Inc.

Lubricating Systems & Supplies:


APEX Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.; DuBois
USA; Alex C. Fergusson Inc.; H. B. Fuller
Company; Harry Holland & Son Inc.;
Hydrite Chemical Co.; Klenzade, A Service
of Ecolab Inc.; Rio Linda Chemical

Maintenance & Repair Products:


APEX Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.;
Bowman Distribution; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
DESCORP/Dairy Equip. & Service; HiSpeed Checkweigher Co., Inc.; Knight/
P.M.D. Inc.; Daniel Woodhead Company;
Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.

Membrane Processing Equipment


Microfiltration: Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; Anbroco, Inc.; Filtration
Engineering Co., Inc.; Harry Holland &
Son Inc.; Horton International, Inc.;
Ionics, Inc.; Koch Membrane Systems,
Inc.; Membrane System Specialists;
MicroPure Filtration; Niro Hudson, Inc.;
Osmonics, Inc.; Pall Corporation;
Separation Technology, Inc.; Stork Food
Machinery, Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.; U.S.
Filter; Membrane Products Grp.
Reverse Osmosis: APN, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; Filtration
Engineering Co., Inc.; Horton
International, Inc.; Membrane System
Specialists; Niro Hudson, Inc.;
Separation Technology, Inc.; Stork Food
Machinery, Inc.; U.S. Filter; Membrane
Products Grp.
Ultra Osmosis: Filtration Engineering
Co., Inc.; Horton International, Inc.;
Membrane System Specialists; Niro
Hudson, Inc.
Ultrafiltration: APN, Inc.; APV
Crepaco, Inc.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; Filtration Engineering Co.,
Inc.; Horton International, Inc.; Koch

Membrane Systems, Inc.; Membrane


System Specialists; Niro Hudson, Inc.;
Pall Corporation; Scherping Systems;
Separation Technology, Inc.; Stork Food
Machinery, Inc.; U.S. Filter; Membrane
Products Grp.
M e t a l D e t e c t o r s : Allen Fruit Co., Inc.;
Cesco Magnetics/Q-Controls; Cintex of
America, Inc.; Safeline Metal Detection
Inc.; Sani-Tech Incorporated

Meters
Fluid: Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Flowdata,
Inc.; Fowler Products Co.; The Foxboro
Company; Gelber Industries; Honeywell,
Inc.; Invalco; K-Patents; Micro Motion,
Inc.; Rosemount Incorporated; S. J.
Controls, Inc.; Schlumberger Industries
Sanitary: Accurate Metering Systems,
Inc.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Flowdata,
Inc.; Fowler Products Co.; The Foxboro
Company; Heerema Company;
Honeywell, Inc.; Invalco; K-Patents;
Micro Motion, Inc.; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Rosemount Incorporated;
S. J. Controls, Inc.; Schlumberger
Industries; R. D. Smith Company, Inc.;
W. M. Sprinkman Corp.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply

Mixers
Batch: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
Amer. Ingredients/Breddo Likwifier;
APV Crepaco, Inc.; APV Gaulin, Inc.;
Art's Welding, Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.;
Catta 27 S.R.L.; Chemicolloid
Laboratories Inc.; Chemineer Kenics;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; DCI,
Inc.; Falco Stainless Steel Equipment;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; Fowler
Products Co.; Gelber Industries;
GOAVEC; Heerema Company; O. G.

Hoyer A/S; Kistler-Morse Corp.;


Kosempel Mfg. Company; Lowe
Industries, Inc.; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Mondornix Holland B. V.;
Paul Mueller Company; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Precision Stainless, Inc.;
Scherping Systems; Scott Turbon Mixer,
Inc.; Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; Stephan
Machinery Corp.; Terlet N.V.; Zajac
Equipment Supply
Continuous: Amer. Ingredients/Breddo
Likwifier; APV Gaulin, Inc.; Bran &
Luebbe, Inc.; Chemicolloid Laboratories
Inc.; Chemineer Kenics; Falco Stainless
Steel Equipment; Fowler Products Co.;
Gelber Industries; GOAVEC; Mondomix
Holland B. V.; Scherping Systems; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.
Liquid: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
APV Gaulin, Inc.; Chemicolloid
Laboratories Inc.; Chemineer Kenics;
The Clark Reliance Corporation;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; Fowler
Products Co.; Gelber Industries;
GOAVEC; Greerco Corp.; Heerema
Company; Lake Process Systems, Inc.;
Mondomix Holland B. V.; Penberthy;
Precision Stainless, Inc.; Scherping
Systems; Scott Turbon Mixer, Inc.;
Stephan Machinery Corp.; Terlet N.V.;
The Van Tone Company
Solid: Lowe Industries, Inc.; Niro
Hudson, Inc.
Static: Chemineer Kenics; Lake Process
Systems, Inc.; Maselli Measurements,
Inc.; Mondomix Holland B. V.

Molds
Cheese Hoops/Molds: Crellin, Inc.;
Damrow Company, Inc.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; Stoelting, Inc.

Ice Cream/Frozen Dessert:


Autoprod Inc.; Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S

Motors & Accessories: Allen


Bradley Co., Inc.; Baldor Electric
Company; Eaton Corp.; Reliance Electric
Company; SEW Eurodrive, Inc.

PH Measurement & Control: ABB


Kent-Taylor; The Foxboro Company;
MicroLog; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;
Rosemount Incorporated; Weber Scientific

Packaging Systems: Automation


Packaging, Inc.; Benz & Hilgers GmbH;
Burghof Engineering & Mfg. Co.; Cannon
Equipment; Cherry-Burrell Packaging
Eqpt.; Combibloc, Inc.; Custom-Made
Packaging, Inc.; Delkor Systems, Inc.;
DuPont Canada Inc.; Durable Packaging
Corp.; DYCO; ERCA; Fords-Holmatic,
Inc.; FR Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica);
GASTI Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH;
General Films, Inc.; Genpak Canada;
GMFanuc Robotics Corp.; Gram Equipment
of America, Inc.; Great Lakes Corp.; Hassia
U.S.A., Inc.; Heat and Control, Inc.;
Honeywell, Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; Ilapak,
Inc. - Verpaco AG; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.;
James River Corporation; Letica Corp.;
Liqui-Box Corporation; Lord Label &
Manufacturing Co.; Mead Packaging;
Minigrip/Zip-Pak Inc.; Modern Packaging,
Inc.; Moen Industries; Neos, Inc.; NIMCO
Corp.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Odenberg
Engineering, Inc.; Omega Design Corp.;
Osgood Industries Inc.; Polar Tech
Industries; Polypack Inc.; Portion
Packaging, Inc.; Pure-Pak, Inc.; Purity
Packaging, Ltd.; Ropak Corporation; T. D.
Sawvel Company; Somerville Packaging;
Spartanburg Steel Products, Inc.; Stork
Food Machinery, Inc.; Sweetheart
Packaging, Inc.; Tetra Pak Inc.; Tindall
Packaging, Inc.; TMCI Industries, Inc.;
United Engineers & Constructors; Virginia
Design Packaging Corp.; Wolf Packaging
Ltd.

Pallets: DYCO; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;


Ropak Corporation; W R H Industries, Ltd.

Panels
Building: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; FreesTech International Ltd.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Superior
Industries of Nebraska; Techniserv, Inc.;
Tecton Contracting Corp.; Tufco
International, Inc.; Zer-O-Loc, Inc.; ZeroTemp, Inc.
Structural: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; FreesTech International Ltd.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Master-Bilt
Products; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Tecton Contracting Corp.;
Zer-O-Loc, Inc.; Zero-Temp, Inc.

Pasteurizers
Batch: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
ACCU-TECH Machinery Company, Inc.;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; GOAVEC; Heritage
Equipment Co.; International Dairy
Equipment; Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.;
Paul Mueller Company; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Scherping Systems;
Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; Stephan
Machinery Corp.; Stork Food Machinery,
Inc.; The Van Tone Company; Zajac
Equipment Supply
Dairy: A & B Process Systems Corp.;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
GOAVEC; The NutraSweet Company;
Walker Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.
HTST/Continuous: A & B Process
Systems Corp.; Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; APV Crepaco, Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; ChesterJensen Company, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Falco

Stainless Steel Equipment; FR


Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica);
GOAVEC; Heritage Equipment Co.;
International Dairy Equipment; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Paul Mueller
Company; M. G. Newell Company, Inc.;
Northland Process Piping; Oakes &
Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; Scherping
Systems; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.; Stork
Food Machinery, Inc.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; The Van Tone
Company; WCR Incorporated
Non-Dairy: GOAVEC
UHT: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group;
Astec; Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt.
Div.; GOAVEC; Stephan Machinery
Corp.; White Knight Pkg. Corp.

Pest Control
Devices: Westcoast Engineering Co.

Pharmaceutical Equipment
Packaging: Fords-Holmatic, Inc.;
Girton Manufacturing Co.; Hassia
U.S.A., Inc.; Spartanburg Steel Products,
Inc.; TMCI Industries, Inc.
Processing: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Anbroco, Inc.; Carrier Vibrating
Equipment Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; Girton Manufacturing Co.;
Kistler-Morse Corp.; Paul Krohnert
Manuf. Ltd.; M. G. Newell Company,
Inc.; Nu-Con Equipment; Precision
Stainless, Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; U.S. Filter; Membrane
Products Grp.; VNE Corporation; W R H
Industries, Ltd.; Walker Stainless Equip.
Co. Inc.

Pipe & Tube Cutting/Weld


Prepping Machines: E. H. Wachs
Company

Platforms, Walkways & Stairs: A


& B Process Systems Corp.; Art's Welding,
Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.; Chemgrate Corp.;
Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Enterprise Steelfab, Inc.; Kusel Equipment
Company; Lapeyre Stair, Inc.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Northland Process
Piping; The Schlueter Company; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; Zajac Equipment
Supply
Polishing: Berger Polishing, Inc.; Global
Stainless Ltd.

Corporation; Fredericks Marking


Products Co.; Genpak Canada; James
River Corporation; Label Makers Inc.;
Letica Corp.; Louisiana Plastics, Inc.;
Mammoth Containers; Raymond Morin
USA, Inc.; Portion Packaging, Inc.;
Purity Packaging, Ltd.; Ropak
Corporation; Straight-O-Matic; Carl
Strutz & Co., Inc.; Sweetheart
Packaging, Inc.; Van Dam - Intersleeve;
Venture Packaging, Inc.; Viskase
Corporation
Equipment: Signet Marking Devices

Portion Control Equipment &


Supplies: Autoprod Inc.; Burghof
Engineering & Mfg. Co.; Doran Scales,
Inc.; Fleming Packaging Corp.; Food Tools,
Inc.; Fords-Holmatic, Inc.; Hassia U.S.A.,
Inc.; Ilapak, Inc. - Verpaco AG; Len E.
Ivarson, Inc.; Keyes Fibre Co.; Label
Makers Inc.; Marlen Research Corporation;
Milliken Packaging; Nestle Dairy Systems;
NIMCO Corp.; Osgood Industries Inc.;
Portion Packaging, Inc.; Purity Packaging,
Ltd.; Remy L.C.; TMCI Industries, Inc.

Power Transmission Equipment:


Daido Corporaton; Reliance Electric
Company; SEW Eurodrive, Inc.; Zum
Industries, Inc.
P r e f o r m e d B a g s : Creative Flavors,
Inc.; Curwood, Inc.; Custom-Made
Packaging, Inc.; General Films, Inc.;
Jefferson Smurfit Corporation; Liqui-Box
Corporation; Milprint Inc.; Minigrip/ZipPak Inc.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Parish
Manufacturing, Inc.; Viskase Corporation;
Zorn Packaging, Inc.

Pressure Cleaning Equipment:


Diversey Corp.; Alex C. Fergusson Inc.;
Heliose Research Corp.; Spray Master
Technologies

Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures: Cardinal
Packaging; Deco Coatings Corp.; Ferro

Inks: Deco Coatings Corp.

Private Label/Co-Pack: Diehi


Specialties International; Erie Foods
International, Inc.; Vrymeer Cocoa &
Chocolates

Processing Systems: A & B Process


Systems Corp.; Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Anbroco, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.;
Bran & Luebbe, Inc.; Carrier Vibrating
Equipment Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; Chester-Jensen Company,
Inc.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
DSI Process Systems; Duensing
Engineering Group, Inc.; Electrol
Specialties Co.; Enterprise Steelfab, Inc.;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); Frontier
Technology, Inc.; Global Stainless Ltd.;
Grenco Process Technology B.V.; Hartel
Corp.; Heat and Control, Inc.; Heerema
Company; Hixson Architects/Engineers;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Milltronics, Inc.;
Niro Hudson, Inc.; Nu-Con Equipment;
PSI, Process Systems Inc.; Relco
Unisystems Corporation; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Scherping Systems; R. D.
Smith Company, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman
Corp.; Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.;
Stork Food Machinery, Inc.; Tech-Con,
Inc.; Techniserv, Inc.; Tenor Company,
Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.; Tuchenhagen North

America, Inc.; U.S. Filter; Membrane


Products Grp.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; United Engineers & Constructors;
Vac-U-Max; The Van Tone Company;
Walker Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.

Product Recovery Equipment:


Alloy Products Corp.; Anbroco, Inc.;
Edmund Manufacturing, Inc.; Electrol
Specialties Co.; Frontier Technology, Inc.;
Koch Membrane Systems, Inc.; Osmonics,
Inc.; Sani-Matic Systems; L. C. Thomsen,
Inc.; U.S. Filter; Membrane Products Grp.;
Vac-U-Max

Promotional Devices &


P r e m i u m s : DCA Food Industries, Inc.;
Iowa Rotocast Plastics, Inc.; Your Favorite
Products, Inc.
Publications: Alimentos Procesados
Magazine; Beverage Industry; Beverage
World; The Cheese Reporter Pub Co.,
Inc.; Dairy Foods Magazine; Food &
Drug Packaging; Food Engineering
Magazine; Food In Canada Magazine;
Food Products & Equipment Mag.; Int'l.
Food Marketing & Technology; Maccan
Publishing Company Ltd.; National
Dipper Magazine; Prepared Foods
Magazine; Putman Food Group; Stagnito
Publishing Company

Pumps
Centrifugal: Ampco Pumps Company
L.P.; Anbroco, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.;
C & R, Inc.; Dairy Industry, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; FR
Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica); Fristam
Pumps, Inc.; G/H Products Corp.; Gelber
Industries; Heritage Equipment Co.;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Hovap
International (Holland); HydroCal, Inc.;
International Dairy Equipment; Len E.
Ivasat, Inc.; Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Midwest
Dairy Supply; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio,

Inc.; Osmonics, Inc.; Process Dynamics,


Inc.; Sanchelima International Inc.; SaniMatic Systems; The Schluess Company;
Sine Pump Div.; R. D. Smith Company,
Inc.; Special Products Inc.; W. M.
Sprinkman Corp.; Stainless Products,
Inc.; L. C. Thomsen Inc.; Top Line
Process Equipment Corp.; Tremcar, Inc.;
Tri-Clover, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; Valvinox, Inc.
Diaphragm: Bran & Luebbe, Inc.;
Dairy Industry, Inc.; Gelber Industries;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; HydroCal,
Inc.; KWW GmbH; Murzan, Inc.; Oakes
& Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; Process
Dynamics, Inc.; Wilden Pump &
Engineering Co.
Metering: Albin Division; APV
Gaulin, Inc.; Bran & Luebbe, Inc.;
Consolidated Flavor Corp.; Dairy
Industry, Inc.; Fluid Metering, Inc.;
Fowler Products Co.; G/H Products
Corp.; Gelber Industries; HydroCal, Inc.;
Marlen Research Corporation; Netzsch
Inc.; Process Dynamics, Inc.; Robbins &
Myers, Inc.; Seepex US, Inc.; R. D.
Smith Company, Inc.; Spray Master
Technologies; Swagelok Company;
Waukesha Fluid Handling

Positive Displacement: Albin


Division; Anbroco, Inc.; APV Crepaco,
Inc.; APV Gaulin, Inc.; APV Rannie
Inc.; Astec; Autoprod Inc.; Bran &
Luebbe, Inc.; C & R, Inc.; Dairy
Industry, Inc.; Fluid Metering, Inc.;
Fowler Products Co.; FR Manufacturing
Corp. (FranRica); Fristam Pumps, Inc.;
G/H Products Corp.; Gelber Industries;
Heritage Equipment Co.; Harry Holland
& Son Inc.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; HydroCal,
Inc.; Industrial Accessories; International
Dairy Equipment; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.;
Marlen Research Corporation; MGI
Pumps Incorporated; Midwest Dairy
Supply; Netzsch Inc.; Nu-Con
Equipment; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio,

Inc.; Osgood Industries Inc.; Portion


Packaging, Inc.; Process Dynamics, Inc.;
Robbins & Myers, Inc.; Seepex US, Inc.;
Sine Pump Div.; R. D. Smith Company,
Inc.; Special Products, Inc.; Spray Master
Technologies; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Tri-Clover, Inc.; Valvinox, Inc.;
Waukesha Fluid Handling; Wilden Pump
& Engineering Co.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.

Inc.; Escort Instruments of America, Inc.;


Fischer & Porter Company; The Foxboro
Company; Heerema Company; Honeywell,
Inc.; K-Patents; Masterleo, Inc.; Midwest
Dairy Supply; Millerbernd Design &
Fabrication; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio, Inc.;
Palmer Instruments, Inc.; The Partlow
Corp.; Process Dynamics, Inc.; Ross
Computer Systems Inc.; Samco Sportswear
Company; Special Products, Inc.

Sanitary: Albin Division; Anbroco,


Inc.; APV Gaulin, Inc.; Autoprod Inc.;
Bran & Luebbe, Inc.; C & R, Inc.; Dairy
Industry, Inc.; Fluid Metering, Inc.;
Fristam Pumps, Inc.; G/H Products
Corp.; Gelber Industries; Heerema
Company; Heritage Equipment Co.;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Hovap
International (Holland); HydroCal, Inc.;
KWW GmbH; Lake Process Systems,
Inc.; MGI Pumps Incorporated; Midwest
Dairy Supply; Murzan, Inc.; NelsonJameson, Inc.; Netzsch Inc.; M. G.
Newell Company, Inc.; Northland
Process Piping; Oakes & Burger Of
Ohio, Inc.; Osgood Industries Inc.;
Penberthy; Robbins & Myers, Inc.;
Robert-James Sales, Inc.; Seepex US,
Inc.; Sine Pump Div.; Special Products,
Inc.; Spray Master Technologies; W. M.
Sprinkman Corp.; Stainless Products,
Inc.; L. C. Thomsen, Inc.; Top Line
Process Equipment Corp.; Tri-Clover,
Inc.; United Dairy Machinery Corp.;
Valvinox, Inc.; The Van Tone Company;
Waukesha Fluid Handling; Wilden Pump
& Engineering Co.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply

Recycling Equipment

Vacuum: The Clark Reliance


Corporaton; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
HydroCal, Inc.; Penberthy; Sullair
Refrigeration, Inc.

Recording Devices: ABB KentTaylor; Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.;


Brandstedt Controls Corp.; Dairy Industry,

Container Recovery: Ideas in


Motion, Inc.; Letica Corp.
Product Recovery: Carrier Vibrating
Equipment Inc.

Refrigeration
Buildings: Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; FreesTech International Ltd.;
Heerema Company; Hertel, Johnson,
Eipper & Stopa; Lizardos Engineering
Associates, PC; Master-Bilt Products;
Mead & Hunt; NuTemp, Inc.;
Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; SimonsConkey; Superior Industries of Nebraska;
Webber/Smith Associates, Inc.; ZeroTemp, Inc.
Cold Rooms: Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; FreesTech International Ltd.;
Grand Rapids Cabinet Company;
Heerema Company; Hertel, Johnson,
Eipper & Stopa; The King Company;
Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC;
Master-Bilt Products; Mead & Hunt;
NuTemp, Inc.; Shambaugh and Son, Inc.;
Superior Industries of Nebraska; Webber/
Smith Associates, Inc.; Zero-Temp, Inc.
Mechanical: Anbroco, Inc.; APEX
Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.; Babson
Bros. Co.; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Continental Equipment
Corp.; Douglas & Lomason Co.;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; FreesTech
International Ltd.; FrigoTech; Girton

Manufacturing Co.; Gram Equipment of


America, Inc.; Greerco Corp.; Hartel
Corp.; Heritage Equipment Co.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; International Dairy
Equipment; The King Company;
Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC;
Master-Bilt Products; Mead & Hunt;
Murphy Manufacturing Co.; Northfield
Freezing Systems, Inc.; NuTemp, Inc.;
Rite Coil, Inc.; Shambaugh and Son,
Inc.; Simons-Conkey; Sullair
Refrigeration, Inc.; Superior Industries of
Nebraska; Thermo King Corp.; Webber/
Smith Associates, Inc.; Zero-Temp, Inc.
Storage: Airco Gases; Edward A.
Bonelli & Associates; FreesTech
International Ltd.; Harnischfeger
Engineers, Inc.; Hertel, Johnson, Eipper
& Stopa; The King Company; Lizardos
Engineering Associates, PC; Master-Bilt
Products; Mead & Hunt; Paul Mueller
Company; Odenberg Engineering Inc.;
Polar Tech Industries; Silver King
Division; Simons-Conkey; Superior
Industries of Nebraska; Webber/Smith
Associates, Inc.; Zero-Temp, Inc.
R e s i n s : G. E. Plastics; Paxon Polymer
Company; Phillips 66 Company; Quantum
Chemical Corp.; Solvay Polymers, Inc.;
Union Carbide Corporation
R e t o r t s : Remco Products Corporation
R u p t u r e D i s c s : Astec; BS&B Safety
Systems, Inc.; Continental Disc
Corporation; Kosempel Mfg. Company

Sampling Devices & Supplies:


Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.; G/H
Products Corp.; Iowa Rotocast Plastics,
Inc.; Liquid Sampling Systems; NASCO
International, Inc.; North Atlantic
Equipment Sales; Strahman Valves, Inc.;
Tremcar, Inc.; Tuchenhagen North America,
Inc.; VNE Corporation; Weber Scientific

Sanitary Finishing: Irving Polishing


& Mfg. Co., Inc.

Screens, Cylindrical/Screen Plate


P r o d u c t s : Nu-Con Equipment; The
Schlueter Company; USP Industries Inc.

Sealers & Carton Closures:


ACCU-TECH Machinery Company, Inc.;
Cannon Equipment; Cap Snap Co.; Delkor
Systems, Inc.; DESCORP/Dairy Equip. &
Service; Durable Packaging Corp.;
Economy Folding Box Corp.; Enercon
Industries Corporation; Fords-Holmatic,
Inc.; G. W. Haab Company, Inc.; Hayes
Machine Company, Inc.; Liqui-Box
Corporation; Moen Industries; NIMCO
Corp.; Osgood Industries Inc.; Polar Tech
Industries; Pure-Pak, Inc.; Purity Packaging,
Ltd.; Remy L.C.; T. D. Sawvel Company;
Shamrock Industries, Inc.; Straight-OMatic; Wisner Manufacturing Corp.; Wolf
Packaging Ltd.

Sensory Evaluation: The National


Food Laboratory, Inc.

Separators & Clarifiers


Liquid/Liquid: Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; Centrico, Inc.; The Clark
Reliance Corporation; Stan Keck
Company; Membrane System Specialists;
On-Line Instrumentation, Inc.; Osmonics,
Inc.; Separators, Inc.; Special Products,
Inc.
Liquid/Solid: Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; Carrier Vibrating
Equipment Inc.; Centrico, Inc.; The
Clark Reliance Corporation; Frontier
Technology, Inc.; Grenco Process
Technology B.V.; Hartel Corp.;
International Dairy Equipment;
Kosempel Mfg. Company; Membrane
System Specialists; Osmonics, Inc.;
Process Dynamics, Inc.; Separators, Inc.
Magnetic: Cesco Magnetics/
Q-Controls; Vac-U-Max

Sight Gauges: Cipriani, Inc. - Tassalini


S.P.A.; G/H Products Corp.; Global
Stainless Ltd.; Jensen Fittings Corporation;
Penberthy; Sani-Tech Incorporated;
Strahman Valves, Inc.; L. C. Thomsen, Inc.;
Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.; Zajac
Equipment Supply

Spoons & Sticks


Plastic: Forster Manufacturing Co.,
Inc.; NASCO International, Inc.
Wooden: Creative Flavors, Inc.;
Diamond Brands Inc.; Forster
Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Hardwood
Products Co.; International Dairy
Equipment; John Lewis Industries, Ltd.;
Solon Manufacturing Company, Inc.

Standardization Systems: Accurate


Metering Systems, Inc.; Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group; Bentley Instruments, Inc.;
Centrico, Inc.; Electrol Specialties Co.; The
Foxboro Company; Hartel Corp.; Stan Keck
Company; Meritech, Inc.; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; North Atlantic Equipment
Sales; The Omega Company; On-Line
Instrumentation, Inc.; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; Separators, Inc.; W. M.
Sprinkman Corp.; TCI-BRETCO, Inc.;
Tech-Con, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; Wisner Manufacturing Corp.
Sterilizers: Aquionics, Inc.; Astec; Iwai
Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.; Rossi & Catelli
SPA; Stork Food Machinery, Inc.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Weber Scientific

Storage
Frozen: Advanced Insulation Concepts,
Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries, Inc.;
AWA Advanced Wrhse. Automation
Inc.; Edward A. Bonelli & Associates;
Catta 27 S.R.L.; Excellence Commercial
Products; FreesTech International Ltd.;
Gram Equipment of America, Inc.;
Grand Rapids Cabinet Company;
Greerco Corp.; Harnischfeger Engineers,

Inc.; Hertel, Johnson, Eipper & Stopa;


Hixson Architects/Engineers; Master-Bilt
Products; MicroLog; Superior Industries
of Nebraska; Supreme Corporation;
Tecton Contracting Corp.; Webber/Smith
Associates, Inc.; Zer-O-Loc, Inc.
Refrigerated: Advanced Insulation
Concepts, Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries,
Inc.; AWA Advanced Wrhse.
Automation Inc.; Edward A. Bonelli &
Associates; Catta 27 S.R.L.; Excellence
Commercial Products; FreesTech
International Ltd.; Gram Equipment of
America, Inc.; Grand Rapids Cabinet
Company; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.;
Hertel, Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; Hixson
Architects/Engineers; Master-Bilt
Products; MicroLog; Superior Industries
of Nebraska; Supreme Corporation;
Tecton Contracting Corp.; Webber/Smith
Associates, Inc.; Zer-O-Loc, Inc.
Strainers: Alloy Products Corp.;
Frontier Technology, Inc.; G/H Products
Corp.; Gelber Industries; Jensen Fittings
Corporation; Midwest Dairy Supply;
Robert-James Sales, Inc.; Sani-Matic
Systems; L. C. Thomsen, Inc.; Tri-Clover,
Inc.; Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.

Tamper Evident: Autoprod Inc.;


Blackhawk Molding Co., Inc.; Burghof
Engineering & Mfg. Co.; Cap Snap Co.;
DuPont Canada Inc.; Enercon Industries
Corporation; Fold-Pak Corp.; Genpak
Canada; Great Lakes Corp.; Mammoth
Containers; Modern Packaging, Inc.;
Northern Eng. & Plastics Corp.; OwensIllinois, Inc.; P.I. Dynaseal; Purity
Packaging, Ltd.; Sealright Co., Inc.;
Somerville Packaging; Van Dam Intersleeve
Closures: Cardinal Packaging; H. S.
Crocker Co.; Minigrip/Zip-Pak Inc.;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.; Zimmer
Paper Products Inc.

Equipment: Automation Packaging,


Inc.; Fords-Holmatic, Inc.; Osgood
Industries Inc.; Sweetheart Packaging,
Inc.
Foil Lidding: Autoprod Inc.; Burghof
Engineering & Mfg. Co.; H. S. Crocker
Co.; Enercon Industries Corporation;
Fleming Packaging Corp.; Ilapak, Inc. Verpaco AG; Jefferson Smurfit
Corporation; Label Makers Inc.; Letica
Corp.; Modem Packaging, Inc.; Purity
Packaging, Ltd.
Shrink Sleeve: Great Lakes Corp.;
Modern Packaging, Inc.; Owens-Illinois,
Inc.

Tank Heating Systems: GOAVEC;


INDEECO/HYNES; Kusel Equipment
Company

Tanks
Balance/Surge: A & B Process
Systems Corp.; ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Art's Welding, Inc.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; C & R, Inc.; CherryBurrell Process Eqpmt. Div.; ChesterJensen Company, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; DCI, Inc.; Electrol
Specialties Co.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.;
GOAVEC; Hartel Corp.; HydroCal, Inc.;
Kusel Equipment Company; Lake
Process Systems, Inc.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Northland Process
Piping; Relco Unisystems Corporation;
C. E. Rogers Company; Scherping
Systems; The Schlueter Company; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; Stainless Steel
Fabricating Inc.; TCI-BRETCO, Inc.;
Tremcar, Inc.; Viatec - Process Storage
Systems; Walker Stainless Equip. Co.
Inc.

Batch: A & B Process Systems Corp.;


ACCU-TECH Machinery Company, Inc.;
Allegheny Bradford Corporation; Alloy
Products Corp.; Art's Welding, Inc.;
Beaver Metals Inc.; C & R, Inc.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; DCI, Inc.; Falco
Stainless Steel Equipment; Feldmeier
Equipment, Inc.; GOAVEC; Heritage
Equipment Co.; Harry Holland & Son
Inc.; Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.; Lake
Process Systems, Inc.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Paul Mueller
Company; Northland Process Piping;
C. E. Rogers Company; Sani-Matic
Systems; Scherping Systems; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman
Corp.; Stainless Fabrication, Inc.;
Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Walker Stainless Equip.
Co. Inc.
Farm: Babson Bros. Co.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Paul Mueller
Company; The Partlow Corp.; SaniMatic Systems; Walker Stainless Equip.
Co. Inc.
Processing: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Allegheny Bradford
Corporation; Alloy Products Corp.;
Anbroco, Inc.; APV Crepaco, Inc.; Art's
Welding, Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.;
Cherry-Burrell Process Eqpmt. Div.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; DCI, Inc.; Enterprise
Steelfab, Inc.; Falco Stainless Steel
Equipment; Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.;
Gelber Industries, Global Stainless Ltd.;
GOAVEC; Hartel Corp.; Heritage
Equipment Co.; Harry Holland & Son
Inc.; Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.; Lake
Process Systems, Inc.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Paul Mueller
Company; M. G. Newell Company, Inc.;
Northland Process Piping; Oakes &

Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; Precision Stainless,


Inc.; PSI, Process Systems Inc.; Relco
Unisystems Corporation; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Scherping Systems; Scott
Turbon Mixer, Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Terlet N.V.; United
Dairy Machinery Corp.; Viatec - Process
Storage Systems; Walker Stainless
Equipment Co.; Walker Stainless
Equipment Co. Inc.; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Zajac Equipment
Supply
SiIo: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; DCI, Inc.; Falco Stainless
Steel Equipment; Feldmeier Equipment,
Inc.; GOAVEC; Hartel Corp.; Heritage
Equipment Co.; Harry Holland & Son
Inc.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.; Industrial
Accessories; Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.;
Paul Mueller Company; Nu-Con
Equipment; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio,
Inc.; Precision Stainless, Inc.; R. D.
Smith Company, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman
Corp.; Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Tremcar, Inc.; Walker
Stainless Equipment Co.; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.
Storage: A & B Process Systems
Corp.; ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Allegheny Bradford
Corporation; Anbroco, Inc.; Art's
Welding, Inc.; Beaver Metals Inc.; Bonar
Plastics, Inc.; Cherry-Burrell Process
Eqpmt. Div.; DCI, Inc.; Falco Stainless
Steel Equipment; Feldmeier Equipment,
Inc.; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); GOAVEC; Hartel Corp.;
Heritage Equipment Co.; Harry Holland
& Son Inc.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.;
Industrial Accessories; Kosempel Mfg.
Company; Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.;
Millerbernd Design & Fabrication; Paul
Mueller Company; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; The Partlow Corp.;

Precision Stainless, Inc.; PSI, Process


Systems Inc.; Relco Unisystems
Corporation; Sani-Matic Systems; SaniTech Incorporated; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Spartanburg Steel
Products, Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;
Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; TCIBRETCO, Inc.; Tremcar, Inc.; United
Dairy Machinery Corp.; Viatec - Process
Storage Systems; Walker Stainless
Equipment Co.; Walker Stainless Equip.
Co. Inc.

Tapes, Fabrics
Industrial: Lanmar Associates, Inc.

Temperature Alarms/Monitors:
Brandstedt Controls Corp.

Testing Laboratories: Consolidated


Flavor Corp.; Dairy and Food Labs, Inc.;
Data Specifics Corporation; MicroLog; The
National Food Laboratory, Inc.

Thermo Form Fill & Seal


Flexible: Robert Bosch Corp.;
Curwood, Inc.; DuPont Canada Inc.;
Great Lakes Corp.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.;
Hueck Foils, Inc.; Ilapak, Inc. - Verpaco
AG; Jefferson Smurfit Corporation; Sasib
Corporation of America; Sealright Co.,
Inc.

Heat Sterilizable Plastic Pkg:


Autoprod Inc.; Hassia U.S.A., Inc.;
Ilapak, Inc. - Verpaco AG; Jefferson
Smurfit Corporation; TMCI Industries,
Inc.
Plastic: Autoprod Inc.; Hassia U.S.A.,
Inc.; Jefferson Smurfit Corporation;
Letica Corp.; Portion Packaging, Inc.;
Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.; TMCI
Industries, Inc.
Rigid: Autoprod Inc.; Ilapak, Inc. Verpaco AG; Letica Corp.; Sasib
Corporation of America; Sealright Co.,

Inc.; TMCI Industries, Inc.; Viskase


Corporation

Johnson Truck Bodies; Kidron, Inc.;


Murphy Manufacturing Co.; Supreme
Corporation; Tremcar, Inc.; Walker
Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.

Thermometers
Non-Recording: Anderson Instrument
Co., Inc.; Brandstedt Controls Corp.;
COX Recorders; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
K-Patents; Masterleo, Inc.; MicroLog;
Midwest Dairy Supply; Nelson-Jameson,
Inc.; Palmer Instruments, Inc.; The
Partlow Corp.; Samco Sportswear
Company; Special Products, Inc.; Weber
Scientific
Recording: ABB Kent-Taylor;
Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.; APEX
Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.; Babson
Bros. Co.; Brandstedt Controls Corp.;
COX Recorders; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
Escort Instruments of America, Inc.; The
Foxboro Company; Heerema Company;
K-Patents; Masterleo, Inc.; MicroLog;
Midwest Dairy Supply; M. G. Newell
Company, Inc.; Palmer Instruments, Inc.;
The Partlow Corp.; Samco Sportswear
Company; R. D. Smith Company, Inc.;
Special Products, Inc.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; The Van Tone
Company; Zajac Equipment Supply

Leasing: Ryder Truck Rental, Inc.

Refrigeration: Airco Gases;


Brandstedt Controls Corp.; Dole
Refrigerating Company; Douglas &
Lomason Co.; Hackney Brothers, Inc.;
Johnson Truck Bodies; Kold-Hold Div.
of Tranter, Inc.; MicroLog; Murphy
Manufacturing Co.; Supreme
Corporation; Thermo King Corp.
_

rubing/Pipe
Flexible: APEX Packing & Rubber Co.
Inc.; Dayco Products, Inc.; Global
Stainless Ltd.; Harry Holland & Son
Inc.; Midwest Dairy Supply; SalemRepublic Rubber Company; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Swagelok Company; Texas
Rubber Supply, Inc.; Titan Industries;
Top Line Process Equipment Corp.;
Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.
Metal: Babson Bros. Co.; Industrial
Accessories; Robert-James Sales, Inc.;
Tubesales; Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.

Transportation
Services: FreesTech International Ltd.;
Len E. Ivarson, Inc.; Knight/P.M.D. Inc.;
Ryder Truck Rental, Inc.; Silver Springs
Citrus; United Indian River Transport
Co.
Software: FreesTech International Ltd.;
Knight/P.M.D. Inc.; MicroLog

Tray Forming Equipment:


Automation Packaging, Inc.; Delkor
Systems, Inc.; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.

Truck
Bodies & Trailers: Douglas &
Lomason Co.; Hackney Brothers, Inc.;

Non-Metallic: Dayco Products, Inc.;


Midwest Dairy Supply; Salem-Republic
Rubber Company; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Special Products, Inc.;
Swagelok Company; Titan Industries;
Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.
Stainless: Anbroco, Inc.; ARC
Machines, Inc.; Art's Welding, Inc.;
Babson Bros. Co.; C & R, Inc.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Dairy
Industry, Inc.; Defontaine, Inc.; G/H
Products Corp.; Global Stainless Ltd.;
Heerema Company; Heritage Equipment
Co.; Ideas in Motion, Inc.; Industrial
Accessories; Jensen Fittings Corporation;
Lake Process Systems, Inc.; Midwest

Dairy Supply; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.;


Northland Process Piping; Oakes &
Burger Of Ohio, Inc.; Rath
Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Robert-James
Sales, Inc.; Sani-Tech Incorporated; The
Schlueter Company; Scott Turbon Mixer,
Inc.; R. D. Smith Company, Inc.; Special
Products, Inc.; ST International, Inc.;
Stainless Products, Inc.; Swagelok
Company; TCI-BRETCO, Inc.; L. C.
Thomsen, Inc.; Top Line Process
Equipment Corp.; Tri-Clover, Inc.;
Tubesales; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; United Industries, Inc.; Valvinox,
Inc.; VNE Corporation; Wisner
Manufacturing Corp.; Wright Rubber Sc
Gasket Co.; Zajac Equipment Supply

Turnkey Operations: Allen Bradley


Co., Inc.; Anbroco, Inc.; Astec; Edward A.
Bonelli & Associates; Cherry-Burrell
Process Eqpmt. Div.; DYCO; Eden
Systems, Inc.; FR Manufacturing Corp.
(FranRica); FreesTech International Ltd.;
Frontier Technology, Inc.; Hartel Corp.;
Honeywell, Inc.; Hovap International
(Holland); Ideas in Motion, Inc.; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Len E. Ivarson,
Inc.; Jones Environmental, Inc.; Mead &
Hunt; Osgood Industries Inc.; Portion
Packaging, Inc.; PSI, Process Systems Inc.;
Relco Unisystems Corporation; Shambaugh
and Son, Inc.; Simons-Conkey; Stoelting,
Inc.; Stork Food Machinery, Inc.; TMCI
Industries, Inc.; Tuchenhagen North
America, Inc.; United Engineers &
Constructors; Webber/Smith Associates,
Inc.

Utilities: Alabama Power Company;


Mead & Hunt; Northland Process Piping;
Relco Unisystems Corporation; United
Engineers & Constructors

Valves
Automatic: Applied Dynamics Corp.;
C & R, Inc.; Cashco, Inc.; Cipriani, Inc.
- Tassalini S.P.A.; Custom Fabricating &
Repair, Inc.; Dairy Industry, Inc.;
Defontaine, Inc.; The Foxboro Company;
G/H Products Corp.; GEA Wiegand;
Harry Holland & Son Inc.; Honeywell,
Inc.; Hovap International (Holland);
Industrial Accessories; Jensen Fittings
Corporation; Lake Process Systems, Inc.;
Lumaco; Nu-Con Equipment; On-Line
Instrumentation, Inc.; Robert-James
Sales, Inc.; Sani-Tech Incorporated; The
Schlueter Company; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Stainless Products, Inc.;
Strahman Valves, Inc.; T & S Brass And
Bronze Works, Inc.; L. C. Thomsen,
Inc.; Top Line Process Equipment Corp.;
Tremcar, Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.;
Tubesales; Tuchenhagen North America,
Inc.; Valvinox, Inc.; VNE Corporation;
Waukesha Fluid Handling

Ultraviolet Disinfection
E q u i p m e n t : Anbroco, Inc.; Dover
Brook Associates; The Schlueter Company

Mechanical: Applied Dynamics Corp.;


Bowman Distribution; Cashco, Inc.;
Cesco Magnetics/Q-Controls; Cipriani,
Inc. - Tassalini S.P.A.; Dairy Industry,
Inc.; Defontaine, Inc.; The Foxboro
Company; G/H Products Corp.; Gram
Equipment of America, Inc.; Honeywell,
Inc.; Hovap International (Holland);
Industrial Accessories; Jensen Fittings
Corporation; Nu-Con Equipment;
Robert-James Sales, Inc.; Sani-Tech
Incorporated; Strahman Valves, Inc.;
Swagelok Company; L. C. Thomsen,
Inc.; Tremcar, Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.;
Tubesales; Valvinox, Inc.; Waukesha
Fluid Handling

U n s c r a m b l e r s : Burghof Engineering &


Mfg. Co.

Powder: Applied Dynamics Corp.;


Cashco, Inc.; Custom Fabricating &

U V Purifiers: Aquionics, Inc.; Fowler


Products Co.; Gelber Industries; Sani-Matic
Systems; The Schlueter Company

Repair, Inc.; Niro Hudson, Inc.; Nu-Con


Equipment; Vac-U-Max
Sanitary: ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.; Alloy Products Corp.;
Anbroco, Inc.; Applied Dynamics Corp.;
APV Crepaco, Inc.; C & R, Inc.; Cashco,
Inc.; Cesco Magnetics/Q-Controls;
Cipriani, Inc. - Tassalini S.P.A.; Custom
Fabricating & Repair, Inc.; Dairy
Industry, Inc.; Defontaine, Inc.;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; The Foxboro
Company; G/H Products Corp.; GEA
Wiegand; Global Stainless Ltd.; Harry
Holland & Son Inc.; Hovap International
(Holland); IMEX; Jensen Fittings
Corporation; Lake Process Systems, Inc.;
Lumaco; Midwest Dairy Supply; NelsonJameson, Inc.; M. G. Newell Company,
Inc.; Northland Process Piping; Nu-Con
Equipment; Robert-James Sales, Inc.;
Sani-Tech Incorporated; R. D. Smith
Company, Inc.; Special Products, Inc.;
ST International, Inc.; Stainless Products,
Inc.; L. C. Thomsen, Inc.; Top Line
Process Equipment Corp.; Tremcar, Inc.;
Tri-Clover, Inc.; Tuchenhagen North
America, Inc.; United Dairy Machinery
Corp.; Valvinox, Inc.; The Van Tone
Company; Viatec - Process Storage
Systems; VNE Corporation; Waukesha
Fluid Handling; Waukesha Specialty
Company; Wisner Manufacturing Corp.;
Zajac Equipment Supply

Vending Equipment, Retail:


Excellence Commercial Products; Hackney
Brothers, Inc.; Neos, Inc.

Veriegating Equipment: Tindall


Packaging, Inc.
Warehouse Systems: Allen Bradley
Co., Inc.; Aluma Shield Industries, Inc.;
AWA Advanced Wrhse. Automation Inc.;
Cannon Equipment; FreesTech International
Ltd.; Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.; Hertel,
Johnson, Eipper & Stopa; HSI Company,
Inc.; Norand Corporation; Ross Computer

Systems Inc.; W. M. Sprinkman Corp.;


Superior Industries of Nebraska; Tecton
Contracting Corp.; United Engineers &
Constructors; Webber/Smith Associates,
Inc.

Washers
Bottle: Bevco Conveying Systems;
D & L Manufacturing Co., Inc.; G. E.
Plastics; Girton Manufacturing Co.;
Spraying Systems Co.
C a n : Girton Manufacturing Co.; SaniMatic Systems; Spraying Systems Co.
Carton: Continental Equipment Corp.;
Girton Manufacturing Co.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Sani-Matic
Systems; Tuchenhagen North America,
Inc.
Case: Continental Equipment Corp.;
D & L Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Girton
Manufacturing Co.; Kusel Equipment
Company; Oakes & Burger Of Ohio,
Inc.; Sani-Matic Systems; The Schlueter
Company; Tuchenhagen North America,
Inc.
Equipment: Cannon Equipment;
Continental Equipment Corp.; Girton
Manufacturing Co.; Millerbernd Design
& Fabrication; Penberthy; Sani-Matic
Systems; The Schlueter Company; Spray
Master Technologies; Strahman Valves,
Inc.
W a s t e T r e a t m e n t : ABB Kent-Taylor;
ADI Systems Inc.; Chemineer Kenics;
Dober Chemical Corporation; DuBois USA;
Fischer & Porter Company; Frontier
Technology, Inc.; Hixson Architects/
Engineers; Horton International, Inc.;
HydroCal, Inc.; Jones Environmental, Inc.;
Lumenite Electronic; Mead & Hunt;
Membrane System Specialists; The Omega
Company; Osmonics, Inc.; Process
Dynamics, Inc.; Rio Linda Chemical; The

Schlueter Company; Seepex US, Inc.;


Shambaugh and Son, Inc.; Simons-Conkey;
Stork Food Machinery, Inc.; United
Engineers & Constructors
W a t e r T r e a t m e n t : Babson Bros. Co.;
Chemineer Kenics; Dober Chemical
Corporation; Alex C. Fergusson Inc.;
Fischer & Porter Company; Frontier
Technology, Inc.; Heerema Company;
Horton International, Inc.; Ionics, Inc.;
Jones Environmental, Inc.; Mead & Hunt;
Membrane System Specialists; The Omega
Company; Osmonics, Inc.; Pall
Corporation; Process Dynamics, Inc.; Rio
Linda Chemical; Sani-Tech Incorporated
Chemicals: Airco Gases; Diversey
Corp.; DuBois USA; H. B. Fuller
Company; Hydrite Chemical Co.
Equipment: Airco Gases; Diversey
Corp.; DuBois USA; Filtration
Engineering Co., Inc.; H. B. Fuller
Company; Hess Machine Co.; Hydrite
Chemical Co.; HydroCal, Inc.; Lapeyre
Stair, Inc.; Miura Boiler Co., Ltd.
W e i g h i n g : Cintex of America, Inc.;
Doran Scales, Inc.; The Foxboro Company;
Hartel Corp.; Heat and Control, Inc.; HiSpeed Checkweigher Co., Inc.; Len E.
Ivarson, Inc.; Kistler-Morse Corp.; Kusel
Equipment Company; Micro Motion, Inc.;
Milltronics, Inc.; Monitor Manufacturing;
Odenberg Engineering Inc.; Repete Corp.;
Sartorius Instruments; Scherping Systems;
Stainless Fabrication, Inc.; Tri-Clover, Inc.;
Vac-U-Max

Welding Equipment: ARC Machines,


Inc.; Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.;
Dimetrics, Inc./Talley Industries; Electrol
Specialties Co.; Global Stainless Ltd.; Int'l.
Machinery Exchange, Inc.; Millerbernd
Design & Fabrication; Northland Process
Piping; Rath Manufacturing Co., Inc.; Relco
Unisystems Corporation; Shambaugh and
Son, Inc.; ST International, Inc.; Stainless

Fabrication, Inc.; Stainless Products, Inc.;


Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.; Top Line
Process Equipment Corp.; United Dairy
Machinery Corp.; Wright Rubber & Gasket
Co.

Whey Processing Equipment &


Services: Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy
Group; Carrier Vibrating Equipment Inc.;
Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.; Damrow
Company, Inc.; Data Specialists, Inc.;
Duensing Engineering Group, Inc.;
Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.; Filtration
Engineering Co., Inc.; Frontier Technology,
Inc.; GEA Wiegand; GOAVEC; Horton
International, Inc.; Ionics, Inc.; Koch
Membrane Systems, Inc.; Membrane
System Specialists; Paul Mueller Company;
Niro Hudson, Inc.; Nu-Con Equipment; The
NutraSweet Company; Osmonics, Inc.;
Relco Unisystems Corporation; C. E.
Rogers Company; Scherping Systems;
Seepex US, Inc.; Stork Food Machinery,
Inc.; Terlet N.V.; Tri-Clover, Inc.

Wholesaler/Dstrbtr, Ice Cream &


Frzn Novelties: Dynamic
Merchandising, Inc.; The NutraSweet
Company

Wrapping Equipment: Alliance


Food Equipment Corp.; Automation
Packaging, Inc.; Delkor Systems, Inc.;
Gram Equipment of America, Inc.; Great
Lakes Corp.; O. G. Hoyer A/S; Ilapak, Inc.
- Verpaco AG; Len E. Ivarson, Inc.; Omega
Design Corp.; Polypack Inc.; TamaNet
(USA), Inc.; Wolf Packaging Ltd.

Wrapping Material
Films: AEP Industries, Inc.; Creative
Flavors, Inc.; Curwood, Inc.; CustomMade Packaging, Inc.; DuPont Canada
Inc.; Eskimo Pie Corp.; Fabricon
Products; General Films, Inc.; Jefferson
Smurfit Corporation; Minigrip/Zip-Pak
Inc.; Nelson-Jameson, Inc.; Sealright Co.,
Inc.; TamaNet (USA), Inc.; Viskase

Corporation; Zimmer Paper Products


Inc.; Zorn Packaging, Inc.
Foils: Creative Flavors, Inc.; CustomMade Packaging, Inc.; Fabricon
Products; Hueck Foils, Inc.; Jefferson
Smurfit Corporation; Milliken Packaging;
Sealright Co., Inc.; Zimmer Paper
Products Inc.; Zorn Packaging, Inc.
Laminates: Hueck Foils, Inc.;
Minigrip/Zip-Pak Inc.; Zorn Packaging,
Inc.
Netting: TamaNet (USA), Inc.
Paper: Creative Flavors, Inc.; CustomMade Packaging, Inc.; Fabricon
Products; Jefferson Smurfit Corporation;
Milliken Packaging; Sealright Co., Inc.;
Zimmer Paper Products Inc.; Zorn
Packaging, Inc.
X - R a y Inspection: Total Quality Corp.

CHAPTER

1
Yogurt
Ramesh C. Chandan and Khem M. Shahani
1.1 Introduction, 2
1.2 Definition of Yogurt, 7
1.2.1 Standard of Identity and Regulatory Aspects of Yogurt, 8
1.2.1.1 Yogurt, 8
1.2.1.2 Low-Fat Yogurt, 9
1.2.1.3 Nonfat Yogurt, 10
1.2.2 National Yogurt Association Criteria for Live and Active Culture
Yogurt, 10
1.2.3 Frozen Yogurt, 11
1.2.3.1 Frozen Yogurt, 12
1.2.3.2 Frozen Low-Fat Yogurt, 13
1.2.3.3 Frozen Nonfat Yogurt, 13
1.3 Yogurt Starters, 13
1.3.1 Taxonomy of Yogurt Bacteria, 15
1.3.1.1 Streptococcus salivarius Subsp. thermophilus, 15
1.3.1.2 Lactobacillus delbruechii Subsp. bulgaricus, 15
1.3.1.3 Collaborative Growth of ST and LB, 16
1.3.1.4 Inhibiting Factors, 18
1.3.2 Production of Yogurt Starters, 20
1.4 General Principles of Manufacture, 22
1.4.1 Ingredients and Equipment, 22
1.4.2 Mix Preparation, 25
1.4.3 Heat Treatment, 25
1.4.4 Homogenization, 27
1.4.5 Fermentation, 27
1.4.6 Packaging, 27
1.5 Yogurt Production, 28
1.5.1 Yogurt Ingredients and Flavor, Texture, and Rheological Aspects, 28
1.5.1.1 Dairy Ingredients, 28
1.5.1.2 Sweeteners, 28
1.5.1.3 Stabilizers, 28
1.5.1.4 Fruit Preparations for Flavoring Yogurt, 28
1.5.2 Yogurt Starter and Its Contribution to Texture and Flavor, 31
1.5.3 Manufacturing Procedures, 32

1.5.3.1 Plain Yogurt, 32


1.5.3.2 Fruit-Flavored Yogurt, 32
1.5.3.3 Postculturing Heat Treatment, 32
1.5.3.4 Frozen Yogurt, 35
1.6 Yogurt Quality Control, 36
1.6.1 Refrigerated Yogurt, 36
1.6.2 Frozen Yogurt, 39
1.7 Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Health Properties of Yogurt, 39
1.7.1 Prefermentation Changes, 39
1.7.1.1 Mix Preparation, 39
1.7.1.2 Heat Treatment, 40
1.7.1.3 Homogenization, 41
1.7.2 Changes During Fermentation, 41
1.7.2.1 Carbohydrates, 41
1.7.2.2 Proteins, 43
1.7.2.3 Lipids,43
1.7.2.4 Formation of Yogurt Flavor Compounds, 43
1.7.2.5 Synthesis of Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides, 43
1.7.2.6 Other Metabolites, 44
1.7.2.7 Cell Mass, 44
1.7.2.8 Minerals, 44
1.7.2.9 Vitamins, 44
1.7.3 Postfermentation Changes, 45
1.7.3.1 Refrigerated Yogurt, 45
1.7.3.2 Soft-Serve Mix and Soft-Serve Yogurt, 45
1.7.3.3 Hard-Pack Frozen Yogurt, 45
1.7.4 Prophylactic and Therapeutic Properties, 45
1.7.4.1 Antibiosis, 47
1.7.4.2 Antibiosis and Diarrhea, 49
1.7.4.3 Cholesterol Reduction, 49
1.7.4.4 Anticarcinogenic Property, 50
1.7.4.5 Lactose Intolerance, 51
1.7.4.6 Immune Modulation, 53
1.8 References, 54

Ll Introduction
Yogurt has emerged as a significant dairy product of modern times. Historically,
fermented milks have constituted a vital component of the human diet in many
regions of the world. The main objective of fermenting milk has been to preserve
the precious fluid milk which otherwise would deteriorate rapidly under the high

Table 1.1

CONSUMPTION OF YOGURT AND OTHER FERMENTED MILKS


IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES IN 1988
Annual Per Capita Consumption
(kg)

Country
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Canada
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany (West)
Hungary
Iceland
India
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
USA
USSR
Source:

Annual Total Consumption


(1000 Tons)

All Fermented Milks

Yogurt

All Fermented Milks

Yogurt

3.6
9.8
8.4
42.2
3.3
6.6
14.8
39.0
15.2
11.2
3.0
23.0
4.3
3.3
22.1
3.7
8.0
6.8
18.9
15.3
1.8
3.6
7.9
29.1
16.9
3.9

3.6
7.2
6.9
42.2
3.3
3.2
7.8
11.4

60.8
73.6
83.6
379.0
86.6
102.8
75.7
192.8
846.6
690.0
31.7
5.7
3410.0
11.6
98.0
210.2
520.0
2.5
278.5
64.3
70.0
105.9
297.7
245.5
114.0
220.0

60.8
54.2
68.3
379.0
86.6
49.3
39.8
56.3

10.8
1.5
8.6
4.3
3.3
9.4
2.4
3.8
18.9
4.3
1.6
7.9
6.8
16.9
3.9
2.1

278.5
18.0
47.2
297.7
188.4
114.0
220.0
517.9

2250

7.9

International Dairy Federation (1990).

638.0
15.9
2.1
3410.0
11.6
41.8
135.0
465.0

ambient temperatures of the Middle East, where it is likely to have originated. Conversion of milk to yogurt with a distinctive thicker consistency, smooth texture, and
unmistakable flavor has added safety, portability, and novelty to the nutrition of milk
for the consumer.
The objective of this chapter is to furnish basic information, including recent
trends, on various aspects of the yogurt industry. It is not intended to serve as a
treatise on yogurt science and technology. For detailed information, the reader is
referred to various books and chapters on the subject.1"3 Vedamuthu,4 in a series of
articles, has reviewed various technological aspects of yogurt manufacture.
Yogurt and other fermented milks have been particularly popular in countries
located in the Mediterranean region; in central, southern, and southwestern Asia;
and in central and eastern Europe. Table 1.1 shows the per capita consumption of

Table 1.2 ANNUAL TOTAL AND PER CAPITA


SALES OF REFRIGERATED YOGURT
IN THE UNITED STATES
Year

Total Sales
(Millions of pounds)

Per Capita Sales


(Pounds)

1972
1977
1982
1987
1988
1989

281
533
613
1094
1142
1030

1.3
2.4
2.6
4.5
4.6
4.2

Source:

Milk Industry Foundation (1990).6

yogurt and yogurtlike products. In many parts of the world yogurt is still made at
home by traditional kitchen recipes involving milk of various mammals, mainly
cows, water buffaloes, goats, sheep, mare, or camel. The milk is boiled, cooled, and
inoculated with yogurt left over from the previous day and incubated at ambient
temperature for 4 to 6 h until it acquires a thick consistency. It is then utilized for
consumption in the fresh state as a snack, as an accompaniment as a salad containing
fresh vegetables (carrots, cucumber, boiled potatoes, etc.), as a sweet or savory drink,
or as a dessert containing sugar and fresh sliced banana and other seasonal fruits.
In the United States the past two decades have witnessed a dramatic rise in the
annual yogurt consumption from nearly 1 Ib to 4.2 Ib per capita. The increase in
yogurt consumption may be attributed to its perceived natural and healthy image,
providing to the consumer convenience, taste, and wholesomeness attributes. Table
1.2 summarizes recent trends in consumption of refrigerated yogurt in the United
States.
The popularity of yogurt consumption is also related to sophisticated marketing
techniques in response to consumer demand. Figure 1.1 illustrates the point. Diversification of the yogurt category has created niches to fill the needs of various
consumer segments (Table 1.3). The total yogurt market (refrigerated and frozen) in
the United States has grown sixfold during the last 20 years. Total sales for refrigerated yogurt alone are over 1 billion dollars. Frozen yogurt sales are estimated to
reach 2 billion dollars in 1991. According to the USDA,7 sales of frozen yogurt in
1989 reached almost 83 million gallons. In 1990, the sales increased 45%. The frozen
yogurt market comprises soft-serve yogurt and hard-pack yogurt. All the major segments of the yogurt market are expected to grow moderately in the future.
The success of yogurt in the market place can be attributed to various factors,
including4:
Scientific evidence is mounting to corroborate consumer perception of yogurt's
good-for-you image. Indeed, clinical studies have established that yogurt is well
tolerated by lactose-intolerant individuals who generally have distressing symptoms of flatulence and diarrhea associated with the maldigestion of milk sugar

Fruit
RBed Yogurt
Health
Snack

Breakfast
Yogurt

B-A
Yogurt
Mild
Fa
l vor

Yogurt
Drn
ik

Sugar
Fruit
Nuts
Gran
is

Low
Calorie
Light
Yogurt

Sugar
Fruits
Flavors
Aerated
Yogurt
Mousse

Incorporate
.Acidophilus &
Bifidus
" Culture

Cream. Sitnar Fn it<;

PLAiNYOGURT

Rirtar
FmH Juice
& Fa
l vors

Desserts

,Condm
i ents
Ic* MIk Mxi
Flavors
Ultra High
Temp.
Pasteurization

Long
Life
Yogurt

Soft
Serve
Freezer

Soft
Frozen
Yogurt

ce
Cream
Freezer

Toppn
i gs/
Desserts

Hard
Frozen
Yogurt &
Novelties

Figure 1.1 Segmentation of yogurt market.

(lactose) present in most dairy products. This effectively provides an opportunity


for all consumers to benefit from the protein, calcium, B vitamins, and other
significant nutrients available in milk and milk products through the consumption
of yogurt. Also, recent data in the literature have suggested that yogurt containing
live and active cultures may provide immunostimulatory effects. Furthermore,
studies are indicating that yogurt bacteria may provide protection from pathogenic
and undesirable bacteria introduced via food intake into the gastrointestinal tract.
Use of sweeteners such as sugar and high-fructose corn syrups in yogurt manufacture adds a very desirable dimension to yogurt taste and tends to moderate
harsh acidic flavor. Furthermore, intense sweeteners such as aspartame impart the
desirable attribute without incurring caloric buildup in the product.
Addition of fruit preparations, fruit flavors, and fruit purees further enhances versatility of taste, color, and texture. Fruits generally are perceived as healthy by the
consumer. Their association with yogurt endorses the healthy image of yogurt
even more.
Incorporation of nuts and grains gives yogurt multiple textures and flavors, thus
providing a packaged convenient and wholesome breakfast food.
Development and availability of nonfat, low-fat, and reduced fat yogurts has encouraged consumers to benefit from the health-driven trends currently in vogue.

Table 1.3

TRENDS IN YOGURT STYLE AND PACKAGE SIZE IN THE UNITED STATES (PERCENT OF TOTAL PRODUCTION)
Style

Fat Content

Package Size

Year

8 oz

5.1-6.0 oz

Other

Full Fat

Low Fat

Nonfat

FruitonBottom

1984
1987

59.8

17.3

22.9

30
17

66
73

10

41
28

Source: Milk Industry Foundation (1990).5

Swiss

French

Plain

Breakfast

Other

28
50

16

10
13

0.2

2
5

Table 1.4 TYPICAL CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND NUTRIENT PROHLE OF


YOGURT
Yogurt
Fruit-Flavored

Plain
Constituent (per 10Og)

Skim
Milk

Full Fat

Low Fat

Nonfat

Full Fat

Low Fat

Nonfat

Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Lactose (g)
Galactose (g)
Total carbohydrate (g)
Lactic acid (g)
Citric acid (g)
Sodium (g)
Potassium (g)
Calcium (g)
Phosphorus (g)
Chloride (g)
Energy value (KJ)
(calories)
Bacterial mass (g)

3.50
0.10
5.00
0.00
5.00
0.00
0.20
0.05
0.15
0.12
0.10
0.10
150
38
0

3.88
3.50
3.9
1.50
5.42
1.00
0.30
0.07
0.20
0.18
0.14
0.12
307
73
0.15

3.55
1.60
4.10
1.50
5.60
1.00
0.30
0.07
0.20
0.18
0.14
0.12
221
53
0.15

4.35
0.1
4.20
1.50
5.70
1.00
0.30
0.07
0.20
0.17
0.12
0.12
165
39
0.15

3.90
2.62
3.08
1.20
15.50
1.00

3.60
1.33
3.11
1.20
13.51
1.00

3.80
0.11
2.98
1.20
12.83
1.00

0.05
0.16
0.13
0.10
0.10
432
103
0.15

0.05
0.16
0.15
0.10
0.10
343
82
0.15

0.06
0.18
0.17
0.10
0.10
289
69
0.15

Source:

Sellais (1989),8 Souci et al. (1990).9

Marketing and merchandising practices have accelerated consumer acceptance and


desirability of the product.
Proliferation of sister yogurt products such as hard-frozen and soft-serve yogurt
have provided alternatives perceived healthier than their counterpart ice cream
product.

1.2 Definition of Yogurt


Yogurt is a semisolid fermented product made from a standardized milk mix by the
activity of a symbiotic blend of Streptococcus salavarius subsp. thermophilus and
Lactobacillus delbruechii subsp. bulgaricus cultures. For the sake of brevity we shall
term the yogurt culture organisms as ST and LB.
Milk of various mammals is used for making yogurt in various parts of the world.
However, most of the industrialized production of yogurt uses cow's milk. It is
common to boost the solids-not-fat fraction of the milk to about 12% with added
nonfat dry milk or condensed skim milk. The increased protein content in the mix
results in a custardlike consistency following the fermentation period.
The typical composition and nutrient profile of yogurt are shown in Table 1.4. In
general, yogurt contains more protein, calcium, and other nutrients than milk, reflecting extra solids-not-fat content. Bacterial mass content and products of lactic

fermentation further distinguish yogurt from milk. Fat content is standardized commensurate with consumer demand of lowfat to fat-free foods.

1.2.1 Standard of Identity and Regulatory Aspects of Yogurt


Grandstrand10 discussed the current U.S. Food and Drug Administration standards
of identity for refrigerated yogurt promulgated in September 1982, effective July 1,
1985. A summary of the requirements excerpted from the Code of Federal Regulations, April 1991 n is presented below.

1.2.1.1 Yogurt
Description
Yogurt is the food produced by culturing one or more of the optional dairy ingredients specified below with a characterizing bacterial culture that contains the lactic
acid-producing bactera, Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus.
One or more of the other optional ingredients described below may also be added.
All ingredients used are safe and suitable. Yogurt, before the addition of bulky
flavors, contains not less than 3.25% milkfat and not less than 8.25% milk-solidsnot-fat, and has a titratable acidity of not less than 0.9%, expressed as lactic acid.
In a subsequent action, the FDA stayed the titratable acidity requirement. The food
may be homogenized and shall be pasteurized or ultrapasteurized prior to the addition
of the bacterial culture. Flavoring ingredients may be added after pasteurization or
ultrapasteurization. To extend the shelf life of the food, yogurt may be heat-treated
after culturing is completed, to destroy viable microorganisms.

Optional Ingredients
Vitamins. (1) If added, Vitamin A shall be present in such quantity that each 946 ml
(quart) of the food contains not less than 2000 International Units thereof, within
limits of current good manufacturing practice. (2) If added, Vitamin D shall be
present in such quantity that each 946 ml (quart) of the food contains 400 International Units thereof, within limits of current good manufacturing practice.
Dairy Ingredients. Cream, milk, partially skimmed milk, or skim milk, used alone
or in combination.
Other Optional Ingredients. (1) Concentrated skim milk, nonfat dry milk, buttermilk, whey, lactose, lactalbumins, lactoglobulins, or whey modified by partial or
complete removal of lactose and/or minerals, to increase the nonfat solids content
of the food, provided that the ratio of protein to total nonfat solids of the food and
the protein efficiency ratio of all protein present shall not be decreased as a result
of adding such ingredients. (2) Nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners. Sugar (sucrose),
beet or cane; invert sugar (in paste or syrup form); brown sugar, refiner's syrup;
molasses (other than blackstrap); high-fructose corn syrup; fructose; fructose syrup;
maltose; maltose syrup, dried maltose syrup; malt extract, dried malt extract; malt

syrup, dried malt syrup; honey; maple sugar, except table syrup. (3) Flavoring ingredients. (4) Color additives. (5) Stabilizers.

Methods of Analysis
The following referenced methods of analysis are from Official Methods of Analysis
of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 13th edit. (1980), which is incorporated by reference. Copies are available from the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists, 2200 Wilson Blvd., Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201-3301, or available
for inspection at the Office of the Federal Register, 1100 L St. NW, Washington,
D.C. 20408. (1) Milkfat contentas determined by the method prescribed in Section
16.059 "Roese-Gottlieb Method (Reference Method) (ll)-Official Final Action,"
under the heading "Fat." (2) Milk solids-not-fat contentcalculated by subtracting
the milkfat content from the total solids content as determined by the method prescribed in Section 16.032, "Method IOfficial Final Action," under the heading
"Total Solids." (3) Titratable acidityas determined by the method prescribed in
Section 16.023, "Acidity (2)Official Final Action," or by an equivalent potentiometric method.

Nomenclature
The name of the food is "yogurt." The name of the food shall be accompanied by
a declaration indicating the presence of any characterizing flavoring. (1) The following terms shall accompany the name of the food wherever it appears on the principal
display panel or panels of the label in letters not less than one-half of the height of
the letters used in such name: (a) The word "sweetened" if nutritive carbohydrate
sweetener is added without the addition of characterizing flavor, (b) The parenthetical phrase "(heat-treated after culturing)" shall follow the name of the food if the
dairy ingredients have been heat-treated after culturing. (c) The phrase "Vitamin
A" or "Vitamin A added," or "Vitamin D " or "vitamin D added," or "Vitamins
A and D added," as appropriate. The word "vitamin" may be abbreviated "vit."
(2) The term "homogenized" may appear on the label if the dairy ingredients used
are homogenized.

Label Declaration
Each of the ingredients used in the food shall be declared on the label as required
by the applicable sections of Part 101.

1.2.1.2 Low-Fat Yogurt


Low-fat yogurt is the food produced according to the description given in the previous section for yogurt, except the milkfat content before the addition of bulky
flavors shall be not less than 0.5% and not more than 2%. Percent milkfat shall be
declared on the principal display panel in lA% increments closest to the actual fat
content of the food. All other provisions for yogurt apply for the nomenclature LowFat Yogurt.

1.2.1.3 Nonfat Yogurt


Nonfat yogurt is the food produced as per the previous description for yogurt, except
the milkfat content before the addition of bulky flavors shall be <0.5%. All other
provisions for yogurt apply for the nomenclature Nonfat Yogurt.
Until further action by the FDA, the following four provisions were stayed in
1985.
1. Exclusion of the use of reconstituted dairy ingredients as the basic ingredients in
yogurt.
2. The requirement for a minimum titratable acidity of 0.9%, expressed as lactic
acid.
3. The exclusion of preservatives as functional ingredients in yogurt.
4. The presence of 3.25% milkfat prior to the addition of bulky flavors for full-fat
yogurt.
Besides compliance with the FDA standard of identity and labeling requirements
under the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, yogurt manufacture is regulated by two
other agencies in the United States. First, the state regulatory agencies of the State
Department of Agriculture (Dairy Division) or the Department of Health require
plant inspection and conformation to each state's standards pertaining to dairy plants
in general, and yogurt in particular. Second, National Conference on Interstate Milk
Shippers (NCIMS), in compliance with Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO), is involved in developing methods for sanitation ratings of milk supplies, sanitation requirements for Grade A condensed/dry milk, and condensed/dry whey, in fabrication
of single-service containers and closures for milk and milk products, and in the
evaluation of milk laboratories. The main function of NCIMS is to make unrestricted
and uniform milk supply available in interstate shipment.
The PMO outlines requirements for Grade A milk production at the farm, dairy
processing facility and equipment product standards, sanitation aspects, and product
handling (45F or below) to ensure compliance to Grade A regulations. Also, requirements are defined for coliforms (not to exceed 10/ml), passing the phosphatase
test, and antibiotics in milk supply (e.g., no zone greater than or equal to 16 mm
with the Bacillus stearothermophilus disc assay procedure).
Mareschi and Cueff12 outlined regulatory requirements in 21 countries for defining yogurt. Three essential criteria for yogurt label include (1) the type of milk and
quantity of its constituents; (2) type, amount, and live-active nature of yogurt culture
in the product; and (3) the technological process involving extent of fermentation
involved.

1.2.2 National Yogurt Association Criteria for live


and Active Culture Yogurt
The integrity of yogurt must be maintained in the product to fulfill consumer expectations. Accordingly, the National Yogurt Association has defined yogurt as
follows:
Live and active culture yogurt (refrigerated cup and frozen yogurt) is the food
produced by culturing permitted dairy ingredients with a characterizing bacterial

culture in accordance with the FDA standards of identity for yogurt (21 C.F.R. S
131.200), lowfat yogurt (21 C.F.R. S 131.203), and nonfat yogurt (21 C.F.R. S
131.206). In addition to the use of the bacterial cultures required by the referenced
federal standards of identity and by these National Yogurt Association criteria, live
and active culture yogurt may contain other safe and suitable food grade bacterial
cultures. Declaration of the presence of cultures on the label of live and active culture
yogurt is optional.
Heat treatment of live and active yogurt is inconsistent with the maintenance of
live active cultures in the product; accordingly, heat treatment that is intended to kill
the live and active organisms shall not be undertaken after fermentation. Likewise,
manufacturers of live and active culture yogurt should undertake their best efforts
to ensure that distribution practices, code dates, and handling instructions are conducive to the maintenance of living and active cultures.
In order to meet these criteria, live and active culture yogurt must satisfy each of
these requirements:
1. The product must be fermented with both L. delbruechii subsp. bulgaricus and
S. thermophilus.
2. The cultures must be active at the end of the stated shelf life as determined by
the activity test described in item 3. Compliance with this requirement shall be
determined by conducting an activity test on a representative sample of yogurt
that has been stored at temperatures between 32 and 45F for refrigerated cup
yogurt and at temperatures of 0 0 F, or colder for frozen yogurt for the entire stated
shelf life of the product.
3. The activity test is carried out by pasteurizing 12% solids nonfat dry milk
(NFDMS) at 92C (198F) for 7 min, cooling to 1100F, adding 3% inoculum of
the material under test, and fermenting at 110 0 F for 4 h. The total organisms are
to be enumerated in the test material both before and after fermentation by IDF
methodology. 14 The activity test is met if there is an increase of 1 log or more
during fermentation.
4. a. In the case of refrigerated cup yogurt, the total population of organisms in live
and active culture yogurt must be at least 10 8 per gram at the time of manufacture,
b. In the case of frozen yogurt, the total population of organisms in live and
active culture yogurt must be at least 10 7 at the time of manufacture. (It is anticipated that if proper distribution practices and handling instructions are followed,
the total organisms in both refrigerated cup and frozen live and active culture
yogurt at the time of consumption will be at least 10 7 .
5. The product shall have a total titratable acidity expressed as lactic acid at least
0.3% at all times. At least 0.15% of total acidity must be obtained by fermentation. This is confirmed by demonstrating the presence of both D-( ) and L-( + )
forms of lactic acid.

1.2.3 Frozen Yogurt


The Food and Drug Administration standards for frozen yogurt are under development. In the advanced notice of proposed rule-making FDA 15 published proposed
standards which are summarized below:

1.2.3.1 Frozen Yogurt


Description
(1) Frozen yogurt is the food produced by freezing, while stirring, a mix containing
safe and suitable ingredients including, but not limited to, dairy ingredients. The mix
may be homogenized, and all of the dairy ingredients shall be pasteurized or ultrapasteurized. All or a portion of the dairy ingredients shall be cultured with a characterizing live bacterial culture that shall contain the lactic acid-producing bacteria
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus and may contain other
lactic acid-producing bacteria. After culturing, the unflavored frozen yogurt mix shall
have a titratable acidity of not less than 0.3%, calculated as lactic acid. Where the
titratable acidity of the frozen yogurt mix is <0.3%, the manufacturer may establish
compliance with this section by disclosing to the Federal Food and Drug Administration (P7DA) quality control records that demonstrate that as a result of bacterial
culture fermentation, there has been at least a 0.15% increase in the titratable acidity,
calculated as lactic acid, of the product above the apparent titratable acidity of the
uncultured dairy ingredients in the frozen yogurt mix. The direct addition of food
grade acids or other acidogens for the purpose of raising the titratable acidity of the
frozen yogurt mix to comply with the prescribed minimum is not permitted, and no
chemical preservation treatment or other preservation process, other than refrigeration, may be utilized that results in reduction of the live culture bacteria. Sweeteners,
flavorings, color additives, and other characterizing food ingredients, unless otherwise provided in the regulations of the FDA, may be added to the mix before or
after pasteurization or ultrapasteurization, provided that any ingredient addition after
pasteurization or ultrapasteurization is done in accordance with current good manufacturing practice. Any dairy ingredients added after pasteurization or ultrapasteurization shall have been pasteurized. (2) Frozen yogurt may be sweetened with
any sweetener that has been affirmed as generally regarded as safe (GRAS) or approved as a food additive for this use by FDA and may or may not be characterized
by the addition of flavoring ingredients. (3) Frozen yogurt, before the addition of
bulky characterizing ingredients or sweeteners, shall contain not less than 3.25%
milkfat and 8.25% milk-solids-not-fat. Frozen yogurt shall contain not less than
1.3 Ib of total solids/gal and shall weigh not less than 4.0 lb/gal.

Nomenclature
The name of the food is " frozen yogurt.'' The name of the food shall be accompanied
by a declaration indicating the presence of any characterizing flavoring.

Label Declaration
(1) Each of the ingredients used in the food shall be declared on the label as required
by the applicable sections of part 101 of the CFR chapter. (2) If the food purports
to be or is represented for special dietary use, it shall be labeled in accordance with
the requirements of part 105 of the CFR chapter.

1.2.3.2 Frozen Low-Fat Yogurt


Description
Frozen low-fat yogurt is the food that is prepared from the same ingredients and in
the same manner prescribed for frozen yogurt, and complies with all of the provisions
of Frozen Yogurt, except that the milkfat level is not less than 0.5% nor more than
2.0%.

Nomenclature
The name of the food is "frozen low-fat yogurt" or, alternatively, "low-fat frozen
yogurt."

1.2.3.3 Frozen Nonfat Yogurt


Description
Frozen nonfat yogurt is the food that is prepared from the same ingredients and in
the same manner prescribed for Frozen Yogurt, except that the milkfat level is
<0.5%.

Nomenclature
The name of the food is "frozen nonfat yogurt" or, alternatively, "nonfat frozen
yogurt."

1.3 Yogurt Starters


Milk is a normal habitat of a number of lactic acid bacteria which cause spontaneous
souring of milk held at bacterial growth temperatures for an appropriate length of
time. Depending on the type of lactic acid bacteria gaining entry from the environmental sources (air, utensils, milking equipment, milkers, cows, feed, etc.), the sour
milk attains uncontrollable flavor and texture characteristics. Modern industrial processes utilize defined lactic acid bacteria as a starter for yogurt production. Details of
the starters are discussed elsewhere.14
A starter consists of food-grade microorganism(s) that on culturing in milk produce predictable attributes characterizing yogurt. The composition of yogurt starter
is shown in Table 1.5. Also shown are some additional organisms found in yogurt
or yogurtlike products marketed in various parts of the world. Most of the yogurt in
the United States is fermented with ST and LB. In Europe and Japan, optional
bacteria, especially those of intestinal origin, are incorporated in the starter or the
product. ST and LB are fairly compatible as well as symbiotic for growth in milk
medium. However, the optional organisms do not necessarily exhibit compatibility
with LB and ST. Judicious selection of strains of LB, ST, and the optional organisms
is necessary to ensure survival and growth of all the component organisms of the

Table 1.5 REQUIRED AND OPTIONAL COMPOSITION OF YOGURT


BACTERIA
Required by FDA Standard Identity for Yogurt

Optional Additional Bacteria


Used or Suggested

Streptococcus salivarius ssp. thermophilus (ST)

Lactobacillus acidophilus

Lactobacillus delbruechii ssp. bulgaricus (LB)

Lactobacillus casei
Lactobacillus helveticus
Lactobacillus jugurti
Lactobacillus lactis
Bifidobacterium longum
Bifidobacterium bifidum
Bifidobacterium infantis

Source:

Ming et al. (1989),16 Vedamuthu (1991).4

starter. Nevertheless, product characteristics, especially flavor, are significantly altered from traditional yogurt flavor when yogurt culture is supplemented with optional bacteria.
Commercial production of yogurt relies heavily on fermentation ability and characteristics imparted by the starter. Sellars8 stated the criteria essential for commercial
success for a starter are:
Strain selection
Maintenance of desirable ST and LB ratios
Survival and viability during manufacture of starter, preservation, storage, and
distribution.
The starter performance factors are:

Rapid acid development


Typical yogurt flavor, body, and texture
Exopolysaccharide secreting strains to enhance viscosity of yogurt
Scaleup possibilities in various production conditions, including compatibility to
a variety and levels of ingredients used
Fermentation times and temperatures
Survival of culture viability during shelf life of yogurt
Possess probiotic properties and exhibit survival in the human gastrointestinal tract
for certain health attributes
Minimum acid production during distribution and storage at 40 to 500F until yogurt
is consumed.

The activity of a starter culture is determined by direct microscopic counts of a


methylene blue-stained culture slide. This exercise also indicates physiological state
of the culture cells. Cells of ST grown fresh in milk or broth display pairs or long

chains of spherical coccal shape. Under stressed condition of nutrition and age (old
cells, cells exposed to excessive acid, solid media colonies, inhibitor containing
milk), the cells appear oblong in straight chains, somewhat resembling rods. The
acid producing ability is measured by pH drop and titratable acidity rise in 12%
reconstituted nonfat dry milk medium (sterilized at 116C/18 min) incubated at 400C
for 8 h. A ratio of 3 parts of ST and 1 part of LB gives a pH of 4.20 and % TA of
1.058 under these conditions.
Microbiological specifications of commercial cultures are also outlined by SeIlars.8 In general, counts of mesophilic lactics, yeasts and molds, coliforms, anaerobic
sporeformers, and salt-tolerant micrococci should not exceed 10 colony-forming
units (cfu)/g. E. coli, S. faecium, and coagulase-positive staphylococci should be
<1 cfu/g. The culture must be free of salmonella, listeria, and other pathogenic
contaminants.

1.3.1 Taxonomy of Yogurt Bacteria


Data relative to various taxonomic factors characterizing yogurt bacteria are presented in Table 1.6. The effect of temperature of incubation on the growth of yogurt
bacteria is shown in Table 1.7. Acid production is normally used as a means of
growth of yogurt culture. However, growth of the organisms is not necessarily synonymous with their acid producing ability. Differences in acid liberated per unit cell
mass have been recorded, which are both environmental and genetic in origin.

1.3.1.1 Streptococcus salivarius Subsp. thermophilus


Originally described by Orla-Jensen,19 Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus
is the new name of Streptococcus thermophilus (ST). ST is characterized through
its typical attributes which distinguish it from lactococci (or lactic streptococci).
ST originates exclusively from the dairy environment, from which it can be easily
isolated.
Methylene blue-stained ST cells grown on solid media or aged cells could exhibit
a rodlike shape under microscope. However, display of abnormal shapes of cells
obtained from liquid media are indicators of stress conditions on the organism such
as bacteriophage attack or presence of inhibitors (sanitizers, antibiotics, cleaning
compounds, etc.) in the growth medium.
Recent work on DNA-DNA homology has questioned its classification as a
subspecies of Streptococcus salivarius?0

1.3.1.2 Lactobacillus delbruechii Ssp. bulgaricus


This organism was originally described by OrIa Jensen19 as Thermobacterium bulgaricum. Based on DNA homology studies, four subspecies of L. delbruechii are
classified as bulgaricus, leichmannii, lactis, and delbruechii in Bergey's Manual.17
Younger LB cells do not show metachromatic granules under microscopic examination. Nutritional stress leads to copious granules in the rods, which under the
microscope could be confused with cocci.

Table 1.6 TAXONOMIC DATA ON YOGURT BACTERIA


Streptococcus salivarius
ssp. thermophilus

Characteristic

Ovid-spherical
0.7-0.9 |xm diameter
Pairs/long chains.
Long chains in acidic medium
and at higher temperature of
growth

Shape

Lactobacillus delbruechii
ssp. bulgaricus
Slender rods, 0.8-1.0 jim wide,
4 - 6 pm long.
Single/chains.
Aged culture shows granules and
long chains.
+

Gram reaction
+

Catalase
Fermentation

Homolactic

Granules
Growth at:
Below 200C
Above 45C
Growth in:
2% NaCl
4% NaCl

Homolactic

+ (2.5)%
+

Urease
Arginine
Milk % TA
0

1.8

0.7-1.0
0

Survives 60 C (140 F)
for 30 min.
Acid from:
Glucose
Galactose
Lactose
Sucrose
Maltose
Lactic acid isomer

+
+
+
+

L-( + )

D-(-)

Mucopolysaccharide

MoI. % G + C of the
DNA

40

49-51

Source:

Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed. (1986),17 Reinbold (1989.18

Yogurt fermentation constitutes the most important step in its manufacture. To


optimize parameters for yogurt production, an understanding of factors involved in
the growth of yogurt bacteria is important to manage uniformity of product quality
and cost effectiveness of the manufacturing operation.

1.3.1.3 Collaborative Growth of ST and LB


Yogurt starter organisms display obligate symbiotic relationships during their growth
in milk medium. Although they can grow independently, they utilize each other's

Table 1.7

GROWTH TEMPERATURE PROHLE


OF YOGURT BACTERIA
0

Growth Temperature
Minimum
Maximum
Optimum
Source:

QF

ST

LB

20 (68)
50 (122)
39-46(102-115)

>15 (59)
50-52(122-125)
40-47(104-117)

Reinbold (1989).18

Lactobacillus bulgaricus

Streptococcus thermophilus

Amino
Acids
Peptides

Protein

NH3

Milk
Urea

C02
Formic
Acid

Heated
Milk
Figure 1.2 Symbiosis of yogurt bacteria. (From ref. 21.)
metabolites to effect remarkable efficiency in acid production. Figure 1.2 illustrates
this. In general, LB has significantly more cell-bound proteolytic enzyme activity,
producing stimulatory peptides and amino acids for ST. The relatively high aminopeptidase and cell-free and cell-bound dipeptidase activity of ST is complementary
to strong proteinase and a low peptidase activity of LB. Urease activity of ST produces CO 2 which stimulates LB growth. Concomitant with CO2 production, urease
liberates ammonia which acts as a weak buffer. Consequently, milk cultured by ST
alone exhibits considerably low TA or high pH of coagulated mass. Formic acid
formed by ST as well as by heat treatment of milk accelerates LB growth.

% Titratable Acidity

Mean acidity
from
mixed cultures
Mean total of
acidity from pun)
L. bulgaricus and
S. thermophilus
culture

O
Temperature C
Figure 1.3 Comparison of acid production by mixed S. thermophilus and L. bulgaricus by
the corresponding pure cultures.

The rate of acid production by yogurt starter containing both ST and LB is considerably higher than that by either of the two organisms grown separately. This is
illustrated in Figure 1.3
Yogurt organisms are microaerophilic in nature. Heat treatment of milk drives
out oxygen. It also wipes out competitive flora. Furthermore, heat-produced sulfhydryl compounds tend to generate reducing conditions in the medium. Accordingly,
rate of acid production in high-heat-treated milk is considerably higher than in raw
or pasteurized milk.

1.3.1.4 Inhibiting Factors


Inherent Inhibitors
Proper selection of ST and LB strains is necessary to avoid possible antagonism
between the two organisms. Also, certain abnormal milks (mastitic cows, hydrolytic
rancidity in milk) are inhibitory to their growth. Seasonal variations in milk composition resulting in lower micronutrients (trace elements, nonprotein nitrogenous
compounds) may affect starter performance. Natural inhibitors secreted in milk (lactoperoxidase thiocyanate system, agglutinins, lysozyme) are generally destroyed by
proper heat treatment.

Table 1.8 SENSITIVITY OF YOGURT BACTERIA TO VARIOUS INHIBITORS


INMILK
Inhibitory Level

I. Antibiotics (per ml)


Penicillin
Streptomycin
Streptamycin
Tetracycline
Chlortetracycline
Oxytetracycline
Bacitracin
Erythromycin
Chloramphenicol

LB

0.004-0.010 IU
0.380 IU
12.5-21.OjJLg
0.130-0.500 |xg
0.060-1.000 u,g
0.400 IU
0.040-0.120 IU
0.300-1.300 mg
0.800-13.000 mg

0.02-0.100 IU
0.380 IU
6.6 M>g
0.34-2.000 p.g
0.060-1.000 M-g
0.700 IU
0.040-0.100 IU
0.070-1.300 mg
O.8OO-13.OOO mg

0.01 IU
1.00 IU

100
50-100

50-2500
>250
>1000
>2000
>500-1000

II. Disinfectant/detergent (mg/L)


100
Chlorine compounds
QAC
100-500
Ampholyte
Idophor
60
Alkaline detergent
HI. Insecticides (PPM)
Malathion
N-Methylcarbamates
IV. Miscellaneous (PPM)
Fatty acids
Ethylenedichloride
Methylsulfone
Acetonitrile
Chloroform
Ether

Mixed Culture

ST

Inhibitor

60

1.00 IU
0.10 IU
0.40 IU
0.04 IU
0.10 IU
0.50 IU

200
20
1000
10-100
10-100
10
10
10

Source: Tamime and Robinson, 1985.3

Antibiotics
Antibiotic residues in milk and entry of sanitation chemicals (quaternary compounds,
iodophors, hypochlorites, hydrogen peroxide) have a profound inhibitory impact on
the growth of yogurt starter.
Table 1.8 summarizes the degree of sensitivity of yogurt bacteria to residual
quantities of various inhibitors.

Sweeteners
Yogurt mixes designed for manufacture of refrigerated or frozen yogurt may contain
appreciable quantities of sucrose, high fructose corn syrup, dextrose, and various
dextrose equivalent (DE) corn syrups. The sweeteners exert osmotic pressure in the
system, leading to progressive inhibition and decline in the rate of acid production

by the culture. Being a colligative property, the osmotic based inhibitory effect would
be directly proportional to concentration of the sweetener and inversely related to
the molecular weight of the solute. In this regard, solutes inherently present in milksolids-not-fat part of yogurt mix accruing from starting milk and added milk solids
and whey products would also contribute toward the total potential inhibitory effect
on yogurt culture growth.
Acid producing ability of yogurt culture has been reported in mixes containing
4.0% sucrose.4 Commercial strains that are relatively osmotolerant may allow higher
usage levels without interruption in acid production during yogurt manufacture.

Bacteriophages
Phage infections and accompanying loss in rate of acid production by lactic cultures
results in flavor and texture defects as well as major product losses in fermented
dairy products. Serious economic losses have been attributed to phage attack in the
cheese industry. So far, thermophilic starters have not been threatened as much as
mesophilic starters used largely in cheese production. However, production volumes
for mozzarella cheese, Swiss cheese, and yogurt have more recently escalated in
response to consumer demand with a concomitant appearance of a number of reports
of phage inhibition in recent literature.22 It is known that specific phages affect ST
and LB, and that ST is relatively more susceptible than LB.
Yogurt fermentation process is relatively fast (3 to 4 h). It is improbable that both
ST and LB would be simultaneously attacked by phages specific for the two organisms. In the likelihood of a phage attack on ST, acid production may be carried on
by LB, causing little or no interruption in production schedule. In fact, lytic phage
may lyse ST cells, spilling cellular contents in the medium, which could conceivably
supply stimulants for LB growth. This rationale may explain partially why the yogurt
industry has experienced a low incidence of phage problems. Nonetheless, most
commercial strains of yogurt cultures have been phage typed. Specific phage sensitivity has been determined to facilitate starter rotation procedures as a practical
way to avoid phage threats in yogurt plants. Reinbold18 reported that ST phage is
destroyed by heat treatment of 74C for 23 s. This phage proliferates much faster at
pH 6.0 than at 6.5 or 7.0. Methods used for phage detection include plaque assay,
inhibition of acid production (litmus color change), enzyme immunoassay, ATP
assay by bioluminescence, and changes in impedance and conductance measurement.
Phage problem in yogurt plants cannot be ignored. Accordingly, adherence to
strict sanitation procedures would ensure prevention of phage attack.

1.3.2 Production of Yogurt Starters


Frozen culture concentrates available from commercial culture suppliers have received wide acceptance in the industry. Reasons for their use include convenience
and ease of handling, reliable quality and activity, and economy. The concentrates
are shipped frozen in dry ice and stored at the plant in special freezers at - 4 0 0 C or
below for a limited period of time specified by the culture supplier.

Table 1.9 APPROXIMATE


COMPOSITION AND
FOOD VALUES OF
NONFAT DRY MILK
Constituents

Amount

Protein (N X 6.38) %
Lactose (milk sugar) %
Fat%
Moisture %
Minerals (ash) %
Calcium %
Phosphorus %
Vitamin A (IU/lb)
Riboflavin (mg/lb)
Thiamine (mg/lb)
Niacin (mg/lb)
Niacin equivalents3 (mg/lb)
Pantothenic acid (mg/lb)
Pyridoxine (mg/lb)
Biotin (mg/lb)
Choline (mg/lb)
Energy (calories/lb)

36.0
51.0
0.7
3.0
8.2
1.3
1.0
165.0
9.2
1.6
4.2
42.2
15.0
2.0
0.2
500.0
1630.0

Source:
a

American Dairy Products Institute (1990).23

Includes contribution of tryptophan.

The starter is the most crucial component in the production of yogurt of high
quality and uniformity of consumer attributes. Culture preparation room should be
separate from the rest of plant activities. An effective sanitation program including
filtered air and positive pressure in the culture and fermentation area should significantly control airborne contamination. The result would be controlled fermentation
time and consistently high-quality product.
The medium for bulk starter production in most yogurt plants is antibiotic-free,
nonfat dry milk reconstituted in water at 10 to 12% solids level. Pretesting for the
absence of inhibitory principles (antibiotics, sanitizers) is advisable to ensure desirable growth of the starter in the medium. Other quality attributes associated with the
nonfat dry milk are low heat powder with not less than 6.0 mg of whey protein
nitrogen/g of powder. Typical composition of nonfat dry milk is shown in Table 1.9.
The standards for Extra Grade spray-dried nonfat dry milk are given in Table 1.10.
The starter medium is not generally fortified with growth activators such as yeast
extract, beef extract, and protein hydrolysates because they tend to impart undesirable flavor to the starter and eventually yogurt. Following reconstitution of nonfat
dry milk in water, the medium is heated to 90 to 95C and held for 30 to 60 min.
Then the medium is cooled to 1100F in the vat. During cooling, the air drawn into
the vat should be free of airborne contaminants (phages, bacteria, yeast, and mold
spores). Accordingly, use of proper filters (e.g., High Efficiency Paniculate Air) on
the tanks to filter-sterilize incoming air is desirable.

Table 1.10 STANDARDS FOR EXTRA


GRADE SPRAY-DRIED
NONFAT DRY MILK
Not Greater Than
Milkfat
Moisture
Titratable acidity
Solubility index
Bacterial estimate
Scorched particles
Source:

1.25%
4.0%
0.15%
1.25 ml
50,000 per g
Disc B (15.0 mg)

American Dairy Products Institute (1990).23

Extra Grade nonfat dry milk shall be entirely free from


lumps, except those that break up readily under slight
pressure. The reliquefied product shall have a sweet and
desirable flavor, but may possess the following flavors
to a slight degree: chalky, cooked, feed, and flat.

The next step is inoculation of frozen bulk culture. Instruction for handling the
frozen culture as prescribed by the supplier should be followed carefully. The frozen
can is thawed by placing the can in cold or lukewarm water containing a low level
of sanitizer until the contents are partially thawed. The culture cans are emptied into
the starter vat as aseptically as possible and bulk starter medium is pumped over the
partially thawed culture to facilitate mixing and achieving uniformity of dispersion.
The incubation period for yogurt bulk starter ranges from 4 to 6 h and the temperature of 43C is maintained by holding hot water in the jacket of the tank. The
fermentation must be quiescent (lack of agitation and vibrations) to avoid phase
separation in the starter following incubation. The progress of fermentation is monitored by titratable acidity measurements at regular intervals. When the TA is 0.85
to 0.90%, the fermentation is terminated by turning the agitators on and replacing
warm water in the jacket with ice water. Circulating ice water drops the temperature
of starter to 4 to 5C. The starter is now ready to use following a satisfactory microscopic examination of methylene blue-stained slide of the starter. Morphological
view helps to ensure healthy cells in the starter and maintenance of desirable ST/LB
ratio. In the earlier literature, a ratio of 1:1 was considered desirable, but a more
recent trend is in favor of ST predomination (60 to 80%). An organoleptic examination is also helpful to detect unwanted flavors in the starter. Figure 1.4 shows the
steps involved in bulk starter production.

1.4 General Principles of Manufacture


1.4.1 Ingredients and Equipment
Yogurt and other cultured dairy products are produced in various parts of the world
from the milk of several species of mammals. The animals include cow (Bos taurus),

Water

Nonfat Dry Milk

Reconstitute
{10-12% Solids)

O
Heat Treat at 90 C
and Hold for 60 min.
o
Cool to 43 C.
Frozen Bulk Starter
10 11
CFU: 10-10 /g

Inoculate
in 500-1000 liters

70 ml

Ferment to 0.9%
Titratable Acidity

Bulk Starter
e 9
CFU 10 -10/g

o
Cool to 4 C

Figure 1.4 Preparation of bulk starter for yogurt manufacture.

Table 1.11 COMPOSITION OF MILKS USED IN THE PREPARATION OF


CULTURED DAIRY FOODS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD

Mammal

Fat
(%)

Caseins
(%)

Whey
Proteins
(%)

Lactose
(%)

Ash
(%)

Cow
Water buffalo
Goat
Sheep
Mare
Sow

3.7
7.4
4.5
7.4
1.9
6.8

2.8
3.2
2.5
4.6
1.3
2.8

0.6
0.6
0.4
0.9
1.2
2.0

4.8
4.8
4.1
4.8
6.2
5.5

0.7
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.5

Source:

Total
Solids
(%)
12.7
17.2
13.2
19.3
11.2
18.8

Chandan (1982).2

water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), goat (Capra hircus), sheep (Ocis aries), mare
(Equus cabalus), and sow (Sus scrofa). The composition of these milks is summarized in Table 1.11. Because the total solids in milk of various species range from
11.2 to 19.3%, the cultured products derived from them vary in consistency from a
fluid to a custardlike gel. The range in casein content also contributes to the gel

Raw Milk

Skim Milk
Cream

Cottage Cheese
Curd

Condensed
Skim MO
ic

Dressing

Nonfst
Dry Milk

LowfatMiflc

Standardized Milk

Cream Cheese

Cultured Cream

Creamed Cottage
Cheese

Buttermilk

Yogurt

Figure 1.5 Dairy ingredients and their derivatives used in cultured dairy foods.

formation because on souring this class of proteins coagulates at its isoelectric point
of pH 4.6. The whey proteins are considerably denatured and insolubilized by heat
treatments prior to culturing. The denatured whey proteins are also precipitated along
with caseins to exert an effect on the water binding capacity of the gel.
In the United States, bovine milk is practically the only milk employed in the
industrial manufacture of cultured dairy products. Figure 1.5 shows the relationship
among various forms of milk raw materials used in yogurt and other cultured dairy
foods. For optimum culture growth, the raw materials must be free from culture
inhibitors such as antibiotics, sanitizing chemicals, mastitis milk, colostrum, and
rancid milk. Microbiological quality should be excellent for developing the delicate
and clean flavor associated with top quality yogurt. The raw materials generally
include whole milk, skim milk, condensed skim milk, nonfat dry milk, and cream.
In addition, other food materials such as sweeteners, stabilizers, flavors, fruit preparations, etc. are required as components of yogurt mix. These materials are blended
together in proportions to obtain a standardized mix conforming to the particular
product to be manufactured.
A yogurt plant requires a special design to minimize contamination of the products with phage and spoilage organisms. Filtered air is useful in this regard. The
plant is generally equipped with a receiving room to receive, meter or weigh, and
store milk and other raw materials. In addition, a culture propagation room along
with a control laboratory, a dry storage area, a refrigerated storage area, a mix proc-

essing room, a fermentation room, and a packaging room form the backbone of the
plant. The mix processing room contains equipment for standardizing and separating
milk, pasteurizing and heating, and homogenizing along with the necessary pipelines,
fittings, pumps, valves, and controls. The fermentation room housing fermentation
tanks is isolated from the rest of the plant. Filtered air under positive pressure is
supplied to the room to generate clean room conditions. A control laboratory is
generally set aside where culture preparation, process control, product composition,
and shelf life tests may be carried out to ensure adherence to regulatory and company
standards. Also, a quality control program is established by laboratory personnel. A
utility room is required for maintenance and engineering services needed by the
plant. The refrigerated storage area is used for holding fruit, finished products, and
other heat-labile materials. A dry storage area at ambient temperature is primarily
utilized for temperature-stable raw materials and packaging supplies.
The sequence of stages of processing in a yogurt plant is given in Table 1.12.

1.4.2 Mix Preparation


Milk is commonly stored in silos which are large vertical tanks with a capacity up
to 100,000 1. A silo consists of an inner tank made of stainless steel containing 18%
chromium, 8% nickel, and <0.07% carbon. Acid and salt resistance in the steel is
attained by incorporating 3% molybdenum. To minimize corrosion, this construction
material is used for the storage of acidic products. The stainless steel tank is usually
covered with 50 to 100 mm of insulation material which in turn is surrounded by
an outer shell of stainless or painted mild steel or aluminum. The silo tanks generally
have an agitation system (60 to 80 rpm), spray balls mounted in the center for
cleaning in place (CIP), an air vent, and a manhole. The air vent must be kept open
during cleaning with hot cleaning solutions. This precaution is necessary to prevent
a sudden development of vacuum in the tank and consequent collapse of the inner
tank upon rinsing with cold water.
For reconstitution of dry powders, such as nonfat dry milk, sweeteners, and stabilizers, the use of a powder funnel and recirculation loop, or a special blender is
convenient.

1.4.3 Heat Treatment


The common pasteurization equipment consists of vat, plate, triple-tube, scraped, or
swept surface heat exchanger. In case of milk, vat pasteurization is conducted at
63C with a minimum holding time of 30 min. This temperature is raised to 66C
in the presence of sweeteners in the mix. For a high temperature-short time (HTST)
system, the equivalent temperature-time combination is 73C for 15 s, or 75C for
15 s in the presence of sweeteners. An ultra-high temperature (UHT) system employs
temperatures >90C and as high as 148C for 2 s. Alternatively, culinary steam may
be used directly by injection or infusion to raise the temperature to 77 to 94C, but
allowance must be made for an increase in water content of the mix due to steam
condensation in this process. In some plants, steam volatiles are continuously re-

Table 1.12

SEQUENCE OF PROCESSING STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURING


OF YOGURT

Step

Salient Feature

1. Milk procurement

Sanitary production of Grade A milk from healthy cows is


necessary. For microbiological control, refrigerated bulk milk
tanks should cool to 100C in 1 h and <5C in 2 h. Avoid
unnecessary agitation to prevent lipolytic deterioration of milk
flavor. Milk pickup is in insulated tanks at 48-h intervals.

2. Milk reception and storage in


manufacturing plant

Temperature of raw milk at this stage should not exceed 100C.


Insulated or refrigerated storage up to 72 h helps in raw material
and process flow management. Quality of milk is checked and
controlled.

3. Centrifugal clarification and


separation

Leucocytes and sediment are removed. Milk is separated into


cream and skim milk or standardized to desired fat level at 5C or
32C.

4.

Various ingredients to secure desired formulation are blended


together at 500C in a mix tank equipped with powder funnel and
an agitation system.

5.

Mix preparation

Heat treatment

Using plate heat exchangers with regeneration systems, milk is


heated to temperatures of 85-95C for 10-40 min, well above
pasteurization treatment. Heating of milk kills contaminating and
competitive microorganism, produces growth factors by
breakdown of milk proteins, generates microaerophilic conditions
for growth of lactic organisms, and creates desirable body and
texture in the cultured dairy products.

6. Homogenization

Mix is passed through extremely small orifice at pressure of


2000-2500 psi, causing extensive physicochemical changes in the
colloidal characteristics of milk. Consequently, creaming during
incubation and storage of yogurt is prevented. The stabilizers and
other components of a mix are thoroughly dispersed for optimum
textural effects.

7. Inoculation and incubation

The homogenized mix is cooled to an optimum growth


temperature. Inoculation is generally at the rate of 0.5-5% and
the optimum temperature is maintained throughout incubation
period to achieve a desired titratable acidity. Quiescent incubation
is necessary for product texture and body development.

8. Cooling, fruit incorporation,


and packaging

The coagulated product is cooled down to 5-22C, depending on


the product. Using fruit feeder or flavor tank, the desired level of
fruit and flavor is incorporated. The blended product is then
packaged.

9. Storage and distribution

Storage at 5C for 24-48 h imparts in several yogurt products


desirable body and texture. Low temperatures ensure desirable
shelf life by slowing down physical, chemical, and
microbiological degradation.

moved by vacuum evaporation to remove certain undesirable odors (feed, onion,


garlic) associated with milk.
In yogurt processing, the mix is subjected to much more severe heat treatment
than conventional pasteurization temperature-time combinations. Heat treatment at
85C for 30 min or 95C for 10 min is an important step in manufacture. The heat
treatment (1) produces a relatively sterile medium for the exclusive growth of the
starter; (2) removes air from the medium to produce a more conducive medium for
microaerophilic lactic cultures to grow; (3) effects thermal breakdown of milk constituents, especially proteins, releasing peptones and sulfhydryl groups which provide nutrition and anaerobic conditions for the starter; and (4) denatures and coagulates milk albumins and globulins which enhance the viscosity and produce
custardlike consistency in the product.

1.4.4 Homogenization
The homogenizer is a high-pressure pump forcing the mix through extremely small
orifices. It includes a bypass for safety of operation. The process is usually conducted
by applying pressure in two stages. The first stage pressure, of the order of 2000 psi,
reduces the average milkfat globule diameter size from approx. 4 jxm (range 0.1 to
16 |xm) to <1 |xm. The second stage uses 500 psi and is designed to break the
clusters of fat globules apart with the objective of inhibiting creaming in milk. Homogenization aids in texture development and additionally it alleviates the surface
creaming and wheying off problems. Ionic salt balance in milk is also involved in
the wheying off problem.

1.4.5 Fermentation
Fermentation tanks for the production of cultured dairy products are generally designed with a cone bottom to facilitate draining of relatively viscous fluids after
incubation.
For temperature maintenance during the incubation period, the fermentation vat
is provided with a jacket for circulating hot or cold water or steam located adjacent
to the inner vat containing the mix. This jacket is usually insulated and covered with
an outermost surface made of stainless steel. The vat is equipped with a heavy-duty,
multispeed agitation system, a manhole containing a sight glass, and appropriate
spray balls for CIP. The agitator is often of swept surface type for optimum agitation
of relatively viscous cultured dairy products. For efficient cooling after culturing,
plate or triple-tube heat exchangers are used.
The fermentation vat is designed only for temperature maintenance. Therefore,
efficient use of energy requires that the mix not be heat treated in the culturing vat.

1.4.6 Packaging
Most plants attempt to synchronize the packaging lines with the termination of the
incubation period. Generally, textural defects in yogurt products are caused by ex-

Next Page

cessive shear during pumping or agitation. Therefore, positive drive pumps are preferred over centrifugal pumps for moving the product after culturing or ripening.
For incorporation of fruit, it is advantageous to use a fruit feeder system adapted
from the frozen dessert industry.24 Various packaging machines of suitable speeds
(up to 400 cups per minute) are available to package various kinds and sizes of
yogurt products.

1.5 Yogurt Production


The manufacture of yogurt has recently been reviewed by Chandan,1 IDF,13 Rasic
and Kurmann,2 and Tamime and Robinson.3

1.5.1 Yogurt Ingredients and Flavor, Texture,


and Rheological Aspects
1.5.1.1 Dairy Ingredients
Yogurt is generally made from a mix standardized from whole, partially defatted
milk, condensed skim milk, cream, and nonfat dry milk. In rare practice, milk may
be partly concentrated by removal of 15 to 20% water in a vacuum pan. Supplementation of milk-solids-not-fat with nonfat dry milk is the preferred industrial procedure. All dairy raw materials should be selected for high bacteriological quality.
Ingredients containing mastitis milk and rancid milk should be avoided. Also, milk
partially fermented by contaminating organisms and milk containing antibiotic and
sanitizing chemical residues cannot be used for yogurt production. The procurement
of all ingredients should be based on specifications and standards that are checked
and maintained with a systematic sampling and testing program by the quality control
laboratory. Because yogurt is a manufactured product, it is likely to have variations
according to the quality standards established by marketing considerations. Nonetheless, it is extremely important to standardize and control the day-to-day product
in order to meet consumer expectations and regulatory obligations associated with
a certain brand or label.

1.5.1.2 Sweeteners
Nutritive carbohydrates used in yogurt manufacture are similar to the sweeteners
used in ice cream and other frozen desserts described by Arbuckle.24 Sucrose is the
major sweetener used in yogurt production. Sometimes corn sweeteners may also
be used, especially in frozen yogurt mixes. The level of sucrose in yogurt mix appears
to affect the production of lactic acid and flavor by yogurt culture. A decrease in
characteristic flavor compound (acetaldehyde) production has been reported at 8%
or higher concentration of sucrose.1 Sucrose may be added in a dry, granulated, freeflowing, crystalline form or as a liquid sugar containing 67% sucrose. Liquid sugar
is preferred for its handling convenience in large operations. However, storage ca-

Previous Page

cessive shear during pumping or agitation. Therefore, positive drive pumps are preferred over centrifugal pumps for moving the product after culturing or ripening.
For incorporation of fruit, it is advantageous to use a fruit feeder system adapted
from the frozen dessert industry.24 Various packaging machines of suitable speeds
(up to 400 cups per minute) are available to package various kinds and sizes of
yogurt products.

1.5 Yogurt Production


The manufacture of yogurt has recently been reviewed by Chandan,1 IDF,13 Rasic
and Kurmann,2 and Tamime and Robinson.3

1.5.1 Yogurt Ingredients and Flavor, Texture,


and Rheological Aspects
1.5.1.1 Dairy Ingredients
Yogurt is generally made from a mix standardized from whole, partially defatted
milk, condensed skim milk, cream, and nonfat dry milk. In rare practice, milk may
be partly concentrated by removal of 15 to 20% water in a vacuum pan. Supplementation of milk-solids-not-fat with nonfat dry milk is the preferred industrial procedure. All dairy raw materials should be selected for high bacteriological quality.
Ingredients containing mastitis milk and rancid milk should be avoided. Also, milk
partially fermented by contaminating organisms and milk containing antibiotic and
sanitizing chemical residues cannot be used for yogurt production. The procurement
of all ingredients should be based on specifications and standards that are checked
and maintained with a systematic sampling and testing program by the quality control
laboratory. Because yogurt is a manufactured product, it is likely to have variations
according to the quality standards established by marketing considerations. Nonetheless, it is extremely important to standardize and control the day-to-day product
in order to meet consumer expectations and regulatory obligations associated with
a certain brand or label.

1.5.1.2 Sweeteners
Nutritive carbohydrates used in yogurt manufacture are similar to the sweeteners
used in ice cream and other frozen desserts described by Arbuckle.24 Sucrose is the
major sweetener used in yogurt production. Sometimes corn sweeteners may also
be used, especially in frozen yogurt mixes. The level of sucrose in yogurt mix appears
to affect the production of lactic acid and flavor by yogurt culture. A decrease in
characteristic flavor compound (acetaldehyde) production has been reported at 8%
or higher concentration of sucrose.1 Sucrose may be added in a dry, granulated, freeflowing, crystalline form or as a liquid sugar containing 67% sucrose. Liquid sugar
is preferred for its handling convenience in large operations. However, storage ca-

pability in sugar tanks along with heaters, pumps, strainers, and meters is required.
The corn sweeteners, primarily glucose, usually enter yogurt via the processed fruit
flavor in which they are extensively used for their flavor enhancing characteristics.
Up to 6% corn syrup solids are used in frozen yogurt. High-intensity sweeteners
(e.g., aspartame) have been used to produce a "light" product containing about 60%
of the calories of normal sweetened yogurt.
Commercial yogurts have an average of 4.06% lactose, 1.85% galactose, 0.05%
glucose, and pH of 4.40.

1.5.1.3 Stabilizers
The primary purpose of using a stabilizer in yogurt is to produce smoothness in body
and texture, impart gel structure, and reduce wheying off or syneresis. The stabilizer
increases shelf life and provides a reasonable degree of uniformity of the product.
Stabilizers function through their ability to form gel structures in water, thereby
leaving less free water for syneresis. In addition, some stabilizers complex with
casein. A good yogurt stabilizer should not impart any flavor, should be effective at
low pH values, and should be easily dispersed in the normal working temperatures
in a dairy plant. The stabilizers generally used in yogurt are gelatin; vegetable gums
such as carboxymethyl cellulose, locust bean, and Guar; and seaweed gums such as
alginates and carrageenans.
Gelatin is derived by irreversible hydrolysis of the proteins collagen and ossein.
It is used at a level of 0.3 to 0.5% to get a smooth shiny appearance in refrigerated
yogurt. Gelatin is a good stabilizer for frozen yogurt. The term Bloom refers to the
gel strength as determined by a Bloom gelometer under standard conditions. Gelatin
of a Bloom strength of 225 or 250 is commonly used. The gelatin level should be
geared to the consistency standards for yogurt. Amounts above 0.35% tend to give
yogurt of relatively high milk solids a curdy appearance on stirring. At temperatures
below 100C, the yogurt acquires a puddinglike consistency. Gelatin tends to degrade
during processing at ultrahigh temperatures and its activity is temperature dependent.
The yogurt gel is considerably weakened by a rise in temperature.
The seaweed gums impart a desirable viscosity as well as gel structure to yogurt.
Algin and sodium alginate are derived from giant sea kelp. Carrageenan is made
from Irish moss and compares with 250 Bloom gelatin in stabilizing value. These
stabilizers are heat stable and promote stabilization of the yogurt gel by complex
formation with Ca2+ and casein.
Among the seed gums, locust beam gum or carob gum is derived from the seeds
of a leguminous tree. Carob gum is quite effective at low pH levels. Guar gum is
also obtained from seeds and is a good stabilizer for yogurt. Guar gum is readily
soluble in cold water and is not affected by high temperatures used in the pasteurization of yogurt mix. Carboxymethyl cellulose is a cellulose product and is effective
at high processing temperatures.
The stabilizer system used in yogurt mix preparations is generally a combination
of various vegetable stabilizers to which gelatin may or may not be added. Their
ratios as well as the final concentration (generally 0.5 to 0.7%) in the product are

carefully controlled to get desirable effects. More recently, whey protein concentrate
is being used as a stabilizer, exploiting the water binding property of denatured whey
proteins.
For detailed descriptions of various industrial gums, the reader is referred to
Tamime and Robinson.3

1.5.1.4 Fruit Preparations for Flavoring Yogurt


The fruit preparations for blending in yogurt are specially designed to meet the
marketing requirements for different types of yogurt. They are generally present at
levels of 10 to 20% in the final product. A majority of the fruits contain natural
flavors.
Flavors and certified colors are usually added to the fruit-for-yogurt preparations
for improved eye appeal and better flavor profile. The fruit base should meet the
following requirements. It should (1) exhibit true color and flavor of the fruit when
blended with yogurt, and (2) be easily dispersible in yogurt without causing texture
defects, phase separation, or syneresis. The pH of the fruit base should be compatible
with yogurt pH. The fruit should have zero yeast and mold population in order to
prevent spoilage and to extend shelf life. Fruit preserves do not necessarily meet all
these requirements, especially of flavor, sugar level, consistency, and pH. Accordingly, special fruit bases of the following composition are designed for use in stirred
yogurt.
%
Fruit flavor, artificial
or natural
Color
Potassium sorbate
Citric acid to pH 3.8 to 4.2

0.1
1.25
0.01 or to* specification
0.1

CaCl2 and certain food-grade phosphates are also used in several fruit preparations.
The soluble solids range from 60 to 65% and viscosity is standardized to 5 1.5
Bostwick units (cm), 30 s reading at 24C. Standard plate counts on the fruit bases
are generally <500/g. Coliform count, yeast, and mold counts of nonaseptic fruit
preparations are <10/g. The fruit flavors vary in popularity in different parts of the
country and during different times of the year. In general, more popular fruits are
strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, peach, cherry, orange, lemons, purple plum, boysenberry, spiced apple, apricot, and pineapple. Blends of these fruits are also popular.
Fruits used in yogurt base manufacture may be frozen, canned, dried, or combinations thereof. Among the frozen fruits are strawberry, raspberry, blueberry, apple
peach, orange, lemon, cherry, purple plum, blackberry, and cranberry. Canned fruits
are pineapple, peach, mandarin orange, lemon, purple plum, and maraschino cherry.
The dried fruit category included apricot, apple, and prune. Fruit juices and syrups
are also incorporated in the bases. Sugar in the fruit base functions in protecting fruit
flavor against loss by volatilization and oxidation. It also balances the fruit and the
yogurt flavor. The pH control of the base is important for fruit color retention. The
color of yogurt should represent the fruit color in intensity, hue, and shade. The base

should be stored under refrigeration to obtain optimum flavor and extend shelf life.
The current trend is to use aseptically packaged sterilized fruit preparations.
The following types of yogurts are marketed in the United States.
1. Fruit-on-the-bottom style yogurt. In this type, typically, 59 ml (2 oz) of fruit
preserves or special fruit preparations are layered at the bottom followed by 177
ml (6 oz) of inoculated yogurt mix on the top. The top layer may consist of
yogurt mix containing stabilizers, sweeteners, and the flavor and color indicative
of the fruit on the bottom. After lids are placed on the cups, incubation and setting
of the yogurt takes place in the cups. When a desirable pH of 4.2 to 4.4 is attained,
the cups are placed in refrigerated rooms for rapid cooling. For consumption, the
fruit and yogurt layers are mixed by the consumer. If used, fruit preserves have
a standard of identity. A fruit preserve consists of 55% sugar and a minimum of
45% fruit which is cooked until the final soluble solids content is 68% or higher
(65% in the case of certain fruits). Frozen fruits and juices are the usual raw
materials. Commercial pectin, 150 grade, is normally utilized at a level of 0.5%
in preserves and the pH is adjusted to 3.0 to 3.5 with a food-grade acid such as
citric during manufacturing of the preserves.
2. Stirred style yogurt. Also known as Continental, French, and Swiss yogurt, the
fruit preparaton is thoroughly blended in yogurt after culturing. Stabilizers are
commonly used in this form of yogurt unless milk-solids-not-fat levels are relatively high (14 to 16%). In this style, cups are filled with a blended mixture of
yogurt and fruit. On refrigerated storage for 48 h, the clot is reformed to exhibit
a fine body and texture. Overstabilized yogurt possesses a solidlike consistency
and lacks a refreshing character. Spoonable yogurt should not have the consistency of a drink. It should melt in the mouth without chewing.

1.5.2 Yogurt Starter and Its Contribution


to Texture and Flavor
The starter is a critical ingredient in yogurt manufacture. The rate of acid production
by yogurt culture should be synchronized with plant production schedules. Using
frozen culture concentrates, incubation periods of 5 hr at 45C, 11 h at 32C, or 14
to 16 h at 29 to 300C are required for yogurt acid development. Using bulk starters
at 4% inoculum level, the period is 2.5 to 3.0 h at 45C, 8 to 10 h at 32C, or 14 to
16 h at 20 to 300C.
The production of flavor by yogurt cultures is a function of time as well as the
sugar content of yogurt mix. Acetaldehyde production in yogurt takes place predominantly in the first 1 to 2 h of incubation. Eventually, 23 to 55 ppm of acetaldehyde
are found in yogurt. The acetaldehyde level declines in later stages of incubation.
Yogurt flavor is typically ascribed to the formation of lactic acid, acetaldehyde, acetic
acid, and diacetyl.
The milk coagulum during yogurt production results from the drop in pH due to
the activity of the yogurt culture. The streptococci are responsible for lowering the
pH of a yogurt mix to 5.0 to 5.5 and the lactobacilli are primarily responsible for

further lowering of the pH to 3.8 to 4.4 Attempts have been made to improve the
viscosity and to prevent synerisis of yogurt by including a slime-producing strain.
The texture of yogurt tends to be coarse or grainy if it is allowed to develop firmness
prior to stirring or if it is disturbed at pH values higher than 4.6. Incomplete blending
of mix ingredients is an additional cause of a coarse smooth texture. Homogenization
treatment and high fat content tend to favor smooth texture. Gassiness in yogurt may
be attributed to defects in starters or contamination with sporeforming Bacillus species, coliform, or yeast, producing excessive CO 2 and hydrogen. In comparison with
plate heat exchangers, cooling with tube type heat exchangers causes less damage
to yogurt structure. Further, loss of viscosity of yogurt may be minimized by welldesigned booster pumps, metering units, and valves involved in yogurt packaging.
The pH of yogurt during refrigerated storage continues to drop. Higher temperature of storage accelerates the drop in pH.

1.5.3 Manufacturing Procedures


1.5.3.1 Plain Yogurt
Plain yogurt is an integral component of the manufacture of frozen yogurt. The steps
involved in the manufacturing of set-type and stirred-type plain yogurts are shown
in Figure 1.6. Plain yogurt normally contains no added sugar or flavors in order to
offer the consumer natural yogurt flavor for consumption as such or an option of
flavoring with other food materials of the consumer's choice. In addition, it may be
used for cooking or for salad preparation with fresh fruits or grated vegetables. In
most recipes, plain yogurt is a substitute for sour cream, providing lower calories
and fat alternative. The fat content may be standardized to the levels preferred by
the market. Also, the size of the package may be geared to the market demand.
Plastic cups and lids are the chief packaging materials used in the industry.

1.5.3.2 Fruit-Flavored Yogurt


A general manufacturing outline for both set style and stirred style yogurts is presented in Figure 1.7. Several variations of this procedure exist in the industry. Fruit
incorporation is conveniently effected by the use of a fruit feeder at a 10 to 20%
level. Prior to packaging, the stirred-yogurt texture can be made smoother by pumping it through a valve or a stainless steel screen.
The incubation times and temperatures are coordinated with the plant schedules.
Incubation temperatures lower than 400C in general tend to impart a slimy or sticky
appearance to yogurt.

1.5.3.3 Postculturing Heat Treatment


The shelf life of yogurt may be extended by heating yogurt after culturing to inactivate the culture and the constituent enzymes. Heating to 60 to 65C stabilizes the
product so the yogurt shelf life will be 8 to 12 weeks at 12C. However, this treatment

Lowfat Milk
Cream
Skim MHk
Nonfat Dry Milk

Standardize yogurt mix


MilkfatO-2%
MSNF 10.5%
Stabilizer 0.7%

Standardize yogurt mix1


Milkfat 0-2%
MSNF 12.5%

Pasteurize at
95<te for 30 min.
O
Homogenize at 60 C
1500 psi Cool to 45C
Mix in holding vat
43 <t

Stabilizer

Pasteurize at 95C
for 30 min.
Homogenize at 60 C
1500 psi
Yogurt
bulk starter
Culture vat
hold o
to pH 4.5 at 43 C
Cool to <15 C

Package in containers
Incubate containers at
43CtopH 4.5

Blast Cool to
<15C

Package in containers

Cool and store plain yogurt


at5C

Refrigerated Distribution

Refrigerated Distribution
Stirred Style
Plain Yogurt
Set Style
[Plain Yogurt

Figure 1.6 A flow sheet outline for the manufacture of plain yogurt.

Skim Milk
Lowfat Milk
Cream
Nonfat Dry Milk
Sugar

Stabilizer
Standardize yogurt mix
Milkfat 1-2%
MSNF 10-12%
Stabilizer 0.7%
o
Pasteurize at 95 C
for 30 min.
Homogenize at 6(P C
(1500 psi)
Cooling &
Storage (4C)

Cooling
4C

W
[Starter Cufturel
(1-5%)

Batch
Inoculation

In-line
inoculation

Inoculation

Inoculation

Storage
Heatj
ng
450C
Flavoring
Fruit
Preparation

Filling

Ferm. Tank
(430C)

Fermentation
Rm (43 C)

Sfl5
Falvon
rig
Fruit
Preparation

Filling

Blast pooling
(15C)

Blast Cooling
(40C)

Refrigerated
Cold
Storane

Refngerated
Cold
Storaoe

Refrigerated
Distribution

Refrigerated
Distribution

Set
Style
Yogurt

Stirred
Style
Yogun

Figure 1.7 A flow sheet outline for the manufacture of fruit-flavored yogurt. [Adapted from
Chandan (1982),1 Larsen (1988).25]

destroys the "live" nature of yogurt, which may be a desirable consumer attribute
to retain. Federal Standards of Identity for refrigerated yogurt permit the thermal
destruction of viable organisms with the objective of shelf life extension, but the
parenthetical phrase "heat treated after culturing" must show on the package following the yogurt labeling. The postripening heat treatment may be designed to (1)
ensure destruction of starter bacteria, contaminating organisms, and enzymes; and
(2) redevelop the texture and body of the yogurt by appropriate stabilizer and homogenization processes.

1.5.3.4 Frozen Yogurt


Both soft-serve and hard-frozen yogurts have gained immense popularity in recent
years. Market value in frozen yogurt has exceeded that of refrigerated yogurt. Consumer popularity for frozen yogurt has been propelled by its low-fat and nonfat
attribute. The recently developed frozen yogurt is a very low acid product resembling
ice cream or ice milk in flavor and texture. A significant shift in reduced acidity in
the product has been observed in relation to the products available 10 years before.
Essentially, the industry standards require minimum titratable acidity of 0.3%, with
a minimum contribution of 0.15% as a consequence of fermentation by yogurt
bacteria.
The frozen yogurt base mix may be manufactured in a cultured dairy plant and
shipped to a soft-serve operator or an ice cream plant. Alternatively, the mix may
be prepared and frozen in an ice cream plant.
Technology for production of frozen yogurt involves limited fermentation in a
single mix and arresting further acid development by rapid cooling, or a standardization of titratable acidity to a desirable level by blending plain yogurt with ice milk

Table 1.13 TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF NONFAT SOFT-SERVE AND


HARD-PACK FROZEN YOGURT
Soft-Serve (%)

Component
Milkfat
Milk-solids-not-fat
Sucrose
Com syrup solids, 36 DE
Maltodextrin, 10 DE
Stabilizer
Total solids
Titratable acidity
PH
Source:

Hard-Pack (%)

Stream 1
(20%)

Stream 2
(80%)

Blended
Final
Mix

Stream 1
(20%)

Stream 2
(80%)

Blended
Final
Mix

0
11
0
0
0
0
11
1.15
4.4

0
11
16.25
7.50
2.5
1.5
38.75
0.15
6.7

0
11
12
6
2
1.2
32.2
0.35
5.5

0
13
0
0
0
0
13
1.15
4.4

0
13
16.25
7.5
2.5
1.5
40.75
0.16
6.7

0
13
13
6
2
1.2
35.20
0.35
5.5

Germantown Manufacturing Co., Product Bulletin G-813.26

Condensed
Skm
i Milk

Sugar

Com Syrup
Solids

MHk

MaHodextrn
is

Stabilizer

Mxi Preparation
(Blending)
Pasteurizing
6ffC/30 rvmJ
180F/25 sec.
HO
D
IOQQ niZI HQ

Yogurt
Starter

O
Cool to 45 C
Fermentation tank
hold to desired
titratable acidity
Fruits & Nuts

Flavor
Cool to 4 C
Package &
Freeze lor
Distribution
Thaw to 5C

Ice Cream
Freezer-60C

Soft Serve Mxi


Packaging

Hard Pack
Frozen Yogurt

Soft Serve Freezei


Wrapping
Soft Serve Yogurt

Hardening
-40C

Storage -30C

Figure 1.8 Flow chart for frozen yogurt (single-stream process).

mix (Table 1.13). In certain instances, the blend is pasteurized to ensure destruction
of newly emerging pathogens, including listeria and campylobacter in the resulting
low-acid food. To provide live and active yogurt culture in the finished product,
frozen culture concentrate is blended with the pasteurized product. Alternatively,
some processes are boosting the yogurt culture count by adding frozen culture concentrates to the fermented base. Figures 1.8 and 1.9 illustrates process suggested by
Germantown Manufacturing Co. 2 6 for making frozen yogurt. Details of manufacture
of soft frozen and hard pack mixes and frozen desserts are given by Arbuckle. 24

1.6 Yogurt Quality Control


1.6.1 Refrigerated Yogurt
A well planned quality control program must be executed in the plant to maximize
keeping quality of product. To deliver to the consumer yogurt with most desirable

Corn Syrup Solids

Maltodexirins

Stabilizer
Stream Il

Condensed Skim
Milk

Sugar

Nonfat
Dry Milk

Milk

Blending

Mix Preparation (Blending)

Heat Treating
90oC/10 min.

Pasteurizing
68X/30 min.

Homogenize

Homogenizing

Fermentation
Tank 450C

Cool to
50C

Flavor

Water

Titratable
Acidity 1.1%

-80%

-20%

Standardize Titratable Acidity


Flavor Tank

Cool
to
50C

Fruit & Nuts


Packaged Freeze
for Distribution
Thaw to 5C

Soft Serve Mix

Ice Cream
Freezer-60C

Soft Serve
Freezer

Packaging

Soft Serve
Yogurt

Wrapping

0
Hardening -40 C

Figure 1.9 Flow chart for frozen yogurt (two-stream blending process).

Storage -30C

Hard Pack
Frozen Yogurt

attributes of flavor and texture, it is imperative to enforce a strict sanitation program


along with good manufacturing practices. Shelf-life expectations from commercial
yogurt vary but generally approximate a month from the date of manufacture, provided temperature during distribution and retail marketing channels does not exceed
45F. Lactic acid and some other metabolites produced by fermentation process
protect yogurt from most Gram-negative psychotrophic organisms. In general, most
quality issues in a yogurt plant are not related to proliferation of spoilage bacteria.
Most spoilage flora in yogurt are yeasts and molds, which are highly tolerant to
low pH and can grow under refrigeration temperatures. Yeast growth during shelf
life of the product constitutes more of a problem than mold growth. The fungal
growth manifests within 2 weeks of manufacture, if yeast contamination is not
controlled.
The control of yeast contamination is effected by aggressive sanitation procedures
related to equipment, ingredients, and plant environment. CEP chemical solutions
should be used with special attention to their strength and proper temperature. Hypochlorites and iodophors are effective sanitizing compounds for fungal control on
the contact surfaces and in combating the environmental contamination. Hypochlorites at high concentrations are corrosive. Iodophors are preferred for their noncorrosive property as they are effective at relatively low concentrations.
Yeast and mold contamination may also arise from starter, packaging materials,
fruit preparations, and packaging equipment. Organoleptic examination of yogurt
starter may be helpful in eliminating the fungal contamination therefrom. If warranted, direct microscopic view of the starter may reveal the presence of budding
yeast cells or mold mycelium filaments. Plating of the starter on acidified potato
dextrose agar would confirm the results. Avoiding contaminated starter for yogurt
production is necessary.
Efficiency of equipment and environmental sanitation can be verified by enumeration techniques involving exposure of poured plates to atmosphere in the plant
or making a smear of the contact surfaces of the equipment, followed by plating.
Filters on the air circulation system should be changed frequently. Walls and floors
should be cleaned and sanitized frequently and regularly.
The packaging materials should be stored under dust-free and humidity-free conditions. The filling room should be fogged with chlorine or iodine regularly.
Quality control checks on fruit preparations and flavorings should be performed
(spot checking) to minimize yeast and mold entry into fruit-flavored yogurt. Refrigerated storage of the fruit flavorings is recommended.
Quality control programs for yogurt include control of product viscosity, flavor,
body and texture, color, fermentation process, and composition. Daily chemical,
physical, microbiological, and organoleptic tests constitute the core of quality assurance. The flavor defects are generally described as too intense (acid), too weak
(fruit flavor), or unnatural. The sweetness level may be excessive, weak, or may
exhibit corn syrup flavor. The ingredients used may impart undesirable flavors such
as stale, metallic, old ingredients, oxidized, rancid, or unclean. Lack of control in
processing procedures may cause overcooked, caramelized, or excessively sour flavor notes in the product. Proper control of processing parameters and ingredient

quality ensure good flavor. Product standards of fats, solids, viscosity, pH (or titratable acidity), and organoleptic characteristics should be strictly adhered to. Wheying
off or appearance of watery layer on the surface of yogurt is undesirable and can be
controlled by judicious selection of effective stabilizers and by following proper
processing conditions.

1.6.2 Frozen Yogurt


In hard-pack frozen yogurt, a coarse and icy texture may be caused by formation of
ice crystals due to fluctuations in storage temperatures. Sandiness may be due to
lactose crystals resulting from too high levels of milk solids. A soggy or gummy
defect is caused by too high a milk-solids-not-fat level or too high sugar content. A
weak body results from too high overrun and insufficient total solids.
Color defects may be caused by the lack of intensity or authenticity of hue and
shade. Proper blending of fruit purees and yogurt mix is necessary for uniformity of
color. The compositional control tests are fat, moisture, pH, and overrun, and microscopic examination of yogurt culture to ensure desirable ratio in LB and ST. Good
microbiological quality of all ingredients is necessary.

1.7 Physicochemical, Nutritional, and Health


Properties of Yogurt
Conversion of milk base to yogurt is accompanied by intense metabolic activity of
the fermenting organisms ST and LB. Yogurt is a unique product in that it supplies
the consumer vital nutrients of milk as well as metabolic products of fermentation
along with abundant quantities of live and active yogurt cultures. As a result of
culture growth, transformation of chemical, physical, microbiological, sensory, nutritional, and physiological attributes in basic milk medium is noted.
To appreciate the nutritional and health properties of yogurt, an understanding of
the transformation of milk into yogurt is necessary. We shall first look at major
changes brought about during the yogurt process including those by the bacteria,
followed by specific health benefits documented in the scientific literature.
Loones21 summarized changes in the milk constituents during yogurt manufacture. The changes are related to various steps in the yogurt process. Figure 1.10
should facilitate grasping the changes at various stages of transformation of yogurt
mix to yogurt: prefermentation, fermentation, and postfermentation.

1.7.1 Prefermentation Changes

1.7.1.1 Mix Preparation


Standardization of milk for fat content and milk-solids-not-fat in yogurt industry
results in fat reduction and an increase of 30 to 35% lactose, protein, mineral, and
vitamin content. Nutrient density of yogurt mix is concentrated and, thereby, con-

Milk

Homogenizer

Nonfat
Dry Milk

Heat Exchanger

Fermentation
Tank
430C

Filler

Refrigerated
Storage

Cooler

Distribution &
Grocery Stores

Consumer

Figure 1.10 Key steps in yogurt processing related to major transformation of milk components. (From ref. 21.)

siderably higher than that of milk. Specific gravity changes from 1.03 to 1.04 g/ml
at 20 0 C. Addition of stabilizers (gelatin, starch, pectin, agar, alginates, gums, and
carrageenans) and sweeteners further impacts physical properties.

1.7.1.2 Heat Treatment


Yogurt processing requires intense heat treatment which destroys all the pathogenic
flora and most vegetative cells of all microorganisms contained therein. In addition,
milk enzymes inherently present are inactivated. Consequently, shelf life of yogurt
is assured. From the microbiological standpoint, destruction of competitive organisms produces conditions conducive to the growth of desirable yogurt bacteria.
Furthermore, expulsion of oxygen, creation of reducing conditions (sulfhydryl generation), and production of protein-cleaved nitrogenous compounds as a result of
heat processing enhance the nutritional status of the medium for growth of the yogurt
culture.

Physical changes in the proteins as a result of heat treatment have a profound


effect on the viscosity of yogurt. Evidently whey protein denaturation, of the order
of 70 to 95%, enhances water absorption capacity, thereby creating smooth consistency, high viscosity, and stability from whey separation in yogurt.
Nutritional changes include ease of digestion of denatured whey proteins in the
gastrointestinal tract, soft curd in the stomach, and rapid gastric emptying rate attributed to viscous nature of yogurt.

1.7A.3 Homogenization
Homogenization treatment reduces the fat globules to an average of <1 |xm in
diameter. Consequently, no distinct creamy layer (crust) is observed on the surface
of yogurt produced from homogenized mix. In general, homogenized milk produces
soft coagulum in the stomach, which may enhance digestibility.

1.7.2 Changes During Fermentation

1.7.2.1 Carbohydrates
Lactose content of yogurt mix is generally around 6%. During fermentation lactose
is the primary carbon source, resulting in approximately 30% reduction. However,
a significant level of lactose (4.2%) survives in yogurt. One mole of lactose gives
rise to 1 mole of galactose, 2 moles of lactic acid, and energy for bacterial growth
by the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway (Fig. 1.11).
Some strains of ST exhibit both p-galactosidase and phospho-p-D-galactosidase
activity. Therefore, these strains also use a phosphoenolypyruvate-phosphotransferase system. Lactose is converted to lactose phosphate which is hydrolyzed by phospho-|3-D-galactosidase to galactose-6-phosphate and glucose which on glycolysis
gives lactic acid.
Although lactose is in large excess in the fermentation medium, lactic acid build
up beyond 1.5% acts progressively as an inhibitor for further growth of yogurt
bacteria. Normally, the fermentation period is terminated by a temperature drop to
4C. At this temperature, the culture is live but its activity is drastically limited to
allow fairly controlled flavor in marketing channels.
Lactic acid produced by ST is the L-( + ) isomer which physiologically is more
digestible than the D-( ) isomer produced by LB. Yogurt contains both isomers.
The L-( + ) isomer is normally 50 to 70% of the total lactic acid. Normal consumption
levels of yogurt do not pose a hazard from D-( ) lactic acid, relatively large doses
of which have been implicated in toxicity problems in small infants.
Lactic acid production results in coagulation of milk beginning at pH below 5.0
and completing at 4.6. Texture, body, and acid flavor of yogurt owe their origin to
lactic acid produced during fermentation.
Small quantities of organoleptic moieties are generated through carbohydrate catabolism, via volatile fatty acids, ethanol, acetoin, acetic acid, butanone, diacetyl,
and acetaldehyde. Homolactic fermentation in yogurt yields lactic acid as 95% of
the fermentation output. Lactic acid acts as a preservative.

Galactos*

Lactose
2H

Lactose

Galactose

Lac S
bermeasi

Lac S
[permeasd

Galactosd
DermeasJ

Cell Membrane

Lactose
ADP
ATP
2H+
-H
B-galactosidase

Galaetose
Galactokinase

ATP
ADP

Galactose-I-P UDP-Glucose
GaI-I-P uridyl transferasee
Glucose-l-phosphate
UDP-galactose
UDP-glucose-4-epimerase

Glucose
ATP
ADP

HexoKinase
Glucose I-P
lsomerase
UTP
Fructose-6-P

UDP-Glucose
PPI
LELOIR PATHWAY

ATP
ADP

Fructose-l,6-DiP
AJdolase
Glyceraktehyde-3-P
Dihydroxyacetone
Phosphoenolpyruvate
ADP
Pyruvate kinase
ATP
NADH+H +
NAD+

Pyruvate
Lactate dehydrogenase

LACTIC ACID
Figure 1.11 Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway for lactic acid production in yogurt. (From
ref. 20.)

1.7.2.2 Proteins
Hydrolysis of milk proteins is easily measured by liberation of - N H 2 groups during
fermentation. In his review, Loones 21 reported that free amino groups double in
yogurt after 24 h. The proteolysis continues during the shelf life of yogurt, with the
free amino group doubling again in 21 days of storage at 7C. The major amino
acids liberated are proline and glycine. The essential amino acids liberated increase
3.8- to 3.9-fold during storage of yogurt, indicating that various proteolytic enzymes
and peptidases remain active throughout the shelf life of yogurt. The proteolytic
activity of the two yogurt bacteria is moderate but is quite significant in relation to
symbiotic growth of the culture and production of flavor compounds.

1.7.2.3 Lipids
A weak lipase activity results in the liberation of minor amounts of free fatty acids,
particularly stearic and oleic acids. Individual esterases and lipases of yogurt bacteria
appear to be more active toward short-chain fatty acid glycerides than toward longchain substrates. As nonfat and lowfat yogurts comprise the majority of yogurt marketed in the United States, lipid hydrolysis contributes little to the product attributes.

1.7.2.4 Formation of Yogurt Flavor Compounds


Lactic acid, acetaldehyde, acetone, diacetyl, and other carbonyl compounds produced
by fermentation constitute key flavor compounds of yogurt. Acetaldehyde content
varies from 4 to 60 ppm in yogurt. Diacetyl varies from 0.1 to 0.3 ppm and acetic
acid varies from 50 to 200 ppm. These key compounds are produced by yogurt
bacteria. Certain amino acids (threonine, methionine) are known precursors of acetaldehyde. For example, threonine in the presence of threonine aldolase yields glycine and acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde can arise from glucose, via acetyl-CoA or from
nucleic acids, via thymidine of DNA. Diacetyl and acetoin are metabolic products
of carbohydrate metabolism in ST. Acetone and butane-2-one may develop in milk
during prefermentation processing.

1.7.2.5 Synthesis of Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides


Both ST and LB are documented in the literature to elaborate different oligosaccharides in yogurt mix medium. As much as 0.2% (by weight) of mucopolysaccharides
have been observed in a 10-days storage period. In stirred yogurt, drinking yogurt,
and reduced-fat yogurt, potential contributions of exopolysaccharides to impart
smooth texture, higher viscosity, lower synerisis, and better mechanical handling are
possible. Excessive shear during pumping destroys much of the textural advantage
because the viscosity functionality property of the mucopolysaccharides is not too
shear resistant. Most of the polysaccharides elaborated in yogurt contain glucose ana
galactose along with minor quantities of fructose, mannose, arabinose, rhamnose,
xylose, or N-acetylgalactosamine, individually or in combination. The molecular

weight is of the order of 0.5 to 1 million. Intrinsic viscosity range of 1.5 to 4.7 dl g l
has been reported for exopolysaccharides of ST and LB.20 The polysaccharides form
a network of filaments visible under the scanning electron microscope. The bacterial
cells are covered by part of the polysaccharide and the filaments bind the cells and
milk proteins. On shear treatment, the filaments rupture off from the cells, but maintain links with casein micelles. Ropy strains of ST and LB are commercially available. They are especially appropriate for stirred yogurt production.
It is conceivable that some of the exopolysaccharides exert a physiological role
in human nutrition because of their chemical structure resembling fiber of grains and
vegetables.

1.7.2.6 Other Metabolites


Bacteriocins and several antimicrobial compounds are generated by yogurt organisms. Benzoic acid (15 to 30 ppm) in yogurt has been detected and associated with
metabolic activity of the culture. These metabolites tend to exert a preservative effect
by controlling the growth of contaminating spoilage and pathogenic organisms gaining entry postfermentation. As a result, the product attains extension of shelf life
and reasonable degree of safety from foodborne illness.

1.7.2.7 Cell Mass


As a consequence of fermentation, yogurt organisms multiply to a count of 108 to
1010 cfu/g. Yogurt bacteria occupy some 1% of volume or mass of yogurt. These
cells contain cell walls, enzymes, nucleic acids, cellular proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Lactase or P-galactosidase has been shown to contribute a major healthrelated property to yogurt. Clinical studies have concluded that live and active culture
containing yogurt can be consumed by several millions of lactose-deficient individuals in the United States without developing gastrointestinal distress or diarrhea.

1.7.2.8 Minerals
Yogurt is an excellent dietary source of calcium phosphorus, magnesium, and zinc
in human nutrition. Research has shown that bioavilability of the minerals from
yogurt is essentially equal to that from milk. Because yogurt is a low pH product
compared to milk, most of calcium and magnesium occurs in ionic form.
The complete conversion from colloidal form in milk to ionic from in yogurt may
have some bearing on the physiological efficiency of utilization of the minerals.

1.7.2.9 Vitamins
Yogurt bacteria during and after fermentation affect the B-vitamin content of yogurt.
The processing parameters and subsequent storage conditions affect the vitamin
content at the time of consumption of the products. Incubation temperature and
fermentation time exert significant balance between vitamin synthesis and utilization

by the culture. In general, there is a decrease of Vitamin B12, biotin, and pantothenic
acid and an increase of folic acid during yogurt production. Nevertheless, yogurt is
still an excellent source of vitamins inherent to milk.

1.7.3 Postfermentation Changes


These changes refer to the shelf life period of yogurt following manufacture.

1.7.3.1 Refrigerated Yogurt


The chain comprised of distribution, marketing, and retail leading to eventual consumption of product by the consumer may require 4 to 6 weeks of shelf life. Nutritional quality is reasonably preserved by temperatures of 4 to 6C in this chain.
Maintenance of product integrity by appropriate packaging is achieved. However, a
slight increase in acidity (of the order of 0.2%) is noticeable during this period.
Viability of the yogurt culture is also slightly reduced by one log cycle. These
changes are relatively minor compared to the changes observed during fermentation.

1.7.3.2 Soft-Serve Mix and Soft-Serve Yogurt


Soft-serve mix may be marketed refrigerated or frozen until dispensed as soft-serve
frozen yogurt by the operator. If marketed refrigerated, changes similar to those in
refrigerated yogurt are projected in the mix until extrusion through the soft-serve
freezer. If marketed frozen, the mix has to be thawed prior to extrusion. A loss of
1
Zi to 1 log cycle in viable cell counts of yogurt culture may be noticed by the
freeze-thaw cycle. Further destruction of cell viability is possible during the freezing
process through the soft-serve freezer. Other than viable cell counts, no significant
changes are known.

1.7.3.3 Hard-Pack Frozen Yogurt


Shelf-life requirements of 6 to 12 months are possible in this type of yogurt. A loss
of 1A to 1 log cycle in viable counts may be attributed to the freezing process of the
mix. During shelf-life storage conditions, especially fluctuation in temperatures
could have deleterious effect on the viability and activity of yogurt cultures. The
formation of crystals during frozen state conceivably may rupture bacterial cells,
reducing live cell counts progressively.

1.7.4 Prophylactic and Therapeutic Properties


Yogurt dietetically is perceived as a health food of modern times. Historically, culturally rooted legends and anecdotes have characterized the health attributes of yogurt such as exceptional digestibility, curative use for pediatric diarrhea, protection
and maintenance of healthy gut ecology, and even longevity. Metchnikoff27 postulated that LB possesses therapeutic value exercised by suppressing toxin production

Table 1.14 POSSIBLE THERAPEUTIC VALUE OF FERMENTED MILKS,


INCLUDING YOGURT
Disease

Comments

A. Human Alimentary Tract Diseases


Spastic inflammation of colon
Colitis
Geriatric use: plain, prune, or bifidus yogurt; acidophilus milk
Constipation
Caused by antibiotic therapy, e.g., infantile diarrhea from Escherichia
Deficient microflora
coli; radiotherapy side effects; bifidobacteria in the intestine are
enriched (selected for) if the infants diet includes yogurt
Infantile type induced by antibiotics and microbes; Lactobacillus cell
Diarrhea
preparation for traveller's type
Fistulence
Gastric acidity
Hypochlorohydria and hyperchlorhydria
Gastroenteritis
Indigestion
Fermentation improves digestibility of milk
Intoxication
Bacterial toxins
Starvation
Refeeding; sourness and blandness attractive; better digestibility
Stomatitis, gingivitis
Topical use of Lactobacillus cells includes herpes etiologic types
B. Other Human Diseases
Diabetes
Hypercholesteremia
Kidney and bladder
disorders
Lactose intolerance
Liver and bile disorders
Miscellaneous disorders
Obesity
Skin disorders
Tuberculosis
Vaginitis and urinary
tract infections
Source:

Reduced hyperglycemia and hyperglycosuria incidences


Prophylactic effect of milk ferment

Yogurt is well tolerated with no symptoms


Use of yogurt, bifidus milk, bifidogenic factor (lactulose)
Catarrh, rheumatism, malaise, migraine, nervous fatigue
Dietetic weight loss
Topical therapeutic or cosmetic use for freckles, wrinkles, sunburn,
ulcers and canker; infected cancers
Koumiss used in TB sanatoria; yogurt used for liver disorders
secondary to extrapulmonary TB
Consumption of yogurt containing acidophilus drastically reduces
incidence

Bourlioux and Pochart,32 Driesen and DeBoer,33 and Hitchins and McDonough.34

of putrefactive bacteria in the human intestine. This conclusion was based on his
study of inhabitants of the Balkans, who consumed a rather large quantity of Bulgarian buttermilk in their diets and displayed extraordinary vigor and longevity.
This section summarizes state-of-the-art information related to health attributes
of yogurt. Prophylaxis signifies protection or prevention against diseases whereas
therapeutic aspects relate to cure following illness. Detailed information on health
related effects of yogurt is available in recent literature. 1 ' 28 ' 31
Table 1.14 lists possible therapeutic usage of fermented milk including yogurt.
The list includes suggested applications which are not necessarily supported by scientific data. The possible mode of nutritional and health benefits of yogurt consumption are outlined in Figure 1.12.

Yogurt
Health
Benefits

Nutritional
Benefits

Proteins

Energy

Minerals

Vitamins

Yogurt Bacteria Cell Mass


Lysis

Cell Walls

Enzymes
B-galactosidase
Lactose digestion
by lactase
non-persistent
individuals

Immune
modulation
system

Detoxification of
harmful products

lngesttonof
intact ceils
Restoration of
ecological balance
of intestinal flora

Reduction in
liberation of
carcinogenic
end products

Suppression of
foodborne
pathogens

Figure 1.12 Possible mode of nutritional and health benefits via yogurt intake.

1.7.4.1 Antibiosis
The primary prophylactic and therapeutic properties of yogurt seem to be related to
the antibiosis of yogurt attributed to fermentation products and bacterial enzymes.
The antibiosis due to fermentation products include organic acids, oxidation-reduction (OR) potential, bacteriocins, and antibiotic substances (Table 1.15). The antibiosis due to bacterial enzymes includes bacterial deconjugation of bile salts. More
than one factor may be responsible for antibiosis.
Antibiosis due to organic (e.g., acetic, lactic, and propionic) acids is possibly the
most important. During growth, as organic acids are produced the acidity increases
and pH decreases. The pH is a function of the acid dissociation constant. Organic
acids dissociate weakly and the undissociated acidic species is detrimental to foodborne pathogens. The undissociated acidic species can penetrate into the bacterial
cell. S. enteritidis and E. coli are reportedly inhibited by undissociated lactic acid.
Also, acidophilus yogurt and traditional yogurt are bacteriocidal to Yersinia

Table 1.15 NATURAL ANTIMICROBIAL SUBSTANCES


PRODUCED BY LACTIC ACID BACTERIA
Species

Compound

Lactobacillus acidophilus

Acidolin
Acidophilin
Lactocidin
Lactacin B
Protein
Unnamed
Lactobacillin
Lactobrevin
Bulgarican
Unnamed
Bacteriocin
Lactacin 27
Helvetican J
Lactolin
Nisin
Pediocin AcH
Bacteriocin
Bacteriocin
Bacteriocin
Unnamed
Unnamed
Unnamed

Lactobacillus brevis
Lactobacillus delbruechii ssp. bulgaricus
Lactobacillus fermenti 466
Lactobacillus helveticus LP21
481
Lactobacillus plantarum
Lactococcus lactis
Pediococcus acidilactici H
PAClO
Pediococcus pentosaceus FBB61
L7230
Streptococcus thermophilus

Adapted from Femandes and Shahani (1989).35

enterocolitca, and the effect is attributed to undissociated lactic acid. Antibiosis due
to undissociated acid is efficacious in yogurt in vitro, but may be extremely weak
in the gastrointestinal tract, as the high pH would neutralize the acid to its salt form.
Fermentation products produced during growth of yogurt culture lower the oxidation-reduction potential ( h ). A positive Eh favors aerobes whereas a negative Eh
favors anaerobes. Some lactic acid bacteria produce hydrogen peroxide in small
quantity. Because the gastrointestinal tract is anaerobic, it is doubtful if hydrogen
peroxide per se would significantly lower the OR potential. However, hydrogen
peroxide may be effective through the lactoperoxidase-thiocyanate system. The
hydrogen peroxide oxidizes the thiocyanate to toxic oxidation products that are detrimental to foodbome pathogens.
The antibiosis due to bacteriocins and antibiotic substances may be greater in the
gastrointestinal tract than in food systems. Lactobacilli produce bacteriocins with
significant bacteriocidal effect toward foodborne pathogens. Although the effect has
been elucidated in the in vitro food system its prophylactic role in the gastrointestinal
tract has to be proven conclusively. Skepticism has been expressed regarding the
antibiosis effect of bacteriocins in the gastrointestinal tract, which functionally
abounds with proteolytic enzymes.

Antibiosis may be observed in the gastrointestinal tract due to deconjugation of


bile salts, which are more detrimental to the growth of bacteria than conjugated bile
salts. Viable lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can deconjugate bile salts in the intestine
and thus suppress the foodborne pathogens.

/. 7.4.2 Antibiosis and Diarrhea


There is a scientific consensus that LAB are antagonistic toward foodbome pathogens in vitro. The foodborne pathogens produce toxins in food resulting in food
intoxication, or may multiply in food to cause infection. LAB may hinder the proliferation of some foodborne pathogens in the food system. Thus establishment of
LAB in the gastrointestinal tract may provide prophylactic and therapeutic benefits
against intestinal infections. Prophylaxis may have some beneficial role in circumventing travelers' diarrhea.35
One cause of gastrointestinal disturbance is the alteration in the intestinal microbiota following invasion or infection by foodborne pathogens. The observed decrease
in the coliform count in yogurt has been attributed to the low pH produced by the
lactic acid. Some pathogens must establish or colonize the gastrointestinal tract before the onset of the disease. LAB may hinder the colonization and subsequent
proliferation of the foodborne pathogens, thereby preventing the disease state. This
rationale has been used for treating some gastrointestinal diseases with yogurt. Further, milk products reduce the number or eliminate the foodborne pathogens that
have a potential to produce toxin in the food system and the gastrointestinal tract by
elaborating antimicrobial substances. The production of antimicrobial substances is
dependent on the genera, species, strain, incubation medium, and other conditions.
Cultured milk foods containing viable lactobacilli have been used by humans
primarily as a prophylactic aid and their use has been extended to intestinal infections. Dietary lactobacilli also have been used for the treatment of infantile diarrhea.
Some scientific evidence exists to suggest that viable lactobacilli contained in fermented milk may be more efficacious to treat gastrointestinal disorders than the
administration of antibiotics. More work involving controlled clinical studies using
double-blind treatment with viable cultures of host-specific LAB is essential to clarify the therapeutic benefits. Further, diarrheal diseases may exhibit similar symptoms
but there may be marked differences in their etiologies. The LAB may have more
promise in prophylaxis than in therapy.

1.7.4.3 Cholesterol Reduction


There has been an increasing awareness that serum cholesterol and health are correlated. High serum cholesterol has been linked to an increase in the number of
deaths from atherosclerotic heart diseases. Dietary practices have been modified to
reduce serum cholesterol. Epidemiological evidence linking large daily intakes of
fermented cow's milk (8 L/d) to low serum cholesterol level in Massai warriors
exists in the literature.

Clinical results related to cholesterol reduction from human studies have been
controversial. McNamara et al.36 found no changes in serum cholesterol levels in
young normolipidemic male subjects consuming low-fat yogurt as a part of an American Heart Association diet (low fat, low cholesterol). The controversial data in the
literature may be related to factors such as strains of cultures, lipidemic status of the
subjects, exercise-diet relationships, etc.

1.7.4.4 Anticarcinogenic Property


Epidemiological studies suggest that fermented milks suppress the onset of carcinogenesis. The alteration in intestinal microbiota is apparently responsible for the
anticarcinogenic attribute. Animal models deployed to delineate the anticarcinogenic
role may be broadly divided into prevention of cancer initiation and suppression of
initiated tumor.

Prevention of Cancer Initiation


Consumption of yogurt containing viable LAB may reduce the possible initiation of
colon cancer. The favorable change in intestinal microbiota can directly and indirectly reduce the conversion of procarcinogens to carcinogens.

Direct Reduction of Procarcinogens


Nitrites used in food processing can be converted into nitrosamines in the gastrointestinal tract. The conversion could possibly be reduced if LAB deplete nitrite
through cellular uptake in the gastrointestinal tract. Secondly, bile salts and their
derivatives may initiate colon carcinogenesis. Clostridium, Bacteroides, and Eubacterium are some of the genera that biotransform bile salt from the primary to secondary form. Studies have shown that L. acidophilus decreased the rate of conversion
of the primary bile acid, chenodeoxycholic acid, to its secondary derivative in vitro.
Based on this observation it was extrapolated that high numbers of viable L. acidophilus in the gastrointestinal tract may reduce the potential for cancer initiation.

Indirect Reduction of Procarcinogens


Bacterial procarcinogenic enzymes in feces (such as azoreductase, p-glucuronidase,
and nitroreductase) are used to monitor mucosal carcinogenesis, as they convert the
procarcinogens to carcinogens. The potential for initiation of carcinogenesis increases when the enzyme level is high. Ingestion of some fermented dairy products
reduces the level of the enzymes in feces.

Suppression of Initiated Cancer


Feeding or injection of yogurt suppresses the growth of implanted tumors in experimental animals. Tumor growth was suppressed significantly in mice in a short-term
study of 1 to 2 weeks but survival rate for rodents was not significantly increased
in a long-term study.

Mechanism of Suppression of Tumors


The tumor suppression mechanism has been hypothesized partially in short-term
studies. Whole viable and dead cells as well as cell wall fragments suppressed growth
initiated tumor, whereas non-cell-wall solids did not show any effect. The antitumor
effect is likely to be mediated through the immune response of the host.

1.7.4.5 Lactose Intolerance


The disaccharide lactose of milk is hydrolyzed by lactase and subsequently absorbed
in the small intestine. The lactase is a constitutive, membrane-bound enzyme present
in the brush borders of the small intestinal epithelial cells. When lactose enters the
colon, the colonic flora ferment it generating organic acids, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen. The fermentation products, together with the osmotically driven excessive
water drawn into the colon, are chiefly responsible for abdominal pain, bloating,
cramps, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and flatulence. These symptoms are associated
with lactose intolerance when lactose is not digested in the small intestine.

Lactose Digestion Status


The terms lactase deficiency, lactose intolerance, lactose malabsorption, and milk
intolerance have often been used interchangeably. Low lactase activity can be
broadly categorized into three main types:
1. Congenital lactase deficiency (or alactasia): In this extremely rare occurrence,
lactase is missing throughout life, although the histology of the intestinal mucosa
is normal.
2. Primary adult lactase deficiency (or hypolactasia): This condition refers to the
normal development of age-related decrease in lactose digestion capacity. In a
majority of the world's adult population, intestinal lactase activity is low, which
is considered to be normal. Therefore, it has been recommended that primary
adult lactase deficiency be renamed as "lactase non-persistence" and that lactase
persistence be used to describe the individuals who retain abundant intestinal
lactase due to an autosomal dominant trait.
3. Lactase deficiency: This is a transient state of low lactase in previously lactasepersistent individuals following injury to the small intestinal mucosa as a result
of disease such as celiac sprue, infectious gastroenteritis, or protein malnutrition.
Lactose malabsorption implies the incomplete digestion of lactose that results in a
flat or low rise in blood sugar following a lactose intolerance test. It reflects the
outcome, but it is not the primary cause of the condition. Lactose intolerance is
defined as the occurrence of clinical signs (diarrhea, bloating, flatulence) or subjective symptoms (abdominal pain, gaseousness) following intake of lactose in a standard lactose tolerance test in a person with proven lactose malabsorption.

Lactose Intolerance and Yogurt


Lactase nonpersistent individuals can ingest a large quantity of yogurt without exhibiting the symptoms associated with lactose intolerance. The increased lactose
tolerance may be attributed primariy to the increased lactose digestibility in the
gastrointestinal tract by the lactase of ST and LB.
Clinical data have shown that the amount of hydrogen (a measure of lactose
intolerance) produced was significantly lower for yogurt than for milk. Diarrhea or
flatulence experienced by the individuals ingesting milk is virtually eliminated in
the individuals consuming yogurt. Lactase activity in the duodenal area is negligible
just after ingestion but increases appreciably for an hour or so following ingestion
of yogurt. Accordingly, yogurt is tolerated better by lactase nonpersistent individuals
than milk.

Mechanism of Lactose Tolerance


Unheated yogurt containing live and active flora is tolerated better by lactase nonpersistent individuals than pasteurized yogurt.37 Both yogurt and pasteurized yogurt
contain equal concentrations of lactose. Pasteurization of yogurt reduces lactase activity significantly. Thus, viable yogurt organisms and their intact lactase are essential to increase lactose tolerance of the lactase nonpersistent individuals.
Differences in the lactase activity among yogurt cultures are known. The lactase
activity also increases in the presence of bile salts which disrupt the bacterial cell
and release lactase. To harness the increase in lactose tolerance attribute of yogurt
to the full extent, it is recommended to screen the cultures for lactase activity.

Passage of LAB Through the Gastrointestinal Tract


The yogurt culture and the enzyme lactase must survive in the gastrointestinal tract
to provide the beneficial properties. The health benefits will be sustained only if
yogurt culture and its constituents are not killed or denatured by the acidic environment of stomach, nor lactase is hydrolyzed by the stomach proteases. Indeed, evidence is available to demonstrate that when viable culture is consumed, the dairy
constituents offer excellent buffering capacity. Further, because the culture cells in
yogurt are conditioned to a low pH environment, their survivability may be higher
during their transit through the stomach's acidic environment.
The passage of yogurt culture through the gastrointestinal tract has also been
studied in vivo. The survivability of L. delbruechii Subsp. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus may be higher when consumed through yogurt, as yogurt has a higher
buffering capacity. The buffering capacity of yogurt and milk is principally due to
proteins contained in higher milk solids content of yogurt. Pochart et al.3S also
studied the passage of yogurt's bacteria and lactase through the gastrointestinal tract
of lactase nonpersistent individuals. The subjects were intubated with a simple lumen
tube. Under radioscopic control, the tip of the tube was placed in the third portion
of the duodenum. Subjects ingested live and active yogurt or pasteurized yogurt,
along with polyethylene glycol and spores of Bacillus stearothermophilus. Both B.

stearothermophilus and yogurt bacteria were detected in the duodenal tract following
ingestion. The B. stearothermophilus count was reduced by 1 log cycle, probably
due to a dilution effect, whereas the LAB count was reduced by 5 log cycles due to
dilution or cellular death. The lactase activity was also detected in the duodenal tract,
but the activity was significantly lower after 90 min. This experiment provides the
direct evidence for the presence of yogurt organisms and lactase in the gastrointestinal tract.
In a recent article, Marteau et al.39 reported results of an in vivo study in lactase
nonpersistent humans. They fed the subjects yogurt, heated yogurt, and milk to
determine lactose absorption patterns. They confirmed that 18 g of lactose fed in
yogurt was better absorbed from yogurt (1.7 g of 18 g or 10% of lactose unabsorbed)
than from heated yogurt (2.8 g of 18 g or 15% of lactose unabsorbed) or from milk.
Using an intestinal perfusion technique, they found a significantly lower amount of
intact lactose in the ileum when yogurt was in the diet as compared to heated yogurt
or milk. They indicated that >90% of the lactose in yogurt is digested in the small
intestine of lactase nonpersistent subjects. They suggested that lactase activity contained in the yogurt culture and a slow oro-cecal transit time associated with yogurt
ingestion are both involved in the excellent absorption of the lactose from yogurt.

1.7.4.6 Immune Modulation


Limited evidence has been presented in the reviews mentioned previously to suggest
that yogurt may have potential role in augmenting the immune system of the host.
Furthermore, the observed enhancement in immunocompetence markers is lost if
yogurt is heat sterilized. If corroborated by future studies with humans, this observation could provide a scientific rationale for the suggested use of yogurt in prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal disturbances (diarrhea, enteritis, colitis). Feeding yogurt has been shown to boost serum immunoglobulins (Ig2a) in mice in
comparison with milk feeding. The immune response was not observed with heattreated yogurt in which viability of yogurt culture was destroyed. In most of the
human volunteers, yogurt consumption has been shown to enhance significantly the
serum 7-interferon production and a boost in natural killer cell numbers in the peripheral blood. It is postulated that NK cells may further stimulate production of
several cytokines helpful in maintaining activity and functional potency of the immune system of the host. This appears to be a plausible mechanism how the defense
system of the host may modulate in yogurt mediated control of chronic infections
and cancer (tumor) incidence. De Simone et al.40 further suggested that yogurt bacteria may reduce intestinal monocytes and lymphocytes to elaborate Interluken 1
and 2, which in turn may activate resting NK cells to produce 7-interferon, proliferate
NK cell production, and exert cytotoxicity (lymphokine activated killing). Certain
strains of lactobacilli appear to exert a positive effect on activation of macrophage
functions and antibody production.
Halpern et al.41 reported the results obtained in a human study of long-term yogurt
consumption in young adults. The subjects consumed 16 oz. of yogurt daily for four
months. A remarkable increase in 7-interferon production by isolated T cells in

subjects consuming yogurt containing live and active cultures was observed. This
effect was not noticed in subjects consuming yogurt containing heat-inactivated culture. No negative side-effects were found in the haemotological and blood chemistry
values as a result of high levels of consumption of yogurt. In contrast, the researchers
found that yogurt consumption resulted in potentially beneficial increases in serum
ionized calcium levels.

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Yogurt: Nutritional and Health Properties, pp. 201-213. National Yogurt Association, McLean,
VA.
41. Halpern, G. M., K. G. Vruwink, J. Van de Water, C. L. Keen, and M. E. Gershwin. (1991). Influence
of long-term yoghurt consumption in young adults. International J. Immunotherapy 7(4):205-210.

CHAPTER
2

Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts


Rafael Jimenez-Flores, Norman J. Klipfel,
and Joseph Tobias
2.1 Introduction, 59
2.1.1 Steps in the Manufacture of Ice Cream, 59
2.1.2 Ice Cream as a "Generic" Name, 60
2.1.3 Government Regulations, 60
2.1.4 Types of Frozen Desserts, 61
2.2 Selection of Ingredient, 61
2.2.1 Sources of Dairy Products, 62
2.2.2 Nonconcentrated Milk Products, 63
2.2.3 Concentrated Milk Products, 67
2.2.4 Perishable Concentrated Milk Products, 67
2.2.5 Dehydrated Concentrated Milk Products, 69
2.2.6 Dry Whey, 73
2.2.7 Buttermilk Dried, 73
2.2.8 Other Dry Ingredients, 74
2.2.9 Preserved Fluid Concentrated Milk Products, 74
2.2.10 Frozen Concentrated Milk Products, 75
2.2.11 Substitutes for Dairy Products, 75
2.2.12 Sweetening Agents, 76
2.2.13 Sucrose, 79
2.2.14 Dextrose, 80
2.2.15 Corn Syrups, 81
2.2.16 Honey, 82
2.2.17 Stabilizers, 82
2.2.18 The Mode of Stabilizer Action, 87
2.2.19 Emulsifiers, 90
2.2.20 Miscellaneous Ingredients, 92
2.3 Calculations and Mix Standardization, 92
2.3.1 Calculating MSNF in Skim Milk and Cream, 92
2.3.2 Standardization of Ice Cream MixesThe Simplest Case, 93
2.3.3 The Serum Point Method of Mix Standardization, 94
2.3.4 Algebraic Method of Mix Standardization, 100
2.3.5 Restandardizing a Mix of Erroneous Composition, 104

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7
2.8
2.9

2.3.6 Mix Made in a Vacuum Pan, 108


2.3.7 Calculating Density and Degrees Baume (Be), 109
Formulation, 110
2.4.1 Premium and Superpremium Products, 112
2.4.2 The "All-Natural" Designation, 113
2.4.3 Formulations for a Plain (White) Ice Cream Mix, 114
2.4.4 Formulations for a Chocolate Ice Cream Mix, 114
2.4.5 Fruit Ice Cream, 115
2.4.6 Products Containing 2 to 7% Fat, 116
2.4.7 Products Containing 0 to 2% Fat, 117
2.4.8 Sherbets and Ices, 117
2.4.9 Direct-Draw Shakes, 118
2.4.10 Frozen Yogurt, 119
2.4.11 Other Frozen Desserts, 119
2.4.12 Nonstandardized Products, 120
Mix Processing, 121
2.5.1 Pasteurization, 121
2.5.1.1 Assembly of Ingredients, 121
2.5.1.2 Pasteurization, 122
2.5.1.3 Batch Pasteurization, 123
2.5.1.4 Continuous Pasteurization, 123
2.5.1.5 Effect of Heat Treatment, 124
2.5.2 Homogenization, 125
2.5.2.1 Homogenization Temperature, 125
2.5.2.2 Location of the Homogenizer, 125
2.5.2.3 Homogenizing Pressures, 126
2.5.2.4 Condition of the Homogenizer, 127
2.5.3 Mix Cooling and Storage, 127
2.5.3.1 Aging of the Mix, 127
2.5.3.2 Mix Packaging, 129
Flavoring of Frozen Desserts, 129
2.6.1 Flavor Character and Intensity, 132
2.6.2 Quantity of Flavoring, 133
2.6.3 Propriety Flavorings, 134
2.6.4 Vanilla Flavor, 134
2.6.5 Chocolate Flavor, 135
Freezing of the Mix, 136
2.7.1 Amount of Water Frozen, 138
Ice Cream Hardening, 142
Defects of Ice Cream, 145
2.9.1 Defects Identified by Sight, 146
2.9.2 Defective Container, 146
2.9.3 Product Appearance, 146
2.9.4 Meltdown Characteristics of Ice Cream, 146
2.9.5 Defects of Texture, 147
2.9.6 Defects in Body, 147
2.9.7 Flavor Defects, 147

2.9.8 Defects Contributed by the Dairy Ingredients, 148


2.9.9 Defects Due to Mix Processing and Storage, 149
2.9.10 Defects Due to Flavoring Materials, 149
2.9.11 Defects Due to Sweetening Agents, 149
2.9.12 Defects Due to Storage of Ice Cream, 149
2.9.13 Defects of Frozen Dessert Novelties, 150
2.10 Plant Management, 151
2.11 Active Areas of Research in Ice Cream, 153
2.11.1 Ice Cream Mix, 153
2.11.2 Ice Cream Structure, 155
2.11.3 Processing and Freezing, 156
2.12 References, 157

2.1 Introduction
The historical aspects of the development of ice cream and the ice cream manufacturing industry will not be discussed here, as that information is available from other
sources, particularly earlier books on the subject of ice cream.1"13 Suffice it to say
that the manufacture of ice cream has progressed from a homemaker's art to a
sophisticated factory operation; from a largely manual to a more or less automated
process; and from a product of variable composition to one whose composition is
carefully selected and precisely monitored. From a limited number of options, the
ice cream industry has engendered a whole family of products distinguished by a
variety of shapes, flavors and flavor combinations, composition, packages, and consistency at serving time.

2.1.1 Steps in the Manufacture of Ice Cream


The basic steps in the manufacture of ice cream are generally as follows:
1. Selection of mix ingredients
a. Dairy products
b. Sweetening agents
c. Stabilizers and emulsifiers
d. Others including artificial color, flavorings that are incorporated into the mix
such as cocoa and chocolate liquor, and in a few instances other optional
generally regarded as safe (GRAS) additives
2. Weighing and assembly (mixing) of the ingredients
3. Pasteurization of the ice cream mix
4. Homogenization and cooling of the mix
5. Aging of the mix. If the mix is intended for sale to freezer operators, a mix
packaging step is required.
The mix manufacturing process is now completed and the mix is either sold or frozen
into ice cream, in-house. Following are the steps in the production of hard ice cream:

1. Selection of flavoring materials and any preliminary preparation of the flavoring


for use (e.g., thawing of frozen fruit)
2. Adding flavoring to the mix
3. Freezing
4. When required, adding flavoring to the ice cream as it emerges from the freezer
(e.g., incorporation of fruit, nut, candy, or syrup)
5. Packaging
6. Hardening.
When a soft-serve product is frozen in a restaurant or drive-in, the hardening step is
omitted and the flavoring is generally restricted to a single flavor per freezer. The
freezer is not of the same type as used in the manufacture of hard ice cream (see
Vol. Ill, Chapters 3 and 4). Conventional ice cream requires freezers with rapid
agitation during the freezing process and with a mechanism for controlled air incorporation. Certain types of products, such as ices on a stick, are frozen without
agitation or air incorporation. Although these products are members of the frozen
dessert family, they obviously have a different consistency and mouthfeel.

2.1.2 Ice Cream as a "Generic" Name


In conversation, the term "ice cream" may be used "generically" to include all
products that resemble each other, that is, they are frozen desserts that have been
frozen under similar conditions and are similar in appearance and consistency. They
may differ in composition and source of food solids, but they are frozen under
agitation and have varying amounts of air incorporated. Labeling requirements, however, clearly differentiate between these products. Without exception each must comply with any applicable local, state, and country labeling requirements. Because
labeling laws are subject to change, it is important to be aware of all current applicable regulations.

2.1.3 Government Regulations


Regulations pertaining to ice cream and related products may originate at all levels
of government, from local to national. This also applies to definitions of products
and their composition. Among the regulations requiring compliance are labeling
laws, pure food laws, public health regulations, and OSHA and EPA requirements.
To determine whether plants comply with legal standards, regulatory agencies inspect plants and examine products for composition and bacterial content. Historically, the dairy industry has been highly regulated and closely monitored; ice cream
manufacture is no exception.
The ice cream manufacturer not only must comply with all regulatory requirements, but must also be on guard against infringing on any existing patents and
registered trade marks.

2.1.4 Types of Frozen Desserts


Frozen desserts defined under standards of identity (2ICFR, see Appendix) include
ice cream, ice milk, frozen custard (or French ice cream), fruit sherbet, nonfruit
sherbet, water ices (fruit and nonfruit), and mellorine. Under consideration are proposed standards for frozen yogurt (including low-fat and nonfat) and reduced-fat,
low-fat, and nonfat ice cream. The reduced-fat ice cream would replace and have
essentially the same definition as the present ice milk. The suggested dividing line
between reduced and low-fat is 2% fat. The fat content of the nonfat product could
not exceed 0.5%. In response to the favorable acceptance of foods with a reduced
fat content, many companies are offering a line of products under the designation
of "light." It remains to be seen whether both terms, reduced-fat and light, will be
acceptable in the event that a reduced-fat ice cream is legally defined. Because
additional products may be defined in some states and localities, there is need to
consult the appropriate agencies and comply with any applicable regulations before
a product is marketed.
Frozen desserts with names that differ from those defined in the federal standards
may be encountered. Some may comply with a particular state standard (e.g., Bisque
Tortoni in Pennsylvania),8 some may be nonstandardized products, and some may
comply with the federal definition but use a name that conveys a special characteristic
of the product. Gelato, for example, may comply with the federal definition but is
perceived as being richly flavored, quite sweet, and somewhat softer than ice cream.
Other examples are sorbet, a richly fruit flavored water ice, and Italian ice, which is
expected to be somewhat coarser in texture. A mousse is perceived as a rich, creamy,
and smooth-textured frozen dessert.
Items described as frozen novelties may also belong to one of the defined categories (federal or state) or be nonstandardized. They include coated and uncoated
bars with or without sticks, and individual serving or "snack" size frozen desserts
in a variety of shapes, combinations (flavoring, syrup, nutmeats, cones, wafers, etc.),
and wrappers or packages.
The variety of the types of frozen desserts is illustrated by two other examples.
Direct-draw milk shakes, or just plain "shakes," are defined by states to contain a
specified fat and total milk solids content. The inclusion of the word "milk" in the
name of the product generally triggers a fat content requirement similar to that of
fluid milk. The definition of a "shake" may not include a fat content specification
but the actual requirements should be ascertained by checking with local authorities.
Parevine is a frozen dessert formulated to satisfy certain religious dietary requirements. It is an all-vegetarian product containing no milk solids. In this case, consultation with applicable religious authorities may be useful even if a state definition
exists.

2.2 Selection of Ingredients


With some exceptions, ice cream and related products require ingredients that provide fat, milk-solids-not-fat (MSNF), sweetening agents, stabilizers, and emulsifiers.

Exceptions include products such as water ices and sorbets that contain no dairy
ingredients, nonfat frozen desserts, and some "natural" products that contain no
stabilizer or emulsifier. All ingredients must satisfy the safety and purity requirements of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), but there is a wide choice of
appropriate products from which to choose. The major reasons for selecting specific
ingredients may be summarized as follows:
Cost
Availability
Quality
Desired product characteristics (flavor, body and texture, color etc.)
Consumer preference
Protection against heat shock
Desired freezing point
Desire to label as "natural"
Type of finished product (e.g., nonfat, soft-serve, sherbet, etc.)
Economy grade vs. premium product
Handling capability (e.g., availability of liquid storage vats)
Quality of service and technical support
Personal preference of managers
A product that physically resembles ice cream can be made with any number of
ingredients, with or without dairy products. However, milkfat, milk-solids-not-fat,
sugar with or without other sweeteners, and stabilizers (the traditional ingredients
or components of ice cream) impart certain intrinsic properties to the taste and
mouthfeel that cannot be easily duplicated by substitution with other ingredients.
Thus, the success of new products that depart from the traditional composition depends on either how closely they approach the familiar ice cream properties, or how
readily the consumer is willing to accept the new ones.
All of the ice cream components impart certain properties to ice cream. A summary is presented in Table 2.1. In-depth impact of flavoring components was not
included in Table 2.1 because this extremely important subject will be addressed
separately, later.

2.2.1 Sources of Dairy Products


Dairy products supply milkfat and milk-solids-not-fat (MSNF), sometimes also referred to as serum solids (SS). Because of a difference in composition, a distinction
must be drawn between MSNF and whey solids (WS) although both provide nonfat
milk solids. The quantitative composition of MSNF obtained from different sources
of milk may not be exactly the same, but the same constituents are present, only at
times in somewhat different concentrations. The composition of whey solids may
also vary in protein, lactose, and mineral content, particularly when one of the approved modified whey products is used. The compositions of MSNF and WS are
given in Table 2.2.

Ideally, the choice of ingredients should be based on considerations that address


their sensory and bacteriological quality. Certain ingredients may be selected because
they provide the functional properties needed to achieve some desired product characteristics. This is the case even to a greater extent with the nondairy ingredients. In
practice, economic factors as well as product availability may affect the selection
process, but one should never completely lose sight of quality when choosing a
particular ingredient.
Sensory and bacteriological quality can be assessed only by actual test. As a
general guideline, fresh dairy ingredients should provide the most desirable flavor
characteristics, but they can do so reliably only if they actually are of high quality
as determined by appropriate tests. As fresh dairy products are quite perishable, one
must guard against quality deterioration. Although non-spore-forming bacteria, even
if present in high numbers, are usually destroyed by pasteurization, bacterial enzymes
released from the dead cells may remain active. Ingredients with low bacterial count
therefore are favored because bacteria may cause deterioriation prior to pasteurization and bacterial enzymes may continue to be a problem after pasteurization.
Because ice cream is a precisely formulated product, the exact composition of
the ingredients must be known. This information can only be obtained from an
analysis, usually for percent fat and total solids (TS). (% TS minus % fat =
% MSNF.) In some circumstances a quantitative analysis of casein, total protein,
lactose, and ash also may be required. The composition of a number of ingredients
is given in Table 2.3. However, due to the variability of the milk supply, these figures
provide only a rough guide, something that must be kept in mind when formulating
ice cream mixes.

2.2.2 Nonconcentrated Milk Products


Included in this group are milk and skim milk. When a plant is designed to receive
raw milk from producers or has some arrangement to obtain fresh milk or skim milk
of highest quality possibly from a sister milk plant in an adjoining or nearby location,
advantages may be derived from the use of as much of these ingredients as a particular ice cream formulation permits. If freshness is a desired criterion, these ingredients are potentially the freshest, providing they are used without undue delay. It
should be noted that the use of fresh milk or skim milk in formulating an ice cream
mix is usually desirable but is not an absolute requirement, as other ingredients also
can provide good quality milk solids. When working with raw ingredients, one must
take precautions against the development of rancid flavor due to lipase (fat splitting
enzyme) action. Prolonged exposure and the simultaneous presence of homogenized
milkfat are major contributing factors. The subject is addressed further later in this
chapter (Sections 2.9.8 and 2.9.9).
Another possible nonconcentrated dairy ingredient, sweet cream buttermilk, requires a source in the immediate vicinity of the ice cream plant and therefore is not
commonly used. Even when readily available, it must be handled immediately and
carefully to avoid quality problems, particularly those affecting flavor (oxidation).

Table 2.1

SOME PROPERTIES OF ICE CREAM COMPONENTS**


Functions

Precautions

Milkfat

Imparts a pleasing body and mouthfeel; sensation of richness; pleasing


flavor; flavor carrier and contributor
to total flavor blend; its emulsion
stabilizing membrane undergoes
complex rearrangements as a result
of homogenization and aging, and
through interaction with other mix
constituents.

Greasy, churned butter sensation due


to excessive shear or faulty homogenization; source of rancid flavor due
to lipolysis; source of oxidized, tallowy, cardboardy flavor

Milk-solids-notfat (MSNF) (skim


milk solids)

Level should be chosen to "balance" the formula to complement


the flavor and yield the desired
body; proteins are involved in interactions and complex formations with
other mix constituents; "structure"
buildup of ice cream; stabilization of
fat emulsion; whipping properties;
water binding; gel formation; meltdown properties. Lactose provides
minimal sweet taste and is a reducing sugar. Minerals significantly affect the colloidal casein structure.
Lactose and minerals are soluble
solids that contribute to freezing
point depression.

Excessive lactose may crystallize


and produce a sandy texture; source
of "condensed milk," cooked and
caramel flavor; proteins are believed
to be involved in the "shrinkage
problem"; excessive levels may impart a salty taste; an imbalance of
specific ions may affect protein behavior and consequent product properties.

Whey solids (WS)

Used as a partial replacement for


MSNF; most commonly used for
economic reasons. Modified wheys
(e.g., products obtained by membrane filtration) have a higher protein content and potentially new
functionality. Lactose and minerals
are soluble solids that contribute to
freezing point lowering.

Unless modified, have lower protein


and higher lactose content than
MSNF; there are legal limitations on
permitted use level; excessive levels
may impart "whey flavor," salty
taste, and encourage sandiness.
Since the physical, chemical, and
functional properties of whey proteins differ from those of casein,
their optimum level should be determined for specific product applications.

Sucrose

Provides soluble solids and sweet


taste; is pure sweethas no other
tastes or odors; complements flavors
and contributes to desirable flavor
blends; contributes to freezing point
depression and body characteristics.

When used in excess, product becomes too sweet and possibly too
soft; the opposite is true when sugar
level is too low.

Dextrose (glucose
or corn sugar)

Provides soluble solids and sweet


taste; not as sweet as sucrose; lowers freezing point to a greater extent
than sucrose.

Ice cream tends to be softer when


drawn, and softer and faster melting
after hardening.

Component

(Continued)

Table 2.1 (Continued)


Component

Functions

Precautions

Com syrup solids

Table 2.6 provides additional details


on a number of products in the corn
syrup group; provide soluble solids
and sweetness; the group offers a
choice of sweetening power levels,
varying degrees of freezing point
lowering, and water binding properties; convenient means for increasing total solids and improving heat
shock resistance; provide one of the
means by which the body of the ice
cream may be "tailored" to possess
desired characteristics.

Some may lack the desired bland


flavor and impart a "syrupy," caramel, or cereal flavor; there may be
instances of a subdued flavor release
in the ice cream.

Stabilizers

Affect tactile properties, thus aid in


attaining the desired type of body;
produce high viscosity in the unfrozen serum which should assist in
maintaining a smooth texture; discouragement of the growth of lactose crystals by gums has been advanced as a possible reason for the
reduced incidence of the sandy defect. Table 2.7 contains details on a
number of thickening agents.

Excess may cause a gummy body,


poor melting properties, and possibly flavor masking; some may cause
whey separation in the mix and
melted ice cream.

Emulsifiers

By "controlled" deemulsification,
they promote a drier appearing product at the freezer outlet and a sensation of "richness." Smaller air cells
and improved whipping properties
can also be observed. Additional details are presented in Table 2.7,

Excessive levels may cause chuming; may cause excessive whipping


in a batch freezer; fat separation
may be problem particularly in softserve and high-fat-containing mixes;
may impart off-flavors, especially if
they contain oleic or other unsaturated fatty acids.

Egg yolk solids

Provide characteristic flavor to frozen custard (or French ice cream);


provide "natural" emulsification.

Egg flavor may not be desired in ice


cream; standards of identity limit to
<1.4% in ice cream and 2*1.4% in
frozen custard; contributed emulsifier function may become excessive
if used in addition to other emulsifiers.

Total solids content

Provides way to affect body, texture,


and heat shock properties; high total
solids (especially high fat) and low
overrun are typical of premium ice
cream

Low total solids and high overrun


produce a weak body; too high total
solids produce a heavy body.

(Continued)

Table 2.1 (Continued)


Component

Functions

Precautions

Bulking agents
(maltodextrins,
polydextrose, sorbitol, etc.)

Used in special applications to replace conventional solids (e.g., artificially sweetened products)

Level of usage must be carefully established; effect on mix viscosity,


flavor, freezing point, hardness, and
body characteristics should be evaluated; all specifically applicable
regulations must be complied with.

Fat sparing agents


(microcrystalline
cellulose and proprietary products)

Used to emulate mouthfeel properties of fat in products containing little or no fat.

Effect on mouthfeel, body, and flavor should be evaluated.

Artificial sweeteners

Used to provide sweetness in place


of the conventional sugar(s).

Must use only products approved for


the specific application in frozen
desserts and comply with all required legal limitations and labeling.

Stabilizing salts
(largely food
grade complex
phosphates)

Generally used only when difficulties attributable to protein stability


or salt balance are encountered; by
reacting with calcium they promote
the disintegration of casein micelles
into subunits (see Chapters 1 and 2,
Vol. I).

Overcompensation can create new


problems; must comply with legally
imposed limits on quantities used.

Promotes typical body in ice cream;


creamy, whipped-cream-like mouthfeel; blunts coldness; ingredient cost
decreases as overrun increases.

Too high overrun produces a weak


body, lacking resistance; low overrun may produce a too heavy body;
standards of identity provide a limit
to permissible overrun by requiring
a minimum weight per gallon and a
minimum weight of total solids per
gallon; desired overrun varies in different products, e.g., lower in sherbet, ices, and soft-serve than in hard
ice cream.

Consumer acceptance is a major


consideration; quality and economics enter into the choice between
natural and imitation flavors.

Each flavor has specific requirements that must be carefully monitored; standards of identity address
compositional requirements for
bulky flavors; body and texture is
adversely affected when overrun of
the mix portion is very high to compensate for weight of added flavoring substances.

Air (overrun)

Flavoring

a
b

Properties of constituents are also susceptible to the consequences of quality variation and lack of uniformity.
Ice cream properties are also affected by variables in mix processing, freezing, packaging, hardening, and storage.

Table 2.2 APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF MILK-SOLIDSNOT-FAT (MSNF) AND SWEET WHEY SOLIDS
(WS)ab
MSNF
Component
Protein0
Caseind
Whey proteins
Lactose
Ash
Calcium
Potassium
Phosphorus
Sodium
Magnesium

(%)
37.6
(30.1)
(7.5)
54.1
8.2
(1.31)
(1.87)
(1.01)
(0.56)
(0.11)

WS
(%)
13.5
(13.5)
77.8
8.7
(0.83)
(2.17)
(0.97)
(1.12)
(0.18)

Values were calculated from Nutritional Data, Agricultural Handbook 8-1, 1976, U.S.
Department of Agriculture. All calculations are on a moisture- and fat-free basis.
b
Both MSNF and WS contain varying amounts of additional ash constituents and of the
water-soluble vitamins ascorbic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, B 6 , folacin,
and B 12 .
c
Protein determined as N X 6.38 and includes nonprotein nitrogen.
d
80% of total protein is assumed to be casein, 20% whey protein.

2.2.3 Concentrated Milk Products


Ingredients in this category may be divided into highly perishable and relatively
nonperishable products. The perishable products may have an expected refrigerated
(<40F) shelf life of 7 to 10 days, but the actual shelf life depends on such factors
as postpasteurization bacterial contamination and storage temperature. The clear implication is that the quality must be monitored during storage. Although bacterial
spoilage is the usual form of deterioration, chemical off-flavors such as stale and
oxidized may also develop during storage. Nonperishable dairy ingredients may have
a shelf life measured in months but they are subject to chemical deterioration which
may affect their flavor and color. Such factors as moisture content of dry products,
effectiveness of the air and moisture barrier provided by packaging, storage temperature and humidity, and mold growth on products such as sweetened condensed
milk have an effect on the effective shelf life of a given ingredient. Due to their high
fat content, frozen ingredients, such as frozen cream and butter, must be processed
in such a way as to provide resistance to oxidation, that is, high pasteurization
temperature, effective air barrier, and freedom from contamination with heavy metals, particularly copper and iron.

2.2.4 Perishable Concentrated Milk Products


Cream is the most common source of milkfat in ice cream. It usually contains from
30 to 40% fat, but cream of any fat content may be used. Its quality is determined

Table 2.3

APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SOME INGREDIENTS**

Ingredient
Milk

Skim milk

Cream

Condensed skim milk

Sweetened condensed skim milk


Sweetened condensed milk
Evaporated milk
Concentrated milk
Butter
Anhydrous butteroil
Dry whole milk
Nonfat dry milk
Dry whey (sweet)
Dry buttermilk
Liquid sugar (67.5 Brix)
Invert syrup (40.77 Be)
36 DE corn syrupac
Dried egg yolkd
Chocolate liquor
Cocoa
Water
a
b

Fat
(%)

MSNF
(%)

3.25
3.5
3.75
4.0
0.1
0.07
0.1
20.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
50.0
80.0
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3
8.5
7.5
10.0
80.5
99.9
26.0
1.0
1.0
5.0

8.35
8.5
8.65
8.8
8.8
9.23
8.6
7.05
6.2
5.7
5.3
4.4
1.75
29.7
31.7
33.6
35.6
29.7
21.5
18.0
25.0
0.75

Sweetener
(%)

42.0
42.0

72.0
96.0
96.0
92.0
67.5
76.5
79.6

62.5
51.0
8-30

Total
Solids
(%)

88.4
88.0
87.6
87.2
91.1
90.7
91.3
72.95
63.8
59.3
54.7
45.6
18.25
70.0
68.0
66.0
64.0
28.0
28.0
74.5
65.0
18.75
0.1
2.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
32.5
23.5
20.1
6.0
5.0
5.0

11.6
12.0
12.4
12.8
8.9
9.3
8.7
27.05
36.2
40.7
45.3
54.4
81.75
30.0
32.0
34.0
36.0
72.0
72.0
25.5
35.0
81.25
99.9
98.0
97.0
97.0
97.0
67.5
76.5
79.9
94.0
95.0
95.0

Density15
(lb/gal)
8.59
8.59
8.6
8.61
8.63
8.64
8.62
8.44
8.35
8.3
8.26
8.17
7.92
9.39
9.47
9.54
9.62
11.4
10.86
8.9
9.13

11.10
11.58
11.81

8.34

Additional sweeteners are listed in Table 2.6.


AU values are temperature dependent. Density of milk products was calculated by the following equation:
Specific gravity
at 600F (15.6C) ~ % fat

100
% all other solids

0.93 +
L601
Density (lbs/gal) = specific gravity X 8.34
c

Water
(%)

% water
+

Density at 1000F.
Approximate composition of egg yolk is 51 % H2O, 33% fat, 15% protein, and 1 % ash. Frozen egg yolk is commonly
supplied in sweetened form (e.g., 10% sugar). Egg whites contain approximately 85% H2O, 12% protein, and small
quantities of fat, sugar, and minerals.
e
For definitions and ingredient listing see CFR in the Appendix.
d

by the quality of the milk from which it was separated and by the level of adherence
to good manufacturing practices during its processing and storage.
Condensed skim milk, when available and made from high quality skim milk, is
an excellent source of MSNF. Properly separated skim milk yields a condensed
product with a negligible amount of fat and 30 to 35% MSNF. The product is made
by concentrating skim milk under vacuum until the desired concentration of solids
is reached. The limit of concentration is about 35% if the danger of lactose (milk
sugar) crystallization is to be avoided. The increased concentration of solids does
not render the product less perishable than nonconcentrated skim milk. Therefore,
it must be refrigerated and continuously checked for any signs of deterioration.
A related product is superheated condensed skim milk, which is equally perishable
but has enhanced water binding properties that may be beneficial for the body and
texture of the ice cream. An increased mix viscosity is immediately apparent when
this ingredient is used. Superheating is accomplished by heating the condensed skim
milk to a temperature of 180 to 1900F and holding until the desired "livery" body
develops. Cooling must follow immediately and very rapidly to prevent a complete
breakdown into protein and whey. The preheating temperature prior to concentration
of the skim milk affects the rapidity of the subsequent superheating effort. Preheating
temperatures above 1500F may slow or inhibit the viscosity buildup. The flavor
imparted by this ingredient may be expected to be somewhat cooked or "custardy,"
but that does not necessarily presage a problem in acceptance. Although cooked
flavor is technically considered a flavor defect in ice cream, it is the "burnt,"
"scorched," or "caramelized" variety of the off-flavor that is much more offensive.
Many years ago, superheated condensed skim milk was in common use by ice cream
makers, but its popularity has declined over the years. Lack of ready availability is
one of the problems, but history frequently repeats itself and this product may be
"rediscovered."
Condensed products can also be made with partially skimmed milk in which case
they contribute some fat in addition to the MSNF. From the point of view of the
technologist, there are no special concerns over the presence of fat providing there
is no difference in quality. However, if the ingredient is to be used in the manufacture
of a nonfat frozen dessert, only skim milk products can satisfy the formulation
requirements.

2.2.5 Dehydrated Concentrated Milk Products


By far the most common ingredients in this category are nonfat dry milk (NDM),
which is dried skim milk, and dried whey. Ice cream frequently contains both of
them, although the content of whey solids is limited by the federal standards of
identity to 25% of the MSNF content. Just as in the case of fluid ingredients, quality
of powdered products cannot be assumed to be adequate without actual test. United
States Department of Agriculture quality grades may be specified in purchasing but
prudence dictates that in-house quality tests also be routinely conducted. Some manufacturers may demand even more rigorous quality standards than those specified
for U.S. Extra Grade. The U.S. Grade classification for NDM and dried whey is

Table 2.4 U.S. GRADE CLASSIFICATION OF NONFAT DRY MILKabe


Basis
Off-flavors (reliquified)c
Bitter
Chalky
Cooked (spray and instant)
Feed
Flat
Oxidized
Scorched
Roller
Spray and instant
Stale
Storage
Utensil
Physical appearance defects0
Lumpy
Unnatural color
Visible dark particles
Spray
Roller
Instant
Reliquified
Grainy
Spray
Roller
Instant

U.S. Extra Grade

Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight

U.S. Standard Grade

Slight
Definite
Definite
Definite
Definite
Slight

Slight

Definite
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight

Very slight

Slight
Slight

Very slight
Slight

Slight
Definite

Slight

Slight
Slight

(Continued)

summarized in Tables 2.4 and 2.5, respectively. It can be seen that the U.S. Grades
refer to both spray- and roller-dried products. In general, the powder made by the
roller drying process may be expected to have a more intense cooked or scorched
flavor, be somewhat less soluble, and contain more scorched particles. The sprayprocess product is the ingredient of choice. Flavor is obviously a key consideration
but the importance of solubility should not be overlooked, particularly when the high
temperature-short time system of mix pasteurization is employed. In this process
the powder is dispersed in the cold and undissolved particles could pose a problem
by adhering to heating surfaces or damaging the homogenizer valves.
As seen in the footnote to Table 2.4, the U.S. Grade classification also recognizes
three classes based on heat treatment, namely U.S. high heat, U.S. low heat, and
U.S. medium heat. A chemical test for the amount of undenatured whey proteins
(whey proteins are progressively denatured when exposed to heat) provides an objective measure on which the classification is based.14 High heat powder may be
slightly less soluble, as shown by the higher solubility index, but it is the product
preferred by bakers because of its favorable effect on loaf volume. The low heat

Table 2.4 (Continued)


Basis

U.S. Extra Grade

U.S. Standard Grade

Laboratory tests (or parameters)*


Bacterial estimate, standard plate
count per gram
Spray and roller
Instant
Milkfat content, %
Moisture content, %
Spray and roller
Scorched particle content, mg
Spray and instant
Roller
Solubility index, ml
Spray
U.S. high heat
Roller
Instant
Titratable acidity, %
Coliform count per gram
Instant
Dispersibility, %
Instant
a
b

50,000
30,000
1.25

100,000

4.0

5.0

15.0
22.5

22.5
32.5

1.2
2.0
15.0
1.0
0.15

2.0
2.5
15.0

1.5

0.17

10
85

Only one grade, U.S. Extra, is recognized for instant NDM.


Heat classification is as follows:
U.S. high heat ^1.5 mg undenatured whey protein nitrogen per gram dry product
U.S. low heat ^ 6 . 0 mg undenatured whey protein nitrogen per gram dry product
U.S. medium heat 1.51 to 5.99 mg undenatured whey protein nitrogen per gram dry product

In general, the flavor shall be sweet, pleasing, and desirable; the dry product shall be white or light cream in color,
and the intensity of indicated defects or characteristics shall not be exceeded.
All numbers represent permissible maxima except that for dispersibility which is a minimum value.
c
For more detailed information consult Title 7, Part and section 2858.2601, Subpart 0, Code of Federal Regulations.
d

product is preferred by the cottage cheese maker. Any of the products may be used
in ice cream providing their quality is acceptable and the sensory characteristics that
they impart to the ice cream conform to the "design" intended for it. High quality
medium heat NDM is usually a good choice.
Instant NDM is easily dispersed in the cold and has more rigorous U.S. Grade
requirements than noninstantized powders. Although there are no technological reasons why this product could not be used in ice cream, its increased cost generally
prevents its consideration.
As seen in Table 2.2, the major constituents of MSNF are lactose, protein, and
milk salts. Because NDM contains moisture and a small amount of fat, it is not quite
a pure concentrated source of MSNF. In addition to any differences due to the
moisture and fat content, the composition of the milk from which the skim milk was
obtained provides another variable. A 36% protein content in NDM is typical but
indications are that the range may be from 32 to 38% protein. This would obviously

Table 2.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR U.S. EXTRA GRADE DRY WHEYa


Requirement

Basis
Flavor

Shall have a normal whey flavor free from undesirable


flavors, but may possess the following flavors to a slight
degree: bitter, fermented, storage, and utensil; and the
following to a definite degree: feed and weedy.

Physical appearance

Has a uniform color and is free-flowing, free from lumps


that do not break up under slight pressure, and is practically
free from visible dark particles.

Bacterial estimate

Not more than 50,000 per gram standard plate count

Coliform

Nor more than 10 per gram

Milkfat content

Not more than 1.5%

Moisture content

Not more than 5%

Optional tests:
Protein content (N X 6.38)

Not less than 11%

Alkalinity of ash (sweet type whey


only)

Not more than 225 ml of 0.1 N HCl per 100 g

Scorched particle content

Not more than 15 mg

For more detailed information consult Title 7, Part and section 2858.2601, Subpart 0, Code of Federal Regulations.

cause some realignment of the other constituents. The differences in composition


may be due to a preponderance of certain breeds of cows and seasonal or regional
influences that affect the composition of milk. Aside from their contribution to nutritional requirements, proteins exert an effect on the whipping characteristics and
other physical and sensory properties of ice cream. They bind water; interact with
stabilizers, other proteins, and carbohydrates; stabilize the fat emulsion after homogenization; and, in general, contribute to the structure of the ice cream and to its
mouthfeel characteristics. They are also a source of thiol groups which, when activated by heat, act as antioxidants and as precursors of a significant component of
cooked flavor. (Details of protein composition are given in Vol. I.) For this reason,
knowledge of the actual composition, source, and processing history of the NDM
may provide useful data when, for instance, an explanation is sought for some unexpected changes in the properties of ice cream or unanticipated behavior during
freezing and storage (e.g., shrinkage). One should be aware of the variables that can
affect the product but that cannot always be controlled.
The question of how long NDM may be kept in storage encompasses another set
of variables on which the answer is dependent. Of the compositonal factors, high
fat and moisture contents have a limiting effect on stability. The age of the product
at time of delivery and initial quality are important criteria. If the powder is marginally acceptable at time of delivery, its useful storage life may be quite short. Other
obvious factors include quality of packaging and freedom from damage; clean, dry,

and cool storage facilities; and freedom from such pests as insects, rodents, birds,
and other animals.
When procuring NDM, the following are important factors to consider: composition; color (very close to white and no brown pigmentation); free-flowing and free
of lumps and dark particles; flavor, appearance, and laboratory tests should comply
with or exceed requirements for U.S. Extra Grade; freedom from pathogenic bacteria
including but not limited to Salmonella and Listeria, and functional properties when
incorporated into the ice cream. Shortages in the supply of NDM in recent years
have caused some anxiety, but usually NDM of excellent quality is available. Even
Grade A milk powder may be purchased when desired or local regulations require it.

2.2.6 Dry Whey


This ingredient is a byproduct of cheese manufacture. The actual composition of
different types of cheese varies but with few exceptions cheese is made up of casein
(the main protein of milk) and fat, unless it is a cheese made of skim milk. The
residue, called whey, retains the whey proteins (a-lactalbumin, P-lactoglobulin,
immunoglobulins, and others), lactose, water-soluble minerals and vitamins, and any
residual fat that did not get incorporated into the cheese. The enzyme rennin, or a
related enzyme with similar properties, is an essential coagulating agent in most
cheeses. Because the enzyme causes the casein to coagulate as a calcium complex,
some of the milk calcium will be missing in whey.
The flavor of whey and dry whey is affected by the quality of the milk originally
used in cheesemaking and the care exercised in handling and processing of the whey
after removal from the cheese vat. The dry whey is also subject to the usual factors
involved in the quality deterioration of dry milk products. On storage, the color may
progressively darken and the flavor may become stale or cereallike. When whey
imparts an off-flavor to ice cream, usually the simple designation "whey flavor" is
used to describe it. The requirements for U.S. Extra Grade Dry Whey are given in
Table 2.5. Ice cream manufacturers may choose to specify more rigorous minimum
quality criteria in procuring this ingredient. The absence of pathogenic bacteria, use
of protective packaging, and other factors should also be part of the specifications.
Spray-dried whey is the most common form of the product. Also available are several
modified whey products, some of which have a protein content as high or higher
than NDM (see CFR in the Appendix). The functional properties of these products
should be evaluated for possible advantages in specific applications.

2.2.7 Dried Buttermilk


Dried sweet cream buttermilk is an acceptable ingredient for ice cream providing it
is free of off-flavors. In its original form it is the liquid remaining after churning
butter with a composition similar to skim milk. There are, however, some subtle but
important differences in fat concentration and composition. When butter is churned,
the fat is stripped of some of its phospholipid-rich membrane which is then lost to

the buttermilk. The consequences of the higher concentration of phospholipids in


the buttermilk are both desirable and undesirable. Their ability to act as an emulsifier
is an advantage but their susceptibility to oxidation can present a problem. The flavor
of dry buttermilk must therefore be carefully monitored to ensure that oxidation has
not made the use of the product inadvisable. In an effort to control the problem,
some have tried to set limits on the quantity of buttermilk powder that can be safely
used in a given formulation. This proposal is too general because when the quality
of the powder is poor, it is best not to use it at all. (This principle is actually applicable
to all ingredients.) There is a U.S. Grade classification for dry buttermilk which may
be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7, Part 58.

2.2.8 Other Dry Ingredients


Any dried dairy product such as dry whole milk, low-fat dry milk, and dry cream
could theoretically be used in ice cream, but in practice this is seldom if ever done.
The main reason is that dry dairy products containing fat readily develop stale and
oxidized flavors even when stored under ideal conditions. Thus, they provide no
advantage, but considerable risk, over NDM.
Edible forms of casein salts, such as sodium or calcium caseinate, are common
ingredients in a number of food products, but their use in ice cream is limited by
provisions of the federal standards of identity (see Appendix). They are classified as
optional ingredients that do not satisfy the prescribed total milk solids requirements
but may be added to a mix, within permissible limits, if used above and beyond
these requirements.
According to Turnbow et a!.,13 sodium caseinate has a definite effect on mix
whipping. They stated that home recipes made with this product and unhomogenized
cream could be easily whipped to 100% overrun with no more elaborate equipment
than that found in the household kitchen. They hypothesized that the effect was due
to the creation of more elastic air cell walls which could be more resistant to rupture
by large or clumped fat globules.

2.2.9 Preserved Fluid Concentrated Milk Products


The two products in this category, sweetened condensed milk and evaporated milk,
are no longer common ingredients in ice cream, but may still be encountered. Sweetened condensed milk or skim milk is preserved by the addition of sufficient sugar
to prevent bacterial growth, but problems with certain osmophilic bacteria, yeasts,
and molds may at times be encountered. The undesirable development of large lactose crystals may be prevented by correct manufacturing steps at the condensery.
Depending on the length of storage, the product may also brown and thicken, particularly at storage temperatures above 600F.15
Evaporated milk is preserved by sufficient heat to sterilize milk from which about
one half of the water had been removed. The use of this ingredient is not suitable
for large-scale commercial operations but may be encountered in small ice cream

shops where a "home style" ice cream is made and sold. A cooked, custardlike
flavor is typical in ice cream made with evaporated milk.

2.2.10 Frozen Concentrated Milk Products


Concentrated sources of MSNF in the frozen state are not practical ingredients for
two reasons: the freezing process creates problems in physical stability and NDM is
an alternative that offers substantial advantages over them. On the other hand, concentrated sources of fat may be successfully preserved by freezing and are useful in
geographic areas where fresh cream is unavailable or only seasonally available. The
three forms of frozen concentrated fat ingredientsfrozen cream, butter, and butter
oilshare some precautions in their preparation. As would be suspected, fat oxidation is the principal concern. Preparation steps, therefore, must include provisions
to delay or discourage oxidation, that is, avoiding contamination with copper and
iron, pasteurization at high temperature (>170F for 30 min), and packaging to
exclude air. Success in the use of these frozen ingredients also depends on the quality
of milk and cream from which they were made. For best results, only perfectly sweet
cream with no objectionable off-flavors should serve as the starting material. Addition of 12% sucrose may improve stability of frozen cream. In the case of butter,
the unsalted variety is preferred. Correctly made anhydrous butter oil, with only a
trace of retained moisture, has been found to resist oxidation and keep quite well.
In all cases, however, the frozen storage temperature must be uniformly low to
prevent flavor deterioration. Butter oil and NDM have been used as the only dairy
ingredients for ice cream in remote areas separated by thousands of miles from their
source.

2.2.11 Substitutes for Dairy Products


Mellorine and unstandardized ice cream "analogs" may incorporate vegetable fat.
In addition, vegetable protein, protein concentrates, and other vegetable derivatives
may be found in unstandardized products. A definition and standard of identity for
Mellorine may be found in Part 135 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The product
is essentially analogous to ice cream or ice milk except that milkfat is replaced with
vegetable or animal fat. The language for the requirements of the MSNF simply
directs that the product must contain 2.7% milk-derived protein having a protein
efficiency ratio (PER) not less than that of whole milk protein, 108% of casein.
Quality as well as functionality are criteria in selecting milkfat substitutes.16 Physical properties of importance include the melting point (or melting region), rate of
crystallization, type of crystal structure, mixed-crystal formation, and extent of
super-cooling before crystallization begins. The chemical makeup of the fat, that is,
fatty acid composition and their distribution within the triglycerides, is largely responsible for these properties. Milkfat does not have a sharp melting point but rather
melts over a range of temperatures, so that at various points of the melting cycle
different proportions of solid and liquid fat are present. To emulate this behavior
with other fats, one would have to use a blend of fats with different melting points.

Liquid oils, depending on the concentration used, affect the consistency (hardness)
as well as whipping ability of the finished product. The literature16 indicates that
their globular structure is unstable during freezing as evidenced by the lack of fat
globules when examined by electron microscopy. The flavor of the nondairy fat used
should be bland, free of absorbed soapy and oxidized flavors, and it must not contribute to a greasy mouthfeel in the finished product. Close cooperation with a reputable supplier of fat should lead to identifying a product that satisfies both functional
and quality requirements.
When nonmilk products are desired in place of MSNF, a good deal of developmental work should precede introduction of the product to ensure that consumer
acceptance criteria are met with regard to flavor, body, and texture of the frozen
analog. The flavor concerns address both the flavor of the ingredient, for example,
soy protein isolate, and the compatibility of the flavoring used. A few products of
this type may be found in the marketplace and the quality of some has been rated
by the authors as very good.

2.2.12 Sweetening Agents


The functions of sweetening agents are to provide the desired level of sweet taste;
as a source of food solids that contribute to the total solids content of the ice cream;
as a means of controlling the freezing point and hence the stiffness of ice cream
when discharged from the freezer and at any given storage temperature; and as a
water binding agent to promote a smooth textured ice cream and one that resists
excessive growth of ice crystals as a result of high and fluctuating storage temperatures (heat shock). Because not all of the sweetening agents contribute to all of the
functions equally, the technologist must exercise good judgment in selecting the
most appropriate sweetener combinations.
The sweetening power of cane or beet sugar (sucrose, which is common table
sugar) has become the standard to which the sweetening power of other sugars is
compared. To express sweetness numerically, sucrose may be given a value of 100
and the sweetening power of other sweeteners (e.g., corn syrup) can be experimentally compared to it. The determined numerical sweetening value represents a comparison to the sweetening power of sucrose. A sweetener whose sweetening value
is 50 has only half the sweetening power of sucrose and twice as much of it would
have to be used in ice cream to equal the sweetness level imparted by sucrose. The
experimental determination of sweetening power is somewhat complicated by the
presence of other flavor notes in some sweetening agents. Further complications are
that the results are affected by the concentration of sweetener at which the comparison is made, the background flavor, temperature, and the proportion of different
sweeteners present. Turnbow13 has reported that the sweetening power of dextrose
and com syrups is greater in ice cream than in water solution. The taste comparisons
should be made directly in the ice cream at the desired sweetness level. Because of
all the complicating factors, the sweetening power data in Table 2.6 should be used
only as preliminary guidelines in the search for the appropriate usage level of different sweeteners.

Table 2.6

COMPOSITION AND SOME PROPERTIES OF SWEETENERS (NUMERICAL VALUES ARE APPROXIMATE)'

Sweetener
Sucrosec
Dextrose0
Fructosed
High-fructose corn syrup (42%)
High-fructose corn syrup (55%)
Maltodextrins
Corn syrupd
Corn syrupd
Corn syrupd
Corn syrup
High-maltose corn syrup
High-maltose com syrup
Invert syrup
Lactose
NutraSweet
Polydextrose
a

Sweetening8
Power in
Ice Cream
(%)
100
75
115
100
110
0-10
25
45
50
70
55
55
110
20
(150-200)e

Theoreticalb
Freezing Point
Reduction
Factor

1.9
1.9
1.77
1.85
<0.31
0.49
0.61
0.77
1.18
0.8
0.92
1.9

Meanb
Molecular
Weight

342
180
180
193
185
>1100
700
557
447
289
430
374
180
342

DE

Total
Solids
(%)

77
71
77
<l-<20
26
36
42
64
42
50

77.5
80
80.3
81.6
80.4
80.7
76.5

Dextrose

0.5
50
41
0.3-1.6
5
13
19
37
9
10
50

Maltose

Higher
Triose
saccharides
(% dry basis)

1.5

trace

0.1-6

0.2-8
11
11
13
9
24
22

10
14
29
34
42

5
4
remainder
76
66
54
25
33
26

Fructose

99.5
42
55

50

0.6-0.75

On dry matter basis, but approximate. Sweetening power may not be the same in different applications. Complications encountered in determining the sweetening power are discussed in
the text.
b
Mean molecular weight and the theoretical freezing point reduction factor are a function of the actual concentration of the saccharides. The theoretical freezing point reduction factor may
be somewhat more complex than indicated. More refined values for specific products may be available from the products' suppliers.
c
Also available in syrup form.
6
Also available in dry form.
e
Sweetness intensity is 150-200 times that of sucrose.
f
Analytical data on com derived sweeteners courtesy of A. E. Staley Mfg. Co. Decatur, IL 62525.

Certain ingredients used in frozen desserts, such as maltodextrins, are included


in the sweetening agent category, although they provide little or no sweetening
properties. However, they share a common origin with some sweetening agents and
they fulfill some of the same functions.
The fact that some sweeteners are not as sweet as sucrose provides the opportunity
for increasing the total solids content of the ice cream without imparting excessive
sweetness. The information in Table 2.6 reveals that some of the corn-derived sweeteners not only are less sweet than sucrose but they also lower the freezing point to
a lesser extent and bind more water (in an inverse relationship to their sweetening
power). These facts must be judiciously applied in formulating ice cream and other
frozen desserts, a subject that will be discussed under a separate heading
(Section 2.4).
Storage facilities for sweetening agents at the ice cream plant should be given
careful consideration. Dry sweeteners must be packaged in sound containers that
provide protection against contamination and moisture intrusion. Some dry sweeteners are very hygroscopic. The warehouse should be clean, dry, cool, and free of
both insect and animal pests. Good housekeeping practices must not be confined to
the warehouse; when bags of sweeteners are moved to the processing area, good
housekeeping and sanitary precautions should guide the opening and emptying of
the bags so as to avoid spilling and contamination of the mix with fragments of
paper bags or any personal articles that the workers may accidentally drop into the
vat. Unused portions of sweetener should be carefully sealed, identified, and returned
to the warehouse.
Larger plants generally use bulk liquid sweeteners whenever they are available.
To do so, they must have liquid sugar (syrup) tanks for each of the different sweeteners that they employ. These tanks must maintain the syrups at the correct temperature for easy handling and contain protective mechanisms against the growth of
yeasts and molds. Before accepting a shipment of bulk sweetener, it is prudent to
ensure that it complies to specifications, particularly with regard to color (should be
free of any browning), composition, and freedom from microbiological fermentation.
Dedicated tank-trucks for the transport of syrup are in common use. The authors are
aware of a case where the syrup was delivered in a milk tank-truck, which unfortunately had transported rancid milk before picking up the syrup. The syrup absorbed
the residue of the rancid flavor and imparted it to the ice cream. This simply emphasizes the requirement of clean and odor-free transport vehicles.
All nutritive sweeteners are carbohydrates, that is, a combination of carbon and
water. The simplest sugars are called monosaccharides. When two monosaccharides
combine, they form a disaccharide. Sucrose is a disaccharide consisting of dextrose
(glucose) and fructose (levulose). In the presence of acid, heat, or specific enzymes,
sucrose splits (hydrolyzes or is inverted) into the two monosaccharides. Sucrose is
also known as a nonreducing sugar, which makes it more resistant to the browning
reaction than dextrose and fructose. The latter are strong reducing sugars that brown
readily. There are other differences. The monosaccharides depress the freezing point
to a greater extent than disaccharides and their sweetening power varies. Complex
carbohydrates are polysaccharides because they are made up of long chains, both

straight and branched, of simple sugars (monosaccharides). Invert sugar is the name
applied to the mixture of dextrose and fructose that is formed by the hydrolysis of
sucrose.
Corn starch is a polysaccharide which when completely broken down to its building blocks yields only dextrose. Both anhydrous and monohydrate dextrose are commercially made by the complete hydrolysis of starch. Other corn sweeteners, which
include maltodextrins and various corn syrups, are products of incomplete hydrolysis
of starch. Depending on the actual process, they contain varying proportions of
dextrose and its oligosaccharides; maltose (a disaccharide), maltotriose (a trisaccharide), and a number of higher saccharides (sometimes called dextrins). To obtain
the different saccharide combinations, a solution of the starch is treated with acid,
enzyme or both to catalyze the hydrolysis. The extent of hydrolysis in a given syrup
is expressed as its dextrose equivalent (DE), which is a measure of the total reducing
sugars calculated as dextrose and expressed as a percentage on a dry basis. Anhydrous dextrose has a DE of 100; the hydrated form has a DE of 92. A high DE
signifies a substantial conversion to dextrose and maltose and a relatively low conversion to the seven or higher unit oligosaccharides (maltoheptaose, -octaose, etc.).
By the use of selected enzymes, com syrups are manufactured that have a specifically
designed composition of saccharides. High-maltose syrup, for instance, may have
40% of its saccharides in the form of maltose, but be designated as having a relatively
low 42 DE because its dextrose content is significantly lower (e.g., 8% as opposed
to 20%). High-fructose corn syrup is made from either dextrose or a very high DE
syrup by the action of a specific enzyme, isomerase. The enzyme catalyzes the
conversion of dextrose into fructose, a process called isomerization.
Although theoretically possible, corn syrups are seldom used as the sole source
of sweetness in ice cream. Under circumstances of a severe sugar shortage and high
sugar prices, as was experienced during war years, corn sweeteners would certainly
be used as a replacement for more or all of the sugar. Some combination of low-DE
syrup and high-fructose or high-dextrose syrup can be designed to provide satisfactory freezing properties and sweetness level. Under normal circumstances, corn syrups commonly contribute 20 to 50% of the ice creams' sweetening solids. This is
the case for essentially all members of the frozen dessert family except for some
high-butterfat products and products that already have a high solids content. Sucrose
is usually the sole sweetening agents in such products.

2.2.13 Sucrose
In general parlance, the word sugar has come to mean the common table sweeteners,
cane and beet sugar. In their pure, refined form, both are chemically identical and
identified by the name sucrose. The highly refined, standard white sugar is the common type of sucrose used in dry form. The substance can be expected to be very
pure and contain 99.9% solids. Dry, granulated sugar is principally used by small
ice cream plants and those in locations where liquid sugar is not available.
Sweetness is the only sensory response to sucrose. In pure form, it is odorless
and devoid of any other taste. It complements the flavorings commonly used in ice

cream products very well. Being a disaccharide, it lowers the freezing point to a
lesser extent than monosaccharides but more than some of the low-DE corn syrups.
These are the favorable properties that make sucrose an efficacious sweetening agent.
Other properties are summarized in Tables 2.1 and 2.6.
A typical liquid sucrose may test 67.5 Brix, weigh 11.104 lbs/gal at 200C, and
contain 7.495 lbs of sugar per gallon. Degree Brix is merely a measure of percent
sucrose; 7.495 is 67.5% of 11.104. Additional criteria addressed by specifications
are color, ash content, heavy metal content, yeasts and molds, pH, maximum invert
sugar present, and flavor. The invert sugar limit is important because an ice cream
formulated to contain a certain concentration of sucrose can acquire different characteristics in the presence of significant quantities of monosaccharides (e.g., effect
on freezing point, browning, sweetness etc.). Liquid sugars may also be obtained as
blends of sucrose and dextrose or sucrose and one of the corn syrups. The desired
proportion of each is a matter of choice and should reflect the actual ratio of the
sweeteners in the frozen product. However, one should also consider flexibility in
the use of sweeteners for all of the products made and their requirements when
deciding on blends versus separate syrup supplies. The sweeteners needed for sherbet, premium ice cream, soft-serve, etc. may differ in amount, type of corn syrup,
or proportion of sucrose to corn syrup.
Because sucrose is commonly used in combination with other sweeteners, it is
difficult to define its level of usage precisely. It may be stated that plain ice cream
(e.g., vanilla) generally contains the sweetness equivalent of 13 to 16% sucrose. The
desired sweetness level also varies with the type of flavoring used. A chocolate ice
cream may contain 17 to 19% of sucrose. The actual level chosen may be dictated
by economic considerations, but should also be a function of consumer preference
and acceptance. In any case, excessive as well as inadequate sweetness are flavor
defects worthy of management considerations.

2.2.14 Dextrose
The sweetening power of dextrose is 60 to 80% that of sucrose and, theoretically,
one should be able to use somewhat more of it to increase the solids content without
imparting excessive sweetness. However, because of its effect on the freezing point,
the practical limit is defined by the stiffness of the ice cream at the usual freezer
discharge and storage temperature. The use of dextrose by itself would yield a very
soft product. In combination with sucrose, some ratio, probably in the 10 to 20%
range, of sucrose replacement for ice cream, sherbets, and ices is possible. The
replacement level may be higher in products that are purposely designed to be softer,
such as some gelatos served in the "traditional" way.
Although the sweet taste imparted by dextrose is similar to that of sucrose, dextrose is not a common sweetener in ice cream. In the usual case, ice cream makers
are looking to sucrose replacers as a means of improving the body and texture and
heat shock resistance. On comparison, corn syrups prove to be more effective in this

regard and, therefore, have come into general use. However, dextrose is an optional
sweetener, especially when circumstances preclude the use of other sources.

2.2.15 Corn Syrups


As can be seen in Table 2.6, sweeteners derived from corn provide a whole spectrum
of products with different properties. Older textbooks suggest that the high-DE syrups were preferred during and after the period of World War II, but now the situation
has certainly changed. Syrups of 36 DE and 42 DE have become common ice cream
ingredients and have performed a useful function. Much of the credit for the increased acceptance of low-DE corn syrups is due to quality improvement which has
made it possible to obtain colorless, bland-tasting syrups that can be used at relatively
high levels of sucrose replacement. The methods of marketing ice cream have also
changed over the years. Ice cream is expected to withstand considerable temperature
abuse before and after it reaches the home refrigerator. This has caused ice cream
makers to look for ways to better stabilize the body and texture, and low-DE corn
syrups have provided a practical and economical approach to the problem.
The sweet taste of a corn syrup is determined by the concentration of dextrose,
its sweetest component, and to a much lesser extent, maltose. The sweetening power
of the saccharides containing several units of dextrose (the higher sugars) is negligible by comparison to that of dextrose. Because high-DE com syrups contain the
highest concentration of dextrose and maltose, they are sweeter than the low-DE
corn syrups. On the other hand, water binding properties of the higher sugars are
greater than those of dextrose and maltose. Because low-DE syrups are not so sweet,
a greater quantity of them is needed as a sucrose replacement to maintain the same
or a similar level of sweetness. The resulting increase in total solids may also have
a beneficial effect on body and texture.
Ingredients with enhanced water binding properties generally have a desirable
effect on the body of ice cream and, at the same time, they assist in creating conditions that protect the texture against rapid deterioration during heat shock. Water
that is held firmly by physical and chemical forces to other molecules (bound water)
behaves as though it were a solid; it loses its ability to freeze or act as a solvent. In
simplified language, the ice cream behaves as though it had a higher solids content
because there is less water to freeze and the soluble solids become more concentrated.
No reliable estimates are readily available of the amount of bound water that conforms to this definition in frozen ice cream.
Maltodextrins are used primarily as bulking agents. They have a very low DE
(<1 to <20) and, thus, very little or no useful sweetening properties. Their employment in frozen desserts is of a relatively recent origin and roughly coincides
with the surging interest in lower fat and nonfat products. As fat is reduced or
eliminated from an ice cream formulation, other solids are needed to take its place,
at least in part. In this role, maltodextrins assume the function of a fat replacer that
is capable of restoring some of the ice cream body building properties normally
provided by the fat. However, one cannot expect them to completely emulate the

action of fat and additional benefits may need to be derived from other ingredients.
Unfortunately, the sources of food solids that could be appropriately used in this
role are rather limited. Of the sweeteners, only very low DE corn syrups and maltodextrins are helpful. Because of the wide range of maltodextrin DEs, the selection
of the desired type should be given careful consideration (see Table 2.1).
The DE designation is not employed for identifying high-fructose corn syrups.
The products are largely a mixture of dextrose and fructose with only small percentages of maltose and higher sugars. The proportion of fructose in different syrups
may range from about 40% to nearly 100%. Fructose is sweeter than sucrose, but
the sweetening power of the selected syrup should be determined in the frozen dessert
at the intended concentration. The actual sweetening power and the character of the
sweetness may be found to vary at different levels. With regard to its effect on body
and texture, much of what has been said about dextrose also applies to fructose. The
syrup does not contain the higher saccharides that possess the water binding properties and because it is made up largely of monosaccharides, it depresses the freezing
point to a greater extent than sucrose. When the proportion of dextrose to fructose
approaches 50/50, the product becomes similar to invert sugar, a sweetener resulting
from the complete hydrolysis of sucrose, which has the same proportion of monosaccharides. Obviously, the effects on sweetening, body and texture, and freezing
point depression would also be similar.

2.2.16 Honey
Although not commonly used, honey is both a sweetener and a flavoring agent. The
sweetening power is due largely to invert sugar (dextrose and fructose) which may
constitute nearly 75% of the honey (as is). The taste and composition vary between
different varieties of honey but many types, particularly the light-colored ones, impart a pleasant flavor to ice cream. Because of its high monosaccharide content,
honey has a similar effect on lowering of the freezing point and softening of the ice
cream as dextrose and fructose. To impart a honey flavor to ice cream, a concentration of 8 to 10% honey (as is) is needed, which also accounts for approximately
50% of the desired sweetness. The remaining sweetness can be supplied by sweeteners other than monosaccharides so as to minimize the softening effect.

2.2.17 Stabilizers
In physical and chemical terms ice cream stabilizers are colloidal substances called
hydrocolloids or simply colloids. They are not soluble in water in the strict chemical
sense, but at the same time, they remain dispersed in a stable colloidal (larger than
molecular) suspension and thus appear to be dissolved. This is not a unique property
of stabilizers; milk proteins and milkfat are also dispersed in a colloidal suspension
both in milk and in ice cream. Ice cream has a very complex structure consisting of
two liquid phases (water and lipid), each containing soluble substances (particularly
the water phase); a colloidal dispersion of lipid in water (but may also include some
water in lipid dispersion, especially when shear-induced churning occurs); colloidal

dispersion of solids such as proteins, minerals (e.g., calcium phosphate), and stabilizers; and dispersed air. The literature on fundamental aspects of food emulsions,
colloidal chemistry, rheology, and the physical and chemical properties of gums is
quite extensive.17"24 Current research reports may be found in food and chemistry
journals and any specialized journals such as the following: Food Hydrocolloids; J.
Colloid Interface Science; KolloidZ.; J. Texture Studies; Rheologica Acta; J. Rheology; Food Microstructure; and Colloid and Polymer Sci.
With the exception of gelatin, which is a protein derived from the connective
tissues of skin and bone (collagen), organic substances used as ice cream stabilizers
are specific forms of polysaccharides. Chemically, they differ from each other in
internal structure; the identity or proportion of the monosaccharide units; the presence, type, and number of acidic groups along the chain; and the presence of inorganic components. A food grade form of calcium sulfate, an inorganic compound,
also has stabilizing properties. Several components of commercial stabilizers are
described in Table 2.7.
As the name implies, the most important function of these substances is to "stabilize" (i.e., protect against deterioration) the texture of ice cream during storage
and distribution. The need for some form of stabilizing action was recognized by
early ice cream makers as witnessed by the inclusion of arrowroot flour in ice cream
recipes dating to the 18th century.13 Home recipes included starch in the past and
some homemakers may still be using it. Over the years, substances that are more
effective at a much lower concentration than starch have been developed. They
provide a means for both "shaping" the type of body envisioned for the ice cream
and for contributing to the stability of the body and texture under the detrimental
effect of heat shock.
It is possible to make an ice cream without stabilizers, but unless its total solids
content is quite high (e.g., high fat content), its body is commonly characterized as
lacking resistance, being quick to melt, or lacking "chewiness." Of course, the
degree to which these characteristics manifest themselves also depends on how much
overrun (incorporated air) the ice cream contains. Some manufacturers may purposely refrain from using stabilizers because they desire a light bodied ice cream or
when they cannot justify the inclusion of these substances in products designated as
"all natural." In any case, without stabilizers, the ice cream is more vulnerable to
becoming coarse-textured on storage and especially when heat shocked.
Stabilizers used in present day ice cream manufacture are commonly proprietary
blends of two or more stabilizing components along with one or more emulsifiers.
Although some stabilizing components are less expensive than others, economy
should not be the principal guide in the selection of a commercial stabilizer. Generally, a stabilizer should assist in producing and maintaining an ice cream with a
smooth texture, but additional criteria should also be considered. An additional objective is to impart a body (which refers to such properties as firmness, resistance to
bite, and cohesiveness) that the ice cream manufacturer perceives as approaching
the "ideal" within the constraints of such fixed parameters as composition and
overrun of the frozen dessert. The fixed parameters may be dictated by economics
or market positioning of the product. A combination of gums may provide the desired

Table 2.7

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF STABILIZERS AND EMULSIFIERS

Stabilizer
or
Emulsifier

Gelatin

CMC

Algin

Carrageenan

Locus bean gum


(Carob bean gum)

Properties

Comments

Protein of animal origin; on aging


forms a *'brush heap" structure that
traps watergels; viscosity of mix
is substantially reduced by agitation; available in different Bloom
(gel strength) grades, e.g., 250
Bloom; disperses in cold mix but
requires heat for activation.

Mix should be aged, preferably


24 h; less is needed as Bloom
strength increasestypically
0.5-0.3%; relatively high cost; has
lost popularity since World War II
in USA; Rate of cooling affects mix
viscosity; Interacts with mix constituents at high temperatures.

Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose,


(cellulose gum) obtained by chemical modification of cellulose (a polysaccharide); imparted viscosity is
a function of average chain length;
does not gel; hydrates at low temperatures; causes whey separation;
has excellent absorptive properties.

Usually used in combination with


other gums; wheying off problem is
controlled by combining with a gel
forming stabilizer; depending on
viscosity grade and total solids content in mix, 0.1-0.2% needed to
fully stabilize mix; imparts excellent body and texture.

A mixed polymer of anhydro-Dmannuronic acid with anhydro-Lguluronic acid; used as sodium alginate or as an ester alginate; the
esterified form does not gel; phosphate helps control reaction of sodium alginate with calcium (gelation); obtained from ocean kelp.

Sodium alginate is added to mix at


16O0F to control gel formation; cannot be used with high-acid products; ester alginate disperses in the
cold and may be used with acid
products; commercial preparations
used at 0.25-0.4% level.

Salt of sulfate esters of polymers of


galactose; very strongly charged anionic polyelectrolyte; forms a gel at
very low concentration; derived
from a marine plant; properties are
affected by relative proportion of
the three typeskappa, lambda,
and iota.

Commonly used in combination


with other gums; prevents wheying
off due to other gums at concentrations as low as 0.01% of the weight
of the mix; disperses in the cold.

Polymer of galactose and mannose;


a linear chain of D-mannopyranosyl
units with every 4th or 5th unit substituted by a D-galactopyranosyl
unit; does not gel in ice cream; disperses in the cold, but must be
heated to hydrate; causes whey
separation; synergistic with xanthan
gum; of vegetable origin.

Effective at 0.1-0.15% level; imparts a resistant, chewy body; mix


viscosity increases as heat treatment
increases; body may be somewhat
shorter than with guar gum.

(Continued)

Table 2.7 (Continued)


Stabilizer
or
Emulsifier

Guar gum

Calcium sulfate

Properties

Comments

Similar to locust bean gum, but hydrates better in the cold; the polymer contains a higher proportion of
galactose to mannose (~-1-2) than
locust bean gum (1-4); of vegetable origin.

Body is similar to that imparted by


locust bean gum although it may be
somewhat "stickier" or more
"gummy"

Some proprietary stabilizer blends


contain calcium sulfate. It appears
to have functional characteristics
which may be due to its water binding properties or possibly a specific
ion effect. It has an effect on ice
cream body.

Microcrystalline
cellulose

Manufactured from purified wood


pulp and codried with CMC; imparts excellent bodying properties
and texture stability (resistance to
heat shock); has fat sparing properties.

Functional at 0.25-0.75%, depending on requirements and total solids


content; used in addition to other
stabilizers; activated by the shearing
action of homogenization.

Xanthan gum

Polymer of glucose, mannose, and


glucuronic acid; has pseudoplastic
(shear-thinning) properties; provides
immediate temperature and pH stable viscosity; a microbial fermentation product (Xanthamonas campestris).

Acts synergistically with locust


bean and Guar gum; effective at
low levels, especially with other
gums that act synergistically; may
find application in a broad range of
products, including still frozen ices.

Mono- and diglycerides

Compounds of glycerol and either


one (monoglyceride) or two fatty
acids (diglyceride), usually used in
combination, although monoglycerides are more effective. Several
fatty acids may be present but one
may predominate (e.g., stearic or
oleic). Used to promote dryness at
draw, improved whipping properties
and creamier mouthfeel. Those containing unsaturated fatty acids are
more effective drying agents but
flavor deterioration may be a problem.

Less apt to cause churning, but not


as effective a drying and whipping
agent as polysorbates; used in the
range of 0.1-0.2%; commonly used
along with polysorbates; usually obtained and used as part of a proprietary combination of stabilizer(s) and
emulsifier(s).

(Continued)

Table 2.7 (Continued)


Stabilizer
or
Emulsifier

Properties

Comments

Polyoxyethylene
(20) sorbitan
monooleate (Tween
80 or Polysorbate
80)

Chemical compound of sorbitol,


oleic acid, and a chain of opened
ethylene oxide units; powerful
drying agent; aids in improving texture and heat shock resistance; the
unsaturated oieic acid tends to become oxidized (this places a limit
on the upper level of usage).

Effective in the range of


0.02-0.06%; may promote churning
under conditions such as excessive
levels, excessive shear (agitation) as
is possible in soft-serve and high-fat
mixes; usually obtained and used as
part of a proprietary combination of
stabilizer(s) and emulsifier(s); also
available in liquid solution.

Polyoxyethylene
(20) sorbitan tristearate (Tween 65
or Polysorbate 65)

Chemical compound of sorbitol, 3


molecules of stearic acid and a
chain typically 20 units long of
opened ethylene oxide units; an excellent whipping agent but somewhat less effective than Polysorbate
80 as a drying agent.

Choice of polysorbates depends on


the requirements of specific products; for equivalent dryness, a
slightly higher level is needed than
with Polysorbate 80; use of higher
levels (around 0.1% is normally not
detrimental to flavor).

Lecithin

Chemically a group of diglycerides,


also containing a phosphate ester of
choline, ethanolamine, etc.
(phospholipids); widely distributed
in nature, including milk; soybeans
are a common source of commercial lecithin.

Potential flavor problems are likely


to limit usage level to about 0.1%;
unsaturated fatty acids in lecithin
are vulnerable to oxidation; similar
in effectiveness to mono- and diglycerides; present in high concentration in dry buttermilk and especially
in egg yolk solids.

functionality because individual stabilizer components differ in their effect on body,


that is, the type of body that they help to impart. Heat shock resistance is also affected
in a significant manner by the choice of stabilizing components. The proper level of
stabilizer usage is an important consideration because excessive levels may give rise
to a gummy body, poor meltdown, and possibly interference with flavor release.
Inadequate levels, on the other hand, may not provide the benefits sought from the
stabilizer.
Cooperation should be established between the ice cream manufacturer and the
stabilizer supplier. To meet the stabilizer requirement of a specific ice cream usually
encompasses one or more trial runs in the plant in which the product is made. A mix
of the same composition may not yield identical results under all plant conditions
because of differences that may exist in equipment performance and procedures for
mix processing, freezing, ice cream hardening, and product handling. After actually
observing the stabilizer's functionality and performance in a production run, the
requirements may be fine tuned to get the desired effects. For their part, suppliers
of stabilizers have to ensure that their products perform uniformly from batch to
batch. In addition to the obvious quality criteria, such as microorganisms present,

physical and chemical properties, and freedom from extraneous matter, their quality
assurance program should include appropriate tests to monitor the functional properties and sensory qualities of the individual gums used in their blends.
Commercial stabilizer blends are available m a number of combinations of gums,
with or without emulsifiers, with different levels of dispersing agents (e.g., dextrose)
which makes them more or less concentrated, and with varying ease of dispersibility
in the cold (for application in high temperature-short time pasteurization). Single
components are also available. Some blends may be designed for specific application,
such as in sherbets (acid compatibility), soft-serve, etc. A given plant is likely to
have on hand a number of stabilizers to be used in different products. Obviously,
care must be exercised that the right stabilizer is used in the right proportion. Because
stabilizers deteriorate on storage, opened containers should be resealed to avoid
contamination and to protect the contents from the effects of moisture and high
humidity. Prominent labeling and good warehousing practices should help in avoiding some of the problems. The use of stabilizers that have become old and, therefore,
could be in a deteriorated condition may be unwise and prove to be false economy.

2.2,18 The Mode of Stabilizer Action


The most obvious manifestation of stabilizer action is an increase in mix viscosity
which becomes apparent even by visual observation. One of the criteria in selecting
the type of stabilizer and deciding on the level of usage is the degree of viscosity
increase. Development of excessive viscosity may create flow problems, slow heat
exchange, excessive pressure buildup, and other difficulties derived from these problems. Low viscosity, on the other hand, may signal inadequate stabilization. The
relationship between desired stabilization and the viscosity per se does not appear
to be a direct one, but once it is established that a given formulation provides both
an acceptable mix viscosity and the desired level of stabilization, any departure from
the expected viscosity should be investigated.
In addition to the stabilizer, mix viscosity is affected by the fat, MSNF, and total
solids content; type of sweetener solids; emulsifier content; homogenization pressures and temperatures; fat globule clumping; "salt balance"; previous heat history
of the ingredients; presence of developed acidity; pasteurization methods; rate of
cooling; aging period; and many interactions. Because heat treatment is an integral
part of mix processing, the contribution of the stabilizer should be viewed as the
sum of all of the interactions in a given mix processing system. A simple illustration
is presented in Table 2.8 showing the changes in basic viscosity of various model
systems with and without added stabilizer components. The data show that in the
absence of milk solids, the viscosity of gum solutions was relatively unaffected by
heat treatment. The simulated milk salts solution actually exerted a viscosity depressing effect on the corresponding gum-containing solutions at all temperatures
studied. At increasing total solids concentrations, the contribution of the gums to the
viscosity became more pronounced, partly due to the hydration of the milk constituents on heating. However, the increase in viscosity was greater than expected without

Table 2.8

EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON BASIC VISCOSITYaf~h


Basic Viscosity (cp) After Heating to
2300F

2000F
System Stabilizer
Water
5% Lactose
15% Sucrose
Milk salts6
Skim milk
12% MSNF
16% MSNF
20% MSNF
11% MSNF + 28% sucrose
Milk
Ice milk mix
Ice cream mix
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h

None

1.7
2.6
1.6
3.1
3.8
6.3
8.5
14.7
3.6
13.7
19.8

LBGM

CMC^

7.5
7.2
10.3
6.4
14.0

14.4
15.5
21.8
9.6
10.6

13.2

18.4

19.9
13.9
31.6
39.1

24.0
12.7
37.8
44.6

None

1.8
2.7
1.6
3.1
3.9
6.5
9.3
13.8
3.6
13.8
18.7

26O0F

LBG

CMC

8.4
8.6
11.6
7.4
13.8

14.1
15.8
22.2
10.2
U.5

17.2

21.7

20.2
14.3
32.2
40.5

26.7
12.8
37.8
47.9

None

1.7
2.7
1.6
3.1
4.0
6.9
9.5
14.0
3.7
18.2
26.4

29O0F

LBG

CMC

8.4
8.8
12.4
7.3
14.2

14.1
15.5
22.5
10.0
11.9

19.7

26.0

24.9
14.7
39.5
45.3

25.1
13.3
43.0
49.0

None

1.6
2.7
1.6
3.2
4.1
7.7
11.2
16.7
4.3
25.4
31.5

LBG

CMC

8.0
9.6
12.9
7.6
15.4

13.9
15.3
22.6
10.2
12.1

24.8

39.5

36.2
16.6
53.0
51.3

25.4
14.3
54.4
53.9

Heated in a small tube heat exchanger (Mallory heater) with a 6-s heat-up time and no holding time.
LBG, locust bean gum.
CMC, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose.
Concentration of the stabilizer in the water portion was the same in all samples.
A simulated solution having approximately the same composition as milk salts.
Any structure was broken down by passage through a hand emulsifier.
Viscosities were determined at 400F, 24 h after heating.
Data taken from a thesis submitted by G. A. Muck to the Graduate College at the University of Illinois in partial fulfillment of the requirements fot the MS degree (1961).

assuming synergism or interaction. It appears that all mix constituents contribute to


increased water binding by the action of heat.
Direct evidence of stabilizer-protein interaction may be observed when locust
bean gum, Guar gum, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC or cellulose gum), and certain
other gums are incorporated into an ice cream mix. When the mix is allowed to
stand undisturbed for about 24 h, whey separation occurs, that is, a clear liquid
separates, creating a more concentrated mixture of protein and fat. Depending on
the fat content and its effect on the specific gravity, the clear liquid may be observed
on top or on the bottom. The separation can be also observed after the ice cream is
frozen and then allowed to melt. A mix that has separated can be made uniform by
agitation and it will freeze normally; but if someone fails to remix it, the ice cream
will not be of uniform composition. A practical solution is to use the gums in combination with a gel-forming stabilizer that prevents the separation. Carrageenan,
known for its reactivity with milk proteins, is very effective for this purpose at a
very low concentration (0.01%). It is almost invariably used in combination with
stabilizers that promote whey separation. Other gel formers, such as gelatin, may
also work but would have to be used at a higher concentration than carrageenan.
Whey separation (syneresis) is much less of a problem when gel-forming stabilizers
are used.
In the hardened ice cream the concentration of gums may increase six- to eightfold
due to the low level of remaining unfrozen water (e.g., 10% of the original water
content, depending on temperature and mix composition). The low temperature and
high gum concentration would be expected to substantially reduce diffusion and
curtail mobility of the remaining liquid, which is already a saturated solution of
sugars and some of the salts. Temperature fluctuations are inherently quite damaging
to the structure of the ice cream due to the tendency for crystals to grow in size as
they recrystallize. By impeding the movement of any melted water, it is hoped that
the rate of crystal growth can also be reduced. The validity of this assumption is
borne out by the general observation that an ice cream formulated with gums (and
other ingredients that hydrate readily) usually has a more stable structure in storage.
More recent ideas have been advanced in explaining this phenomenon and will be
discussed in Section 2.11.
Under normal conditions of rapid freezing and high viscosity, the carbohydrate
component of milk solids, lactose, is believed to adopt an amorphous, or glassy,
state rather than a crystalline form. Crystallization may be also impeded by the gum
stabilizers in common use.25 However, crystallization may be encountered due to a
combination of factors such as: the mix composition includes a high proportion of
lactose; the storage temperature fluctuates; and crystal nuclei are available possibly
from certain added flavors. As the crystals increase in size they may be perceived
as hard, sandy particles that do not readily dissolve in the mouth. Their detection
threshold is when their size approaches approximately 15 /Ltm.
The mechanism by which various gums bind water is known to differ in some
aspects. Some are capable of forming a gel either through their own structural orientation (e.g., gelatin) or by forming calcium bridges (e.g., sodium alginate); some
act synergistically with other gums such as Xanthan which develops higher viscosity

with Guar gum, and, depending on total gum level, higher viscosity or a gel with
locust bean gum26; they hydrate at different rates; and some do not form a gel but
act as effective thickening agents (e.g., Guar gum).
The gums used in ice cream also differ in their effect on rheological properties
of the mix such as pseudoplasticity (thinning with increase in shear, followed by
recovery when the shearing action is reduced or discontinued); thixotropy (timerelated viscosity reduction after shear stress); yield value (minimum shear stress
before flow is initiated); maximum viscosity production; rate of viscosity development; etc.
Ice cream manufacturers generally rely on their stabilizer suppliers for a product
that has been optimized in functional properties for their specific application. Along
with actual product trials, rheological tests find practical application in formulating
the needed blends of gums that help meet the users' criteria.
The manner in which gums contribute to the sensory perception of body in the
frozen ice cream could be related to their molecular structure and orientation as well
as their gel forming or viscosity development capability. However, it is difficult to
extrapolate results from model solutions to ice cream because the gums in ice cream
perform their function at a very low temperature, in a highly concentrated solution
with respect to salts, sugars, and oligosaccharides all interacting with other macromolecules.
The body of ice cream may also be modified by the inclusion of emulsifying
agents into the blend of gums. The properties of emulsifiers, however, should be
understood and will be discussed in the following section.

2.2.19 Emulsifiers
In a physical and chemical sense, an emulsion is a suspension of small particles or
globules of one liquid in another liquid. The suspension of milkfat globules in milk
is an example of a natural emulsion. To produce a stable emulsion requires the
presence of an emulsifying agent that orients (positions) itself at the interface of the
two liquids in question and is partially soluble in both. The molecule of the emulsifier
is said to have a hydrophilic (water loving) portion and a hydrophobic (water hating,
or in this case lipophilic or fat loving) portion. The stability of an emulsion is also
affected by the size of the globules. In milk, the emulsion is stable, but because of
a difference in specific gravity and other physical and chemical forces, the globules
rise and become concentrated in a cream layer. When the milk is homogenized, the
size of the globules is reduced and additional protein is deposited on the surface of
the globule. Because the specific gravity of protein is much higher than that of fat,
the new smaller globule no longer experiences the strong forces of gravity and cream
does not separate in homogenized milk.
The naturally occurring emulsifying agent in milk is actually a class of substances
called phospholipids (also referred to as lecithin, one of the major components).
These substances are widely distributed in both plant and animal matter. Lecithin of
plant origin finds use as an emulsifier in a number of foods. By using eggs, early
ice cream makers discovered the beneficial effects of emulsifiers indirectly. Egg

yolks have had a long history as an ingredient in ice cream due both to the flavor
that they impart and their emulsifying properties. They are rich in phospholipids.
The benefits derived or hoped for from the use of emulsifiers include the following:
A dry appearing product as it emerges from the freezer
Improved whipping properties
Improved body and texture
Richer mouthfeel sensation
Smaller air cells
Improved heat shock resistance
In the presence of added emulsifiers, ice cream appears drier when it is drawn from
the ice cream freezer as compared to an identical ice cream at the same drawing
temperature but without added emulsifier. The dryness appears to be the result of an
induced fat globule clustering phenomenon at the liquid-air interphase. With proper
conditions, these changes are observable under the microscope. A dry, stiff product
is essential in the manufacture of extruded novelty items such as sandwiches and
stickless bars. Packaging of all types of products is facilitated by a dry ice cream
that does not drip as it is filled into containers, especially if the ice cream has to be
pumped some distance to the packaging equipment. A dry appearance at the freezer
is also associated with desirable effects on body and texture and resistance to heat
shock. Soft-serve products usually have a low overrun but should have a dry appearance to maintain the shape of the serving and prevent drippage even on a hot
summer day.
Some effects of emulsifiers are predictable from the known properties of emulsifying agents. Because they are surface-active agents that measurably reduce the
surface tension, one would expect them to improve whipping properties and promote
the development of smaller but more numerous air cells. More air cells provide more
surface with a finite quantity of available liquid. This should promote a drier appearance because the liquid is spread over a larger area. However, this is not the
only mechanism, and possibly not the predominant one, for the drying effect of
emulsifiers.
Attention must be given to both the concentration of the emulsifier and the fat
content. As their concentration is increased, emulsifiers acquire a measure of deemulsifying properties displayed by fat (butter) separation in the freezer and a greasy
mouthfeel when tasted. As the fat content increases, the deemulsification action is
magnified. The objective is to achieve a certain degree of deemulsification because
that is how the desired drying effect is produced. However, one should not use more
emulsifier than needed to provide just the correct amount of incipient ''churning."
Thus, less emulsifier is needed in high-fat than in low-fat products. The actual
amount of the emulsifier also depends on the specific type of emulsifier used. Emulsifier molecules with a large hydrophilic component promote churning to a greater
extent than those with a large fat-soluble component. This fact must be considered
when formulating special products such as high- and low-fat ice cream and in softserve items. Prolonged agitation in the soft-serve freezer by the action of the dasher
tends to promote churning by itself and an improper choice of emulsifier only ag-

Next Page
gravates the problem. Close cooperation with the supplier of this ingredient should
help in identifying the right emulsifier or, as is commonly the case, a combination
of emulsifiers for specific purposes. Several emulsifiers are described in Table 2.7.
Additional discussion is presented in Section 2.11.1.

2.2.20 Miscellaneous Ingredients


Other than flavoring ingredients, which will be discussed separately, some others
find application in special situations. They include artificial food colors (check legality and labeling), ordinary table salt, so-called protein stabilizing salts such as
citrates and complex phosphates, acidulants for sherbets and ices (most commonly
citric acid), fats other than butterfat, ingredients intended to replace fat (trademarked
products of proprietary composition), nonnutritive sweeteners and sweetener substitutes, bulking agents (e.g., polydextrose), and sources of vegetable protein (e.g.,
soybean protein isolate). Although all of these ingredients must be scrutinized for
quality and functionality, they must also satisfy the criteria of safety, appropriateness,
and use within the constraints of any legal limitations or prohibitions. Checking
local, state, and federal regulations is a prudent approach.

2.3 Calculations and Mix Standardization


To produce an ice cream mix of the desired and consistently uniform composition
pertinent analytical data for all ingredients must be available. The accuracy of
standardization is completely dependent on these data. Procedures for calculating
the required quantities of ingredients are based on arithmetic and algebraic procedures whose principles and application will be illustrated by examples in this section.
To reduce time-consuming calculations, ice cream manufacturers may develop
computer programs for mix standardization of their own, or may purchase commercially available programs. A practical option is also provided by the availability of
inexpensive hand-held calculators that are capable of solving simultaneous equations
involving up to three unknowns in 1 min or less. Their use may be found ideal by
beginners and students who want to learn the principles involved in setting up the
equations. The authors used a Texas Instruments Model TI-68 calculator for solving
the simultaneous equations presented in this section.

2.3.1 Calculating MSNF in Skim Milk and Cream


The fact that the MSNF content of milk is related to the fat content has been illustrated in Table 2.3. Therefore, the original composition of milk must be known before
the MSNF content of skim milk and cream can be estimated. Actual analysis of all
ingredients could be performed in place of a calculation or to confirm it. When the
composition of the original milk is not available, an analysis is required if the mix
is to be accurately standardized.

Previous Page
gravates the problem. Close cooperation with the supplier of this ingredient should
help in identifying the right emulsifier or, as is commonly the case, a combination
of emulsifiers for specific purposes. Several emulsifiers are described in Table 2.7.
Additional discussion is presented in Section 2.11.1.

2.2.20 Miscellaneous Ingredients


Other than flavoring ingredients, which will be discussed separately, some others
find application in special situations. They include artificial food colors (check legality and labeling), ordinary table salt, so-called protein stabilizing salts such as
citrates and complex phosphates, acidulants for sherbets and ices (most commonly
citric acid), fats other than butterfat, ingredients intended to replace fat (trademarked
products of proprietary composition), nonnutritive sweeteners and sweetener substitutes, bulking agents (e.g., polydextrose), and sources of vegetable protein (e.g.,
soybean protein isolate). Although all of these ingredients must be scrutinized for
quality and functionality, they must also satisfy the criteria of safety, appropriateness,
and use within the constraints of any legal limitations or prohibitions. Checking
local, state, and federal regulations is a prudent approach.

2.3 Calculations and Mix Standardization


To produce an ice cream mix of the desired and consistently uniform composition
pertinent analytical data for all ingredients must be available. The accuracy of
standardization is completely dependent on these data. Procedures for calculating
the required quantities of ingredients are based on arithmetic and algebraic procedures whose principles and application will be illustrated by examples in this section.
To reduce time-consuming calculations, ice cream manufacturers may develop
computer programs for mix standardization of their own, or may purchase commercially available programs. A practical option is also provided by the availability of
inexpensive hand-held calculators that are capable of solving simultaneous equations
involving up to three unknowns in 1 min or less. Their use may be found ideal by
beginners and students who want to learn the principles involved in setting up the
equations. The authors used a Texas Instruments Model TI-68 calculator for solving
the simultaneous equations presented in this section.

2.3.1 Calculating MSNF in Skim Milk and Cream


The fact that the MSNF content of milk is related to the fat content has been illustrated in Table 2.3. Therefore, the original composition of milk must be known before
the MSNF content of skim milk and cream can be estimated. Actual analysis of all
ingredients could be performed in place of a calculation or to confirm it. When the
composition of the original milk is not available, an analysis is required if the mix
is to be accurately standardized.

To illustrate the process, let us assume that we have 100 lbs of milk containing
3.5% fat and 8.5% MSNF. Therefore 100 lbs of milk contains 3.5 lbs of fat and
8.5 lbs MSNF. Because all of the MSNF are contained in the nonfat portion of the
milk, 100 lbs of milk minus 3.5 lbs of fat = 96.5 lbs nonfat portion and 8.5 lbs
MSNF divided by 96.5 X 100 = 8.8% MSNF.
The nonfat portion of milk is actually skim milk, although in practice, skim milk
contains 0.05 to 0.09% fat as determined by ether extraction or 0.01 to 0.03% as
determined by the Babcock test. A fat content higher than this reflects a reduced
efficiency of separation. In this example, the skim milk obtained from this particular
milk supply may be assumed to contain 8.8% MSNF.
To calculate the MSNF content of cream, we must know the fat content. As an
illustration, let us consider a cream made from the same milk supply as the skim
milk in the above example and standardized to contain 40% fat. One hundred pounds
of the cream can be visualized as containing 100 lbs cream = 40 lbs fat + 60 lbs
skim milk. As this particular skim milk contains 8.8% MSNF, 0.088 X 60 = 5.28
lbs MSNF in 100 lbs of cream, which is another way of saying that this cream
contains 5.28% MSNF.

2.3.2 Standardization of Ice Cream MixesThe Simplest Case


When a single concentrated source of fat and MSNF is to be used, the calculations
are simple as illustrated by Example 1:
Example 1
Desired composition

Ingredients

12% Fat
11 % MSNF
15% Sugar
0.35% Stabilizer/emulsifier

Cream, 35% fat, 5.72% MSNF


NDM, 97% MSNF (3% water)
Liquid sugar, 67.5% sucrose (67.5 Brix)
Commercial stabilizer

One approach is to calculate the requirements for 100 lbs of mix and then use
multiples to obtain the desired weight.
100 lbs of mix must contain:
12 lbs Fat
11 lbs MSNF
15 lbs Sugar
0.35 lbs Stabilizer/emulsifier
Pounds of cream needed to supply 12 lbs of fat:
12
- = 34.3 lbs 35% cream
The weight of MSNF provided by the cream is obtained by multiplying the weight
of the cream by the determined MSNF content of the cream, in this example 5.72%:

Table 2.9 EXAMPLE 1


Weight

Fat

MSNF

Sugar
(lbs)

Stabilizer/Emulsifier

34.3
9.32
22.2
0.35
33.81

12.0
0
0
0
0

1.96
9.04
0
0
0

0
0
15
0
0

0
0
0
0.35
0

Total

100.00

12.0

11.00

15.0

0.35

Desired

100.00

12.0

11.00

15.0

0.35

Ingredients
Cream
NDM
Liquid sugar
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Water

34.3 X 0.0572 = 1.96 lbs of MSNF


The nonfat dry milk must supply the remainder of the needed MSNF:
11 - 1.96 = 9.04 1bsMSNF
9.04
= 9.32 lbs of NDM
The weight of liquid sugar is obtained by dividing the needed weight of sugar by
the percent of sucrose in the liquid sugar:
= 22.22 lbs of liquid sugar
0.675
The weight of the needed stabilizer/emulsifier is simply 0.35 lbs. As the sum of the
weights of the ingredients is <100 lbs, the difference is made up by the addition of
water. A convenient way is to prepare a table, as shown in Table 2.9 in which all
of the figures can be double checked.
In constructing Table 2.9, the weight of each ingredient is multiplied by its percent
composition of fat, MSNF, and sugar. In this example, the weight of cream was
multiplied by 0.35 to obtain the weight of fat, and by 0.0572 to obtain the weight
of MSNF contributed by the cream. The weight of the NDM was multiplied by 0.97
to obtain the weight of contributed MSNF (the fat content of NDM was assumed to
be negligible). The sugar content was obtained by multiplying the weight of liquid
sugar by its sucrose content (Brix). The stabilizer/emulsifier was assumed to be at
full strength. The table serves as proof of the correctness of the calculations. If the
tested composition of the finished mix made according to the calculated formula is
found to be in error, the difficulty may be due to poor sampling, incorrect analysis
of the ingredients, errors or malfunction in weighing, dilution with water or another
mix, or some other human error.

2.3.3 The Serum Point Method of Mix Standardization


The individual steps in this procedure may be summarized as follows:
1. Add the weights of all nondairy products ingredients.

Table 2.10

EXAMPLE 2
Weight

Fat

MSNF
(lbs)

Sugar

Stabilizer

27.84
36.28
21.38
14.00
0.35

1.11
10.88
0
0
0

2.35
2.23
6.41
0
0

0
0
0
14.00
0

0
0
0
0
0.35

Total

100.00

11.99

10.99

14.00

0.35

Desired

100.00

12.00

11.00

14.00

0.35

Ingredient
Milk
Cream
Condensed skim milk
Sugar
Stabilizer

2. Calculate the serum in 100 lbs of mix. Serum is defined as the sum of the weights
of MSNF and water contributed by the dairy products. [100 (wt nondairy
ingredients -f wt fat)]
3. Calculate the required weight of the concentrated MSNF ingredient to supply the
shortage between MSNF needed and the normal MSNF in the serum. The percent
normal MSNF is equivalent to the percent MSNF in the skim milk obtained from
the available milk supply. In this illustration it is assumed to be 8.8%.
For 100 lbs of mix, the weight of the concentrated MSNF ingredient may be
calculated by the following equation:
Wt concentrated _
MSNF ingredient ~

wt MSNF needed (0.088 X wt of serum in mix)


% MSNF in cone, ingred. (0.088 X % serum in cone, ingr.)

4. Add the weights of nondairy and the concentrated MSNF ingredients and subtract
from 100 to get the weight of milk and cream needed.
5. Calculate the percent fat of the mixture of milk and cream as follows:
% Fat =

total fat needed X 100


wt. milk H- cream

6. Calculate the weight of milk and cream individually by the Pearson Square or
other appropriate method.
7. The process is illustrated in Example 2 and proof is presented in Table 2.10.
Example 2
Desired composition

Ingredients

12% Fat
11% MSNF
14% Sugar
0.5% Stabilizer

Milk, 4% fat, 8.448% MSNF


Cream, 30% fat, 6.16% MSNF
Condensed skim milk, 30% MSNF
Granulated sugar
Stabilizer

For 100 lbs of mix:


Sum of weights of nondairy ingredients = 14.5 lbs
Weight of serum in mix = 100 - (12 + 14 4- 0.5) = 73.5 lbs
Normal MSNF = 8.8%
MSNF in serum = 73.5 X 0.088 = 6.468 lbs
Serum in condensed skim milk = 100%
Weight of condensed skim milk needed
= (11 - 6.468)/(30 - 8.8) X 100 = 21.38 lbs
Weight of milk and cream = 100 - (14.5 + 21.38) = 64.12 lbs
Percent fat in mixture of milk and cream = 12/64.12 X 100 = 18.71%
By Pearson square:
4

11.29

(30-18.71)

14.71
26.00

(18.71 - 4)
(11.29+ 14.71)

18.71
30

Note: The Pearson Square results indicate that a mixture of 11.29 lbs of 4% milk
and 14.71 lbs of 30% cream will yield 26.00 lbs of an 18.71% fat mixture. Since
in this example we need 64.12 lbs of the mixture, we can calculate each needed
amount by proportion.
Weight of cream needed = (14.71 X 64.12)/26 = 36.28 lbs
Weight of milk needed = 64.12 - 36.28 = 27.84 lbs
The weight of milk and cream needed can also be calculated by one of two
alternate methods. Illustrated below is an algebraic procedure and a formula derived
from the algebraic method.

Algebraic solution:
x = lbs of cream
y = lbs of milk
Fat equation

O.3JC 4- 0.04? = 12

Weight equation
_ . .
Solving:

x +
y = 64.12
x = 36.29 lbs of cream
J==27.831bsofmilk

Formula method:
.,
, ,
% fat cream
(lbs milk and cream needed X

)
10
lbs fat needed

Lbs of milk needed =

% fat cream
% fat milk
100
100
(64.12 X ^ )

- 12

= 27.83 lbs milk

Too ~ loo
Weight of cream needed = 64.12 - 27.83 = 36.29 lbs cream
The procedure for calculating the required ingredient quantities when liquid
sweeteners are used is illustrated in Example 3, and the proof is presented in
Table 2.11.

Table 2.11 EXAMPLE 3


Weight

Fat

MSNF

45.85
20.99
5.21
15.15
12.5
0.3

1.60
8.40
0
0
0
0

3.89
1.11
5.00
0
0
0

Total

100.00

10.00

Desired

100.00

10.00

Sugar

Ingredient
Milk
Cream
NDM
Liquid sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier

CSS
(lbs)

Stabilizer/Emulsifier

0
0
0
10
0
0

0
0
0
0
10
0

0
0
0
0
0
0.3

10.00

10.00

10.00

0.3

10.00

10.00

10.00

0.3

Example 3
Desired composition

Ingredients

10% Fat
10% MSNF
10% Sucrose
10% Corn syrup solids (CSS)
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier

Cream, 40% fat, 5.28% MSNF


Milk, 3.5% fat, 8.49% MSNF
NDM, 96% MSNF (4% moisture)
Liquid sugar, 66% sucrose
Corn syrup, 80% CSS
Stabilizer/emulsifier

Weight liquid sugar in 100 lbs of mix = 10/0.66 = 15.15 lbs


Weight of corn syrup in 100 lbs mix = 10/0.8 = 12.5 lbs
Total weight of nondairy ingredients = 15.15 + 12.5 + 0.3 = 27.95 lbs
Weight of serum in mix = 100 - (10 + 27.95) = 62.05 lbs
Weight of normal MSNF in serum = 62.05 X 0.088 = 5.46 lbs
Weight of MSNF that must be supplied by NDM
= 10 - 5.46 = 4.54 lbs
Weight ofNDM needed =

_ ^

[%

m)]

X 100 = 5.21 lbs

Weight of milk and cream needed = 100 - (27.95 + 5.21) = 66.84 lbs
Percent fat in mixture of milk and cream = 10/66.84 X 100 = 14.96
By Pearson Square:
40

11.64
14.96

3.5

25.04
36.5

Weight of cream needed = (11.46 X 66.84)/36.5 = 20.99 lbs


Weight of milk needed = 66.84 - 20.99 = 45.85 lbs
The inclusion of sweetened condensed milk introduces another complication
which is illustrated in Example 4 and the proof is presented in Table 2.12.

Example 4
Desired composition

Ingredients

10% Fat
10% MSNF
12% Sugar
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier

Milk, 3.5% fat, 8.49% MSNF


Cream, 40% fat, 5.28% MSNF
Sweet condensed milk 8% fat, 22% MSNF, 45% sugar
Liquid sugar, 67% sucrose
Corn syrup, 80% CSS
Stabilizer/emulsifler

Weight liquid sugar in 100 lbs mix = 12/0.67 = 17.91 lbs


Weight of corn syrup = 6/0.8 = 7.5 lbs
Total weight of nondairy ingredients = 25.71 lbs
Weight of serum in mix = 64.29 lbs
Weight of normal MSNF in serum = 5.66
Weight of MSNF to be supplied by sweet condensed milk = 4.34 lbs
Weight of sweet condensed milk needed
(serum = 100 - [8(fat) + 45(sugar)] = 47)
4.34
X 100 = 24.3 lbs
22 - (0.088 X 47)
Weight of milk and cream needed
= 100 (wt nondairy H- wt sweet, cond. - wt sugar in sweet, cond.)
= 100 - [25.71 + 24.3 - (0.45 X 24.3)] = 60.93 lbs
Weight of fat supplied by sweetened condensed milk
= 24.3 X 0.08 = 1.94 lbs
Therefore milk and cream must supply 10 1.94 = 8.06 lbs of fat
% fat in milk and cream mixture = 8.06/60.93 X 100 = 13.23
Weight of cream by Pearson Square = 16.24 lbs
Weight of milk needed = 44.69 lbs
Weight of sugar supplied by sweetened condensed milk
= 24.3 X 0.45 = 10.94
Therefore must reduce liquid sugar by weight that provides 10.94 lbs of sugar:
10.94

- 16.33 lbs
Weight of liquid sugar needed = 17.91 - 16.33 = 1.58 lbs
Weight of water that must be added to compensate for the amount not added
by the syrup = 16.33 - 10.94 = 5.39 lbs

Table 2.12

EXAMPLE 4
Weight

Fat

MSNF

44.69
16.24
24.3
1.58
7.5
0.3
5.39

1.56
6.5
1.94
0
0
0
0

3.79
0.86
5.35
0
0
0
0

0
0
10.94
1.06
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
6.0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0.3
0

Total

100.00

10.00

10.00

12.00

6.00

0.3

Desired

100.00

10.00

10.00

12.00

6.00

0.3

Ingredient
Milk
Cream
Sweet condensed milk
Liquid sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Water

Stabilizer/Emulsifier

CSS
Sugar
(lbs)

2.3.4 Algebraic Method of Mix Standardization


In this method, the weights of the ingredients are treated as unknowns x, ?, and z.
With three unknowns, three equations are required which are then solved simultaneously. The process is illustrated in Examples 5 to 8 along with Tables 2.13 through
2.16.
Example 5
Desired composition
of Soft-Serve mix
6% Fat
12% MSNF
13% Sugar
0.5% Stabilizer/emulsifier

Ingredients
Cream, 36% fat, 5.7% MSNF
Milk, 3.5% fat, 8.8% MSNF
Condensed skim milk, 30% MSNF
Granulated sugar
Stabilizer/emulsifier

x = lbs of cream
y = lbs of milk
z = lbs of condensed skim milk
(1) Fat equation
(2) MSNF equation
(3) Milk products equation

Total weight of milk products in 100 lbs =


100 - (13 + 0.5) = 86.5
0.36* + 0.035? + Oz =
0.051x + 0.088? + 0.3z =
x +
? +
z =
3.5?

(4) Eq. (1) X 100

36JC

600

(5) Eq. (2) X 100


(6) Eq. (3) X 30

5.1x
30x

+ 8.8?
+30?

+ 30z
+3Oz

=
=

1200
2595

(7) Eq. (6) - Eq. (5)

24.3;c

+ 21.2?

+ 0

1395

(8) Eq. (4)

36JC

600

85.05*

3.5?

6
12
86.5

(9) Eq. (7) X 3.5


(10) Eq. (8) X 21.2

763.20JC

+ 74.2?
+74.2?

+ 0
+ 0

= 4882.5
= 12,720.0

( H ) E q . (10) - Eq. (9)

678.15x

+ 0

+ 0

7837.5

Table 2.13

EXAMPLE 5
Sugar
(lbs)

Stabilizer/Emulsifier

Weight

Fat

MSNF

52.52
11.56
22.42
13.00
0.5

1.84
4.16
0
0
0

4.62
0.66
6.72
0
0

0
0
0
13
0

0
0
0
0
0.5

Total

100.00

6.00

12.00

13

0.5

Desired

100.00

6.00

12.00

13

0.5

Ingredient
Milk
Cream
Condensed skim milk
Sugar
Stabilizer/emulsifier

7 837 5
x = = 11.56 lbs of cream
(12) Substitute 11.56 for x in Eq. (4)
3.5j = 600 - (36 X 11.56) = 600 - 416.16 = 183.84
y

= i^jl

= 52.52 lbs milk

(13) Substitute 11.56 for x and 52.52 for y in Eq. (3)


z = 86.5 - (11.56 + 52.52) = 22.42 lbs cond. skim milk
Example 6
Desired composition

Ingredients

10% Fat
8.5% MSNF
1.5% Whey solids
8.5% Sucrose
8.5% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier

Cream, 35% fat, 5.27% MSNF


Skim milk, 8.5% MSNF
Liquid sugar, 67.5% sucrose
Corn syrup, 80% CSS
Dry whey, 97% why solids
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Condensed skim milk, 30% MSNF

Weight of dry whey needed in 100 lbs of mix = 1.5/0.97 = 1.55 lbs
Weight of liquid sugar in 100 lbs of mix = 8.5/0.675 = 12.59 lbs
Weight of corn syrup in 100 lbs of mix = 8.5/0.8 = 10.63 lbs
x = lbs cream
y = lbs skim milk
z = lbs condensed skim milk

Table 2.14

EXAMPLE 6
Sucrose
(lbs)

CSS

Stabilizer/Emulsifier

0
0
0
1.5
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
8.5
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
8.5
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0.3

8.5

1.5

8.5

8.5

0.3

8.5

1.5

8.5

8.5

0.3

MSNF WS

Weight

Fat

32.17
28.57
14.19
1.55
12.59
10.63
0.3

0
10.00
0
0
0
0
0

2.73
1.51
4.26
0
0
0
0

Total

100.00

10.00

Desired

100.00

10.00

Ingredient
Skim milk
Cream
Condensed skim milk
Dry whey
Liquid sugar
Com syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier

0.35JC
0.0527JC

10

+ 0.085;y + 0.3z = 8.5


x +
y +
z = 100 - (12.59 -f 10.63 + 1.55 + 03) = 74.93
10
x = - = 28.57 lbs cream

Substitute 28.57 for x in the remaining equations:


0.085j
v
0.085y
0.085v

z =

4- 0.3z
= 8.5 - 1.51 = 6.99
+
z = 74.93 - 28.57 = 46.36
+ 0.3z
= 6.99
+ 0.085z = 3.94
0.215z = 3.05

3.05

= 14.19 lbs condensed skim milk

y = 74.93 - (28.57 + 14.19) = 32.17 lbs skim milk


Example 7
Desired composition

Ingredients

10% Fat
12% MSNF
13% Sucrose
4% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer

Cream, 35% fat, 5.27% MSNF


Skim milk, 8.5% MSNF
Sweet condensed skim milk, 30% MSNF, 42% sugar
Corn syrup, 80% CSS
Granulated sugar
Stabilizer

x = lbs cream
y = lbs skim milk
z = lbs sweetened condensed skim milk. Only 58% of it is a milk
product as seen in the third equation.

Table 2.15 EXAMPLE 7


CSS

Stabilizer

0
0
10.02
2.98
0
0

0
0
0
0
4.00
0

0
0
0
0
0
0.3

12.00

13.00

4.00

0.3

12.00

13.00

4.00

0.3

Weight

Fat

MSNF

39.30
28.57
23.85
2.98
5.00
0.3

0
10.0
0
0
0
0

3.34
1.51
7.15
0
0
0

Total

100.00

10.00

Desired

100.00

10.00

Ingredient
Skim milk
Cream
Sweet condensed skim
Sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer

Sucrose
(lbs)

Note: The sugar contributed by the sweetened condensed skim milk is determined by multiplying its weight by 42%.
23.85 X 0.42 = 10.02. The balance of the needed sugar is supplied by the granulated sugar.

0.35*
+ 0.085? +
JC Hy +
x = 28.57
y = 39.30
z = 23.85

0.0527JC

= 10
0.3z = 12
0.58z = 100 - (13 + 5 + 0.3) = 81.7
lbs cream
lbs skim milk
lbs sweet condensed skim milk

Occasions may arise when small quantities of certain ingredients are to be used
up. Since the weights and compositions of these materials are known, they can be
easily accommodated in the calculations. A simple problem has been designed as an
illustration:
Example 8
Desired
composition
10% Fat
11.5% MSNF
13% Sucrose
4% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer

Ingredients

Total weight of mix

150 lbs cream, 20% fat, 7.2% MSNF


50 lbs condensed skim milk, 30% MSNF
500 lbs milk, 4% fat, 9% MSNF
Cream, 35% fat, 6% MSNF
NDM, 96% MSNF
Skim milk, 9% MSNF
Granulated sugar
Dry corn syrup solids (use 4% as is)
Stabilizer

4000 lbs

150 lbs 20% cream provides 30 lbs fat and 10.8 lbs MSNF
500 lbs milk provides 20 lbs fat and 45 lbs MSNF
50 lbs condensed skim milk provides 15 lbs MSNF

Table 2.16

EXAMPLE 8
Stabilizer

Weight

Fat

MSNF

Sugar
(lbs)

20% Cream
4% Milk
Condensed skim milk
35% Cream
NDM
Skim milk
Sugar
Com syrup solids
Stabilizer

150.00
500.00
50.00
1000.00
212.05
1395.95
520.00
160.00
12.00

30.00
20.00
0
350.00
0
0
0
0
0

10.80
45.00
15.00
60.00
203.57
125.63
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
520.00
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
160.00
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12

Total

4000.00

400.00

460.00

520.00

160.00

12.00

Desired

4000.00

400.00

460.00

520.00

160.00

12.00

Ingredient

CSS

Total provided by these ingredients


Weight, 150 + 500 + 50 = 700 lbs
Fat, 30 + 20 = 50 lbs
MSNF, 10.8 + 45 + 15 = 70.8 lbs
Total needed in the mix
Weight, 4000 lbs
Fat, 4000 X 10% = 400 lbs
MSNF, 4000 X 11.5% = 460 lbs
x = lbs 35% cream
y = NDM
z = lbs skim milk
0.35JC

= 400

50 =

350

+ 0.96y + 0.09z = 460 - 70.8 = 389.2


x +
y +
z = 400Q - (680 + 12 + 700) = 2608
x = 1000 lbs cream
y = 212.05 lbs NDM
z = 1395.95 lbs skim milk

0.06JC

Note: Total fat supplied by the miscellaneous ingredients (50 lbs) was subtracted from the total needed in Eq. (1). The same was done in the case
of MSNF and total weight. [The 680 in Eq. (3) is the sum of sugar and
dry corn syrup solids, and 12 is the weight of stabilizer.]

2.3.5 Restandardizing a Mix of Erroneous Composition


Every plant needs a system that will ensure highest accuracy in testing of mix and
ingredients, weighing, and mixing to provide a correct and uniform product corn-

position. An old axiom in chemistry holds that the results of an analysis are reliable
only if a representative sample was correctly analyzed. Paraphrased into an ice cream
maker's language, it simply says that the samples of ingredients and the mix must
be representative and that a mix cannot be accurately formulated if the ingredients
are not of a known and uniform composition. Unfortunately, even with all precautions seemingly in place, there may be instances when the mix composition is sufficiently off to require restandardization.
The process of restandardization must comply with all existing regulations and
dictates of appropriate enforcement agencies. Compositional imperfections discovered by tests performed right after all ingredients have been thoroughly blended can
be corrected prior to pasteurization. This is the most opportune time to make such
adjustments. Should restandardization of a pasteurized mix be required, the process
becomes more complex. Additional mix with a composition calculated to correct the
deficiency needs to be prepared (pasteurized, homogenized, and cooled in an approved manner) and combined with the original mix. The capacity of the available
equipment (pasteurizer, storage tank, etc.) will affect the minimum batch size that
can be effectively processed for this purpose. Restandardization is a sufficiently
sensitive operation that all precautions must be taken to protect the public health
qualities of the product. Advance consultation with enforcement agencies on procedures should help in avoiding unpleasantness.
There are several possible scenaria that may necessitate restandardization of the
mix. In all cases it may be prudent to recheck the accuracy of the composition and
weights, because if these are in error, restandardization may still not accomplish a
full correction. Besides, the analysis furnished by the plant laboratory is likely to
show only the percent fat and percent total solids. If the weights of the sweeteners
is incorrect, the estimate of the MSNF would also be incorrect [MSNF = total solids
(fat + sweeteners + stabilizer)]. These facts point to the necessity of accurate
record keeping for every batch of mix made in a format that makes a recheck of all
data possible. Following are the various situations that may be encountered:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Mix
Mix
Mix
Mix
Mix
Mix

is high in fat and correct in MSNF.


is high in fat and high in MSNF.
is high in fat and low in MSNF.
is low in fat and correct in MSNF.
is low in fat and high in MSNF.
is low in fat and low in MSNF.

Generally, whenever the fat content is found to be too high, correction is made
by determining how much additional mix could be made with the excess fat. For
this additional weight, the needed quantities of stabilizer, sweeteners, MSNF (including any that may be deficient in the original mix), and water are calculated to
provide the same composition as the original mix was supposed to have. When the
fat and MSNF are both high, the MSNF in surplus are subtracted from the total
needed in the additional mix. The process is illustrated in Example 9 and the answers
are confirmed in Table 2.17.

Table 2.17

EXAMPLE 9
Weight

Fat

MSNF

Sugar
(lbs)

Original mix
NDM
Liquid sugar
Com syrup
Stabilizer
Water

4500.00
9.38
36.3
15.4
0.61
142.81

517.5

508.5
9.00

540.00

Total

4704.50

517.5

517.5

564.5

282.3

14.11

Desired

4704.50

517.5

517.5

564.5

282.3

14.11

Ingredient

CSS

Stabilizer

270.00

13.5

24.5
12.3
0.61

Example 9
Desired

Actual: 4500 lbs mix

Ingredients

11 % Fat
11 % MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer

11.5% Fat
11.3% MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer

NDM 96% MSNF


67.5 Brix sucrose
Corn syrup, 80% CSS
Stabilizer

Excess lbs of fat = 4500 X 0.005 = 22.5 lbs


Weight of additional mix = 22.5 ^ 0.11 = 204.5 lbs
Excess lbs of MSNF = 4500 X 0.003 = 13.5 lbs
Weight of MSNF needed in 204.5 lbs of additional mix =
204.5 X 0.11 = 22.5 lbs
Weight of MSNF to be supplied by NDM = 22.5 - 13.5 = 9 lbs
Weight of NDM needed = 9 - 0.96 = 9.38 lbs
Weight of sucrose needed in 204.5 lbs = 204.5 X 0.12 = 24.5 lbs
Weight of 67.5 Brix syrup needed = 24.5 -s- 0.675 = 36.3 lbs
Weight of CSS needed in 204.5 lbs = 204.5 X 0.06 = 12.3 lbs
Weight of corn syrup needed = 12.3 *- 0.08 = 15.4 lbs
Weight of stabilizer needed = 204.5 X 0.003 = 0.61 lbs
Weight of water needed = 204.5 - (9.38 + 36.3 + 15.4 + 0.61) =
142.81 lbs
When the fat content in the finished mix turns out to be low, a small quantity of
additional mix can be made that includes the needed weight of the fat to correct the
deficiency. This can be accomplished arithmetically or algebraically, as illustrated
in Examples 10 and 11 and Tables 2.18 and 2.19 with confirmation of the calculated
results.

Table 2.18 EXAMPLElO


Weight

Fat

MSNF

Original mix
Cream
Condensed skim
milk
67.5 Brix sucrose
Corn syrup
Stabilizer
Water

5000.00
157.14
21.2

475.00
55.00

515.00
8.64
6.36

Total

5300.00

530.00

530.00

636.00

318.00

15.9

Desired

5300.00

530.00

530.00

636.00

318.00

15.9

Ingredient

53.33
22.5
0.9
44.93

Sugar
(lbs)

CSS

Stabilizer

300.00

15.00

600.00

36.00

18.00
0.9

Example 10
Desired

Actual: 5000 lbs

Ingredients

10% Fat
10% MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer

9.5% Fat
10.3% MSNF
12% Sucrose
6% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer

Cream 35% fat, 5.5% MSNF


Condensed skim milk 30% MSNF
or
Skim milk 8.5% MSNF
67.5 Brix sucrose
Corn syrup 80% CSS

For the arithmetic solution, the ingredients needed for an additional 300 lbs of mix
will be calculated with cream and condensed skim milk as the dairy ingredients.
Shortage of fat in original mix = 5000 X 0.5% = 25 lbs
Weight of fat needed in 300 lbs of additional mix = 300 X 10% = 30 lbs
Total weight of fat needed in 300 lbs of additional mix = 25 + 30 = 55 lbs
Weight of cream needed to supply 55 lbs of fat = 55 -s- 0.35 = 157.14 lbs
Surplus weight of MSNF in original mix = 5000 X 0.3% = 15 lbs
Weight of MSNF needed in 300 lbs of additional mix = 300 X 10% =
30 lbs
Additional weight of MSNF needed = 30 - 15 = 15 lbs
Weight of MSNF contributed by the cream = 157.14 X 0.055 = 8.64 lbs
Weight of MSNF to be supplied by condensed skim milk = 15 - 8.64 =
6.36 lbs
Weight of condensed skim milk needed = 6.36 ^- 0.3 = 21.2 lbs
Weight of liquid sugar needed = 300 X 0.12 ^- 0.675 = 53.33 lbs
Weight of corn syrup needed = 300 X 0.06 -* 0.8 = 22.5 lbs
Weight of stabilizer needed = 300 X 0.003 = 0.9 lbs
For the algebraic solution, the cream will be needed to make up the deficiency in
fat, but since the MSNF are high, skim milk should be the appropriate choice of
MSNF.

Table 2.19 EXAMPLEIl


Weight

Fat

MSNF

Original mix
Cream
Skim milk
67.5 Brix sucrose
Corn syrup
Stabilizer

5000.00
152.50
58.66
50.44
21.28
0.85

475.00
53.37

515.00
8.39
4.98

Total

5283.73

528.37

528.37

634.05

317.02

15.85

Desired

5283.73

528.37

528.37

634.05

317.02

15.85

Ingredient

Sugar
(lbs)

CSS

Stabilizer

300.00

15.00

600.00

34.05

17.02
0.85

Example 11
The same ingredients and the same mix as in Example 10.
x = new weight of the mix after correction
y = lbs of cream
z = lbs of skim milk
Fat equation
475
+ 0.35y
= 0.1*
MSNF equation
515
+ 0.055? + O.O85z = OAx
Milk products Eq. 0.7442 X 5000 4y
+
z
= 0.7442JC
Note:
475 = lbs fat in original mix (5000 X 0.095)
515 = lbs MSNF in original mix (5000 X 0.103)
0.7442 is the percentage of milk products in the mix, obtained by subtracting the weights of nondairy ingredients needed in 100 lbs from 100.
In this example, 17.78 lbs of 67.5 Brix liquid sugar would be needed to
supply the required 12 lbs of sugar; 7.5 lbs of corn syrup would supply
the needed 6 lbs CSS; and 0.3 lbs of stabilizer must be provided. 17.78
+ 7.5 4- 0.3 = 25.58. 100 - 25.58 = 74.42. Therefore, the mix contains 74.42% milk products.
When the three simultaneous equations are solved employing the normal rules of
algebra, the following results are obtained:
x = 5283.73 lbs (the new weight of the mix)
y = 152.50 lbs (weight of additional cream)
z =
58.66 lbs (weight of additional skim milk)

2.3.6 Mix Made in a Vacuum Pan


Although no longer commonly encountered, making the mix in a vacuum pan has
been a viable process. The only dairy ingredients required are cream and milk or

Table 2.20 EXAMPLE 12


Stabilizer/Emulsifier

Weight

Fat

MSNF

Milk
Cream
Sugar
Corn syrup
Stabilizer/emulsifier

106.02
17.97
10.00
12.50
0.30

3.17
6.29

9.01
0.99

Total

146.79*

10.00

10.00

10.00

10.00

0.3

Desired

100.00

10.00

10.00

10.00

10.00

0.3

Ingredient

Sugar
CSS
(lbs)

10.00
10.00
0.3

Evaporate 46.79 lbs of water.

skim milk. In standardizing a mix to be made in this manner, it is only necessary to


bring the fat and the MSNF into the desired ratio. During the vacuum pan operation,
enough water is evaporated to yield the desired concentration.
Example 12
Desired composition

Ingredients

10% Fat
10% MSNF
10% Sucrose
10% CSS
0.3% Stabilizer/emulsifier

Milk 3.5 fat, 8.5% MSNF


Cream 35% fat, 5.5% MSNF
Granulated sugar
Com syrup 80% CSS
Stabilizer/emulsifier

x = lbs cream
y = lbs milk
Fat: MSNF = 10:10

Fat equation
0.35JC + 0.035? = 10
MSNF equation 0.055JC 4- 0.085v = 10
x = 17.97 lbs cream
y = 106.02 lbs milk
The results indicate that for every 106.02 lbs of milk, 17.97 lbs of cream, 10 lbs
of granulated sugar, 12.5 lbs of corn syrup (10 -r- 0.8), and 0.3 lbs of stabilizer/
emulsifier must be added. When the sum of these ingredients is concentrated to 100
lbs, the resultant product will have the desired composition. The calculations are
confirmed in Table 2.20.

2.3.7 Calculating Density and Degrees Baume (Be)


Because of the natural variation in milk composition and differences in mix composition, only approximate density values can be obtained by simple calculation.
However, the values provide a reasonable starting point and can be refined by experience and actual measurements. Following are applicable formulas:

(1) Specific gravity


(600F, 15.6C) " % fat
0.93
(2) Density (lbs./gal)
(600F, 15.6C)

.^
o
SpeClflC

100
% remaining solids
L601
.
*

% water
1

O<*A
834

Specific gravity (600F)


(4) 0Be temperature correction = 0.03 0Be per 0F
Example 13
Calculate the specific gravity at 600F and the 0Be at 1400F of a mix having the
following composition:
14% Fat
10% MSNF
15% Sugar
0.2% Stabilizer
Specific gravity
(600F)

Be

60 F

< > =
0

145

J4_
0.93

100
252_
1.601

=
+

6O8
1

145

- T ^ T i = 1219

Be (1400F) = 12.19 - [(140 - 60) X 0.03] = 9.79

The actual weight per gallon and 0Be should be determined by physical measurement at the temperature of interest after the mix has been analyzed and found to
be of the correct composition. The corrected readings can be used in subsequent
runs.

2.4 Formulation
In formulating ice cream mixes, the principal objective is to create a product with
physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics perceived by the manufacturer as
desirable based on favorable consumer acceptance. Compliance with legal requirements and standards of identity is essential, but within these constraints, the manufacturer is allowed considerable latitude in the choice of formulation. Following is
a list of some criteria that may affect the adoption of a particular formulation:
1. Lowest possible price
2. Product and price positioning
3. Competitiveness against market leader

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Adaptability to available equipment


Target sensory characteristics of product
Natural label
Shelf life
Heat shock resistance
Meltdown characteristics
Flavor release and character
Body and texture characteristics
Type of product
a. Sherbet, frozen yogurt, soft-serve, etc.
b. Super-premium, premium, economy grade, reduced or low-fat, etc.
c. Reduced calorie, special diet, nondairy, etc.
d. novelties, molded, extruded type, stick type, still frozen, etc.
13. New product concept
14. Product improvement
15. Emulation of another product.
There are other factors that also have a major impact on the properties of the finished
product. Formulation is a major step, but selection of ingredients, flavoring type and
quantity, overrun (amount of air whipped into the product), and quality of packaging
play a significant role and should complement the selected formula. All processing
and freezing steps also contribute in an important way.
In any frozen dessert, the frozen shelf life and resistance to damage caused by
fluctuating temperatures (heat shock) are key concerns of the manufacturer. Factors
that provide some degree of control over these problems begin with formulation.
The total solids content and its components play an important part. When choosing
a formula, consideration is given to the desired content of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Fat
MSNF
Total solids
Sweetness level (expressed as sucrose)
Stabilizer/emulsifier.

The basic formulas for the various frozen desserts must be considered by product
type because of existing standards of identity. In the case of ice cream, the minimum
fat and total milk solids content is predetermined by the standard of identity as 10%
and 20%, respectively. However, the number of possible formulations with the restricted fat content of 10% is exceedingly high. Some of the possibilities are illustrated in Table 2.21.
Among further variations of the formulations presented in Table 2.21 are: intermediate levels (between 0 and 25% of the MSNF) of whey solids; different percentages of sucrose replacement by corn syrup solids; corn syrups of higher or lower
DE; the inclusion of microcrystalline cellulose into formulations other than those
indicated; the inclusion of egg yolk solids at different concentration levels (below
1.4% to avoid requirement of labeling the product as frozen custard); inclusion of

Table 2.21 SOME VARIATION IN THE COMPOSITION OF AN ICE CREAM


CONTAINING 10% FAT
Percent Concentration

Constituent
Fat
MSNF
Wheya
Sucrose
CSSb
Fructose0
Microcrystalline cellulose
Stabilizer/emulsified
Egg yolk solids
Total solids

10
10
15

10
7.5
2.5
15

10
10
10
10

10
8
2
10

10
11
12
6

10
9
2
13
4

10
7.5
2.5

11.5

10
12

15

15

10

10
8

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.25

35.3

35.3

40.2

35.3

39.25

0.25
0.25
38.5

0.3

0.3
0.3

38.3

37.1

1
38

a
Up to 25% of the MSNF may be in the form of whey solids or solids from one of the approved modified whey
products.
b
The CSS were assumed to possess 50% of the sweetening value of sucrose.
c
High-fructose com syrup with a sweetening value of at least that of sucrose.
d
The actual concentration depends on the particular proprietary product used. The supplier's directions should be
followed.

egg yolk solids into formulations other than the one indicated; use of stabilizers and
emulsifiers made up of different components, etc. Although not all variations produce
significant changes, differences in ice cream properties may certainly be brought
about by varying the formulations. Products resulting from the illustrated compositions would vary in body and texture, in the freezing point and hardness at any
given temperature, in resistance to heat shock, in ingredient cost, in the perception
of being "all natural," and possibly in flavor and flavor release. The properties
affecting the body and texture of the ice cream can be further modified by the manner
of processing and freezing of the mix, the amount of overrun incorporated, the
manner in which the flavors are added, and the speed of hardening. The great variety
of possibilities testifies to the fact that our federal standards are not a "recipe"
forcing everyone to make the same product.
The suggested formulas presented in subsequent pages are intended as starting
points in helping ice cream makers to develop formulations with their own specific
requirements.

2.4.1 Premium and Superpremium Products


There is no simple or single definition of premium type products and there are several
perceptions as to their image and characteristics. The term "premium" cannot be
divorced from quality. Therefore, one perception of premium ice cream is that it is
made from high-quality ingredients, including the flavorings. The consumer may
also expect such a product not to be excessively whipped (not to have a high overrun). Milk fat certainly makes a contribution to the eating quality of ice cream, one

that is difficult to emulate with substitutes. Thus a high fat content is compatible
with premium eating quality. The visual impact of flavoring is expected to be immediate and positive. This implies that the fruit, nuts, candy, variegating syrups, etc.
be distributed in a pattern that is pleasing both for its uniformity and correct quantity.
Finally, packaging must receive its due emphasis in conveying the "premium"
image. The important criterion of packaging address both attractiveness (eye appeal)
and product protection. In summary, a premium or superpremium product may be
distinguished from the ordinary product by one or more of the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

High-quality dairy ingredients


High fat content
Low overrun
High-quality flavoring at optimum level
Pleasing visual impact of flavoring
Well-balanced formulation for optimum flavor release and body and texture characteristics
7. Attractive, high-quality packaging.
Unfortunately, premium products sometimes fail to live up to their billing. The
product may be mishandled during distribution to such an extent that its texture
deteriorates, it may shrink, and it may develop off-flavors. In these cases, the manufacturers may or may not be at fault and a reasonable course of action for them is
to remove the substandard products from the market and monitor the distribution
system in an effort to locate the problem area. In some cases, the fault may be found
in the manufacturer's own production and quality assurance program due to human
error.
Although a high fat content and low overrun have been commonly associated
with the composition of premium ice cream, products with a reduced fat content
may also bear premium characteristics. The eating quality of these products can be
made outstanding by careful formulation and the judicious choice of the type and
amount of flavoring used.

2.4.2 The "All-Natural" Designation


This or similar designations are sometimes perceived as being tantamount to a premium product. They may fall in that category but they do not have to necessarily
meet the criteria discussed in the previous paragraphs. Because there is no legal
definition of what constitutes an all-natural ice cream, the interpretation is essentially
left up to the manufacturers. When questioned, they must be willing and able to
defend the label against anyone's objections. In question is the definition of the term
"natural." One can argue, on the one hand, that ice cream per se cannot be a natural
product. It is not found anywhere in nature in this form and in its manufacture it is
heated and homogenized. On the other hand, a great deal of the food that we consume
is made up of a number of ingredients that are blended together and heated. Only
fruits, nuts, and some vegetables are commonly consumed in their natural state

Table 2.22 WHITE ICE CREAM MIX FORMULATIONS


Fat (%)
Total milk solids (%)
Sweetness as sucrose (%)
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Total solids (%)

10
20-22
13-15
37-40

14
12
16
20-24
20-23
22-25
14-16
14-16
13-15
Depending on proprietary product used
40-41
38-40
39-41

18
24-26
14-16
40-42

without any processing. Thus, ice cream may approach the natural state only when
it is made up of ingredients that are perceived as natural.
When rendering judgment on whether an ingredient may appropriately be designated as natural, the following criteria may be considered: degree of processing;
chemical modifications during processing of the ingredient; is it a synthetic ingredient; is it used for cosmetic reasons (e.g., colors); and does it contain chemical
additives and preservatives (e.g., in flavoring substances). These points emphasize
that the natural designation is a function of ingredient selection rather than formulation. A natural product may be high or low in fat, high or low in total solids, and
high or low in overrun.

2.4.3 Formulations for a Plain (White) Ice Cream Mix


The white mix is used for vanilla ice cream and for all other flavors that do not
require a chocolate background. The white and the chocolate mixes are usually the
only two mixes needed, although a special mix for fruit ice cream can be formulated
if desired. The suggested formulations in Table 2.22 provide basic compositional
guidelines without addressing the subtleties, discussed earlier, by which the properties of the product made by each of the formulations can be further affected.

2.4.4 Formulations for a Chocolate Ice Cream Mix


A chocolate ice cream may be produced by freezing a white mix flavored with an
appropriate quantity of chocolate syrup. In larger plants, however, the general practice is to prepare a separate chocolate mix. The flavor is imparted by the addition of
cocoa, chocolate liquor, or both. The suggested formulations do not address the
various nuances provided by different types of cocoas and liquors, as these should
be considered in the choice of ingredients. Thus, the same formulation may yield
different flavor characteristics depending on the choice of chocolate flavoring.
The federal standards of identity contain a provision that allows for a reduction
in the minimum fat and total milk solids content due to bulky flavors depending on
the amount of flavoring used. In the case of chocolate, the weight of the ingredient
is multiplied by 2.5 (this factor is an allowance for the additional sweetener needed)
and subtracted from 100. The result is the weight of the mix which must comply
with the minimum composition standards. For example, if 5% chocolate liquor is to
be used, 5 X 2.5 = 12.5; 100 - 12.5 = 87.5. This weight (87.5 lbs) of a 10%

Table 2.23 CHOCOLATE MIX FORMULATIONS


Milkfat (%)
Total milk solids (%)
Sweetness as sucrose (%)
Chocolate liquor3 (%)
Cocoa3 (%)
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Total solids (%)
a

11
11
12
12
8.75-10 8.88-10 9.25-10
18-20
18-20
19-20 19-20
17.5-19 17.76-19 18.5-19
17-18
17-18
17-18
17-18 17-18
17-18
17-18
3.5
5-5.5
3
5-6
3-4
5
0
1
0
1-1.5
0
1.5
0
3
Depending on proprietary product used
40.5-42 40-41.5
39-40 40-42.5 40-42.5 41-44 41-43.5

The concentration may be slightly increased or lowered depending on consumer acceptance.

milkfat mix contains 8.75 lbs milkfat. Therefore, this particular mix must contain as
a minimum 8.75% milkfat. The milk solids reduction is obtained in a similar way
and the new minimum turns out to be 17.5%. In no instance can the milkfat and
total milk solids content be reduced below 8% and 16%, respectively. Formulations
are given in Table 2.23.

2.4.5 Fruit Ice Cream


Fruits, in various forms, used for flavoring ice cream commonly contain added sugar.
The standards of identity recognize this fact by authorizing a dilution factor of 1.4
in calculating the permissible fat and total milk solids reduction in fruit ice cream.
If 14% fruit (i.e., pure fruit not including added sweeteners) is used in a 10% fat ice
cream, the calculation is as follows: 14 X 1.4 = 19.6; 100 - 19.6 = 80.4. Because
80.4 lbs of mix must minimally contain 8.04 lbs of fat and 8.04% MSNF, the ice
cream composition after addition of the fruit cannot be lower than 8.04% fat and
16.08% total milk solids. This is essentially at the limit of the maximum permissible
reduction to 8% and 16%, respectively. The factor of 1.4 implies that the flavoring
contains 2.5 parts of fruit and 1 part of sugar (2.5 X 1.4 = 3.5), although this does
not preclude the use of flavorings with a different fruit to sugar ratio (e.g., 3 + 1
or 4 + 1).
When the quantity of fruit flavoring (with added sugar) exceeds 20% by weight,
it can no longer be added to a mix of minimum legal composition (10% fat and 20%
total milk solids). To avoid reducing the milk solids below the permissible level,
should this situation arise, two options may be considered. One possibility is to start
with a mix that has a higher fat and solids content. Another option is to prepare a
special mix so designed that it will have the desired composition after addition of
the flavoring. Following is an illustration.
To every 70 lbs of mix, 30 lbs of peaches (2.5 + 1) are to be added and the
resulting ice cream is to have the following composition:
9% Fat
9% MSNF
17% Sweetness as sucrose
0.3 Stabilizer/emulsifier.

Table 2.24 FORMULATIONS FOR REDUCED FAT PRODUCTS


Soft-Serve
Fat (%)
Total milk solids (%)
Sweetness as sucrose (%)
Stabilizer/emulsifier
Total solids (%)

2-3
15-17
13
30-32

Hard Frozen51

4-7
2-3
18-19
15-17
15
13
Depending on proprietary product used
32-34
35-36

4-7
17-19
15
36-38

Depending on the desired results, the formulation may include microcrystalline cellulose in the stabilizer system and
bulking agents such as very low DE com syrups as components of the sweetener solids.

The peach flavoring contains (1/3.5) X 100 = 28.6% sucrose and yields 30 X
0.286 = 8.57 lbs sucrose. Therefore, 70 lbs of mix must contain:
9 lbs fat or 12.86% fat
9 lbs MSNF or 12.86% MSNF
17 - 8.57 = 8.43 Ib sweetener or 12.04% sweetness as sucrose
0.3 lbs stabilizer/emulsifier or 0.43% stabilizer/emulsifier.
The peach flavoring must be uniformly distributed and in the correct proportion
to yield the targeted composition in the ice cream. The desired sweetness level may
be affected by the sensory characteristics of the fruit preparation actually used. Fruit
flavors are often complemented by a somewhat higher sweetness level than is usual
in vanilla ice cream. Attention should be focused on the stabilizer used to guard
against an excessive mix viscosity which could create processing problems. In the
freezing process, applicable regulations such as those pertaining to weight per gallon
of finished product and the weight of total solids in a gallon of ice cream should not
be overlooked.

2.4.6 Products Containing 2 to 7% Fat


Known as ice milk, these reduced fat products may be hard frozen like ice cream or
may be sold as soft-serve directly from the freezer. The required properties of the
hard frozen product are essentially the same as those of ice cream. The total solids
content, stabilization, and emulsification must be adequate to yield a body similar
to that of ice cream and to protect the texture against the effects of heat shock. On
the other hand, requirements for the soft-serve product chiefly address its appearance
as it is drawn from the freezer. It should be dry appearing, stiff, and readily capable
of shaping into an attractive serving at the discharge temperature (about 19F). Although reduced fat products are the ones most commonly encountered in soft-serve
form, ice cream may also be frozen in this manner. By comparison to the hard frozen
ice cream, the formula for the soft-serve product will likely have a reduced sugar
content and a different emulsifier system to prevent churning. Some illustrations are
given in Table 2.24.

2.4.7 Products Containing 0 to 2% Fat


Interest in low-fat and no-fat frozen desserts may be seen as a counterattack against
a possible market deterioration due to the continuing stream of adverse health claims
leveled against the consumption of cholesterol and saturated fat. As this is not the
proper place to address the rationale of these assertions, only the available formulation options will be considered. The obvious problem that must be solved is the
source of the solids. Attention is usually directed toward fat sparing and bulking
agents, fat substitutes, normal sweeteners, and MSNF. In addition to skim milk, a
concentrated source of skim milk solids (MSNF), and conventional sweeteners, the
list of possible ingredients includes microcrystalline cellulose, maltodextrins, very
low DE corn syrups, sodium casemate, whey protein concentrates, and proprietary
products consisting of egg whites, soy proteins, and other vegetable sources treated
in a special way to act as fat substitutes or fat sparing agents. Because of the diversity
of possible ingredients, a difficulty arises in presenting a model formula. The MSNF
content may be between 10% and 15% and the total solids between 30% and 35%,
although either of them need not be restricted to these ranges. Care must be exercised
in selecting flavorings. Ordinary chocolate, for instance, could raise the total fat
content sufficiently to violate the no-fat or less than 2% fat label.

2.4.8 Sherbets and Ices


The requirements for milk products in sherbets are given in the standards of identity
as 1% (minimum) to 2% (maximum) milkfat, and 2 to 5% (maximum) total milk
solids. Incorporation of the maximum permissible milk solids has beneficial effect
on the body and texture but may result in the masking of some fruit flavors. The
selected composition should reflect the manufacturer's concept of a high-quality
sherbet, which should preferably be based on the interpretation of any feedback
received from consumers. Water ices cannot contain any milk solids and thus have
an unobstructed flavor release for many fruit flavors. The sugar content of both
sherbets and water ices is substantially higher than that of ice cream both in sweetness level and total sweetener solids. The choice of sweetener solids has a definite
effect on body and texture but the importance of sweeteners goes beyond that. Sweetener solids, particularly corn syrups, and certain types and amounts of stabilizer are
depended on to prevent bleeding (syrup separation and settling), surface crustation
(sugar crystallization on the surface), and ice separation in the freezer.
The body and texture of sherbets and ices is significantly affected by sweeteners,
stabilizers, and whipping agents. Monosaccharide sweeteners usable at no more than
about 25% replacement provide protection against the above problems and impart
an excellent flavor release. Corn syrups, however, can be used at higher replacement
levels, yield a smoother texture and a firmer although somewhat stickier body. Emulsifiers and whipping agents team up with stabilizers in guarding against a crumbly
body which may be a problem particularly with certain orange flavors. The emulsifiers and whipping agents may also permit drawing the product with a somewhat
higher overrun (but must weigh at least 6 lbs/gal). The stabilizer should be of a type

Table 2.25 FORMULATIONS FOR SHERBET AND ICES

Milkfat
Total milk solids
Sucrose
Corn syrup solidsb
Total sweetness as sucrose
Flavor0
Stabilizer*1
Citric acidc

Sherbets3
(%)

Ices

1-2
2-5
20-23
7-11
26-28

0
0
23-25
7-11
27-29

(%)

Depending on proprietary product used

Nonfruit sherbets have a similar composition except for the absence of an acidulant and possibly a lower
total sweetness level (more com syrup and less sucrose). All must contain not less than 1% MSNF. See CFR
in Appendix.
b
The choice of com syrup to provide these solids is a matter of preference. Criteria to be considered are
flavor release, desired sweetness level, total solids content, and hardness when frozen.
c
The standards of identity specify the following minimum quantities of fruit flavoring on a weight basis:
2% for citrus flavors; 6% for berries; and 10% for all other fruits. Fruit flavoring obtained from proprietary
sources should comply with these and other requirements imposed by the standards.
d
The stabilizer and emulsifier should be appropriate for use in sherbets or ices. The concentration needed
depends on the specific product used.
e
To prevent curdling of the milk solids, the citric acid solution is best added to the cold mix in the flavor
tank just before freezing. The standards of identity for fruit sherbets and ices require that enough acid be
used to give a titratable acidity of at least 0.35% expressed as lactic acid.

that is stable and effective in an acid solution. Sherbets and ices that are not fruit
flavored may now be manufactured without added acid. Most commonly, however,
sherbets and ices are fruit flavored and acidified to an acidity between pH 3 and
pH 4 (titratable acidity of 0.4 to 0.6% expressed as lactic acid). The amount of
acidulant, usually 50% citric acid solution, depends on the concentration of milk
solids and the tartness of the fruit flavoring. A taste test should confirm that the
appropriate quantity of acid has been selected or added (roughly 8 to 10 oz of 50%
citric acid solution per 10 gal, but must be fine tuned). Formulations are given in
Table 2.25.

2.4.9 Direct-Draw Shakes


Selection of a formulation for these products should follow consideration of their
desired properties, for example, the freezing point, smoothness of texture, body
characteristics, whether frozen flavored or unflavored, etc. High total solids and
increasing levels of corn syrup favor a smooth textured shake. Some stabilizers and
the level of stabilizer also affect the smoothness as well as the body of the shake.
The stabilizer and the MSNF may affect the whipping properties if the shake is
whipped on a spindle after removal from the freezer. A difference may be encountered in the legal definition of "shake" and "milk shake." Generally, with "milk"
in the name, compliance with the existing standards for milk composition is required.
Applicable regulations must be checked. Formulations are given in Table 2.26.

Table 2.26 FORMULATIONS FOR DIRECT-DRAW SHAKES


Unflavored (%)

2-4
2-4
10-12
10-14
9-11
7-9
0-4
0-4
1-1.75
0
Depending on proprietary product used
25-30
23-27

Milk fat
MSNF
Sucrose
Corn sweetener
Cocoa
Stabilizer
Total solids

Table 2.27

Chocolate Flavor (%)

FORMULATIONS FOR FROZEN YOGURTS


Hard-Frozen (%)

Milkfat
MSNF
Sucrose
CSS
Sweetness (as sucrose)
Stabilizer
Total solids
Acidity

Soft-Serve (%)

0-2
0-3.5
10-14
10-14
9-10
9-11
6-8
9-12
13-14
15
Depending on proprietary product used
34-36
30-31
As required by existing regulations or higher,
if desired

2.4.10 Frozen Yogurt


These products are perceived as having either a low or no fat content. They differ
from ordinary low fat products by the presence of viable microorganisms used in
yogurt fermentation, Lactobacillw bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. Because a prescribed level of developed acidity must be produced by fermentation,
without subsequent pasteurization (which would destroy the viable microorganisms),
a fermentation step must be included in the process. Unfortunately, sweeteners, at
the level used in frozen desserts, inhibit the growth of yogurt bacteria and, thus, the
required or desired level of acidity may not be obtained by culturing the whole mix.
One option is to prepare a sweet (uncultured) yogurt base to which a cultured yogurt
of known acidity is added. The composition of the base depends on the composition
and acidity of the cultured yogurt, the amount of flavoring used, and the final composition and acidity desired. The sample formulas in Table 2.27 are for the finished
yogurt mix without the flavoring. If the flavoring causes excessive dilution, the solids
content may be increased accordingly.

2.4.11 Other Frozen Desserts


A federal standard of identity has been established for a product designated as MeIlorine. Its fat content is not less than 6% and is usually of vegetable origin. Except

for the source of fat, the formulation for Mellorine is essentially the same as that for
an all-dairy product frozen dessert of the same composition (e.g., 6% fat). The quality, flavor, and melting point of the substitute fat have a strong effect on the flavor
and consistency of the frozen product. See CFR in the Appendix.

2.4.12 Nonstandardized Products


Because of the many forms that they may assume, these products cannot be readily
defined. Some may contain dairy ingredients, and others may be entirely nondairy.
They may be sweetened in the conventional manner with sucrose and corn syrups
and stabilized with the commonly used gums. The fact that they are not standardized
leads to a variety of possibilities.
Attention will be focused on a group identified as artificially sweetened frozen
desserts. Before marketing products of this type, manufacturers must carefully study
and comply with all regulations pertaining to reduced and low-calorie foods, foods
useful to diabetics, and all applicable labeling regulations. From the technological
standpoint, the main problem is to find acceptable and effective substitutes for sucrose and corn sweeteners to provide solids, maintain the desired freezing point, and
to ensure absence of off-flavors. Some of these ingredients contribute the same caloric input of 4 Cal/gram as sucrose (maltodextrin, sorbitol, glycerol, and fructose);
others contribute fewer calories (polydextrose 1 Cal/g). Some may be acceptable to
diabetics (e.g., sorbitol and fructose) and some may impart off-flavors at relatively
low levels of usage (e.g., glycerol). To a varying extent, some are sweet (sorbitol,
fructose, and glycerol). Some depress the freezing point to a greater extent than
sucrose (sorbitol, fructose, glycerol), some to a lesser extent (polydextrose), and
some little or not at all (maltodextrin). A freezing point between 27 and 28F is
desirable. A suggestion has been made that the lactose in MSNF be hydrolyzed by
the enzyme lactase to produce the monosaccharides dextrose and galactose. This
could assist in lowering the freezing point and producing a frozen dessert with an
acceptable consistency at normal serving temperatures. It should be noted that a
product made with skim milk solids cannot be made sugar-free because lactose
(which is hydrolyzed to galactose and dextrose) is a normal component of MSNF.
Depending on the choice of bulking agents, part or all of the desired sweetness
must be imparted by an artificial sweetener that has been specifically approved for
use in this type of product. The latest provisions of Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations are applicable and any individual state regulations must also be complied
with. Suggested formulations for the use of specific bulking agents and other technical assistance may be obtained from their suppliers and the suppliers of other
ingredients including the artificial sweetening agent. Depending on the type of product desired, one possible combination of bulking agents may be 6% sorbitol, 6%
polydextrose-K, and 4% maltodextrin. The fat content may be from 2 to 4%, MSNF
from 12 to 13%. An effective stabilization system should be chosen for optimum
body and texture characteristics.

2.5 Mix Processing


2.5.1 Pasteurization
All of the mix ingredients have to be assembled in the correct proportion, blended
to achieve uniform dispersion, pasteurized by one of the legally accepted methods,
homogenized, and cooled. The method of pasteurization, batch versus continuous,
affects the manner in which some of the steps are accomplished and the type of
equipment required. Thus, there are multiple ways in which the mix may be
processed at the option of the manufacturer, although good manufacturing practices
must be followed in all cases. The major criteria on which a choice of method is
based include the ubiquitous economic factors, product characteristics, available
equipment, size of operation, plant efficiency, etc.

2.5.1.1 Assembly of Ingredients


The available options for assembling exact quantities of ingredients include scales
(or tanks on scales), load cells, and liquid flow meters. All must be carefully and
frequently calibrated. The sole reliance on volume measurements of liquids of known
density (lbs/gal) may come close, but is lacking in full control (e.g., entrained air
could be a problem). Ideally, a printout record of the weight of each ingredient should
be available to assist in addressing compositional problems, should any be encountered (may also be useful in inventory control).
With the batch pasteurization system, the desired weights of all ingredients are
delivered to the pasteurization vat. Powders (e.g., NDM, whey powder, granulated
sugar, and stabilizers) may be preliquified by passage through a funnel pump or
other means (e.g., a blender) if difficulties are encountered in properly solubilizing
them during the pasteurization process. Stabilizers must be handled carefully to
ensure good dispersion, hydration, and complete "solubility." Generally, few difficulties are encountered in batch pasteurization when the supplier's recommendations for a specific stabilizer are followed. Careless addition of some stabilizers may
result in undissolved "lumps" which may deposit downstream. Checks on the composition of the mix (fat and total solids) should be made after all ingredients have
been assembled and the batch has been sufficiently agitated to provide a uniform
sample. If necessary, adjustments to the fat and total solids content should be made
before the start of pasteurization.
When continuous pasteurization is employed, the systems for the assembly of
ingredients may vary in detail, but all must satisfy certain requirements. The ingredients, in the cold, must be brought into uniform suspension and remain so while
the product is pumped through the continuous pasteurizer. A batching tank of sufficient size is needed to hold all of the ingredients that are finally assembled prior
to continuous pasteurization. Some means must also be provided for the more difficult dispersion of dry ingredients and very viscous syrups. Blenders or liquifiers
provide this function. Recirculating milk and cream (from the batching tank or the
supply tanks) as well as water, if the mix formulation calls for water, act as the

dispersing medium. When all of the ingredients are finally assembled in the batching
tank and after sufficient agitation, which from experience has been shown to provide
a uniform composition, a sample is taken for analysis to determine if restandardization is necessary. Other means for dispersing ingredients may also be found effective under specific local conditions. A funnel pump may be used to assist in
dispersing dry ingredients. A presolution tank may be a heated liquifier (blender) or
a small capacity heated and agitated vat in which materials that are very difficult to
disperse are "presolubilized." A good example is chocolate liquor and some stabilizers.
Obviously, the system that is selected must accommodate specific requirements
as to the size of batches, number of different mixes made, and ingredients used.
Based on consideration of these requirements, a determination is made as to the type
and size of equipment and the number of batching tanks needed for most efficient
operation. There are some quality considerations that may be affected by this step
of mix processing. Severe agitation in the presence of raw dairy ingredients may
cause the development of a rancid flavor. This danger is magnified if any of the
other ingredients have been homogenized (e.g., reprocessed mix). Under some conditions, the sum of the times needed to assemble and disperse the ingredients and
hold them for test results may be sufficient for rancid flavor development. Rancidity
is also promoted by foam formation. Air incorporation should be kept to a minimum
even when only pasteurized dairy ingredients are used in the mix. During heating
any collapsing foam may be a contributing factor to burn-on on the heating surfaces.
In addition to causing possible operating and cleaning difficulties, burn-on may also
contribute to the development of a scorched flavor. Air interferes with effective
homogenization later in the process and may contribute to whey separation in the
mix and finished product after melting.

2.5.1.2 Pasteurization
Pasteurization requirements may vary in different localities, but the minimum time-temperature combination employed should coincide with (or exceed) the conditions specified in 21 CFR Part 135.3. The requirements set forth there are:
155F for 30 min
175F for 25 s
This section also includes the statement "or other time-temperature relationship
which has been demonstrated to be equivalent thereto in microbial destruction." A
check with a regional office of the Food and Drug Administration27 has revealed
that in the opinion of the FDA, the following time-temperature relationships are
equivalent for the pasteurization of frozen desserts:
1800F for 15 s
191F for 1 s
212F for 0.01 s

There are additional requirements that address the design, installation, and operation of the equipment. All time-temperature relationships listed may be considered as minimum requirements, so that a higher temperature or a longer holding
time may be employed as long as both minimum conditions have been met. The
main purpose of pasteurization is the protection of human health, the importance of
which certainly warrants the requirement that each installation of a pasteurizer be
thoroughly checked out by competent regulatory authorities.

2.5.1.3 Batch Pasteurization


The minimum requirement of heating to 155F and holding for 30 min at 155F is
commonly exceeded. The holding time of 30 min is retained (actually, some of the
mix is held considerably longer depending on the time required to empty the vat)
but the final temperature may be in the range of 160 to 1700F. The aim is not just
an improvement in keeping quality of the mix (in an ice cream plant the mix may
be frozen the same or the next day), but the beneficial effects that the heat treatment
has on the body and texture of the ice cream. It promotes increased hydration of the
proteins and stabilizers, and other interactions between the mix constituents which
all combine to yield body and texture characteristics that some manufacturers desire.
The system may be quite simple, consisting of a pasteurizing vat of approved
design with connections downstream to a homogenizer. When two or more pasteurization vats are operated simultaneously, the operation may be timed to be essentially
continuous providing all the equipment downstream is designed to handle the flow
at the needed rate. The batch pasteurization method has a number of positive attributes. Small quantities of various milk products that need to be used up and any
reprocess product can easily be handled in the pasteurizing vat; the system is effective in removing dissolved air from the mix; and intermixing of different successive
batches can be kept to a minimum. For many years, this was the standard method
for processing mix and some manufacturers choose to use it to this day.

2.5.1.4 Continuous Pasteurization


There are three principal versions of continuous pasteurization: high temperature-short time (HTST, 175F for 25 sec), the originally approved process (more recently, another version of the HTST process gained acceptance, 1800F for 15 s); and
higher heat-short time pasteurization (HHST of either 191F for 1 s or 212F for
0.01 s, the holding times in both cases being calculated). Processing temperatures
or holding times above their minima for each process may be encountered in industry
as manufacturers strive for various objectives in product properties and characteristics.
Another process that has been in use around the world is termed ultra-hightemperature (UHT) processing. The product may be ultrapasteurized (minimum of
2800F for 2 s) to achieve extended shelf life at refrigeration temperature, or sterilized
to provide room temperature stability. Shake mixes and soft-serve mixes are UHT
processed by some manufacturers.

The primary advantage of HTST pasteurization is the saving in energy, both in


heating and cooling, achieved by the use of the regeneration principle. With 70 to
90% regeneration feasible, one would expect that more product can be processed
with the same boiler and refrigeration compressors than would have been possible
without employing regeneration. Maximum energy savings are realized when operating as close to the mandated minimum temperature as possible but sensory properties are affected by the heat treatment and should be monitored. If the body and
texture fall short of expectations and no fault can be found in the freezing, hardening,
and distribution process, remedial measures may be sought along the following lines:
check formulation; check ingredients; evaluate stabilizer system for type and quantity; check on hydration and solubilization of dry ingredients during the assembly
step; consider increasing holding time, raising pasteurization temperature, or both;
and make trial runs to evaluate corrective steps and confirm that desired improvements have been achieved.

2.5.1.5 Effect of Heat Treatment


Progressively higher heat treatment increases the amount of bound water in the mix.
Although viscosity measurements do not directly assess the quantity of bound water,
under controlled conditions they provide indirect evidence for water binding. This
is illustrated in Table 2.8 which shows the basic viscosities obtained in various
systems after almost instantaneous heating and cooling. The observed changes in
viscosity with increasing heat treatment were magnified as the solids content increased. The increase in viscosity as a result of heat treatment is commonly described
as the superheating effect, after the process that leads to the production of superheated condensed milk. Several facts concerning it are known. The effect is influenced by the previous heat history of the ingredients, the total solids content, the
protein content, and the ratio of casein to whey proteins. Any developed acidity in
the mix can enhance the viscosity development to the point that processing problems
are encountered. Milk from different localities and obtained during different seasons
of the year may vary in composition and salt balance (the balance between calcium
and magnesium ions versus the citrate and phosphate ions). This, in turn, affects the
stability of proteins toward heat. When raw milk is contaminated with psychrotrophic
bacteria (bacteria that grow in the cold), the proteins may be attacked by proteolytic
enzymes. Any change in the proteins may influence heat stability.
When an ice cream mix is heated, interactions apparently occur between all of
the mix constituents.28 Because fat globules are coated with a layer of protein on
their surface, they are no exception. The gist of this discussion is merely to illustrate
that there are many factors that may be involved in mix behavior fluctuations. Over
a period of years, manufacturers have used a number of time-temperature relationships to capitalize on the superheating effect (e.g., 2200F for 25 s), but presently
processing temperatures are largely between 176 and 1900F, and holding times between 25 and 50 s. The exceptions are ultrapasteurized and sterile mixes which are
heated to much higher temperatures.

2.5.2 Homogenization
The mix is homogenized to prevent churning of the fat in the freezer. When the size
of all but a few of the fat globules is reduced to between <1 and 2 /im and the
globules are evenly distributed without clumping, the tendency to churn is drastically
reduced. The efficiency of the homogenizer should be checked by examining a diluted sample of the mix under a microscope. Some of the factors that affect homogenization and its efficiency are condition of the homogenizing valve; condition
of suction and discharge valves; temperature of homogenization; homogenization
pressure; type of homogenizing valve; number of pistons; single- versus two-stage
homogenization; fat-to-protein ratio; salt balance; location of the homogenizer relative to the pasteurization system; presence of air in the mix; etc.
There is no conflict between the functions of homogenization and the deemulsification properties of emulsifiers, as may appear at first glance. The fat destabilizing
effect of emulsifiers should be accomplished under controlled conditions to avoid
excessive churning with such consequences as progressive buildup of fat in the
freezer, a greasy mouth coating sensation when the product is consumed, and poor
meltdown characteristics of the ice cream. The fat in unhomogenized mixes would
be very apt to separate or chum in the ice cream freezer. Faulty homogenization,
due to such conditions as defective or poorly fitting valves and fluctuating pressures,
provides an opportunity for some of the fat globules to escape homogenization and
hence to be more susceptible to churning. Thus, a measure of control is provided by
the fat globules which have been reduced in size by homogenization and stabilized
by their newly acquired membrane.

2.5.2.1 Homogenization Temperature


To be effectively homogenized, the fat must be completely in the liquid state and
preferably at a temperature well above its melting point. The lowest acceptable
temperature is about 1400F. Below this temperature, and depending on the type of
mix being processed, fat globule clumping and excessive viscosity may be encountered. The upper temperature limit for homogenization does not appear to be firmly
established but is affected by the design and construction of the homogenizer. Temperatures between 150 and 185F are usually found satisfactory.

2.5.2.2 Location of the Homogenizer


In the batch pasteurization system, the homogenizer is located immediately downstream from the pasteurizer. Thus, the mix can be homogenized at the pasteurization
temperature (155 to 165F) and discharged from the homogenizer directly to the
cooling system.
With a continuous pasteurization system there are several options to consider.
Because the homogenizer is a positive displacement pump it can assume the function
of a timing pump to ensure that the mix has been held at the pasteurization temperature for at least the legally required holding time. Alternatively, another positive

displacement pump may be used as the timing pump. Because it would be extremely
difficult to operate two positive pumps at exactly the same rate, the design of the
system must provide for a relief mechanism that meets both engineering and public
health requirements.
The several possible locations for the homogenizer in the HTST system include:
between the raw regenerator and the heater; after the heater but before the holding
tube; and between the end of the holding tube and the pasteurized regenerator. Some
units may be equipped with a split regenerator. In this case, the mix could be homogenized between the first and the second pasteurized regenerator section.
When the mix enters the homogenizer, it is desirable to have all of its constituents
fully in solution to avoid damage to the homogenizer valves by hard crystalline
materials. This consideration implies that it may be wise to locate the homogenizer
at some point after the final heating section. Whether it is installed before or after
the holding tube depends on whether or not the homogenizer is used as the timing
pump. The temperature of the mix increases as it passes through the homogenizer.
With the homogenizer located just ahead of the holding tube, the increase in temperature may constitute a part of the heating process as the mix will be held at this
final temperature in the holding tube. A prediction of which arrangement will provide
the best results is difficult to render without carefully weighing all locally applicable
conditions. A reasonably safe general statement is that the homogenizer should be
located as far downstream as is necessary to ensure that the fat and emulsifiers are
melted; to control mix viscosity; to obtain full hydration of the stabilizer(s); to provide complete solution of all crystalline materials (e.g., lactose); and to ensure the
least emulsion destabilizing effect by subsequent flow through the system.

2.5.2.3 Homogenizing Pressures


Due to the existence of a variety of homogenizers and homogenizer valves, one
cannot identify a single pressure that would prove satisfactory for all of them. The
aim is to achieve effective homogenization at the lowest possible pressure, for economic reasons, or at a pressure that provides the desired results intended for the
characteristics of the finished product. There are indications that homogenization
pressure affects mix viscosity, whipping properties, and body and texture characteristics of the ice cream. For an average white mix, some two-stage homogenizers
yield good results with pressures of 2500 and 500 lbs/square inch on the first and
second valve, respectively. Optimum pressures for a particular unit should be determined on the basis of microscopic examination and product performance.
High-fat mixes generally cannot be homogenized at the same high pressure as
low-fat mixes because their viscosity may increase beyond a manageable level.
Chocolate mixes tend to behave in a similar manner. Experience should reveal how
much the pressure can be reduced and still maintain satisfactory homogenization
and an acceptable viscosity. A reduction of about 1000 lbs in the first stage pressure
may be necessary in some units for a mix with 16 to 18% fat (in the present example,
a reduction to 1500 to 500 lbs/square inch). Homogenization of a high fat mix creates
such crowding of small globules that clustering is difficult to control. Usually, high-

fat mixes also have a lower protein content which may contribute to clustering of
fat globules. The problem may be further compounded by an unfavorable salt balance
due to season or origin of the milk solids.

2.5.2.4 Condition ofthe

Homogenizer

Difficulties that are traceable to homogenization are very often due to wear and
pitting of the homogenizer valves and the suction and discharge valves. Periodic
inspection of the valves should be a routine procedure. The equipment manufacturer
can be consulted for specific guidance. When homogenization problems due to defective valves are encountered, increasing the homogenization pressure may do little
to correct the difficulty. Entrained air in the product or leakage on the suction side
of the homogenizer will cause the pressure to fluctuate and the homogenizer to
''move around." Subsequent problems may be encountered in whey separation and
freezing. When problems are encountered, the equipment manufacturer may be requested to validate the accuracy of the readings on the pressure gauges.

2.5.3 Mix Cooling and Storage


The mix should be cooled rapidly to a temperature within the range of 32 to 400F.
With the batch method of pasteurization, the flow continues from the pasteurizer to
the homogenizer and the cooler (surface cooler, plate cooler, etc.). In the continuous
pasteurization system, the cooling segment is generally an integral part of the equipment. In a typical plate pasteurizer, the mix exits the holding tube through a flow
diversion valve and enters the pasteurized regenerator where it is partially cooled by
the incoming cold, raw mix. From there it flows directly to the cooling section and
on to the pasteurized mix holding tank. Although there are effects on the mix attributable to the rate of cooling, the overriding criterion is one of public health significance that requires that the mix be cooled as rapidly as possible.

2.5.3.1 Aging of the Mix


After a mix has been cooled to its storage temperature physical changes occur that
are beneficial to freezing properties. The process of holding the mix prior to freezing
is called aging. When the mix is stabilized with gelatin, improvements in the body
and texture of the ice cream may be experienced over an aging period of up to 24 h.
The performance of mixes with gum stabilizers is less dependent on aging, although
a short aging period is still beneficial. As the temperature of the mix is rapidly
reduced from the pasteurization temperature, some of the physical changes fail to
reach an immediate "equilibrium." Perhaps the most obvious is fat crystallization
(hardening) which continues over several hours after cooling.
In addition to fat crystallization other changes that may be expected include continued hydration of proteins, stabilizers, and other mix constituents. These are usually
associated with an increase both in apparent viscosity due to a progressive gel structure formation, and in basic viscosity in response to increased hydration, fat crys-

tallization, and, possibly, continuation of the interaction of various mix constituents.


Changes at the surface of the fat globule membrane appear to depend on the presence
and type of emulsifier. The heat treatment may have resulted in considerable whey
protein denaturation (e.g., in ultrapasteurization), but one can only speculate whether
any casein-whey protein complexes formed,29'30 along with other heat-induced interaction products, actually participate in defining the outer layer of the fat globule
membrane. The presence of casein micelles surrounding the fat globule has been
demonstrated by electron microscopy.31'32 In the absence of an emulsifier, the coating of the fat globules may continue. In the presence of emulsifiers, the protein layer
at the surface is progressively replaced by the more surface active lipid emulsifiers.16'30'31'33 The implication is that with time (aging) the fat globules become more
completely covered with more hydrophilic emulsifiers and, therefore, more subject
to destabilization (see Section 2.2.19).
Unfortunately, variables encountered in different commercial ice cream plants
may introduce an element of uncertainty into predictions of expected behavior derived from experiments performed under carefully controlled conditions. However,
an awareness that the changes discussed previously are taking place during aging
should assist in addressing certain problems (e.g., products of the same composition
may be found wetter in appearance when drawn from the freezer than expected, or
in another case, to be excessively churned). Obviously, these problems may also be
due to mix processing, homogenization, freezing, flavoring, and air incorporation
variables (e.g., pitted homogenizer valves; fluctuating pressures; insulating film of
oil in the refrigerant side of the freezer barrel; changes in the mix temperature on
entering the freezer; changes in drawing temperature and in the rate of throughput;
poor mechanical condition of the freezer including the dasher, blades, pumps, and
controls; percent overrun, etc.). In spite of these complexities, experience indicates
that improvements in mix performance in the freezer can be attributed to mix aging,
although the optimum time and the time needed before a point of diminishing returns
is reached depends on local conditions and should be established under those circumstances. A general suggestion to allow mixes to age at least about 4 h appears
reasonable.
When the production schedule in a plant is not encumbered by a lack of available
mix storage capacity, the age of the mix when frozen into ice cream is controllable
and can include an aging period that has been found to be optimal. When mix is
manufactured for sale to other freezer operators, it is bound to be adequately aged
under most circumstances, but its age when frozen is unpredictable and largely limited by its useful storage life (keeping quality). Aseptically packaged sterile mix may
be held for periods of weeks or months before freezing. It would appear that the
performance of mixes manufactured for sale should be checked at several levels of
their expected useful storage lives. In the field, the temperature abuse and postpasteurization contamination of the mix (beginning at the plant) should not be overlooked as possible sources of uncontrolled variables.

Next Page

2.5.3.2 Mix Packaging


When sold in liquid form, mix is packaged in containers of the desired size ranging
from 1A to 5 gal. The filling operation is analogous to that of fluid milk, that is, the
product may be filled into paper cartons, or plastic bags for larger volumes that, in
turn, are loaded into boxes or crates. Equipment designed to fill products with extended shelf life is gaining in popularity as manufacturers strive for greater efficiencies in product distribution.
When the entire batch of mix has been transferred to the pasteurized mix storage
vat, a sample of it should be analyzed for fat and total solids. If the composition is
off, additional mix may have to be prepared of such composition as to bring the
total batch within specifications. Hopefully, all of the compositional corrections were
made prior to pasteurization so none will be required at this point. Other quality
control tests may be performed at this time on the mix including bacterial and taste
tests. Tests for potential pathogens (e.g., Salmonella and Listeria) are performed by
outside laboratories on a contractual basis. Mixes sold in liquid form should also be
checked for keeping quality in their final container.

2.6 Flavoring of Frozen Desserts


Some ice cream plants may prepare one or more of their own flavorings, but in the
usual case, flavorings are purchased from suppliers specializing in their manufacture.
Obviously, close cooperation between the supplier and the ice cream manufacturer
is needed to ensure that flavors with the desired characteristics and highest possible
quality are furnished and properly handled. Because the success of any flavor in
frozen desserts depends on how well it is accepted by the consumers, both the
supplier and the ice cream manufacturer have a vested interest in the performance
of a specific product. There are many variations in the type of flavor that may be
imparted to frozen desserts. The word "type" is used here to mean different characteristics of the same flavor. This is why not all vanilla ice creams taste the same.
The same is true for chocolate, fruit, nut, and other flavors. The factors that affect
the selection of a flavoring include perceived or demonstrated consumer acceptance;
cost; available equipment to handle a particular flavor or flavor combination; " allnatural" considerations; customer requests; rate of "movement" of an item; whether
seasonal or year around; packaging considerations; flavor stability; etc.
Flavorings may be either concentrated or bulky. Concentrated flavorings may be
derived from natural sources, be synthetic (artificial flavor), or a combination of
both. Some concentrated flavors may be derived from a single source (e.g., strawberry); others may contain two or more natural derivatives in which case they carry
the designation WONF (with other natural flavors). Labeling requirements are quite
explicit in the choice of language to differentiate between naturally and artificially
flavored products and products that contain both natural and artificial flavor. These
provisions may be found in Title 21 of the code of Federal regulations, reprinted
here in the Appendix.

Previous Page

2.5.3.2 Mix Packaging


When sold in liquid form, mix is packaged in containers of the desired size ranging
from 1A to 5 gal. The filling operation is analogous to that of fluid milk, that is, the
product may be filled into paper cartons, or plastic bags for larger volumes that, in
turn, are loaded into boxes or crates. Equipment designed to fill products with extended shelf life is gaining in popularity as manufacturers strive for greater efficiencies in product distribution.
When the entire batch of mix has been transferred to the pasteurized mix storage
vat, a sample of it should be analyzed for fat and total solids. If the composition is
off, additional mix may have to be prepared of such composition as to bring the
total batch within specifications. Hopefully, all of the compositional corrections were
made prior to pasteurization so none will be required at this point. Other quality
control tests may be performed at this time on the mix including bacterial and taste
tests. Tests for potential pathogens (e.g., Salmonella and Listeria) are performed by
outside laboratories on a contractual basis. Mixes sold in liquid form should also be
checked for keeping quality in their final container.

2.6 Flavoring of Frozen Desserts


Some ice cream plants may prepare one or more of their own flavorings, but in the
usual case, flavorings are purchased from suppliers specializing in their manufacture.
Obviously, close cooperation between the supplier and the ice cream manufacturer
is needed to ensure that flavors with the desired characteristics and highest possible
quality are furnished and properly handled. Because the success of any flavor in
frozen desserts depends on how well it is accepted by the consumers, both the
supplier and the ice cream manufacturer have a vested interest in the performance
of a specific product. There are many variations in the type of flavor that may be
imparted to frozen desserts. The word "type" is used here to mean different characteristics of the same flavor. This is why not all vanilla ice creams taste the same.
The same is true for chocolate, fruit, nut, and other flavors. The factors that affect
the selection of a flavoring include perceived or demonstrated consumer acceptance;
cost; available equipment to handle a particular flavor or flavor combination; " allnatural" considerations; customer requests; rate of "movement" of an item; whether
seasonal or year around; packaging considerations; flavor stability; etc.
Flavorings may be either concentrated or bulky. Concentrated flavorings may be
derived from natural sources, be synthetic (artificial flavor), or a combination of
both. Some concentrated flavors may be derived from a single source (e.g., strawberry); others may contain two or more natural derivatives in which case they carry
the designation WONF (with other natural flavors). Labeling requirements are quite
explicit in the choice of language to differentiate between naturally and artificially
flavored products and products that contain both natural and artificial flavor. These
provisions may be found in Title 21 of the code of Federal regulations, reprinted
here in the Appendix.

The chemical constituents responsible for the aroma portion (which is the principal portion) of flavor in a given food are present in minute quantities (parts per
million and parts per billion). A concentrate of these flavor imparting compounds
may be known as an essential oil (e.g., an essential oil of orange). An alcoholic
solution of the essential oil becomes an extract, in this example, an orange extract.
Water dispersions of the essential oils can also be prepared and are available under
the name of flavor emulsions. The chemical compounds of flavor significance in the
essential oils vary from one specific flavor to another but generally include organic
compounds of the types known as ketones, acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, lactones, etc. Many of the specific flavors have an "impact constituent," which is a
compound that makes the major contribution to that particular flavor. This constituent also may be the principal component of an artificial flavor simulating the natural
one. A familiar example is vanillin, the main flavor component of vanilla extract.
Imitation vanilla usually contains methyl vanillin. However, the natural vanilla flavor
also contains other compounds that complement the flavor and, therefore, an imitation vanilla cannot be expected to fully emulate true vanilla.
Besides the most popular flavoring, vanilla, the large variety of frozen dessert
flavors includes those derived from sugar caramelization; the browning (Maillard)
reaction (the flavor of chocolate, coffee, tea, nutmeats, maple, and baked goods
produced by the action of heat, i.e., boiling, roasting, or baking); fruits; candy;
ground spices; liqueurs; etc. The manner in which some flavorings are used is rather
straightforward. When the label of the product identifies it as strawberry ice cream,
for instance, there is a reasonable expectation that the flavor be recognizable in a
blindfold test and that it be reminiscent of high-quality strawberries (and not be overor underflavored). The visual impact of fruit particles is also significant, although
some of the best looking berries may be severely lacking in strawberry flavor. Other
flavors may require a considered judgment on how they should be presented. In
chocolate chip ice cream, for instance, how large should the chips be and should
they be sweet, semisweet, or bitter? How large should the pieces of nutmeats be?
What percent weight of candy, nuts, fruit pieces, variegating syrups, etc. should be
incorporated? What should be the background flavor in products such as butter pecan
and how strong should it be? It may appear that there are more questions than
answers, but actually there are more answers than questions because ice cream manufacturers may solve each problem in their own way. There obviously are some
wrong answers, but there are also several correct answers to each question. As always, consumers, right or wrong, exercise the ultimate authority by determining the
degree of the product's acceptance.
With few if any exceptions, at least some components of the total flavorings are
added to the pasteurized mix in the flavor tank just before freezing. The potential of
product contamination by bacteria and foreign substances must be dealt with by rigid
sanitation, hygienic personal habits, and good housekeeping. Whether added to the
flavor tank or later in the process, the flavorings must not serve as a vehicle for
contamination. Nothing should be left to chance and specifications for flavoring
materials should include both flavor quality criteria and criteria addressing bacterial
content and product purity. There can be cases when sanitary considerations will

preclude the use of an otherwise desirable flavoring. For example, frozen fruit packs
can be an excellent source of fruit flavor, but in some cases their bacterial and
coliform count may make their use unwise or illegal. Flavor extracts and solutions
of colors may also be a source of bacterial contamination.
Some flavors may be incorporated entirely in the flavor tank; others require addition in part both before and after freezing. Materials that are incorporated into the
flavor tank must be completely dispersible and contain no particulate matter of the
type that would cause wear to parts of the continuous freezer. Concentrated flavors
added in small quantity must be agitated sufficiently to ensure uniform distribution.
Particulate materials that are intended to make a "showing" in the ice cream (and
those unsuitable to run through the freezer) are fed through a fruit or ingredient
feeder directly into the ice cream as it exits the freezer. Syrups for variegating are
introduced into the exiting ice cream by means of a syrup pump.
When the flavoring is added directly to the mix, both the mix and the bulk of the
flavoring can incorporate air during the freezing process. The whipped-in air is
uniformly distributed throughout the ice cream. This is not the case with flavorings
that are introduced as the ice cream leaves the freezer. In the latter case all of the
air is contained in the mix portion. An example will illustrate the achieved overrun
in the mix portion when the ice cream is drawn at 4.5 lbs/gal and the same amount
of flavoring is added either before or after freezing.
Assume: weight of mix 9 lbs/gal
Weight of flavoring 10.7 lbs/gal
Weight of ice cream 4.5 lbs/gal
Flavoring added at the rate of 20% by weight
4.5 lbs of ice cream contains
80% X 4.5 = 3.6 lbs mix and
20% X 4.5 = 0.9 lbs flavoring
Case I Flavoring added directly to the mix
3.6 lbs of mix occupies a volume of 3.6/9 = 0.4 gal
0.9 lbs of flavor occupies a volume of 0.9/10.7 = 0.084 gal
Total volume occupied by 4.5 lbs = 0.4 + 0.084 = 0.484 gala
Weight per gallon of flavored mix = 4.5/0.484 = 9.3 lbs/gal
^ ^
wt of 1 gal mix wt of 1 gal ice cream X 100
% Overrun =
wt of 1 gal of ice cream
=

93

" 4 * 5 X 100 = 107%


4.5

No change in volume due to mixing of two liquids is assumed

Case II Flavoring added after freezing


Volume occupied by the flavoring
= 0.9/10.7 = 0.084 gal
Volume occupied by mix
= 3.6/9 = 0.4 gal
Volume occupied by ice cream minus flavor = 1 0.084 = 0.916 gal
% Overrun =
=

Volume of ice cream Volume of mix

:
X 100
Volume of mix
091^04
0.4

The same answer can be obtained by using the weight formula for overrun as
long as the weights are for the same volume product.
Weight of ice cream minus flavor = 3 . 6 lbs/0.916 gal
Weight of mix/0.916 gal = 9 X 0.916 = 8.244
8.244 - 3.6
% Overrun =

X 100 = 129%
3.6
The results show that when the flavor is added after freezing, the ice cream portion
carries a disproportionate amount of the air. At 4.5 lbs/gal, which is the minimum
weight permitted for ice cream, the overrun on the unflavored portion of the product
in this example is certainly high enough to cause some concern. One should be on
the alert for body and texture problems and stability toward heat shock.

2.6.1 Flavor Character and Intensity


Flavors used in frozen desserts must be compatible with a sweet background; those
used in sherbets, ices, and frozen yogurts must also be complemented by the acid
present in those products. The optimal intensity of sweetness applies to its presence
in the background (the mix) as well as to that of some of the flavoring materials.
Formulations for a white mix generally provide for a sweetness level equivalent to
13 to 15% sucrose which is within the optimal range for vanilla ice cream and a
number of other flavors that use vanilla as the background. Vanilla extract contains
no additional sweeteners and is used in such low levels that its effect on the mix
composition is negligible. Although this is true for many other concentrated flavors,
bulky flavors may contain significant quantities of sugar. This may be illustrated by
examining the sugar content in a fruit pack.
Fruit preparations may be packed in a ratio of two parts of fruit to one part of
sugar ( 2 + 1 ) and up to 5 H- 1. In the first instance, the concentration of sugar is
33.3%, but the 5 -f 1 pack has a concentration of 16.7% of added sugar. The fruit
itself contains some natural sugar. Flavor formulators may differ in their opinions,
but some feel that a fruit-flavored product should have a higher sweetness level than
vanilla. The 5 + 1 pack may not quite accomplish that, but a simple calculation
will illustrate the effect of a 3 + 1 pack on the final sugar content. When 20% of a
3 + 1 pack (by weight) are used for flavoring:

20 lbs of 3 + 1 pack contains 15 lbs fruit and 5 lbs sugar


80 lbs of mix (15% sucrose) contains 12 lbs sugar
100 lbs of flavored ice cream contains 17 lbs sugar.
The additional sugar may not be uniformly distributed depending on how the fruit
preparation is handled. When the juice is strained out for direct addition to the mix
and the pulp is fed into the ice cream leaving the freezer, the sugar concentration
may be quite uniform. However, if the fruit and pulp are "gelled" together, the
entire mixture may be added through the fruit feeder and contrasting high flavor
areas are created at the points of injection.
The freezing point of the water in the fruit should be compatible with the consumption temperature of the ice cream. If it is not, the fruit will be icy and appear
to lack flavor. The sugar content, and to some degree the acid and the mineral content
of the fruit, provide the additional functions of lowering the fruit's freezing point
and assisting in controlling the fruit pulp consistency.
Of great importance to the ice cream maker is the flavor quality of the original
source of ice cream flavor (fruit, nuts, coffee, chocolate, mint, etc). The flavor character varies considerably between different varieties of fruit, stage of ripeness, growing season conditions, and handling (e.g., bruising of fruits which causes enzymatic
browning and a "bruised flavor"). The manner of processing of the flavoring may
also affect the flavor character (e.g., Dutch process chocolate, jamlike flavor in fruit
preparations, etc). Flavorings may deteriorate on storage and develop off-flavors,
lose intensity, change appearance, or simply "spoil." Flavorings should be checked
for quality when received; nuts, for instance, may lack crispness or be rancid at the
time of receipt. In all cases, storage conditions for flavorings should follow recommended practices.
The flavor intensity imparted by the flavoring should be delicate but definite,
pleasing but not overpowering. Concentrated flavorings used in excess can impart a
flavor that is too high. Non-acid-type flavorings, such as vanilla and chocolate, create
a problem in frozen yogurts with a substantial acid content. In some cases, special
preparations of vanilla flavoring may be formulated by the flavor chemist that may
prove satisfactory. Chocolate may be difficult to formulate for products beyond a
certain acid level.
When a combination of flavors is used, there is an additional requirement that the
blend be pleasing. Many fancy flavors are blends or combinations that incorporate
a background flavor, added materials introduced through the ingredient feeder, and
possibly a variegating syrup. Other products, such as Neapolitan ice cream (three
flavors), spumone, and rum and raisin have been long-time favorites.

2.6.2 Quantity of Flavoring


Recommendations on the usage rate must be limited to the particular flavoring in
question and both the flavor and visual impact intended. Suppliers of proprietary
flavorings offer recommendations that may be followed, or at least serve as a starting
point. Quantities will obviously vary when used in conjunction with concentrated

flavorings. For different fruits, the actual fruit content, not including the added sugar,
may be in the range of from 2 to 20% (consult applicable CFR in the Appendix for
permissible minima and labeling requirements). As pointed out earlier, the composition of the mix affects the dilution limit with flavoring; the aim is not to dip below
the minimum permissible fat and milk solids content. Some proprietary flavorings
used at a relatively high level may be stabilized to help prevent iciness and improve
heat shock resistance. Nuts may be added at levels from 2 to 10%; variegating syrups
at 5 to 20% depending on type and whether or not they are the sole flavoring source;
other added materials including candy (e.g., chocolate chip) can be used at the rate
of 5 to 10% of the weight of the mix. Confections with a honeycomb structure,
making them light in weight, may be added at a lower rate. Because of their high
flavor impact, the quantity of concentrated flavorings should be near the supplier's
recommended level based on a standardized strength of the extract. When the concentrate is used in conjunction with the actual fruit, each will furnish a percentage
of the total flavor. The desirability of all flavored products should be confirmed by
taste test.

2.6.3 Proprietary Flavorings


In addition to concentrated flavorings, which may be natural (e.g., true fruit extract)
or imitation, commercial flavor preparations are available ready for use in the frozen
dessert. They may be preserved by heat, freezing, sugar, and acid, and hot packed
or aseptically packaged. The advantage of using them is the reasonable assurance of
uniformity of subsequent batches once a particular flavor has been chosen. The
technical staff of the supplier also provides a valuable consultative service on questions relating to flavorings. The flavoring particulates may be reduced in size to the
form of a puree, and if there are no hard particles or seeds in it, the supplier may
recommend that the material is suitable for incorporation into the mix prior to freezing. Optimum storage recommendations will also be provided. Other flavorings may
be obtained in the frozen state and require thawing prior to use. These may be citrus
juices or purees, strawberries, peaches, bananas, etc. The flavor imparted by them
can be excellent but their sanitary quality must be carefully monitored. When they
are packed without heat treatment, they could carry serious contamination of E. coli
and other bacteria. Dehydrated fruits (e.g., raisins) and candied fruits also find their
way into some flavor preparations. Artificial flavors by themselves are generally
used only in the "economy" grades of frozen desserts. In combination with natural
flavors, and when no claim of an all natural product is made, some imitation flavors
may be found in intermediate grade products, but probably never in premium products (see 21 CFR in the Appendix for labeling products containing imitation flavors).

2.6.4 Vanilla Flavor


Vanilla may be a complete flavor by itself or it may serve as a background flavor
for fruits, nuts, variegating syrups, and candy. It may also be used as a modifying
flavor for chocolate. In the days of Montezuma's Mexico, chocolate and vanilla were

combined to prepare a favorite beverage that was subsequently introduced to Europeans. Since then, vanilla has made it on its own and in the United States has become
the most popular flavor of ice cream.
The ice cream manufacturer usually obtains vanilla flavoring in the form of an
alcoholic extract which, when in single strength, contains the soluble extractives of
one-tenth its weight of vanilla beans (13.35 oz/gal). More concentrated extracts, twoup to tenfold, are also available and proportionately contain the extractives of larger
weights of the beans. The impact-producing component in the extract is vanillin but
a chromatographic analysis reveals the presence of other components that contribute
to the flavor character. Some vanilla extracts are fortified with synthetic vanillin. For
this purpose, one ounce of vanillin per gallon is considered equivalent in intensity
(not flavor character) to a single -fold of pure vanilla extract. Thus a single strength
extract with 1 oz of vanillin is roughly equivalent to a twofold extract. The fortified
extracts impart a less delicate vanilla bouquet but one that makes a more immediate
and stronger impact. The flavor release, although not of the same character as that
of pure vanilla, is less hindered by the flavor of the ingredients in the background.
For high-quality vanilla ice cream, both the flavor of the unflavored mix and that
of the vanilla extract should be free of criticism. Vanilla flavoring does not "cover
up" any off-flavors that may be present in the mix due to poor-quality ingredients.
Flavoring extracts have their own quality criteria. Those made from Tahiti vanilla
beans have a completely different flavor, which may or may not be desired. A large
proportion of the vanilla extracts are made from Bourbon vanilla beans grown in
Madagascar, although Bourbon beans are also grown in Indonesia and other places.
The quality of the beans is best assessed by the quality of the extract made from
them. The technology employed in making the extract and subsequent aging and
handling may also affect quality. The extract that is used should contain the desired
typical components in the proper proportion, it should impart the desired intensity
of flavor, and should not have any "fermented" or other types of off-flavors. Labeling of the ice cream must conform to the required language when vanilla alone,
vanilla-vanillin mixtures, or vanillin alone is used for flavoring (21 CFR).

2.6.5 Chocolate Flavor


A general consensus is that the best chocolate ice cream is made from a special
chocolate mix that is processed with all of the chocolate flavor ingredients. If it is
desired to include vanilla flavoring to make the chocolate flavor somewhat more
mellow, the vanilla extract can be added in the flavor tank (usually one half to two
thirds of the quantity needed for flavoring a vanilla ice cream). The chocolate mix
also provides a foundation for other flavors such as chocolate marshmallow, various
chocolate-nut combinations, candy and variegating syrup combinations, mocha,
Neapolitan, etc. When the volume does not justify making a special mix, chocolate
ice cream can be made by adding a chocolate syrup to a vanilla mix. Syrups especially formulated for this purpose are available from chocolate flavor suppliers. Flavoring for chocolate ice cream is in the form of cocoa, chocolate liquor, or both.
Chocolate liquor is the primary product obtained after the seeds of the roasted cocoa

beans have been dehulled and degermed and the remaining "nibs" have been finely
ground. It contains about 50% cocoa butter. Under pressure, some of the cocoa butter
can be removed from the liquor and the residue becomes cocoa. Its fat content may
vary roughly between 10 and 25%. The bulk of the chocolate flavor is contained in
the cocoa but there are some delicate, complementary, fat-soluble flavor notes that
are retained by the cocoa butter. Thus, the flavor character of cocoas may vary with
the fat content of the cocoa.
Basically, the chocolate flavoring may be made by one of two processes, the
natural or the Dutch process. Treatment with alkali in the Dutch process yields a
darker chocolate with an altered flavor. There are still other variables in the flavor
of chocolate. As is true with any food commodity, the quality of cocoa beans varies
depending on the source of the beans, growing conditions, and handling procedures
including the important fermentation step carried out in the area of the beans' origin.
The intensity of the roasting process is also related to flavor characteristics.
After this brief review of chocolate basics, the emerging conclusion is that there
are many variants of chocolate flavor. The ice cream maker must decide on the types
of cocoa, liquor, or cocoa-liquor combinations, level of usage, light or dark, with
or without modifying flavor, and other variables that affect the chocolate flavor
character. An opportunity exists to "individualize" a flavor by blending several
types of cocoa or liquor products to obtain a unique combination. For soft-serve
application, a low-fat cocoa may be desirable to prevent separation of dark, flaky
granules during the freezing process. If the chocolate mix is to be sterilized, the
chocolate flavoring should be checked for highly heat-resistant bacterial spores,
sometimes present, that could survive the heating process.

2.7 Freezing of the Mix


Many of the ultimate properties of ice cream are predetermined by the selection of
ingredients, the formulation, and the selected flavoring. However, the product must
be frozen properly to take full advantage of any benefits derived from the earlier
processing steps. Except for soft-serve products, freezing is a two-step operation.
During the first stage, the liquid mix at a temperature as close to 30 to 32F as
conditions permit, is frozen in an ice cream freezer at a rapid rate to its discharge
temperature (about 21 to 22F, but may differ depending on the freezing point of
the mix). The second stage occurs after the ice cream has been packaged, when its
temperature is lowered until it becomes very hard. This phase of freezing, called
hardening, will be discussed later.
The principles of operation of the various types of ice cream freezers are discussed
in Chapter 5 (Vol. Ill), but some points are relevant here. A continuous ice cream
freezer is depended on to discharge a steady flow of ice cream at the desired rate
and temperature and with the desired amount of air incorporated in it. The freezer
operator performs a function of utmost importance to the freezing process. Every
freezer tends to have characteristics of its own; even different barrels of the same
freezer may behave differently. The freezer operator learns from daily observations

what to expect from each freezer, so that, when he notes an unusual behavior he
must initiate immediate corrective action by whatever procedures have been established for the purpose. This does not apply only to major problems, such as a shutdown, but to any deviation from the norm, even subtle day-to-day changes. The
appearance of the product as it leaves the freezer may be wetter or shinier than
expected; the product may be softer; gauge readings may be erratic or abnormal;
adjustments may not produce the desired response; there may be excessive overrun
fluctuation; etc. Some of the problems may relate to compositional errors (e.g., incorrect quantity of stabilizer/emulsifier); processing errors (e.g., mix not properly
homogenized); incorrect assembly of freezer parts; breakdown in freezer maintenance (e.g., worn, damaged, or improperly sharpened blades; worn or damaged
pumps; worn shaft bushings); oil deposit in the refrigerant side of the freezer barrel;
insufficient refrigeration; overcrowding the freezer; faulty gauges; etc. The freezer
may still be turning out a product but the deviations from norm presage a definite
possibility that profits, legal weight of product, or product quality in this particular
run are in jeopardy. Training of freezer operators must include this aspect of their
responsibilities. Other workers who handle the freezer, including the clean-up crew,
also must be aware of the serious consequences of mishandling or dropping freezer
parts, particularly the pumps and blades. Failure to recognize the need for timely
maintenance, early, can have an immediate effect on the quality of product and lead
to expensive repairs later.
The batch freezer is a less complicated machine, at present used mainly in small
plants and product development laboratories. The drawing temperature is somewhat
higher (23 to 25F) and depends on when the proper overrun has been attained.
Typically, the overrun goes up rather rapidly when freezing begins but as the product
becomes stiff, some of the overrun is lost. At this point, the refrigeration is turned
off and the ice cream is allowed to whip to the desired overrun as its temperature
increases slightly. The temperature at which the desired overrun is attained, the
maximum overrun attainable, and the time required to obtain it are a function of mix
composition, particularly the emulsifier content, all other factors being equal. Ice
cream made in the batch freezer is generally somewhat coarser textured than that
produced in a continuous freezer. This is because of the higher drawing temperature
and slower freezing rate. The frozen ice cream must be removed from the batch
freezer rapidly because the dasher continues its beating action, causing the overrun
to fluctuate. Some variation during discharge is unavoidable. Depending on the type,
flavoring may be added directly to the freezer at the beginning of the run or later as
the product is being discharged to preserve particle identification. Some flavorings
may also be stirred into the ice cream after discharge from the freezer. Excessive
warm-up of the product must be avoided and sound sanitary precautions must be
taken to avoid contamination. Large containers may be filled directly from the freezer
discharge. Unless filled manually after discharge from the freezer (watch sanitation
and product warm-up!), small containers may be filled by a packaging machine of
sanitary construction fed through a hopper.
The soft-serve and shake freezers normally dispense their product in individual
serving sizes on demand, which may be in rapid succession or at a very slow rate

depending on business volume. On slow days, the product may remain in the freezer
barrel for a long period of time and be subjected to agitation during successive
refrigeration cycles (well insulated freezer design can keep these cycles to a minimum). The mix must be formulated and processed to help it stand up under these
unfavorable conditions. Some of the common difficulties are churning (emulsifier
system and homogenization) and progressive softening with the product temperature
actually going down. This is probably due to emulsion and protein destabilization
or freeing of bound water. Churning problems increase with higher fat content but
the softening phenomenon can occur with any mix. When churning has progressed
to the point of being troublesome, the only available option to the freezer operator
is to empty the freezer, clean and sanitize it, and start all over again with fresh mix.
Under certain conditions, lactose crystallization can also occur over a period of time
in the freezer barrel. Soft-serve products are usually drawn at a temperature of 19F
and shakes at 27F, but in both cases, the actual drawing temperature depends on
the freezing point of the mix.
Some stick novelties are frozen without agitation in molds that are partially immersed in a refrigerated brine bath. In this case, the complete freezing process occurs
here and the finished product only needs to be stored at a sufficiently low temperature
to maintain its quality ( - 15 to 25F). For other stick novelties which are frozen
under agitation and with air incorporation, the product exits an ice cream freezer
and from there is filled into molds for hardening in a brine tank. To ensure a complete
fill of the molds, the product has to be on the soft side when the molds are being
filled.
When the frozen dessert is discharged from the continuous ice cream freezer, it
may flow through an ingredient feeder for the incorporation of fruits, nuts, or candy.
Variegating syrups may also be introduced downstream in addition to, or in the
absence of, other paniculate flavor ingredients, and the flow of the product is then
directed to the filling machine. The distance of the flow from the freezer to the filler
should be as short as conditions permit to hold down temperature increases and
minimize the back pressure against which the freezer must operate. Some freezers
may have difficulty handling the back pressure. During startup and changeovers,
provisions must be made for the sanitary handling of any sound but unusable product
for refreezing or reprocessing. (The product may be too soft, wrong overrun, a
mixture of two products, or good product wasted while adjustments were being made
on the packaging machine.) The final overrun (after packaging) should be checked
by weight. With all systems operating properly, the variation in weights should be
in the range of 1 to 3% (not exceed 1A oz to 3A oz for */2-gal containers).

2.7.1 Amount of Water Frozen


The freezing point of the mix has been alluded to in a number of places in the text
but no actual values have been given. An ice cream mix has an initial freezing point
at which ice begins to form, but as soon as some ice forms, the soluble solids become
more concentrated and lower the freezing point further. The initial freezing point
may be determined experimentally or may be calculated with reasonable accuracy.

It corresponds to the lowest temperature at which no ice is present. As the temperature is lowered, ice begins to form but under commercial conditions, it is unlikely
that all of the water is ever frozen, even after hardening. A method for calculating
the amount of frozen water in ice cream at various temperatures was developed by
researchers at the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the 1920s.34 Results obtained
by this calculation are quite useful, although some assumptions must be recognized.
The calculation of the freezing point and the method for estimating the amount of
frozen water at any temperature are carried out in the following steps:
1. The percent lactose in MSNF is obtained by assuming that 54.5% of the MSNF
is lactose. The actual percent lactose should be used if it is known.
2. The percent lactose in whey solids (WS) is obtained by assuming that 76.5% of
the WS is lactose. The actual percent lactose should be used if known.
3. Calculate the sucrose equivalent (SE) of lactose and all sweeteners used in the
formula. The assumption here is that all sweeteners respond in relation of their
molecular weight to that of sucrose. This obviously ignores all interactions between sweeteners and between sweeteners and other mix constituents. Other complicating effects are hydration and changes in bound water occasioned by the
mediating effect of processing (heat treatment, homogenization). However, a useful approximation is obtained as follows: percent each sweetener in the formula
X MW factor from Table 2.6.
4. Calculate total percent SE by summing percent SEs of all sweeteners:
Total % SE = % lactose + % sucrose
+ SE of all other sweeteners used
5. Calculate percent SE in the aqueous portion of the mix

% SE =

T tal % S E

% Unfrozen water + Total % SE


6. Determine the freezing point depression due to the sweeteners by reference to
Table 2.28.
7. Determine the freezing point lowering due to milk salts by the Leighton formula.34 The assumptions in this formula are that the salt content in MSNF and
WS is the same, their "effective" molecular weight is the same, and their assumed concentration is correct. The "effective" molecular weight is assumed to
be 78.6 and salts concentration as 10% of MSNF and WS. It is further assumed
that the formulation contains no other added salts.
Freezing point depression _ % MSNF H- % WS
due to milk salts (0F)
~ % unfrozen water
(9/5 converts the results to 0F from 0C)
8. Add the freezing point lowering due to sweeteners and milk salts and subtract
from 32F to get the calculated freezing point in 0 F.
9. By substituting progressively smaller values for percent unfrozen water in steps
5 and 7 and calculating the corresponding freezing point, a freezing curve may

be constructed from which the percent frozen or unfrozen water may be estimated
at different temperatures.
The calculations will be illustrated for a mix of the following composition:
10% Fat
8% MSNF
2.5% WS
12% Sucrose
7% 36 DE com syrup solids
0.3% Stabilizer
39.8% Total solids
60.2% Water
At 0% water frozen:
1. % Lactose - (8 X 0.545) + (2.5 X 0.765)
2. % Sucrose
3. % SE of 36 DE corn syrup solids (7 X 0.61)
Total % SE (step 4)
4. % SE in aqueous portion of mix (step 5)

6O.2T22.54

X 10

"

= 6.27
= 12.00
= 4.27
= 22.54

2? 24%

5. Freezing point depression due to sugars (from


table)
6. Freezing point lowering due to milk salts (step 7)
8 + 2.5

-or"x

4.14F

9/5 x 2 37

Total freezing point depression


Freezing point = 32 - 4.88 = 27.12F

0.740F

4.88F

Other points on the freezing curve of this mix are obtained in the same manner
except that the percent unfrozen water in steps 5 and 7 is reduced. Assuming that
10% of the water is frozen, then 90% of the original 60.2% would remain unfrozen.
The freezing point is calculated using 90% of 60.2 or 54.18 as the percentage of
unfrozen water. Additional calculations are made for 80% of 60.2, 70%, etc. The
freezing points so obtained are plotted on a graph as temperature against percent
water frozen and the points when connected become the freezing curve of this particular mix. Examples of freezing curves are shown in Figure 2.1.
There are several different ways of interpreting the freezing point data. From the
information now available one can determine the percent unfrozen water, percent
ice, and percent solids in the unfrozen water at the drawing temperature and any
other temperature of interest. To assess the potential seriousness of heat shock, the
amount of water that actually melts and refreezes when the storage temperature

Table 2.28 RELATIONSHIP OF SUCROSE EQUIVALENT CONCENTRATION TO


FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION*
Percent SE
in Water
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44

Freezing Point
Depression (0F)
0.22
0.42
0.67
0.91
1.18
1.47
1.78
2.10
2.40
2.78
3.14
3.51
3.87
4.31
4.79
5.28
5.85
6.46
7.12
7.89
8.64
9.51

Percent SE
in Water
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
52.5
53
54
55
56
56.5
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
64.5

Freezing Point
Depression (0F)
10.55
11.00
11.50
12.17
12.79
13.48
14.22
14.45
14.81
15.7
16.45
17.3
17.69
18.05
18.95
19.72
20.54
21.40
22.55
23.45
24.40
24.84

Original data by Pickering,19 not shown. Values were interpolated from Keeney and Kroger,9 where the original data
were quoted. Interpolation may result in some error because the slope of the data when plotted is not uniform.

fluctuates may be calculated (e.g., between 0 and 100F). The data in Table 2.29
illustrate some of these relationships. Note that at the drawing temperature of 210F,
ice cream B has essentially the same solids in unfrozen water as ice cream A, but
the latter has considerably more ice frozen due to a lower total solids content and
higher freezing point. The same is true at 5F. The higher total solids content, nearly
the same proportion of unfrozen water, and the water binding properties of the
sweetener type used, tend to favor ice cream B over A from the standpoint of body
and texture and resistance to heat shock. Ice creams C and D would be progressively
softer. Although consistency can be modified by stabilizers, ice cream D would
probably be too soft for most purposes. Freezing point data do not provide all the
answers, but they contribute an important element to the total picture.
Bulky flavors added directly to the mix may affect the freezing point as well as
the drawing temperature and appearance at draw. If their sugar content is very high,
they may cause the ice cream to be softer at any given temperature than its vanilla
counterpart.

% WATER FROZEN

F
Figure 2.1 Examples of ice cream freezing curves. Composition of the mixes is given in
Table 2.29 as a footnote.

2.8 Ice Cream Hardening


A clear distinction must be made between the process of hardening and storage of
the ice cream after it is hardened. In the hardening process, the aim is to reduce the
temperature of the product to at least 00F in the center of the package as quickly as
possible. After the ice cream reaches this point, it is only necessary to store it at a
uniformly low temperature to prevent ice melting and recrystallization.
Several factors affect the rate of hardening, such as size of container; whether
several containers have been bundled together and the nature of the wrapping material (paper or plastic); the manner of stacking of the containers; the temperature
and velocity of the circulating air; obstructed versus unobstructed exposure of the
containers to the cooling medium (one side as opposed to several sides); etc.
Figure 2.2 illustrates how the ice cream temperature drops in half-gallon containers

Table 2.29

UNFROZEN WATER IN ICE CREAMS OF DIFFERENT COMPOSITIONS'1

Ice Creamb

Temperature
CF)

Solids (%)

Unfrozen
Water (%)

Ice (%)

Solids in
Unfrozen Water (%)

A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D

21
21
21
21
5
5
5
5

36.3
38.3
38.3
36.3
36.3
38.3
38.3
36.3

27.4
29.0
35.8
43.9
12.4
13.3
16.0
19.8

36.3
32.7
25.9
19.8
51.3
48.4
45.7
43.9

57.0
56.9
51.7
45.2
74.5
74.3
70.5
64.8

Approximate values obtained by calculations which involve a number of assumptions.


A = 10% fat, 11% MSNF, 15% sucrose, 0.3% stabilizer. B = 10% fat, 7.5% MSNF, 2.5% WS, 12% sucrose, 6%
CSS, 0.3% stabilizer. C = 10% fat, 7.5% MSNF, 2.5% WS, 6% sucrose, 6% monosaccharide, 6% CSS, 0.3% stabilizer.
D = 10% fat, 11% MSNF, 15% monosaccharide, 0.3% stabilizer.
b

F
Termocouple

Termocouple

HOURS
Figure. 2.2 Rate of convection hardening as observed under conditions existing in one
commercial plant. Air temperatures was - 300F (velocity was not measured). When bundled,
as illustrated, a brown paper overwrap was used. Thermocouples were located in the center
of the containers as indicated.

when subjected to one system of air convection hardening. Local conditions at other
plants may yield better or worse cooling rates depending on hardening room design
and some of the factors enumerated above.
The size of the container makes a significant difference on how fast the product
hardens. Very small containers harden quickly (assuming there is adequate air movement), but they also warm up quickly when removed from the freezing temperatures.
For that reason, they suffer severe body and texture damage as a result of heat shock.
This also applies to novelties (stick bars, small cups etc.) and constitutes one of their
most serious quality problems. Large containers (e.g., 3 gal size) harden much slower
in the interior (where cooling is largely by conduction) and must be given ample
time to reach 00F in the interior (the actual time obviously depends on the hardening
room temperature). If containers are stacked before they are adequately hardened,
deformation may occur and some overrun may be squeezed out causing surface
discoloration.
Direct refrigerated contact plate hardening provides very effective heat transfer
but requires that all containers be of the same size and geometry. Because square
half-gallon containers constitute a major portion of the volume in many plants, the
contact plate hardeners can be dedicated to this line of products, while the remainder
of the production is hardened by some other systems.
Hardening of the half-gallon containers to a temperature of 00F at the core (center
of container) may be accomplished within a period of 1 to 2 h, but not necessarily
with all hardening systems. Figure 2.2, for which the data were collected in a commercial setting, provides one illustration of this. It can be seen that in the bundled
units of four containers, those on the inside hardened much slower. They required
about 7 h to reach 00F at core as opposed to about 3 h for the unbundled half-gallon
containers. In this particular plant the results were acceptable as judged by existing
production and quality criteria, and actually represented a substantial improvement
over previous hardening performance. Obviously, further improvements would be
possible if deemed necessary. The introduction of fast hardening systems constitutes
one of the most significant improvements in ice cream technology.
After the ice cream has been hardened, subsequent steps are dictated by local
requirements. The containers may be palletized and stacked according to a plan
designed to facilitate load-out operations. In some cases, the fully hardened ice cream
may be loaded directly onto trucks for transfer to distribution points. Whether during
warehousing or the transportation and transfer phase, a constant and low temperature
(in the range of 15 to 25F) should be maintained to minimize heat shock.
Maintaining a frost-free environment is also important and should not be disregarded
just because it presents a challenge.
Good inventory control should include products coded to reveal date of production, location in storage, and destination in shipment. Maximum storage time which
does not inflict an unacceptable degree of quality deterioration obviously depends
on local conditions and the management's concept of what constitutes unacceptable
quality. Invariably, there are some items that move rather slowly, but for one reason
or another must be kept in the inventory. These items may stay in storage longer
than desired. The production and storage of faster moving items should be so syn-

chronized that they are still at the peak of their quality when they are moved out.
Sensory evaluation should provide an indication of an acceptable storage time for
every item manufactured.
Vehicles used for transporting ice cream must be maintained and monitored so
they will not become a source of heat shock. Ideally, a vehicle is used only for rapid
transport, not for hardening or storing of the product. Several trips on a truck can
be very damaging to the product.

2.9 Defects of Ice Cream


Ice cream defects are generally traceable to some identifiable cause which should be
included in the surveillance and control measures assigned to quality assurance.
However, gross abuse of the product may occur beyond the sphere of a plant's
control (possibly in the hands of the ultimate consumer), in which case little can be
done other than to attempt to educate those involved. There are several criteria which
may render a product unacceptable:

Failure to meet legal composition


High standard plate count and/or coliform count (above legal maximum)
Weight below the legal minimum
Serious flavor defect(s)
Serious body and texture defect(s)
Serious defect(s) in appearance (both product and container)
Contamination with any harmful substance (e.g., bacteria, chemicals)
Inadequate pasteurization
Presence of "foreign" substance(s)
Product mislabeled
Failure to meet company's own specifications
Food solids content below legal minimum (e.g., federal standards require that 1 gal
of ice cream contains not less than 1.6 lbs of food solids)
Damaged or unsealed container.
Most of these criteria are self explanatory, but those pertaining to sensory quality
merit further elaboration. One aspect of sensory quality is the hedonic component,
that is, the degree of like or dislike for a particular product. A hedonic evaluation
requires no special training because all individuals know best what they like or
dislike. This is a judgment rendered by the consumers of the product and one that
should serve as a guide during the various stages of new product development. Once
a particular item has achieved a significant level of consumer acceptance to justify
its production, it becomes the responsibility of the quality control people to ensure
that the sensory qualities do not change. This type of evaluation requires trained
experts who can identify any sensory notes that deviate from the product's design,
regardless of their own personal preference. Inherent to the training of the quality
control sensory evaluator is the ability to identify the defects of dairy products caused
by bacteria, enzymes, chemical mechanisms, contamination, etc. which may be the

source of quality problems. Corrective measures can be initiated most effectively


when defects are identified and their causes are known.

2.9.1 Defects Identified by Sight


Some of these defects are the first to be observed by the consumer and, if serious,
may lead to rejection of the product. Eye appeal is an important attribute of the
product as well as its container. A review of dairy products evaluation was published
by Bodyfelt et al. 35

2.9.2 Defective Container


Numerous problems may be identified, including soiled containers, with either dirt
or ice cream on the exterior of the package; dented, torn, or otherwise damaged
containers; unsealed or improperly sealed container; improperly or illegibly coded;
inferior packaging material; misshapen container; etc.

2.9.3 Product Appearance


Packages may be over- or underfilled, which are defects traceable to the filling
operation in the plant. However, the product may also be bulging due to changes in
atmospheric pressure (when product is transported from a low to a high elevation);
or it may be pulling away from the sides and top of the container and appear to be
"shrunken." High overrun and heat shock accentuates both problems, although
shrinkage may occur for no apparent reason and, just as mysteriously, go away. It
seems to be related to some subtle condition in the milk proteins because changing
the source of MSNF sometimes stops an outbreak of shrinkage.
The color and appearance are largely defined by the ice cream manufacturers who
make the product. They decide whether to use artificial colors, and their type and
intensity. They also select the fruit, nuts, candy, and variegating syrups and control
the concentration of each to be used. The appearance should conform to the manufacturer's design from one run to the next. If an illustration of the product appears
on the container, the ice cream should look reasonably the same. Generally, the color
should be appealing, compatible with the flavor, and not artificial-looking. Most
common color defects are too light, too intense, uneven, and unnatural. The last
implies that the color is not compatible with the flavor (e.g., a lemon color in a peach
flavored ice cream). Added ingredients (fruit and nut particles, syrups, etc.) should
be of desired size, uniformly distributed at the desired density, not icy, and their
color should not be bleeding into the surrounding ice cream.

2.9.4 Meltdown Characteristics of Ice Cream


These are observed by the consumer when a serving is not completely consumed.
Products may vary in the rate of meltdown and the appearance of the melted portion.
Ideally, ice cream should melt to a liquid of the consistency of the mix from which

it was made. An old ice cream or one that has been highly stabilized tends to melt
slower. Stabilizers and emulsifiers also affect the appearance of the meltdown, which
may be curdy, foamy, or actually separated into clear whey. A "buttery" meltdown
may result when the ice cream has churned in the freezer. Whey separation may also
be observed in the undisturbed mix due to the same causes and when air has been
incorporated during processing. The addition of approved food grade protein stabilizing salts (various citrates and phosphates) may affect the meltdown.

2.9.5 Defects of Texture


The aim is to produce an ice cream with a smooth, "creamy" texture consistent
with an internal structure made up of small ice crystals and small air cells. There
should be no discontinuity of the internal structure perceptible to the consumer as
excessive coldness, ice crystals, sugar crystals, or relatively large masses of churned
butter. Sugar crystals (lactose) large enough to be perceptible do not melt as rapidly
as ice in the mouth and thus impart a "sandy" texture. Smaller undissolved particles
may be perceived as chalkiness or astringency. Many steps in the manufacture of
ice cream are aimed directly at promoting a smooth textured product (e.g., use of
stabilizers and emulsifiers, high solids content, fast freezing, fast hardening, etc.).
However, the ice crystals begin to grow in size as soon as the ice cream is made and
it is the rate of growth that must be controlled by the choice of proper ingredients
and the avoidance of heat shock.
Defects in texture due to ice crystals are described as cold, coarse, and icy. The
presence of other undissolved particles produces a chalky or sandy texture. The use
of excessive emulsifier or ineffective homogenization gives rise to a buttery texture.

2.9.6 Defects in Body


The type of body desired in the ice cream is an option that the manufacturer can
exercise. The principal contributors to the body are the solids content (both type and
level), stabilizer and emulsifier, and overrun. An ice cream body may be too heavy
(excessively "chewy" or resistant to bite); too weak (quick disappearance in the
mouth due to low solids, high overrun, or inadequate stabilization); crumbly (lacking
cohesiveness due to high overrun, low solids, or ineffective stabilization); short
(similar to crumbly and usually caused by high overrun; when scraped, the ice cream
lifts up in relatively thin layers, and thus lacks cohesiveness); too dry both in appearance and mouthfeel (solids content and certain stabilizers and emulsifiers); or
gummy (due to overstabilization).

2.9.7 Flavor Defects


Flavor defects may be imparted by any of the ingredients, but some may also develop
in the mix or the ice cream. A logical division of the various defects is based on
their source, because it is along these lines that corrective measures must be sought.
Some defects will appear under more than one source.

2.9.8 Defects Contributed by the Dairy Ingredients


Any off-flavor present in the milk products may be reasonably expected to appear
in the ice cream, although mild defects such as slight feed, slight cooked, or slight
flat would be of little consequence or undetectable. More serious off-flavors to be
guarded against are:
High acid (sour). This is one of the defects caused by bacteria when due to
favorable temperature and length of storage they are given an opportunity to multiply. Depending on the specific bacteria present, the acid development may be accompanied by other off-flavors of an unpleasant and generally unclean character.
Some acid producing bacteria also produce a malty flavor.
Old ingredient. There are several types of old ingredient flavor. Dehydrated products may become stale due to chemical changes. Fluid dairy products may become
subject to bacterial action as in the high acid flavor or when psychrotrophic bacteria
(those growing at refrigeration temperature) are active. These bacteria produce offflavors described as fruity, unclean, bitter, putrid, rancid, etc.
Unclean. When the flavor suggests unsanitary conditions or has a barny character,
its generic description is unclean. The term is aptly chosen because of the unpleasant
aftertaste which persists after the sample has been tasted.
Oxidized. Cardboardy, tallowy, and stale-metallic are other terms used to describe
this off-flavor. Fat oxidation that leads to the development of oxidized flavor proceeds more rapidly in the presence of copper or iron contamination. Products intended to have a long storage life (dehydrated products, butter, sweetened condensed
milk) are also susceptible. Once the off-flavor develops, it continues to get worse,
which makes it even more serious. Some milk supplies are particularly susceptible
to oxidation. Dry-lot feeding of cows has been shown to be one responsible factor.
Another form of oxidation occurs when milk is exposed to sunlight and fluorescent
light of low wavelength. It is caused by the oxidation of a protein component and
is identified as a cabbage or burnt featherslike flavor.
Rancid. The enzyme lipase is normally found in milk and under conditions of
excessive agitation, foam formation, and alternate warming and cooling, catalyzes
the breakdown of the fat. The free fatty acids that are liberated (butyric, caproic,
caprylic, capric, and lauric acids) produce the off-flavor which has been variously
described as soapy, goaty, bitter, stale coconutlike, and perspirationlike. Pasteurization inactivates the enzyme. Mixing of raw milk with homogenized products can
initiate the off-flavor production. Homogenization of a product containing active
lipase may produce rancidity in a very short time.
Cooked. There are several variants of the cooked flavor. The milder form is simply
described as cooked or custardlike. The more unpleasant variants are caramelized,
scorched, burnt, or scalded. High-heat NDM, sweetened condensed milk, evaporated
milk, ingredients that have turned brown (due to caramelization or Maillard reaction),
or ingredients processed at high temperatures when considerable "burn-on" occurred on the heating surfaces are the possible causes of the defect.
Whey. When whey is used as an ingredient, its flavor quality should be carefully
checked. Any off-flavors present will very likely appear in the ice cream.

Foreign. This represents a serious category of defects caused by contamination


of the ingredient by a substance completely foreign to food material. The substances
may be sanitizers, detergents, pesticides, paints, lubricants, etc. Quality surveillance
of ingredients must discover such problems and reject the ingredient from use.

2.9.9 Defects Due to Mix Processing and Storage


During processing, the mix is susceptible to the development of a cooked flavor (see
previous section). Foreign flavors may also gain access to the mix from the equipment, carelessness on the part of the plant workers, or from the plant environment.
Under certain conditions, rancidity may be promoted if the factors discussed in
Section 2.9.8 under rancidity are not controlled. If the mix is stored any length of
time, it may deteriorate in much the same manner as milk, cream, and other perishable products. Off-flavors may be caused by bacterial action, oxidation, or absorption
of odors from the surroundings, including foreign odors.

2.9.10 Defects Due to Flavoring Materials


The quality of flavoring materials must be constantly monitored to ensure that it
conforms to the products' design. Difficulties may be encountered with comingling
of different flavors when one flavored ice cream follows another in freezing and
packaging. The flavoring material may have the desired characteristics, but the imparted flavor may lack perfection due to an excessive or inadequate intensity. The
flavor may be slightly lacking in "blend" or be a little harsh, in which case one
may criticize it as "lacking fine flavor." If the flavor is uncharacteristic or artificiallike, it can be labeled as unnatural. Other specific shortcomings may be identified
by descriptive terminology. For instance, fruits may lack tartness, chocolate may be
too bitter, nuts may be rancid, and citrus may have a peel flavor.

2.9.11 Defects Due to Sweetening Agents


In addition to being excessive or deficient, sweetness can also be uncharacteristic.
A syrupy flavor suggests caramelization. It may detract from the fine flavor of the
flavoring ingredients, particularly vanilla. Defective syrups may also impart a fermented flavor to the ice cream.

2.9.12 Defects Due to Storage of Ice Cream


On storage, the flavor of ice cream may undergo chemical changes and the product
may absorb odors from the surrounding atmosphere. The flavor may lack the luster
of the fresh product, in which case it is criticized as lacking freshness. On further
storage, a staleness may become evident and the criticism becomes storage flavor.
Oxidation may also take place giving rise to an oxidized flavor. When the frozen
storage facility experiences an ammonia leak, the consequences generally lead to the
product being pulled from distribution and discarded.

2.9.13 Defects of Frozen Dessert Novelties


Depending on their type, novelties are subject to specific defects in addition to those
encountered in packaged frozen desserts. Two defects appear to head the listcoarse
texture due to heat shock and coliform contamination. The severity of the damage
due to heat shock is accentuated by the small size of the individual items which
encourages rapid temperature fluctuations throughout the product. Coliform contamination may come from conveyor belts or moisture condensation.
Many novelty items have an exterior coating, most commonly of chocolate. The
coating may be defective in several different ways:
Incomplete coverage of the bar
Coating deposited too far down the stick
Coating too thick
Coating too thin
Coating cracked or slipping
Off-flavored coating
Unnatural or undesired flavor of coating
Product bleeding through coating.
The coating contributes significantly to the appearance of the items, but the bars
may also be defective for other reasons. Following are some examples:
Bars with voids
Misshapen bars
Incorrect volume
Incorrect weight
Improper pattern or proportioning of constituents of composite bars (those containing
two or more constituents).
Additional defects due to various causes include:
Empty wrappers
Torn wrappers
Wrappers sticking to the bars
Soiled wrappers
Unsealed wrappers
Broken sticks
Improperly inserted sticks
Wafers, cookies, or cones "soggy" or lacking in crispness
Contamination with brine
Comingling of flavors and colors
Body and texture defects
Flavor defects
Color defects.
Some defects may be corrected by a mechanical adjustment on the equipment;
others require a wider quality assurance effort. Constant observations should antic-

ipate and, hopefully, prevent potential problems. Among the process control steps
that should be monitored are the following:
Temperature going into the hopper
Bar temperature
Coating temperature
Dwell times
Product weight before and after enrobing
Volume of bar
Overrun
End of day inventory
Specific gravity of brine
Formulation of productcomposition
Coliform counts and other bacterial tests
Sensory properties of ingredients and finished product
Temperature monitoring to prevent heat shock
Product rotation

2.10 Plant Management


Simply stated, the objectives of a commercial ice cream operation are to achieve a
desirable product, an efficient and cost-effective production and distribution system,
and successful sales. To do so requires astute management and a competent, responsive work force. An attempt is made here to summarize the significant issues
requiring executive decisions in the management of an ice cream plant.
1. Personnel
a. Job descriptions
b. Wage and salary administration
c. Selection and hiring
d. Training
e. Discipline (including chemical dependency abuse and testing)
f. Performance measurement
2. Engineering
a. Buildingsboth exterior and interior
b. Utilitiessteam, cold and hot water, refrigeration, compressed air, electricity
c. Process equipment
d. Dry storage
e. Cold and frozen storage
f. Maintenance facilities and procedures
g. Process control
h. Special equipment such as computers, measuring devices, and instrumentation

3.
4.

5.
6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

i. Maintenance of up-to-date diagrams and flowsheets of all piping and equipment used in processing, cleaning, and sanitizing
Environmental: air, water, waste, and noise management
Product line
a. Maintenance of core business line
b. Modifications to existing products
c. Introduction of new products
d. Competitive planning
Pricing: price-value relationship
Packaging
a. Sizing
b. Single vs. bundling and type of overwrap
c. Package graphics and coding
d. Case coding, product identification, and tracking
Quality assurance
a. Raw material specifications
b. Finished goods product specifications
c. Laboratory procedures including tests contracted to outside laboratories
d. Plant sanitation procedures
e. Testing requirements including critical control point surveillance
f. Housekeeping procedures
g. Uniforms and personal hygiene requirements
h. Product recall management
i. Handling of product to be reprocessed
j . Handling of returns
k. Temperature control from ingredient to finished product
1. Records and documentation
Production planning and scheduling
a. Purchasing
b. Inventory controlraw materials
c. Inventory controlfinished goods
d. Coordination with sales and marketing
e. Production scheduling
Production
a. Trained personnel
b. Proper equipment
c. Properly maintained, cleaned, and sanitized equipment ready for use
d. Adequate supply of raw materials
e. Adequate supply of packaging material
f. A production plan
g. Production records
Storage (dry and cold)
a. Suitable space and location for edible and nonedible materials
b. Humidity and temperature control
c. An inventory control system

d. Efficient handling system


11. Distribution
a. Drivers
b. Vehicles
c. Temperature and frost control
d. Effective organization of distribution management
e. Controls and records
12. Others
a. Accounting
b. Cost control
c. Regulatory compliance management
d. Safety management
e. Insurance against loss and stability
f. Sales and marketing
g. Research and development

2.11 Active Areas of Research


Technological advances in ice cream should be made possible by an understanding
of the principles governing the interaction between its components. Optimal functionality from each ingredient selected in the production of ice cream is achieved
through careful formulation and processing. Although past research has greatly increased our knowledge, there are still many circumstances when it is difficult to
accurately predict the effects that changes in ingredients, formulation, and other
variables will have on the finished product. One of the major objectives of research
in foods is a detailed understanding of the interactions and changes of the different
components and to apply that knowledge in product development and improvement.
Among the active areas of study are those exploring the role of ingredients such
as proteins, emulsifiers, stabilizers, fat, sweeteners, fat replacers, and fat mimetics.
The basic resources available to the ice cream technologists are the physical and
chemical studies of emulsions and foams; the chemistry of the ingredients; and the
effect that processing such as heating, homogenization, whipping, and freezing may
have on them. Due to the scope and space limitations of this chapter only some
selected research areas will be highlighted under the headings of (1) ice cream mix,
(2) ice cream structure, and (3) processing and freezing. This is not to imply that
research not specifically addressed is of lesser importance.

2.11.1 Ice Cream Mix


The ice cream mix, as discussed in Section 2.5, consists of ingredients such as cream,
milk condensed skim milk, nonfat dry milk, sugars such as sucrose or corn syrups,
stabilizers, emulsifiers, in some cases flavors, etc. All of these ingredients are then
blended, pasteurized, homogenized, cooled, and aged. The sum of these processes
results in an ice cream mix, which may be sold as such (e.g., soft-serve for fast food

restaurants). The principal unit operations directly relevant to the ice cream mix are
pasteurization, homogenization, and aging.
The applicable areas of research include studies addressing development of the
emulsion structure, identification of the mechanism of emulsifier and stabilizer action, and investigations into the nature of molecular interactions between stabilizers
and other ice cream components.
The formation of a new fat globule membrane as a result of homogenization and
its subsequent reactions have been studied in great detail. Oortwijn and Walstra36
studied the properties of cream by combining milkfat with different sources of protein. The amount of protein available, the composition of the membrane, and fat
crystallization were important factors in controlling the stability of the emulsions.
The nature of the proteins involved in the process of fat globule membrane formation
has been found to have implications on the tactile properties in frozen dairy products.
For example, increasing concentrations of whey proteins were found by Goff et al.37
to have fat destabilization properties. However, they were not able to provide guidelines for conclusive predictions, partly due to the diverse processing conditions
encountered.
Better understanding of the function and performance of emulsifiers in ice cream
has been provided recently by a number of studies. 1630 ' 38 " 42 As pointed out in
Section 2.2.19, emulsifiers are not needed in ice cream mix to stabilize the fat emulsion. There are many components, mainly proteins, available in the ice cream mix
to perform this function. In ice cream mixes homogenized without emulsifiers, the
new fat globule membrane will be formed by caseins and whey proteins. However,
the surface-active character of emulsifiers, when present in the mix, allows them to
be preferentially adsorbed at the surface of the fat globule replacing the proteins. As
the interfacial tension is lowered due to the action of the adsorbed emulsifiers, the
fat globules are more readily destabilized. Due to their size and structure, proteins
at the interface form a more complex membrane than one made up of emulsifiers.30
Incorporation of air into the mix results in the adsorption of fat globules at the air/
serum interface due to a differential in the created surface forces. The shear forces
resulting from freezing concentration, agitation, and whipping in the freezer barrel
cause the emulsion to partially destabilize with the formation of clusters of fat globules and with possibly some coalescence. Both aggregation and coalescence of globules is facilitated by the creation of the weaker emulsifier-containing membranes.
These clusters and possibly some free fat are responsible for stabilizing the air cells
and creating a matrix throughout the product. Matrix formation, partially coalesced
fat globules at the air-cell interfaces, and stable air cells result in a dry appearance,
smooth texture, and resistance to melting.
Not all of the emulsifiers work in a similar manner. An excellent review on
emulsion stability is presented by Friberg et al.43 They describe two methods for
classifying emulsifiers. In the first, the surfactant per se is characterized by a value
for the hydrophilic and lipophilic balance (HLB) of the molecule (water loving and
lipid loving parts of the molecule). The second approach combines the surfactant
with oil and water and the whole system is characterized by a number. Generally,
emulsifiers with a higher HLB number have a higher affinity for water, and are more

effective as "deemulsifiers" at a given concentration than those with a lower HLB.


However, the unsaturation of the fatty acid components of monoglycerides and polysorbates has also been found to be significant. Emulsifiers containing predominantly
unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., glyceryl monooleate and polysorbate 80) are more effective destabilizing agents than their counterparts containing predominantly saturated fatty acids (e.g., glyceryl monostearate and polysorbate 65).16-33

2.11.2 Ice Cream Structure


Human senses are the ultimate evaluation tool of ice cream body, texture, and taste.
Thus, product acceptance, which is the necessary goal of any producer, is based on
sensory perception. However, much useful information regarding the structure of ice
cream and the ways in which different ingredients and processes may change its
tactile properties have been studied by objective physical methods. One of the important tools in analyzing ice cream structure has been the electron microscope. 16 ' 3138 ' 44 " 46 Excellent electron micrographs showing details of mix and ice
cream structure have been published by Buchheim31 and Berger16 using techniques
of freeze etching and freeze fracturing in their sample preparation. Continuing efforts
to find new techniques in microscopy and sample preparation are likely to yield
further enlightment of ice cream structure and its development. One of these techniques is low-temperature scanning electron microscopy (LT-SEM). In this technique the samples are stabilized by quench-freezing in liquid nitrogen (-210 0 C).
This provides an opportunity to examine intact biological materials in a fully hydrated frozen state. Samples so prepared for LT-SEM are stable because below
1300C the vapor pressure of the components nears zero and the ice recrystallization
process is halted. This avoids introduction of artefacts through chemical fixation and
structural collapse.47
Body and texture of ice cream are affected by the use of stabilizers. The mode
of action and the importance of stabilizers in ice cream were discussed in
Sections 2.2.17 and 2.2.18. Some current research focuses on the basic aspects of
the particular molecular characteristics and their effects on the structure of hydrocolloids. One example is the work reported on the direct measurement of forces in
the strands of Xanthan gum.48 Stress measurements of forces between molecular
helices of Xanthan were performed using a method that correlates these forces to
the osmotic pressure of the polysaccharide in solution. This method provides the
opportunity to relate the functionality of a polymer solution to the microscopic properties that underlie them.
Other examples of basic or fundamental research that may contribute to the understanding of ice cream structure are Theological tests. Experiments are being developed that correlate liquid and semisolid texture to Theological and frictional properties of foods. This work has direct implication to ice cream structure due to the
semisolid nature of ice cream. In addition, relationships may be established to correlate texture-taste interactions to diffusion coefficients. An excellent review on
these experiments is presented by Kokini.49 The possibilities of these contributions
are exemplified in the development of a model based on theoretical calculations and

practical, sensory data. Kokini presented a model for testing the melting action of
ice cream in the mouth and how it generates a layer of lubricant between the solid
ice cream and the mouth.49 This model suggests that the shear stress on the tongue
is the mechanism of texture perception even in the presence of a melting layer.
Another interesting model correlated viscosity of a solution to taste intensity. In
summary, it can be said that in ice cream, as well as in other foods, considerable
work is being done to relate textural attributes to physical quantities from a basic
understanding of perception mechanisms.

2.11.3 Processing and Freezing


Stabilizers, sweeteners, and glass transitions are subjects of very active research in
ice cream freezing. The action of stabilizers and carbohydrate sweetening agents in
ice cream results from their ability to bind water or to form gellike structures. These
properties greatly increase the viscosity of the serum phase during freezing and freeze
concentration (Section 2.2.17). Efforts to elucidate the mechanism of action of stabilizers on rates of recrystallization have not correlated well with increases in mix
viscosities before freezing. Budiaman and Fenema50 concluded that stabilizers do
not have a significant effect on (1) the amount of ice that forms in ice cream mix,
(2) the size and shape of the ice crystals existing soon after freezing, and (3) the rate
at which recrystallization of ice occurs after a 2-week period at 150C.50 Their data
do not confirm the usual mechanism by which stabilizers are thought to retard ice
crystal growth initially and during storage. They stated that their data neither disprove or support the common contention that one function of hydrocolloids in frozen
desserts is to limit crystal size. Apparently, the mechanism of ice crystal control is
related to mass diffusion and the factors that control its rate, rather than the fundamental thermodynamics of ice nucleation and ice-crystal growth. Further research is
needed, perhaps at the molecular level, to elucidate the mechanism by which stabilizers exert their function.
A glass is characterized as an amorphous (not crystalline) solid. Glass transitions
are phase changes with defined temperatures of transitions for different materials.
At the glass transition temperature Tg1, polymeric materials change from a viscoelastic fluid to a glass (very high viscosity). In foods, the Tg' is defined as that
temperature at which a solution reaches its maximum freeze concentration. In ice
cream it has been calculated51"53 that at temperatures of - 3 0 0 C or below, the superconcentrated solutes should be present in a glass state. In this case, the unfrozen
water is in the glass state (characterized by an extremely high viscosity) and unable
to diffuse to the surface of an existing water-crystal nucleus. Above this glass transition temperature, or at lower viscosity than that corresponding to the glass state,
water would be able to migrate with the concomitant result of crystal growth.46-51^3
Ingredient formulation can elevate Tg', thus increasing the stability of ice cream or
alternatively, one could store the product at temperatures lower than the Tg'. The
overall viscosity of a solution does not correlate well with the observed increase in
ice cream structure stability. However, it is possible that the interaction of polysaccharides with sugar and other solids in ice cream increases the local viscosity of the

unfrozen serum, thereby increasing the viscosity of the serum phase surrounding the
ice crystals to above the viscosity corresponding to Tg'. This would result in the
physical resistance to recrystallization and structural collapse. Future research should
provide the answers.
Viscosity in the serum can also be modified by the interaction between partially
denatured proteins, or between proteins with extremely different isoelectric points.54
Poole et al.55 have found that basic proteins such as lysozyme (with isoelectric point
pi = 10.7) or clupeine (pi = 1 2 ) enhance the surface activity of acidic proteins
such as whey proteins (pi ~~ 5) resulting in extremely stiff foams after whipping.
Sucrose was found to further enhance the interaction between the proteins. One
may speculate that further studies may be designed to uncover appropriate
protein-protein and protein-carbohydrate interactions which may be useful in the
substitution of fat in ice cream.
To conclude this section, it can be said that much of what can be learned about
the ice cream making process is highly dependent on the theoretical tools and equipment used. However, as more studies come to light, it may be possible to establish
some general principles on which to base technological advancement. Empirical
experiments (trial and error) in product development and improvement have been
historically very important. Hopefully they may be supplemented in the future by
scientific knowledge that will provide a predictable basis for further advances in ice
cream technology.

2.12 References
1. Anonymous. 1951. 1851-1951. Ice cream centennial. Ice Cream Trade J. 47:222.
2. Anonymous. 1955. A 50 year history of the ice cream industry. Ice Cream Trade J. 51:1-270.
3. Arbuckle, W. S., 1986. Ice Cream, 4th edit. AVI, Westport, CT.
4. Burke, A. D. 1947. Practical Ice Cream Making. Olsen, Milwaukee, WI.
5. Fisk, W. W. 1919. The Book of Ice Cream. Macmillan, New York.
6. Frandsen, J. H., and E. A. Markham. 1915. The Manufacture of Ice Creams and Ices. Orange Judd,
New York.
7. Frandsen, J. H., and D. H. Nelson. 1950. Ice Cream and Other Frozen Desserts. Frandsen, Amherst,
MA.
8. Keeney, P. G. 1960. Commercial Ice Cream and Other Frozen Desserts, p. 50. The Pennsylvania
State University, College of Agriculture, Extension Service.
9. Keeney, P. G., and M. Kroger. 1974. Frozen dairy products. In B. H. Webb, A. H. Johnson, and
J. A. Alford (eds.), Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry. AVI, Westport, CT.
10. Lucas, P. S. 1956. Ice Cream Manufacture (commemorating 50 years of progress). / . Dairy Sci.
39:833.
11. Sommer, H. H. 1951. Theory and Practice of Ice Cream Making. Sommer, Madison, WI.
12. Tobias, J., and G. A. Muck. 1985. Ice cream and frozen desserts. J. Dairy Sci. 64:1077.

13. Tumbow, G. D., P. H. Tracy, and L. A. Raffeto. 1956. The Ice Cream Industry. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
14. American Dry Milk Institute. 1971. Standards for Grades of Dry Milk including Methods of Analysis.
Vol. Bulletin 916 (Revised). American Dry Milk Institute, Chicago, EL
15. Hunziker, O. F. 1946. Condensed Milk and Milk Powder. Hunziker, La Grange, IL.
16. Berger, K. G. 1990. Ice Cream. In K. Larsson and S. Friberg (eds.), Food Emulsions, pp. 367-444.
Marcel Dekker, New York.
17. Sherman, P. 1978. Food Texture and Rheology. Vol. UFST Symposium. Academic Press, New
York.
18. Larsson, K., and S. E. Friberg. 1990. Food Emulsions, 2nd edit. Marcel Dekker, New York.
19. Pickering, S. V. 1891. The freezing point relationship of cane sugar. Berichte Deutsch. Chem.
Gensellschaft, 24:333.
20. Okos, M. R. 1986. Physical and Chemical Properties of Food. American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
21. Whistler, R. L., and J. R. Daniel. 1985. Carbohydrates. In O. Fennema (ed.), Food Chemistry,
pp. 69-137. Marcel Dekker, New York.
22. Whistler, R. L. 1973. Industrial Gums: Polysaccharides and Their Derivatives. Academic Press,
New York.
23. Dikinson, E., and G. Stainsby. 1982. Colloid in Food. Elsevier London.
24. Dickinson, E. 1987. Food Emulsions and Foams. Royal Society of Chemistry, London.
25. Nickerson, T. A. 1962. Lactose crystallization in ice cream. IV. Factors responsible for reduced
incidence of sandiness. / . Dairy Sci. 45:354.
26. Schappner, H. R. 1986. British Patent GB-1,108,376.
27. Price, C. 1990. Time-Temperature Requirements for Ice Cream Mix. Midwest Region, Public Health
Service, Office of the Regional Food and Drug Director, Chicago, IL.
28. Muck, G. A., and Tobias, J. 1962. Effect of high heat treatment on the viscosity of model milk
systems. J. Dairy Sci. 45:481-485.
29. Tobias, J., M. Whitney, and P. H. Tracy. 1952. Electrophoretic properties of milk proteins II; Effect
of heating to 3000F by means of the Mallory small-tube heat exchanger on skimmilk proteins.
/. Dairy ScL 35:1036-1045.
30. Walstra, P., and R. Jenness. 1984. Dairy Chemistry and Physics. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
31. Buchheim, W. 1978. Mikrostruktur von geshlagenem Rahm. Microstructure of whipped cream.
Gordian, 78:184-188.
32. Brooker, B. E., M. Anderson, and A. T. Andrews. 1986. The development of structure in whipped
cream. Food Microstruct. 5:277-285.
33. Goff, H. D., Liboff, M., Jordan, W. K., Kinsella, J. E. 1987. The effects of Polysorbate 80 on the
fat emulsion in ice cream mix: evidence from transmission electron microscopy studies. Food Microstruct. 6:193 -198.
34. Leighton, A. 1927. On the calculation of the freezing point of ice cream mixes and of the quantities
of ice separated during the freezing process. J. Dairy Sci. 10:300.
35. Bodyfelt, F. S., J. Tobias, and G. M. Trout. 1988. The Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Products. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

36. Oortwijn, H., and P. Walstra. 1982. The membranes of recombined fat globules 4. Effects on properties of the recombined milks. Netherlands Milk Dairy /., 36:279-290.
37. Goff, H. D., J. E. Kinsella, and W. K. Jordan. 1989. Influence of various milk protein isolates on
ice cream emulsion stability. / . Dairy Sci. 72:385-397.
38. Buchheim, W., and Dejmeck, P. 1990. Milk and Dairy-Type Emulsions, pp. 203-246. In K. Larsson
and S. Friberg (eds.), Food Emulsion Marcel Dekker, New York.
39. Goff, H. D. 1988. Emulsifiers in ice cream: How do they work? Modern Dairy 67:15-16.
40. Goff, H. D., and W. K. Jordan. 1989. Action of emulsifiers promoting fat destabilization during the
manufacture of ice cream. J. Dairy Sci. 72:18-29.
41. Keeney, P. G. 1982. Development of frozen emulsions. Food Technol. 36:65.
42. Lin, P. M., and J. G. Leeder. 1974. Mechanism of emulsifier action in an ice cream system. / . Food
ScL 39:108.
43. Friberg, S. E., R. F. Goubran, and I. K. Kayali. 1990. Emulsion Stability. In K. Larson and S. E.
Friberg (eds.), Food Emulsions. Marcel Dekker, New York.
44. Berger, K. G., Bullimore, B. K., White, G. W., Wright, W. B. 1972. The structure of ice cream.
Dairy Industries 37:419, 493.
45. Brooker, B. E. 1985. Observations on the air serum interface of milk foams. Food Microstruct.
4:289.
46. Goff, H. D., and K. B. Caldwell. 1991. Stabilizers in ice cream: How do they work? Modern Dairy
70:14-15.
47. Caldwell, K. B., H. D. Goff, and D. W. Stanley. 1992. A low-temperature SEM study of ice cream.
II. Influence of selected ingredients and processes. Food Struct. 2: (in press).
48. Rau, D. C , and V. A. Parsegian. 1990. Direct measurement of forces between linear polysaccharides
Xantan and Schizophyllan. Science 249:1278-1281.
49. Kokini, J. L. 1987. The physical basis of liquid food texture and texture-taste interactions. / . Food
Engin. 6:51-81.
50. Budiaman, E. R., and O. Fenema. 1987. Linear rate of water crystallization as influenced by viscosity
of hydrocolloid suspensions. / . Dairy Sci. 70:547.
51. Eisenberg, A. 1984. The glassy state and the glass transition. In J. E. Mark et al. (eds.), Physical
Properties of Polymers. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.
52. Levine, H., and L. Slade. 1988. Principles of cryo-stabilization technology from structure property
relationships of carbohydrate/water systems. A review. Cryo-Lett. 9:21-63.
53. Levine, H., and L. Slade. 1990. Cryostabilization technology: thermoanalytical evaluation of food
ingredients and systems. In C. Y. Ma and V. R. Harlwaker (eds.), Thermal Analysis of Foods.
Elsevier Applied Science, London.
54. Dickinson, E., and G. Stainsby. 1987. Progress in the formulation of food emulsions and foams.
Food Technol 41:74-81.
55. Poole, S., S. I. West, and J. C. Fry. 1986. Lipid tolerant protein foaming systems. FoodHydrocolloids
1:45.
Note: In order to provide the most recent standards for frozen desserts, this legal document is reproduced
as an appendix to this volume instead of this chapter.

CHAPTER
3

Cheese
K. RajinderNath
3.1 Introduction, 163
3.1.1 Classification, 164
3.1.1.1 Ripened, 164
3.1.1.2 Fresh, 165
3.1.2 Cheese Production and Composition, 165
3.2 Heat Treatment of Milk for Cheesemaking, 169
3.3 Cheese Starter Cultures, 173
3.3.1 Types of Cultures, 174
3.3.2 Leuconostoc, 178
3.3.3 Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus, 178
3.3.4 Lactobacilli, 179
3.3.5 Lactobacilli Found During Cheese Ripening, 179
3.3.6 Propionibacteria, 180
3.3.7 Pediococci, 180
3.3.8 Molds, 181
3.3.8.1 PenicilliumRoqueforti, 181
3.3.8.2 Penicillium Camemberti, 181
3.4 Growth of Starter Bacteria in Milk, 182
3.4.1 Inhibitors of Starter Bacteria, 182
3.4.1.1 Bacteriocins, 182
3.4.1.2 Lipolysis, 182
3.4.1.3 Hydrogen Peroxide, 183
3.4.1.4 Lactoperoxidase/Thiocyanate/H2O2 System, 183
3.4.1.5 Heat Treatment, 185
3.4.1.6 Agglutination, 185
3.4.1.7 Antibiotics, 186
3.4.1.8 pH, 186
3.5 Starter Culture Systems, 187
3.5.1 Culture Systems, 188
3.6 Culture Production and Bulk Starter Propagation, 191
3.6.1 History, 191
3.6.2 Concentrated Cultures, 191
3.6.3 Bulk Starter Propagation, 192

3.7

3.8
3.9
3.10

3.11

3.12

3.13

3.6.3.1 Aseptic Techniques, 192


3.6.3.2 Specifically Designed Starter Tanks, 192
3.6.3.3 Phage Inhibitory Media, 193
3.6.4 pH-Controlled Propagation of Cultures, 194
3.6.4.1 External pH Control, 195
3.6.4.2 Internal pH Control, 195
3.6.4.3 Temperature Effect, 195
3.6.5 General Comments, 196
3.6.6 Helpful Points to Phage-Free Starters, 196
Manufacture of Cheese, 197
3.7.1 Cheddar Cheese, 200
3.7.2 Stirred Curd or Granular Cheddar Cheese, 200
3.7.3 Colby Cheese, 200
3.7.4 Swiss Cheese, 201
3.7.5 Parmesan Cheese, 201
3.7.6 Mozzarella and Provolone Cheese, 205
3.7.7 Brick Cheese, 205
3.7.8 Mold-Ripened Cheese, 206
3.7.8.1 Blue Cheese, 206
3.7.8.2 Camembert Cheese, 207
Cheese From Ultrafiltered Retentate, 207
Salting of Cheese, 210
Cheese Ripening and Flavor Development, 210
3.10.1 Proteolysis of Caseins, 211
3.10.2 Proteolysis in Cheese, 212
3.10.3 Amino Acid Transformations, 213
3.10.4 Flavor Development, 213
Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Cheddar Cheese, 215
3.11.1 Fate of Lactose, 215
3.11.2 Fate of Casein, 216
3.11.3 Microbiological Changes, 217
3.11.4 Fate of Fat, 218
3.11.5 Flavor of Cheddar Cheese, 219
Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Swiss Cheese, 219
3.12.1 Fate of Lactose, 220
3.12.2 CO2 Production, 220
3.12.3 Eye Formation, 221
3.12.4 Fate of Proteins, 222
3.12.5 Flavor of Swiss Cheese, 222
Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Gouda Cheese, 222
3.13.1 Fate of Lactose, 223
3.13.2 Fate of Proteins, 223
3.13.3 Fate of Fat, 224

3.14

3.15

3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19

3.20

3.13.4 Microbiological Changes, 224


3.13.5 Flavor of Gouda Cheese, 224
Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Mold-Ripened Cheese, 224
3.14.1 Blue Cheese, 224
3.14.2 Camembert and Brie Cheese, 226
Microbiological and Biochemical Changes iin Bacteria Surface-Ripened
Cheese, 227
3.15.1 Brick Cheese, 227
Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Mozzarella Cheese, 227
Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Parmesan and Romano
Cheese, 228
Accelerated Cheese Ripening, 229
Processed Cheese Products, 229
3.19.1 Advantages of Process Cheeses over Natural Cheese, 231
3.19.2 Processing, 231
3.19.3 Emulsifiers, 231
3.19.3.1 Basic Emulsification Systems for Cheese Processing, 232
3.19.4 Heat Treatment, 234
3.19.5 pH and Microbiological Stability, 234
References, 235

3.1 Introduction
Cheese is one of mankind's oldest foodstuffs. It is nutritious. It was Clifton Fadimanepic (and Epicurean) worksmithwho coined the phrase that best describes
cheese as "milk's leap to immortality."1 The first use of cheese as food is not known,
although it is very likely that cheese originated accidentally. References to cheeses
throughout history are widespread: * 'Cheese is an art that predates the biblical era." 2
The origin of cheese has been dated to 6000 to 7000 B.C. The worldwide number of
cheese varieties has been estimated at 500, with an annual production of more than
12 million tons growing at a rate of about 4%.3
Cheesemaking is a process of dehydration by which milk is preserved. There are
at least three constants in cheesemaking: milk, coagulant, and culture. By introducing
heating and salting steps in cheesemaking, a potential for numerous varieties has
been realized.
The techniques employed by early cheesemakers varied geographically. A cheese
made in a given region with the available milk and prevailing procedures acquired
its own distinctive characteristics. Cheese made in another locality under different
conditions developed other properties. In this way specific varieties of cheese origi-

nated, many of which were named according to the town where produced, for example, Cheddar, England. Although varieties of cheese are known by more than
2000 names, many differ only slightly, if at all, in their characteristics.4
About 1900, the following five developments in cheese technology contributed
to the rapid growth of commercial cheesemaking4:
The use of titratable acidity measurements to control acidities
The introduction of bacterial cultures as "starters"
The pasteurization of milk used in cheesemaking which destroys harmful microogranisms
Refrigerated ripening
The appearance of processed cheese

3.1.1 Classification
Cheeses have been classified in several ways. Several attempts to classify the varieties of cheese have been made. One suggestion consists of a scheme that divides
cheeses into the following superfamilies based on the coagulating agent.3
1.
2.
3.
4.

Rennet cheeses. Cheddar, Brick, Muenster


Acid cheeses. Cottage, Quarg, Cream
Heat-acid. Ricotta, Sapsago
Concentration-crystallization. Mysost

A more simple but incomplete scheme would be to classify cheeses as follows:


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Very hard. Parmesan, Romano


Hard. Cheddar, Swiss
Semisoft. Brick, Muenster, Blue, Havarti
Soft. Bel Paese, Brie, Camembert, Feta
Acid. Cottage, Baker's, Cream, Ricotta

Natural cheese types can be classified according to the distinguishing differences


in processing4 as shown in Table 3.1.
Another broad look at cheeses might divide them into two large categories,
ripened and fresh.

3.1.1.1 Ripened
Cheeses can be ripened by adding selected enzymes or microorganisms (bacteria or
molds) to the starting milk, to the newly made cheese curds, or to the surface of a
finished cheese. The cheese is then ripened (cured) under conditions controlled by
one or more of the following elements: temperature, humidity, salt, and time.
Depending on the style of cheese, the ripening can be principally carried out on
the cheese surface or the interior. The selection of organisms, the appropriate enzymes, and ripening regime determine the texture and flavor of each cheese type.

Table 3.1 DISTINCT TYPES OF NATURAL CHEESE CLASSIFIED BY


DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENCES IN PROCESSING
Distinctive Processing
Curd particles matted
together
Curd particles kept separate
Bacteria ripened throughout
interior with eye formation1*
Prolonged curing period
Pasta filata (stretched curd)
Mold ripened throughout
interior
Surface ripened principally
by bacteria and yeasts
Surface ripened principally
by mold
Curd coagulated primarily by
acidc
Protein of whey or whey and
milk coagulated by acid and
high heat

Distinctive Characteristics

Typical Varieties of Cheese

Close texture3, firm body

Cheddar

More open texture


Gas holes or eyes throughout
cheese
Granular texture; brittle body
Plastic curd; threadlike or
flaky texture
Visible veins of mold (bluegreen or white). Typical
piquant, spicy flavor
Surface growth: soft, smooth,
waxy body, typical mild to
robust flavor
Edible crust: soft creamy
interior, typical pungent
flavor
Delicate soft curd

Colby, Monterey
Swiss (large eyes), Samsoe,
Edam, Gouda (small eyes)
Parmesan, Romano
Provolone, Caciocavallo,
Mozzarella
Blue, Roquefort, Stilton,
Gorgonzola

Sweetish cooked flavor of


whey

Gjetost, Sap sago, Primost,


ricotta

Bel paese, Brick, Limburger,


Port du salut
Camembert, Brie

Cottage, cream, Neufchatel

Source: Ref. 4. Newer Knowledge of Cheese, Courtesy of NATIONAL DAIRY COUNCIL.


a
b
c

Close texture means no mechanical holes within the cheese; open texture means considerable mechanical holes.
In contrast to ripening by bacteria throughout interior without eye formation.
In contrast to coagulation by acid and coagulating enzymes, or in whey cheese, by acid and high heat.

3.1.1.2 Fresh
These cheeses do not undergo curing and are generally the result of acid coagulation
of the milk. The composition, as well as processing steps, provide the specific product texture, while the bacteria used to provide the acid usually generate the characteristic flavor of the cheese.

3.1.2 Cheese Production and Composition


Per capita consumption of cheese is highest in Greece, at 47.52 lbs per year compared
to 21.56 lbs per year in the U.S.A., which ranks sixteenth.3 Production and composition of cheese in the United States is growing steadily.
Manufacturer's sales of cheese and projections5 for the United States are shown
in Tables 3.2 and 3.3
Unless otherwise indicated on the label, the basis of cheese is cow's milk which
may be adjusted by separating part of the fat or by adding certain milk solids. The
composition of cheese and related cheese products for interstate commerce is gov-

Table 3.2 MANUFACTURERS1 SALES OF CHEESE


Year

Total
($, Millions)

Annual Percent
Change

1,751.8
3,094.6
3,644.4
4,504.7
4,900.5
5,764.1
6,073.6
6,688.5
7,903.6
9,415.9
10,188.0
10,170.0
10,561.7
10,492.1
10,707.5
11,378.3
11,232.5
11,388.8
17,644.8

12.1a
17.8
23.6
8.8
17.6
5.4
10.1
18.2
19.1
8.2
-0.2
3.9
-0.7
2.1
6.3
-1.3
1.4
4.6a

1967
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988b
1997C
Source: Ref. 5.
a
b
c

Average annual growth.


Estimate.
Projection

erned by the definitions and standards of identity developed, promulgated, and revised by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of United States Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare. Cheese regulations assure the consumer of constant
cheese characteristics and uniform minimum composition.4 Federal standards of
identity concerning cheese and cheese products6 where established are given in Table
3.4. Typical analysis of cheeses7 is given in Table 3.5.
Cheesemaking, as an artform, has been around for thousands of years. In earlier
times cheese had been less than uniform and often with blemishes. The cheesemakers
of the past worked diligently to learn intuitively the causes of and ways to avoid
cheese failures. The discovery in 1935 by Whitehead in New Zealand, that bacteriophage(s) caused the milk acidification problem and gassy cheese,8 was the first
step toward more uniform and mechanized cheesemaking. The intervening 57 years
of intensive research on milk and its conversion to cheese has brought a great deal
of understanding and knowledge of milk compositionproteins, fat, lactose, and
mineralsand their interaction as it affects cheesemaking. A great deal is being
learned about the causes and metabolic behavior of starter organisms and their proteinases and peptidases, and their ability to cope with bacteriophages in the environment. There is considerable information in the published literature that has been
recently arranged and compiled into reviews and books.9"11

Table 3.3

MANUFACTURERS' SALES OF CHEESE BY TYPE


Process Cheese
and Related Products

Natural Cheese

1967
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988C
1997d
Source:
a
b
c
d

Sales
($, Millions)

Percent
Change

Sales
($, Millions)

Percent
Change

Sales
($, Millions)

829.2
1,400.0
1,705.9
2,458.7
2,668.7
3,267.9
2,727.2
3,104.1
3,949.3
4,821.1
5,225.6
5,625.6
5,824.0
5,617.3
5,664.6
6,289.8
6,208.0
6,294.9
9,826.9

11.0"
21.9
44.1
8.5
22.5
-16.5
13.8
27.2
22.1
8.4
7.7
3.5
-3.5
0.8
11.0
-1.3
1.4
4.7b

562.5
1,134.1
1,363.5
1,496.6
1,654.4
1,859.7
2,518.5
2,681.4
2,822.0
3,303.4
3,567.9
3,194.3
3,325.4
3,390.1
3,552.6
3,548.9
3,463.7
3,529.5
5,482.8

15.1 b
20.2
9.8
10.5
12.4
35.4
6.5
5.2
17.1
8.0
-10.5
4.1
1.9
4.8
-0.1
-2.4
1.9
4.7b

218.0
340.9
405.6
456.0
508.7
530.7
545.6
588.5
729.3
840.9
856.5
683.2
693.8
748.3
738.3
725.1
731.6
722.8
1,083.9

Ref. 5.

Includes cheese substitutes.


Average annual growth.
Estimate.
Projection.

Other Cheese8

Cottage Cheese
Percent
Change
9.4b
19.0
12.4
11.6
4.3
2.8
7.9
23.9
15.3
1.9
-20.2
1.6
7.9
-1.3
-1.8
0.9
-1.2
3.9b

Sales
($, Millions)
142.1
219.6
169.4
93.4
68.7
105.8
282.3
314.5
403.0
450.5
538.0
666.9
719.5
736.4
752.0
814.5
829.2
841.6
1,251.2

Percent
Change

9.1b
-22.9
-44.9
-26.4
54.0
66.8
11.4
28.1
11.8
19.4
24.0
7.9
2.3
2.1
8.3
1.8
1.5
4.2b

Table 3.4

CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS CHEESE COMPOSITION


STANDARDS

Cheese Type
Asiago fresh
Asiago soft
Asiago medium
Asiago old
Blue cheese
Brick cheese
Caciocavello Siciliano
Cheddar
Low-sodium Cheddar
Colby
Low-sodium Colby
Cottage cheese (curd)
Cream cheese
Washed curd
Edam
Gammelost
Gorganzola
Gouda
Granular-stirred curd
Hard grating
Hard cheese
Gruyere
Limburger
Monterey Jack
High-moisture Monterey Jack
Mozzarella and Scamorza
Low-moisture Mozzarella and
Scamorza
Part-skim Mozzarella and
Scamorza
Low-moisture, part-skim
Mozzarella
Muenster
Neufchatel
Nuworld
Parmesan and Reggiano
Provolone
Soft-ripened cheese
Romano
Roquefort (sheep's milk)
Samsoe
Sapsago
Semisoft cheese
Semisoft, part-skim cheese
Skim-milk cheese for
manufacturing
Swiss and Emmentaler
Source: Ref. 6.

Legal Maximum
Moisture, %

Legal Minimum Fat


(Dry Basis), %

45
50
45
50
35
45
32
42
46
50
44
50
40
42
39
50
(Same as Cheddar but less than 96 mg of
sodium per pound of cheese)
40
50
(Same as cheddar but less than 96 mg of
sodium per pound of cheese)
80
0.5
55
33
42
50
45
40
52
(skim milk)
42
50
45
46
39
50
34
32
39
50
39
45
50
50
44
50
44-50
50
52-60
45
45-52
45
52-60

30-45

45-52

30-45

46
65
46
32
45
34
45
41
38
39-50
50
50

50
20-33
50
32
45
50
38
50
45
(skim milk)
50
45-50
(skim milk)

41

43

Legal Minimum
Age
60 days
60 days
6 months
1 year
60 days
90 days

90 days

6 months
90 days

60 days
10 months

5 months
60 days
60 days
5 months

60 days

In this chapter, effort is made to select and interpret information that is current
and germane to the topic of cheese. Milk composition, cheese yield, starter proteinases and peptidases, and bacteriophage are not discussed because of space limitation.
The subjects of fresh cheese, cheese defects, and pathogens in cheese are also not
discussed. Some aspects of milk composition and casein micelle assembly and rennet
coagulation are discussed in Chapter 1.
Although much is known about in vitro chymosin-induced proteolysis of casein(s)
little is truly understood about the augment of changes and microbiological shifts in
vivo that occur in cheese as a result. The efforts to accelerate cheese curing and to
harness ultrafiltration of milk to produce superior Cheddar cheese and Swiss cheese
have largely failed, indicating the lacuna in our understanding of cheese as an entity.
It is ironic that most studies dealing with starter organisms and rennet reactions deal
with optimum conditions, but most of cheesemaking and cheese curing is done under
suboptimal conditions as they relate to starter or adventitious bacteria found in
cheese. Wherever applicable, comments are made to provoke thinking in the unexplored facets of cheesemaking, curing, and longevity of cheese as a good food.

3.2 Heat Treatment of Milk for Cheesemaking


The bacterial flora in raw milk can vary considerably in numbers and species depending on how the milk is soiled. Major types of microorganisms found in milk
are listed in Table 3.6.12 Raw milk may also contain microorganisms pathogenic for
man. Some of the more important ones are Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Brucella
abortus, Listeria monocytogenes, Coxiella burnette, Salmonella typhi, Campylobacterjejuni, Clostridium perfringens, and Bacillus cereus. All of these pathogens with
the exception of C. perfringens and B. cereus are destroyed by pasteurization because
of their ability to sporulate.12 Pasteurization of milk involves a vat method of heating
milk to 62.8C for 30 min or by a high temperature-short time (HTST) method,
71.7C for 15 s. Originally most cheese was made from raw milk, but currently most
manufacturers use heat-treated or pasteurized milk. Cheeses such as Swiss and Gruyere may be produced from heat-treated or pasteurized milk, but they are ripened or
cured for at least 60 days for the development of eyes. In those instances where
unpasteurized milk is used in the making of cheese, the cheese must be ripened for
a period of 60 days at a temperature of not less than 1.7C to ensure safety against
pathogenic organisms.413
The pasteurization of milk for cheesemaking is not a substitute for sanitation. The
advantages of pasteurization include:
Heat treatment sufficient to destroy pathogenic flora
A higher quality product due to destruction of undesirable gas and flavor-forming
organisms
Product uniformity
Higher cheese yield14
Standardized cheesemakingthere is easier control of the manufacturing procedure, especially acid development. The disadvantage of pasteurization is the dif-

Table 3.5

TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF CHEESE

Type

Cheese

Cottage (dry curd)


Creamed cottage
Quarg
Quarg (highfat)
Soft, unripened high fat Cream
Neufchatel
Soft, ripened by surface Limburger
Liederkranz
bacteria
Camembert
Soft, ripened by
Brie
external molds
Feta
Soft, ripened by
bacteria, preserved by Domiati
salt
Semisoft, ripened by
Brick
bacteria with surface Munster
growth
Semisoft, ripened by
Blue
internal molds
Roquefort
Gorganzola
Cheddar
Hard, ripened by
Colby
bacteria
Swiss
Hard,ripenedby eyeforming bacteria
Edam
Gouda
Soft unripened low fat

Total
Total
Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)

Fat in
Dry
Matter
(%)

Ash
(%)

Calcium
(%)

Phosphorus
(%)

Sodium
(%)

Potassium
(%)

2.1
21.4
28.5

0.7
1.4

0.03
0.08

1.2
1.5
3.8
3.5
3.7
2.7
5.2

0.10
0.13
0.35
0.35
0.10
0.13
0.39
0.25
0.35
0.19
0.34

0.01
0.40

75.4
62.0
52.8
58.3
50.3
53.7
47.5
55.5

0.03
0.06
0.30
0.30
0.08
0.07
0.49
0.30
0.39
0.18
0.49

0.29
0.39
0.80

0.11
0.11
0.13

0.84
0.63
1.12

0.19
0.15
0.06

79.8
79.0
72.0
59.0
53.7
62.2
48.4
52.0
51.8
48.4
55.2
55.0

17.3
12.5
18.0
19.0
7.5
10.0
20.0
16.5
19.8
20.7
14.2
20.5

0.42
4.5
8.0
18.0
34.9
23.4
27.2
28.0
24.3
27.7
21.3
25.0

1.8
2.7
3.0
3.0
2.7
2.9
0.49
0
0.5
0.4
4.1

41.1
41.8

23.3
23.4

29.7
30.0

2.8
1.1

50.4
51.6

3.2
3.7

0.67
0.72

0.45
0.47

0.56
0.63

0.14
0.13

42.4
39.4
36.0
36.7
38.2
37.2
41.4
41.5

21.4
21.5
26.0
24.9
23.8
28.4
25.0
25.0

28.7
30.6
32.0
33.1
32.1
27.4
27.8
27.4

2.3
2.0

49.9
50.5
50.0
52.4
52.0
43.7
47.6
46.9

5.1
6.4
5.0
3.9
3.4
3.5
4.2
3.9

0.53
0.66

0.39
0.39

1.39
1.81

0.26
0.09

0.72
0.68
0.96
0.73
0.70

0.51
0.46
0.60
0.54
0.55

0.62
0.60
0.26
0.96
0.82

0.09
0.13
0.11
0.19
0.12

1.3
2.6
3.4
1.4
2.2

(Continued)

Table 3.5 (Continued)


Very hard, ripened by
bacteria
Pasta filata
(stretch cheese)
Low-fat or skim milk
cheese (ripened)
Whey cheese
Processed Cheese

Parmesan (hard)
Romano
Provolone
Mozzarella
Euda
Sapsago
Ricotta
Primost
American pasteurized processed
cheese
American cheese food, cold pack
American pasteurized processed
cheese spread
Pimento pasteurized processed
cheese
Swiss pasteurized processed
cheese
Swiss pasteurized processed
cheese food

29.2
30.9
40.9
54.1
56.5
37.0
71.7
13.8

35.7
31.8
25.6
19.4
30.0
41.0
11.3
10.9

25.8
26.9
26.6
21.6
6.5
7.4
13.0
30.2

3.2
3.6
2.1
2.2
1.0

36.5
39.0
45.1
47.1

6.0
6.7
4.7
2.6

1.18
1.06
0.76
0.52

0.69
0.76
0.50
0.37

1.60
1.20
0.88
0.37

0.09

3.0
36.6

45.9
35.0

1.0

0.21

0.16

0.08

0.10

39.2
43.1

22.1
19.7

31.2
24.5

1.6
8.3

51.4
43.0

5.8

0.62
0.50

0.74
0.40

1.43
0.97

0.16
0.36

47.6

16.4

21.2

8.7

40.5

0.56

0.71

1.34

0.24

0.61

0.74

1.42

0.16

0.77

0.76

1.37

0.22

0.72

0.53

1.55

0.28

4.4
6.0
39.1

22.1

31.2

1.7

51.2
5.8

42.3

24.7

25.0

2.1

43.3
5.8

43.7

21.9

24 A

4.5

42.8
5.8

Source:
Source:

Hargrove and Alford (1974), Posati and Orr (1976).


Ref. 7. Reproduced with permission.

0.14
0.067

Table 3.6

TYPES OF AEROBIC MESOPHILIC MICROORGANISMS IN FRESH RAW MILK AND FORMING COLONIES ON MILK
COUNTAGARS

Streptococci

Micrococci
Micrococcus
Staphylococcus

Enterococcus
(cfecal)
Group N
Mastitis streptococci
S. agalactiae
S. dysgalactiae
S. uberis

Asporogenous
Gram + Rods
Microbacterium
Corynebacterium
Arthrobacter
Kurthia

Sporeformers
Bacillus (spores or
vegetative cells)

Gram - Rods
Pseudomonas
Acinetobacter
Flavobacterium
Enterobacter
Klebsiella
Aerobacter
Escherichia
Serratia
Alcaligenes

Source- Ref. 12. Reproduced with permission.


Ze: ' Spec,, media or incuoauon condi.ions are needed for iso.a.ion or de.ec.ion of species of Cfc-. < and .ac.ic acid baceri, ~,

Miscellaneous
Streptomycetes
Yeasts
Molds

.
and cer,a,n

ficulty of developing the full typical flavor in some cheeses such as Cheddar,
Swiss, and hard Italian type cheeses. 4 4 5
Higher than normal pasteurization temperatures were evaluated in Danish danbo
cheese. The protein recovery ratios were 73.5%, 77.5%, and 78.5% when the milk
was pasteurized at 66.7C, 87.2C, and 95C respectively. The advantages of greater
protein recovery and cheese yield by higher heat treatment were tempered by the
lower quality of cheese made from milks heated at the two higher temperatures. Eye
formation was not typical compared to the control cheese, and flavor and body
defects were more prevalent in cheeses made from milk heated at 95C. 16
When cheese was made from milk pasteurized for 16 s at 73.3C, 75.5C, and
77.75C, no significant differences in flavor preference or intensity of off-flavors
were noted between the cheeses during ripening, although differences in body characteristics were evident. As the pasteurization temperature increased, the resulting
cheeses were firmer and more rubbery and did not break down as readily when
chewed. 17
In another study, it was demonstrated that during aging, Cheddar cheese from
pasteurized milk showed decreased proteolysis of a s - and P-casein and production
of 12% trichloracetic acid (TCA)-soluble nitrogen compared to the raw milk cheese.
It is explained that the pasteurization of milk caused heat-induced interaction of
whey proteins with casein and resulted in greater than normal retention of whey
proteins in cheese. It is suggested that heat-denatured whey proteins affect the accessibility of caseins to proteases during aging. 18 The concentration of sulfhydryl
(-SH) groups in cheese decreased as the temperature of milk heat treatment was
increased. Kristoffersen believed that the concentration of - S H groups ran parallel
to the intensity of characteristic Cheddar cheese aroma.19"21
The use of heat-treated milk is preferred for ripened cheeses such as Cheddar,
Swiss, and Provolone to preserve a more typical cheese flavor.4 Heat-treated milk
is usually heated to 63.9 to 67.8C for 16 to 18 s.
The heat treatment of raw milk can exert a significant role in producing microbiologically safe cheese. Recent thorough research has affirmed that milk heat treatment at 65.0 to 65.6C for 16 to 18 s will destroy virtually all pathogenic microorganisms that are major threats to the safety of cheese. 13 - 22 " 24 For further discussion
on heat treatment of milk for cheesemaking the reader should consult an excellent
three-part review by Johnson et al.13*15t25

3.3 Cheese Starter Cultures


Starter cultures are organisms that ferment lactose in milk to lactic acid and other
products. These include lactococci, leuconostocs, lactobacilli, and Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus. Starter cultures also include propionibacteria, brevibacteria, and mold species of Penicillium. These latter organisms are used in conjunction
with lactic acid bacteria for a particular characteristic of cheese, for example, the
holes in Swiss cheese are due to propionibacteria, and the yellowish color and typical

flavor of Brick cheese is due to Brevibacterium linens. Blue cheese and Brie cheese
derive their characteristics from the added blue and white molds, respectively.
Acidification of cheese milk is one of the essentials of cheesemaking. Acidification of milk is realized by the addition of selected strains of bacteria that can
ferment lactose to lactic acid. Both the extent of acid production and the rate of acid
production are important in directed cheese manufacture.26 Mesophilic cultures (lactococci) are used in cheese where curd is not cooked to more than 400C, for example,
Cheddar cheese. Those cheese types that are cooked to 50 to 56C (Swiss and Parmesan) use thermophilic cultures.
Acid production is the major function of the starter bacteria. During cheesemaking
starter bacteria increase in numbers from about 2 X 107 cfu/g to 2 X 109 cfu/g in
the curd at pressing.27 During cheese ripening the added starter bacteria die off,28
releasing their intracellular enzymes in the curd matrix which continue to act on
components of the curd to develop desirable flavor, body, and textural changes.
There are other incidental changes in milk and cheese and they come about as a
result of acid production by lactic acid bacteria.
Lactic acid producing bacteria have several functions3:
1. Acid production and coagulation of milk.
2. Acid gives firmness to the coagulum which affects cheese yield.
3. Developed acidity determines the residual amount of animal rennet affecting
cheese ripening; more acid curd binds more rennet.
4. The rate of acid development affects dissociation of colloidal calcium phosphate
which in turn impacts proteolysis during manufacture and affects Theological
properties of cheese.
5. Acid development and production of other antimicrobials control the growth of
certain nonstarter bacteria and pathogens in cheese.
6. Acid development contributes to proteolysis and flavor production in cheese.
7. Growth of lactic acid bacteria produces the low oxidation-reduction potential
(Eh) necessary for the production of reduced sulfur compounds (methanethiol,
which may contribute to the aroma of Cheddar cheese).

3.3.1 Types of Cultures


Mesophilic cultures have their growth optimum at around 300C and are used in
cheeses where curd and whey are not cooked to over 400C during cheesemaking.
These starters are propagated at 21 to 23C. These cultures along with their new and
old names and some pertinent characteristics are listed in Tables 3.7 and 3.8. Culture
compositions used for different cheese types are shown in Table 3.9.
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis belongs to Lancefield group N. Some strains
isolated from raw milk produce nisin, a bacteriocin. Nisin is heat stable.32 Its production is linked to a plasmid ranging from 28 to 30 MDA.33'34 The plasmid also
codes for sucrose fermenting ability and nisin resistance. Steel and McKay believe
Suc^, Nis* phenotypes are plasmid encoded but could not find physical evidence
linking this phenotype to a distinct plasmid.35

Table 3.7

CHARACTERISTICS OF MESOPHILIC STARTER LACTIC ACID BACTERIA

Old Name

Streptococcus
lactis

Streptococcus
cremoris

Streptococcus
diacetylactis

New Name

Lactococcus
lactis
subsp.
lactis

Lactococcus
lactis
subsp.
cremoris

3O0C

300C

Optimum temp, (approx.)


Growth at 100C
Growth at 400C
Growth at 450C
Survive 72C/15 s
Growth in 2% salt
Growth in 4% salt
Growth in 6.5% salt
Production of NH3 from arginine
Metabolize citrate
CO2 production
Isomer of lactate produced
Lactic acid % in milk
Production of bacteriocin
Lactose
Glucose
Galactose
Source:
a

Leuconostoc
lactis

Leuconostoc
cremoris

Lactococcus
lactis
subsp. lactis
biovar
diacelylactis

Leuconostoc
lactis

Leuconostoc
mesentroides
subsp.
cremoris

300C

300C

300C

+
+ /+

0.8
Nisina

0.8
Diplococcina

0.4-0.8

0.2

0.2

+
+

+
+

Refs. 29-31.

All strains do not produce bacteriocins


+ = Positive; +W = weakly positive; - = negative.

Table 3.8

CHARACTERISTICS OF LACTOBACILLI ASSOCIATED WITH CHEESE MANUFACTURE AND CHEESE RIPENING

L. delbrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus
L. delbrueckii subsp.
lactis
L. helveticus
L. casei subsp. casei
L. casei subsp.
pseudoplantarum
L. casei subsp.
rhamnosus
L. plantarwn
L. curvatus
L. fermentumA
L. brevisA
L. buchneriA
L. bifermentansAB

Growth

Percent
Lactic Acid
in Milk

Lactic
Acid
Isomer

1.8

1.8
3.0
0.8

D
DL

+
+

15C

450C

Sensitivity
to Salt
500C

DL
DL
DL

+
+

8% + a,

10%

-a

6% + a ,

8%

-a

+ a,
+ a,
+ a,
+ a,

10%
8%
10%
6%

-a
-a
-a
-a

8%
6%
8%
4%

+
C

DL

Lactose

Bacteriocin

<2%

<2%

DL
DL

Galactose

<2%

L
DL

Glucose

Ammonia
from
Arginine

+
+

Source: Ref. 31.


a
Unpublished: growth in MRS broth containing sodium chloride, 4 days at 35C, + = growth, = no growth.
A = Produce gas in cheese.
B = Ferments lactate in cheese with the production of CO2, ethanol, and acetic acid.
C = Can grow in cheese at 150C.

+
+

+
+

+
+
+

-4-

+
+

Table 3,9 STARTER CULTURES FOR CHEESE


Cheese

Culture Organisms Added

Cheddar, Colby

Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, L. lactis subsp. cremoris


Leuconostoc mesentroides subsp. cremoris* L. lactis subsp.
lactis var. diacetylactis*
(optional)

Swiss

Streptococcus salvarius subsp. thermophilus, Lactobacillus


helveticus or lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus or
L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis and Propionibacterium

Parmesan, Romano

Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus, L. helveticus


or L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus or L. delbrueckii subsp.
lactis

Mozzarella, Provolone

S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus, L. delbrueckii subsp.


bulgaricus or L. helveticus

Blue, Roquefort and Stilton

S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus, L. lactis subsp. lactis/


cremoris, L. lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis,
Penicillium roqueforti

Gorgonzola

S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus, L. delbrueckii subsp.


bulgaricus, Penicillium roqueforti, L. lactis subsp. lactis
biovar. diacetylactis or yeast

Camembert

Lactococcus culture
Penicillium camemberti

Brick, Limburger

Mixture of lactococcus culture and S. salivarius subsp.


thermophilus
Smear of Brevibacterium linens and yeast

Muenster
Gouda and Edam

L. lactis subsp. lactis


L. lactis subsp. cremoris
With B or BD flavor cultures

Cream cheese

Cottage cheese

L. lactis subsp. lactis


L. lactis subsp. cremoris
With B or BD flavor cultures
L. lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris

B = Leuconostoc mesentroides subsp. cremorislLeuconostoc lactis.


D = Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis.
BD = Where both leuconostocs and L. lactis subsp. lactis var. diacelylactis are included.

Nisin is active against Clostridum botulinum spores and several other Grampositive organisms. Many of the isolates of L. lactis subsp. lactis from raw milk
produce a malty odor. These strains metabolize leucine to produce 3-methylbutanol
which is highly undesirable,36 and as little as 0.5 ppm is sufficient to give milk this
malty defect.
Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris also belongs to Lancefield group N. To date
it has not been isolated from raw milk and its origin is not known. Some strains
produce a narrow range bacteriocin diplococcin.37"39 These organisms do not grow

at 400C and are more sensitive to salt. Many commercial cultures contain predominantly strain(s) of this specie.
Mixtures of these two lactococci are used as starters for Cheddar, Colby, and
cottage cheese, where gas production in cheese and open texture are undesirable.
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis is used in combination with
other starters to produce mold-ripened cheese, soft ripened cheese, Edam, Gouda,
and cream cheese. It is capable of producing CO 2 , diacetyl, acetoin, and some acetate
from citrate in milk.40

3.3.2 Leuconostoc
The leuconostocs are heterofermentative, and ferment glucose with the production
of D-( )-lactic acid, ethanol, and CO2. Leuconostocs are found in starter cultures
and are considered important in flavor formation due to their ability to break down
citrate, forming diacetyl from the pyruvate produced. The leuconostocs are less active than Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis, attacking citrate only in
acidic media.29 Leuconostoc form only 5 to 10% of the culture population. Addition
of a larger inoculum does not change their proportion of the population in a mixed
lactic culture.41 When the lactococci culture contains leuconostoc as a flavor producer, the mixed culture is called B or L type. When the flavor component is Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis, it is called D type. The cultures designated as BD or DL contain both the leuconostocs and the L. lactis subsp. lactis
var. diacetylactis. The lactococci without flavor components are called N or O type.42

3.3.3 Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus


This organism is a Gram-positive, catalase-negative anaerobic cocci and it is largely
used in the manufacture of hard cheese varieties, Mozzarella, and yogurt. It does not
grow at 100C but grows well at 40 and 45C. Most strains can survive 600C for 30
min. It is very sensitive to antibiotics. Penicillin (0.005 Iu/ml) can interfere with
milk acidification.43 It grows well in milk and ferments lactose and sucrose. Two
percent sodium chloride may prevent growth of many strains. These streptococci
possess a weak proteolytic system. It is often combined with the more proteolytic
lactobacilli in starter cultures. Most streptococci grow more readily in milk than
lactococci and produce acid faster. These streptococci strains possess p-galactosidase
O-gal) and utilize only the glucose moiety of lactose and leave galactose in the
medium.31
In a recent study,44 proteolytic activities of nine strains of Streptococcus salivarius
subsp. thermophilus and nine strains of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus
cultures incubated in pasteurized reconstituted NFDM at 42C as single and mixed
cultures were studied. Lactobacilli were highly proteolytic (61.0 to 14.6 |xg of tyrosine/ml of milk) and S. thermophilus were less proteolytic (2.4 to 14.8 |xg of
tyrosine/ml of milk). Mixed cultures, with the exception of one combination, liberated more tyrosine (92.6 to 419.9 |xg/ml) than the sum of the individual cultures.
Mixed cultures also produced more acid (lower pH). Of 81 combinations of

L. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus cultures, only one combination was less proteolytic (92.6 jxg of tyrosine/ml) than the corresponding L. bulgaricus strain in pure
culture (125 jxg of tyrosine/ml).

3.3.4 Lactobacilli
The lactobacilli are Gram-positive, catalase-negative, anaerobic/aerotolerant organisms. Lactobacillus helveticus, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, and L. delrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus and homofermentative thermophiles are used in combination with S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus as starter culture for Swiss type cheeses, Parmesan, and
Mozzarella. The phenotypic properties of these along with other lactobacilli commonly found in ripening cheese are given in Table 3.8. Premi et al. (1972)45 screened
strains of a number of species and found 3-gal to be the dominant enzyme in
L. helveticus, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus.
Lactobacillus casei did not have (5-gal, but some P-P-gal activity was recorded,
and no galactosidase was found in L. buchnerii, which does not ferment lactose.
There are several implications of this fermentation pattern to cheese quality. Cultures
with P-gal use the glucose moiety of lactose and release galactose in the medium.
An excess of galactose in Mozzarella can cause browning of cheese pizza, or galactose may serve as an energy source for undesirable fermentations by resident
populations in cheese. It is recommended that L. helveticus, which is able to ferment
galactose, be used in conjunction with S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus.46 A symbiotic relationship exists between L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and S. salivarius
subsp. thermophilus47; CO 2 , formate, peptides, and amino acids are involved. In a
mixed culture, associative growth of rod-coccus cultures results in greater acid
production and flavor development than using single culture growth.48-49 It has been
established that numerous amino acids liberated from casein by proteases from lactobacillus bulgaricus stimulate growth of 5. thermophilus.50'51 In turn, S. thermophilus produces CO2 and formate which stimulates L. bulgaricus51'54 During the
early part of the incubation 5. thermophilus grows faster and removes excess oxygen
and produces the said stimulants. After the growth of 5. thermophilus has slowed
because of increasing concentrations of lactic acid, the more acid-tolerant L. bulgaricus increases in numbers.55-56 For a one-to-one ratio of rod and coccus, inoculum
level, time, and temperature of incubation must be controlled and bulk starter should
be cooled promptly. Many strains L. bulgaricus continue to produce acid when in
the cold and it is likely that some degree of population imbalance will occur.

3.3.5 Lactobacilli Found During Cheese Ripening


Lactobacilli occupy a niche in the ripening cheese.57 A number of lactobacilli have
been isolated from cheese and identified in the author's laboratory. The more common ones are subspecies of L. casei, L. fermentum, and L. brevis.
The presence of heterofermentative organisms, L. fermentum and L. brevis (>10 6
cfu/g), caused open texture defect in Cheddar cheese.58 The addition of homofer-

mentative lactobacilli affected cheese positively by accelerating the curing process.59


The phenotypic traits of these are given in Table 3.8.

3.3.6 Propionibacteria
Propionibacteria are Gram-positive, catalase-positive anaerobic/aerotolerant organisms.31 The cell can be coccoid, bifid, or even branched. Four speciesP. freudenreichii, P. jensenii, P. thoenii, and P. acidipropioniciare associated with milk
and Swiss cheese. Fermentation products include large quantities of propionic acid,
acetic acid, and CO2. These organisms can tolerate 125F or higher temperatures in
Swiss cheese manufacture. P. thoenii and P. acidipropionici can cause red, brown,
and orange-yellow pigmentation in cheese which is not desirable. Some strains form
curd in milk without digestion. Glucose, galactose, and glycerol are utilized by all
species, and lactose utilization is not universal. These can grow in 20% bile. Glucose
is fermented according to the following reaction29:
3 Glucose - 2 Acetate + 4 Proprionate + 2 CO2 + 4 H2O

3.3.7 Pediococci
Pediococci are associated with plant materials. These are Gram-positive, catalasenegative, or weakly positive, grow in 6.5% salt, grow at 45C, and produce ammonia
from arginine. These can be confused with micrococci. Pediococci are not used in
any dairy cultures, though they may grow in some maturing cheese and ferment
residual lactose over a long period. Only two species, P. pentosaceus and P. acidilactici, are found in dairy products; neither ferments lactose actively.29
Pediococci were first reported in New Zealand60'61 and later in English cheese62'63
and were thought to enhance flavor. They produce DL-lactate from lactose and
racemize L-lactate. Their effect is negligible until the population exceeds 106 to
107 cfu/g. Their growth in cheese is temperature dependent.64
Pediococci occur in very insignificant numbers in Canadian Cheddar65 and in
Cheddar cheese or other cheeses in the United States (personal observations). There
is a renewed interest in pediococci because some strains possess antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridiwn perfringens.66 In an examination of 49 strains of P. pentosaceus, valine and leucine
amino peptidases, weak lipase or esterase, a-glucosidase, P-glucosidase, and
Af-acetyl-P-glucosamidase were found in all strains.
These studies were done with the API ZYM system.67 In a more thorough investigation, Bhowmik and Marth68 found intracellular aminopeptidase, protease, dipeptidase, and dipeptidyl aminopeptidase in six strains of P pentosaceus and two
of P. acidilactici. They also noted that purified a s l - and p-casein fractions as well
as skim milk were hydrolyzed. These authors could not detect esterase activity in
any of the P. acidilactici strains studied.69
Utilization of lactose is poor in these organisms and varies from strain to strain.69
Recently it was demonstrated that all strains of P. pentosaceus and P. acidilactici

had intercellular p-galactosidase which was greater in cells grown in the presence
of lactose rather than glucose, indicating the inducible nature of P-gal synthesis.69
The enzyme was induced fully by galactose and lactose. Glucose failed to induce
the enzyme in the strain (P. pentosaceus ATCC. 25745). Although these organisms
are considered homolactic with the production of lactate, production of ethanol and
acetate was observed when P. pentosaceus PC 39 was grown on different hexoses
and pentoses.70 The molar ratios of lactate and acetate were higher with ribose as
substrate.

3.3.8 Molds
3.3.8.1 Penicillium

Roqueforti4371

It is used in the manufacture of Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and other blueveined cheeses, and usually produces blue-green spreading colonies changing to a
dark green. A white mutant of this mold was developed for use in Nuworld cheese.
These mutants form white rather than blue mycelia, but otherwise the mold produces
a cheese of typical flavor. Spore preparations, dried form or suspension in saline
solution, are added either to the vat milk or sprayed onto the curd. Air passages must
be provided in cheese to permit aeration of the cheese and growth of the mold.
Strains of Penicillium roqueforti can grow in an atmosphere containing 5% oxygen
and 8% salt, although slowly.71-72
Its optimum temperature is 20 to 25C with a range from 5 to 35C. Production
of mycelium is abundant at pH from 4.5 to 7.5, although it can tolerate pH 3.0 to
10.5.72 Five strains isolated from cheeses and cultures showed differences in their
salt tolerance.71 The germination of spores of all five strains was inhibited by > 3 %
NaCl in water and agar. In cheese, P. roqueforti could tolerate 6 to 10% salt.71

3.3.8.2 Penicillium

Camemberti7^74

This grows on the surface of Brie and Camembert cheese. Due to its biochemical
activity in conjunction with other flora on the cheese surface the mold produces its
typical aroma and taste. P. caseicolum is a white mutant of P. camembertP that
forms a fluffy mycelium that turns gray-green in color from the center outward with
aging. The white mutants may have short "hair," rapid growth with white, dense,
close-napped mycelium. Another white mutant has long hair and grows more slowly,
producing a tall mycelium with loose nap. The Neufchatel form grows vigorously,
producing a thick white-yellow mycelium. It has stronger lipolytic and proteolytic
activities; only the white forms of the mutant are used as starters.
It has been shown that spores of P. camemberti do not grow well at the pH (4.7 to
4.9) and salt content present at the surface of fresh Camembert.75 Maximum development of mold takes place in 10 to 12 days. P. camemberti possesses aspartate
proteinases (acid proteinases) with a pH optimum of 5.5 on casein.74'76

3.4 Growth of Starter Bacteria in Milk


Milk is a suitable medium for the growth of lactic acid bacteria. In fact, Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, L. helveticus, and Streptococcus salivarius subsp.
thermophilus find milk a preferred medium for growth and utilize the abundant
lactose found in milk. The lactic acid production of starter depends on the milk itself.
Auclair and Hirsch were the first to point out that a balance exists between growth
promoting and inhibitory factors in milk.77 It is generally recognized that the ability
of a starter to multiply in milk partly depends on its proteolytic activity. Lactococcus
lactis subsp. lactis grew in a medium with caseinate as the sole source of nitrogen,
whereas L. lactis subsp. cremoris required amino acid supplementation.78 AU dairy
lactic acid bacteria either require or are stimulated by amino acids. The free amino
acids available in milk are not adequate and the lactic acid bacteria use their proteinases, peptidases, and transport systems to meet their nutritional requirements.79
Minimum concentrations of amino acids required by some lactic acid bacteria for
maximum growth in a defined medium have been calculated. The data are not extensive and should be considered as directional. The amino acids GIu, Leu, He, VaI,
Arg, Cys, Pro, His, Phe, and Met are considered important in the nutrition of
lactococci.
It is not uncomon that on continued transfers and propagation, organisms lose
activity and ferment milk slowly. This is due to accumulation of slow variants in
the culture. This was traced to the loss of one or more plasmids that control protein
and lactose metabolism; phenotypic evidence for this was presented.80-81

3.4.1 Inhibitors of Starter Bacteria

3.4. Ll Bacteriocins
Bacteriological quality of milk and the length of storage before it is used is important.
Milk always contains organisms that can grow and utilize the amino acids and peptides in milk and produce inhibitors (bacteriocins) that can be inhibitory at very low
concentration.82
Mattick and Hirsch83 isolated an inhibitor, nisin, from S. lactis, that was active
against Gram-positive organisms including starters, lactobacilli, and sporeformers.
Oxford84 isolated a bacteriocin from S. cremoris and called it diplococcin. Diplococcin has a very narrow spectrum of activity.38

3.4.1.2 Lipolysis
In stored raw milk psychrotrophs can grow and can cause lipolysis if the population
exceeds 106 to 107 cfu/ml. Fatty acid C 4 to C 12 and sorbic acid in cheese are inhibitory to starter bacteria. Cells accumulate free fatty acids on the cell surface and
are not metabolized.85"89 Resting cells of Group N lactococci at pH 4.5 metabolized
pyruvate with the formation of acetate (volatile acids) acetoin 4- diacetyl and CO2.
In the presence of oelic acid the utilization of pyruvate was maximal at pH 6.5 and
completely inhibited at pH 4.5.^

3.4.1.3 Hydrogen Peroxide


Hydrogen peroxide is metabolically produced by Group N lactococci through the
action of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) oxidase which catalyzes the oxidation of NADH by molecular oxygen. The enzyme is activated by
flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD). Some of the hydrogen peroxide formed is removed by NADH peroxidase.91
The reaction is:
NADH + H + + O2 (NADH) oxidase

NAD+

NADH + H + H2O2 (NADH) peroxidase

NAD+

Milk is agitated during filling of the vat and addition of starter and during addition
of rennet in the course of cheese manufacture, and sufficient hydrogen peroxide can
be formed in milk. Addition of trace amounts of H2O2 had a deleterious effect on
the rate of acid production by lactococci.92 In milk, cultures of lactococci and lactobacilli produced hydrogen peroxide in the early period of acid production, followed
by a drastic reduction in the accumulation of H2O2 as the acid production increased.
Addition of ferrous sulfate and catalase prevented or reduced the accumulation of
H2O2 and stimulated the rate of acid production.93 Addition of a capsular preparation
from a Micrococcus94 and the addition of Micrococcus reduced the amount of H 2 O 2
in the medium and stimulated acid production through multiple effects.

3.4.1.4 Lactoperoxidase/Thiocyanate/H202 System


Hydrogen peroxide produced metabolically can also inhibit some strains of lactococci indirectly in milk cultures by oxidizing the thiocyanate present in milk to an
inhibitory product, a reaction catalyzed by lactoperoxidase.91 Small concentrations
of hydrogen peroxide form a complex with lactoperoxidase (LP) which stabilizes
the oxidizing power of H2O2, catalyzing the oxidation of thiocyanate (SCN") according to the reaction:
H 2 O 2 + SCN"

Uctoperoxidas

OSCN- + H2O2
O 2 SCN" + H2O2

LP

LP

S OSCN- + H2O

> O 2 SCN" + H2O


> O 3 SCN" + H2O

The end products of the oxidation of thiocyanate are CO2, NH^, SO 2 ", which are
inert but the intermediate oxidation product (OSCN") is inhibitory to Gram-positive
organisms (starter organism) and bacteriocidal to coliform, pseudomonads, salmonellae, and other Gram-negative organisms. Under aerobic conditions OSCN" affects the inner membrane and other cell wall components.95
Wright and Tramer noted that some starter cultures show inhibition by the presence of milk peroxidase which can be prevented by the addition of cysteine or

Whey from
press

Press

Curd milled

Cheddaring

Pitch
Whey drawing
finish

1 h later

Max. Scald

Cut

Rennet

Milk
TA

Time, min
Figure 3.1 Lactic acid development in Cheddar cheese made with peroxidase/SCN-sensitive starter in the presence of SCN" and after removal from milk by ion-exchange treatment.
( ) , SCN" removed from milk; (O O ) , untreated milk; ( - - - ) , control (lactic
acid production with peroxidase resistant starter Strep, cremoris 803).
Source: Ref. 97 (This figure is reproduced by kind permission of the Society of Dairy Technology, Crossley House, 72
Ermine Street, Huntington, Cambs PEl8 6EZ, UK and is taken from a paper 'Some Thoughts on Cheese Starter' by
Bruno Reiter published in the Society's Journal VoI 26 no. 1, January 1973.)

generation of -SH groups by heating.96 The effect of peroxidase/thiocyanate on


cheesemaking was demonstrated (Fig. 3.1). Thiocyanate was removed from milk
with ion-exchange resins and it is shown that the peroxidase-sensitive strain S. cremoris 972 was not inhibited, and lactic acid production rate was normal during
cheesemaking. The addition of thiocyanate prevented any appreciable acid development, similar to the behavior of phage-infected starter culture.
Stadhouders and Veringa98 noted that inhibition of lactococci and the prevention
of inhibition of lactic streptococci by cysteine were related. They explained that in
a mixture of H2O2, cysteine, and milk peroxidase, cysteine is oxidized and acts as
an H-donor. If cysteine and the milk peroxidase are incubated together without H2O2,
the cysteine and the enzyme form an irreversible compound. If H2O2 then is added
the cysteine acts as an inhibitor of the enzyme.
They theorized that peroxidase-sensitive variants of lactic streptococci probably
had an absolute requirement for free cysteine but the cysteine was complexed with
peroxidase. Peroxidase in milk is inhibited by the presence of very small amounts
of hydrogen sulfide which is produced during heating of milk.99

The susceptibility of dairy starter cultures to lactoperoxidase/hydrogen peroxide/


thiocyanate system (LPS) inhibition is dependent on100"102:
1. Strain sensitivity
2. Ability of the strain to generate H2O2 which activates the LPS system
3. The presence of nonspecific enzymes, for example, xanthine oxidase, or hypoxanthine that generate H2O2.
This inhibitory system is heat labile and destroyed by heat treatment of the starter
culture milk.
Inhibitory substances can also be produced by lactic streptococci during their
propagation; D-leucine was formed in mixed-starter cultures during growth at controlled pH in broth and had an autoinhibitory effect.103

3.4.1 Heat Treatment


Milk is given a heat treatment to preserve it and to make it safe for consumption.
The extent of heat treatment is dependent on the product and its intended use. Many
workers have studied the effect of heat on starter culture activity. It is generally
recognized that different cultures show varied activity when propagated in milk that
has received a certain heat treatment. Olson and Gilliland104 and Speck105 noted that
the rate of acid production by lactococci was highest in the lots of milk pasteurized
at 71.1C for 30 min followed in order by that in milk sterilized at 121.1C for 15
min, 6L6C, 82.2C, and 98.8C for 30 min, respectively. Those cultures that produced acid rapidly in milk pasteurized at 61.6C for 30 min or 71.7C for 16 s were
called "low-temperature cultures." The cultures that produced acid rapidly in highheat-treated milk were called "high-temperature cultures." Of 37 commercial lactic
cultures tested, 49% were classified as low heat, 35% as high heat, and 16% as
indifferent cultures.
For thermophilic cultures such as S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, heat treatment of milk at various time-temperature combinations ranging from HTST pasteurization to 1800C for 10 min was studied. It had
no observable effect on the growth of S. salivarious subsp. thermophilus but stimulated L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus; the effect increased with the severity of heat
treatment. At heat treatments up to 95C/10 min, the stimulation occurred only in
mixed culture.106 The stimulatory factor could be replaced by formic acid.53 The
production of formic acid by S. thermophilus was confirmed.107

3.4.1.6 Agglutination
The inhibitory property of agglutinating antibodies is of minor importance in bulk
starters as the heat treatment employed or by the formation of rennet coagulum
during cheesemaking destroys this inhibition.108"110 However, agglutinins are important and impact negatively in cottage cheese production where a sludge is formed
at the bottom of the vat and culture activity is slowed.

Table 3.10 ACTIVITY OF SINGLE STRAIN BULK-STARTER GROWN IN


AUTOCLAVED SKIM MILK WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF PENICILUN
Bulk-Starter Analysis3
Activity Test
pHb

Bulk-Starter Sample

PH

Plate Count
per ml

Control 104
104 + 0.025 IU penicillin ml
104 + 0.05 IU penicillin ml
104 + 0.1 IU penicillin ml

4.45
4.44
4.55
4.60

5.9
4.3
1.2
2.5

X
X
X
X

108
108
108
107

5.18
5.49
5.87
6.39

Control 134
134 + 0.025 IU penicillin ml
134 + 0.05 IU penicillin ml
134 + 0.1 IU penicillin ml

4.48
4.44
4.46
4.57

8.7
6.2
6.2
6.2

X
X
X
X

108
108
108
108

5.85
5.85
5.88
6.30

Source:
a
b

Ref. 111. reproduced with permission.

After incubation for 18.5 h at 22C.


Averaged pH results from two separate trials.

3.4.1.7 Antibiotics
The presence of a low level of antibiotics can cause slow culture activity and cheesemaking to be more difficult. Heap111 demonstrated that given time, lactococci could
grow and produce acid in reconstituted skim milk containing different levels of
penicillin; acid production looked normal but the culture had poor activity. The data
are shown in Table 3.10. Starter culture activity must be performed to verify culture
activity. Sensitivity of cheese and dairy-related organisms to antibiotics is presented112 in Table 3.11.

3.4.1.8 pH
One of the common causes of observed variation in starter activity in the cheese vat
is the difference in the ability of the culture to retain activity when held for long
periods in the high acid concentrations existing in overripe bulk starters.113 Olson114
demonstrated that fully ripened starter cultures survive better under less acid conditions; addition of calcium carbonate increased the survival. When lactococci were
allowed to grow below pH 5.0, cells were damaged and a period of growth above
pH 5.0 was required to correct this damage.115 Growth at low pH could result in
direct inactivation of a number of enzymes or in loss of control of the differential
rates of synthesis of individual enzymes. The cells stopped growing when the pH
reached 4.9, even though lactic acid continued to be produced until the pH had fallen
to about 4.6. Neutralization of the acid permitted resumption of growth and glycolysis by the cell.116
Of all the factors studied, bacteriophages are the most important enemy of cheese
starter bacteria. These will be discussed in a later section.

Table 3.11 CRITICAL PENICILLIN LEVELS IN MILK FOR BACTERIA

Bacteria
S. cremoris
S. lactis
Streptococci starter
S. thermophilus
S. faecalis
L. bulgaricus
L. acidophilus
L. casei
L. lactis
L. helveticus
L. citrovorum
Proprionibacterium shermanii

Penicillin Concentration
Significantly Inhibiting Growth
(IU per ml)
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.30
0.10
0.01-0.05
0.30
0.30-0.60
0.30-0.60
0.30-0.60
0.25-0.50
0.25-0.50
0.05-0.10
0.05-0.10

Source: Compiled from K. E. Thome\ Refresher Course on Cheese. Poligny, France, 1952; Overby, A. J.
/ . Dairy ScL Abstr, 16:2-23, 1954; and F. V. Kosikowski, Unpublished, 1954.
Source: Ref. 112. Reproduced with permission of FAO of the United Nations.

3.5 Starter Culture Systems


As stated earlier, the primary function of starter bacteria is to ferment lactose in milk
to lactic acid and other products. It is also important that rate of acid development
be such that cheese of proper composition is made within the limits of manufacturing
parameters. This has become more critical where automated cheesemaking is practiced in large plants pumping milk at 120,000 lbs/h. The major problem associated
with the commercial use of starters is inhibition of acid production by bacteriophage
(phage).
Researchers all over the world have tried to understand the etiology of phagemediated lack of milk acidification and have developed considerable understanding
and various strategies to combat phage in cheese and dairy plants. The work done
in New Zealand for the past 55 years had a major impact on culture selection, culture
composition, culture handling, and bacteriophage control. Various culture systems
are operative today and these are described briefly.
In the 1930s mixed cultures used in New Zealand produced gas and caused open
texture in cheese. Whitehead isolated pure strains of non-gas-producers and used
them as single strains. The rate of acid production with these strains was virtually
uniform from day to day. Eventually these strains also failed due to phage.
In 1934 Whitehead and Cox117 noted that sudden failure of the starter resulted
from aeration of the cheese milk. It was proposed that their failure was due to
disrupting phage present in the starter.
In 1935, they proposed that phage are present in very small amounts in the culture
and may exist in an "occluded' state. 118119 These phage may then be "triggered"

by aeration and liberated into the culture, where they would multiply and inhibit
acid production.
In 1943 Whitehead introduced a 4-day rotation of non-phage-related single starters.120 Subsequently, single strains were paired as a precaution against failure of one
of the members. Pairing also tended to even out differences in the rate of acid
production and any tendency to produce bitter flavors by the individual members.
Lawrence and Pearce121 noted good flavor cheese made with slower starters. However, the use of slower starters took longer for cheesemaking. This was overcome
by pairing a "slower" starter with a "fast" starter in a ratio of about 2:1. It was
also noted that a combination of slow and fast strains not only improved the quality
of cheese but also reduced the number of phage particles produced; faster acid producing strains propagated phage to the highest level. Perhaps the level of lysin (cell
wall degrading enzyme) produced by phaged out starter was also reduced, thereby
helping the viability of the bulk starter. It was emphasized that stock cultures must
be replaced regularly with strict observance to procedures.122 In 1976 Heap and
Lawrence published a test procedure where a projected viability of a new strain in
a plant environment could be established.123 It involved growing the culture for
successive growth cycles in the presence of bulked plant whey. Any difference in
5-h pH between successive growth cycles was an indication of phage against the
strain. Only strains that were not attacked by phage in at least ten growth cycles
were used. Based on the above selection criteria, a multiple starter consisting of six
carefully selected strains was introduced for continued use in cheese factories.124
Whey samples were monitored using the strains as host. Strains showing high levels
of phage were replaced with less sensitive strains. This seemed to have worked well.
The multiple starter concept is only an extension of the paired starter system, as the
single strains are not mixed until the mother culture stage.125 Suitability criteria of
a strain for use in multiple starter is given in Table 3.12. In the past few years, the
number of strains in the starter has been reduced from six strains to two without any
reported problems.126

3.5.1 Culture Systems


1. Defined culture system requires good starter tanks, and proper air flow and plant
layout along with trained people to do simple culture activity testing with and without
filtered whey. This system is operative in New Zealand, some plants in Australia,
and in many large factories in the United States, United Kingdom,127128 and Ireland.129 The defined strains may be grown as a mixed culture or strains propagated
singly and mixed after harvesting.
Exclusive use of defined-strain cultures was reported to yield significant savings
($1 million for a cheese plant producing 11.35 million kg of cheese/year) with no
reported cheese vat failures due to phage. Because the starter activity was uniform
and predictable, cheesemaking could be standardized.127
2. Mixed strain mesophilic cultures containing undefined flora, some containing
leuconostocs or L. lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis, are still in use in United
States and in Europe. These cultures are propagated as mixed cultures without regard

Table 3.12 PROCEDURES TO DETERMINE THE SUITABILITY OF A STRAIN


FOR USE IN MULTIPLE STARTERS; CHARACTERISTICS OF A
GOOD STRAIN
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

Colony appearance on bromcresol purple medium.


Ability to coagulate sterile reconstituted skim milk (rsm) at 22C in 18 h.
Activity in simulated cheesemaking test (using both rsm and pasteurized factory milk).
Viable cell counts after simulated cheesemaking test.
Temperature sensitivity.
Salt sensitivity.
Tolerance to antibiotics.
Survival in wheys from cheese plants.
Host/phage relationships.
Multiplication factors of phages attacking strain.
Phage adsorption.
Induction of phage from strain by ultraviolet light.
Compatibility with other strains.
Small-scale cheesemaking trials.
A suitable strain should have the following characteristics for producing good flavor in Cheddar
cheese:
Poor survival both in cheese matured at 13C and in pasteurized skim milk (PSM) containing
4-5% NaCl at ~pH 5.0.
A low rate of cell division at 37.5-38.5C resulting in low starter population in the cheese curd.
Low proteolytic activity at 13C and pH 5.0 in PSM containing 4-5% NaCl.
High acid phosphatase activity after growth to pH 5.2 in PSM at 35CC.

Source: Refs. 28, 125.

to the component strain balance. The cultures may be concentrated and then frozen.
Many small factories and some large factories use these cultures with rotation recommendations from culture suppliers.
Because most cultures sold are mixed, phage profiling is not practicable, and the
recommended rotations are useless because plants use cultures from different suppliers which may use strains of the same phage type. Many plants have suffered
considerable lack of milk acidification and cheese quality losses.127
3. Bacteriophage-carrying starter cultures are widely used in the Netherlands. 130131 The cultures are called P-(Practice) cultures. These cultures are in equilibrium with the phages in their environment and normally contain phages that do
not affect culture activity. When a phage emerges against the dominant strain, a
slight weakness in culture activity may be noticed but the culture activity recovers
quickly due to the presence of a large phage-insensitive population. The Netherlands
Institute of Dairy Research maintains a supply of P-starters that it had collected and
preserved in a concentrated frozen state. These cultures are provided to the plants.
This system appears to work almost flawlessly. When the P-starters are propagated
in the laboratory without phage contamination (L-starter), they become sensitive to
phages. This is attributed to the domination of one or of a small number of strains
in the so called L-starters.
4. Direct-to-vat (DVS) set cultures had become popular in the late 1970s. These
are highly concentrated (1011 cfu/g)132'133 cell suspensions of defined strains in milk

along with cryoprotective agents such as glycerol or lactose, 134 quick frozen in liquid
nitrogen, and held frozen at 196C. For the shipping to plants, frozen culture
containers are packed in dry ice in Styrofoam boxes.
One culture container is added to 5000 lbs of cheese milk which is roughly
equivalent to 1.0% bulk starter addition.135 DVS cultures are mixtures of three or
four defined strains propagated mixed together or propagated separately and blended
in a proprietary manner.
Use of these cultures is supposed to eliminate phage infection related problems
associated with bulk starter propagation and make cheesemaking easier.
Several advantages are claimed 136 :
1. Convenience. The cultures can eliminate the need for bulk starter facilities including tanks, laboratory, and expensive sterile air systems. They can supplement
the conventional system at weekends or during holidays and can be used as a
backup in the event of a bulk starter failure.
2. Culture reliability. Because the cultures are pretested for activity, the cheesemaker can standardize the cheese make for each blend used.
3. Improved daily performance. The pretested cultures afford the same strain balance day after day and should result in a more uniform cheese production.
4. Improved cheese yield.
Disadvantages:
a. Use of DVS cultures necessitates a large dependable freezer. The cost of a
freezer is claimed to be offset by savings in labor and starter preparation in
antibiotic-free milk.
b. Due to lower acid development at the time of setting, some coagulants containing porcine pepsin may have to be used at a higher level. To increase
firmness of the curd, vats need to be set at 90 to 91F instead of 86F. 136
Although DVS cultures are still in use, many of the claims made a few years ago
are not fully realized for the following reasons:
1. Lack of enough strains with discretely different phage types to support a large
cheese factory reliably.
2. Many strains are difficult to concentrate 50- to 80-fold by centrifugation.
3. Activity of the frozen cultures inoculated in vat milk is slow 132 - 137 during the
cutting and cooking stages of cheese. Cheesemaking steps had to be modified to
accommodate slow wet-acid production and fast acid development in dry state
(cheddaring).
4. DVS culture cost to cheese is high; this view is not without opposition.
5. Due to availability of easy-to-maintain electronics and automation, plant propagation of starter cultures with internal pH control was introduced in the United
States in the last decade. In this propagation, the cell concentration is 10 to 15
times higher than the conventional bulk starter cultures. Now many of the well
maintained large cheese plants have adopted pH-controlled propagation of defined strains with exellent success.

Next Page
Richardson et al. were largely responsible for bringing external pH-controlled starters to cheese factories, 138 recommending a whey-based medium for greatest economic return because of high cheese yield and a lower medium cost, one third the
cost of internal pH-control-buffered media. 139

3.6 Culture Production and Bulk Starter Propagation


3.6.1 History
Traditionally cultures were carried from seed to intermediate mother cultures to
inoculate the bulk tank. These were propagated in 10% or 12% nonfat dry milk heat
treated at 90 0 C for 45 min or more to render it bacteriophage- and cell-free. Stadhouders found that 95C/55 s was required to inactivate phage. 130 Such cultures were
dispensed in sterile glass bottles and sent by post to reach cheese factories within
72 h. These were subcultured for further propagation by cheese plants. 140 For longdistance shipment, cultures were made into powder form by blending with lactose,
followed by neutralization with calcium carbonate and vacuum drying. Cultures
produced in this manner needed several transfers for full activation due to only 1 to
2% survivors in the powder.
Freeze-dried cultures showed 42 to 80% survival for different cultures; these
cultures grew slowly with a long lag phase. 135 In order to reduce the lag phase,
addition of stimulants to the culture before freeze-drying or to the substrate in which
the culture was reactivated were practiced.140
In 1963, frozen, nonconcentrated, 1-ml vial cultures were made available commercially to cheesemakers. These could be stored in liquid nitrogen over a longer
period without much loss in activity and produced a good active mother culture in
the first transfer.135

3.6.2 Concentrated Cultures


Work on concentrated cultures began in the late 1960s and was commercialized in
1973. This development eliminated the chores of preparing mother culture and intermediate cultures. This practice minimized starter handling in the phage-contaminated
atmosphere of the cheese factory and paved the way for DVS cultures.135"141
For a conventional bulk starter, the heat-treated (90C/45 min) milk tempered to
21 to 27C is inoculated and incubated at ~27C until it reaches a pH of 4.6. At this
point the culture may contain 5 to 8 X 108 cfu/ml and has good activity. However,
if the cells are held at pH 5.0 for extended periods of time, the culture activity is
reduced. 115 The final population of lactococci can be greatly increased by controlling
the pH of the growth medium at 6.0 to 6.5. 132 - 142 " 147 When culture was propagated
in a medium (2% tryptone, 1% yeast extract, 2.5% lactose, and 2.5% glucose) at a
constant pH of 6.0 (maintained by the addition of NaOH), the cell population was
15 times that of non-pH-controlled propagation.132 At this pH both the rate and the
total amount of growth were optimum. When mixed species of starter bacteria containing aroma bacteria were grown in skim milk (9.1% solids), whey medium, and

Previous Page
Richardson et al. were largely responsible for bringing external pH-controlled starters to cheese factories, 138 recommending a whey-based medium for greatest economic return because of high cheese yield and a lower medium cost, one third the
cost of internal pH-control-buffered media. 139

3.6 Culture Production and Bulk Starter Propagation


3.6.1 History
Traditionally cultures were carried from seed to intermediate mother cultures to
inoculate the bulk tank. These were propagated in 10% or 12% nonfat dry milk heat
treated at 90 0 C for 45 min or more to render it bacteriophage- and cell-free. Stadhouders found that 95C/55 s was required to inactivate phage. 130 Such cultures were
dispensed in sterile glass bottles and sent by post to reach cheese factories within
72 h. These were subcultured for further propagation by cheese plants. 140 For longdistance shipment, cultures were made into powder form by blending with lactose,
followed by neutralization with calcium carbonate and vacuum drying. Cultures
produced in this manner needed several transfers for full activation due to only 1 to
2% survivors in the powder.
Freeze-dried cultures showed 42 to 80% survival for different cultures; these
cultures grew slowly with a long lag phase. 135 In order to reduce the lag phase,
addition of stimulants to the culture before freeze-drying or to the substrate in which
the culture was reactivated were practiced.140
In 1963, frozen, nonconcentrated, 1-ml vial cultures were made available commercially to cheesemakers. These could be stored in liquid nitrogen over a longer
period without much loss in activity and produced a good active mother culture in
the first transfer.135

3.6.2 Concentrated Cultures


Work on concentrated cultures began in the late 1960s and was commercialized in
1973. This development eliminated the chores of preparing mother culture and intermediate cultures. This practice minimized starter handling in the phage-contaminated
atmosphere of the cheese factory and paved the way for DVS cultures.135"141
For a conventional bulk starter, the heat-treated (90C/45 min) milk tempered to
21 to 27C is inoculated and incubated at ~27C until it reaches a pH of 4.6. At this
point the culture may contain 5 to 8 X 108 cfu/ml and has good activity. However,
if the cells are held at pH 5.0 for extended periods of time, the culture activity is
reduced. 115 The final population of lactococci can be greatly increased by controlling
the pH of the growth medium at 6.0 to 6.5. 132 - 142 " 147 When culture was propagated
in a medium (2% tryptone, 1% yeast extract, 2.5% lactose, and 2.5% glucose) at a
constant pH of 6.0 (maintained by the addition of NaOH), the cell population was
15 times that of non-pH-controlled propagation.132 At this pH both the rate and the
total amount of growth were optimum. When mixed species of starter bacteria containing aroma bacteria were grown in skim milk (9.1% solids), whey medium, and

tryptone medium at a constant pH with continuous culturing, relative lactic acid


production activity (%), aroma bacteria (%), and diacetyl production were highest
in milk at pH 5.9.148 Specific growth rate and productivity were found to be affected
by both the medium and the pH value. Continuous culturing below pH 5.9 to 6.1
was not recommended.148 Batch culture was considered preferable to continuous
culture and the best yield, approximately 1010 cfu/ml, was obtained at 30 to 32C
with pH maintained between pH 6.0 and 6.3. 146 The maximum cell density and
culture activity were affected by the neutralizer; higher cell densities were obtained
with NH4OH than with NaOH. 132445 Culture concentrate prepared using NH4OH
had a reduced rate of acid production compared to the milk cultures. This was traced
to a lower proteinase activity in the NH4OH-neutralized cell preparations.132 Lactic
acid or lactate salts 144147 accumulation and secretion of D-leucine103 in the medium
limit growth of lactic acid bacteria.

3.6.3 Bulk Starter Propagation


For bulk starter preparation inoculation, about 106 to 107 cfu/ml are required. For a
properly prepared culture concentrate containing 1011 cfu/g of culture, 25 g should
be sufficient for 500 gal.149
Starter organisms grow well in milk of normal composition. In the past it was
difficult to keep bacteriophage out of the bulk starter and at times culture activity
was affected. The most important aspect of starter production is the preparation of
the growth medium, and the protection of the culture from phage attack. Several
approaches, singly or in combination, are in practice. These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Aseptic technique
Specially designed starter vessels to prevent phage entry from without
Phage inhibitory media that prevent phage multiplication in the medium
DVS culturesfrozen or freeze-dried

3.6.3.1 Aseptic Techniques


These involve separate starter room, chlorination, and steam sterilization of the
starter vessel and chlorine fogging of the starter room before inoculation. These
techniques are helpful but not entirely satisfactory for keeping phage out of the starter
if it is present in the environment.

3.6.3.2 Specifically Designed Starter Tanks


Specially designed starter tanks aim at preventing post heat treatment contamination
of the starter medium. Some of these are described:

The Lewis System


The technique involves the use of polythene bottles for mother and feeder cultures.
These bottles are fitted with Astell rubber seals. The medium is sterilized and cooled
in the bottle and culture is transferred by means of two-way hypodermic needles.

The Lewis system requires a pressurized starter vessel; no air enters or leaves the
vessel during heating and cooling. This system is detailed in a recent book.150

The Jones System


In this system, the tank is not pressurized. The tank openings are protected by water
seals. The air is forced out during the heating of the medium and sterile air (heated
and filtered) reenters the tank during cooling. The system is used in New Zealand
and described in detail by Heap and Lawrence.151
A starter vessel combining the Lewis and Jones System has been developed in
the United Kingdom.152
The AIfa-Laval System
In this system the mother and intermediate cultures are propagated in a viscubator
and the culture is transferred to a large tank using filter-sterilized air under pressure.
The system is described by Tamime.152

Systems Using High-Efficiency Particulate Air filters (HEPA)


Dutch cheese manufacture utilizes P-starters prepared by NIZO. Every care is exercised to prevent phage contamination during inoculation and cultivation of the
starter. Milk is heated to 95C or higher for 1 min, and during cooling, inoculation
and cultivation tanks are pressurized with sterile air. Absolute filters (Pall Enflonfilter
Type ABI FR7PV) permit penetration of less than one per 2.5 X 1010 phages,
ensuring that the pressurized tank is always free of phage.153 Recently, depth filters
have been made available that have a pore size of 0.015 /xm that can filter out
bacteriophage from air. These are in-line filters and can be steam sterilized in place
up to 50 cycles.154
Recently, Bactosas, an ultra-clean room with 12 filtered air changes/h, has been
designed and patented.155 In this system, any number of pressurized vessels are
grouped together in such a manner that the entry ports of the vesselsand only the
portsare accessible to the operator from inside a large and carefully controlled
enclosed area. The vessels are CIPable and the service units, the valves, pumps, pipe
work, instruments, electrical wiring, etc. are separated.

3.6.3.3 Phage Inhibitory Media


That bacteriophage require divalent ions, particularly calcium, for adsorption and
subsequent proliferation is established.156 Reiter157 removed calcium from the
medium by ion exchange and noticed inhibition of bacteriophage.
Addition of 2% sodium phosphate (NaH2PO4-H2OZNa2HPO4 in a ratio of 3:2),
to sequester calcium, prevented phage growth in skim milk bulk starter.158 The
bacteria grew normally and the cheese made with starter challenged with homologous bacteriophage had normal texture and flavor. Other formulations159 were developed where media containing nonfat dry milk, dry blended mono- and dibasic

phosphate, yeast extract, and electrodialyzed whey could prevent the growth of most
phages while permitting culture growth. These media were called phage inhibitory
media (PIM) or phage-resistant media (PRM). Numerous such media were made
available in the marketplace and contain milk solids, carbohydrate, growth promoting factor(s), and buffering agents such as phosphate and citrate. However, it was
noticed that all phage active against lactococci were not restricted in Ca 2+ -reduced
media. 160 In a comprehensive study, seven commercial PIM were compared for their
buffering capacity, ability to support lactococci growth, and extent of suppression
of bacteriophage replication.161 Only two of the seven media were adequate in preventing phage proliferation; the effectiveness was linked to the buffering capacity.
Such media contained sufficient nutrients to overcome the effects of high phosphate
or citrate concentrations which depressed growth. The most effective media also
contained citrate buffer and cereal hydrolyzate as a stimulant. Ledford and Speck 162
clearly demonstrated that PIM caused metabolic injury to starter bacteria and their
proteinase activity was diminished. Addition of 1 or 2% phosphate to reconstituted
nonfat dry milk reduced about 30% of proteinase activity as measured by tyrosine
release.
The development of PIM was an important step and brought some relief from
phage-mediated lack of milk acidification. These media serve a useful function where
physical protection against phage, that is, proper bulk tank design, provision of
pressurization with sterile air, and inoculation and other general procedures, are not
adequate. However, these media are not suitable for cultures containing
lauconostocs 163 ' 164 because they promote culture imbalance, which may lead to flavor defects in products. Also, these media add substantially to the cost of cheese
production and counteract addition of C a 2 + to cheesemilk to aid rennet coagulation.
LaGrange and Reinbold in 1968 documented that the cost of PIM was 10 to 150Ab
more than the low-heat NFDM which cost 20 to 250/lb and that the starter media
cost was 70% of the cost of starter.165 Many changes and developments have come
about in starter cultures handling and culture media in the last 20 years. In a later
study, 166 LaGrange found that starter costs per 100 lbs of milk converted to cheese
ranged from 13.660 for DVS to 3.47 to 6.090 for external pH control systems used
by four large plants.

3.6.4 pH-Controlled Propagation of Cultures


Considerable information regarding culture concentrate production 132142145 and injury to starter cells kept at pH < 5 . 0 1 1 6 has accumulated in literature. Recently,
cessation of starter culture growth at low pH was explained by Nannen and Hutkins. 167 They found that a gradient of 0.6 to 1.44 pH units was achieved in early log
phase, and a noticeable decline in ApH between the extracellular medium and the
cell cytoplasm occurred during the late log phase of growth, corresponding to PH1n
of 5.0 to 5.5 or pH out < 5 . 0 . The critical or minimum pH compatible for cell growth
was similar for the three different media tested, with slightly different buffering
capacities. Cessation of growth appears to occur when pHout of 5.0 is reached and
this was linked to a dissipation of ApH resulting in a low pHin.

3.6.4.1 External pH Control


Due to the cost of commercial starter PIM and due to the availability of easy to
maintain automated starter propagation operation, Richardson's group pioneered the
development and introduction of whey-based phage inhibitory media to the cheese
industry. These compositions included fresh whey (Cheddar/Swiss/Parmesan), phosphate, and yeast extract. Propagation was carried out at pH 6.0 using ammonia as a
neutralizer. Starter culture produced in this manner was very active even when held
for several days and only 20 to 30% culture inoculum was required compared to
nonfat milk culture.168 Good quality Cheddar and cottage cheese was produced with
said medium. Compared to milk cultures, PIM culture addition increased the clotting
time of milk by rennet at 300C. Soluble calcium in the phosphated whey medium
was lower than PIM at pH >5.7 because of removal of calcium during cheesemaking.170 Because the soluble calcium was low, a reduced level of phosphates could
be employed to achieve phage inhibition equal to or better than PIM that contained
high levels of phosphates.170 The composition of whey-based or nonfat dry milkbased media for pH-controlled propagation was further optimized to include 5.2%
whey solids, 0.71% yeast autolysate, and 0.43% casein hydrolysate. This formulation
permitted 36% more cells and 38% higher activity over the control whey medium.
Nonfat dry milk-based media with stimulants proved superior in activity and phage
protection compared to commercial PIM.171

3.6.4.2 Internal pH Control


In the external pH control propagation, pH of the medium is controlled by the addition of ammonia or sodium hydroxide in response to acid production. In contrast,
in internal pH control systems, the medium contains a very sophisticated buffering
agent that solubilizes in response to acid production in the medium. Phase 4 is an
example of such a medium developed by Sandine's group at Oregon State University.172 This medium contains sweet dairy whey, autolyzed yeast, and phosphatecitrate buffer. The pH of the medium does not drop below 5.1 to 5.2, thus avoiding
acid injury to the culture. The insoluble buffering salts are solubilized as the pH
drops below 5.1. It is claimed that the pathogens do not grow in the medium at this
pH. It is also claimed that the cell population is about four to eight times higher than
the conventional media; cheese yield and starter activity were also higher. Phage
proliferation was vigorously controlled and in some cases it showed some decline
in numbers. Its superior performance with cultures used for Italian and Swiss cheese
was also reported.173 There are other numerous small modifications of these basic
starter propagation systems to meet particular needs.

3.6.4.3 Temperature Effect


After the bulk starter is propagated, it should be cooled to a temperature below 100C
to preserve maximum culture activity during holdover.149 The effects of temperature
and holding time on the activity of liquid culture are shown in Figure 3.2.

1OC
APA remaining (%)

*C
10C

300C

Time (h)
Figure 3.2 Effect of temperature and holding time on the activity of liquid fermenter cultures. After growth had ceased (zero time), cultures of S. cremoris 134 were held at various
temperatures in the lactose-depleted medium and APAs (acid producing abilities) determined
at intervals (
) , 300C; ( O
O), 22C; (Z* ^ ) , 100C; ( C D ) , TC.
Source: Ref. 149 (reproduced with permission).

3.6.5 General Comments


It should be understood that control and elimination of bacteriophages in a cheese
plant is imperative to the viability and business success of an operation. Central to
this theme is the total understanding of the cheese plant layout and its operation.
Use of inhibitory media alone is never sufficient to prevent phage-related lack of
acidification. Phages are restricted in PIM but not destroyed. When this medium
containing phage is inoculated in cheesemilk, the viable phages multiply and contaminate the plant personnel and plant environment.
In large and small plants a continued effort in training and education of plant
personnel is needed. Phage monitoring and daily starter activity are needed to ensure
phage-free bulk starters.174.

3.6.6 Helpful Points to Phage-Free Starters 127174


1. Use as few starter strains as possible.
2. The ratio of the strains that make up a culture should stay constant.
3. Use frozen blends for starter inoculation and avoid subculturing. Subculturing
upsets the strain balance.
4. Monitor whey for phages and remove cultures that show progressive increase
in whey phage titer.

5. Ensure that air, water, people, and product movement through the plant are
known and recognized as potential channels in phage attack.
6. The starter room should be away and completely separated from the cheesemaking room and from whey separators. As the phage-laden whey droplets
dissipate in air, phage is concentrated in the atmosphere.
7. The starter room should have 15 to 20 air changes of 100% fresh air that
is HEPA filtered. The sterile starter tanks should be pressurized with sterile
air (.015 /urn depth filters) when under operation so that contamination cannot
get in.
8. Avoid opening the tank after it has been heat processed.
9. All affluent and washings from the tanks should be piped to the closed drains.
10. The person dedicated to starter making should not do other chores in the plant
and no other plant personnel should be allowed in the starter room.
11. It is imperative that plant personnel thoroughly understand and conceptualize
the phage phenomenon and be obsessive in hygiene and the production disciplines associated with starter production and usage.
12. Much attention should be given to the cheese vat layout with respect to air
movement and flow pattern and their location with respect to the whey side.
13. Source and quality of incoming air are important and should be critically
planned.

3.7 Manufacture of Cheese


Cheese manufacture is essentially a process of dehydration of milk in which casein,
fat, and minerals of milk are concentrated 6- to 12-fold. About 90% of the water in
milk is removed and it carries with it almost all of the lactose. 175 Addition of rennet,
acid development by starter culture, and a degree of heat treatment applied to curd
after it has been cut into small pieces constitute the cheesemaking constants. It is
the modulation of these constants coupled with different microorganisms and curing
regimens that result in different cheese types.
General steps are as follows 4 ' 43 ' 175 " 178 :
1. Milk is clarified by filtration or centrifugation.
2. Dependent on the composition of final cheese, the fat content is standardized
using a special centrifuge (separator).
3. Depending on the variety of cheese, milk is either pasteurized at 71.8C/15 s or
heat treated at 62.8 to 68.3C/16 to 18 s.
4. For some cheese types, milk may be homogenized.
5. Starter culture is added to cheese milk tempered to 30 to 35C at 0.5 to 1.5%
of milk. The milk is generally ripened for 30 to 60 min. In modern plants, starter
is injected into the milk line going from the pasteurizer to the vat. It takes about
40 to 60 min to fill a vat and this filling time then serves as the ripening time.
During this time, fermentation of lactose to lactic acid by the added starter
bacteria begins.

6. At the end of the ripening period, a milk coagulant is added to milk to effect a
coagulum in 25 to 30 min.
The coagulant (70 to 90 ml/1000 lbs of milk) is diluted (1:40) with clean
water and evenly distributed throughout milk by stirring milk for 3 to 5 min.
Calcium chloride may be added to milk to accelerate coagulation and to increase
curd firmness. Its addition to milk should not exceed 0.02%.
Distinct differences in texture and physical characteristics can be affected by
variations in the coagulating temperature. The combination of the temperature
of coagulation, the starter culture, the coagulating enzyme, and the acid produced affect the rate of formation; the firmness, elasticity, and other physical
properties of the resulting curd; and the degree of whey expulsion.
The curd produced by acid and a coagulating enzyme is a gel. Variations in
the manner in which the curd is treated primarily affects the moisture and secondarily the body and texture which ascertain the characteristics of the finished
cheese.
7. When the coagulum is firm enough to be cut, a horizontal-wired stainless steel
knife is drawn through the cord followed by a vertical knife in a rectangular
vat. If an automatic enclosed circular vat is used, the cutting is programmed to
ensure a curd size range by the speed and timing of the automatic knives. The
purpose of this step is to increase the surface area of the curd particles which
in turn permits whey expulsion and more uniformly thorough heating of the
equal sized smaller curd. Cutting the curd into comparatively small cubes reduces the curd moisture. The curd particles should be cut to the similar size.
8. After the curd is cut, it is allowed to sit undisturbed for 5 to 15 min. This period
is called "heal time." This allows the newly cut surface to form new intramolecular linkages and firm up the curd while expelling whey. To help make a
firm, low-moisture cheese, the curd should be stirred for 30 min after cutting
before heat is applied. This also prevents formation of tough skin around the
curd cube.
9. Following the ' 'heal" period, heat is applied to the jacket of the vat and gradual
stirring is initiated. For most ripened cheeses the curds are cooked in whey until
the temperature of the curds and whey reaches 37 to 410C, depending on the
variety. For Parmesan and Swiss cheese, the cooking temperature of curd may
be as high as 53C.
The temperature should be raised slowly to the desired cooking temperature,
taking from 30 to 40 min but never less than 30 min for Cheddar cheese. The
temperature of the whey should be raised slowly at first and then more rapidly
as cooking progresses. The cooking should accompany stirring slowly when
curd is fragile and more vigorously when curd firms up. Fresh cheeses, such as
cottage, cream, and Neufchatel, are cooked at temperatures as high as 51.5 to
600C to promote syneresis and provide product stability.
10. Generally, when the cook temperature is reached, a 45 to 60 min period for
"stir out" is allowed. During this period, contents of the vat are agitated somewhat vigorously.

Agitation during cooking or removing some whey increases the pressure on


cheese particles and the frequency of their collision with each other and with
the container walls, and promotes syneresis. Syneresis is also promoted by increasing temperature. Syneresis is, initially, a first-order reaction because the
pressure depends on the amount of whey in the curd; holding curd in whey
retards syneresis due to back pressure of the surrounding whey, whereas removing whey promotes syneresis.175
During healing, cooking, and stir out, acid is being produced by lactic starter
bacteria which helps syneresis of rennet curd. Approximately 65% and 55% of
the calcium and phosphate, respectively, in milk are insoluble and associated
with the casein micelles as colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP).175 The solubility
of the CCP increases as the pH of milk decreases (it is fully soluble at pH 4.9).
As acid is produced in cheese curd during manufacture, CCP dissolves and is
removed in the whey; thus, the pH at curd whey separation determines the
calcium content of cheese which in turn affects cheese texture:
Fast acid development low pH low calcium - crumbly texture, for
example, Cheshire.
Slow acidification > high pH -* high calcium elastic, rubbery texture,
for example, Swiss. 175179
While curd remains in the whey there is an equilibrium between the lactose
in the curd and that in the whey. The whey provides a reservoir of lactose that
prevents any great decrease in lactose concentration in the curd. After the whey
is removed, the remaining lactose in the curd is depleted rapidly as the fermentation proceeds. Curd that has been left in contact with the whey for a longer
period has a higher lactose content than curd of the same pH from which the
whey has been removed earlier.180181 When the high acidity is reached quickly
in the vat, sufficient calcium is removed to alter the physical properties of the
curd but insufficient phosphate is lost to seriously affect the buffering capacity
of the cheese.180'181 When high acidity is a consequence of an increase in the
time between cutting and draining of whey, a high loss of calcium and phosphate
occurs. The loss of phosphate is sufficient to reduce the buffering capacity of
the cheese significantly and the pH of the cheese is consequently lowered. Such
a cheese develops an acid flavor and a weak, pasty body and texture.181
11. When proper acidity has developed, the whey is permanently separated from
curd. Many techniques are used to perform this simple but important step. These
are
Let the curd drop to the bottom and let clear whey flow out.
The curd and whey are pumped to an automatic curd and matting machine
where whey is quickly separated from curd and the curd mats in a ribbon
form under controlled conditions of temperature and curd depth.
In an automatic version of the above, curd and whey are pumped onto a
draining and matting conveyer under controlled conditions. When the curd
has reached the proper pH, the mat is cut and is automatically salted and
transferred to another conveyer which takes the salted curd to a boxing station.

For a historic perspective on automation of cheese making see ref. 182. From this
point the whey is drained and the new curd is treated differently depending on the
nature of the final product.

3.7.1 Cheddar Cheese


Traditionally, for Cheddar cheese, the curd left in the vat after whey drainage is
allowed to sit for 10 to 15 min when it is trenched in the middle of the vat, lengthwise.
The curd is hand cut, turned over, and then piled at intervals, one slab upon another.
During this time acid development continues and syneresis of the curd also continues.
This process is called cheddaring and is important in controlling the moisture of
cheese. If the curd is piled too soon or too high, it will retain moisture. The slabs
should not be piled until the curd is sufficiently firm. It is believed that hydrophobic
interactions within the casein network are probably responsible for the advanced
stages of syneresis.175 When the acidity of whey is 0.55 to 0.65% and the curd pH
is 5.1 to 5.3, the curd is ready to be milled. Milling is cutting the cheddard slabs
into uniform Vfc-inch X 2-inch particles. The primary purposes of milling curd are
to promote further removal of whey and to make it possible to distribute salt quickly
and uniformly throughout the curd. Immediately following milling, the curd should
be forked for at least 10 min. Too much forking leads to fat loss in whey. Also, the
greasy curd may need washing to wash off fat.
The curd is salted at the rate of 2.5 to 3.0 lbs of salt per 1000 pounds of milk. It
should be applied in three equal applications. A cheesemake schedule with expected
pH/% titratable acidity is shown in Table 3.13.183
The salted curd is hooped into 40-lb stainless steel hoops or filled into a 640-lb
box. The curd is pressed at 20 psi in the beginning. The 40-lb cheese is dressed after
an hour and pressed again at 20 to 25 lbs for the night. Dressing refers to opening
the hoop and straightening the wrinkled cheesecloth to obtain a smooth, even, wellknit cheese surface after repressing. The large box is pressed and the resulting free
whey in the center of the block is withdrawn with vacuum-operated probes. These
blocks may be pressed under vacuum for 45 min to obtain air-free close-knit cheese.
The temperature of cheese curds at the time of hooping should be at 30 to 35C.

3.7.2 Stirred Curd or Granular Cheddar Cheese 4 3 1 7 6 " 1 7 8


Follow the procedures recommended for milled Cheddar cheese up to draining the
whey. Stop draining whey when the curds are just evident through the whey surface.
Stir the curds for 10 min, then drain all the whey and stir the curds vigorously for
20 additional minutes. When acidity reaches 0.25 to 0.35%, salt the curd with continuous stirring for 30 min. No cheddaring or milling is done in this cheese.

3.7.3 Colby Cheese 43 - 176 - 178


Follow the directions for making stirred curd Cheddar cheese just before termination
of the whey drainage. At the point where curd is just visible through the whey
surface, add clean cool water at 15.6C to the vat with continuous sitrring so that

the whey and curd temperature is 26.7 to 32C. Stir the vat for about 15 min. Drain
the watered whey and stir the curd vigorously for about 20 min. Salt the curd when
curd has a titratable acidity of 0.19 to 0.24%. Salt and hoop the curds as in the
regular Cheddar cheese described. Colby and Monterey Jack cheeses are not placed
under vacuum to preserve a sight open texture.

3.7.4 Swiss Cheese 43184


For Swiss cheese, milk is heat treated at 62.7 to 67.8C, then cooled to 31 to 35C
and inoculated with Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus (0.5%) and a very
small quantity (50 to 100 ml/35,000 lb/milk) of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus or
L. helveticus culture and Propionibacterium at 100 to 1000 cfu/ml. The milk is set
with animal or microbial rennet at the rate of 2 to 3 oz/1000 lbs of milk. The curd
is cut in 30 min with a 14-inch knife to the size of rice grains. Let the curd sit for
about 5 min and then stir it for 30 min without turning on the heat. This is called
foreworking. Start to cook the curd slowly to 50 to 53.3C in 30 min. Then turn off
the steam but continue to stir for an additional 30 to 60 min. until the curd is firm
and the pH of the whey is about 6.3 to 6.4. At this point the curd is separated from
whey by pumping the curd and whey into perforated stainless vats called "universal." The curd is allowed to settle evenly. Large stainless steel plates are used to
press the curd at a precise depth of curd mass. This pressing under whey results in
a tightly fused cheese required later for eye development. The huge curd block is
kept under pressure. During this time acidity continues to develop and should reach
a pH of 5.15 to 5.20 in 16 to 18 h.
For smaller operations, the curd is collected in a large coarse cloth bag and pressed
in 15- to 20-lb hoops.
The large block of cheese (3000 to 3500 lbs) is cut into 180-lb sections and
immersed in saturated brine at 2 to 100C for 12 to 24 h. The blocks are removed
from the brine and the surface is allowed to dry. These are then packaged and boxed.
The boxes are stacked and banded to help keep the block shape during the hot room
cure. Smaller wheels may be brined for 2 to 3 days and then placed in drying rooms
for 10 to 14 days at 10 to 15.6C with 90% relative humidity to form a rind. This
cheese is placed in curing rooms/hot rooms maintained at 20 to 25C. The eyes in
cheese start to develop in 18 to 24 days. Eye formation should take place at a slow
uniform rate. Due to the production of gas, the cheese starts to rise a little. Too much
rise indicates strong fermentation and must be controlled. After the eye formation is
complete, the cheese is transferred to a room about 2C to prevent further eye development and held for at least 60 days, preferably longer, to develop a fully sweet,
nutty, typical flavor before cutting into retail size. A manufacturing schedule is
presented in Table 3.14.

3.7.5 Parmesan Cheese43'185


Parmesan, o r ' 'grana'' as it is known in Italy, is a very hard granular bacteria-ripened
cheese made from partially skimmed cow's milk. Cheese contains a maximum of
32% moisture and a minimum of 32% fat on a dry basis.

Table 3.13

CHANGES OCCURRING DURING THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEDDAR CHEESE


Conditions in the Vat

No.

Step in the
Manufacture of
Cheese

Temp.
Duration of
Process

Sa

Flash heating of
cheese milk

Eb

Sa

Eb

147

6.6/

6.6/

0.16

0.16

Held for 16 s
2

Ripening of milk
after addition of 1%
starter

"Setting"addition
of rennet and
allowing milk to
coagulate

Cutting of curd

20-30
(preferably 30)
min

30-40 mind

"Dipping" or
drainage of whey

Starts 135 min


after rennet

Purpose of the Step in the


Manufacturing Process

Expulsion of dissolved gases and


volatile odors. Partial destruction
of microflora, and natural milk
enzymes.

To eliminate undesirable flora such


as coliforms, psychrophiles, yeasts,
and staphylococci.

86

6.6/
0.16

6.5/
0.17

Increase in acidity and shift in


salt balance. Growth of starter
organisms.

To initiate rapid microbial growth.


For liberation of soluble Ca and
neutralization of Zeta potential. To
facilitate rapid rennet coagulation.

86

86

6.5/
0.17

6.4/
0.12

Formation of smooth shrinkable


matrix due to uniform
coagulation.

To rapidly coagulate milk to form a


uniform, smooth coagulum.

86

86

6.4/
0.12

6.4/
0.12

Large mass of curd cut into


small cubical or rectangular
pieces with the liberation of
whey.

To expel entrapped moisture as


whey. Increase surface area for
expulsion of whey as the curd
matrix shrinks.

86

104

6.4/
0.12

6.2/
0.13

Shrinkage andfirmingof the


curd. Increase in whey acidity
and temperature. Increase in
microbial numbers.

To facilitate expulsion of whey from


the curd caused by the shrinkage of
curd matrix with increasing
temperature and acidity.

104

101

6.2/
0.15

6.2/
0.16

Removal of whey. Expulsion of


moisture due to compaction as
the curd settles. Slight cooling
of curd.

To remove whey from the curd.

Cooking with
agitation

Changes Occurring in the


Cheese Milk or Cheese Curd

86
60 min

10min

pH/Acidity

Table 3.13

(Continued)

Tacking"matting
of curd

15 min

"Cheddaring"
turning and piling of
cheese curd slabs

101

101

6.1/
0.16

6.1/
0.18
-0.22

105 min (varies)

99

97

6.1/
0.18
-0.22

5.3/
0.55

"Milling"cutting
curd into small 2" X
1" X W strips

10 min

97

95

10

Salting (2.5% by
weight of raw curd)

20 min

95

92

11

HoopingFilling
milled, salted curd
into molds

15 min

92

90

12

Dressing, etc.

Further expulsion of whey due


to compaction, fusion of curd
particles.

To fuse curd particles into a solid


mass to make convenient for
handling.

Further expulsion of whey due


to pressure. Increase in acidity.
Increase in microbial population.
Changes in texture.

To expel whey and gas, and develop


meaty body and close texture.

5.1/
0.55

Reduction in the size of curd


slabs. Slight cooling of curd.
Increase in bacterial numbers.

To facilitate uniform salting of curd


and cooling and further expulsion of
whey. Cooling to prevent fat loss.

5AF

Further cooling of curd.

To allow dissolution of salt in the


curd to improveflavorand to cool
the curd further to prevent fat loss.
To pack the cheese curd into blocks
for easy handling and marketing.
Pressure applied to expel moisture
and fuse curd pieces.

5AF

5Ar

5.1/ 6

Source: Ref. 183. Reproduced with permission.


a
Start of process; bEnd of process. (Temp, in 0F)
c
Depending on moisture level desired infinishedproduct, up to 30 min of stirring curd in whey may precede cooking.
d
Following cooking, up to 45 min of stirring curd in whey may precede dipping.
c
Titratable acidity measurements no longer necessary or applicable.

To protect the cheese from molds


etc. during curing period.

Table 3.14 PROCEDURE FOR MANUFACTURE OF RINDLESS BLOCK


SWISS CHEESE
Operation

Time (min)

Fill stainless
Vat
Add starter
Ripening
Rennetting
Cutting
Foreworking
Cooking
Stir-out
Dipping
Pressing
Brine salting
Drying

12-18h
1-2 days
up to 1 day

Wrapping
Cold room
Warm room
Finished cooler

0-10 days
2-7 wk
until sold

Source:

0-30
25-30
15-20
30-60
30-40
30-70

Temperature (0C)

pH

31.1-35
31.1-35
31.1-35
31.1-35
31.1-35
48.9-52.8
slight decrease
47.2-51.1 +
22.2-25.5 room
7.2-14.4 tank
7.2-12.7 room
35 drying tunnel

6.5-6.7
6.5-6.6
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.4-6.5
6.4
6.3-6.4
5.15-5.4

7.2-12.7 room
21.1-25.5 room
2.2-12.7 room

5.2 5.5
5.5 5.7
5.5 5.7

Ref. 184.

Standardized (1.8% fat) heat-treated milk (63 to 69C) is cooled to 32 to 35C


and inoculated with Streptococcus salvarius subsp. thermophilus and Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus or Lactobacillus helveticus at 1% mixed inoculum.
These cultures can be propagated mixed or singly. Milk is ripened for 40 to 60 min.
Coagulant (3.5 oz/1000 lbs) is added to effect a curd in 20 to 25 min. The curd is
cut using V^-inch wired knife and allowed to sit for 10 min undisturbed before
beginning to cook. The curd is cooked to 42.2C in 15 min and then stirred vigorously for 15 min. It is further cooked to about 51.6C in 30 min. Start draining the
whey while stirring when the acidity reaches about 0.13%. Drain the whey completely when acidity reaches 0.18 to 0.20%. Some salt may be added at this point.
The curd is hooped in 20-lb capacity and pressed in a horizontal press immediately.
The cheese may be redressed in 1 h and further held at 21.1 to 24.4C until the
following morning. Cheese is brined for several days. Dry salt is added on the surface
of the cheese in the brine.
The cheese is then removed from the brine and allowed to dry for several days
at 13 to 16C and form a rind. This also allows the cheese to reach a proper moisture.
It is important that the surface of the cheese should be free of cracks or the cheese
will get moldy. The cheese may be waxed or vacuum packaged in plastic bags.
Parmesan is cured at 100C for at least 10 months as required by federal regulation.

3.7.6 Mozzarella and Provolone Cheese 43185186


These cheeses are referred to as "pasta filata" varieties. These cheeses have traditionally been further cooked after whey drainage in hot water and stretched until
they become close knit, elastic masses. The hot curd is molded into forms.
Per capita consumption of Mozzarella cheese in the United States has increased
from 0.4 Ib in 1960 to 4.1 lbs in 1984.186 Production of Mozzarella cheese now
ranks second to Cheddar cheese.
It is also reognized that physical properties of Mozzarella cheese vary greatly
based on cheese age, pH, salt content, and starter cultures used.
Milk composition for Mozzarella is adjusted to suit the type of cheese. Milk is
pasteurized and cooled to 32 to 35C. Milk or whey culture of S. salivarius subsp.
thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus or L. helveticus is used at about
1 to 2% level. It is important that strains used should ferment lactic acid rapidly and
tolerate high temperature 48.8 to 54.4C.
Add 2 to 3 oz/1000 lbs of milk coagulant to set milk in 30 min. Acidity of milk
at setting should be about 0.18%. Cut the curd using 3/8-inch wired knives. Let the
curd stand for 5 to 10 min and then start to stir gently, turn steam on, and cook
slowly, one degree rise during the first 5 min, 1.5C rise during the second 5 min,
and then at the rate of 0.550C per minute until 43.3 to 46.6C is reached depending
on the culture used. The titratable acidity of whey at the end of cooking should be
about 0.13%. After the cooking has ended, it is stirred, first gently and then vigorously for about 40 min. until the whey acidity reaches about 0.19%. The whey is
then drained and the curd allowed to mat in a manner similar to Cheddar. When the
whey acidity reaches 0.30%, it is milled. The milled curd is molded in hot water at
74 to 82.2C and then formed and released into cold water to firm up. The cheese
is then brined, about 1 day for each 3 to 5 Ib of cheese.
The brined cheese is dried and shrink wrapped. It is ready for use right away or
it can be cured. Mozzarella cheese is also manufactured by acidification with citric
acid or vinegar in place of starter culture. About 1 quart of vinegar is used for about
1000 gal of milk.187

3.7.7 Brick Cheese 43177188


Brick cheese originated in Dodge County, Wisconsin, U.S.A. It should have about
42% moisture, 28% fat, and 1.5% salt. The starter culture for this cheese consists of
0.25% mesophilic lactococci and 0.25% of Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus. The coagulum at 32C is cut with %-inch wired knives and very gradually
heated to 36C. Whey is drained until 1 inch of whey is left on the curd. While the
curd is stirred, water at 36C is added in 5 min amounting to 50% of milk volume.
After 15 min, watered whey equal to the amount of added water is drained. A
positive-action pump is used for pumping the curd and whey over to the hoops. The
curd in hoops is turned using cover followers. The second turn is made in 1 h and
a 5-lb weight is applied. Three additional turns are made, one every hour. During

this operation, room temperature should be maintained at 21 to 24C. Weights are


removed after the fourth turn.
The loaves of cheese are placed in brine at 100C for 24 h. During brining, dry
salt is sprinkled on the surface of the loaves. The loaves in brine are turned once
after 16 h. The pH of cheese at one day is at 5.2 to 5.3. Higher pH values are
obtained by removing more moisture from cheese with longer washing treatments.
The salted loaves are placed on shelves in curing rooms maintained at 15.6C
with 90% humidity. If the wooden shelves in the curing room were never used for
ripening Brick cheese, a suspension of B. linens is applied to the shelves using a
cheesecloth. Each day, the cheese is turned on its new side and rubbed with hands
dipped in 5% salt water. The cheese is shelf cured for 5 to 10 days depending on
the intensity of growth desired. The smear can then be washed off and the cheese
dried in rooms at 15.6C with 70% humidity. The cheese is then wrapped in plastic
film and cured at 4.4C for 4 to 8 weeks. If more pungent flavor is desired, the cheese
is wrapped unwashed.

3.7.8 Mold-Ripened Cheese


Blue Cheese, Gorgonzola, Stilton, Brie, and Camembert are the cheese types where
mold is added directly to effect ripening and so determine the characteristics of the
cheese.189 Blue mold is used for Blue Cheese, Gorgonzola, and Stilton, whereas
white mold is used for the manufacture of Camembert and Brie cheeses.
Blue veined cheeses are linked together by the common use of Penicillium rogueforti. This mold is unique in that it can tolerate low oxygen and high CO2 tension
and is relatively salt tolerant. It is hardier than the white mold used for Camembert
production.189 Roquefort cheese is made from sheep milk in the Roquefort area of
France and its cow's milk counterpart is known as Bleu cheese in other areas of
France.4

3.7.8.1 Blue Cheese43

l77l89l9

Blue cheese contains not more than 46% moisture, 29.5 to 30.5% fat, 20 to 21%
protein, and 4.5 to 5% salt. Blue cheese may be made from homogenized milk (Iowa
method) or unhomogenized milk (Minnesota method).190
Raw or pasteurized milk is homogenized at 2000 psi at 32.0 to 43.3C. A mesophilic lactic culture containing Lactococcw lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis
is added to milk at 0.5% level at 32.2C. Mold spores may be added to milk in the
vat just before adding rennet at the rate of 4 oz/1000 lbs of milk. The rennet coagulum
is cut with V^-inch wire knives. The curd is allowed to heal for 5 min and then stirred
gently once every 5 min. Stirring is continued for 60 min while the temperature
remains at 31.1 to 32.2C. The acidity of whey should rise to 0.11 to 0.14%. Just
before draining the whey, the temperature is raised to 33.3C and held for 2 min.
All the whey is drained and the curds trenched. If the mold spores were not added
to the milk, these can be added to the curd at this time. Two pounds of coarse salt
and 1 oz of spore powder per 100 Ib curd are mixed and applied to the curd with

thorough stirring. The curd is scooped to perforated stainless steel circular molds
placed on drainage mats. The hoops are turned every 15 min for the first 2 h and
then left on drainage mats overnight at room temperature at about 22.2C. The cheese
is removed and dry salted liberally. The cheese is placed on its side in a cradle in a
room at 15.6C with 85% relative humidity. Salt is applied four more times, once
every day. After the cheese salting is complete, it is pierced with needles Vz inch
thick on both sides. It is then placed in a room at 10 to 12.8C with 95% relative
humidity. The cheese is turned on its side one quarter every 4 days and wiped with
a clean cloth. This process continues for 20 days. Cheese is then wrapped in foil or
other appropriate wrapping material and cured at 2 to 4C for 3 to 4 months.

3.7.8.2

CamembertCheese4^43186

The Camembert and brie style cheeses are most characteristic of the white soft mold
cheeses. Penicillium camemberti and the probable biotypes P. caseioculum and
P. candidum are used to ripen the cheese by external growth of the mold.
Whole pasteurized milk at 29 to 33.5C is ripened with mesophilic lactococci and
the mold spores. When the acidity of milk reaches 0.22%, rennet is added and the
coagulum cut with !/2-inch wire knives. Curd temperature is maintained around
32.2C and no cooking of the curd is exercised. The curd and whey are transferred
to perforated 8-oz stainless steel round molds placed on drainage mats. The curd is
allowed to drain at room temperature, 22.2C for 3 to 4 h. The curds are now firm
enough for turning. The curds are turned three to four times at 30-min intervals. If
mold is not inoculated in milk, it can be applied to the cheese now. The small wheels
are allowed to stay on draining mat for an additional 5 to 6 h. At this time the cheese
pH is around 4.6. The rate and extent of acid production are critical for product
attributes and product stability.
The cheese is dry-salted on all sides and left at room temperature overnight. The
next morning the cheese is transferred to rooms at 10 to 13C with relative humidity
of 95 to 98%. Cheese lies there undisturbed for about a week when white mold
emerges on the surface; the cheese is turned over once. After about 14 days in the
curing room, the cheese is wrapped and left at 100C and 95% relative humidity for
an additional 7 days. The cheese is now transferred to (4.4C) and is ready for
distribution.
As the cheese ripens, the pH increases rapidly to about 7.2 due to deamination
of amino acids and the texture and palatability can begin to change. The detection
of a pronounced ammonia aroma indicates that cheese is overripe; also, the white
cottony mold starts to turn brown on the surface of cheese.

3.8 Cheese from Ultrafiltered Retentate


Ultrafiltration is a sieving process that employs a membrane with definite pores that
are large enough to permit the passage of water and small molecules. When pressure
is applied to a fluid, the semipermeable membrane allows small species to pass

through as permeate and larger species are retained and concentrated as retentate. In
ultrafiltration of milk, nonprotein nitrogen and soluble components such as lactose,
salts, and some vitamins pass through the membrane, whereas milk fat, protein, and
insoluble salts are retained by the membrane.191
During the past 20 years, the use of UF-retentate for cheesemaking has attracted
considerable attention. The "precheese" technology known as the Maubois, Macquot, and Vassal (MMV) process is used in many dairies in the world to produce
cheese varieties such as Camembert, Feta, Brie, cream, Cheddar, Havarti, Colby,
Domiati, Brick, and Mozzarella.191"194
The principle is that the milk is concentrated by ultrafiltration to a composition
very close to the chemical composition of the cheese in question. Then the retentate
is coagulated by starter culture and rennet.
The main advantages of this method are:
1. Substantial increase in yield due to whey protein and minerals inclusion.192
2. Simple, continuous process open to almost complete automation.194
3. Reduction in cheese cost due to reduction in costs of energy, equipment, and
labor.191
4. The process uses substantially less salt and rennet.195
The main disadvantages are194:
1. Cheese becomes very homogeneous and has a high bulk density.
2. The acidification is slow due to high buffer capacity; therefore minimum pH
might be difficult to obtain.
3. Very viscous retentate is difficult to mix with starter and rennet, etc. and cannot
be cooled without solidification.
4. Cheese does not correspond to its definition in properties.
The general conclusion is that the MMV process is not suitable for making cheese
of traditional quality. To overcome these problems, Alfa-Laval194 and others have
tried and developed methods for using UF retentate in the production of variety of
cheese types.195"205
When milk is ultrafiltered and Cheddar-type cheese is made from the retentate
(40% total solids) by a modification of conventional cheesemaking procedures, considerable quantities of whey proteins are lost in whey during syneresis of the curd.
Heat treatment of retentate before coagulation with rennet has been found to reduce
the loss of whey protein and so increase cheese yield.204-205 Heat treatment
(90C/15 s) of retentate reduced the rate of whey loss and slightly improved the curd
structure but did not affect fat losses.204 Light homogenization slightly reduced heat
denaturation of whey protein and fat loss. The structure of the curd from the heated
concentrated milks was coarser than those of the control and the curd particles fused
poorly. This appeared partly responsible for the crumbly texture in the cheeses from
the heated concentrates. The texture was not improved by the addition of a bacterial
proteinase.205

When Cheddar cheese was made from reconstituted retentates, the pH of cheese
rose from 5.2 to 6.0 when cured at 100C and developed eyes and had a flavor
reminiscent of Gouda or Swiss cheese.197 Bush et al.200 prepared satisfactory Colby
but not Brick cheese from creamed skim milk retentate; reductions in cooking temperature and milk-clotting enzyme and elimination of curd-washing were helpful. A
satisfactory Cheddar cheese was made from milk concentrated twofold by ultrafiltration with the following modifications203: (1) Use lower setting, cooking, and cheddaring temperatures. (2) Offset the effect of increased buffer capacity of the UF milk
by the addition of higher amounts (2%) of starter culture. (3) Overcome the slow
ripening rate and flavor development by adding rennet on the basis of the original
amount of milk.
A commercial process called "Siro curd process" for cheese manufacture was
developed at CSIRO and commercialized with the help of APV Bell Bryant, APV
International, Ltd. and the Milk Marketing Board for England and Wales.195 The
process claims a number of benefits and advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A Cheddar yield increase of 6 to 8% over conventional processing.


The make time is reduced by 1 h.
The process uses substantially less salt.
Rennet usage is about one third.
The process and the starter systems are totally enclosed and greatly reduce the
risk of bacteriophage infection.
6. Consistent cheese composition, through accurate automatic control of moisture,
salt, and pH.
7. The process is flexible and adaptable to other cheese types.
8. The process can effectively handle seasonal variations in milk composition.

Manufacture of Mozarella cheese with good melting properties from 1.75:1


retentate volume concentration is described by Fernandez and Kosikowski.202 A
commercial process for Mozzarella manufacture achieving 18% cheese yield was
developed using Pasilac equipment.201 In this process the skim milk is acidified to
pH 6.0 with acetic acid and allowed to sit for 2 h before ultrafiltration. The excess
calcium then follows the permeate phase and the calcium content of the retentate is
reduced to effect the stretching properties of cheese. The retentate is diafiltered to
remove excess lactose which can cause brown discoloration of cheese in making
pizza. The retentate has 38% solids with 34% protein. It is mixed with 82% fat cream
to achieve further high solids with 52% dry matter. The whole process is automated.
Similarly, production of Gouda cheese from UF retentate has been reported.199'200
Another process using preacidification of retentate claims traditional cheese qualities.
Alfa-Laval has developed the Alcurd continuous coagulator; process description
of blue mold cheese is given.194
After years of research with UF retentate, much remains to be understood before
ultrafiltered milk can be successfully converted to hard and semihard cheese varieties.

3.9 Salting of Cheese


In natural cheese, salting of curd is traditional and an integral art of the manufacture
of most if not all cheese varieties. Salt exercises one or more of the following
functions206:
1. It modifies cheese flavor. The unsalted cheese is insipid which is overcome by
0.8% sodium chloride. In the unsalted cheese, body breakdown is rapid and
cheese flavor is not normal.178
2. Salt promotes syneresis and thus regulates the moisture content of cheese.207
3. It reduces water activity (A0) of cheese.208
4. It controls microbial growth and activity. If the salt in the moisture (S/M) value
is <4.5%, the starter numbers remain high in cheese and off-flavors due to starters
are likely.209 For Cheddar cheese, a S/M value between 4.5 and 5.5 is desirable. 210211 At this salt concentration, residual lactose metabolism by starter and
nonstarter lactobacilli is controlled.
5. Salt concentration in cheese has an effect on the rate of proteolysis of both
a sl - and /3-casein.212 In general /3-casein hydrolysis is impeded more by the salt.
Salt can be incorporated in cheese by:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Dry salting, for example, Cheddar, Colby, Cheshire


Brine salting, for example, Swiss, Parmesan, and Dutch cheese varieties
Rubbing dry salt on the surface of cheese, for example, Blue, Gorgonzola
Combination of dry salting and brining.

3.10 Cheese Ripening and Flavor Development


The properties of a cheese depend on its original composition, curing conditions,
and shape and size of the cheese. The combination is largely governed by physiochemical and bacterial processes during curd making and directly afterwards. Both
types of processes affect each other.213
The terms "ripening" and "curing" are sometimes used interchangeably and are
not defined clearly. The term "curing" was arbitrarily applied to the methods and
conditions, that is, temperature, humidity, and other treatment of cheese.214 "Ripening" denotes the chemical and physical changes during curing of cheese. A young
cheese of specific composition is purposely exposed to certain conditions where
limited but essential proteolysis of milk by rennet in concert with proteinase, peptidase, and other activities of starter bacteria augment the shift of microbial populations. The emerging starter and adventitious populations in turn are pressed into
summoning those metabolic activities that must transform the milk components simply to survive. In doing so, the chemical entities generated interact among themselves
and with the microbial population to result in a more flavorful and preserved milk.
Both casein and milkfat hydrolysis are needed for cheese flavor development, but
the rate and extent of such hydrolysis must be controlled to maintain cheese identity.
The distinguishing features of a cheese within a family are a function of smaller but

significant deviations from set practices. The following pairs of cheeses represent
good examples: Edam and Gouda, Brick and Limburger, Mozzarella and Provolone,
and Cheddar and Colby.215
Lactic starter cultures are added to vat milk to give about 106 to 107 cfu/ml. The
amount and type of starter may vary significantly depending on the type of cheese
and characteristics of cheese desired. In most cheese types an overnight pH range is
4.95 to 5.3. The primary biochemical changes involve glycolysis, proteolysis, and
lipolysis. These changes are followed and overlapped by a number of secondary
catabolic changes including deamination, amination, decarboxylation, transamination, desulfurization, /3-oxidation, and some anabolic changes, such as esterification

3,216,217

The number of starter bacteria decline in cheese during ripening. In ripened Cheddar cheese the lactococci constituted only 13% of the total number of bacteria218
while other Gram-positive bacteria from milk formed the majority of the flora. This
indicates large changes in the microflora during ripening.
Proteolysis is critical to the conversion of curd to a well ripened cheese. Casein
degradation in cheese can come from residual microbial proteinases (starter and
nonstarter) and milk proteinases.219"221 Proteolysis is probably the most important
biochemical event during the ripening of most cheese varieties.222 During cheese
manufacture, early proteolysis and coagulation of milk results from rennet cleavage
of Phe 105 -Met 106 of /c-casein.223 This is followed by a general proteolysis in which
the caseins are slowly degraded.

3.10.1 Proteolysis of Caseins


The physical form of casein affects the rate of hydrolysis by rennet enzymes. Ledford
et al. 224 demonstrated that degradation was faster when casein was dissolved than
when in micelles. Dissolved as-casein was hydrolyzed first. Both as- and /3-caseins
yielded two fractions on Sephadex G-50. Peak areas for as-casein proteolysis were
several times that of /3-casein. In asl-casein, PlIe23-PlIe24 is the most sensitive bond
for chymosin.225'226 Hydrolysis of PhC24-VaI25 was reported by Creamer and Richardson,227 who also found that asl-casein A was resistant to chymosin because it
lacked the 14-26 peptide segment. In fact, both 23/24/24/25 bonds are hydrolyzed.228 Proteolytic specificity of first cleavage by chymosin of asl -casein (i.e.,
release of CK51-1, residues 24/25-199) is independent of pH, ionic strength, and urea
content.229-230 The subsequent hydrolysis is dependent on pH, ionic strength, and
state of aggregation. An increase in NaCl concentration from 0 to 20% (w/v) reduced
proteolysis at pH 5.8 whereas at 5% salt level, inhibition was greatest at higher and
lower pH values. Hydrolysis of the primary susceptible bond of asl-casein was
slightly stimulated at pH 5.2. A polypeptide a 5 l - V n was formed at pH 5.8 only in
the presence of 5% NaCl. At pH 5.2 CK51-1 was hydrolyzed to asl_w in a salt-free
system but was hydrolyzed instead to asl_vu and a5l_Vin in the presence of 5.0%
NaCl.228 Gel-filtration studies on asl-casein hydrolysate using Sephadezx G-150 and
electrophoresis showed molecular weight species corresponding to a 5 l - 1 , a 5l _ v ,

si-vni a n ^ a 5i-vm m& o n ty t r a c e f as\-ii' Cheddar cheese contained high levels


of peptides corresponding to these fractions.231
In all there are 26 hydrolyzable bonds in a sl -casein B by chymosin.226
In /3-casein most chymosin susceptible bonds are Leu 192 -Tyr 193 and
Ala 189 -Phe 190 starting from the C-terminal. Hydrolysis of /3-casein is significantly
decreased by increasing ionic strength and is dependent on pH. 226 ' 232

3.10.2 Proteolysis in Cheese


In cheese, the coagulant is mainly responsible for the formation of initial large peptides from Oy1-1 and ^ 1 caseins, by cleaving the 1-23/24 and 190/193-209 segments
respectively,226 after which starter bacteria produce smaller peptide fragments and
free amino acids.222'233'234 The caseins are hydrolyzed to different extents in the
cheese varieties. The asl-fraction was degraded in every cheese; however, /3-caseins
appeared largely intact in some varieties, whereas its content was appreciably diminished in others.233 In addition, alkaline milk proteinase and acid proteinase also
play a part.233 Nath and Ledford235 first reported that para-/c-casein was not hydrolyzed in cheese. This observation was confirmed by other researchers.236
Existence of proteolysis associated with intact metabolizing cells and with preparations from disrupted starter cells has been demonstrated.237"240 The large polypeptides generated by chymosin trapped in the curd are degraded further by enzymes
from starter bacteria and adventitious populations of nonstarter lactobacilli in
cheese.234 Lactobacilli have proteinases that degrade asl and /3-casein.241 These
organisms also possess intracellular aminopeptidases, dipeptidases, carboxypeptidases, and endopeptidases which play a vital role in the production of free amino
acids that are precursors of some cheese flavor compounds. Although largely intracellular, membrane-associated peptidases have been noted. Although weak, intracellular Upases and entrases activity are also thought to contribute to cheese
flavor.241"244
Growth and autolysis of lactic acid bacteria in cheese potentially can release
enzymes and cellular constituents that would serve as metabolites for other microorganisms in cheese.245-246 Some autolysis of culture growing in milk was seen even
during the log phase, even though the cell number decline was not detected.247 The
intracellular enzymes must be released by autolysis to be of any importance in peptide degradation and cheese maturation.247'248 Autolysis of starter bacteria takes place
in cheese and a considerable inter- and intraspecies variation in autolytic behavior
has been noted.249"251 Some strains showed temperature-induced lysis when heated
to 38 to 400C, whereas other strains continued to grow.252 This autolysis difference
among starter bacteria apparently reflects the presence of different enzyme systems,
different sensitivity toward inhibitory substances, or just varying amounts of available active enzyme.251 These differences are speculated to affect the rate of cheese
curing. The thermoinducible mutants appear tempting for use in accelerated cheese
maturation.245

3.10.3 Amino Acid Transformations


The presence of free amino acids in the ripening cheese and the fate of these is
considered important in cheese flavor. The concentration of free amino acids in
cheese correlated well with flavor development and was considered a reliable indicator of ripening.253 Concentrations of methionine, leucine, and glutamic acid were
considered good indicators of proteolysis in cheese.254'255 Views about the relationship between amino acids level and cheese flavor are opposing.256'257 Law and
Sharpe258 considered amino acids to be intermediate products in the production of
certain aromatic compounds.
Many amino acids are decomposed and rebuilt by microbiological enzyme systems.216 Free amino acids can undergo a variety of changes as shown below217:
A. Side chain alteration
Tryptophan Indole
B. Decarboxylation
Lysine > Cadavarine
Glutamate Aminobutyric Acid
Tyrosine - Tyramine
Tryptophan Tryptamine
C. Deamination
Alanine Pyruvate
Tryptophan > Indole
Glutamate - a-Ketogluterate
Serine > Pyruvate
Threonine > a-Ketobutyrate
D. Transamination
Aspartate > Oxalacetate
E. Strickland Rection
Alanine Acetate
Leucine Isovalerate
Proline > y-Aminovalerate
Hydroxyproline > y-Amino-a-hydroxyvalerate

3.10.4 Flavor Development


Lactic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, diacetyl, acetaldehyde, ethanol, and propionic
acid are derived from lactose and citrate in milk. Ketones, lactones, aldehydes, and
fatty acids are mainly derived from lipids.9
Many research groups have sought the chemical basis to answer the riddle of
cheese flavor. Many aspects of cheese chemistry and flavor development have, however, been elucidated and described in reviews over the past 30 years. Mulder 259
and Kosikowski and Mocquot112 proposed that cheese flavor is produced by a blend

of compounds, no one of which produced the characteristic flavor. If the proper


balance of components was not achieved, then undesirable or defective flavors occurred. This view has held ground. Two approaches have been used to study cheese
flavor. One is to isolate and identify flavor contributing components and the other
is to determine the factors that affect or control the development of flavor.260
Experiments with cheese made in aseptic vats261 clearly indicated that starter
bacteria were needed for cheese flavor and this flavor was intensified by the addition
of certain organisms isolated from milk and cheese. The fat is essential to the development of flavor and that the ratio of acetate to total free fatty acids must be in
a given range for typical Cheddar cheese flavor was proposed by Ohren and
Tuckey.262 Kristofferson,263 on the other hand, hypothesized that oxidation of protein
sulfur in milk is critical to cheese flavor development and that the ratio of hydrogen
sulfide to free fatty acids should fall within certain limits.
Manning proposed that sulfur compoundsmethanethiol, H2S, and dimethylsulfidecontribute to the full Cheddar flavor and methanethiol was the most significant component of flavor.264
Methyl ketones265 2-pentanone,266 and a water-soluble, nonvolatile fraction268
containing free amino acids269 are also thought to contribute to the Cheddar cheese
flavor.267"269 In old raw-milk Cheddar, methional, phenols, and pyrazines were considered to be significnt in flavor.260 Other compounds such as ethyl butyrate and
ethyl hexanoate were implicated in the fruity defect in Cheddar cheese; lactones
(C12 and C10, C12, and C 14 8 lactones) were considered to impact Cheddar flavor
directly.269
Aston and Douglas270 noted that H2S and methanethiol increased until the Cheddar cheeses were approximately 6 months and then decreased. They found that carbonyl sulfide levels increased with age of the cheese. They concluded that none of
the volatile sulfur compounds could be considered as reliable indicators of flavor
development. Lloyd and Ramshaw271 used ethanol; propan-2-ol, propan-1-ol, butan2-one, ethyl acetate, butan-2-ol, hydrogen sulfide, menthanethiol, dimethyl sulfide,
acetic acid, lactic acid, and water-soluble nitrogen to objectively characterize several
brands of Cheddar cheese. These objective profiles were compared with subjective
panel assessment and it was concluded that authors could validate a "mark" of
cheese quality. The elements found in Edam, Jarlesberg, vintage Cheddar, and soft
cheese were different. They found that a profile of Feta contained high levels of
volatiles and emphasized the similarity of the starter system to that used for Cheddar
cheese. The lack of several components in Edam and Jarlsberg appeared to reflect
differences in manufacturing and the enzyme systems at work. Differences in cheese
flavor can also come from the feed of cow and the quality of milk used.272 When
raw milk was stored at 2C and 7C, some volatile carbonyls were reduced to the
corresponding alcohols.273 Some carbonyls such as acetone were present in fresh
milk, whereas others were formed from the corresponding amino acids, for example,
3-methylbutanal from leucine. Ethanol, propan-2-ol, and 3-methylbutan-l-ol found
in milk were partially esterified with volatile acid on storage. Sulfur compounds, for
example, dimethyl disulfide and 2,4-dithiapentane, were also formed on storage. The
bacterial cell count, the off-flavors, and volatile production were much greater at

70C than at 2C. Headspace volatiles from cold-stored raw milk and bacterial populations increased in parallel. 274 In the study of aroma compounds in Swiss Gruyere
cheese 275 " 277 it was found that some compounds (benzaldehyde, limonene, camphor,
ketoalcohols, ketones, nitrogen-containing volatiles) were found in much higher concentration in the outer zone whereas esters and lactones were found in the middle
or central zone of the cheese.
What characterizes a given variety of cheese is not yet fully clear. Some of this
is perhaps due to differences in the chemical composition and microbiological flora
of milk, and the manufacturing and ripening of cheese. On top of these differences
are the data from the varied methodologies (distillation, dialysis, and solvent extraction) used for isolation of cheese flavor compounds. In a recent investigation,
techniques of distillation, solvent extraction, and membrane dialysis were compared
on three sets of cheeses. 277 The solvent extraction (acetonitrile) method was the
fastest, cheapest, and gave the most characteristic flavor isolate. Eighty-six odoractive components were detected while one was characterized as cheesy but could
not be identified.277
After many studies and chemical constituent measurements and identifications, a
single compound or a few compounds characteristic of Cheddar flavor have not been
identified. On the contrary, a number of groups of compounds provide correlations
with Cheddar cheese flavor scores of a similar magnitude. This reinforces Mulder's
theory that Cheddar flavor may result from the contribution of many compounds,
which in the correct ratio produce a good flavor.277-278-280

3.11 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes


in Cheddar Cheese
3.11.1 Fate of Lactose
In the manufacture of Cheddar cheese, uniform starter activity is important. The
proper rate of acid development, particularly before the whey is drained from the
curd, is essential to attain proper composition and subsequent events in ripening of
Cheddar cheese. 26 In Cheddar and Colby types of cheeses, about 30 to 40% of the
added culture cells are lost in whey. The cells trapped in the rennet coagulum rapidly
multiply and ferment lactose to lactic acid. The population of starter organisms may
reach in excess of 5 X 10 8 cfu/g in curd before salting. 27 The number of starter
organisms in the fresh curd depends on the strain of culture used and the manufacturing procedure.
The cultures multiply only slightly during coagulation and cooking, but growth
and acid production accelerate after whey is removed and continue through cheddaring as the starter cells are concentrated in the curd. Acid production will continue
until the lactose is depleted. 26 At the time of milling, the curd may have a pH of 5.3
and titratable acidity of whey at 0.57% or higher. 279 It is well established that the
rate of lactic acid fermentation and the amount of lactic acid formed are critical to
the quality of the resulting cheese. Examination of several samples of commercial

Cheddar cheese showed 1.03 to 1.6 g of lactic acid, 72 to 479 mg of lactose, 0.4 to
11 mg of glucose, 2 to 147 mg of galactose, and 0 to 19 mg of succinic acid per
100 g.280 Turner and Thomas64 noticed that lactose utilization and L-lactate production in cheese by starter bacteria was a function of salt-in-moisture (S/M) levels
between 4% and 6%. In a cheese with low S/M levels (about 4%), lactose was
completely utilized in about 8 days and L-lactate was the major end product. In
contrast, with high S/M levels (about 6%) lactose concentrations were high after
several weeks. This residual lactose was utilized by nonstarter bacteria and D-lactate
was a major end product. It is believed that the quality of the resulting cheese may
be determined by the "fate" of this residual lactose, as there is the potential for the
formation of high concentrations of various end products. A greater role of adventitious nonstarter bacteria in cheese flavor production is recognized than previously
acknowledged.64 In another study281 low-lactose cheeses developed most flavor after
1 month, whereas high-lactose cheeses developed most flavor after 3 months. The
high-lactose and control cheeses had a higher and sharper flavor than low-lactose
cheese. The low-lactose cheese with the greatest decrease in lactate contained the
highest concentrations of -SH groups and had the highest pH during curing. The
authors hypothesized that the hydrogen released by lactate dehydrogenation to pyruvate could be used to reduce - S S - to -SH and thus be detected as an increase in
reactive sulfydryls.

3.11.2 Fate of Casein


Salt in the moisture phase not only affects lactose utilization by starter bacteria, it
also controls bacterial growth and enzyme activity in the cheese, especially the proteolytic activity of chymosin,282-283 plasmin,284 and starter proteinases.285 Salt concentration had a large effect on the rate of proteolysis of both asl- and /3-casein. In
1-month-old cheese containing 4% S/M, approximately 5% of the a sl -casein and
50% of the /3-casein remained unhydrolyzed. Corresponding figures for 6% S/M
were 30% and 80%. In Cheddar cheese, S/M value between 4.5% and 5.5% is
targeted. In this range, the rate of metabolism of lactose and proteolysis is controlled
and further adjusted by lower temperature of ripening. Lower temperature of ripening
also controls the growth of nonstarter lactic acid bacteria such as lactobacilli and
pediococci.181 It is now generally recognized that coagulant is primarily responsible
for the formation of large peptides whereas small peptides and free amino acids
result principally due to starter organisms, possibly from coagulant produced peptides.237 Ledford et al.233 first reported that rennet cleaved a sl -casein during the
initial stages of ripening of Cheddar cheese, yielding a product of higher electrophoretic mobility. This large peptide was later identified as Ct51"1 corresponding to
the 24/25-199 of C-terminal of asl-casein.225-286 During the normal ripening of
Cheddar cheese, asl-casein is the principal substrate for proteolysis with little degradation of /3-casein.233
Proteolysis of /3-casein is more extensive when the level of salt is low.287 Peptides
with mobilities and molecular weight identical to asl_v and a^i-vii/vm w e r e present
in Cheddar cheese and were located between asl- and /3-casein.231

A fairly large amount of /3-casein remains unattacked by the proteinases at the


end of ripening.233-288 Proteolysis products of/3-casein (/3-j, /3- n , and /3-m) by rennet
have not been seen in Cheddar, whereas 7-caseins have been noted in most of the
cheese varieties examined;288 these are derived by plasmin activity in Cheddar.283-289
The overall breakdown of /3-casein in Cheddar cheese appears to be small and affected by the salt concentration.284
In Cheddar cheese and other cheeses, asl-casein is always the first to be hydrolyzed and generally extensively degraded. Nath and Ledford235 noted that asl-casein
in Cheddar cheese was completely hydrolyzed in 35 days, whereas /3-casei$ remained intact. Para-zc casein was not proteolyzed at 170 days of cheese ripening.
Creamer and Olson290 found that the amount of intact asl-casein in commercial
Cheddar cheese was related directly to the yield force in a compression test. This
suggests that proteolysis of caseins determines the rheological properties of cheese.

3.11.3 Microbiological Changes


Cheddar-type cheese is internally ripened by chymosin in concert with starter proteinases and adventitious lactobacilli. Franklin and Sharpe291 noted that lactobacilli
may be present in small numbers in curd. They are the only lactic acid bacteria to
multiply in the maturing cheese. A number of species of lactobacilli have been
isolated from cheese. These include L. casei varieties, L. plantarum, L. fermentum,
L. brevis, L. buchneri, L. curvatus, and many others. Micrococci, aerobic and anaerobic spore formers, and enterococci are also seen in cheese at 10 to 104cfu/g
and these numbers generally decline during ripening.
As stated earlier, for normal ripening of cheese, a high starter population must
lyse to release proteinases and peptidases to effect cheese flavor, body, and texture
development.292 The intensity of Cheddar flavor was not increased in starter cheeses
by the presence of additional lysozyme-treated starter cells and no Cheddar flavor
developed in chemically acidified cheese containing the lysozyme-treated cells. It
was concluded that the intracellular starter enzymes play no direct part in flavor
formation but produce breakdown products from which Cheddar flavor compounds
may be formed by other unknown mechanisms.293 Cheese flavor intensity seems to
be closely related to soluble nitrogen compounds, especially amino acids and small
peptides.267*268
Lactobacilli are the only lactic acid bacteria to increase significantly in number
during maturation of Cheddar cheese, except for the less frequently occurring pediococci (most often R pentosaceus), which may multiply at a similar rate and reach
levels as great as 107 cfu/g.27 The fact that lactobacilli can multiply in ripening cheese
whereas most other bacteria decrease in numbers has caused investigations into the
means by which strains of this genus can sustain growth in an environment nearly
devoid of fermentable carbohydrates.294 The subject of lactobacilli in cheese was
recently reviewed.244*294 Following is a brief perspective on the means of survival
and growth of lactobacilli in cheese.
Lactobacilli isolated from cheese grew poorly in milk, perhaps from lack of suitable available nitrogen.295 Serum of mature Cheddar cheese inhibited Lactobacillus

brevis, whereas sera of 4- to 6-month old cheese supported its growth.296 Peptides
from mature Edam cheese were stimulatory to L. casei?91 Recent studies indicate
that cheeseborne lactobacilli possess significant proteinase and peptidase activities.257 >298'299 Perhaps these activities are needed to cope with large concentrations
of protein and peptide fractions present in a carbohydrate-depleted cheese matrix
held at low temperature. Nath and Ledford235 demonstrated that aqueous fractions
from 120-day- and 180-day-old cheese were stimulatory to L. casei growing in milk.
In younger cheese there were inhibitory and stimulatory fractions. Evidence was also
presented that the stimulatory peptides came from as-casein. Other than peptides,
common compounds found in the stimulatory fractions were Af-acetylhexosamine,
glutamic acid, and riboflavin. However, riboflavin added to milk was not stimulatory.
The essential amino acids are utilized more efficiently from peptides containing them
than from an equivalent amount of the essential amino acids in free form.299"301
Carbohydrates bound to proteins,302 citrate,303 and glycerol304 can serve as a carbon
source for lactobacilli in cheese. Thomas246 showed evidence that dying starter bacteria present in cheese can also serve as carbon source for emerging lactobacilli in
cheese. The intracellular contents of starter bacteria may provide small molecular
weight (somewhat heat stable) growth promoting substance(s) for lactobacilli.305
There is a great deal of interest in shortening the ripening period of cheese by the
use of added nonstarter mesophilic lactobacilli.306"309 It was concluded that even
among the homofermentative lactobacilli, only a few, two out of 22, were found
suitable for accelerated aged cheese ripening. Strains of L. casei subsp. casei and L.
casei subsp. pseudoplantarum yielded high quality cheese whereas other strains
caused some off-flavors.307 Strains of L. casei subsp. rhamnosus contributed to high
acidity and low pH. All amino acids increased during ripening and were higher in
the Lactobacillus-zdded cheeses than in the control cheese. Glutamic acid, leucine,
phenylalanine, valine, and lysine were detected in large quantities. The proteolytic
process and accumulation of higher concentrations of free amino acids were affected
by higher ripening temperature.306 In these experiments, hetero- and homofermentative lactobacilli produced similar proteolytic breakdown, but the former resulted
in off-flavors and gassy cheese.306 High levels of y-amino acid butyrate (0.3 to 19.4
mg/g) were associated with poor quality aged cheese.310

3.11.4 Fate of Fat


It is well known that Cheddar cheese from skim milk does not develop full typical
flavor, indicating that fat is required for the development of characteristic cheese
flavor.262 Free fatty acids (FFAs) play a major role in flavors of many cheese varieties. They have been considered the backbone of Cheddar cheese flavor by Patton311
and are thought to contribute cheesiness in Cheddar cheese.312'313 Acetic acid is
found in cheese and its concentration can vary considerably in cheese.314 It probably
adds to the sharp mouthfeel of cheese conferred by lactic acid concentration, but
overproduction of acetic acid can lead to a vinegarlike off-flavor.315 The claim that
ratios of acetic acid to other fatty acids are important determinants of Cheddar
flavor262 have not been confirmed.314-315 Acetic acid in cheese arises through mi-

crobial activity whereas other volatile fatty acids increase in cheese due to the weak
esterase and lipase activities of the milk and the starter bacteria.316 It was shown that
mesophilic starters hydrolyzed mono- and diglycerides but their activity on triglycerides was very weak. Volatile fatty acids can also arise from amino acids via oxidative demination activity of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacety lactis,317
but this activity is considered uncertain in cheese.318 It is widely believed that lipolytic and esterolytic activities of lactic acid bacteria are limited, but the search for
these enzymes in lactococci and lactobacilli is continuing,245-247'319 perhaps to find
a suitable replacement for glottal tissues and enzymes320 which are added to cheese
for rapid and increased flavor development.

3.11.5 Flavor of Cheddar Cheese


Many flavor compounds are chemical interactions of microbially derived substrates
under conditions of low pH and low oxidation reduction potential. Numerous compounds such as hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, lactone,
and sulfur are important in cheese flavor. Hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide methanethiol, diacetyl,321 phenylacetaldehyde, phenylacetic acid and phenethanol,322 butanone diacetyl and pentan-2-one323 terpenes ethyl butyrate,324 methanol, pentan-2one, diacetyl, and ethyl butyrate325 are considered key compounds of good Cheddar
flavor. In a recent study,277 86 odor-active components were found. Most of these
compounds possessed odors characteristic of free fatty acids, ketones, and saturated
and unsaturated aldehydes. The researchers also identified 2-propanol, 1,3-butanediol, 7-decalactone, and 5-undecalactone in cheese for the first time. One component
that had a weak cheeselike aroma and eluted after butyric acid from the gas chromatograph could not be identified. These authors also support the component theory
for Cheddar cheese flavor.

3.12 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes


in Swiss Cheese
Swiss, Emmentaler, and Gruyere type cheeses are made with thermophilic streptococci and lactobacilli to which propionibacteria are added for eye formation. During
the early phases of cheesemaking S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus multiplies rapidly
and utilizes the glucose moiety of lactose to produce L-lactate, leaving behind galactose.326 Lactobacilli start vigorous acid production after whey drainage when the
curd temperature drops to 46 to 49C. At 1 day, population of streptococci and
lactobacilli reach a little over 108 cfu/g.327 In large blocks of cheese there are temperature gradients. The center of the cheese cools more slowly than the periphery.328
As a consequence, the lactic acid fermentation starts more rapidly in the outer area
where the temperature has dropped compared to the center of the cheese. The growth
of the starter streptococci and lactobacilli is greater in the periphery of cheese than
in the center. This difference may be as large as one log in population.

The propionibacteria added to cheese milk do not show measurable growth during
cheese manufacture. Growth of these organisms starts after the whey is drained and
the population may reach 106 cfu/g in 24 h.
During the hot room curing, the number of lactic starter bacteria decline by a log
or more to 106 cfu/g or less whereas the propionibacteria reach a population in excess
of 5 X 108 cfu/g.327 During the hot room curing, growth of enterococci (Group D
streptococci) and homofermentative and heterofermentative lactobacilli also takes
place. A typical Swiss cheese made from milk heat treated at 64.5C/18 s contained
propionbacteria (6 X 108), total lactobacilli (2 X 108), L. fermentum (4 X 107),
enterococci (5 X 105), aerobic sporeformers (5 X 102), and presumptive anaerobic
sporeformers (~10 3 ) per gram of cheese at 60 days. The lactobacilli population
consisted of L. casei subsp. casei, L. casei subsp. alactosus, L. plantarum, and
L. fermentum. At this point no starter lactic acid bacteria were detected at 10 ~ 3
dilution.329

3.12.1 Fate of Lactose


In milk cultures, S. thermophilus metabolizes lactose to L-( + )-lactic acid utilizing
only the glucose moiety and leaves the galactose free in the medium.326 The thermophilic L. helveticus can utilize lactose with the production of D- and L-lactic acid
and it is galactose positive. L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and L. delbrueckii subsp.
lactis generally do not utilize galactose and produce D-lactate in milk.46 About 1.7%
lactose was present in Swiss cheese curd after the curd was pumped.330 It was rapidly
metabolized during the 10 h in the press (<0.1 %). At 1 day no lactose was detectable.
A low level of glucose (0.15%) was present in the curd at 4 h into press. At 10 h,
curd contained 0.7% galactose which fell to 0.3% in 1 day whereas no glucose was
detected. Halfway (14 days) through the hotroom curing, galactose was undetectable
and the cheese contained 1.2% L-lactate and 0.35% D-lactate. In 35 days during cure,
L-lactate decreased from 1.2% to 0.2%, whereas D-lactate increased to 0.4% at 21
days and fell to about 0.1% in 35 days. At 35 days, acetate and propionate were
present at concentrations of 0.25% and 0.55%, respectively.330
It has been pointed out that carbohydrate fermentation balance will change according to the type and level of lactobacilli used for cheesemaking.331 Both D- and
L-lactate accumulation and the disappearance of galactose in cheese were more rapid
with higher inoculum of lactobacilli.46

3.12.2 CO2 Production


Under normal conditions the propionic acid fermentation is the source of CO2 production and eye formation. The accepted equation of this fermentation is331-332:
3 Lactate - 1 Acetate + 2 Proprionate + CO2 4- H2O
Under certain conditions lactate is also fermentated to butyric acid according to the
equation333
2 Lactate -> 1 Butyrate + CO2 + 2H2

It has been noted that instead of production of 2:1 propionate to acetate ratio from
lactate, 1.16:1.00 to 2.15:100 occurred in cheese. 331 Crow and Turner334 attempted
to explain this discrepancy by taking into consideration the production of succinate
in Swiss cheese as follows.
The succinate is formed at the expense of an equivalent concentration of propionate and CO 2 which are formed from lactate or carbohydrate. The quantity of
acetate produced from lactate is unaffected by succinate formation due to this CO 2
fixation step. Citric acid, malic acid, and fumaric acid are also metabolized to succinic acid. 335 Acetate is also produced from citric acid and lactate by cheese lactobacilli. 336 Aspartic acid is converted to succinate during lactate fermentation by
strains of Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp. shermanii.337 This resulted in a
greater proportion of the lactate being fermented to acetate and CO 2 rather than to
propionate. The CO 2 fixation and aspartate pathways in propionibacteria, although
both producing succinate, give rise respectively to a decrease and an increase in CO 2
production from lactate. 334 It was postulated that eye formation in Swiss cheese
would be affected by the contribution of both these pathways to succinate production.
Experiments with propionibacteria suggest that carbohydrates, when present in
cheese, may be used directly by the propionibacteria along with aspartate and lactate. 334 In another study, 337 it was shown that aspartate was cometabolized with
lactate by propionibacteria. After lactate exhaustion, alanine was one of the two
amino acids to be metabolized according to the following equation338:
3 Alanine > 2 Propionate 4- 1 Acetate 4- CO 2 + 3 Ammonia
Studies with resting cell suspensions of propionibacteria in an amino acid mixture
showed that amino acids were potential sources of CO 2 production in Swiss cheese
during long-term storage, possibly causing secondary fermentation and split defect
in cheese. 339

3.12.3 Eye Formation


The quality of Swiss cheese is judged by the size and distribution of eyes. Swiss
cheese eyes are essentially due to CO 2 production, diffusion, and accumulation in
the cheese body. 184 The number and size of eyes depend on CO 2 pressure; diffusion
rate; and body, texture, and temperature of cheese. Fluckiger340'341 followed CO 2
production and eye formation in Emmental cheese for 5 months during ripening. He
found a total production of 130 to 150 L of CO 2 per 100 kg of cheese. This volume
was composed of 50% dissolved gas, 15% of CO 2 present in the eyes, and 30% lost
by diffusion through the paste (cheese). It was noticed that the values of CO 2 from
calculations were lower than those that were measured.341 The difference was 50 to
70 L per 100 kg. It was explained that the calculated gas was based on fermentation
and did not take into consideration the decarboxylation of amino acids. Aspartate
and alanine catabolism also contributes to CO 2 production.334-335 In another study,
French Emmental cheese was wrapped in gas-tight bags and analyzed for dissolved
gas and the gas present in the eyes. The comparison of measured CO 2 to calculated
CO 2 from the volatile fatty acids was in good agreement.333 The increase in the eye

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volume occurred at the same time as the gas diffusion. This observation opposes the
generally accepted hypothesis that CO2 saturates the cheese before diffusion and
forms the eyes at the same time that its release is restrained by the rind.330 It is
believed that CO2 diffusion, eye formation, and dissolution in the cheese are simultaneous. A scanning electron microscope study of Emmental cheese revealed that
casein micelles compacted during manufacturing and ripening. The fat globules lost
their integrity and appeared as large masses with diverse forms. A few junctions in
the grain and the formation of gas microbubbles were observed which may be responsible for eye formation.342

3.12.4 Fate of Proteins


The Swiss cheese curd is cooked to about 52C and at this temperature the coagulant
is rendered inactive. In this type of cheese, bulk of casein proteolysis results from
proteolytic enzymes of lactic acid bacteria and milk proteinase.283 At 42 days, Swiss
type cheese had retained 70% of its original plasmin activity. Ollikainen and
Nyberg343 noticed higher than expected plasmin activity in cheese during ripening,
due possibly to the increasing pH. They also noted that unclean flavor was associated
with low plasmin activity. In Swiss cheese a?s-casein is more proteolyzed than
0-casein.233'329

3.12.5 Flavor of Swiss Cheese


Cheese flavor is derived in part from cheese milk. Production of Swiss cheese with
desirable body, flavor, and texture requires that milk be of low count and properly
clarified. Mild heat treatment, 68 to 72C/15 to 18 s, is recommended.344 However,
the characteristic flavor of Swiss-type cheese comes from microbial transformation
of milk components. These contain milk-soluble volatiles (acetic acid, propionic
acid, butyric acid, and diacetyl) which give the basic sharpness and general cheesy
notes.322-345 Water-soluble nonvolatile amino acids (especially proline), peptides,
lactic acid, and salts provide mainly sweet notes. Oil-soluble fractions (short-chain
fatty acids) are also important to flavor.346 Nutty flavor is attributed to alkylpyrizines.322 Several compounds, for example, ketones, aldehydes, esters, lactones, and
sulfur-containing compounds are also important.315-331 Due to the activity of certain
strains of lactobacilli and fecal streptococci, biogenic amines are sometimes found
in Swiss cheese.347

3.13 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes


in Gouda Cheese
Gouda and Edam cheese are made with mesophilic lactic starters containing citrate
fermenting lactococci and leuconostoc. Gouda cheese has slightly higher fat than
Edam. Gouda cheese milk is standardized to casein-to-fat ratios of 0.8 to 0.82

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volume occurred at the same time as the gas diffusion. This observation opposes the
generally accepted hypothesis that CO2 saturates the cheese before diffusion and
forms the eyes at the same time that its release is restrained by the rind.330 It is
believed that CO2 diffusion, eye formation, and dissolution in the cheese are simultaneous. A scanning electron microscope study of Emmental cheese revealed that
casein micelles compacted during manufacturing and ripening. The fat globules lost
their integrity and appeared as large masses with diverse forms. A few junctions in
the grain and the formation of gas microbubbles were observed which may be responsible for eye formation.342

3.12.4 Fate of Proteins


The Swiss cheese curd is cooked to about 52C and at this temperature the coagulant
is rendered inactive. In this type of cheese, bulk of casein proteolysis results from
proteolytic enzymes of lactic acid bacteria and milk proteinase.283 At 42 days, Swiss
type cheese had retained 70% of its original plasmin activity. Ollikainen and
Nyberg343 noticed higher than expected plasmin activity in cheese during ripening,
due possibly to the increasing pH. They also noted that unclean flavor was associated
with low plasmin activity. In Swiss cheese a?s-casein is more proteolyzed than
0-casein.233'329

3.12.5 Flavor of Swiss Cheese


Cheese flavor is derived in part from cheese milk. Production of Swiss cheese with
desirable body, flavor, and texture requires that milk be of low count and properly
clarified. Mild heat treatment, 68 to 72C/15 to 18 s, is recommended.344 However,
the characteristic flavor of Swiss-type cheese comes from microbial transformation
of milk components. These contain milk-soluble volatiles (acetic acid, propionic
acid, butyric acid, and diacetyl) which give the basic sharpness and general cheesy
notes.322-345 Water-soluble nonvolatile amino acids (especially proline), peptides,
lactic acid, and salts provide mainly sweet notes. Oil-soluble fractions (short-chain
fatty acids) are also important to flavor.346 Nutty flavor is attributed to alkylpyrizines.322 Several compounds, for example, ketones, aldehydes, esters, lactones, and
sulfur-containing compounds are also important.315-331 Due to the activity of certain
strains of lactobacilli and fecal streptococci, biogenic amines are sometimes found
in Swiss cheese.347

3.13 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes


in Gouda Cheese
Gouda and Edam cheese are made with mesophilic lactic starters containing citrate
fermenting lactococci and leuconostoc. Gouda cheese has slightly higher fat than
Edam. Gouda cheese milk is standardized to casein-to-fat ratios of 0.8 to 0.82

whereas Edam cheese milk is brought to a casein-to-fat ratio of 1.06 to 1.08.348


Edam and Gouda curd is cooked to 35C using hot water. The curd is pressed under
whey to obtain a close texture. The formed cheese is brined in 14% brine at 14C.
The cheese is cured at 12 to 16C and 85 to 90% relative humidity.349

3.13.1 Fate of Lactose


The pH of the cheese should be 5.7 to 5.9 after 4 h from the start of the manufacture,
and 5.3 to 5.5 after 5.5 h. The pH of the cheese is 5.1 to 5.2 in about 24 h. 350 Lactose
is fermented almost completely and rapidly. Fermentation of citric acid is of particular importance to eye formation. In Edam and Gouda, CO 2 for eye formation comes
from the residual citrate in cheese and not from lactate as in Swiss cheese.349

3.13.2 Fate of Proteins


The initial proteolysis in cheese is due to the rennet enzymes and further proteolysis
is brought about by enzymes of starter bacteria and to a much lesser extent by milk
proteinase.349 Proteolysis in Gouda cheese is much like in Cheddar cheese where
virtually all of asl-casein is degraded leaving behind /3-casein.233'351 In cheese trials
using purified calf chymosin and microbiologically produced chymosin, it was demonstrated that proteolysis of a 5l + 2~ ^ d /3-casein took place rapidly during the first
3 months of ripening. Subsequently, the protein breakdown occurred more slowly
and after 6 months 20% of asl + 2 - and 30 to 40% of P-casein remained. A marked
increase in y-caseins was also observed, indicating that milk proteinase was active.352 In a recent study of water-soluble extracts of Gouda cheese after ripening
for 1, 2, and 3 months, three major peaks were isolated which increased in size as
the cheese ripened.256 The amino acid compositions of these peptides were similar
to the fragments of asl-casein (fl-9), a sl -casein (fl 13), and a sl -casein (fl 14).
The asl-casein (fl23) was hydrolyzed by cellular proteinases of Streptococcus
cremoris H61 to seven main peptides including the three mentioned above. This
study clearly indicates that a sl -casein degradation in Gouda and perhaps other
cheeses is caused by lactic acid bacterial proteinases.256
Several factors in cheesemaking affect proteolysis by rennet and these are353:
1. The quantity of rennet used in cheesemaking.
2. Moisture in cheese.
3. pH of cheese during manufacture; the lower the pH, the more calf rennet is
bound to para-K-casein.
4. The amount of starter used.
5. The rate of acidification and the initial pH of the cheese milk and its composition.
6. Cooking temperature of curd; the higher the temperature, the less active is the
rennet.
7. Heat treatment of the milk; the more intensive, the more rennet the curd will
contain.

8. The salt level in cheese.


9. Bacteriophages.
10. Inhibitors in milk.
Factors 9 and 10 affect indirectly by affecting culture activity.

3.13.3 Fate of Fat


A limited lipolysis in Gouda cheese is desirable as it adds to its flavor balance, but
greater fat acidity is not desirable.349 In pasteurized milk (72C/15 s) much of the
milk lipase is destroyed which can act on the triglycerides in milk to generate monoand diglycerides. 349 The starter and lactobacilli esterases and Upases act on the monoand diglyceride fractions to liberate FFAs. 316 A high count milk may have higher
levels of FFAs. 316

3.13.4 Microbiological Changes


In Gouda cheese a high number of starter bacteria are seen at the time of brining.
Their rate of disappearance in cheese depends on the strain of the organism. 354 In
addition, a considerable difference was found among lactococci in their ability to
liberate amino acids and other flavor compounds. Lactobacilli are always present in
cheese. Their numbers can increase dramatically from as low as 1 cfu/g in milk to
> 1 0 7 cfu/in cheese in several weeks. 355 It is believed that lactobacilli do not add
positively to the flavor of Gouda cheese. If anything, their presence in large numbers
is believed to cause off-flavors and texture defects. 355

3.13.5 Flavor of Gouda Cheese


It is generally accepted that lactic acid, diacetyl, CO 2 , peptides, amino acids, and
FFAs contribute to the flavor of cheese. Several secondary compounds, resulting
from transformations of lactic acid, also affect flavor. These are aldehydes, ketones,
alcohols, esters, organic acids, and CO 2 . Cheese also contains volatile compounds
arising from the degradation of amino acids, for example, ammonia, amines, hydrogen sulfide, and phenylacetic acid. 356 - 357 Anethole, 2,4-dithiopentane, and several
alkyl pyrazines and bismethylthiomethane are considered important aroma compounds in Gouda cheese. 358

3.14 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Mold-Ripened Cheese
3.14.1 Blue Cheese
Blue cheese and its relativesRoquefort, Gorgonzola, and Stiltonare characterized by peppery, piquant flavors produced by the mold Penicillium roqueforti. This
mold can tolerate low oxygen and high CO 2 tension and is relatively halotolerant.189

For these cheese types, acid development is slow and the curd mass is not
pressed.190 This promotes an open texture necessary for the CO2 to escape and
oxygen to gain access.
Cheese is ripened at 8 to 120C with relative humidity of 95%. Due to high acid
and salt, the starter lactococci decline rapidly in 2 to 3 weeks.279 After salting the
surface flora mostly consists of yeast and micrococci.359 The yeasts start to grow
and deacidify the curd on the surface.
In 2 to 3 weeks Brevibacterium linens appears on the surface of cheese.360 Growth
of mold in cheese is evident in 8 to 10 days and development is complete in 30 to
90 days. Lactobacilli (L. casei varieties and L. plantarum) are also present in the
cheese.
Due to deacidification of the cheese and extensive proteolysis, the cheese pH rises
from 4.5 to 4.7 at 24 h to a maximum of 6.0 to 7.0 at 16 to 18 weeks. The increase
is more rapid and pronounced on the surface. Molds are both proteolytic and lipolytic, resulting in extensive proteolysis and lipolysis of cheese.361 In Blue cheese
both a 5l - and /3-casein are degraded.329 There is a large accumulation of free amino
acids due to extracellular acidic and alkaline endopeptidases.362-363 Maximum proteolytic activity in cheese occurs during the first few weeks when mycelium has
attained full growth.364 Sodium chloride and free fatty acids depress proteinase activity and prevent excessive proteolysis.361 The contribution of plasmin,363 Geotrichum candidum365 yeast, and B. linens366 in proteolysis and flavor production in
mold-ripened cheeses is well recognized. The occurrence of citrulline, ornithine,
y-aminobutyric acid, histamine, tyramine, and tryptamine reflects amino acid breakdown products.362 Amino acid breakdown products can also generate ammonia,
aldehyde, acids, alcohols, amine, and methanethiol.362 Amino acids also enhance
methyl ketone production.361
The quality of Blue cheese flavor critically depends on the metabolism of lipid
substrate in cheese. The unique and dominating flavor of mold-ripened cheeses
comes from methyl ketones which are predominantly derived from partial oxidation
of FFAs resulting in a ketone with one less carbon atom.367 Activity of lipase to
liberate FFAs is important in the production of methyl ketones.361 Homogenization
of milk promotes lipolysis. Also, there is evidence that some strains of P. camemberti
possess mono- and diacylglycerol lipase.368 The enzyme was separated into two
forms, A and B. B enzyme was the predominant form and was specific for monoand diacylglycerol and preferred long-chain monoacylglycerols in the a-position. Of
the various methyl ketones, 2-heptanone is usually the most abundant followed by
2-nonanone, 2-pentanone, and 2-undecanone.361 /8-Decarboxylase activity was
shown to be present in resting spores, germinated spores, and mycelium; /3-ketolaurate was actively decarboxylated to 2-undecanone.369 Activity of the enzyme was
in the order of mycelium > germinating spores > resting spores. Of various /3ketoacid substrates, /3-ketolaurate was the preferred substrate for mold decarboxylase.370 It is believed that in later stages of cheese ripening, spore metabolism is
favored where spores can continue to generate methyl ketones in the presence of
high fatty acid concentration and at relatively high CO2 levels.361 Methyl ketones
(2-alkanones) are easily reduced to their corresponding secondary alcohols

(2-alkanols) supposedly to minimize the toxic effects of methyl ketones on the


mold.371 Flavor-simulation studies suggest that 8-tetradecalactone and S-dodecalactone improved the quality of the cheese flavor.372-373 Addition of 5-tetradecalactone
and S-dodecalactone improved the quality of Blue cheese flavor. It has been proposed
that traces of 5-hydroxyacid in milk glycerides released by lipases during cheese
ripening may undergo ring closure to form lactones, or they may be converted enzymically.374 The production of S-lactones can also arise by the lipase release of
esterified 5-ketoacids in milk glycerides. These ketoacids are reduced to hydroxyacids and then converted into lactones. Such a pathway has been demonstrated in
yeasts and molds.374

3.14.2 Camembert and Brie Cheese


These are soft white cheeses that are ripened by external mold growth. The mold
involved is Penicilliwn camemberti or its biotypes P. Caseicolum and P. candidum.
These cheeses have a relatively high water activity (0.98) and a low pH (4.6) at
make time.189
Lactose in the exterior of cheese disappears in about 15 days, whereas lactose in
the interior and galactose and L-lactate in cheese disappear by 30 days.375 First to
appear on surface of the cheese are yeasts, Kluyveromyces lactis, Sacchromyces
cerivisae, and Debaryomyces hanseni and deacidify the cheese. Geotrichum candidum also appears at the same time but growth is somewhat limited.362 After 5 to 7
days, the surface of cheese is less acid and salt has diffused into the cheese. P.
camemberti appears on the surface and growth is complete in 15 to 20 days. At this
time micrococci and sometimes B. linens is seen on the cheese surface.362 At the
end of cheesemaking, curd has about 60% moisture and after 1 month cheese must
not lose more than 5 to 7% moisture at the time of packaging.
In Camembert, ripening of the cheese takes place from the surface to the center
of the cheese. On the surface, pH of the cheese rises to ~7.0 due to proteolytic
activity of the organisms. Due to deamination of amino acids, ammonia is released
which contributes to the aroma profile of cheese. Ammonia constitutes about 7 to
9% of the soluble nitrogen.362
j3-Casein is not degraded extensively and asl-casein degradation is less than in
Cheddar,233 and the appearance of some y-caseins suggests plasmin activity in
cheese.363 Free fatty acids found in large quantities, 22.27 13.73 meq acid/100 g
of fat, contribute to the basic flavor of cheese and serve as the precursors of methyl
ketones and secondary alcohols. Primary alcohols, secondary alcohols, methyl ketones, aldehydes, esters (ethyl esters of C2, C4, C6, C8, C10, butyrate 2-phenylethyl
acetate), lactones (C9, C 10 , C12), phenol, /7-cresol, hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol,
methlylsulfide, and other sulfur compounds along with anisoles, amines, and other
compounds constitute the volatile compounds of Camembert cheese.376

3.15 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in Bacteria


Surface-Ripened Cheese
3.15.1 Brick Cheese
Brick cheese is a representative of a large group of cheeses (Limburger, Muenster,
Tilsiter, Bel Paese, and Trappist) that are ripened by growth of bacteria and yeast
on the surface. The organisms involved are yeast, micrococci, and B. linens.279
When Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus is used along with L. lactis
subsp. lactis as a starter, it will grow rapidly during cooking and for a few hours
after the curd is drained. Growth of this organism stops when temperature of the
curd drops to about 32C or lower. Growth of lactococci continues and pH of the
cheese reaches 5.1 to 5.3. 377 After brining for 1 or more days, cheese is held at about
15C in a room with 90-95% relative humidity (RH). Yeast (Mycoderma) appear
on the surface in 2 or 3 days followed by micrococci and then B. linens. The yeast
oxidize the acid on the surface of cheese making it less acid, thus permitting growth
of micrococci and B. linens and the pH of cheese surface may reach 5.4 in a 2-week
period. Sometimes Geotrichum candidum may also be present. a s l -Casein is always
hydrolyzed but /3-casein disappearance was seen in Muenster and not in brick.233
Yeasts isolated from surface-ripened cheeses also contribute to the proteolysis of
cheese.381 Yeasts found on Limburger cheese synthesize considerable amounts of
pantothenic acid, niacin, and riboflavin.382 Pantothenic acid and/?-aminobenzoic acid
are required by B. linens. Liberated free amino acids are much higher on the surface
of cheese where B. linens is present.383 It is clear that association among different
organisms present on the surface of cheese is essential to the definition of cheesesmear and its role in flavor production. It has been suggested that yeasts and B. linens
are essential for flavor of Brick cheese but typical flavor is attained only in the
presence of micrococci.378'379 Organisms of the genus Arthrobacter are also isolated
from surface ripened cheese and appear earlier than B. linens in the presence of
salt.384 B. linens is very proteolytic and able to convert methionine into methanethiol.385'386 Many of the compounds formed on the surface of cheese are absorbed
into the cheese and compounds such as methyl mercaptan and 2-butanone were
higher at the surface and H2S, dimethyl disulfide, acetone, and ethanol were higher
in the interior of cheese.387

3.16 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes


in Mozzarella Cheese
Mozzarella cheese is primarily used on pizza, lasagna, and other recipes in cooking.
Consequently, good quality of Mozzarella refers to its stretchability, meltability, and
shredability with little pronounced flavor. In order to preserve these characteristics
some manufacturers freeze Mozzarella after it has been graded.388 Several factors
affect the physical properties of Mozzarella, including salt, pH, fat, moisture, and
microbiology of the ripening cheese. Salt (NaCl) concentration between 1% and

2.4% has little effect.188 Lower concentrations of salt cause softening and a high
level of salt promotes firmness. As the moisture and FDB (fat on dry basis) of cheese
increases, the cheese becomes soft and less shredable.389 Cheese made with a mixture
of mesophilic starter and S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus starter tends to have a
greater protein and fat hydrolysis during storage. Such cheese is difficult to shred
and has atypical flavor when aged. The molded cheese is brinned. Cheese should
have pH 5.2 (range pH 5.1 to 5.4) as it ensures sufficient removal of calcium from
the caseins to effect proper stretch.390 When cheese was made with proteinasedeficient and proteinase-positive single strains of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus,
cheese from proteinase-deficient strains lost its ability to stretch after 7 days. With
time stretchability decreased for all cheese.188
Cheese made with proteinase-deficient strains melted more easily than cheese
made with proteinase-positive cultures. These differences were not dramatic after 28
days of storage.188 Cheese made with normal starter composed of rod and coccus
melted better and was more brown on cooking than proteinase-deficient pairs. It was
noticed that as stretch decreased with time, melt increased.188 asl-Casein is proteolyzed to a lesser degree by rennet enzymes compared to other cheese types, whereas
j3-casein is largely intact. This level of rennet proteolysis of milk protein appears
sufficient to give the melt and stretch characteristics to cheese during hot water
kneading at about 570C. Creamer391 suggested that stretching properties may be
related to higher concentrations of intact casein and large peptides in the cheese.
There is little lipolysis and fatty acid liberation in traditional Mozzarella
cheese.392
Mozzarella and Provolone are manufactured in a similar manner. The former is
consumed fresh while the latter may be ripened at 12.5C for 3 to 4 weeks and then
stored at 4.5C for 6 to 12 months for grating.43 The ripened cheeses have mainly
L. casei and its subspecies. Provolone has more lipolytic flavors than Mozzarella.
Provolone may be molded in pear, cylindrical, or salami shapes. Smoked Provolone
is also popular in trade.

3.17 Microbiological and Biochemical Changes in


Parmesan and Romano Cheese
Parmesan and Romano cheese are made with S. salivarius subsp. thermophilus,
L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, or other species of thermophilic lactobacilli. In
addition to rennet, pregastric estrases, or rennet paste may be added to cheese milk
for their lipolytic activity. The curd is cooked to 51 to 54C, when the whey acidity
reaches about 0.2% it is hooped (packed) in round forms. Sometimes salt is added
to the curd, which slows the starter and regulates moisture. The cheese at pH 5.1 to
5.3 is placed in 24% brine for several days.
Compared to other cheese types, the starter population in the fresh cheese is low.
Throughout cheese ripening, 12 to 24 months, cheese flora seldom exceeds
105 cfu/g393 and fecal streptococci and salt-tolerant lactobacilli predominate. In these
hard grating cheese as- and j3-caseins are not overly proteolyzed compared to other

cheese varieties.394 However, a high concentration of y-casein in some samples


indicates plasmin activity. This is attributed to high cooking temperatures of curd,
which inactivate the coagulant, and the high salt in the moisture, which discourages
growth of adventitious flora. In ripened cheeses quality varies from location to location. Volatile free fatty acid and nonvolatile free fatty acid (C4 through C18) concentrations are high in these cheeses, particularly in Romano.392 Butyric acid and
minor branched-chain fatty acids that occur in milk appear to contribute to the piquant flavor of Parmesan.
The total concentrations of methyl ketones in grana cheese are quite low, 0.075
/jM/g fat, compared with those in blue (19.14 /xM/g), Roquefort (5.18 [iM/g), and
even Cheddar (0.24 /jM/g). The proportions of all methyl ketones, except C3, in
grana were similar to the proportions of /3-ketoacids in the cheese fat, suggesting
the spontaneous formation of methyl ketones from /3-ketoacids in grana cheese.394
It is claimed that addition of 1-phenylpropionic acid and isovaleric acid to fresh
cheese curds imparted Italian cheese flavor.328 For a more balanced flavor, a concomitant increase in free amino acids (glutamic acid, aspartic acid, valine, and alanine) has been noted. Too high a free fatty acid level in cheese gives a strong, soapy,
undesirable flavor.

3.18 Accelerated Cheese Ripening


One of the major costs of cheese is the expense of curing time before desired flavor
develops. While some maturation time is inevitable, there are systems available
where ripening time is shortened by speeding up proteolysis and lipolysis to generate
flavor and modify texture. Elevated temperature (13C or higher) curing offers the
simplest approach to speed up ripening of otherwise normal cheese. Cheese intended
for this type of curing must not contain measurable levels of heterofermentative
lactobacilli or leuconostocs, because an open-texture defect and off-flavors will
develop.395
Microbial proteinases and gastric esterases have been used with little success to
achieve acceptable cheese with uniformity. Activity of these exogenous enzymes is
unregulated and may contribute to the detriment of cheese quality. Several unproven
systems are available from culture houses.
Additions of partially inactivated starter organisms have been used with mixed
results. Presently, this is not economical. Most of the proprietary systems investigated caused a minor to major deviation from characteristic flavor, body, and texture
of cheese.

3.19 Processed Cheese Products


Process cheese is produced by blending several lots of different ages of cheese that
are comminuted and mixed together by stirring and heating. Water, emulsifying salts,
color, and condiments may be added. The final product is smooth and homogeneous.

Process cheeses were prepared as early as 1895 in Europe, but the use of emulsifying salts was not widely practiced until 1911 when Gerber and Co. of Switzerland
invented process cheese. A patent issued to J. L. Kraft in 1916 marked the origin of
the process cheese industry in America and describes the method of heating natural
cheese and its emulsification with alkaline salts.215
Process cheeses in the United States generally fall in one of the following categories.215'396
1. Pasteurized blended cheese. Must conform to the standard of identity and is
subject to the requirements prescribed by pasteurized process cheese except:
a. A mixture of two or more cheeses may include cream or Neufchatel.
b. None of the ingredients prescribed or permitted for pasteurized process cheese
is used.
c. The moisture content is not more than the arithmetic average of the maximum
moisture prescribed by the definitions of the standards of identity for the
varieties of cheeses blended.
d. The word process is replaced by the word blended.
2. Pasteurized process cheese.
a. Must be heated at no less than 65.5C for no less than 30 s. If a single variety
is used the moisture content can be no more than 1% greater than that prescribed by the definition of that variety, but in no case greater than 43%,
except for special provisions for Swiss, Gruyere, or Limburger.
b. The fat content must not be less than that prescribed for the variety used or
in no case less than 47% except for special provisions for Swiss or Gruyere.
c. Further requirements refer to minimum percentages of the cheeses used.
3. Pasteurized process cheese food.
a. Required heat treatment minimum is the same as pasteurized process cheese.
b. Moisture maximum is 44%; fat minimum is 23%.
c. A variety of percentages are prescribed.
d. Optional dairy ingredients may be used, such as cream, milk, skim milk,
buttermilk, and cheese whey.
e. May contain any approved emulsifying agent.
f. The weight of the cheese ingredient is not less than 51% of the weight of the
finished product.
4. Pasteurized process cheese spread.
a. Moisture is more than 44% but less than 60%.
b. Fat minimum is 20%
c. Is a blend of cheeses and optional dairy ingredients and is spreadable at 21C.
d. Has the same heat treatment minimum as pasteurized process cheese.
e. Cheese ingredients must constitute at least 51%.
f. A variety of percentages are prescribed.

3.19.1 Advantages of Process Cheese over Natural Cheese


1. Can be kept at room temperature without oil separation.
2. Flavor and other attributes of cheese can be consistantly maintained by proper
selection and blending of cheeses.
3. Keeping quality and safety of the product is improved because pathogenic organisms present in cheese are destroyed during heating.
4. Numerous compositions containing fruits, vegetables, meats, smoke, and spices
are possible.
5. Offers versatility in usecooking, dips, sauces, snacks, etc.
6. Process cheese provides a home for off-cuts, cheese with poor maturing
properties, and other cheese not suitable for consumption as natural cheese,
economically.

3.19.2 Processing
Steps in processing involve397:

Selection of natural cheese


Blending
Grinding and milling
Adding emulsifiers, water, salt, and color
Processing and packaging
Homogenization (optional)
Storage

It is important that cheese with rancid, putrid, and severe microbiological defect be
not included in the process cheese blend. The age and proportion of the cheese in
the blend depends on the characteristics of the process cheese desired. For the production of slices, 75% of cheese up to 3 months old can be blended with about 25%
well-ripened cheese 6 to 12 months old.178 Generally, young cheese with elastic
unhydrolyzed casein lends smooth texture and firm body and good slicing properties.
Mature, older cheese tends to give higher flavor and grainy texture. For cheese
spreads, slightly larger portions of higher acid cheese and older cheese can be used
in the blend.178

3.19.3 Emulsifiers
A good emulsifier system should consist of monovalent cations and polyvalent anions. Some salts are better emulsifiers and have poor calcium binding capacity. The
ability to sequester calcium is one of the most important functions of the emulsifying
agents. Emulsifying agents supplement the emulsifying capacity of cheese proteins
to provide unique properties to process cheese. Following are some functions of the
emulsifying salts 397398 :
1. Removing calcium from the protein system

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Peptizing, solubilizing, and dispersing the proteins


Hydration and swelling of proteins
Emulsification of fat and stabilization of the emulsion
Control and stabilization of cheese pH
Structure formation during cooling

To obtain desired body, texture, and spreadability, a number of ingredients such as


nonfat dry milk, whey, powder, whey protein concentrate, whey proteins,397 calcium
caseinate, and butteroil398 can be drawn on to develop a blend for process cheese.
For a more detailed review consult refs. 397, 399, and 400.

3.19.3.1 Basic Emulsification Systems for Cheese Processing


Citrates
Trisodium citrate (most common, used for slices).
Tripotassium citrate (used in reduced-sodium formulations, promotes bitterness).
Calcium citrate (poor emulsification).
Orthophosphates
Disodium phosphate and trisodium phosphate (most common, used for loaf and
slices).
Dicalcium phosphate and tricalcium phosphate (poor emulsification, used for calcium ion fortification).
Monosodium phosphate (acid taste, open texture).
Condensed Phosphates
Sodium tripolyphosphate (nonmelting).
Sodium hexamethaphosphate (used to restrict melts).
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate and sodium acid pyrophosphate (minimal usage).
As the amount of calcium phosphate in protein is decreased, the solubility of casein
in water is increased and so is its emulsifying capacity.401 Reduction of calcium in
the calcium-paracaseinate in the cheese by emulsifiers solubilizes the insoluble paracaseinate and improves the emulsifying capacity of cheese proteins.400'401 Affinity
of phosphates for calcium in process cheesemaking is in the order of monosodium
phosphate > disodium phosphate > disodium pyrophosphate > trisodium pyrophosphate > tetrasodium pyrophosphate > sodium tripolyphosphate.399 Furthermore, polyphosphates possess the peptizing capacity lacking in orthophosphates.
Peptizing ability is essential for process cheese production. Peptization rate of casein
in the presence of polyphosphates increases with increasing chain length and phosphate concentration. For peptization of casein, three or more P atoms are required
and the rate is greatest at pH 6.5. 402 ' 403 Sodium-containing emulsifier salts including
trisodium citrate and disodium phosphate are used extensively.403"406 Manufacture
of process cheese in the presence of phosphates tends to increase soluble nitrogen.

Table 3.15 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMULSIFIERS MOST COMMONLY USED IN


THE MANUFACTURE OF PROCESS CHEESE AND RELATED
PRODUCTS
Emulsifier3
Sodium citrate

Formula
2Na3C6H5O7- 11
H2O
Na3C6H5O7 2
H2O

Disodium phosphate
Na2HPO4
Trisodium phosphate
Na3PO4

Sodium hexametaphosphate
(Graham's salt)
Tetrasodium disphosphate

(Na PO3)6

Polyphosphates
Na4P2O7

Characteristics
Versatile; produces firm cheese with
good melting properties; inexpensive;
best qualities.
Good firming, buffering, and melting
properties; poor creaming properties.
Least expensive.
Highly alkaline; improves sliceability
when used in combination with other
emulsifiers; good buffering ability;
used at low concentrations.
Produces tartish flavor and a very firm
body; product does not melt easily;
least soluble of all; bacteriostatic.
Good creaming properties; strong
buffering capacity; high protein
solubility; excellent ion exchange;
tartish flavor.

Source: Ref. 43.


Adapted by permission of VCH Publishers, Inc., 220 East 23rd St., New York, N.Y., 10010 from: Kosikowski, Frank.
CHEESE AND FERMENTED MILK FOODS. 2nd edition, 1977: Table 66, p. 392.
a
Other emulsifiers permitted by the U.S. Federal Standards of Identity are: sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium potassium tartrate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, dipotasium phosphate, potassium citrate, calcium citrate, and sodium aluminum phosphate.

However, no increase in water-soluble nitrogen was observed when tetrasodium


pyrophosphate and sodium citrate were used at the 2 to 4% level.403
Of the citric acid salts, trisodium citrate is commonly used. Process cheese made
with citrate has a higher melting point than the cheese made with other emulsifying
salts. It should not be used at a rate higher than 3% of natural cheese weight. A
small proportion of phosphates and citrate works best for cheese of average to high
maturity.397 Some characteristics of the commonly used emulsifiers are listed in
Table 3.15.
The melting properties of processed cheese are not governed only by the age of
cheese in the blend and the emulsifier, but also by the heat treatment given to the
product. Process cheese was prepared from the same lot of Cheddar cheese using
sodium citrate, disodium phosphate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, or sodium aluminum phosphate and cooked at 82C for different times from 0 to 40 min. All cheeses
had different physical properties but in general all cheeses became firmer, more
elastic, and less meltable as the cooking time increased from 0 to 40 min.407 In
another study hard and soft process cheeses were prepared by using 2.2% poly-

phosphate and 1.0% trisodium citrate plus 1.5% polyphosphate, respectively. Electron microscopy of these samples revealed that soft type process cheese had mostly
single particles in the protein matrix (20 to 25 nm in diameter), whereas the hard
type showed pronounced networklike structures of longer protein strands.408
The search for new types of emulsification system(s) for process cheese continues.
In Yugoslavia, new emulsifiers, KSS-4 (pH 6) and KSS-11 (pH 11), produced good
quality process cheese.409 In Egypt, Cremodan SE 30 proved to be the best emulsifier
as regards organoleptics and texture stability during storage.410 Japanese workers
produced process cheese without emulsifying salts. They used Cheddar cheese of
different moisture contents (35.4 to 38.9%) and a twin-screw extruder with screw
rotation speeds ranging from 50 to 150 rpm. Continuous emulsification by extrusion
heating was demonstrated and a finer emulsion in cheese was produced at faster
rotation speed.411 Studies on the effect of batch and extrusion cooking on lipidprotein interaction have indicated that batch cheese possessed firmer texture with
less peptidization than extruded cheeses of identical composition. It is postulated
that this may be due to improved protein restructuring as a result of stirring and the
use of a lower temperature in batch cooking.412 Extrusion cooking is claimed to be
the way of future processing by the year 2000.413

3.19.4 Heat Treatment


Cheese blends for process cheese are heated to at least 65.5C, but more commonly
to about 850C.407 Hydrolysis of pyro- and polyphosphates occurs during melting and
afterwards and the extent of degradation varies with cheese type used. This degradation is speculated to be due to phosphatase.406 Some characteristics of process
cheese products along with the temperature of heat treatment are shown in Table
3.16.

3.19.5 pH and Microbiological Stability


The pH value of process cheese is important from the standpoint of protein configuration and solubility and microbiological stability.400 In process cheese compositions, pH may vary from 5.0 to 6.5. At the lower pH, process cheese may become
crumbly and at higher pH value, it may become soft. At higher pH value, cheese is
more susceptible to microbiological spoilage.399 Sodium salts are used in process
cheese formulations to produce desired body, texture, flavor, and degree of product
safety. The sodium salt emulsifiers, usually phosphates, or citrates together with
NaCl already in cheese or added when process cheese is made contribute to the total
electrolyte level in the cheese formulation. The pH, moisture, and total electrolyte
level play a critical role in product safety, preventing growth and toxin production
by C. botulinum in shelf-stable pasteurized process cheese spreads.414
It has been established that pasteurized process cheese with relatively high pH
(5.6 to 6.2) and a moisture of about 50% has an excellent record of safety against
Closthdium botulinum.415

Table 3.16

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF PROCESS CHEESE, PROCESS CHEESE


FOOD, AND PROCESS CHEESE SPREADS

Type of Product
Process cheese

Ingredients
Natural cheese,
emulsifiers, NaCl,
coloring

Cooking
Temperature
0

71-80 C

74-85C
0

Process cheese
food

Same as above plus


optional ingredients
such as milk, skim
milk, whey, cream,
albumin, skim milk
cheese; organic
acids

79-85 C

Process cheese
spread

Same as process
cheese food plus
gums for water
retention

88-91 0 C

90-95 0 C
Source:
a

Composition
3

Moisture and fat


contents correspond
to the legal limits for
natural cheese
45% Moisture

pH

Author

5.6-5.8

Kosikowski

Thomas
Kosikowski

No more than 44%


moisture, no less than
23% fat

5.2-5.6

No less than 44% and


no more than 60%
moisture

<5.2

Kosikowski

55% Moisture

Thomas

Ref. 399. (Kosikowski, ref. 43; Thomas, ref. 397).

1 % higher for Cheddar cheese.

In pasteurized process cheese, and particularly in shelf-stable products which are


not commercially sterile, salt plays a critical role in concert with other factors such
as pH, moisture, and water activity in preventing growth of Clostridium botulinum.416 In 1988, addition of nisin (250 ppm) to specific process cheese spread
compositions was approved by the FDA as a safety factor against C. botulinum*

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351. Creamer, L. K. 1970. Protein breakdown in Gouda cheese. N. Z. J. Dairy Sci. Technol. 5:152-154.
352. Van den Berg, G., and P. J. De Konings. 1990. Gouda cheesemaking with purified calf chymosin
and microbiologically produced chymosin. Netherlands Milk Dairy J. 44:189-205.
353. Stadhoudors, J., and G. Hup. 1975. Factors affecting bitter flavor in Gouda cheese. Netherlands
Milk Dairy J. 29:335-353.
354. Visser, F. M. W. 1977. Contribution of enzymes from rennet, starter bacteria and milk to proteolysis
and flavor development in Gouda cheese. 1. Description of cheese and aseptic cheesemaking techniques. Netherlands Milk Dairy J. 31:120-133.
355. Kleter, G. 1977. The ripening of Gouda cheese made under strictly aseptic conditions. 2. The
comparison of activity of different starters and the influence of certain Lactobacillus strains. Netherlands Milk Dairy J. 31:177-187.
356. Badings, H. T. 1984. Flavors and off-flavors. In P. Walstra and R. Jenness (eds)., Dairy Chemistry
and Physics, p. 336. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
357. Badings, H. T., and R. Neeter. 1980. Recent advances in the study of aroma compounds of milk
and dairy products. Netherlands Milk Dairy J. 34:9-30.
358. Sloot, D., and P. D. Harker. 1975. Volatile trace components in Gouda cheese. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 67:960-968.
359. Coghill, D. 1979. The ripening of blue vein cheese: a review. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 34:72-75.
360. Hartley, C. B., and J. J. Jezeski. 1954. The microflora of Blue cheese slime. / . Dairy Sci.
37:436-445.

361. Kinsella, J. E., and D. Hwang. 1976. Biosyntesis of flavors by Penicilliwn roqueforti. Biotechnol.
Bioengin. 18:927-938.
362. Gripon, J. C. 1987. Mold-ripened cheeses. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and
Microbiology. Vol. 2. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London.
363. Trieu-cuot, P., and J. C. Gripon. 1982. A study of proteolysis during Camembert cheese ripening
using iso-electric focusing and two-dimensional electrophoresis. / . Dairy Res. 49:501-510.
364. Gripon, J. C, and J. Bergere. 1972. Le system prote"olytique de Penicillium roqueforti. 1. Conditions
de production et nature du systemes prote*olytique. Le Lait 52:497-514.
365. Gueguen, M., and J. Lenoir. 1976. Caracteres du systeme prote"olytique de Geotrichum candidum.
Le Lait 56:439-448.
366. Friedman, M. E., W. O. Nelson, and W. A. Wood. 1953. Proteolytic enzymes from Bacterium
linens. J. Dairy Sci. 36:1124-1134.
367. King. R. D., and G. H. Clegg. 1979. The metabolism of fatty aids, methylketones and secondary
alcohols by Penicillium roqueforti in Blue cheese slurries. / . Sci. FoodAgric. 30:197-202.
368. Yamaguchi, S., and T. Mase. 1991. Purification and characterization of mono- and diacylglycereol
lipase isolated from Penicillium camemberti U-150. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 30:720-725.
369. Hwang, D. H., Y. J. Lee, and J. E. Kinsella. 1976. 3-ketoacyl decarboxylase activity in spores and
mycelium of Penicillium roqueforti. Int. J. Biochem. 7:165-171.
370. Franke, W., A. Platzeck, and G. Eichhorn. 1961. Zur Kenntnis des fettsaureabbaus durch schmmelpilze. Arch. Microbiol. 40:73-93.
371. Lawrence, R. C, and J. C. Hawke. 1968. The oxidation of fatty acids by mycelium of Penicillium
roqueforti. J. Gen. Microbiol. 51:289-302.
372. Wong, N. P., R. Ellis, L. A. LaCroix, and J. A. Alford. 1973. Lactones in Cheddar cheese. J. Dairy
Sci. 56:636.
373. Jolly, R. C , and F. V. Kosikowski. 1975. Quantification of lactones in ripening pasteurized milk
Blue cheese containing added microbial Upases. J. Agric. Food Chem. 23:1175-1176.
374. Law, B. A. 1984. Microorganisms and their enzymes in the maturation of cheeses. In M. E. Bushell
(ed.), Progress in Industrial Microbiology, Vo. 19. Elsevier, New York.
375. Choisy, C, M. Desmazeaud, J. C. Gripon, G. Lamberet, J. Lenoir, and C. Tourneur. 1986. Microbiological and biochemical aspects of ripening. In A. Eck (ed.), Cheesemaking: Science and Technology. Lavoisier, Paris.
376. Adda, J. 1986. Flavor formation. In A. Eck (ed.), Cheesemaking: Science and Technology, p. 336.
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377. Garey, J. C , E. M. Foster, and W. C. Frazier. 1941. The bacteriology of Brick cheese. 1. Growth
and activity of starter bacteria during manufacture. / . Dairy Sci. 24:1015-1025.
378. Langhus, W. L., W. Y. Price, H. H. Sommer, and W. C. Frazier. 1945. The "smear" of Brick
cheese and its relation to flavor development". / . Dairy Sci. 28:827-838.
379. Lubert, D. J., and W. C. Frazier. 1955. Microbiology of the surface ripening of Brick cheese. /.
Dairy Sci. 38:981-990.
380. Iya, K. K., and W. C. Frazier. 1949. The yeast in the surface smear of Brick cheese. /. Dairy Sci.
32:475-476.
381. Szumski, S. A., and J. F. Cone. 1962. Possible role of yeast endoproteinases in ripening surfaceripened cheeses. / . Dairy Sci. 45:349-353.

382. Purko, M., W. O. Nelson, and W. A. Wood. 1951. The associative action between certain yeasts
and Bacterium linens. J. Dairy Sci. 34:699-705.
383. Ades, G. L., and J. F. Cone. 1969. Proteolytic activity of Brevibacterium linens during ripening of
Trappist-type cheese. / . Dairy Sci. 52:957-961.
384. Mulder, E. G., A. D. Adamse, J. Antheunisse, M. H. Deinema, J. W. Woldendorf, and L. P. T. M.
Zeventhuizen. 1966. The relationship between Brevibacterium linens and bacteria of the genus
Arthrobacter. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 29:44-71.
385. Foissy, H. 1978. Amino peptidase from Brevibacterium linens: production and purification.
Milchwissenschaft 33:221-223.
386. Sharpe, M. E., B. A. Law, B. A. Phillips, and D. G. Pilcher. 1977. Methanethiol production by
coryneform bacteria: strains from dairy and human skin sources and Brevibacterium linens. J. Gen.
Microbiol. 101:345-349.
387. Parliment, T. H., M. G., Kolor, and D. J. Rizzo. 1982. Volatile components of Limburger cheese.
J. Agric. Food Chem. 30:1006-1008.
388. Cervantes, M. A., D. B. Lund, and N. F. Olson. 1983. Effects of salt concentration and freezing
on Mozzarella cheese texture. J. Dairy Sci. 66:204-213.
389. Masi, P. and F. Addeo. 1986. An examination of some mechanical properties of a group of Italian
cheeses and their relation to structure and conditions of manufacture. / . Food Engin. 5:217-229.
390. Thunell, R. K. 1989. Culture performance in Mozzarella cheesemaking. Twenty-sixth Marschall
Italian Cheese Seminar, Madison, WI.
391. Creamer, L. K. 1976. Casein proteolysis in Mozzarella-type cheese. N. Z. / . Dairy Sci. Technol.
11:130-135.
392. Woo, A. H., and R. C. Lindsay. 1984. Concentration of major free fatty acids and flavor development in Italian cheese varieties. / . Dairy Sci. 67:960-968.
393. Marth, E. H., and T. L. Thompson. 1979. Bacterial changes in parmesan cheese during ripening.
Marschall International Cheese Conference, pp. 21-33.
394. Fox, P. F., and T. P. Guinee. 1987. Italian cheeses. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Cheese: Chemistry, Physics
and Microbiology, Vol. 2. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London.
395. Conner, T. 1988. Advances in accelerated ripening of cheese. Cult. Dairy Prod. J. 23:21-25.
396. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21. Office of Federal Register, National Archives and Records.
21 CFR 100.120.
397. Thomas, M. A. 1977. The Processed Cheese Industry. Dept. of Agriculture, Sydney, New South
Wales, Australia.
398. Caric, M., and M. Kalab. 1987. Processed cheese products. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Cheese: Chemistry,
Physics and Microbiology, Vol. 2. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London.
399. Caric, M., M. Gantor, and M. Kalab. 1985. Effects of emulsifying agents on the microstructure
and other characteristics of process cheesea review. Food Microstruct. 4:297-312.
400. Shimp, L. A. 1985. Process cheese principles. Food Technol. 39:63-70.
401. Gupta, S. K., C. Karahadian, and R. C. Lindsay. 1984. Effect of emulsifier salts on textural and
flavor properties of processed cheese. / . Dairy Sci. 67:764-778.
402. Lee, B. O., D. Paquet, and C. Alais. 1986. Biochemical study of cheese melting. IV. Effect of
melting salts and proteins on peptization. Use of a model system. Le Lait 66:257-267.
403. Molins, R. A. 1991. Phosphates in Food. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

404. Templeton, H. L., and H. H. Sommers. 1936. Studies on emulsifying salts used in process cheese.
J. Dairy Sci. 19:561-572.
405. Palmer, H. J., and W. H. Sly. 1944. Cheese melting salt and their properties. / . Soc. Chem. Indust.
63:363.
406. Price, W. V., and M. G. Bush. 1974. The process cheese industry in the United States: a review
II. Research and Development. /. Milk Food Technol. 37:179-198.
407. Rayan, A. A., M. Kalab, and C. A. Ernstrom. 1980. Microstructure and rheology of process cheese.
Scan. Electron Microsc. 111:635-643.
408. Taneya, S., T. Kimura, T. Izutsu, and W. Buchheim. 1980. The submicroscopic structure of
processed cheese with different melting properties. Milchwissenschaft 35:479-481.
409. Caric, M., L. Kulik, D. Gaverie, B. Pejie, M. Stipetic and I. Bebic. 1989. Mljekarstvo 39:95. Cited
in Dairy Indust. Int. 1990. 55:12-13.
410. Mashali,R.I. 1987. Alexandria. 7. Agric.Res. 32:191. Cited in Dairy Indust. Int. 1990.55:12-13.
411. Tatsumi, K., T. Nishiya, H. Yamamoto, K. Ido, N. Hanawa, K. Ito and K. Tamaki. 1989. Rep. Res.
Lak. Snow Brand Milk Prod. Co. No. 88 73. Cited in Dairy Indust. Int. 1990. 55:12-13.
412. Blond, G., E. Haury and D. Lorient. 1988. Sci. Aliments 8:325. Dairy Indust. Int. 1990 55:12-13.
413. Anonymous 1989. Process (Rennes) No. 104047. Cited in Dairy Indust. Int. 1990 55:12-13.
414. Tada, M., I. Shinoda, and H. Okai. 1984. L-Ornithyltaurine, a new salty peptide. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 32:992-996.
415. Tanaka, N. 1982. Challenge of pasteurized process cheese spreads with Clostridium botulinum
using in-process and post-process inoculation. J. Food Prot. 45:1044-1050.
416. Tanaka, N., E. Traisman, P. Plantinga, L. Finn, W. Flom, L. Meske, and J. Guggisberg. 1986.
Evaluation of factors involved in antibotulinal properties of pasteurized process cheese spreads.
J Food Prot. 49:526-531.

CHAPTER
4

Concentrated and Dried


Dairy Products
Marijana Caric
4.1 History and Definitions, 258
4.2 Unsweetened Condensed Milk, 259
4.2.1 Processing Chart and Preparing Raw Milk, 259
4.2.2 Preheating and Evaporation, 259
4.2.3 Homogenization and Second Standardization, 265
4.2.4 Packaging, Sterilization, and Storage, 266
4.3 Sweetened Condensed Milk, 267
4.3.1 Processing Chart and Raw Milk to First Standardization, 267
4.3.2 Heat Treatment, Evaporation, Sugar Addition, and Second
Standardization, 267
4.3.3 Cooling with Crystallization, 270
4.4 Other Concentrated Dairy Products, 270
4.4.1 Other Concentrated Products, 270
4.5 Dried Dairy Products, 271
4.5.1 Milk Powder, 271
4.5.1.1 Processing Chart, Raw Milk, and Standardization, 271
4.5.1.2 Heat Treatment, Evaporation, Homogenization,
and Drying, 273
4.5.1.3 Roller Drying, 274
4.5.1.4 Spray Drying, 275
4.5.1.5 Packaging and Storage, 278
4.5.2 Instant Milk Powder, 278
4.5.3 Infant Formulas, 282
4.5.4 Other Products, 285
4.5.4.1 Reconstituted Milk Powder, 285
4.5.4.2 Modified Milk Powder, 285
4.5.4.3 Imitation Milk Powder, 285
4.6 Dried Dairy Ingredients, 286
4.6.1 Whey Powder, 286
4.6.2 Whey Protein Concentrates, 289
4.6.3 Casein Products, 290
4.6.3.1 Casein, 290

4.6.3.2 Sodium Caseinate, 294


4.6.3.3 Coprecipitates, 295
4.6.4 Lactose, 296
4.7 References, 299

4.1 History and Definitions


One of the first preservation methods developed, milk drying is centuries old. Primitive cultures used the sun's energy to concentrate and dry milk. Records indicate
that the Japanese manufactured concentrated milks as far back as the 7th century,
while Marco Polo, in his wanderings in the 13th century, described a product considered to be milk powder.1
The real beginning of the concentrated and dried dairy industry began in the 19th
century when Nicholas Appert, a French inventor, described his procedure for concentrating and drying milk. Concentrating milk consisted of evaporation to two thirds
volume in an open kettle, filling bottles, and heating them in a water bath for 2 h.2
These reports indicated a quality product after 18 months of storage. Further manipulation of the concentrated milk produced dried milk.
Malbec (in 1826) and Newton (in 1835) attempted to prolong shelf life of concentrated milk by adding sugar. In 1856 Borden produced condensed milk industrially by applying a partial vacuum evaporation process. This was the first widespread
marketing of condensed milk. Meanwhile, the English (Grimwade in 1856) began
commercial production of milk powder with a patent that used Na 2 CO 3 (K2CO3)
and sucrose.1 The production of milk powder without additives started at the end of
the 19th century (1898) after many previous attempts. Percy in 1872 was granted a
patent in the United States in which he described the principle of spray drying and
he is considered to be the inventor.3 Stauffs patent in 1901 formed the basis of the
first industrial spray drying equipment. His patent was purchased by the Merril Soul
Company in 1905.3 At about the same time, roller drying equipment was developed
for industrial application.
Numerous investigations and inventions in the following years produced more
sophisticated technology that greatly improved the qualities of concentrated and
dried dairy products. One of the important innovations in technology and quality
was instantization.
The instantization process, patented by Peebles in 1955,1"3 has significantly improved the quality and economical aspects of drying technology. The process is
characterized by a two-stage drying that causes agglomeration.
The availability of new dry dairy products with better quality and lower manufacture cost was realized in the 1970s and 1980s by several developments. These
industrial applications included concentrating and fractionating by membrane processes, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis or ion exchange. Further

enhancement was achieved in 1983 when a three-stage drying procedure with integrated fluid bed was introduced.
Concentrated and dried dairy products are milk products with an extended shelf
life. Concentrated milk products are obtained by partial water removal, while the
water content of dried products is usually <4%. The concentrated products are
sterilized or their osmotic pressure is increased so that no microorganisms survive.
Concentrated and dried milk products have several advantages, including:
1. Storage: Requires small space under regular storage conditions and retains high
quality at the same time.
2. Economy: Because mass and volume are reduced, transportation costs are less.
3. Balance: Surplus milk can be reconstituted when fresh milk supplies are low.
4. Use in emergencies: Can be used under adverse conditions such as wars, epidemics, or earthquakes when fresh milk is unavailable.
5. Formulations: Suitable for tailored food products such as those designed for
sportsmen, convalescents, or geriatric individuals.

4.2 Unsweetened Condensed Milk


4.2.1 Processing Chart and Preparing Raw Milk
The manufacture of unsweetened condensed milk is based on evaporation, that is,
partial removal of water from milk followed by the addition of sugar. This process
also extends the shelf life by suppressing the microorganisms present in the milk via
plasmolysis.
The processing procedure1-4-5 of unsweetened condensed (evaporated) milk is
shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2.
It is necessary to choose the raw material carefully; milk quality for unsweetened
condensed milk production has to fulfill even more rigorous criteria than milk used
in most other technological processes. This is necessary because unsweetened condensed milk or evaporated milk contains concentrated milk solids and is planned for
long storage.
After raw milk is clarified by centrifugal separators, it is cooled to 4C by plate
heat exchangers and stored in tanks at the same temperature.
Standards for milk and dairy products regulate the ratio of milkfat to the nonfat
solids in unsweetened condensed milk. In the United States, federal standards for
evaporated milk prescribe not less than 7.5% by weight of milkfat and not less than
25% by weight of total milk solids in the final product.6 In Great Britain the ratio
of fat to nonfat solids is 10.0:20.0; in West Germany it is 7.5:17.5.4 The standardization of ratios is most often done by separator-standardizers.

4.2.2 Preheating and Evaporation


The basic reasons for preheating are to increase the concentrated milk stability during
sterilization and to modify the viscosity of the final product. A practical consequence
of preheating is that milk enters the evaporator already hot, and stays for a shorter

Milk

Receiving and selection


Clarification
Sediment

Cooling
4C
Storage
4C
First standardization
Fat

Pre-heating
115-128C, 1-6 min

Evaporation
45-70C

Water

Homogenization
Stabilizing agent, water

P1: 15-25 MPa, p 2 : 5-10 MPa

Second standardization
Packages(cans)

Packaging
Sterilization
100-120C, 15-20 min
1400C, 3 s

Storage
10C

Unsweetened condensed milk


Figure 4.1 Flow chart of unsweetened condensed milk production.

time. The effect of preheating on thermal stability can be explained as follows. In


milk, an equilibrium exists between acid and alkaline equivalents. The sum of the
acid equivalentsP2O5, Cl, SO3, CO2, citrates, casein, albumin, and globulinis
approximately equal to the sum of the alkaline ones: CaO, MgO, K2O, and Na2O.
The acid equivalents show a distinctly stabilizing effect on the protein system in
milk, whereas the alkaline, especially Ca 2 + and Mg 2 + , perform in the opposite
manner, leading to the aggregation of the casein micelles and their destabilization
and precipitation.7 The amounts of soluble calcium and phosphorus in milk decrease
during heat treatment. Since the decrease of soluble calcium is more significant than

Evaporation
Pretreatment
of the milk
Clarification
Standardization
of the fat and
solids-non-fat
content
Heat treatment

Homogenization

Cooling

Sample
sterilization
Addition of
phosphates
as required
Cooling

Sterilization

Preheating

Storage

Figure 4.2 Process line for unsweetened condensed milk. (Courtesy of a-Laval.)

Filling and
sealing
Manufacture
of cans

14a
1

10

s
4

Lu*

to
13

S
9

L3

vc

Figure 4.3 Falling film evaporator with TVR: 1. First effect; 2. second effect; 3. third effect;
4. fourth effect; 5. fifth effect; 6. sixth effect; 7. seventh effect; 8. vapor separator; 9. pasteurizing unit; 10. heat exchanger; 11. finisher; 12. preheater; 13. condenser, 14a and 14b.
thermocompressor. F = feed, S = steam, C = condensate, VC = vacuum, W = water,
P = product. (Courtesy of APV Anhydro.)

that of phosphorus,7-8 a greater system stability after preheating is obtained. Recent


investigations have shown that the thermal stability of unsweetened condensed milk
during sterilization could be increased by centrifugation after preheating.
The preheating is carried out in continual heat exchangers of plate or tubular type.
The time-temperature regimen of preheating is usually 93 to 1000C for 10 to 25
min or 115 to 128C for 1 to 6 min.
Concentration is done by evaporating a determined amount of water from milk.
To avoid undesirable changes of the milk components caused by high temperatures,
the evaporation is always conducted in a partial vacuum, thus reducing the evaporating temperature. This is based on the fact that the boiling point of a liquid is
lowered to a pressure below atmospheric. In order to eliminate the growth of staphylococci, the evaporation temperatures used are never below 45C. The heating
medium is usually a low-pressure steam with the heat being transferred indirectly
through tubes or plates. Both tubular and plate evaporators may be single-effect or
multiple-effect of two, three, four, or more units up to eight.
The falling film tubular evaporator, first introduced in Germany in 1953, 2 ' 9 1 0 is
the leading evaporator used in the dairy industry (Figs. 4.3 and 4.4). The liquid is
introduced at the top of the evaporator and is evenly distributed on the inner surface
of tubes. The tubes are about 3 to 5 cm in diameter, and 15 m long. They are fixed
together in a corpus, called a calandria.
The interspace between the tubes is heated by steam. This type of evaporator
operates at a much lower temperature and has a number of advantages such as a

C,
S

VC

Figure 4.4 Fallingfilmevaporator with MVR: 1. First effect; 2. second effect; 3. third effect; 4. vapor separator; 5. mechanical compressor/highpressure fan; 6. pasteurizing unit; 7. condenser; 8. preheater. F = feed, S = steam, C = primary condensate outlet, C, = secondary condensate
outlet, VC = vacuum, P = product. (Courtesy of APV Anhydro A/S.)

S
S

DS

IS

F
V*P
Figure 4.5 Arrangement of plates for one complete feed pass in plate evaporator. 1 -4. Plates;
5. steam spacers; 6. joint rubbers; 7. head. F = feed, S = steam section, IS = inlet section,
DS = discharge section, C = condensate, PH-V = product H- vapor. (Courtesy of APV
Anhydro.)

decrease of heat-induced changes in milk components, low energy consumption,


possibility of using multiple evaporators, and easy maintenance.
Plate evaporators were first introduced in the dairy industry in 1957.10 In this
design the heating bodies are plate heat exchangers used for heat transfer from the
heating medium (steam) to milk (Fig. 4.5).
A mixture of concentrated product and its vapor is discharged into a separator,
where the product is extracted from the vapor. This vapor is used in the next cycle.
There are advantages in both falling film and plate heat exchangers:
1. The operation is simple.
2. Establishing and maintaining a stable regimen of operation, control, and adjustment is easy and accurate. Once adjusted, further regulation is automatic.
3. The job of maintenance and cleaning are simple. An automatic cleaning system
(CIP, cleaning in place) may be used.
Plate evaporators are used in some other industries more frequently than in dairy
manufacture. One reason may be the increased capacities required in the dairy
industry.
In order to make use of the secondary vapor and thus improve the economic
aspect of evaporation, two or more stages of the same type are connected in line,
forming a multiple-effect evaporation system (Figs. 4.2 to 4.5). The vapor generated
in the first cycle or effect during milk evaporation serves as the heating medium in
the subsequent cycle. In this way, it is possible to reutilize the thermal energy brought
into the system by the live steam. For the whole system to be effective, sufficient
thermal energy brought by vapor from the previous stage must be available to initiate
evaporation in the subsequent stage. A higher vacuum and corresponding lower

pressure must be applied. Because of the pressure difference, the vapor moves to
the next effect. The temperature difference between two neighboring effects is usually ^5 0 C. This allows maximum boiling temperature to be as low as 700C, corresponding to an absolute pressure of 230 mm Hg.2
Every evaporation assembly, single or multiple-effect, consists of an evaporator,
condenser, equipment for vacuum creation, separator for separating vapor from the
concentrated product, and a steam recompression system.
The energy crisis in the 1970s made it necessary to develop improved evaporation
techniques in order to minimize the total energy consumption. As a result, there are
two systems for vapor recompression in operation at present: (1) evaporation with
thermal vapor recompression (TVR) and (2) evaporation with mechanical vapor
recompression (MVR).10 At TVR (see Fig. 4.3), the heating medium in the first
effect is the product vapor from one of the next calandria, which is compressed to
a higher temperature by a steam injection. The vapor generated in one calandria is
used as the heating medium in the next one.
The MVR evaporator (Fig. 4.4) is a newer system that is superior to the conventional ones in areas where electrical energy is cheap or where natural gas is available.
The heating medium in the first effect is vapor generated in one of the associated
effects, or in the same effect, compressed by a turbo-compressor or high-pressure
fan to a higher pressure, corresponding to the rise of the condensation temperature.
Like TVR, the heating medium in each effect is vapor from the previous calandria.
Vapor from the final effect is transferred to the suction side of the turbo-compressor
or the fan and condensate is used for preheating the feed.
In addition to evaporation, only reverse osmosis is widely used in the industrial
procedures for water removal, for example, dairy processing. However the concentration is only 20 to 25% total solids, as better heat economy is achieved at this
level.4-12

4.2.3 Homogenization and Second Standardization


Homogenization is carried out in order to improve the stability of milkfat emulsion
by decreasing the average diameter of milkfat globules. At the same time, the globules attain uniform diameter, forming a polydispersive system of milkfat with markedly narrower distribution. The diameter of milkfat globules in nonhomogenized
milk varies in the range of 0.1 to 15 |xm, the average diameter being 3 to 5 |xm,
which results in a wide dispersion. After homogenization, about 85% of the fat
globules are smaller than 2 jim in diameter (0.1 to 2 jxm), and all are under 3 jxm,
resulting in a fine dispersion.13 Homogenization is carried out at high pressure
(Fig. 4.1).
The absence of a cream layer in homogenized milk is not only the consequence
of the average diameter of fat globules and Stokes' law. This effect is also attributed
to the physicochemical changes observed during homogenization. Fat globules do
not cluster together in homogenized milk, as they do in nonhomogenized milk. Some
experiments show the existence of protein changes caused by homogenization, which
are similar to denaturation.

Other changes of a physical nature, caused by homogenization, are: (1) more


intensive white color as the consequence of an increased number of fat globules
which have reflecting and light-scattering effects; (2) increased viscosity as the consequence of adsorption of proteins from solution on newly formed fat globule surface; (3) increased surface tension from removal of surface-active material from the
skim milk phase; (4) decreased coagulation capability, because casein is partly absorbed as an ingredient in the newly formed fat globule membranes.
Among chemical changes, the most important are: (1) increased lipolytic rancidity, which is the consequence of the relatively greater total fat globule surface and
better contact with lipase; (2) decreased oxidative changes, which are attributed to
phospholipid migration from the surface layer into the skim milk phase, with formation of sulfhydryl compounds that have antioxidative properties; (3) decreased
protein stability, similar to heat-induced denaturation with shifts in salt equilibrium.
This last observation is not yet completely understood.
During the stage of second standardization, the ratio of milkfat to nonfat milk
solids is adjusted (if the first standardization was not conducted) or the total dry
matter is standardized (if the first standardization has been carried out).
The ability of milk to withstand intensive heat treatment (sterilization) is very
important in this processing and depends to a great extent on its salt balance. During
repeated standardization, or even during first standardization, stabilizing salts are
added to milk in order to increase its heat stability. For this purpose, calcium, potassium, or sodium carbonates and bicarbonates, potassium or sodium citrates, phosphates, and other salts are used. In common practice, ready-made commercial mixtures are added.
The essential effect of these salts can be explained by the great affinity that the
anions have toward calcium. Because it is bound by added anions, calcium from
milk cannot adversely affect the stability of the protein system which is the basic
condition for the stability of the whole system.
Test sterilization of evaporated milk is usually first carried out in the laboratory
to determine the appropriate concentration of stabilizing agents.

4.2.4 Packaging, Sterilization, and Storage


Unsweetened condensed milk is usually packaged in cans of various sizes depending
on use and then sterilized. Continuous flow sterilization of evaporated milk is also
common, followed by packaging under aseptic conditions.
The sterilization of filled and sealed cans is carried out in continuous sterilizers
at 100 to 2000C for 15 to 20 min. Flow sterilization of concentrated milk before
packaging is a short-time sterilization by direct or indirect high-temperature heating
(HTST) at 130 to 1400C in an ultrahigh temperature (UHT) plant. Sterilization is
followed by filling into cans, closing under aseptic conditions, and labeling.
Evaporated milk can successfully be stored up to a year without any significant
quality change at temperatures of 6 to 8C. Therefore, it is suggested that this product
not be kept at >10C although it can withstand room temperature (200C).14

4.3 Sweetened Condensed Milk


4.3.1 Processing Chart, Raw MiIk9 and
First Standardization
Sweetened condensed milk is manufactured by removing part of water from fresh
milk (usually by evaporation) and adding sugar to the concentrated milk in order to
extend its shelf life. The procedure is based on osmoanabiosis, that is the prevention
of the growth of microorganisms by increasing the osmotic pressure of the medium.
The technological process of sweetened condensed milk production1-45'9 showing
operations and equipment is shown in Figs. 4.6 and 4.7.
The comparison of this scheme with that of unsweetened condensed milk production shows that unsweetened condensed milk will last for long periods due to
sterilization, whereas sweetened condensed milk is long lasting because of the increased osmotic pressure. Most of the differences in their processing originate from
this basic observation.
The production of sweetened condensed milk using hydrolyzed lactose is also
possible. Milk is cooled to 5 to 100C after pasteurization and lactose is hydrolyzed
by P-galactosidase, obtained from Saccharomycesfragilis. If the hydrolysis is carried
out at 37C for 3 h or 8C for 24 h with 1% enzyme added to the initial milk, lactose
is hydrolyzed by 95 to 99%. The sweetness of the final product is approximately the
same as that of sweetened condensed milk obtained by conventional procedure with
sucrose addition.4
In order to prevent lactose crystallization in sweetened condensed milk, acidhydrolyzed sugar syrup may be added. The sugar syrup is separately hydrolyzed
using HCl at 80 to 900C for 20 to 30 min at pH 6.5 to 6.7, with subsequent operations
being similar to those in traditional sweetened condensed milk production.
Application of ultrafiltration in sweetened condensed milk production has recently
been investigated. It shows certain advantages when compared to the traditional
procedure.
Milk selected for sweetened condensed milk manufacture must satisfy the same
rigorous quality criteria as the manufacture of unsweetened condensed milk. Clarifying, cooling, and storage are carried out in the same way as described in the
processing of unsweetened condensed milk.
In this stage of processing, the milkfat to solids-not-fat ratio is adjusted so that
the composition quality requirements for the final product are met.

4.3.2 Heat Treatment, Evaporation, Sugar Addition,


and Second Standardization
Heat treatment has a special importance in sweetened condensed milk production,
because it is the most intensive thermal treatment in the procedure. There is no
sterilization during sweetened condensed milk production because evaporation temperatures are low in multiple-effect vacuum evaporators (t <70C). Therefore the
main goal of heat treatment is the total destruction of osmophilic and thermophilic
microorganisms and inactivation of enzymes, particularly lipase and proteases. In

Milk
Receiving and selection
Clarification
- Sediment

Cooling
4C

Storage
4C
First standardization
Fat

Heat treatment
110-120C, several seconds

Evaporation
45-70C

Water
Sugar

(Water)

Addition of sugar
62.5<CZ<64.5
Second standardization

Crystallization nuclei

Cooling and crystallization


I1: 30-320C, t2: 100C

Packages

Packaging
Storage
ioc
Sweetened condensed milk
Figure 4.6 Flow chart of sweetened condensed milk production.
addition, heat treatment decreases fat separation and inhibits oxidative changes. The
milk is also warmed prior to evaporation, and this has positive economical and
technological effects.
Heat treatment in sweetened condensed milk processing affects the final product
viscosity (i.e., the tendency to viscosity increase during storage). This defect is called
"age thickening" and is usually not caused by heat-resistant microbial proteases,
but is rather the consequence of physicochemical changes in casein. The most frequently applied temperatures in this technological process are 100 to 1200C in continual heat exchangers of plate or tubular type.9

Evaporation
Wwr

Pretreatment
of the milk
Clarification
Standardization
of the fat and
solids-non-fat
levels
Sugar (dry)
Heat treatment

Cooling

Seeding with
finely ground
lactose crystals
Crystallization
Filling and
sealing
Storage

Manufacture
of cans

Figure 4.7 Process line for sweetened condensed milk. (Courtesy of a-Laval.)

Evaporation, described in detail in Section 4.2.2, is carried out in sweetened


condensed milk production using the same equipment and process parameters. The
degree of condensation depends on standards (mandatory or voluntary) for final
product composition and is usually a 2:1 ratio or slightly above.
Sugar addition is the way to prolong the shelf life of this product, because heat
sterilization has not been performed. Usually the selected sugar is sucrose, although
glucose, dextrose, or others could also be applied, particularly when the product has
special application. The main advantages of sucrose over other sugars are good
solubility, low susceptibility to fermentation, and the preference of consumers. The
sucrose must be microbiologically safe, with no acids or invert sugar present.
During sweetened condensed milk production for direct consumption, sucrose is
added either in crystal form or as a solution. In the latter case, the sugar is dissolved
in water at 95C; the solution is heated before addition into the milk by a high
pasteurization regimen. The amount of added sugar has to be such that its concentration in the aqueous phase of the final product ranges from 62.5 to 64.5%. M - 9 This
parameter, called "sugar number" or "sugar index," is calculated in the following
way:

* = JTw

where

x 10

(4 1}

62.5 < C2 < 64.5.


S sucrose content in sweetened condensed milk (%)
W = water content in sweetened condensed milk (%).

When the sugar number or C2 is <62.5, there may be bacteria-induced changes


in the final product. Higher sugar index than the permissible maximum (C2 >64.5)

could, at lower temperatures, cause lactose crystallization. Sugar addition before heat
treatment increases thermoresistance of bacteria and their enzymes during heat treatment and significantly intensifies product susceptibility to "age thickening" during
storage. Sugar addition before evaporation also has a negative effect on viscosity changes during storage. The optimal time for sucrose addition is at the end of
evaporation.
During second standardization (^standardization or repeated standardization), total solids, sugar, and fat contents are controlled. On the basis of data obtained, the
ratio of these components to total milk solids, as well as the total dry matter of
sweetened condensed milk, are adjusted.

4.3.3 Cooling with Crystallization


During subsequent cooling of the product after evaporation and sugar addition, lactose crystallization is induced. This is caused by:

Temperature decrease
High lactose concentration ( > 10%)
Presence of high concentrations of added sugar (about 40%)
Relatively small amount of water.

Lactose has the capability to create supersaturated, metastable solutions in which


mass crystallization occurs. However, if crystals larger than 15 |xm develop, the
product has a texture defect, known as "sandiness," which affects the mouthfeel
when the product is consumed. To avoid this fault, inoculation with powdered lactose
crystals (0.5 kg/1000 kg of milk) is used and the process completed with rapid
cooling and simultaneous agitation. In this way, more than 4.1O11 crystals per m3
are formed, the size of which does not exceed 10 |xm. Inoculation could also be
done by adding 0.5% skim milk powder, formerly centrifuged 1% sweetened condensed milk, or 0.2 to 0.3% whey powder.1-415
Cooling with crystallization is accomplished by using double-wall tank-crystallizers, fluid flow continual coolers, or vacuum crystallizers.
Sweetened condensed milk designed for the retail market is usually packaged in
cans (similar to unsweetened condensed milk), tubes, plastic forms, and others. For
use by institutional consumers or industries, the milk is packed in metal barrels,
metal cylindric drums, or similar large containers. The storage of sweetened condensed milk is the same as for unsweetened.

4.4 Other Concentrated Dairy Products


Recently a number of other concentrated dairy products, some traditional, some new,
have been developed since the advent of membrane technology. Some of these products, such as whey protein concentrates (WPC), are usually further processed by
drying and used in powder form. They are then considered dried dairy products or

dried dairy ingredients. Some of the traditional and well-established concentrated


dairy products deserve discussion.
Condensed skim milk is obtained by a simple concentration of skim milk by
vacuum evaporation or reverse osmosis. Condensed skim milk is cheaper and, for
some purposes, a product of better quality than skim milk powder. It serves as a
source of milk solids in various food products. When ultrafiltration is used, a concentration of 30% dry matter is possible and it may reach a protein content of 70 to
75%. However, in general, the protein level may vary from 50 to 80%. The concentrate obtained by ultrafiltration from either skim milk or whole milk consists of
undenatured high-quality milk proteins, which find wide application in the infant
food industry, dietetic products manufacture, dairy processing, and others.
Unsweetened condensed milk may be flavored with coffee, cocoa, or other ingredients. The production procedure is similar to that for sweetened condensed milk,
with the addition of a flavoring agent prior to sterilization. Sweetened condensed
skim milk is produced by concentrating skim milk and subsequently adding sugar.
"Block milk" is a product derived from concentrated milk with sugar addition.
It has a high concentration of total solids (84 to 90%) and can be cut with a knife.
Increased density gives the product all the advantages of concentrated or dry products, and the presence of 16% water facilitates product dissolution.
Caramelized condensed milk, originally called "Dulce de leche" by Spanish
natives, is a traditional, regional product, but is produced industrially as well. It is
marketed mostly as a paste, but may also be in powder or tablet form. A kind of
caramelized condensed milk in paste form is produced by concentrating and caramelizing milk with 18 to 20% of sucrose or glucose, with or without a flavor supplement of dried products.

4.5 Dried Dairy Products


4.5,1 Milk Powder

4.5.1.1 Processing Chart, Raw MiIk9 and Standardization


Milk powders are dairy products from which the water has been removed to the
greatest extent possible, thus preventing the growth of microorganisms.
A milk powder production line1-4*5*9""11*16'17 is shown in the flow chart in Fig. 4.8.
Skim milk powder (SMP) processing is similar to milk powder processing except
for two differences. The skim milk fat content is decreased to 0.05 to 0.10% from
higher values (standardized) common in whole milk powder manufacture and the
skim milk may be heated before evaporation. SMP heat treatment depends on the
kind of powder produced. SMP produced by a "low heat method" is simply pasteurized, while heat treatment by a "high heat method" requires heating at 85 to
88C for 15 to 30 min in addition to pasteurization.41011 Intensive heat treatment
of skim milk during powder processing is applied in the production of powder to be
used in the bakery industry, where a high degree of milk protein denaturation is

Milk

Receiving and selection


Clarification
Sediment

Cooling
4C

Storage of raw milk


4C
Standardization
Fat

Heat treatment

88-90C, 3-5 min, or 1300C, several seconds

Evaporation
30-35% TS; 40-50%TS

Water

Homogenization
5-15 MPa

Drying
130-150C; 180-2400C
Water
Packages

Packaging
Storage
20C
Milk powder
Figure 4.8 Flow chart of milk powder production.

required. There is no need to homogenize skim milk destined for powder production
in view of the low fat content.
Milk used in the production of powder must be of high chemical, sensory, and
bacteriological quality. The same rigorous criteria apply as in the production of
sweetened and unsweetened condensed milk. They are regulated by law and differ
in various countries.
Further processing includes clarification by centrifugal separators or filtration,
cooling in plate heat exchangers to 4C, and storage in tanks at the same temperature.
This is followed by standardization which is to adjust the ratio of milkfat to total
solids as required in the final product.

4.5.1.2 Heat Treatment, Evaporation, Homogenization,


and Drying
Heat treatment is usually carried out at temperatures higher than those required for
pasteurization. The aim is to destroy all pathogenic and most of the saprophytic
microorganisms; to inactivate enzymes, especially lipase, which could cause lipolysis during storage; and to activate the SH groups of 3-lactoglobulin, thus increasing
resistance of the powder to oxidative changes during storage. In order to avoid the
possibility of total solids variation or milk recontamination by steam injection, heat
treatment is commonly performed in an indirect way, via tubular or plate heat
exchangers.
Evaporation is a mandatory operation in powder processing for several reasons:
milk powder produced from evaporated milk consists of larger powder particles
containing less occluded air and has longer shelf life. Viscosity of the milk increased
due to higher concentrations of total solids results in larger powder particles. Omitting evaporation of the milk prior to its drying would not be economically feasible,
because the demand for energy would be severely increased. Energy consumption
in modern evaporators of multiple effect with steam recompression is about 10 times
lower than in spray drying. In addition, omission of evaporation would result in an
inferior quality of powder. For roller drying, the concentration during evaporation
is raised to 33 to 35% total solids, whereas for spray drying it is up to 40 to 50%.
This difference in concentrations during evaporation is caused by the drying technique. Higher concentration rates during roller drying would form a thick layer on
the rollers, followed by slower drying and irreversible changes of proteins, lactose,
and fat. Concentrating the milk destined for spray drying beyond the 50% total solids
limit would further increase viscosity and cause difficulties during atomization.
Homogenization is not an obligatory operation in milk powder processing, but is
usually applied in order to decrease the free fat content. Fat globules depleted of
protective membranes reduce milk powder solubility and increase their susceptibility
to oxidative rancidity. During homogenization (pressure = 5 to 15 MPa), free fats
are transformed into fat globules; membranes are regenerated on their surfaces because of adsorption of proteins.
On an industrial scale, milk is most commonly dried by roller drying or spray
drying in a stream of hot air. Various modifications of both systems include:
1. Roller drying
Roller drying at atmospheric pressure
Vacuum roller drying
2. Spray drying
Centrifugal atomization
Pressure atomization
Foam spray drying
Steam swept wheel atomization
Venturi spraying

Y
F
S

Figure 4.9 Steam and condensate flow in roller dryer. F = feed, S = steam, V = vapor,
C = condensate (1).

Two-stage spray drying (a system producing nonagglomerated powders, 1970)


Three-stage spray drying (a system producing either agglomerated or nonagglomerated powders, 1980).
In addition to these systems, interest has been generated in the following drying
methods:
1. Foam mat drying: product in foam form.
2. Drying in vacuum chambers: product in paste form.
3. Freeze drying: product in powder form.
There have also been attempts to develop completely new drying methods. However, all such attempts have failed for different reasons, leaving only spray drying
and roller drying for industrial application in dairy technology. Because the product
quality and process economy are superior and constantly improving with spray
drying, this method is of the greatest value today and in the foreseeable future. Trends
of the past 10 years indicate that intensive efforts have been made to improve and
modify the spray drying system. The two major objectives are to improve product
quality while decreasing energy consumption.

4.5.1.3 Roller Drying


This method is commonly used in the production of skim milk powder as well as
whole milk powder, which find applications in other industries (confectionery, feed
blends, etc.) because of low product solubility. Direct contact of a layer of concentrated milk with the hot surface of rotating rollers adversely affects the milk components, and causes irreversible changes in most of them. Examples include lactose
caramelization, lactose degradation with high energy of activation, Maillard's reactions between certain amino acids and lactose, protein denaturation, etc. Products
of Maillard-type reactions may cause a scorched flavor, while protein denaturation
results in poor solubility. Vacuum roller drying, at 91 to 98 KPa, operates at temperatures below 1000C and eliminates an oxygen effect, providing better powder
characteristics than by roller drying under atmospheric pressure. Drying equipment
is either constructed of one or two rotating rollers1'4 (Fig. 4.9).
The construction used most frequently in the dairy industry is a double drum
dryer that operates at atmospheric pressure. Dry, saturated steam at a temperature of

A
3

4
1

2
A

P
A

Figure 4.10 Process line for spray drying (one-stage drying, centrifugal atomization).
1. Spray drying chamber; 2. air neater; 3. atomizer; 4. cyclone system; 5. control board:
F = feed; A = air; P = product (powder). (Courtesy of NIRO ATOMIZER.)

up to 1500C and a pressure of up to 621 MPa is used for heating the roller when
introduced into its axis. The steam condensate is continuously removed by a pump
located at the other end of the roller's axis. Milk temperatures reach approximately
the same value as the steam during drying. Dry film, scraped off by knives, falls on
spiral conveyer belts located along each roller, where it is finely crushed ("diced")
and transported to a hammer mill, where it is pulverized.

4.5.1.4 Spray Drying


As mentioned earlier, spray drying is mainly used for drying milk and milk products.
Evaporated milk is atomized into fine droplets and exposed to a hot air flow in a
spray drying chamber (Fig. 4.10) which may be in horizontal or vertical positions.
Although horizontal drying chambers are common in the United States, vertical
drying chambers with flat or conical bottoms are used more often. 3 - 410 The ambient
air is filtered, heated by steam or a liquid phase heating system (oil/gas) up to 150
to 300 0 C, and introduced into the drying chamber at a velocity up to 50 m/s. 1 Air is
usually filtered before being heated. However, air can be also heated by mixing it
with combustion gases in a direct gas-fired heater, where burning products of gas or
oil and hot air enter the chamber. Because there is a direct contact between milk and
combustion gas, this method of air heating is not commonly used in the dairy industry, although it has a 100% heat efficiency and low investment and maintenance
costs. One obvious reason is contamination of the milk powder with nitrogen oxide
present in combustion gases. Carcinogenic substances, such as nitrosamines, may
result from reactions of nitrogen oxides, amines, and other ingredients present in
milk. 10
Air heating by indirect methods involves heating by steam in tubular or plate heat
exchangers, liquid phase heating, or indirect oil or gas heating.

In relation to the flow of milk, the air stream moves through the spray dryer in a
concurrent flow (same direction), countercurrent flow (opposite direction), or in a
mixed flow (angular). In spite of the inferior heat economy, concurrent flow is preferred in the dairy industry, as it improves product quality.
In order to decrease air quantity and thermal losses in the spray dryer, it is important that the following procedures be followed.
1. Maintain a high temperature of the inlet air and a low temperature of the outlet
air.
2. Use outlet air for heating inlet air.
3. Use inlet air from the upper part of the plant because it is the warmest and the
drying chamber is insulated.
4. The two most commonly used devices for recovery of heat and mass from spray
dryer exhaust include the sanitary spray scrubber and sanitary venturi scrubber.
A milk atomizer's basic function in spray drying is to provide a high surface-tomass ratio, thus enabling quick heat transfer with a high evaporation rate. The two
atomizing designs most commonly used are the centrifugal (rotary) atomizer and the
pressure (nozzle) atomizer.
A centrifugal atomizer is advantageous in drying viscous materials and suspensions. However, to achieve versatility in production, most dryers are now constructed
for both atomizing possibilities. By operating with a centrifugal atomizer, the same
high-pressure feed pump can be used without pressure. Milk is dispersed in the
centrifugal atomizer, at rotating speeds of 10,000 to 20,000 rpm, or by a pressure of
17.2 to 24.5 MPa in the pressure nozzles. In this way, fine particles with large specific
surface areas are obtained. As the milk dispersion rate increases, the specific surface
area is increased as well. This provides a rapid and intensive heat transfer from air
to milk, and mass transfer from milk to air. By dispersing 1 L of milk into droplets
of 50 |xm in diameter, a total surface area of 120 m2 is gained. Due to increased
surface area and high latent heat of water evaporation (2.26 MJ/kg sprayed particles),
moisture is quickly lost and the temperature of the incoming air drops immediately.
When the inlet air temperature is up to 215C, the temperature in the chamber drops
almost instantly to that of outlet air. This is approximately a 95C drop in one-stage
drying.
Regardless of the kind of the atomizer used, the powder particles during drying
gain spherical shapes (because of surface tension) with trapped air, thus gaining a
low bulk density. Each spray dried particle is spherical and has a diameter between
10 and 250 p,m. These particles contain evenly distributed vacuoles of occluded air
in their interior.18 Although most vacuoles are average in size, some are small
(Fig. 4.11).
The surface of spray-dried particles is usually smooth, but may become wrinkled.
The tendency to form wrinkles is increased by higher inlet air temperatures and
larger temperature differences between the hot air and powder particles. The presence
of particles of different morphology in the same sample is ascribed to the different
drying conditions to which the individual particles were exposed.

Figure 4.11 Microstructure of milk powder: (a) Roller dried; (b) Spray dried.18
Atomization methods, either centrifugal or nozzle, have no special effect on
particle structure. The bulk density of spray-dried powders varies (0.50 to 0.70
g/cm3).118 Bulk density could be improved by introducing steam into the atomizer
C'steam swept wheel"), using special atomizer constructions and adjusting drying
parameters. Atomization parameters affect some important properties of the final
product: bulk density, size and size distribution of powder particles, incorporated air
content, moisture content, and others.
The product is removed immediately after drying to stop further contact between
powder and hot air. Long contact with hot air could result in penetration of fat at
the particle surface, which causes adhesions and overheating of the powder. It is
necessary to provide adequate velocity for carrying particles of certain diameters.
This velocity is calculated on the basis of Stokes' law and is called terminal velocity.
With the enlargement of the particle diameter, the terminal velocity increases. Cyclone separators are used for powder recovery. With this system, 90% of the powder
having particle size larger than 10 //,m, 98% of the powder with particle sizes larger
than 20 |xm, and 99% of dry particles with diameters larger than 30 /im can be
recovered. The efficiency of cyclones is calculated on the basis of material balance,
that is, ratio of total solids of raw ^naterial entering the process versus total solids
of powder at the outlet. The formula is:
Ef =

SM*

X 10 (%)

(4>2)

where
SMe = dry matter entering the process (kg)
SM0 = dry matter outlet of the process (kg).
Today, there is a system of several cyclones with large diameters combined with
one cyclone of smaller diameter, which provides simultaneous cooling of the powder.
Spray drying has numerous important advantages compared to the other drying
techniques:

1. The whole process is rapid: drying is accomplished at low temperatures, giving


the product excellent properties.
2. There is no noticeable oxidation, vitamin loss, protein denaturation, lactose transformation, or other adverse effect from heat. Spray drying is also used for drying
many pharmaceutical, biological, and thermolabile materials. Products obtained
by spray drying are of quality similar to that obtained by freeze drying and do
not require further processing.
Because spray drying is fully automatic, even a high-capacity operation with a
high productivity requires minimal labor. Because the product comes into contact
with the wall of the closed chamber only in powder form, there is neither the problem
of equipment maintenance or corrosion, nor microbiological quality in the finished
product. Spray devices can be used for drying all kinds of products that can be
pumped, even if they are adhesive or very viscous (i.e., casein, casemates, cream,
blends, etc.). Spray-dried products also have a fine structure. There is not a large
quantity of the product in the chamber simultaneously, which will be advantageous
during the eventual breakdown in processing.

4.5.1.5 Packaging and Storage


Powder should be packed in suitable containers that protect it from moisture, air,
light, etc. The following wrappings are generally used: paper, multilayer boxes or
bags with a polyethylene layer inside, metal barrels with polyethylene bags inside,
or tins covered with aluminum foil at the contact surface. When planning the quantity
of wrapping material, it is necessary to consider the bulk density of the product,
because it is highly affected by processing parameters and techniques. When the
product is intended for long storage, it is packaged in an atmosphere of inert gas,
mostly nitrogen, or in a partial vacuum (4.0 to 5.3 KPa) to avoid oxidative changes
of fat and other components.
Properly produced and packed milk power, with low oxygen content, is stored at
ambient temperature.

4.5.2 Instant Milk Powder


Instant milk powder has better reconstitution properties than other milk powders.
The instantization process patented by Peebles in 199519"21 significantly improved
the quality and economical aspects of the drying technology. The properties of dried
products improved positively by the instantizing process include wettability, penetrability, sinkability, dispersibility, and dissolvability. The process permits a better
equilibrium among these variables.
Instant characteristics are attained by agglomeration, which causes an increase of
the amount in air incorporated between powder particles. During reconstitution the
air is replaced by water. Incorporated air enables a larger quantity of water to come
into contact immediately with the powder particles during reconstitution.
In a noninstantized product, a viscous layer forms around clustered powder particles and hinders further water absorption. This slows the dissolving process.

2,
S

A
9

4
F

S
i

DETAIL 5

A
6
P
S

W
A

Figure 4.12 Three-stage drying. 1. feed tank; 2. concentrate preheater; 3. atomizer; 4. spray
drying chamber; 5. integrated fluid-bed; 6. external fluid bed; 7. cyclone; 8. bag filter; 9. liquid
coupled heat exchanger. F = feed, A = air, S = steam, W = water, P = product. Detail:
5. Integrated fluid bed3 (Courtesy of APV Anhydro).

The main advantages of a two-stage drying system are 3 ' 41617 :


1. Increased heat utilization (specific heat consumption 15 to 20% lower than that
for a single-stage dryer)
2. Improved product quality (solubility, bulk density, occluded air, etc.)
3. Higher capacity.
The development of the three-stage drying procedure has made possible greater
energy savings than the two-stage dryer (Fig. 4.12).
Three-stage drying involves a spray dryer as the first stage, a static fluid bed
integrated in the base of the drying chamber as the second stage, and an external
vibrating fluid bed as the third drying stage. By moving the second drying stage into
a drying chamber, it is possible to achieve even higher moisture removal at the end
of the first drying stage than by two-stage drying. 3 ' 41016 ' 17 Lower temperatures are
applied which results in a powder of better quality and thermal efficiency (Table
4.1).
There are two basic types of instantizing (Fig. 4.13): The "rewet" process, where
the instantization is carried out after the powder is obtained in dry form, and the
"straight through" process, where instantization is accomplished during drying.

rable 4.1

COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE DATA FOR THREE-STAGE DRYING


VERSUS TWO-STAGE DRYING. BASIS: SKIM MILK
Three-Stage Integrated
Fluid Bed Spray Dryer

Drying system

With Nozzle
Atomizer

With Rotary
Atomizer

48
2140
3.5
280
850

50
1720
3.5
215
866

Feed solids (%)


Product rate (kg/h)
Residual moisture content (%)
Main drying air temperature (0C)
Specific heat consumption (kcal/kg evap. water)

Two-Stage
50
3.5
220
972

From ref. 16.

Milk powder
Water, steam, 10% skimmilk

Wetting of particle surface


Hot air, lecithin

5-10% water

Agglomeration
Separation by cyclones

Fluid-bed drying
2-4% water, 90-1200C

Humid air
non-agglomerated fines

Cooling
10C

Sifting
Fines
Packages

Packaging
Instant milk powder
Figure 4.13a Flow chart of instantized milk powder production, (a) Rewet procedure.

Dry milk powder is the starting material for the rewetting procedure. The powder
is dispersed in the wetting chamber and gains a water content of 5 to 10%, causing
formation of powder particle agglomerates. The agglomerated product is transferred
to the vibrating fluid bed dryer and cooler (Figs. 4.12 and 4.13), where it is redried
in a hot air stream at 90 to 1200C and immediately cooled to approximately 100C.
The powder layer in the fluid bed dryer is about 10 cm high, with a residence
time of 10 to 12 min.10 Because two-stage drying results in a powder of lower

Evaporated milk
Hot air

Drying with agglomeration


Separation by cyclones

Fluid-bed drying
90-12O0C, 2-4% moisture

Humid air
non-agglomerated fines

Cooling
Sifting

Fines

Packages

Packaging

Instant milk powder


Figure 4.13b Flow chart of instantized milk powder production, (b) Straight through procedure.
temperature at the last drying stage than that from a single-stage drying, it is
preferred.
The final product from the fluid bed dryer has a water content <4% (2 to 4%).
Hot air, blown upwards through the fine perforated plate of the fluid bed dryer,
"fluidizes" the powder and carries the smallest powder particles or fines to the
cyclone, where separation takes place. The air is discharged into the atmosphere
after heat and solids have been recovered and the fines are returned to the start of
the process.
This instantization process is more complicated when the treated product contains
fat, for example, whole milk or cream. Free fat forms a hydrophobic layer on the
particle surfaces, impregnating them and decreasing their water-binding capability.
In order to prevent this and improve the recombination properties, powder particles
are coated during instantization with a surface-active agent, usually lecithin (0.2%
lecithin in the powder),23 during instantization.22
During "straight through" instantization (Fig. 4.13), the agglomeration process
is carried out in wet powder, immediately after powder particles have been formed.
It differs from the two-stage process, where dry powder enters the process.
Because of low outlet air temperature and other drying parameters, the discharged
powder contains moisture. The powder is subsequently transferred through two vibrating dryers, where excess water is removed and hot air stream carries the fines
into the cyclone system. After separation, the fines are fed back into the atomization
zone to be agglomerated with the wet powder.
The newer type of three-stage spray drying chamber construction contains a FiItermat dryer that has a main drying chamber and three smaller additional chambers
for crystallization, final drying, and coating. This spraying design has a lower height,
high productivity, and production versatility. In addition, the "instant" properties

Table 4.2 COMPOSITION OF HUMAN


AND COW MILK
Component (%)
Water
Fat
Protein
Lactose
Ash
Nonfat solids
Total solids

Human Milk

Cow Milk

87.43
3.75
1.63
6.98
0.21
8.82
12.57

86.61
4.14
3.58
4.96
0.71
9.25
13.39

From ref. 25.

of the product are excellent. The most recent development is a multistage spray dryer
developed by Storck.23 The drying chamber is directly connected to the external
fluid bed through the well mix section. This reduces the transportation time for the
moist powder.

4.5.3 Infant Formulas


Infant formulas were designed as a substitute for human milk. Some mothers cannot
or do not wish to breast-feed. Such formulas are usually derived from cow's milk
that has been modified to simulate breast milk as much as possible. The use of infant
formulas started at the beginning of the 20th century and resulted in a product with
increasing resemblance to breast milk. Science and technology in the past decade
have significantly improved the formulations.
Instead of using modified cow's milk as a base, modern infant formulas may
contain other forms of basic ingredients: milk and whey products (proteins, lactose);
soybean proteins (soybean protein isolate); and protein hydrolysates. Formulas without cow's milk as a component are designed for infants with milk intolerance, milk
allergies, or special needs.
According to Table 4.2, human and cow's milk differ in the relative content and
chemical composition of macronutrients (lactose, proteins, minerals, and fat).25'26
The quantity of protein in cow's milk is 3.5 times higher than that in breast milk
and contains 80% casein and 20% whey proteins. Human milk protein is composed
of 20% casein and 80% whey proteins. /3-lactoglobulin, which represents the largest
amount of whey protein in cow's milk, is not found in human milk at all.
Therefore, to simulate breast milk, cow's milk must be modified to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reduce protein and mineral content, especially sodium.


Change milk protein ratio in favor of whey proteins.
Increase the Ca/P ratio from 1.2 to 2.0.
Increase the carbohydrate content and add vitamins, but less complicated.
Modify fat (this step presents special problems because of its stability).

Table 4.3

NUTRIENT LEVELS OF INFANT FORMULAS (PER 100 KCAL)a

Nutrient
Protein (g)
Fat
(g)
(% cal)
Essential fatty acids (linoleate)
(% cal)
(mg)
Vitamins
A(IU)
D(IU)
K (/xg)
E(IU)
C (ascorbic acid) (mg)
B (thiamine) (fig)
B 2 (riboflavin) (pig)
B6 (pyridoxine) (fig)
B 12 (Mg)
Niacin
(^g)
(fig equiv)
Folic acid (jug)
Pantothenic acid (fig)
Biotin (fig)
Choline (mg)
Inositol (mg)
Minerals
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Iodine (^g)
Zinc (mg)
Copper (fig)
Manganese (fig)
Sodium (mg)
Potassium (mg)
Chloride (mg)
a
b
c
d
c

1976 Recommendations13

FDA 1971
Regulations
Minimum

Minimum

Maximum

1.8

1.8

4.5

1.7
15.0

3.3
30.0

6.0
54.0

2.0
222.0

3.0
300.0

250.0
40.0

250.0 (75 fig)c


40.0
4.0
0.3 (with 0.7 IU/g linoleic acid)
8.0
40.0
60.0
35.0 (with 15 fig/g of protein in
formula)
0.15

0.3
7.8
25.0
60.0
35.0
0.15

750.0 (225 figf


100.0

250.0
800.0
4.0
300.0

50.0d
25.0d
6.0
1.0
5.0
60.0

4.0
300.0
1.5
7.0
4.0
40.0d
25.0d
6.0
0.15
5.0
0.5
60.0
5.0
20.0 (mEq)e
80.0 (14 mEq)e
55.0(11 mEq)e

Adapted from ref. 26.


Modified from Committee on Nutrition (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1976).
Retinol equivalents.
Calcium-to-phosphorus ratio must be no less than 1.1:1.0 nor more than 2.0:1.0.
Milliequivalents for 670 kcal/L of formula.

60.0 (17 mEq)e


200.0 (34 mEq)c
150.0 (29 mEq)c

Skim milk
Receiving and selection
Clarification
Sediment

Cooling

4C
Deaeration

Air

Pasteurization
75C, 20 S

Evaporation
45-700C

Vegetable oils, demineralized whey,


vitamins, emulsifiers, stabilizers

Water

Blending of ingredients
Homogenization
15-20 MPa

Mix pasteurization
110C, 60s

Drying
t,: 160-18O 0 Ct 2 : 900C

Packages

Water

Packaging
Infant formula
Figure 4.14 Flow chart of infant formula production.
Recommendations for the composition of infant formulas are presented in Table
4.3. 2 6
The most difficult modification is to add immuno factors to cow's milk, as these
substances are normally present in breast milk, but not in cow's milk. The wellknown deficit has prompted many health professionals to recommend breast feeding
whenever possible.
The manufacture of infant formulas requires different processes. One is the "dry
procedure," where all ingredients are blended in dry form; the other is the "wet
procedure" where mixing is done in the wet state prior to drying. Frequently, these
methods are combined. In the dry process, the goal is to produce an even blend.
As evident from Fig. 4.14, the spray-drying regimens in the production of infant
formulas differ from those for milk powder production because of the high content

of lactose and fat (in infant formulas). In addition to lower inlet air temperature, the
total solids content of the feed (for infant formulas) is lower than that of milk powder
and the drying chamber must be specially constructed to provide cooling. Drying of
infant formulas is usually accomplished in the two- or three-stage drying process.
When combining the two procedures, water-soluble components are added to the
milk before drying, whereas less soluble components are added in a dry form to the
blend after drying. The wet procedure provides the best mixing, resulting in sterile
products, whereas the dry procedure is cheaper in capital outlay and operation. The
combined method has some advantages for both and is the most used.

4.5.4 Other Products


Apart from those dried dairy products discussed in the early sections, there are three
others that are briefly mentioned here.

4.5.4.1 Reconstituted Milk Powder


Milk powder may be reconstituted with potable water to form beverages or may be
processed into various other dairy products such as pasteurized milk, sterilized milk,
fermented dairy product, and cheeses. Reconstituted milk processing plants have
been well established in the dairy industry for over 20 years. Skim milk powder is
the most commonly used for reconstitution. It has several advantages over whole
milk powder when used for reconstitution:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Longer shelf life.


Easy adjustment of the ratio of fat to nonfat dry solids.
Easier substitution with vegetable fat.
Easier recombination.

4.5.4.2 Modified Milk Powder


Modified milk powder has one or more components substituted with ingredients of
other origin. This process enables food processors to utilize milk components and
by-products in combination with nutritive ingredients of other origin, thus lowering
production costs and designing nutritive characteristics for specific purposes. Each
of the three macro components in milk may be replaced with ingredients of other
origin: lactose with sucrose; milk proteins with vegetable proteins, and milkfat with
vegetable fats. Some substitutions may be made simultaneously as needed for a
specific product.

4.5.4.3 Imitation Milk Powder


Imitation milks are similar to milk, but unlike modified milks contain no milk components. Indirectly, sodium caseinate produced from casein is sometimes used as the
protein ingredient in imitation milks. The other ingredients in the product are mostly

Next Page

the same as those used in modified milk production. Imitation milk powder production is used in a manner similar to modified milk powder and has multiple
advantages:
1. It has low productions costs (as the price of vegetable fat and protein is much
lower than for the corresponding milk components).
2. It serves well those parts of the world where there are no cattle and no milk
production.
3. It has a longer shelf life compared to milk powder.
4. It has a wide variation in composition, depending on the availability of ingredients.
Other dry dairy products include anhydrous milkfat, dried dairy beverages, dietetic dry products, coffee whiteners, dry fermented milk products, dry cream, dry
cheese products, dry ice cream mix, dry buttermilk, and single cell protein.

4.6 Dried Dairy Ingredients


4.6-1 Whey Powder
Whey, a by-product from cheese and casein manufacture, was traditionally returned
to the farmers as animal feed or as a fertilizer for spreading in the fields. Today,
large cheese factories are common and world cheese production continues to rise. It
is not economical to use whey in the traditional manner. Industrial processors have
been using heat concentrating and drying to make whey a more profitable entity. In
addition to the traditional dry whey products, there are other dry products derived
from whey as shown in Fig. 4.15.
The basic advantage of processing whey into powder is that there is no residue,
whereas the drawback is the need for expensive equipment and a large energy consumption. Converting whey into powder requires a large processing capacity but the
price of the final product is low in comparison with other dried or concentrated
products (for example, whey protein concentrates).
Whey can be transformed into powder by different techniques and the quality of
the product varies with the technology applied (Fig. 4.16). 3AU
For example, different processing procedures affect caking tendency (0 to 100%),
lactose crystallization rate (0 to 95%), free water content (1 to 4%), and so on. Caking
tendency is affected by the degree of lactose crystallization, as well as the number
and size distribution of the crystals.
Procedure a (flow chart in Fig. 4.16), in addition to resulting in a highly hygroscopic product, also uses a great amount of energy because whey can only be concentrated up to 45% of total solids in the evaporator.
By introducing lactose crystallization between evaporation and drying (Fig. 4.16,
Procedure b), powder quality and process economy are improved. Crystallization
starts in flash coolers or specially designed vacuum coolers and continues in crystallization tanks for 4 to 24 h, with constant agitation during filling and emptying of

Previous Page

the same as those used in modified milk production. Imitation milk powder production is used in a manner similar to modified milk powder and has multiple
advantages:
1. It has low productions costs (as the price of vegetable fat and protein is much
lower than for the corresponding milk components).
2. It serves well those parts of the world where there are no cattle and no milk
production.
3. It has a longer shelf life compared to milk powder.
4. It has a wide variation in composition, depending on the availability of ingredients.
Other dry dairy products include anhydrous milkfat, dried dairy beverages, dietetic dry products, coffee whiteners, dry fermented milk products, dry cream, dry
cheese products, dry ice cream mix, dry buttermilk, and single cell protein.

4.6 Dried Dairy Ingredients


4.6-1 Whey Powder
Whey, a by-product from cheese and casein manufacture, was traditionally returned
to the farmers as animal feed or as a fertilizer for spreading in the fields. Today,
large cheese factories are common and world cheese production continues to rise. It
is not economical to use whey in the traditional manner. Industrial processors have
been using heat concentrating and drying to make whey a more profitable entity. In
addition to the traditional dry whey products, there are other dry products derived
from whey as shown in Fig. 4.15.
The basic advantage of processing whey into powder is that there is no residue,
whereas the drawback is the need for expensive equipment and a large energy consumption. Converting whey into powder requires a large processing capacity but the
price of the final product is low in comparison with other dried or concentrated
products (for example, whey protein concentrates).
Whey can be transformed into powder by different techniques and the quality of
the product varies with the technology applied (Fig. 4.16). 3AU
For example, different processing procedures affect caking tendency (0 to 100%),
lactose crystallization rate (0 to 95%), free water content (1 to 4%), and so on. Caking
tendency is affected by the degree of lactose crystallization, as well as the number
and size distribution of the crystals.
Procedure a (flow chart in Fig. 4.16), in addition to resulting in a highly hygroscopic product, also uses a great amount of energy because whey can only be concentrated up to 45% of total solids in the evaporator.
By introducing lactose crystallization between evaporation and drying (Fig. 4.16,
Procedure b), powder quality and process economy are improved. Crystallization
starts in flash coolers or specially designed vacuum coolers and continues in crystallization tanks for 4 to 24 h, with constant agitation during filling and emptying of

CHCCSC
MILK

CHCCSC PRODUCTO
IN
RV
l CR

FB DRYING

SCfARATO
lN

PROCESSN
IG

ICAtACTOSO
l ASC
URCA CACTOSVL URCA
RCACTOR
GLUCOSC-GALACTOSC
PCRMCATC

WMCV

FG
lS

ULTRA FILTRATION

FC
l LO

FROTCN
I

LACTOSC
FCRMCNTATO
lN
CRYSTALLIZATION
CVAFORATN
tC
FAT
SCPARATO
I N OISTILLATION
VCAST

SCFARATO
IN
MOTMCR LQ
I UOR

CLCCTROOIALVSS
i

ALCOHOL
FAT
SPRAY
DRYING

RCCONSTtTUTO
lN

MOTHCR LIQUOR

POWDER

CHCCSC

SKIM MILK
NON-HVCROSCOFC
I
WHCV
FAT CNRC
t HCO
WHCY
CLCCTROOA
I LVSCO
WHCV

SCF
FROTCN
l
WHCV
FCRMCATC

Figure 4.15 Dry dairy products derived from whey. (Courtesy of A/S NIRO Atomizer.)
SCP = Single cell protein

ORDINARY
WHEY POWDER

PRECRYSTALLIZED
WHEY POWDER

Pretreatment

WHEY POWDER
(STRAIGHT THROUGH)

NON-CAKING

NON-CAKING
WHEY POWDER
(BELTPROCESS)

Pretreatment

Pretreatment

Pretreatment

Evaporation

Evaporation

Evaporation

Evaporation

42-45% TS

about 40% TS

about 40% TS

50% TS

Highconcentration
50-60% TS

Highconcentration
50-60% TS

Precrystallization

Precrystallization

Precrystallization

4-16 h

16-24 h

16-24 h

Spray drying

Spray drying

Spray drying

I 1 = 18O0C

ti = 2000C

tj= 1850C

Spray drying
q= 15O0C

Postcrystallization
Fluid-bed
drying

Fluid-bed
drying

Fluid-bed
cooling

Pneumatic
transport/cooling

Pneumatic
transport/cooling

Fluid-bed
cooling

[a]

[b]

[C]

Figure 4.16 Four different procedures of spray drying whey.

the tanks. For crystallization nuclei, pulverized a-lactose monohydrate (0.1%) or


crystallized whey powder (8.2%) is used. Quick cooling in flash coolers is accomplished at temperatures up to 300C which transforms /3-lactose into the a-form. The
mass is further cooled in the crystallization tank to 100C at a rate of 3C/h. During
procedures b, c, and d (Fig. 4.16), 50 to 75%, 75 to 85%, and 85 to 95% of the
lactose crystallize, respectively.
Whey powder is composed of large agglomerated particles in Procedures c (100
to 500 /xm) and e (up to 3000 /xm). It has excellent free-flowing characteristics

a)

c)

b)

Figure 4.17 Dead-end (a) versus cross-flow (b) ultrafiltration. (c) Cross section of asymmetric membrane of hollow fiber type.
and is not hygroscopic, with no caking tendencies. It is used extensively in food
processing.
In all four procedures, reverse osmosis may be used for partial whey concentration
(up to 25% total solids), prior to evaporation. This is an energy saving measure. It
must be emphasized that the two concentrating plants may be located in different
places.

4.6.2 Whey Protein Concentrates


There are several industrial methods suitable for the production of various whey
protein concentrates (WPC). The interest in whey processing is a result of two factors. One is a worldwide shortage of high-quality animal proteins that whey proteins
may alleviate, and the other is the problem with the disposal of whey. The high
biological oxygen demand (BOD) of whey makes this cheese by-product a pollutant
so that it is more desirable to process it than to dump it.
In addition to traditional methods such as evaporation and drying, modern methods used in industrial whey processing include ultrafiltration, microfiltration, reverse
osmosis (hyperfiltration), and demineralization (electrodialysis, ion exchange). The
most commonly used membrane method in dairying is ultrafiltration. Its industrial
application was aided by the introduction of cross flow instead of dead-end filtration
and the invention of asymmetric membranes27 (Fig. 4.17).
During the ultrafiltration of whey, low molecular weight compounds such as
lactose, minerals, nonprotein nitrogen, and vitamins are separated in the permeate,

whereas proteins are concentrated in the retentate. This permits a WPC with 20 to
60% protein in total solids and low quantities of lactose and mineral matter to be
obtained. Permeate, a by-product of this processing, is used for producing lactose,
alcohol, single cell protein, yeast, galactose, glucose, cattle feed, and various pharmaceuticals.
As ultrafiltration proceeds, an increased protein content of up to 98% may be
achieved by adding water to the feed.28 This proceure is called diafiltration. The
optimal moment to start diafiltration is when the total solids content has been reached
at which the ultrafiltration flux is still relatively high. That level of total solids must
be kept constant during diafiltration in order to minimize the water quantity needed.
To obtain 80% protein in total solids, the latter should reach a level of approximately
22 to 25%. The scheme of continuous WPC production is shown in Fig. 4.18.28
Sweet whey is first subjected to clarification (removal of casein fines, fat separation, and pasteurization). After pasteurization, the whey is cooled to 60 to 65C
and held at this temperature for 30 to 60 min before cooling to 500C for ultrafiltration.
This heat-and-hold treatment has the function of stabilizing the calcium phosphate
complex, and thus reduces the fouling of the membranes during ultrafiltration. Further reduction of the mineral content in WPC is achieved by adjusting pH of the
whey to pH 5.7 to 6.0 with HCl. In this way, the solubility of calcium is increased,
followed by its greater portion in the permeate. After ultrafiltration, the retentate is
pasteurized, evaporated, and dried. Although in Fig. 4.18 evaporation is included in
the process, a better solution is to directly dry the product. Depending on the protein
content, total solids may be increased from 22 to 25% up to 44% during ultrafiltration, and WPC may be dried directly as obtained from the ultrafiltration plant. This
provides a better quality of high protein product. To reduce or avoid protein denaturation, lower temperatures than those for drying milk are used: 160 to 1800C for
the inlet temperature and less than 800C for the outlet air temperature (Fig. 4.18).

4.6.3 Casein Products

4.6.3.1 Casein
Casein is the major milk protein. In addition to the protein moiety, it also contains
phosphorus, calcium, and citrate in the structure of its micelles.29"31
As the initial pH value of milk is decreased from 6.5, casein starts losing its
colloidal dispersibility and stability and begins to precipitate at pH 5.3. Maximum
precipitation takes place at pH 4.6, which is the isoelectric point of casein. Casein
may also be precipitated by proteolytic enzymes. Depending on the reagent used,
the following kinds of casein are produced.32"35
1. Acid casein is obtained by precipitating milk with an acid such as hydrochloric,
sulfuric, or lactic acid.
2. Sweet casein results from the action of chymosin.
3. Low-viscosity casein is produced by treating milk simultaneously with proteolytic enzymes and an acid.

Bag Filter
Powder So
li s
Evaporato
in

Spray Dryn
ig
Fluid Bod]

ChMM Factory from


Permeate Storage
Bufer lank
Whey Storage

Dyctone,

Beggn
ig

Pasteurziato
in
Clarification
Storage
SET
Separao
tin< !Wh.yCr.am
Heat
-transported

Pasteurziato
in
Retentate Storage

Hod
ln
ig lank
U
T
tR
O
tiFN
DU
IAR
FA
IUFR
AA
TT
IC
*.

Figure 4.18 Processing plant for production of WPC from sweet whey.

The basic operations in the production of casein are the same irrespective of the
type of casein produced. The flow chart of acid casein production, together with
sodium casemate production, is shown in Fig. 4.19.
The precipitation of casein in skim milk is initiated by changing the pH value of
the milk using hydrochloric, sulfuric, or lactic acid. The nature of the coagulum
(curd) obtained by direct precipitation of skim milk depends on the temperature of
precipitation, the intensity of agitation, and the final pH value of the precipitate. The
best results are obtained by atomizing a diluted acid solution such as 1.3 to IA N
HCl in a countercurrent direction to the flow of the milk maintained at 30 to 35C.

Skim milk

pH 4.6, lactic acid


fermentation,
HCl, H2SO4

Rennet
treatment

Casein curd

Casein curd

Draining, washing
pressing, milling
drying

Draining, washing
pressing, milling
drying

Acid casein

pH6-7
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2

Rennet casein

Spray drying
Caseinate
Figure 4.19 Production of commercial casein and caseinate products.

In the next step, steam is injected into the mixture in order to rapidly increase its
temperature to cause coagulation, that is, 40 to 45C. The mixture is subsequently
directed into an inclined tube where it coagulates.
Skim milk may also be coagulated in a two-section plate heat exchanger. Acid is
injected into the skim milk after it passed through the first section of the heat exchanger, where it was heated to 300C by heat recuperated from whey processing.
The acidified skim milk is then heated to 45C by hot water in another section of
the heat exchanger. The yield of casein may be as high as 99%.
The procedure is the same regardless of the type of the acid used. Hydrochloric
and sulfuric acids are most commonly used. The selection of a particular acid depends on economic factors. Preference has been given to hydrochloric acid because
it is usually available at a lower cost than sulfuric acid.
An economical, high-capacity production of casein is based on the use of lactic
acid as a precipitating agent. Lactic acid can be produced inexpensively by the
fermentation of lactose. In New Zealand, almost all acid casein is produced in this
way, using cultures of Streptococcus lactis and/or Streptococcus cremoris.
Initially, this process, as well as all subsequent wet operations, were carried out
in cheese vats. The skim milk was inoculated at 25 to 27C with 0.5 to 1.5% of a
mixed lactic acid bacteria starter culture. The coagulation of the skim milk was

completed within 16 to 18 h. The temperature of the coagulum was then increased


to 50 to 600C by steam injection. The coagulum was cut with cheese knives and the
curd was agitated to facilitate syneresis until the final temperature was reached. The
whey was then drained and the curd was washed with water.
In 1963, Muller and Hayes36 designed a process for the manufacture of low
viscosity casein to be used in the paper industry. Such casein can be produced by
enzymatic coagulation of milk. Viscosity of a comparable regular acid casein solution is 2 Pa-s whereas a 15% solution of enzymatically produced casein has viscosity
of 0.3 to 0.4 Pa-s. In a continuous manufacturing procedure, approximately 40% of
the volume of the skim milk to be processed is treated with pepsin and then blended
with the remaining skim milk. Curd is formed following acid injection into the blend.
After the coagulation of the curd is completed, it is important to separate the whey
from it as soon as possible. This can be accomplished by draining the whey from
the holding tank through a decanter or an inclined dewheying screen.
The freshly precipitated casein, from which whey has been separated, is washed
in order to remove residual acids, salts, whey proteins, and lactose. The curd should
be washed at least three times, with each washing lasting 15 to 20 min in order to
ensure that the lactose content in the final product is reduced to a minimum. In the
countercurrent flow arrangement, the volume of the washing water is approximately
one half of the volume used in the parallel flow washing. The dry matter content of
the washed curd is approximately 45%.
In a continuous washing process, the curd is moving through a set of several
tanks. To separate the curd from the washing water, the top of each tank is equipped
with a 90-mesh draining screen, inclined 60 from the vertical line which separates
the curd from the washing water.33
In order the preserve the desired curd characteristics during washing, it is important to maintain the pH value of the washing water at 4.6, which is the isoelectric
point of casein. If water pH is lower than 4.6, a gelatinous layer may form on the
curd particle surface and obstruct the washing. Continuous casein pressing may be
accomplished by using a centrifuge, a screw press equipped with a pair of rotating
screws pressing and moving the curd, or a mechanically driven roller press equipped
with a pair of stainless steel rollers.
The curd is usually milled before drying in order to obtain particles of a uniform
size. These will dry evenly through the entire casein mass, thus avoiding incomplete
drying of a part of them and scorching of others. Vibrating dryers (fluid-bed dryers)
of the type used to dry other milk products are used most frequently to dry casein.
Recently, a new drying procedure called "attrition" drying has been designed.
The dryer consists of a rotor and a stator. The curd is ground during this procedure,
exposing a large surface to hot air circulating in the dryer and making the drying
proceed very rapidly. The resulting powder particles have irregular shapes with a
large number of cavities and readily disperse in water.
The objective of tempering is to cool the casein and to evenly distribute the
moisture in it. Hot casein, which has an uneven moisture distribution, is plastic and
very difficult to grind.

Table 4.4 APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL


CASEIN AND CASEINATE PRODUCTS
Components
Protein, N X 6.38 (min)
Ash (max)
Sodium
Calcium
Phosphorus
Lactose (max)
Fat (max)
Moisture (max)
pH

Sodium
Caseinate

Calcium
Caseinate

Acid
Casein

Rennet
Casein

94.0
4.0
1.3
0.1
0.8
0.2
1.5
4.0
6.6

93.5
4.5
0.05
1.5
0.8
0.2
1.5
4.0
6.8

95.0
2.2
0.1
0.08
0.9
0.2
1.5
10.0

89.0
7.5
0.02
3.0
1.5
1.5
12.0
7.0

Coprecipitate
89-94
4.5

1.5
1.5
5.0
6.8

Grinding produces uniform dimensions of the casein particles. They range from
300 to 600 /im in diameter. Particles obtained by attrition drying are considerably
smaller, that is, to 150 //,in in diameter.33
Ground casein is classified according to particle dimensions. It is sifted through
a series of gradually increasing mesh number sieves. Classified casein is packaged
in bags that are of the same kind as those used for milk powder packaging.
The approximate composition of commercial casein and casein products is presented in Table 4.4.
Casein is used in many industries such as the paper industry, the manufacture of
water-based paints, the production of adhesives, the food industry, the manufacture
of plastics, the production of casein fibres, the tanning industry, and the manufacture
of animal feeds and pet foods.

4.6.3.2 Sodium Caseinate


Casein consists of electrically charged proteins. The charges form polar regions along
the polypeptide chain. This makes casein an ampholyte that is capable of reacting
either with hydroxides or with acids depending on the pH value of the medium.
Casein reacts with various metal ions and forms caeinates such as sodium caseinate,
calcium caseinate, and others.
Sodium caseinate is commonly manufactured by a continuous process32"35 in
which thoroughly washed acid casein is used as the starting material. In addition to
raw casein, dry acid casein is also suitable as the starting material in the production
of sodium caseinate. Irrespective of the starting material used, the manufacture of
sodium caseinate consists of the formation of a casein suspension, solubilization of
casein using sodium hydroxide, and drying the sodium caseinate produced (Fig.
4.19). Raw acid casein is milled in a continuous mill and subsequently suspended
in a hot water tank.
The casein suspension is pumped from the holding tank into another tank while
the sodium hydroxide solution is simultaneously injected through a mixer. Water is

also added in order to maintain the total solids content of the caseinate solution
below the 20 to 22% level. The total solids content of the solution destined for spray
drying is 25 to 31% lower than that of milk, which is usually in the 45 to 55% range.
The low dry matter content, dictated by the requirement to maintain a low viscosity
of the sodium casemate solution, increases the production costs. The viscosity of
sodium caseinate solutions is a logarithmic function of the total solids concentration.
In order to increase the solids concentration to a maximum, a relatively high solubilization temperature of 90 to 95C is applied. The viscosity is lowest in the pH
range of 6.6 to 7.0. The raw acid casein must be completely free of lactose; otherwise
conditions favorable to the induction of Maillard reactions leading to the discoloration of the product would develop.
The homogeneous sodium caseinate solution obtained in the preceding operation
is usually spray dried in a stream of hot air. Only rarely is sodium caseinate dried
by roller drying. The total solids content of the solution destined for spray drying
ranges from 20 and 22% and may be exceptionally as high as 25%. The highest
permissible caseinate concentration is determined experimentally for every individual spray dryer.
All sodium caseinate produced commercially is used in the food industry. The
following foods are examples of products containing sodium caseinate: various kinds
of sausages, meat-based instant breakfast and milk-based instant breakfast, modified
milk, whipped cream, coffee whiteners, ice cream, desserts, sauces, soups, casein
bread, doughs, crackers, biscuits, dietetic products, and various protein-enriched
products. The two main reasons for using sodium caseinate as an ingredient in foods
are its functional properties and nutritive value.

4.6.3.3 Coprecipitates
In coprecipitate processing, high-temperature treatment of skim milk leads to the
interaction of the /3-lactoglobulin fraction of the whey proteins with K-casein. The
heat-induced K-casein/3-lactoglobulin complex is then coprecipitated with casein
by an acid, or another chemical agent such as CaCl2, or a mix of the two.32"35 Other
milk proteins are coprecipitated together with the casein-lactoglobulin complex.
Coprecipitates were patented in the 1950s and became more popular in the 1970s.
Their advantage over casein and its compounds is that they also consist of whey
proteins that contain relatively high concentrations of sulfur-containing amino acids.
This factor contributes to the biological value of coprecipitates. In addition, the
coprecipitate procedure increases the recovery of milk proteins.
In order to produce coprecipitates, skim milk is preheated and the final heating
of up to 900C in the second stage is obtained by steam injection into the milk. CaCl2
or acid is also injected through spray countercurrent to the direction of milk flow to
provide full mixing. The mixture is transformed into curd in a holding tube (20 to
25s). The curd is separated from the whey and the coprecipitate is washed, pressed,
and dried. At optimal process conditions it is possible to recover 95 to 97% of the
milk proteins. There are three basic varieties of coprecipitates, each having different
amounts of calcium33: low-calcium coprecipitate (LCC, 0.1 to 0.5% Ca), medium-

calcium coprecipitate (MCC, 1.0 to 1.5% Ca), and high-calcium coprecipitate (HCC,
2.5 to 3.0% Ca). The calcium concentration in coprecipitates can be changed by
changing basic parameters in the production process. A higher pH value at precipitation results in a higher calcium concentration in the product, whereas longer retention time at high temperature decreases calcium concentration.
Coprecipitates with different concentrations of calcium and polyphosphate and
different ratios of serum protein and casein have various uses in the food industry.
They each serve the same purpose as caseinates. The production process of coprecipitates has been developed in order to recover not only casein, which is about 80%
of all milk protein, but other proteins as well. This increases the recovered protein
to nearly 96%.

4.6.4 Lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of D-glucose and D-galactose. In the chemical
nomenclature, lactose is called 4-O-/3-D-galactopyranosyl-D-glucopyranose. It is the
major component of total milk solids and can be isolated on a commercial scale
from whole whey or from deproteinized whey.37"39 More recently, as the use of
membrane methods for the concentration and fractionation (ultrafiltration, hyperfiltration, etc.) of milk in the dairy industry is being expanded, the permeate obtained
by the ultrafiltration of whey is being used as the starting material in the production
of lactose.
Technological processes used to produce lactose may be divided into two basic
groups:
1. Crystallization of lactose from whey in the presence of whey proteins.
2. Crystallization of lactose from deproteinized whey after the removal of whey
proteins. Crude or refined lactose can be produced by either of these processes.
Lactose manufacture is shown in Fig. 4.20.37
The raw material for lactose production is evaporated in multistage vacuum
evaporators or may be subjected to preliminary concentration by reverse osmosis,
as well. The final concentration of lactose depends on whether proteins are present
in the syrup. If lactose is produced from protein-containing whey, the syrup is evaporated to increase its dry matter content to 60 to 65%. In the production of lactose
from deproteinized whey, the dry matter content of the syrup may be increased as
high as 70%.
Lactose crystallization is initiated in the hot syrup that had been concentrated to
oversaturation. The crystallization is initiated either spontaneously in oversaturated
syrups that are in an unstable crystallization state, or following the introduction of
seed crystals into syrups that are in the metastable crystallization state. The objective
of crystallization is to produce a large number of similar sized crystals (0.2 mm
average diameter) which would be easy to separate from the molasses.
A crystallizer is a double-walled closed tank having a conical bottom. It is
equipped with slow-motion agitators and scrapers which prevent the formed lactose
crystals from sticking to each other and from sedimenting.

Whey
Protein removal

Crystallization nuclei

Evaporation
60-65-70% TS
Water

Crystallization of lactose
^30 0 Ct 2 : 15-200C, 30h

Water

First separation of lactose crystals


600 xg
Water
Molasses

Second separation of lactose crystals


1200 xg
Hot water
Effluent

Dissolving of crude crystalline lactose


105C, 30% TS

Filtration
Evaporation
65-70% TS

Water

Crystallization nuclei

Crystallization of refined lactose


Water
Separation of crystals
Effluent

Drying
70C
Grinding
Packages

Sifting
Packaging
Crude or refined lactose

Figure 4.20 Flow chart of the production of crude or refined lactose.

Refining

- Sediment

Table 4.5 COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL LACTOSE PRODUCTS


Lactose
Component (%)
Lactose
Moisture
Protein (N X 6.38)
Ash
Fat
Acid (as lactic acid)

Technical

Row

Edible Grade

Pharmaceutical Grade

98.0
0.35
1.0
0.45
0.2
0.4

94.0
0.3
0.8
0.4
0.1
0.4

99.0
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.06

99.4-99.85
0 . 1 - 0.5
0.01- 0.05
0.03- 0.09
0.001- 0.01
0.04- 0.03

From ref. 4.

Crude crystalline lactose, which is in the a-monohydrate form, is separated from


the molasses in continuous centrifuges or decanters. Two centrifuges are used in a
sequence. In the first centrifuge, the crystals are separated from the molasses, and in
the other centrifuge, the crystals are washed with water. Molasses, which contain 38
to 48% of dry matter, including 30% lactose (the rest consists of proteins and salts),
may also be recycled. They are diluted with fresh whey or with the wash water to
contain a dry matter content of approximately 15%. Crude lactose has a moisture
content of 10 to 14% and the dry matter contains approximately 99% lactose.
Crude lactose that is not destined for refining is dried at approx. 700C in one of
the numerous types of dryers where the moisture content is reduced to 0.1 to 0.5%.
The subsequent operations consist of grinding, sifting, and packaging and are similar
to those in the production of skim milk powder.
The manufacture of lactose from deproteinized whey differs from the manufacture
of lactose using whole whey. The major difference is the removal of proteins at the
beginning of the operation. The most common method for the removal of proteins
is based on ultrafiltration or heat-induced coagulation by steam injected into whey
acidified to pH 6.2 (Centri Whey).40
The objective of refining lactose is to remove contaminants such as proteins, salts,
and colored substances that may remain in the mix. Refined lactose is almost chemically pure. It contains a minimum of 99.6% lactose and no protein.
The production process is the same as that for crude lactose except the separation
of the lactose crystals and their washing. Refining consists of dissolving the crude
crystalline lactose in water at high temperature, adding specific chemicals (e.g., charcoal and/or filtration aids), filtration, evaporation, crystallization of lactose, and separation of the crystals. The subsequent operations such as drying, grinding, sifting,
and packaging are the same as those for crude lactose production.
Agglomerated lactose powder is produced using the same procedures as those
used in the production of instant milk powder. This form of lactose is used in the
pharmaceutical industry.
The average composition of commercial forms of lactose is presented in Table 4.5.

4.7 References
1. Hall, C. W., and T. I. Hedrick. 1975. Drying of Milk and Milk Products. AVI, Westport, CT. 338
pp.
2. Wiegand B. 1985. Evaporation. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane Filtration and Spray
Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production. North European Dairy Journal, Vanl0se, Denmark,
pp. 91-178.
3. Masters, K. 1984. Spray Drying Handbook, 4th edit. George Godwin, London. 696 pp.
4. Caric\ M. 1990. Technology of Concentrated and Dried Dairy Products, 3rd edit. Naucna Knjiga,
Beograd, Yugoslavia, 293 pp. (in Serbian).
5. Kiermeier, F., and E. Lechner. 1973. Milch und Milcherzeugnisse. Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany,
443 pp.
6. Food and Drug Administration. 1978. Standards, Food and Drugs: Evaporated Milk, 131.130, 153
pp.
7. Swaisgood, H. E. 1986. Chemistry of milk protein. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy
Chemistry-1. Proteins, pp. 1 -60. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
8. Holt, C. 1985. The milk salts: their secretion, concentrations and physical chemistry. In P. F. Fox
(ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-3. !Lactose and Minor Constituents, pp. 143-182. Elsevier
Applied Science, London.
9. Kessler, H. G. 1988. Lebensmittel- und Bioverfahrenstechnik. Molkereitechnologie, 3rd edit.
A. Kessler, Freising, Germany, 582 pp.
10. Knipschildt, M. E. 1986. Drying of milk and milk products. In R. K. Robinson (ed.), Modern Dairy
Technology Advances in Milk Processing, Vol. 1, pp. 131-234. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
11. Westergaard, V. 1983. Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, 3rd edit. Niro
Atomizer, Copenhagen, Denmark, 147 pp.
12. Hallstr0m, B. 1985. Evaporation versus hyperfiltration. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane
Filtration and Spray Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production, pp. 289-298. North European
Dairy Journal, Vanl0se, Denmark.
13. Walstra, P. 1983. Physical chemistry of milk fat globules. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy
Chemistry-2. Lipids, pp. 119-158. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
14. Caric", M. 1988. Nonenzymic browning of dairy products. In Reactions of Nonenzymic Browning of
Food Products, pp. 105-141. Naudna Knjiga, Beograd, Yugoslavia (in Serbian).
15. Morrissey, P. A. 1985. Lactose: chemical and physiochemical properties. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-3. Lactose and Minor Constituents, pp. 1 -34. Elsevier Applied Science,
London.
16. Masters, K. 1985. Spray drying. In R. Hansen (ed.), Evaporation, Membrane Filtration and Spray
Drying in Milk Powder and Cheese Production, pp. 299346. North European Dairy Journal, VanI0se, Denmark.
17. Pisecky, J. 1983. New generation of spray dryers for milk products, Dairy Indust. Int 48: 21-24.
18. Caric*, M., and M. Kalb, 1987. Effects of drying techniques on milk powders quality and microstructure: a review. Food Microstructure 6: 171-180.
19. Peebles, D. D. 1936. U.S. Patent 2,054,441.
20. Peebles, D. D., and D. D. Clary, Jr. 1955. U.S. Patent 2,710,808.

21. Peebles, D. D. 1958. U.S. Patent 2,s35,586.


22. Pisecky, J. 1985. Technological advances in the spray dried milk. / . Soc. Dairy Technol. 38: 60-64.
23. Caric, M. 1991. Drying technologies developments in dairying, Marschall Rhone-Poulenc International Dairy Science Award Lecture, ADSA Annual Meeting, Logan, Utah, USA.
24. Caric, M. 1993. Concentrated and Dried Dairy Products. VCH Publishers, New York.
25. Corbin, E. A., and E. O. Whittier. 1972. The composition of milk. In Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry, pp. 1-36. AVI, Westport, CT.
26. Packard, V. S. 1982. Human Milk and Infant Formula. Academic Press, New York, 269 pp.
27. Loeb, S., and S. Sourirajan. 1964. U.S. Patent 3,133,132.
28. Ottosen, N. 1991. Membrane filtration for whey protein concentrate. Marketing Bulletin, APV Pasilac AS, Copenhagen, Denmark, pp. 3-22.
29. Schmidt, D. G. 1986. Association of caseins and casein micelle structure. In Developments in Dairy
Chemistry-1. Proteins, pp. 6186. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
30. Belitz, H. D., and W. Grosch. 1986. Food Chemistry, 2nd edit. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany,
774 pp.
31. Kalib, M., E. Phipps-Todd, and P. Allan-Wojtas. 1982. Milk gel structure XIII. Rotary shadowing
of casein micelles for electron microscopy. Milchwissenshaft 37: 513-518.
32. Morr, C. V. 1986. Functional properties of milk proteins and their use as food ingredients. In P. F
Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-1. Proteins, pp. 375-400. Elsevier Applied Science,
London.
33. Muller, L. L. 1986. Manufacture of casein, caseinates and co-precipitates. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in Dairy Chemistry-1. Proteins, pp. 315-338. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
34. Mulvihill, D. M. 1989. Caseins and caseinates: manufacture. In P. F. Fox (ed.), Developments in
Dairy Chemistry-4. Functional Milk Proteins, pp. 97-130. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
35. Southward, C. R. 1986. Utilization of milk components: casein. In R. K. Robinson (ed.), Modern
Dairy Technology, Vol. 1, pp. 317-368. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
36. Muller, L. L. and E. J. Hayes. 1963. The manufacture of low-viscosity casein. Austr. J. Dairy
Technol. 18: 184-188.
37. 0stergaard, B. 1988. Lactose from ultrafiltration permeate. Marketing Bulletin, APV Pasilac AS,
Copenhagen, Denmark, pp. 3-14.
38. Modler, H. W. 1984. Functional properties of nonfat dairy ingredients: a review. /. Dairy Sci. 68:
2206-2214.
39. Brinkmann, G. E. 1976. New ideas for the utilization of lactose: principles of lactose manufacture.
Soc. Dairy Technol. 29: 101-107.
40. Anonymous. 1988. Dairy Hand Book, Alfa-Laval, AB, Lund, 219 pp.

CHAPTER

5
Dairy Microbiology and Safety
Purnendu C. Vasavada and Maribeth A Cousin
5.1. Introduction, 303
5.2. General Dairy Microbiology, 304
5.2.1. Morphological Features, 305
5.2.2. Microorganisms Associated with Milk, 305
5.2.2.1. Bacteria, 305
5.2.2.2. Yeasts and Molds, 318
5.2.2.3. Viruses, 318
5.3 Growth of Dairy Microbes in Milk and Dairy Products, 321
5.3.1. Relative Growth Rates of Psychrotrophs, 321
5.3.2. Sources of Psyhrotrophs in Milk, 323
5.3.3. Significance of the Presence and Growth of Psychrotrophs, 324
5.4. Inhibition and Control of Microorganisms in Milk and Dairy Products, 326
5.4.1. Natural Antimicrobial Systems, 326
5.4.2. Lactoperoxidase, 327
5.4.3. Lactoferrin, 330
5.4.4. Lysozyme, 331
5.4.5. Xanthine Oxidase, 331
5.4.6. Lactic Acid Bacteria and Bacteriocins, 332
5.4.7. Potassium Sorbate, 335
5.4.8. Carbon Dioxide, 336
5.4.9. Removal of Microorganisms by Physical Methods, 336
5.5. Mastitis, 338
5.5.1. Effect on Milk Composition, 338
5.5.2. Economic Losses, 338
5.5.3. Common Mastitis Pathogens, 339
5.5.4. Uncommon Mastitis Pathogens, 341
5.5.5. Factors Affecting the Incidence of Mastitis, 341
5.5.6. Detection and Diagnosis, 341
5.6. Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk and Dairy Products, 342
5.6.1. Listeria monocytogenes, 344
5.6.2. Yersinia enterocolitica, 344
5.6.3. Campylobacter jejuni, 346
5.6.4. Escherichia coli, 347

5.7.

5.8.

5.9.

5.10.

5.11.

5.6.5. Escherichia coli 0157:H7, 347


5.6.6. Bacillus cereus, 348
5.6.7. Economic Significance of Pathogens, 348
5.6.8. Mycotoxins and Amines, 349
Mycotoxins in Milk and Dairy Products, 350
5.7.1. Presence of Mycotoxins in Milk and Dairy Products, 351
5.7.2. Fate of Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Product Manufacture and Storage, 355
5.7.3. Elimination of Mycotoxins, 356
5.7.4. Regulation of Mycotoxins in Foods, 358
Microbiology of Starter Cultures, 359
5.8.1. Terminology, 359
5.8.2. Function of Starter Cultures, 362
5.8.2.1. Production of Lactic Acid, 362
5.8.2.2. Flavor and Aroma and Alcohol Production, 362
5.8.2.3. Proteolytic and Lipolytic Activities, 362
5.8.2.4. Inhibition of Undesirable Organisms, 363
5.8.3. Growth and Propagation, 363
5.8.3.1. pH Control Systems, 364
5.8.3.2. Phage Inhibitory and Phage-Resistant Medium
(PIM/PRM), 365
5.8.4. Inhibition of Starter Cultures, 365
5.8.5. Genetic Engineering for Improving Starter Cultures, 366
Methods for Microbiological Analysis of Milk and Dairy Products, 367
5.9.1. Conventional Methods, 367
5.9.2. Rapid Methods and Automation in Dairy Microbiology, 370
5.9.2.1. Improvements in Sampling and Sample Preparation, 370
5.9.2.2. Modifications and Mechanization of Conventional
Methods, 371
5.9.2.3. Methods Based on Microbial Growth and Metabolism, 373
5.9.2.4. Rapid Methods for Detection and Identification of
Pathogens and Toxins, 376
5.9.3. Microbiological Tests for Assessing Sanitation and Air Quality in
Dairy Plant, 377
5.9.4. Shelf-Life Tests, 378
Microbiology of Milk and Dairy Products, 378
5.10.1. Pasteurized Milk and Cream, 379
5.10.2. Dried Milk Powder, 381
5.10.3. Evaporated Milk, 381
5.10.4. Cottage Cheese, 382
5.10.5. Mold-Ripened Cheeses, 382
5.10.6. Hard Cheese, 383
5.10.7. Yogurt and Cultured Milks, 384
5.10.8. Butter, 385
5.10.9. Ice Cream and Frozen Dairy Desserts, 385
Microbiological Considerations of New Processing Technologies, 386
5.11.1. Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis, 386

5.11.2. Ultrahigh Temperature Sterilization of Milk and Dairy


Products, 389
5.11.3. Low-Dose Irradiation of Milk, 391
5.11.4. Microwave Processing of Milk and Dairy Products, 392
5.11.5. Use of Carbon Dioxide and Supercritical Carbon Dioxide for
Reduction of Microbial Populations, 392
5.12. Assuring Microbiological Quality and Safety of Milk and Milk Products:
HACCP Approach, 393
5.12.1. HACCP Principle, 394
5.12.2. Elements of the HACCP System, 394
5.13. Conclusion, 395
5.14. References, 395

5.1 Introduction
An understanding of the microbiological aspects of milk is essential to those who
successfully pursue production, processing, and manufacturing of quality milk and
dairy foods. The significance of microbes occurring in milk is multifold: microorganisms can be either beneficial or harmful depending on the circumstances of their
presence and activities in milk and dairy products. The adverse publicity resulting
from the foodborne illness outbreaks or widespread recalls of cheese, ice cream, and
other dairy foods found to be contaminated with foodborne pathogens could be
devastating to the economy of the dairy industry. More importantly, the consumer
anxiety associated with safety and wholesomeness of milk and dairy foods can lead
to lack of consumer confidence and further reduce consumption of milk and dairy
foods.
The microbiological quality of raw milk is critical for production of superior
quality dairy foods with reasonable and predictable shelf life. Milk and other ingredients used in manufacturing must be free of offensive odors and flavors and undesirable microorganisms capable of causing spoilage. The psychrotrophsmicroorganisms capable of growth at 7C (45F) regardless of their optimum growth
temperatureare the predominant spoilage organisms in milk and dairy foods. Although the majority of psychrotrophs are relatively heat sensitive and are readily
inactivated by conventional pasteurization, the thermoduric psychrotrophs and psychrotrophic spore-formers can be important in causing flavor and texture defects and
spoilage of long-shelf-life dairy products. Moreover, psychrotrophic bacteria, particularly Pseudomonas spp., are capable of producing heat-stable enzymes1'2 during
growth in milk prior to pasteurization. These enzymes have an adverse effect on the
quality and yield of products prepared from such milk, for example, Adams et al.3
and Patel et al.4 have reported on studies of heat-stable proteases resulting from the
growth of psychrotrophs in milk. The psychrotrophic bacteria and their role in quality
and shelf life of milk and dairy products have been studied extensively. Several

Table 5.1

REQUIKEMENTS

Raw milk
Pasteurized milk

FOR GRADE A MILK

SPC
Coliform
Temperature

<100,000/ml

SPC
Coliform
Phosphatase

<200,000/ml
<10/ml
Negative

<40F

excellent reviews on psychrotrophic bacteria and their importance in milk and dairy
product quality have appeared in the literature.5"11
Recent findings of the psychrotrophic nature of the so-called emerging pathogens,
that is, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, and others have provided
additional significance to the problem of psychrotrophic contamination in milk.
The beneficial aspects of microorganisms in milk mainly apply to the cultured or
fermented dairy foods. Microorganisms capable of degrading lactose to lactic acid
and other compounds such as acetic acid, propionic acid, acetaldehyde, and diacetyl
are used as starter cultures in the dairy industry. Proper selection, propagation, and
behavior of starter cultures is crucial in manufacturing a variety of cheeses, yogurts,
and other cultured milk products. Recent developments in starter culture genetics
have increased the potential for development of specific bacterial strains to improve
flavor and nutritional quality, control pathogenic bacteria, and resist infection by
bacteriophage.12
The significance of microorganisms, particularly pathogens, was clearly evident
in the earlier days of the dairy industry as milk and milk products were the major
vehicle for dissemination of pathogens. The diseases once commonly spread by milk
include typhoid fever, septic sore throat, tuberculosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and
undulant fever.13'14 The advent of tuberculin testing, brucellosis eradication programs, and mandatory pasteurization led to a dramatic decline in the incidence of
milkborne disease outbreaks.
The importance of microorganisms in milk is recognized in the fact that the
microbiological limits for total bacterial count and the coliform count are the crucial
parts of the milk quality grades and compliance with the regulations in the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) (Table 5.1).
Because milk provides nutrients, near neutral pH, and a high water activity (Aw)
preferred for reproduction of microorganisms, it can serve as a growth medium for
a wide variety of microorganisms. The main objective of this chapter is to provide
a broad overview of the microbiological aspects of milk and milk products.

5.2 General Dairy Microbiology


The microbiological analysis of milk and dairy products may reveal many diverse
types of microorganisms. The magnitude and diversity of microbial populations vary

considerably depending on the specific production, processing, and postprocessing


storage and distribution conditions associated with a particular batch of milk. The
routine microbiological analysis of milk and dairy products generally involves enumeration of spoilage and indicator organisms, although detection and enumeration
of pathogenic organisms such as Salmonella may be involved in certain products.
An understanding of general dairy microbiology is essential for appreciation of the
significance of proper procurement, processing, handling, and storage of milk and
dairy products.

5.2.1 Morphological Features


Microorganisms in milk and dairy products can be categorized in various groups
based on their morphological features: the shape; size; presence of specific cellular
structures, that is, flagella, spores, and capsule; Gram reaction; and the organization
of a group of cells as in a pair, chain, cluster, etc. Yeasts and molds are among the
largest microorganisms, being several times larger than bacteria. Viruses and rickettsia are smaller than bacteria. Bacteria are the most important microorganisms in
milk and milk products, although bacteriophages causing problems in cultured dairy
products manufacturing by attacking the starter culture are also of considerable concern. Various morphological features of microorganisms are shown in Figure 5.1.

5.2.2 Microorganisms Associated with Milk

5.2.2.1 Bacteria
The latest classification of milkborne microorganisms is given in Bergey's Manual
of Systematic Bacteriology, Volumes I and II. 1 5 1 6 In Bergey's Manual, the bacteria
are grouped according to the Gram reaction, morphology, and relation to growth
with or without oxygen. Summary information about these groups is given below.
Detailed information on microorganisms associated with milk and milk products
may be found in several reference sources.17"19

The Spirochetes
The only organism of importance in dairy microbiology classified in this section is
Leptospira interrogans. Organisms in the genus Leptospira are flexible, helicoidal
rods (0.1 X 6 to 12 /xm), Gram negative, motile, and obligately aerobic. They inhabit
the kidney of the animal or human and are shed in the urine. Clinical effects of
leptospira vary from an influenza type illness to a severe icteric form. The optimum
growth temperature for the organism is 28 to 300C.

Gram-Negative, Aerobic/Microaerophilic, Motile,


Helical (Vibroid) Bacteria
In this group only one organism, Campylobacter jejuni, is important in milk and
dairy foods. The organisms in genus Campylobacter are slender, curved rods (0.2
to 5.0 /Am X 0.5 to 5 /urn). They are microaerophilic in nature and require 3 to 15%

Vibrio

Streptococci

Staphylococci

Capsules

Yeasts

Bacilli

Spores

Aspergillus

Bacteriophages
Figure 5.1 Morphological features of microorganisms.

Spirilla

Flagella

Penicillium

O 2 and 3 to 5% CO2 in their atmosphere for growth. The optimum growth temperature is 42C, although C. jejuni is known to survive in milk stored at low temperatures.20"22 Campylobacter is known to cause abortion in cows. In humans, C. jejuni
has been the cause of several milkborne illness outbreaks associated with the consumption of raw or unpasteurized milk.23"26
C. jejuni can cause mastitis in cows.27-28 Since 1980, the incidence of campylobacteriosis has increased drastically and the organism has surpassed Salmonella as
the main causative agent of foodbome illness.29'30

Gram-Negative, Aerobic Rods and Cocci


The organisms important in dairy microbiology in this group include two families:
the Pseudomonadaceae and the Neissiriaceae and four genera of uncertain status,
Alcaligenes, Alteromonas, Flavobacterium, and Brucella.
Pseudomonas. The pseudomonads are Gram-negative, straight to curved (0.4 to
1.5 /xm X 0.7 to 5.0 /xm), motile (polar flagella) rods. The pseudomonads are
capable of producing heat-stable proteases and Upases that can lead to flavor and
texture defects in milk and milk products. Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas fragi are the two organisms recognized among the predominant psychrotrophic organisms causing spoilage in milk and dairy products during storage at
refrigeration temperatures. Prior growth of P. fluorescens in milk can increase percent insolubility, percent foam volume, and average dispersibility of freeze-dried,
nonfat dried milk when numbers in raw milk exceed 1 X 106 cfu/ml.18 P. fragi is
rarely caseolytic but it is known to cause lipolytic and "fruity and fermented"
defects characteristically associated with psychrotrophic spoilage of milk and dairy
products.
P. fluorescens often produces diffusible fluorescent pigment (pyoverdin). P. fragi
rarely produces fluorescent pigment, but some strains may produce a brown, diffusible pigment. Most pseudomonads are obligately aerobic although some strains can
use nitrate as a terminal acceptor. The optimum growth temperature of pseudomonads is 25 to 300C, but some strains can grow at 4C.
Xanthomonas. This genus contains plant pathogenic organisms that are straight,
motile rods, catalase positive, oxidase negative, and produce yellow pigment. It has
been suggested that the organism Pseudomonas maltiphilia be transferred in this
genus because it produces yellow pigment, is oxidase negative, and gives a negative
nitrate reduction reaction.18 The optimum growth temperature of the organism is
^35 0 C. It does not grow at 4C but may grow at 41C. It has been isolated from
water, milk, and frozen foods.
Alcaligenes. This genus contains organisms that are motile, aerobic rods (0.5 to
1.0 /Jim to 0.5 to 2.6 /xm). The optimum growth temperature is 20 to 37C although
they are part of the typical psychrotrophic contaminants found in raw milk. Alcaligenes viscolactis is associated with ropiness in milk.
Flavobacterium. They are part of the psychrotrophic microflora in raw milk. The
organisms are aerobic, nonmotile rods (0.5 /xm X 1.0 to 3.0 /xm), oxidase negative

and phosphtase positive. Many strains produce yellow to orange pigment although
some strains do not produce pigment. Flavobacterium species can hydrolyze casein
and cause psychrotrophic spoilage of milk and dairy products.
Brucella. This genus contains coccobacillary or short rods (0.5 to 0.7 /xm to 0.6
to 1.5 /xm) that are catalase positive, oxidase positive, and grow optimally at 37C.
Many strains are pathogenic to cattle (B. abortus), pigs (B. suis), and goats
(B. melitensis). B. abortus causes abortion in cattle and undulant fever in man. Annually about 100 to 200 cases of brucellosis occur in the United States. The organism
primarily affects slaughterhouse workers, veterinarians, livestock producers, and others. Brucella are readily destroyed by pasteurization of milk. The organisms are
difficult to work with in the laboratory and specific safety precautions should be
taken when working with Brucella?1
It has been suggested that only B. melitensis should be recognized as a separate
species with others being recognized as biovars.18
Alteromonas. This genus contains Alteromonas putrefaciens, a Gram-negative,
facultative, rod-shaped (0.5 to 1.0 /xm X 1.1 to 4.0 /xm) organism, previously known
as Pseudomonas putrefaciens. It grows optimally at 20 to 25C and produces a
nondiffusible reddish-brown or pink pigment. The organism is associated with spoilage of milk and dairy products, particularly surface taint of butter. Clinical isolates
of the organism may grow at temperatures as high as 42C. The organism may be
an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised individuals.
Acinetobacter and Moraxella-Zifce Organisms. Acinetobacter are Gram-negative, aerobic, plump short rods. They are found in a variety of raw and prepared
foods, including milk in which they may be the cause of ropiness or enzymatic
defects. Moraxella-likt organisms are oxidase positive psychrotrophs and may be
associated with spoilage of milk and milk products during storage at refrigeration
temperatures.

Gram-Negative, Facultative Anaerobic Rods


Families Enterobacteriaceae and Vibrionaceae listed in this group include genera
whose members are often found to be associated with milk and dairy products. The
latest edition of Bergey's Manual lists several generaObesumbacterium, Xenorhabdus, Rhanella, Cedecea, and Tatumellathat only recently have been recognized as part of this group and whose significance in dairy microbiology is not yet
known.
The organisms in this group are either aerobic or facultatively anaerobic rods (0.3
to 1.0 /xm X 1.0 to 6.0 /xm), oxidase negative and mostly catalase positive, capable
of producing acid and gas from carbohydrate sources. Many of the organisms inhabit
intestinal tracts of man and animals and are often important in dairy and food microbiology as "indicator" organisms. The coliform test, one of the common tests used
in dairy microbiology for evaluating milk quality, particularly postprocessing contamination and poor sanitary practices in dairy plants, is designed to enumerate
coliform organisms belonging to this group. The coliforms are defined as aerobic

and anaerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming rods, able to ferment lactose with


production of acid and gas at 32C within 48 h. Typically, the coliform groups
include members of the genera Escherichia, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Citrobacter.
Escherichia. This genus contains E. coli which is described as motile or nonmotile
rods that ferment lactose, glucose, and other carbohydrates to form acid and gas.
The organism is oxidase, urease, and H2S negative and gives H-H
results with
the IMVIC (indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer, and citrate) tests. Strains capable
of producing gas from lactose within 24 h at 44C are known as fecal coliforms and
usually indicate potential for pathogenic contamination. Recently enterohemorrhagic
E. coli, E. coli 0157:H7 which is capable of causing foodborne illness characterized
by the hemolytic uremic syndrom (HUS), hemorrhagic colitis, and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TPP), has been recognized as an important emerging pathogen.32 Although primarily associated with undercooked and raw ground beef, pork,
and poultry, the organism has been isolated from unpasteurized milk from the bulk
tank of a farm from which raw milk was suspected as the vehicle of E. coli 0157:H7
in a case of HUS in an infant.32'33 Two typical characteristics of E. coli 0157:H7
bear mention here. Unlike most E. coli isolates of human origin, E. coli 0157:H7
does not ferment sorbitol and it lacks glucuronidase activity, the latter being responsible for negative results with a rapid fluorogenic assay for detecting E. coli
based on the hydrolysis of 4-methyl umbelliferyl /3-D-glucuronide (MUG) and subsequent formation of a fluorogenic product.32
Enterobacter. The genus Enterobacter contains eight species, although only five
are included in the latest edition of Bergey's Manual. Of these, only Enterobacter
aerogenes is of importance in dairy microbiology. Enterobacter vary in their ability
to ferment lactose, for example, E. cloacae generally ferments lactose, E. aerogenes
may take 3 to 7 days for lactose fermentation, and E. agglomerans gives variable
results of lactose fermentation. Therefore, the extent to which the Enterobacter contribute to the "coliform" group is quite variable. E. aerogenes is one of the five of
the eight Enterobacter spp. having clinical significance.34
Klebsiella. This genus contains Klebsiella pneumoniae and Klebsiella oxytoca,
among others that may be found to be associated with milk and dairy environment.
The organisms are nonmotile, encapsulated rods. Klebsiella spp. occur in a variety
of sources: fresh vegetables and fruit, soil, dust, milk and dairy products, air, and
water. A contaminated milk shaker mixer is reported to be the cause of Klebsiella
contamination in high-calorie milk shakes.35 Klebsiella spp. have also been known
to be associated with mastitic infections in cows.36 The major source of the contamination is bedding materia.36'37
Salmonella. Several classification schemes are currently used to classify various
species and strains of Salmonella. The Edwards and Ewing scheme lists three species
of salmonellae: S. typhi, S. cholerasuis, and S. enteridis. However, the principle
scheme used for salmonellae is the Kauffmann-White scheme, based on the somatic
(O); Capsular (Vi), or flagellar (H) antigenic profile of various Salmonella strains.

Salmonellae are facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative, motile (peritrichous flagella) rods (0.3 to 1.0 /xm X 1.0 to 6.0 ^m) that produce gas from glucose and use
citrate as carbon source. They are oxidase negative, catalase positive, produce H2S,
decarboxylate lysine and ornithine but are urease negative, and do not produce indole. They generally do not ferment lactose, although lactose-positive strains have
been noted.
Foodborne outbreaks of salmonellosis have been caused by a variety of foods,
primarily poultry, eggs, and meats. However, salmonellosis from consumption of
milk and dairy products has been reported131438*39 in which raw or improperly
pasteurized fluid milk, ice cream, and cheese were implicated as the vehicles of the
organism.13-14'29-40
The salmonellae are ubiquitous, being found worldwide in a wide variety of
sources including milk, meat, poultry, eggs, soil, water, sewage, pets and other animals, humans, feed processing environments, etc.
The optimum growth temperature for salmonellae varies from 35 to 37C, although many strains are capable of growing at 5 to 7C. The organism is heat sensitive and is readily inactivated by conventional pasteurization. However, Salmonella
seftenberg is generally recognized as more heat-resistant than most salmonella
strains. Thermal inactivation of salmonella depends on time-temperature of the heat
treatment, pH, and moisture content (Aw) of the food.
Yersinia. Previously classified as pasteurella, the genus Yersinia includes Yersinia
pestis, Y. pseudotuberculosis, Y. frederikensenii, Y. kristensenii, Y. intermedia,
Y. enterocolitica, and Y. ruckeri.41
7. enterocolitica is a Gram-negative, short, rod-shaped organism that is motile at
<30C but not at 37C. The organism is a psychrotroph capable of growing, albeit
slowly, in milk and dairy products stored at refrigeration temperatures. The optimal
growth temperature for Y. enterocolitica is 32 to 34 0 C. 42 " 44 It is a poor competitor
with common spoilage bacteria in milk at 4C.22 Yersiniae are remarkably tolerant
to bile salt and can survive better under alkaline conditions.
Outbreaks of yersiniosis implicating milk and milk products have been reported. 14 ' 4245 Y. enterocolitica is widespread in nature, having been isolated from
water, sewage, soil, and a wide variety of animals, particularly pigs.43 It should be
noted that only certain strains of Y. enterocolitica are considered pathogenic for man,
with most strains being environmental strains. Pathogenic strains of Yersinia may
be distinguished from nonpathogenic strains based on esculin hydrolysis and salicin
fermentation.42-43
Aeromonas. The genus Aeromonas belongs to the family Vibrionaceae. Aeromonas are facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative cocci or rods with rounded ends
(0.3 to 1.0 fim X 1.0 to 3.5 /zm). They are generally motile, with polar flagella, and
produce oxidase and catalase. The optimum and maximum growth temperatures for
Aeromonas are 28C and 42C, respectively. However, strains capable of growth at
5C have been reported.20-46"49 Aeromonas spp. can grow in nutrient broth containing 5% salt at 280C.46-49

A. hydrophila is considered an opportunistic pathogen. The organism has been


isolated from a variety of aquatic sources including the Great Salt Lake and the
Chesapeake Bay, as well as from the feces of healthy farm animals, including cows,
pigs, sheep, and horses. It was found significantly more often in the feces of cows
than in any other species. A. hydrophila is a relatively heat sensitive organism that
is readily inactivated by pasteurization.
The Citrobacter species in this genus utilize citrate as a sole source of carbon
and may ferment lactose, albeit slowly. Recognized species of Citrobacter include
C. freundii, C. diversus, and C. amalonaticus. C. freundii can grow on media designed for Salmonella and is often confused with salmonella. Citrobacter occur in
the intestine and have been isolated from feces, water sewage, and foods of animal
origin.
Serratia. This genus includes S. marcescens which may be found in the environment and foods. It is an aerobic, Gram negative, motile (peritrichous flagella), rodshaped organism, capable of producing a characteristic red pigment, prodigiosin.
Serratia may be important as a potential spoilage organism in some foods.
Hafnia. Hafnia alvei, formerly known as Enterobacter hafnia or Enterobacter
alvei, has been implicated as the cause of mild gastroenteritis in hospitals and in
community outbreaks associated with milk,34 although most H. alvei strains are not
considered to be pathogenic for humans. The organism resembles Salmonella spp.
and can be isolated on media designed for salmonella. It does not ferment lactose.
Hafnia spp. are found in sewage, soil, water, and feces of man and animals. It may
be important in spoilage of milk and milk products.
Chromobacterium. This genus contains two species, C. violaceum and C. lividum.
The Chromobacteria are facultatively anaerobic, oxidase-positive, Gram-negative,
often slightly curved rods (0.6 to 0.9 /z,m X 1.5 to 3.5 /xm) capable of producing
violet or dark blue pigment. The violet pigment, violacein, produced by C. violaceum
has antibiotic properties. The organisms are found in water, soil, and foods and may
occasionally cause infections in animals.
Rickettsia and Chlamydia. The genus Coxiella of the family Rickettsiaceae is the
only member of this group important in dairy microbiology. C. burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever. C. burnetii are Gram-negative or -positive, short, rod-shaped
organisms that may occasionally appear as diplobacilli or cocci. They are obligate
parasites that grow in the vacuoles rather than in the cytoplasm or nucleus of host
cells, especially ticks that transmit Q fever to cattle, sheep, goats, and other animals.
The organism is shed in the milk of the infected animal or during parturition. Consumption of raw milk contaminated with C. burnetii may lead to Q fever in humans.
The organism can withstand drying and elevated temperatures, but is readily inactivated by proper pasteurization of milk. The time-temperature for commercial high
temperature-short time (HTST) pasteurization of milk is designed to destroy
C. burnetii in milk.

Gram-Positive Cocci
This group includes aerobic or facultatively anaerobic Gram-positive, usually nonmotile spherical (0.5 to 1.5 /xm diameter) shaped organisms that are important in
the dairy industry as foodborne pathogens, causative agents of mastitis, thermoduric
spoilage organisms, and lactic starter cultures used in the manufacture of fermented
dairy foods.
Micrococcus. These are strictly aerobic, catalase-positive organisms that are found
in soil, water, dust, and on skins of human and animals. Micrococci occur in a variety
of foods, including milk and dairy products. Optimum growth temperatures of micrococci range from 25 to 37C, although most strains can grow at 100C but not at
45C. Micrococci can ferment glucose aerobically but not anaerobically and grow
in the presence of 5% salt.
Staphylococcus. This genus contains S. aureus, S. hyicus, S. epidermidis, and two
lesser known species, S. chromogenes and S. caprae.
Staphylococcus aureus is a well-known pathogen that can produce a heat-stable
enterotoxin implicated in several outbreaks of foodborne illness. It is coagulase positive and produces a variety of hemolysins and a thermostable nuclease. Some strains
of S. aureus produce an antibiotic-like substance, staphylococcin, that can inhibit
other staphylococcal strains. Staphylococcus aureus contamination in milk and dairy
products indicates contaminations from human sources. In contrast, S. epidermidis
is found on human skins and is coagulase negative. The organism produces hemolysin and thermostable nuclease; however activity of these two compounds is weak
compared to that produced by S. aureus.
Staphylococcus hyicus and S. chromogenes have been isolated from skins of pigs
and cows and from the milk of cows suffering from mastitis. Most strains of S. hyicus
do not show coagulase activity, although enterotoxigenic strains of S. hyicus have
been reported.50 5. chromogenes was considered a subspecies of 5. hyicus until 1986
when it was proposed as a separate species by Hajek et al.18 It is coagulase negative
and shows a negative or weakly positive thermostable nuclease activity.
S. caprae is a facultatively anaerobic organism isolated from goat's milk. It is
coagulase negative and has characteristic hemolysis and fermentation reactions useful in characterization and differentiation from other staphylococci.18
Streptococcus. This genus contains several organisms known to be associated with
milk. The lactic streptococci and enterococci belonged to the genus Streptococcus
until recently but now they have been classified in the genera Betacoccus and
Enterococcus, respectively.
The organisms classified in the genus Streptococcus are Gram-positive cocci,
occurring in pairs or chains, mostly nonmotile and facultatively anaerobic with some
strains being strictly anaerobic. Streptococcuspyogenes is a pathogen associated with
scarlet fever. Optimum growth temperature for growth of this organism is 37C with
no growth occurring at 10 or 45C. The genus Streptococcus also includes three
species important as the causative agent of bovine mastitisS. agalactiae, S. dys~
galactiae, and 5. uberis. S. agalactiae infections are readily controllable through

mastitis prevention programs instituted in the United States and herds may be certified Strep, ag. free following eradication of the organism in a herd through successful mastitis control programs. 5. pyogenes is classified in the Lancerfield group
A whereas S. agalactiae and S. dysgalactiae are classified in Lancefield group B
and C, respectively. These organisms have complex growth requirements and are
characterized on the basis of hemolysis on blood agar and hydrolysis of hippurate
and esculin.
Two other important species of the genus Streptococcus are Streptococcus zooepidemicus and Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus. The latter is a thermophilic bacterium used as a part of a mixed strain starter culture used in the manufacture of yogurt and Italian cheeses. S. thermophilus, as it was known earlier,
grows at 35 to 37C. It can grow at 45C, but not at 1O0C.
S. zooepidemicus is primarily an animal pathogen causing septicemia in cows. It
has been implicated as the cause of a food poisoning outbreak associated with the
consumption of raw milk cheese.51 The milk was obtained from cows with mastitis
caused by this organism.
Lactococcus. This genus contains a group of organisms formerly known as mesophilic lactic streptococciS. lactis, S. cremoris, and S. diacetylactis. These organisms are classified in Lancefield group N and have complex growth requirements.
Several strains are capable of producing nisin and bacteriocins which can inhibit
foodborne pathogens. The lactococci can produce lactic acid and other compounds
responsible for the characteristic flavor and aroma of fermented milk products such
as cheeses, cultured buttermilk, and sour cream. Some strains of L. lactis subsp.
lactis are also known to cause malty off-flavor in milk and dairy products. L. lactis
var. diacetylactis can metabolize citric acid to produce CO2 and diacetyl; the latter
is responsible for the characteristic "nutty," or "buttery" aroma of cultured butter,
buttermilk, and sour cream. Some strains can also produce H 2 O 2 and acetic acid and
inhibit pseudomonads, coliforms, and other contaminating organisms, including salmonella. The characteristics, functions, and plasmid-mediated properties of Lactococcus have been reviewed elsewhere.52"56
Leuconostoc. This genus contains Gram-positive, spherical to lenticular shaped
organisms that occur in either pairs or chains. Leuconostocs occur in milk and dairy
products, plant materials, fruits, and vegetables. They are heterofermentative, producing lactic acid, ethanol, and CO2 from glucose. Some leuconostocs, for example,
L. mesenteroides, produce extracellular polysaccharides leading to slime formation
in sugar solutions and other products. L. mesenteroides subsp. cremoris and L. mesenteroides subsp. dextranicum are mesophilic organisms used in combination with
lactococci in the production of cream cheese, cottage cheese, cultured buttermilk,
and quarg. The so-called dairy strains of Leuconostocs generally do not produce
slime, although dextran-producing strains of L. mesenteroides may be used to impact
body and texture of products such as ice cream. Some leuconostocs produce acetic
acid from citrate and may be used to control psychrotrophic spoilage (e.g., slime
production) in fermented milk products. Growth temperatures for leuconostocs range

from 10 to 37C, although most prefer 18 to 25C. L. lactic may grow at temperatures
up to 400C. It can also survive at 600C for 30 min.

Endospore-Forming Rods and Cocci


This group includes the genera Bacillus, Clostridium, Sporolactobacillus, and
Desulfotomaculum with only Bacillus and Clostridium being the genera of significance in dairy microbiology.18
Bacillus. These are Gram-positive, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic rod-shaped
organisms that are generally motile, and produce catalase and acid but not gas from
glucose. They occur in soil, air, water, dust, feed, and other sources, including milk
and dairy products. Several bacilli possess proteolytic and lipolytic activity and can
cause a variety of quality defects in milk and dairy products, for example, B. cereus
can cause "bitty" cream defect.6'10-57
B. stearothermophilus can cause proteolytic defects in milk and cheese as well
as sweet curdling defect due to its renninlike enzyme activity. B. coagulans and
B. licheniformis are important spoilage organisms in ultrahigh temperature (UHT)
and evaporated and condensed milk products.
Under aerobic conditions, bacilli form endospores which are an inactive or dormant state of the organism. The spores are heat resistant, allowing the organism to
survive various heat treatments, including pasteurization. There are psychrotrophic,
mesophilic, and thermophilic strains of the genus Bacillus. These organisms can
grow at temperatures from - 5C to about 45C, although B. stearothermophilus
strains can grow at 55 to 75C. The optimum growth temperature for most bacilli is
20 to 400C.
B. stearothermophilus is important as the test organism for confirming antibiotic
residue contamination in milk by the disc-assay procedure.58
B. cereus is recognized as a significant cause of foodborne intoxication. A typical
illness is characterized as the so-called "diarrheal" or "emetic" syndrome associated with production of separate enterotoxins.59"61
Clostridium. These organisms are Gram-positive, facultative or strictly anaerobic
spore-forming rods that are catalase negative and gelatinase positive. Clostridia are
found in soil and sediment as well as in the intestinal tracts of man and animals.
Important species in this group include Clostridium botulinum, C. perfringens,
C. sporogenes, C. butyricum, and C. tyrobutyricum.
C. botulinum is recognized as the causative agent of botulism worldwide. There
are seven types of C. botulinum, types A to G based on the serological specificity
of the neurotoxin(s). Of these, only types A, B, and E have been involved in human
illness. C. botulinum has been isolated from soils, sediments, water, thermally
processed milk, and cured foods, particularly meat, fish, and honey. Botulism outbreaks implicating process cheese contaminated with C. botulinum have been
reported.62
C. perfringens is recognized as a food-poisoning organism worldwide. The strains
of C. perfringens have been classified into five types, A to E, based on the production

of four extracellular toxinsa, /3, e, and t. C. perfringens occur in a wide variety


of raw and processed foods including meat, poultry, and fish. C. perfringens is also
found in soil, sediments, and intestinal tracts of animals. It may cause mastitis in
cows.63
C. butyricum and C. tyrobutyricum may be responsible for delayed gas production
in cheese linked to the "late blowing" defect and rancidity in Emmenthal and Gruyere cheeses. C. butyricum may also be responsible for excessive gas production
from glucose, that is, stormy fermentation. Both of these organisms produce acetic
acid and butyric acid and may cause rancidity in certain cheeses. Optimum growth
occurs at 30 to 37C, although most strains may grow at 25C and some at 100C.
Contaminated silage and dust are the two primary sources of spores of these organisms. Many dairy plants enumerate Clostridium spores in the incoming milk as a
means of controlling the seasonal problem of late gas production and rancidity in
cheeses. Another species, C. sporogenes, may also be responsible for "late blowing"
of cheese. C. sporogenes also produces butyric acid as well as ammonia and H2S
and may be responsible for "sulfide" defects in cheeses.

Regular, Non-Spore-Forming Gram-Positive Rods


Important genera in this group include Lactobacillus, Listeria, and Kurthia.
Lactobacillus. These organisms are facultative or microaerophilic, Gram-positive,
nonmotile rods of varying morphology ranging from coryneform coccobacillary or
short rods to long and slender rods (0.5 to 1.6 /zm X 1.5 to 11.0 /mi), capable of
homo- or heterofermentative metabolism. L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, previously known as L. lactis and L. bulgaricus, and
L. helveticus are thermophilic starter cultures used in the production of yogurts and
Swiss and Italian cheeses. Both of these organisms require vitamins and amino acids
as growth factors. The optimum growth temperature for these organisms is ^40 0 C.
Among other lactobacilli important as starter cultures in the dairy industry are
L. acidophilus, L. casei, and L. brevis. The differential characteristics of the lactobacilli and other dairy starter culture organisms have been discussed recently by
Tamine64
Listeria. This genus contains L. monocytogenes which is perhaps the most important pathogen involved in several outbreaks of listeriosis and widespread recalls of
dairy products during the 1980s.14'65'66 The organism is ubiquitous in nature, having
been isolated from a wide variety of sources including water, sewage, soil, vegetation
and plant materials, and milk.67-68 Listeria may be found in improperly fermented
silage and dairy barn environments. They may be involved in mastitis in dairy
cows.69 L. monocytogenes may exist intracellularly in phagocytes, and at one time
were thought to be able to survive pasteurization.70 However, subsequent research
has proved that commercial HTST pasteurization treatment is adequate for inactivation of L. monocytogenes.11
The genus Listeria includes eight species. They are small, Gram-positive rods
(0.4 to 0.5 ^m X 0.5 to 2.0 /xm) with rounded ends. Often, they may be seen as

Table 5.2 DIFFERENTIATION OF USTERIA SPECIESa


Biochemical Test
Dextrose
Esculin
Maltose
Rhamnose
Xylose
Mannitol
Hippurate hydrolysis
Voges-Proskauer
Methyl red
/3-hemolysis
Urea hydrolysis
Nitrate reduction
Catalase
H2S on TSI
H2S by lead acetate strip

monocytogenes

+
+
+
+

ivanovii

innocua

+
+

4+
Vb

welshimerei

seeligeri grayi

+
+
+
V
-f

+
+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+

murrayi

+
+
+
V

+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+

+
+

From Lovett.72
* V = variable.

short chains, lying parallel or in a " V " shape. Listeria exhibit a characteristic tumbling motility and a typical "umbrella" pattern in an appropriate motility medium
when grown at 200C. On a solid medium, listeria produce typical blue-gray colonies
when viewed by 45C incident transmitted light (Henry's illumination). Biochemically, Listeria resemble members of the genera Brochothrix, Erysipelothrix, Lactobacillus, and Kurthia, but can be differentiated from them based on motility, catalase
reaction, and glucose fermentation. A detailed differentiation of Listeria species is
given in Table 5.2.
Kurthia. These are Gram-positive, strictly aerobic, usually motile, often occurring
as unbranched or coccoid rods (0.8 to 1.2 ^m X 2.0 to 4.0 ^m). They are found in
meats and meat products, meat processing plants, intestinal contents, and in milk.
They are oxidase negative and grow optimally at 25 to 300C. The presence of Kurthia
may indicate improper handling of the product or contamination with animal feces.

Irregular, Non-Spore-Forming, Gram-Positive Rods


This group contains several diverse bacteria, including the so-called coryneform
group and genera important in dairy microbiologyCorynebacterium, Arthrobacter, Brevibacterium, Caseobacter, Microbacterium, Aureobacterium, Propionibacteriurn, and Actinomyces.
The genus Corynebacterium contains facultatively anaerobic or some aerobic,
straight or curved rods with tapered ends that are nonmotile and that form metachromatic granules. The Corynebacterium spp. may be human, animal, or plant
pathogens. C. bovis and C. striatum may be associated with mastitis and C. renale

can cause urinogenital infections in cows. Pathogenic corynebacteria grow optimally


at 37C and some produce exotoxins. Not all species of Corynebacterium are pathogenic.
The genus Arthrobacter contains short irregular rods, cocci, or pleomorphic bacteria arranged in V-forms depending on their growth conditions and phase. They are
usually strictly aerobic, nonmotile organisms that may occur in soil and the dairy
farm environment and may form a part of "coryneforms" bacteria in milk. Optimum
growth temperatures for these organisms are 25 to 300C.
The organisms in the genera Brevibacterium, Caseobacter, and Aureobacter are
nonmotile, obligately aerobic or anaerobic irregular rods, cocci, or pleomorphic
forms similar to Arthrobacter spp. Brevibacterium linens is used in ripening of
certain cheeses, for example, Limburger cheese where proteolytic action and methanethiol production by the organism are important in developing the characteristic
flavor, aroma, and texture of the cheese. These organisms grow optimally at 20 to
300C, although some strain of Brevibacterium may also grow at 37C. Several species of these genera produce characteristic pigments, for example, B. linens produces
yellow to deep orange carotenoid pigment whereas A. liquifaciens produces a bright
yellow pigment. These organisms are found in milk, cheese, dairy products, and
dairy equipment and some have an important function in cheese ripening.
Propionibacteria are the members of the genus Propionibacterium that contain
nonmotile, anaerobic or aerotolerant pleomorphic rods, diphtheroids, or club-shaped
organisms with one end rounded and the other tapered. Often, propionibacteria exhibit V or Y shapes and "Chinese character"-like cellular arrangements. The propionibacteria are responsible for the "eye" formation and development of flavor
and aroma characteristically found in Swiss and Emmenthal cheeses. Besides formation of CO2 and proline, the propionibacteria also produce propionic and acetic
acid by fermentation of carbohydrates. The Propionibacterium spp. may be pigmented and some can produce slime. The optimum growth temperature for propionibacteria is 30 to 32C.
The genus Actiomycetes contains two species important in dairy microbiology
A. bovisy the causative agent of lumpy jaw in cattle, and A. pyogenes, potentially
causing summer mastitis in dairy cows. The salient characteristics of the two Actinomyces spp. are given in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 SAUENT CHARACTERISTICS OF


ACTINOMYCES
Characteristic
Hemolysis
Casein hydrolysis
Nagase production
Aerobic growth
Growth temperature
a

With added CO2.

A. bovis

A. pyogenes

/8
+
+
36C

300C

Mycobacteria
The genus Mycobacteriwn includes two species important in dairy microbiology:
M. tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis in humans, and M. bovis, which
causes tuberculosis in cattle, dogs, cats, primates, and man. The Mycobacterium spp.
are generally aerobic or rarely facultatively anaerobic, slightly curved or straight,
generally Gram-positive rods. These organisms can withstand acid/alcohol decolorization and hence are termed "acid-fast" organisms. They may be isolated and
characterized using procedures described by Jenkins et al.73 Mycobacteria have been
isolated from raw milk.74 They do not grow at 25C or 45C, but grow optimally at
37C. The advent of pasteurization of milk was primarily designed to inactivate
M. tuberculosis, and control tuberculosis.

5.2.2.2 Yeast and Molds


Yeasts and molds are unicellular or multicellular members of a higher group of
microorganisms called fungi. They are ubiquitous in nature and are found to occur
in soil, air, water, decaying organic matter, and a variety of foods including milk
and dairy products.
Yeasts are microscopic, ovoid, elongate, or elliptical or spherical organisms that
are several times larger than the common bacteria (Fig. 5.1). They are very active
biochemically and can grow over a wide range of pH, temperature, and alcohol
concentrations. The limiting water activity (Aw) of most spoilage yeasts is 0.88,
although osomophilic yeasts may grow at an Aw value of 0.60.17'19
The true yeasts (ascosporogenous) reproduce by sexual reproduction as well as
by asexual spores and chlamydospores. In contrast, the false yeasts (asporogenous)
or wild yeasts do not show sexual reproduction. They reproduce asexually by fragmentation of mycelium into blastospores or by budding. Important genera of yeasts
in milk and milk products include Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Candida, Debaryomyces, Rhodotorula, and Torulopsis. Table 5.4 lists some characteristics and
significance of yeasts important in dairy microbiology.
Molds are multicellular organisms that grow in the form of a tangled mass of
mycelium that is composed of filamentous structures called hyphae. Some molds
characteristically form cross-walls or septae in their hyphae, whereas others do not.
The septate or nonseptate mycelium is an important morphological feature in differentiating molds. Unlike true bacteria and most yeasts, molds reproduce sexually
by ascospores, oospores, or zygospores. Asexual reproduction in molds is by sporangiospores, conidiospores, arthrospores, and chlamydospores; the latter two may
be somewhat difficult to inactivate by heat and may cause problems in the food
industry, particularly in the canning industry. Some characteristics and significance
of molds important in dairy microbiology are given in Table 5.5.

5.2.2.3 Viruses
Viruses are ultramicroscopic, obligate parasites consisting of a nuclear material
(DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. They require biological host cells for

Table 5,4 IMPORTANT GENERA OF YEASTS IN MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS


Characteristics

Significance

Saccharomyces

Oval, ellipsoidal or cylindrical cells,


multilateral budding, generally white,
creamy colonies on agar, lactose
fermentation and nitrate assimilation
negative

S. cerevisiae usually used in the


baking and brewing industry.
S. cerevisiae isolated from Stracchino
cheese and kefir. Contaminant in raw
milk may be associated with mastitis

Candida

Yeastlike organismsfungi
imperfecti, short-ovoid or longer
cells, lactose fermentation and nitrate
assimilation may be positive or
negative

C. utilis is fodder yeast, C. kefyr


found in Kefir, buttermilk and cheese,
C. lacticondensi in condensed milk

Kluyveromyces

Subglobose, ellipsoidal or cylindrical


cells, true yeast, asexual reproduction
by budding. May form
pseudomycelium, sugar fermentation,
including lactose positive; nitrate
assimilation negative

K. marxians var lactis associated with


yogurt, gassy cheese, milk, Italian
cheese, buttermilk and cream.
Produce /3-galactosidase. K. marxians
var marxians (K fragilis) found in
Kefir and Koumiss

Debaryomyces

Sphericalshort oval cells,


ascosporogenous, may form
pseudomycelium, lactose
fermentation negative, nitrate
assimilation positive

Found on surfaces of spoiled foods.


D. Hansenii found in cheese

Yeast

their growth and replication. They are classified into various groups according to
their morphology, host range, physicochemical characteristics, serological properties, and ability to lyse the host cell during replication. Viruses infect humans, animals, and plants and cause disease in susceptible hosts. Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages are important in the cheese industry. Because phages are host specific,
they may be used for typing or characterizing bacterial species or strains. In addition
to bacteriophages, viruses of importance in the dairy industry include those causing
poliomyelitis, cowpox, central European tickborne fever, and hepatitis.
Cowpox virus is a causative agent of lesions, vesicles, or pustules on teats of the
cow. It may be transmitted to the milkers, producing lesions on the back of the hands
or forearms and face. The virus is oval in shape, consisting of a multilayered covering
around a double-stranded DNA core.
Poliomyelitis virus is an icosohedral particle containing a single-stranded RNA
core, but no envelope. It can infect the central nervous system of the subject and
cause paralysis. The polio virus may be transmitted through raw and pasteurized
milk. It is inactivated by heat treatment of 74 to 76C, unless occurring in a concentration of >5 X 1O1VmI.18
Central European tickborne fever is a virus-borne disease that may be transmitted
through raw goat's milk. The virus is spherical shaped, consisting of a singlestranded RNA core enclosed within an envelope. It is readily inactivated by heat
treatment of 600C for 10 min.

Table 5.5 SOME CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MOLD SPECIES


IMPORTANT IN DAIRY MICROBIOLOGY
Organism

Characteristics

Aspergillus

Septate mycelium, globose conidia of


varying color including yellow-green
black to brown

Contamination in cheese, butter.


A.flavus produces aflatoxin, some
spp. important as commercial source
of protease and industrial
fermentations.

Penicillium

Septate mycelium, brushlike


conidiophore bearing blue-green
conidia

P. roqueforti used in the manufacture


of Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola and
other blue-veined cheeses.
P. camemberti important in the
manufacture of Camembert, Brie and
other cheeses. P. casei similar to
P. roqueforti, associated with Swiss
cheese.

Geotrichum

Yeastlike fungi which is usually


white, septate mycelium, arthrospores
are cylindrical with rounded ends.

G. candidum important as *'dairy


mold" or "machinery mold." Found
in several cheeses and as
contamination on plant machinery.

Scopulariopsis

Produce characteristic truncated,


spherical conidia with a thickened
basal ring around truncation.

Found in cheeses; S. brevicaulis


causes ammonia odor in some moldripened cheeses.

Sporendonema

Conidiospore formed within


conidiophore, produces discrete
colonies.

S. sebi important as "mold buttons"


in sweetened condensed milk

Mucor

Aseptate mycelia, bear columella and


a sporangium which contains smooth,
round conidiospores.

Found in large number of foods,


including cheeses. Some strains e.g.,
M. miehei and M. pusillus, are
important sources of "renninlike"
enzymes used as cheese coagulants.

Rhizopus

Aseptate mycelia, sporangiophores


arise at nodes bearing thick tufts of
"rhizoids," mycelia bear columella
and sporangia which contain dark
sporangiospores.

Widely distributed in nature.


Frequently found in cheese and other
foods. R. stolonifer, known as the
"bread mold." Some strains are
important for industrial fermentations.

Significance

In the cheese industry, bacteriophages are the primary cause of slow or dead vat
problems due to the failure of a lactic starter culture.75'76 The replication process of
a phage in a susceptible bacterial host follows four distinct steps: (1) adsorption and
attachment, (2) injection of the genetic material into the host cell, (3) production of
the phage particles within the host cell, and (4) lysis of the host cell. The newly
formed phages released in the environment on lysis of the host cell attach to new
host cells to continue the cycle. Occasionally, the genetic material from the phage
may become integrated into the host chromosome or it may be maintained in the

host cytoplasm as an extrachromosomal nuclear material, the plasmid. In either case,


the phage replicates along with the host cell without causing lysis of the host cell.
This is known as lysogeny, which is rather a stable event and may continue indefinitely until such a time when the phage is activated and the cell produces new phage
particles that are released on the lysis of the cell.
Bacteriophages of Lactobacillus spp. typically have isometric or prolate heads
and tails varying in length from 80 to 200 nm (Figure 5.1) Some may possess distinct
collars and base plates. They are classified in Bradley's group B. 77 Phages of thermophilic streptococci typically have isometric heads and 200- to 300-nm-long tails.
They do not possess collars, only a small base plate, often with a central fiber and
are classified in Bradley's group B. Phages of lactobacilli and leuconostocs are morphologically diverse. They are grouped in Bradley's group A or B.
For more information on bacteriophages of lactic acid bacteria refer to reviews
by Davies and Gasson,76 Klaenhammer,78-79 Sanders,80 and Sechaud, et al.81

5.3 Growth of Dairy Microbes in Milk and Dairy Products


Although J. Forster observed the growth of microorganisms at 00C in 1887, it was
not until 1902 that the term "psychrophile" was applied to this group by SchmidtNielsen.82 Psychrophile comes from the Greek psychros, meaning cold, and philos,
meaning loving. Hence, this word implies that these microorganisms grow optimally
at low temperatures. Over the years psychrophiles have been defined in several ways
based on growth at low temperature, optimum temperature of growth, temperature
of enumeration, and other criteria not related to temperature.11 Because thermophiles
are defined by their optimum growth temperatures, microorganisms that grow at low
temperatures should be similarly defined. This led Mossel and Zwart83 and Eddy8
to propose that microorganisms that grow at low temperatures but have higher temperature optima be defined as psychrotrophs. Morita84 called mesophilic microorganisms that grow at 00C psychrotolerant or psychrotrophic because psychrophilic
microorganisms have temperature optima of 15C, maxima of 200C, and minima of
00C or below. Psychrotrophs are microorganisms that can grow at refrigerated temperatures but that have temperature optima above 200C. Psychrotrophs are those
microorganisms that can produce visible growth at 7 1C within 7 to 10 days,
regardless of their optimal growth temperatures.

5.3.1 Relative Growth Rates of Psychrotrophs


The Arrhenius equation is used to express the relationship between growth rate and
temperature: log k = E/2.303 RT + C where k = growth rate; E = activation
energy or /JL; R gas constant; T = absolute temperature; and C = constant.85"87
When the log k versus XIT is plotted, then the linear slope = - /x/2.302/?. With this
plot the temperature profile for a microorganism can be determined because a psychrophile has a linear slope to 00C, but psychrotrophs show a nonlinear slope around
5C and nonpsychrotrophic mesophiles become nonlinear at higher temperatures.

The curve is not completely linear because /x changes with temperature. Phillips and
Griffiths87 showed that the Arrhenius equation did not reflect the temperature profiles
of several psychrotrophs grown in dairy products because the JJL values depended
upon the bacterium and its growth medium. However, a square root plot: r =
b(T T0) where r = growth rate constant, b = slope of the regression line,
T = temperature (K), T0 = temperature below which the microorganisms cannot
grow, predicted the effects of temperature on the growth of psychrotrophs in dairy
products. This confirmed the research of Reichardt and Morita88 when they studied
16 psychrotrophic and psychrophilic bacteria, but could not establish a relationship
between /x and the optimum growth rate that was valid to classify microorganisms
as psychrophiles, psychrotrophs, nonpsychrotrophic mesophiles, and thermophiles.
Stannard et al.89 concluded that the square root plot can be used to establish the
lowest growth temperature that can serve as a classification tool for psychrotrophs,
nonpsychrotrophic mesophiles, and thermophiles.
Microorganisms that grow at low temperatures must have substrate uptake, cell
permeability, enzyme systems, and synthetic pathways that function at low temperatures. Some theories about the growth of psychrotrophs involve the generation of
low //,-values, presence of unsaturated fatty acids in the cell membranes, conformational changes in the ribosomal proteins and regulatory enzymes, substrate uptake,
and cell permeability.6'9'84"86
The generation times of Gram-negative psychrotrophs range from 3.5 to 17 h at
5 to 70C.6-90 Spohr and Schiitz91 reported that P. fluorescens had generation times
of 6 and 4.5 h at 4 and 8C, respectively, with no lag period. Pseudomonas species
generally have the fastest generation at these temperatures. Gram-positive bacteria
have generation times ranging from 6 to 36 h at 5 to 7C. Micrococcus species have
generation times over 20 h compared to the Bacillus species.90 Griffiths and
Phillips92 reported that B. circulans had generation times of 19 to 36 h at 2C in
whole milk. All strains of Bacillus studied had generation times of 7 to 23 h at 6C
in whole milk. For Pseudomonas species, the presence of air can shorten the generation time, especially at low temperatures. Hence, this genus generally becomes
dominant when raw milk is stored for several days. Bloquel and Veillet-Poncet93
reported that raw milk initially had 41% Gram-negative bacteria (mainly Pseudomonas and Achromobacter species), but after 96 h at 4C, 88% were Gram-negative
bacteria comprised of about 73% fluorescent pseudomonads and only 12% were
Gram-positive bacteria (mainly Micrococcus species). Shelley et al.94 reported that
>90% of raw milk samples in an Australian study were pseudomonads, particularly
P. fluorescens and P.fragi, which produced heat-stable Upases. Kroll et al.95 found
that the proteolytic microflora of raw milk consisted of 83% P. fluorescens.
The major Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria are listed in Tables 5.6 and
5.7, respectively. Psychrotrophic fungi can be associated with refrigerated milk and
dairy products, and among the yeast genera are Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaryomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, Rhodotorula, Saccharomyces, Torulopsis, and
Trichosporon.6'99 Mold genera that have psychrotrophic strains include Alternaria,
Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Mucor, Penicillium, and Rhizopus.9**100 Fungi become important in refrigerated dairy product spoilage when

Table 5.6 GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA ISOLATED FROM MILK


AND DAIRY PRODUCTS0
Cell Shape

Genus
Achromobacter
Acinetobacter
Aeromonas
Alcaligenes
Alteromonas
Chromobacterium
Citrobacter
Cytophaga
Enterobacter
Escherichia
Flavobacterium
Klebsiella
Moraxella
Proteus
Pseudomonas
Serratia
a

Lipase
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
-f

4-

+
+
+

+
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
+

GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA ISOLATED FROM MILK


AND DAIRY PRODUCTS0

Genus"
Arthrobacter
Bacillus
Clostridium
Corynebacterium
Lactobacillus
Microbacterium
Micrococcus
Staphylococcus
Streptococcus
b

Aerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Aerobe
Aerobe or facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe

Proteinase

After Bloquel and Veillet-Poncet,92 Cogan,95 Cousin,6 Mottar,97 Suhren,90 and Walker.98

Table 5.7

Rods
Rods to cocci
Rods to cocci
Rods to cocci
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods to cocci
Rods
Rods
Rods

Relative to Oxygen

Cell Shape

Relative to Oxygen

Proteinase

Lipase

Rods to cocci
Rods
Rods
Rods
Rods
Diphtheroid rods
Cocci
Cocci
Cocci

Aerobe
Aerobe or facultative anaerobe
Anaerobe
Aerobe or facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Aerobe
Aerobe
Facultative anaerobe
Facultative anaerobe

+
+
+

4-

+
+

Bloquel and Veillet-Poncet,92 Cogan,95 Cousin,6 Suhren,90 and Walker.98


Most of these genera have thermoduric psychrotrophic strains.

water activity (Aw), acidity, and processing method become more favorable for them
than for bacteria in cheese, yogurt, and other fermented dairy products.

5.3.2 Sources of Psychrotrophs in Milk


Psychrotrophs can get into milk in many ways. Generally water, soil, vegetation,
air, bedding materials, cow udders, dairy equipment, and tanker trucks are the major
sources of psychrotrophs. The incidence of psychrotrophs in milk depends on the

type of microorganisms and the numbers present, the conditions of production, the
temperature and length of storage, the season of the year, and other such factors.6-90
Griffiths and Phillips92 found that psychrotrophic Bacillus species were in 58%
of the milks in bulk tank milk collected between May and June in Scotland. Counts
of spores were between 30 to 920/L (average 460/L). Unclean bulk tanks contributed
most to the presence of the spores of Bacillus cereus, B. circulans, B. mycoides, and
other Bacillus species in milk. Coghill and Juffs101 isolated similar Bacillus species
from milk and cream in Australia. McKinnon and Pettipher102 found that heatresistant spore-forming bacteria in milk came from the teat of the cow and to a lesser
extent from improperly cleaned milking equipment. Other heat-resistant, psychrotrophic bacteria that have been isolated from milk include species of Aerococcus,
Arthrobacter, Corynebacterium, Microbacterium, Micrococcus, and Streptococcus.103'105 Heat-resistant ascospores of Byssochlamys nivea can also be isolated from
raw milk and may be present in cheese and other fermented dairy products.106
D values at 92C ranged from 1.6 to 1.9 S for cream.
The growth of microorganisms in milk and dairy products will be a function of
storage temperature, time, and generation time (growth rate) of contaminants. Griffiths and Phillips107 developed a relationship between storage temperature and microbial growth using linear relationships between temperature and the square root
of the specific growth rate of psychrotrophs over 2 to 220C and between temperature
and the square root of the reciprocal of lag time. There were highly significant
relationships between these factors of specific growth rate and lag time and temperature. Generally Pseudomonas spp. were isolated most frequently at 2C but as the
temperature increased to 21C, they made up only 10% of the population. Other
Gram-negative bacteria (Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Moraxella,
and Aeromonas) remained constant regardless of temperature. The Enterobacteriaceae, (mainly species of Enterobacter, Escherichia, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, and
Serratia) remained constant at 3 to 100C, but became more dominant as the temperatures increased to 210C. Similarly, Gram-positive cocci (Micrococcus and Streptococcus species) increased as temperatures increased and they predominated above
16C. Hence, milk stored at below 5C will most likely be populated by Pseudomonas species.

5.3.3 Significance of the Presence and Growth


of Psychrotrophs
Psychrotrophic microorganisms can grow in refrigerated dairy products resulting in
spoilage due to degradation of carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. Psychrotrophs carry
out many biochemical reactions that are seen at higher temperatures, but reaction
rates are slowed by low temperatures. Slight biochemical changes occur early in the
growth phase of some psychrotrophs, but several weeks at refrigerated temperatures
may be necessary for extreme changes to occur.
Little information is available on the carbohydrate metabolism of Pseudomonas
species in milk because most research has focused on proteolytic and lipolytic degradation of milk. Spohr and Schiitz91 reported that pyruvate accumulated in cells of

P.fluorescens when 105 to 106 cfu/ml were reached because malate was decarboxylated to pyruvate and carbon dioxide. L-Lactate decreased when cell counts reached
107 to 108 cfu/ml and glucose-3-P increased. Bacterial lipases and proteases were
noted when microbial numbers reached 107 to 108 cfu/ml. Citric acid cycle intermediates can stimulate the synthesis of proteases and lipases by psychrotrophs.108
Glucose, lactate, pyruvate, acetate, and citric acid repressed the production of proteinases by psychrotrophs, especially Pseudomonas species. These psychrotrophs
will normally use nonprotein and nonlipid carbon sources before using the more
complex proteins and lipids.
Proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes can be produced when conditions are favorable
for their production. McKellar108 has reviewed the conditions that regulate enzyme
synthesis. Generally, temperature, pH, oxygen, and nutrients exert the greatest effect
on proteinase and lipase synthesis. Griffiths109 reported that both proteinases and
lipases were maximally synthesized during the late exponential to stationary growth
phases when P. fluorescens strains were grown at 6 to 210C but not at 2C.
McKellar110 found that proteinase production was 55% greater at 20 than at 5C.
Similar results for maximal proteinase and lipase production during late logarithmic
and stationary phases were reported by Stead.111 More lipase was produced at low
temperatures of 4 to 100C than at 200C.112-113 Flavobacterium spp. also produced
more proteinase in the late logarithmic and early stationary phases, but they could
not grow well at 70C,114 The amount of enzymes synthesized depended on the strain
and there was little difference between synthesis in whole and skim milk. Griffiths
and Phillips115 found that aeration of milk increased lipolysis (mainly due to native
milk lipoprotein lipase) and decreased proteolysis due to catabolite repression by
glucose. Bucky et al.113 also reported that lipase production increased when milk
was aerated and could be noted in the early logarithmic growth for P. fluorescens.
When milk was flushed with nitrogen, proteolytic psychrotrophs grew slowly, but
did not produce proteinases after 18 days of storage at 4C, suggesting that oxygen
is important for proteinase production.116
Much research has been done on the growth of psychrotrophs in milk and dairy
products.6'110-115-117 Degradation of proteins and lipids by psychrotrophs or their
heat-stable enzymes has been the subject of several recent reviews. 99117 " 119 The
presence of psychrotrophs or their enzymes in milk and dairy products directly correlates with decreased shelf life, development of off-flavors and odors, decreased
product yield, gel formation in liquid products, and defective manufactured products.6'95'120"122 There are several published reports over the last 10 years on the
decreased yield in cheese manufacture due to proteolysis that results in loss of casein
protein with the whey.123"129 The length of milk storage at low temperatures, counts
of >10 6 psychrotrophs/ml of milk, temperature of storage, and types of psychrotrophs affect the amount of decreased yield for both nonripened and ripened cheeses.
The proteinases produced by psychrotrophs in milk selectively degrade the casein
proteins, especially K-, /3-, and a-casein.6'99 Patel et al.4 found that extracellular heatresistant proteases of Pseudomonas spp. degraded a-, /c-, /3-, and y-caseins to different degrees depending on the strain. a-Casein was a good substrate for most of
these strains. Generally, K-casein is degraded first and this has implications for cheese

Next Page

manufacture where /c-casein is important for rennet coagulation." Also, the age
gelation of UHT milk has been attributed to K-casein. The size of the casein micelle
decreased with increasing growth of psychrotrophic bacteria to populations >10 8
cfu/ml.130 Hence, the degradation of casein during milk storage can have detrimental
effects on final dairy product quality.
Most psychrotrophs are killed by normal pasteurization temperatures; however,
some species and strains of Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium,
Lactobacillus, Microbacterium, Micrococcus, and Streptococcus can survive pasteurization and cause problems in finished products.6'103 Cromie et al. 104 ' 105 have
shown that aseptically packaged pasteurized milk changes the spoilage microflora
to Bacillus species. Also, some of the lipase and proteinase activity will remain after
pasteurization, even after UHT processing, because these enzymes are heat stable.
Proteinases can have high heat resistances at UHT processing. Two Pseudomonas
proteinases had D values of 4.8 and 6.2 min at 1400C.122 Cogan95 reviewed the heat
resistance of lipases and proteinases from psychrotrophs that grew in milk and reported values from 0.2 to 54 min at 66 to 74C for lipases and 54 to 950 min for
proteinases at 71 to 74C. Similar information is reviewed by Kroll2 and Linden.131
Low-temperature inactivation of these enzymes has been reported at temperatures
from 50 to 600C depending on the enzyme studied.2'131132 Leinmiiller and
Christophersen133 reported that a proteinase from P. fluorescens was completely
inactivated after 15 min at 500C. Kumera et al.134 recently presented data suggesting
that the production of proteinases helped to stabilize lipases to heat. Therefore, the
presence of enzymes produced by psychrotrophs growing in milk and dairy products
can lead to both quality and economic losses for dairy processors. Ways to prevent
psychrotrophic growth are very important for dairy product quality.

5.4 Inhibition and Control of Microorganisms


in Milk and Dairy Products
From the time milk leaves the cow's udder until it is processed, packaged, and
distributed, it can become contaminated with microorganisms. If these microorganisms are allowed to grow, they can eventually cause spoilage of the milk or milk
products. There are many ways that microorganisms can be prevented from growing
in milk. Use of natural antimicrobial systems, addition of antimicrobial agents, production of inhibitors by microorganisms, and use of physical methods to kill or
remove microorganisms are the most common ways to prevent microorganisms from
spoiling milk. These four areas will be briefly reviewed.

5.4.1 Natural Antimicrobial Systems


Milk contains several nonimmunological proteins that have antimicrobial properties. 135 " 139 The four most common proteins that have been studied are lactoperoxidase, lactoferrin, lysozyme, and xanthine oxidase. These proteins are involved in
complex systems that cause microorganisms to become inactivated. Lactoperoxidase

Previous Page

manufacture where /c-casein is important for rennet coagulation." Also, the age
gelation of UHT milk has been attributed to K-casein. The size of the casein micelle
decreased with increasing growth of psychrotrophic bacteria to populations >10 8
cfu/ml.130 Hence, the degradation of casein during milk storage can have detrimental
effects on final dairy product quality.
Most psychrotrophs are killed by normal pasteurization temperatures; however,
some species and strains of Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium,
Lactobacillus, Microbacterium, Micrococcus, and Streptococcus can survive pasteurization and cause problems in finished products.6'103 Cromie et al. 104 ' 105 have
shown that aseptically packaged pasteurized milk changes the spoilage microflora
to Bacillus species. Also, some of the lipase and proteinase activity will remain after
pasteurization, even after UHT processing, because these enzymes are heat stable.
Proteinases can have high heat resistances at UHT processing. Two Pseudomonas
proteinases had D values of 4.8 and 6.2 min at 1400C.122 Cogan95 reviewed the heat
resistance of lipases and proteinases from psychrotrophs that grew in milk and reported values from 0.2 to 54 min at 66 to 74C for lipases and 54 to 950 min for
proteinases at 71 to 74C. Similar information is reviewed by Kroll2 and Linden.131
Low-temperature inactivation of these enzymes has been reported at temperatures
from 50 to 600C depending on the enzyme studied.2'131132 Leinmiiller and
Christophersen133 reported that a proteinase from P. fluorescens was completely
inactivated after 15 min at 500C. Kumera et al.134 recently presented data suggesting
that the production of proteinases helped to stabilize lipases to heat. Therefore, the
presence of enzymes produced by psychrotrophs growing in milk and dairy products
can lead to both quality and economic losses for dairy processors. Ways to prevent
psychrotrophic growth are very important for dairy product quality.

5.4 Inhibition and Control of Microorganisms


in Milk and Dairy Products
From the time milk leaves the cow's udder until it is processed, packaged, and
distributed, it can become contaminated with microorganisms. If these microorganisms are allowed to grow, they can eventually cause spoilage of the milk or milk
products. There are many ways that microorganisms can be prevented from growing
in milk. Use of natural antimicrobial systems, addition of antimicrobial agents, production of inhibitors by microorganisms, and use of physical methods to kill or
remove microorganisms are the most common ways to prevent microorganisms from
spoiling milk. These four areas will be briefly reviewed.

5.4.1 Natural Antimicrobial Systems


Milk contains several nonimmunological proteins that have antimicrobial properties. 135 " 139 The four most common proteins that have been studied are lactoperoxidase, lactoferrin, lysozyme, and xanthine oxidase. These proteins are involved in
complex systems that cause microorganisms to become inactivated. Lactoperoxidase

forms an antimicrobial system with hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate. Lactoferrin


is an iron-binding protein that binds both Fe 3 + and the carbonate anion. Lysozyme
is a protein that can have a direct or indirect enzymatic effect or a nonenzymatic
effect on microorganisms. Xanthine oxidase is involved in the generation of hydrogen peroxide which can either be used for the lactoperoxidase system or as a direct
antimicrobial agent. Each one of these proteins is briefly discussed in the following
sections.

5.4.2 Lactoperoxidase
The lactoperoxidase system has been extensively studied. Reviews by Ekstrand,135
Reiter,136-137 and Reiter and Harnulv,139 can be consulted for more detail on the
history, background, and biological functions of this inhibitory enzyme. The lactoperoxidase enzyme catalyzes the reaction of H 2 O 2 + SCN" -> OSCN" + H2O;
hence, both hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate are essential to the antimicrobial
activity. Lactoperoxidase is present in bovine milk in the whey proteins at concentrations from 10 to 30 /xg/ml of milk depending on the cow and its breed.136137-140
Lactoperoxidase is a basic glycoprotein with a molecular weight of about 77,000
and iron (Fe3 + ) heme group.135 It has its highest activity at pH 4 to 7 which would
be in the range for fresh milk. Hernandez et al.141 isolated and further characterized
lactoperoxidase from bovine milk.
There is little hydrogen peroxide in milk, but it can be produced by lactic acid
bacteria that contaminate the milk. Also, if free oxygen is present in milk, hydrogen
peroxide can be produced by reactions with xanthine oxidase, copper sulfhydryl
oxidase, and ascorbic acid. 136137140 Because hydrogen peroxide is not very stable,
it can be reduced by catalase or bound to enzymes, such as lactoperoxidase.
Thiocyanate is present in bovine milk in up to 15 ppm, especially in milk that
has a high somatic cell count. 1 3 6 1 3 7 1 3 9 1 4 0 Thiocyanate is a common anion that is
present in many animal tissues (mammary glands, salivary glands, stomach, kidneys,
etc.) and secretions (cerebral fluid, saliva, lymph fluid, plasma, etc.). The type of
feed, especially clover and feed containing glucosides, affects the concentration of
thiocyanate. The health of the cow affects the thiocyanate level because cows with
diseases such as mastitis contain more leucocytes and obtain the increased thiocyanate concentration from the blood. 1 3 6 1 3 7 1 3 9 1 4 0
The mode of bacterial inhibition by the lactoperoxidase system involves a change
in the cytoplasmic membrane because hypothiocyanate (OSCN") binds to the free
SH-groups of key enzymes, causing the pH gradient to drop and potassium and
amino acids to leak from the cell. 135 " 137 ' 140 ' 142 ' 143 This prevents the uptake of carbohydrates, amino acids, and other nutrients because their transport mechanisms are
inhibited. Further activities of the cell involved in protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis
are disrupted. Gram-negative bacteria are more readily killed and lysed by the lactoperoxidase system than the Gram-positive bacteria. This is probably due to the
differences in both cell wall composition and thickness. Some Gram-positive streptococci are resistant to the hypothiocyanate.

The lactoperoxidase system occurs naturally in several environments. In calves,


the intestinal flora is colonized by lactobacilli that produce hydrogen peroxide which
activates the lactoperoxidase system. 136437 ' 139 ' 140 This can prevent undesirable bacteria, such as E. coli, from becoming established in the intestinal mucosa. The lactoperoxidase system is also active in the mouth of humans and this may help to
prevent acid production in dental plaques which may reduce dental caries. The lactoperoxidase system inhibits many of the bacteria that cause mastitis in cows. Because the lactoperoxidase system is naturally active in mammalian environments,
considerable research has been done to determine if this antimicrobial system has
any toxic effects on the host,139 This research has shown that there are no toxic
effects on mammalian cells as well as HeLa cells and Chinese hamster ovary cells.
Because the lacoperoxidase system is considered a natural antimicrobial system
in milk, various practical applications for its use have been proposed and researched.
Among the most common ideas for dairy processing are to help preserve both refrigerated and nonrefrigerated milk to destroy bacterial pathogens in milk, and to
extend the shelf life of refrigerated milk and cultured dairy products. The lactoperoxidase system has been successfully used to extend the shelf life of refrigerated
raw milk. Reiter144 showed that the Pseudomonas fluorescens growth can be slowed
by about 200 h at 4C and 20 h at 300C by the activation of the lactoperoxidase
system. Similar results were shown with a mixed population of common psychrotrophic bacteria. At 4C it took longer than 6 days for the multiplication of this
mixed flora once the lactoperoxidase system was activated by addition of hydrogen
peroxide. At the dairy farm, a 3 log cycle lower count in lactoperoxidase-treated
milk versus untreated milk was observed after 6 days of storage at 5C. Zajac et
a j 145,146 s j l o w e c j that the keeping quality of refrigerated (4C) farm milk could be
extended by the activation of the lactoperoxidase system using sodium thiocyanate
(11.2 ppm) and sodium percarbonate (10 ppm H2O2) at regular intervals of 48 h.
The count of both psychrotrophs and coliforms remained constant or decreased in
the milks where the lactoperoxidase system was activated. Martinez et al.147 activated
the lactoperoxidase system every 48 h in both raw and pasteurized milk by maintaining concentrations of thiocyanate and hydrogen peroxide at 0.25 mM. This treatment effectively extended the shelf lives of both raw and pasteurized milk at 4, 8,
and 16C by 3 to 6 days depending on the storage conditions as measured by sensory
analysis, titratable acidity, proteolysis, and lipolysis. Kamau et al. 148 activated the
lactoperoxidase system of raw milk by adding 2.4 mM thiocyanate and 0.6 mM
hydrogen peroxide. The milk was then pasteurized, cooled, and stored at 100C with
150 rpm agitation for 22 days. The treated milk had an increased shelf life of 22
days compared to the control milk because counts were 103 and 107 cells/ml, respectively, Hernandez et al.141 found that commercial pasteurization reduced the
lactoperoxidase activity by 70 percent. Ekstrand et al. 149 heated milk to 800C or
higher and noted that the antibacterial effect of lactoperoxidase was decreased, possibly due to the exposure and oxidation of sulfhydryl groups. Generally, low-temperature pasteurization does not inactivate the lactoperoxidase system, whereas temperatures >80C destroy activity. These studies show that activation of the

lactoperoxidase system can extend the refrigerated keeping quality for both raw and
pasteurized milk.
Because psychrotrophs grow in raw refrigerated milk and produce proteolytic and
lipolytic enzymes, they can create problems for products made from this stored milk.
Research has been done on the use of the lactoperoxidase system to improve the
quality of cheese and other cultured dairy products. Reiter144 and Reiter and
Harnulv138 reported that milk where lactoperoxidase system was activated resulted
in cheese that was judged as normal in flavor after 4 months of storage, whereas the
control cheese from untreated milk was labeled as rancid and had high free fatty
acid profiles. Ahrne and Bjorck150 reported that the lactoperoxidase system could
inhibit lipoprotein lipase activity in milk, and lipolysis was decreased. The treated
cheeses also gave higher yields because the proteolytic degradation by psychrotrophs
was suppressed. Lara et al.151 also noted a 1 to 2% (wet weight) increase in the
lactoperoxidase-activated raw and pasteurized milk cheeses, respectively; however,
acid production and microbial growth of the starters were reduced. ZaIl et al. 152 ' 153
noted that acid production during cheddaring and weaker curds were seen for Cheddar cheese produced from milk with an activated lactoperoxidase system. These
cheeses also did not develop the typical Cheddar flavor within 6 months as expected.
Cottage cheese made from this milk was also judged by trained panelists as having
a distinctly different flavor.153 Yogurt and buttermilk made from milk that had an
activated lactoperoxidase system took longer to make than controls because the
culture grew slower.152 The experimental buttermilk had an objectionable flavor, but
the yogurt could not be differentiated from the control. Kamau and Kroger154 also
found that the rennet coagulation time and acid production by starter cultures were
slower in the lactoperoxidase-activated systems than in control milks. Earnshaw et
al.155 added lactoperoxidase, potassium thiocyanate, glucose oxidase, glucose, and
urea peroxide to cottage cheese to simulate the lactoperoxidase system. This system
effectively reduced the populations of added Pseudomonas spp., E. coli, and Salmonella thyphimurium. The use of the lactoperoxidase system for controlling the
growth of psychrotrophs in milk used for cultured product manufacture has both
desirable and undesirable consequences. The treated milk has lower microbial counts
and generally results in high product yields; however, the coagulation rate, acid
production, and flavor are not produced in a time similar to that of control products.
The lactoperoxidase system inhibits E. coli and other Gram-negative bacteria in
milk. Because milk and dairy products have been implicated in several foodborne
disease outbreaks in recent years, there has been renewed interest in ways to prevent
pathogens from growing to dangerous levels. Research has been done on the use of
the lactoperoxidase system to inhibit some pathogenic bacteria that can grow in milk.
Zajac et al.156 found that the lactoperoxidase system decreased the vegetative cells
of Bacillus cereus, but had no effect on the spores, because the plasma membrane
is not accessible. Campylobacter jejuni rapidly decreased in raw or heated milk when
the lactoperoxidase system was activated.157 The lactoperoxidase system was also
effective against strains of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria innocua depending
on the cell number, temperature, and medium.158159 Generally, low numbers (<100
cfu/ml) could be inactivated at 4 to 35C and decreases in populations were noted

for higher temperatures. Kamau et al.160 reported that both L. monocytogenes and
S. aureus were inactivated more rapidly when heated at 50 to 600C after the lactoperoxidase system was activated. There were both decreased lag times and lower
D values, showing that these bacteria were more sensitive to heat once the lactoperoxidase system was activated. The safety of milk in relation to foodborne pathogens can be increased by the use of the lactoperoxidase system in combination with
heat and other preservation methods.
The lactoperoxidase system could also be beneficial in countries where cooling
milk before transporting to dairy processing plants is not possible. The activation of
the lactoperoxidase system with 10 ppm thiocyanate and sodium percarbonate to
generate 8.5 ppm of hydrogen peroxide resulted in increased keeping quality of milk
during transportation at 27 to 300C.138 Bjorck et al.161 showed that the activation of
the lactoperoxidase system with 5 ppm thiocyanate and 7.5 ppm hydrogen peroxide
helped to preserve milk in Kenya. The reaction was inversely related to the temperature of storage. The bacteriostatic effect lasted for 7 to 8 h at 300C, 11 to 12 at
25C, 15 to 16 h at 200C, and 24 to 26 h at 15C during laboratory trials. In actual
field conditions, the milk was treated at the collection station and then sent to the
dairy plant which took 3 to 6 h at 27 to 300C. After the activation of the lactoperoxidase system 88% of the samples had a resasurin reading of 6 after 10 min
compared to 26% for the controls. Ridley and Shalo162 studied the use of activation
of the lactoperoxidase system and a combination of the lactoperoxidase system and
evaporative cooling to extend the shelf life of milk in Kenya. The lactoperoxidase
system reduced the total plate count by 1 log cycle and the combination of lactoperoxidase plus evaporative cooling reduced the count by 2 log cycles. In Sri Lanka
both the bovine and buffalo milks were stabilized by the activation of the lactoperoxidase system once the milk reached collection centers 3 to 6 h after milking.163
With temperatures ranging from 20 to 33C, the milk could be kept for 4 to 9 h
longer than when not treated. These results show that the use of the lactoperoxidase
system in countries where milk cannot be refrigerated can help to extend the shelf
life during transportation and storage before milk can be shipped to processing plants.

5,4.3 Lactoferrin
Lactoferrin is an iron-binding protein in milk that has antimicrobial activity.135"138
Bovine milk contains 0.02 to 0.35 mg/ml of lactoferrin.136'137 Lactoferrin is a glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 76,500 that has two metal binding sites that
bind ferric ions and bicarbonic ions. The citrate concentration of milk is important
because it can exchange the iron chelated by lactoferrin and this can cause loss of
the bacteriostatic activity. Lactoferrin inhibits only bacteria with high iron requirements, such as coliforms but has no effect on bacteria that require a low amount of
iron. 136137 The bacteriostatic effect of lactoferrin is temporary because some Gramnegative bacteria can adapt to low iron and synthesize iron chelators. Ellison et al.164
found that lactoferrin damaged the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and
caused permeability problems. Very little research has been done on the use of
lactoferrin as an antimicrobial agent in milk.

5.4.4 Lysozyme
Lysozyme is a small basic protein that has a molecular weight of 15,000.136'137
Bovine milk contains 13 fig of lysozyme/100 ml. Lysozyme has three functions:
(1) a direct enzymatic effect that degrades the bacterial cell peptidoglycans and
polysaccharides of Gram-positive bacteria; (2) an indirect enzymatic effect is seen
when the peptidoglycan is cleaved to yield muramyldipeptide and an immunostimulating effect is produced; and (3) the positively charged lysozyme can neutralize
the negatively charged groups on the bacterial cell membranes.135 Lysozyme has
found its greatest use in inactivating vegetative cells and germinating spores of
Bacillus and Clostridium.136'131 Wasserfall and Teuber165 used 500 U/ml of egg
white lysozyme to kill vegetative cells of Clostridium tyrobutyricum; however,
spores were resistant. A 1-day delay in outgrowth of spores into vegetative cells
could account for the "late gas" defect in Edam and Gouda cheeses. Countries such
as Germany, Italy, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, Spain, as well as Australia,
have experimented with (some have even approved) the use of lysozyme to prevent
the "late gas" defect due to butyric acid fermentation by Clostridium species in
semihard and hard cheeses including Gouda, Emmenthal, Provolone, Edam, and
others.166'167 Lysozyme hydrolyzes the peptidoglycan in clostridia and other Grampostive bacteria. Lysozyme is added to the cheese milk and 99% stays with the
casein and remains active during ripening. Bester and Lombard168 found that 250
U/ml of lysozyme inhibited vegetative growth of C. tyrobutyricum but spores were
not inhibited and germination was stimulated. Lactobacillus spp. were inhibited only
if concentrations of lysozyme were >500 to 1000 U/ml. Starter cultures composed
of Lactococcus and Leuconostoc species were not affected; hence, they could grow
normally in the presence of lysozyme. El-Gendy et al. 169 also showed that 0.02%
hydrogen peroxide could inhibit Clostridium species involved in "late gas" formation in cheese. Griffiths and Phillips170 found that lysozyme did not inhibit growth
of psychrotrophic Bacillus spp. in milk. Therefore, lysozyme can find specific uses
to prevent gas formation in cheese by Clostridium species.

5.4.5 Xanthine Oxidase


Xanthine oxidase is an enzyme that is associated with the fat globule membrane in
bovine milk. This enzyme contains iron and molybdenum and catabolizes purines
producing uric acid, superoxide, and hydrogen peroxide; however, in milk there are
few free purines and the xanthine oxidase reacts with acetaldehydes produced by
lactic acid bacteria to produce the hydrogen peroxide.136 Hydrogen peroxide is bactericidal by itself or can be used to activate the lactoperoxidase system. Roginski et
al.171 found that the xanthine oxidase-hypoxanthine system produced sufficient hydrogen peroxide to allow the lactoperoxidase system to stimulate growth and acid
production by some Streptococcus cremoris and inhibited growth and acid production by 5. lactis and some strains of S. cremoris. This led to the recommendation
that starters used in cheesemaking should be resistant to the lactoperoxidase system
and also low producers of hydrogen peroxide. Xanthine oxidase can act synergisti-

cally with lactoperoxidase and thiocyanate to complete the lactoperoxidase system.


Interactions between lysozyme and lactofenin, and xanthine oxidase and lactoperoxidase can further enhance the antimicrobial nature of these systems. 136137140
More research needs to be done on the antimicrobial properties of nonimmunological proteins that occur naturally in milk. Dairy processors will need to use these
systems more effectively to increase the shelf life of milk and dairy products. Also,
the legislative hurdles against the use of activation of these natural systems in milk
will have to be resolved before they can be effectively used.

5.4.6 Lactic Acid Bacteria and Bacteriocins


Lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and
Streptococcus species) can preserve foods by producing compounds that inhibit other
microorganisms. The traditional preservative activities have been the use of carbohydrates and the subsequent production of lactic and acetic acids that lower the pH
of the food. 172173 In addition to these activities several lactic acid bacteria can produce inhibitory compounds, such as hydrogen peroxide, diacetyl, bacteriocins, and
other compounds.
Lactic acid bacteria have been used as inocula in milk to inhibit both spoilage
and pathogenic microorganisms. Martin and Gilliland174 found that lactobacilli isolated from yogurt inhibited psychrotrophic bacteria in autoclaved milk at 5.5C;
however, when a L. bulgaricus strain was added to raw milk at 5.5C, there was no
inhibition of the psychrotrophs. Champagne et al.175 used two mesophilic Lactococcus strains to inhibit psychrotrophic bacteria in raw milk. Addition of more than
7 X 106 cells/ml was needed to reduce the level of psychrotrophs in raw milk at
TC. Cell-free filtrates of Lactococcus lactic subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp.
cremoris, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides inhibited various pathogenic and spoilage bacteria, such as Enterobacter aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and S. aureus.176 The antimicrobial activity was strongest
against Gram-negative bacteria. Batish et al.177 found that Lactococcus lactis subsp.
lactis var. diacetylactis inhibited Aspergillus fumigatus from growing in milk and
prevented A. parasiticus from producing aflatoxin B 1 . The inhibitory compounds
were not identified in these various experiments.
Lactic acid bacteria produce antimicrobial compounds called bacteriocins (Table
5.8). They are proteins or protein complexes that have activity against other bacteria,
usually in the same or a closely related genus.178 Some bacteriocins inhibit foodborne
pathogenic bacteria.179 One bacteriocin that has been widely studied and is now
commercially used is nisin.180"185 Nisin is a polypeptide produced by L. lactis subsp.
lactis that is active against Gram-positive bacteria, including Listeria monocytogenes
and sporeformers.180"183 The outgrowth of bacterial spores is prevented when nisin
is present. Nisin is stable to acid and shows greatest activity as the pH decreases.180"182 High pH and high temperature generally degrade nisin. The cytoplasmic membrane is the target of nisin. Henning et al. 183 suggested that nisin interacted with the phospholipids in the cytoplasmic membrane and thus disrupted

Table 5.8 BACTERIOCINS PRODUCED BY LACTIC ACID BACTERIA THAT HAVE


ANTIMICROBIAL POTENTIAL FOR USE IN FOOD PRODUCTS3
Bacterium

Bacteriocin

Lactobacillus helveticus

Lactocin 27

Lactobacillus acidophilus

Helveticin J
Lactacin B

Lactobacillus plantarum

Lactacin F
Lactolin
Plantaricin A

Lactococcus lactis subsp.


lactis

Nisin

Lactococcus lactis subsp.


cremoris

Diplococcin
Lactostrepcins
pediocin A

Pediococcus pentosaceus

Antimicrobial Activity Against Strains of


Lactobacillus acidophilus and
L. helveticus
L. helveticus, L. bulgaricus, L. lactis
L. leichmannii, L. bulgaricus, L. helveticus,
L. lactis
L. fermentum, S. faecalis, Enterococci
Not given
L. plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus,
L. paramesenteroides
Gram ( + ) bacteria
Prevents outgrowth of Bacillus and Clostridium
spores
Other dairy Lactococcus species
Group A, C, G Streptococci L. helveticus,
L. citrovorum, L. paracitrovorum
Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium sporogenes,
Staphylococcus aereus, Lactobacillus brevis,
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Listeria,
monocytogenes, other pediococci

Klaenhammer.178

membrane function. Sulfhydryl groups in the cytoplasmic membrane were inactivated by nisin, affecting both spore and the vegetative cell.181-182 Nisin is thought
to inhibit the swelling process for spore germination. Nisin (100 RU/ml) enhanced
spore germination for some psychrotrophic strains of Bacillus in milk186 and made
them easier to inactivate by heat. Nisin is rapidly degraded in the stomach, does not
result in sensitized human intestinal microflora, and is accepted for food use in 49
countries.181 In the United States, nisin use is limited to pasteurized cheese and
process cheese spreads.180 The antibotulinal effectiveness of nisin has been
shown.187 FDA set the daily intake to 2.9 mg nisin/day/person. In other countries
nisin is used for preserving processed cheese spreads, pasteurized dairy desserts,
milk in countries without adequate refrigeration, and canned evaporated
milks.181-182'188 Additional success has been observed with pasteurized double
cream189 and prevention of butyric acid fermentation in cheese.190
Other bacteriocins have also been evaluated for their antimicrobial activity. Pediocin AH, produced by Pediococcus acidilactici, adsorbed to Gram-positive bacterial surfaces and caused loss of potassium and other cellular components.191 Another pediocin, PA-1-bacteriocin, was bactericidal to Listeria monocytogenes}92
Lactobacillus acidophilus produces lactacin B that is bactericidal to other Lactobacillus species as well as Enterococcus faecalis.193 Pulusani et al.194 partially purified antimicrobial compounds produced by Streptococcus thermophilus that were
low molecular weight (700) amines; however, they were not classified as bacterio-

cins. These compounds inhibited Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Salmonella and Shigella species. Although it is not commonly considered a
lactic acid bacterium, Bifidobacterium bifidwn produced antibacterial activity that
inhibited S. aureus, Bacillus cereus, E. coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Salmonella
typhosa, and Shigella dysenteriae in skim milk medium.195 Several lactic acid bacteria produce antimicrobial compounds; however, not all of them have enough specificity to be of general use for preserving dairy products. The ones that are active
against bacterial foodborne pathogens, such as L. monocytogenes, should undergo
more research and product trials to determine the extent of their preservation
potential.
Other preservation compounds have been evaluated for specific applications.
Three of these are Micrograd, natamycin, and nitrate. Microgard is a preservative
that is made by fermenting grade A skim milk with Propionibacterium shermanii
followed by pasteurization.172 This product is approved for food use by the FDA
because it extends the shelf life of foods, especially refrigerated dairy products.
Microgard is bacteriostatic to mainly Gram-negative bacteria and some molds and
yeasts but not Gram-positive bacteria.172 Weber and Broich128 showed that Microgard at 0.4% in cottage cheese was bacteriostatic against Gram-negative bacteria
and increased the keeping quality at 7C by 91%. In yogurt and sour cream, 0.5%
Microgard inhibited molds and yeasts. Salih et al.196 showed that Microgard extended the shelf life of yogurt and cottage cheese. The effect was concentration
dependent for inhibition of yeasts in yogurt. Molds and Gram-negative bacteria were
inhibited in cottage cheese. Gram-positive pathogenic Bacillus cereus, Listeria
monocytogenes, and 5. aureus were not inhibited by Micrograd and some strains
were even stimulated by this product.197 Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria, such
as Salmonella typhimurium, S. paratyphi, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Aeromonas
hydrophila were sensitive to Microgard at pH 5.3 in an agar assay. Microgard is
used at 1% in cottage cheese, yogurt, and dairy based salad dressing with the greatest
use in cottage cheese.197 Microgard contains propionic acid, diacetyl, acetic acid,
and lactic acid in addition to the heat-stable proteinaceous components with a molecular weight of 700. 172 Natamycin or pimarcin is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces natalaensis that inhibits molds and yeasts.180 The FDA has approved the
use of 200 to 300 /ig/ml maximum concentrations of natamycin for inhibition of
mold on the surface of cheese that has a standard of identity that allows use of mold
inhibitors. Morris and Castbert198 showed that natamycin at 1000 ppm prevented
unacceptable mold and yeast growth on blue cheese during curing. Natamycin did
not penetrate into cheese nor did it cause the cheese to have off-flavors like those
treated with potassium sorbate.199 Butyric acid fermentation is a problem in some
European cheeses, such as Edam, Gouda, Emmenthal, Gruyere, and others. Nitrate
from 1 to 15 g/100 L of milk helped to decrease the level of spores in cheese because
the xanthine oxidase could reduce nitrate to nitrite and prevent growth of germinating
spores.200 The need to control specific groups of microorganisms will result in the
use of inhibitors that are approved for limited use. This is demonstrated by the
selective approval of chemical inhibitors for specific foods.

5.4.7 Potassium Sorbate


Potassium sorbate has been used by itself or in combination with other chemicals to
control mold growth in dairy products. Potassium sorbate (10 to 20% solution) is
used as a dip or spray to inhibit mold growth on cheese surfaces.180 In addition
potassium sorbate can be used on packaging material at a rate of 1 to 6 g/m2. A
maximum of 0.2 to 0.3% sorbic acid is allowed in various types of processed cheese,
cheese food, and cheese spreads. Both potassium sorbate and sorbic acid are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) preservatives in the United States and are permitted
in many countries worldwide. Although there have been conflicting reports about
the ability of Aspergillus and Penicillium species to grow and produce mycotoxins
in the presence of potassium sorbate, none of these were done with milk or dairy
products.201"205 At temperatures of 25 to 28C, mycotoxins were produced; however,
at 12C potassium sorbate either inhibited or greatly reduced mycotoxin production.
Liewen and Marth204 reported that some molds isolated from Cheddar cheese treated
with sorbic acid could grow in the presence of this preservative. Several Penicillium
species grew in the presence of >3000 ppm of sorbic acid at either 4 or 25C, but
none of the aspergilli grew in levels >2000 ppm at 25C. Tsai et al.206 isolated
several different penicillia from moldy surplus cheese, but could find no correlation
between sorbate resistance and mycotoxin production. About 10% of the isolates
could produce patulin, penicillic acid, or ochratoxin; however, toxins were not produced much when the isolates were inoculated into processed American and Cheddar
cheeses. Liewen and Marth207 have reviewed the inhibition and growth of molds in
the presence of sorbic acid. Potassium sorbate was effective in preventing mold
growth in Gouda cheese; but the rind was discolored, the flavor was not acceptable,
and the preservative migrated 5 mm below the rind and some could be detected in
the center of the cheese.199 Ahmad and Branen208 reported that a combination of
0.2% potassium sorbate and 150 ppm butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) inhibited
A.ftavus growth in broth. BHA at 150 to 400 ppm inhibited A. flavus or P. expansum
growth in processed cheese spread depending on the method of application. Potassium sorbate can be effective in preventing mold growth on cheese depending on
the microbes present. Sorbate-resistant molds do not produce mycotoxins in the
presence of 0.3% potassium sorbate.209
Potassium sorbate in combination with other chemicals has prevented growth of
psychrotrophic bacteria in milk. Gilliland and Ewell210 reported that the use of both
Lactobacillus lactis and 0.1 to 0.2% potassium sorbate inhibited psychrotrophic bacteria. Strains of L. lactis that produced hydrogen peroxide were more effective in
inhibiting the psychrotrophs. When >0.1% potassium sorbate was added to pasteurized milk, a sweet taste was noted; therefore, 0.075% potassium sorbate was
combined with 0.005% hydrogen peroxide to prevent psychrotrophic growth in
milk.211 These treated milks lasted over 26 days at 6.8C compared to 10 to 12 days
for the controls. The use of potassium sorbate plus hydrogen peroxide may help to
extend the shelf life of milk. To date no chemical preservatives have been allowed
in fluid milk in the United States and many other countries.

5.4.8 Carbon Dioxide


Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been used to control microbial growth in many foods.
There has been some interest in using it to prevent psychrotrophic bacterial growth
in raw milk. King and Mabbitt212 found that CO2 at 10 to 30 mM/L decreased the
growth of psychrotrophs in milk held at 4 to 100C. The decrease was greatest at 4C
and 30 mM CO2/L. The presence of CO2 causes a decrease in pH from 6.7 to
6.O.212"214 If this decrease is too great due to more than 30 mM CO2/L, then the
casein in milk becomes unstable and bitterness is noted.213 The presence of 30 mM
CO2/L increased the shelf life of poor quality raw milk (total count >10 5 cfu/ml)
and good quality raw milk (total count <10 4 cfu/ml) by 1.2 and > 3 days, respectively.213 This increase in shelf life is important because milk is normally cold stored
for a few days before processing. CO2-treated raw milk was used to make cheese
and yogurt with no adverse effect. The CO2 does not need to be removed from milk
before use in manufacturing, but it can be removed by warming under vacuum.212'214
One problem with this method could be activation of Bacillus spores with CO 2 and
an increase in their heat resistance.215 However, this research was done with saturated
CO2 and not low levels. The use of CO2 will depend on cost, ease of use, and
legislation.

5.4.9 Removal of Microorganisms by Physical Methods


Two physical methods of removing microorganisms from milk have been researched
and are currently used for raw milk, especially in Europe. These two methods are
thermization and centrifugation.
Thermization is a prepasteurization heat treatment of milk once it arrives at the
dairy to decrease the psychrotrophic population and increase the storage life of the
milk before it is processed.216'217 The bacterial population did not increase significantly for 4 days after thermization at 65C for 15 s and storage at 4C; however,
that of untreated milk increased significantly.216 Thermization did not affect the pH,
the whey proteins, or the ability of milk to coagulate. Gilmour et al.217 showed that
thermization at 60 to 700C for 10 to 15 s decreased the level of proteolytic and
lipolytic microorganisms in milk. The higher the temperature, the more was the
reduction in population. Humbert et al.218 suggested that 65C for 20 s was adequate
for extending the shelf life of raw milk for 4 days before processing. Thermization
has been studied for use with cheese manufacture. Milk that was thermized at 65C
for 15 s had a 3 log cycle reduction in psychrotrophic count and prevented growth
of proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria at 500C for 7 days.219 The yield of Cheddar
cheese was not affected by thermization.219'220 Johnston et al. 220 reported that thermization at 65C for 15 s decreased lipase activity. Thermization of this cheese milk
also decreased all types of microorganismsmesophiles, psychrotrophs, coliforms,
and proteolytic and lipolytic psychrotrophs, except spores. Cheddar cheese from
nonthermized milk that was stored for 3 days had lower sensory scores and higher
fat breakdown than thermized milk cheese.221 Thermization may show its greatest
value in decreased lipolytic changes as the cheese ages. Thermized milk (65C for

15 sec) was used to produce dried skim milk.222 Thermization decreased the psychrotrophic count to < 100 cfu/ml, but had no effect on spore or thermoduric counts.
Thermization can be used to reduce some pathogens in raw milk. Yersinia enterocolitica was not recovered from thermized milk if levels were <10 5 cells/ml.223 No
results have been reported for other dairy pathogens.
Preheat treatments can also be used to decrease enzyme levels and activate spores
so that pasteurization can then affect the other bacteria. Psychrotrophic bacteria
produce proteases and lipases that are stable to heat treatments given to milk and
dairy products. These enzymes can be irreversibly inactivated by temperatures close
to those for enzyme activity.2 This has been called "low temperature inactivation"
and has been well documented.2 Protease from Pseudomonas fluorescens was inactivated rapidly at 55C in both pH 6.6 and 4.5 solutions of casein.224 Self-digestion
resulting in low molecular weight compounds was suggested. Guamis et al.225 found
that 45C for 5 min or 85C for 45 s completely inactivated proteases of Flavobacterium sp. and drastically decreased Cytophaga sp. protease, but were not effective
toward P. fluorescens protease. Temperatures of 50 to 57C were generally successful at inactivating proteases of Pseudomonas spp.; however, above 600C there was
little inactivation.2 The mechanism was an autolytic process. Low temperature inactivation has also been shown for lipases. Senyk et al.226 found that 43 to 100%
inactivation of lipase activity could be noted after treatments of 57.2 to 82.2C for
10 s. Variable results were reported by Fitz-Gerald et al.227 for 20 lipases heated
at 55 to 1000C. More research is needed on the inactivation of lipases by low temperatures.
Psychrotrophic Bacillus spp. need to be effectively controlled in milk. Because
pasteurization does not eliminate Bacillus spores, temperatures that activate spores
before pasteurization are needed. Griffiths and Phillips228 found that 95C for 5 to
15 s was sufficient to heat activate 13 Bacillus spp. in milk. After 24 h at 8C, a
pasteurization treatment of 74C for 15 s was given to the milk. Premaratne and
Cousin229 found that a heat treatment of 800C for 10 min followed by incubation at
32C for 4 h and then a pasteurization of 72C for 15 s eliminated a Bacillus cereus
contaminant that concentrated during ultrafiltration. In products where Bacillus
spores can be problematic, an activated heat treatment followed by a germination
step will be necessary before the milk is pasteurized and further processed.
The removal of bacteria by centrifugation has been used in Europe for preprocessing of cheese milks. Sillen230 reported that the use of centrifuges to remove
bacteria (bactofugation) at 600C resulted in a 98 to 99% reduction in anaerobic spores
that cause late fermentation in cheese. During centrifugation, about 3% of the milk
has the high bacterial count. This fraction can be heated at UHT temperatures of 135
to 14O0C to kill the bacteria and then it is remixed with the rest of the milk. Waes
and Van Heddeghem231 outlined a method for removal of bacterial spores from milk
to be used for the manufacture of Edam, Gouda, and Tilsiter cheese. Centrifugation
plus addition of 2.5 g of KNO3/100 L centrifuged milk may be necessary to prevent
butyric acid fermentation of these cheeses. Bactofugation can also be used for the
removal of bacteria from milk to be used for UHT processing of milk.232 Centrifugation can be useful in removing bacteria from milk; however, it can also result in

loss of 2.5 to 3.5% of the total milk with most loss being protein.231 Centrifugation
can be useful for preprocessing of some milk before it is used to make a dairy
product.

5.5 Mastitis
Mastitis is defined as an inflammation of the mammary gland regardless of the
cause.36 Most mastitis occurs in a subclinical form where the characteristic signs and
symptoms are not readily detectable by visual examination of milk using a strip cup
or by manual palpation of the udder. The clinical form of mastitis is evident by
inflammatory swelling, fibrosis, and the atrophy of mammary tissue. Acute inflammatory swelling is also accompanied by hurt and pain. The clinical mastitis is also
evident by marked abnormality in secretion, such as blood clots or abnormal color
in milk.

5.5.1 Effect on Milk Composition


Mastitis greatly affects the composition of milk.233 Generally, the concentrations of
fat, solids-not-fat, lactose, casein, /3-lactoglobulin, a-lactalbumin, and potassium are
lowered and those of blood serum albumin, immunoglobulin, and chloride are increased.36'37'63-234 Mastitic milk also contains elevated somatic cell counts
(SCC),63'234'235 which is the measurement most commonly used as an indicator of
mastitis. During mastitis, the ability to synthesize lactose is impaired resulting in
decrease in lactose content. Also, blood salts and protein are passed into the milk,
leading to elevated salt concentrations. Mastitis has been implicated in rancidity. A
linear relationship between lipolysis and cell counts to 1,000,000 cells/cm3 has been
reported.236 However, reports of higher or lower lipolytic activity in mastitis
milk237-238 and no effects on lipases activity by high cell counts in milk239 have been
published. The above reports notwithstanding, the levels of free fatty acids in milk
indicative of rancidity are often used as an indicator of mastitis.37 Other characteristic
changes in milk composition caused by mastitis include decrease in casein and calcium concentrations, elevated catalase and iV-acetyl-/3-D-glucosaminidase (nagase)
activity, and change in pH.36'37-234 A comparison of composition of normal and
abnormal (mastitic) milk is given in Table 5.9.

5.5.2 Economic Losses


Mastitis is considered to be one of the most important problems facing the dairy
industry. Earlier estimates of the cost of mastitis to the dairy industry were approximately 225 to 500 million dollars per year or about $69 per cow annually.63 Others
have estimated the cost of mastitis $90 to $230 per cow. In the United Kingdom,
the reported cost advantage of mastitis in low prevalence herds was 29 per cow per
year compared to that in high prevalence herds.36 Recent United States estimates

Table 5.9

COMPOSITION OF NORMAL AND ABNORMAL (MASTITIC) MILK

Constituents
Solids-Not-Fat
Fat
Lactose
Total protein
Casein
Whey proteins
Serum albumin
Sodium
Chloride
Potassium
Calcium

Table 5.10

Normal Milk
(%)

Abnormal Milk
(%)

8.9
3.5
4.9
3.61
2.8
0.8
0.02
.057
.091
0.173
0.12

8.8
3.2
4.4
3.56
2.3
1.3
.07
0.105
.147
0.157
.04

Percent Change
__

-9
-10
-1
-18
+ 62
+ 250
+ 84
+ 61
-9
-66

ECONOMIC LOSSES ASSOCIATED WITH BOVINE MASTITIS3


Percentage of Total

Subclinical
Milk production loss
Clinical
Death and premature culling of cows and reduced cows sale value
Discarded or downgraded milk
Treatment, labor, and veterinarian service
a

70
13
14
9

Blood and Radostitis.36

indicate that mastitis costs dairy producers up to $2 billion per year or $180 to $200
per cow annually.37
Economic losses to the dairy industry are attributed to decreased milk production,
discarding of abnormal milk, losses of milk from cows treated with antibiotics,
culling of cows, veterinarian services, and treatment costs (Table 5.10).
The losses are compounded when mastitic milk is combined with milk for manufacturing purposes. Low cheese yields and lower quality grades of cheese are often
related to mastitic milk.240 Also, the potential for milk adulteration with residues of
antibiotics and sulfa drugs used for treating mastitic cows poses a very serious problem for the dairy industry37

5.5.3 Common Mastitis Pathogens


Bacteria are the primary causes of mastitis. Other organisms, including yeast, mycoplasma, nocardia, and even some algae have been occasionally known to cause
mastitis. The most common biological agents causing mastitis in dairy cows are
Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus. E. coli is also a significant

pathogen in housed or confined cattle. Of secondary importance are Streptococcus


uberis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, coliforms including Klebsiella spp., and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
The mastitis pathogens are commonly grouped in two categories: (1) contagious
bacteria that are spread from infected quarters to other quarters and cows, and (2)
environmental bacteria that are normally occurring in the cow's environment and
infect the cow's udder on contact with the source.
Contagious bacteria include Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus.
S. agalactiae is an obligate parasite that normally inhabits sinuses and ducts of the
mammary glands. Unlike S. aureus, it does not normally invade mammary tissue
and is readily controlled by penicillin treatment. It is possible to eradicate S. agalactiae from a herd.
Staphylococcal mastitis is difficult to control because the biological agent,
S. aureus, produces several toxins that cause injury to epithelial cells. It invades
tissue, and may form abscess and spread to other portions of the mammary gland.
Staphylococcus aureus produces coagulase, a and /3 toxins that are important traits
in their identification. They also produce penicillinase and develop resistance to
penicillin.
Many environmental pathogens are implicated as the causes of mastitis. They
include nonagalactiae streptococci (S. dysgalactiae and S. uberis), coliforms (Escherichia, Enterobacter, Klebsiella), and Pseudomonas spp. These organisms occur in
the cow's environment: feces, soil and plant material, bedding, stagnant water, mud,
etc. and infect the udder surface and teat canals. Many of these pathogens are opportunistic and may cause serious outbreaks of mastitis. The environmental pathogens are difficult to control and cannot be eradicated from individual herds. Common
pathogens causing mastitis, and their source, means of spread, and control measures
are listed in Table 5.11.
Table 5.11 SOURCE, MEANS OF SPREAD, AND EFFECTIVE CONTROL MEASURES
FOR COMMON MASTITIS PATHOGENS
Means of
Spread

Microorganism

Source

Streptococcus
agalactiae

Infected udders

Cow-to-cow at
milking time

Teat dipping; dry cow treatment;


lactation treatment; milking time
hygiene

Staphylococcus
aureus

Infected udders;
teat sores

Cow-to-cow at
milking time

Teat dipping; dry cow treatment;


segregation; cull chronically infected
cows

Environmental
streptococci

Environment

Environmentto-cow

Improve bam, free stall and hold area


sanitation; teat dipping; dry cow
treatment

Environment

Environmentto-cow

Improve barn, free stall and holding


area sanitation; Improve bedding
management

Coliforms

Control Measures

5.5.4 Uncommon Mastitis Pathogens


Besides the common contagious and environmental bacteria, the mammary gland of
the cow can be inhabited by many other microorganisms. The following are recorded
but less frequent pathogens implicated as causes of mastitis36: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus zooepidemicus, Streptococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Corynebacterium bovis, Corynebacterium ulcercms, Klebsiella sp., Enter obacter aerogenes, Mycobacterium bovis and other Mycobacterium spp., Serratia
marcescens, Mycoplasma bovis, Nocardia spp., Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Brucella abortus, Pasteurella multocida, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. nidulans, Candida spp., and Saccharomyces spp.
Most organisms occurring in mammary glands are aerobic or facultatively anaerobic. However, a few anaerobic organisms have been isolated from udders.36
These include Peptococcus indolicus, Bacteroids melaiogenius, Clortoridium sporogenes, and Fusobacterium necrophorun.36 Algal agents causing mastitis include
Prototheca trispora and P. zopfii.
A few so-called emerging pathogens have long been associated with mastitis in
cows and other mammals. These include Lister ia monocy togenes,69 Campylobacter
jejuni,21y2S Yersinia enterocolitica, and Leptospirapamona.63 These organisms when
shed in raw milk increase the potential for spread of such diseases as listeriosis,
campylobacteriosis, and yersiniosis to humans.

5.5.5 Factors Affecting the Incidence of Mastitis


The probability and frequency of occurrence of mastitis depends on the ability of
the pathogens to set up infection which is affected by the characteristics of the
pathogen, mechanism of transmission of the disease, and susceptibility of cows.
Pathogenic characteristics important in setting up infection include the ability of
the organism to adhere to the mammary epithelium and to colonize the teat duct.
Also, the ability of the organism to survive in the cow's immediate environment and
its resistance to antibiotics are important in causing mastitis.
Transmission mechanisms of mastitis depend on the extent of infection in the
environment including infected quarters, efficiency of milking machine, and cleaning
and sanitation of milking equipment as well as hygiene in the milking parlor.
Cows vary in susceptibility to invading pathogens depending on their age, stage
of lactation, inherited traits for disease resistance, structure of udder, and infections
with other bacteria of low pathogenicity.63
Injury to teat or lesion on teat skin resulting from irritations and speed of milking
also enhances probability of mastitis.
Proper understanding of these factors plays a major role in many of the control
measures designed to minimize mastitic infections in cows.

5.5.6 Detection and Diagnosis


Customarily, detection and diagnosis of mastitis involves observations of the milk
using strip cup and physical examination of udder (palpitations, etc.) for inflam-

mation, teat injury, lesions, etc. The tests for detection of mastitis include such
cowside tests as the California Mastitis Test (CMT) or electrical conductivity test
(e.g., Mas-D-Tec). Other tests for detection of mastitis and abnormal milk include
the Wisconsin Mastitis Test (WMT), the catalase test, the Nagase Test, the filterDNA test, and the modified Whiteside Test. These are commonly used as screening
tests. However, milk samples showing positive screening tests and therefore probability of mastitis in cows must be subjected to the confirmatory tests. The two
confirmatory tests commonly used in the dairy industry are the Direct Microscopic
Somatic Cell Counts (DMSCC) and the Electronic Somatic Cell Counts (EMSCC).
Details of the diagnostic tests for mastitis are described elsewhere.58'234'241
Microbiological procedures for isolation and characterization of specific pathogens are often used in diagnosis of mastitis. Cultures of milk samples from individual
quarters or of composite samples from all four quarters of individual cows are plated
on blood agar for detecting mastitic pathogens. Differentiation and characterization
of pathogens is done by colony morphology, hemolysis reaction, CAMP-esculin test,
catalase and coagulation tests, and various other biochemical reactions.
Microbiological diagnostics of intramammary pathogens can be very useful in
determining prevention and treatment of mastitis.

5.6 Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk and Dairy Products


Historically, the presence of pathogenic bacteria in milk and dairy products has been
a matter of public health concern. Earlier, diseases such as tuberculosis, typhoid
fever, diphtheria, and septic sore throat were commonly transmitted to humans
through milk (Table 5.12). Hygienic milk production practices, improved udder
health, proper cooling and careful handling and storage of raw milk, as well as the
advent of tuberculin testing, brucella eradication, and mandatory pasteurization of
milk minimized the threat of pathogenic bacteria in milk and dairy product. The
once common milkborne diseases such as tuberculosis, brucellosis, and typhoid fever
were virtually eliminated by the end of World War II.13 However, the problem of
pathogenic bacteria in milk and dairy products continued as evidenced by reports of
Table 5.12 OUTBREAKS OF MILKBORNE DISEASE, 1900-198O3
Years

Notable Diseases/Pathogens

1900-1920

Typhoid fever, streptococcal infections, diphtheria, salmonellosis, botulism

1920-1940

Typhoid fever, streptococcal infections, staphylococcal intoxication, salmonellosis,


poliomyelitis, Haverhill fever, diphtheria

1940-1960

Staphylococcal intoxications, salmonellosis, shigellosis, brucellosis, Q fever

1960-1980

Salmonellosis, staphylococcal intoxication, brucellosis, E. coli, campylobacteriosis,


yersiniosis, toxoplasmosis

From Bryan13 and Vasavada.14

Table 5.13 LARGE OUTBREAKS ASSOCIATED WITH MILK AND MILK


PRODUCTS, 1981-1988a
Number
Year

Product

Country

Pathogen

Cases

Deaths

1981

Raw milk
Raw milk
Powdered milk

Switzerland
Scotland
U.S.A.

C. jejuni
S. typhimurium
Y. enterocolitica

500
654
239

0
2
0

1982

Pasteurized milk
Pasteurized milk

U.S.A.
England and
Wales
Scandinavia

Y. enterocolitica 0:13
C. jejuni

172
400

0
0

50

S. zooepidemicus
E. coli 0:27

16
169

2
0

L. monocytogenes

49

14

12

French brie/Camembert
cheese

S. sonnei

Homemade Queso bianco


French brie/Camembert
cheese
Pasteurized milk

U.S.A.

Raw milk

S. zooepidemicus

Cheddar cheese

England and
Wales
Canada

S. typhimurium PTlO

1,500

1985

Pasteurized milk
Pasteurized milk
Pasteurized milk
Powdered milk
Mexican style cheese
Vacherin cheese

U.S.A.
U.S.A.
Sweden
U.K.
U.S.A.
Switzerland

5. typhimurium
S. aureus
S. Saint pul
S. ealing
L. monocytogenes 4b
S. typhimurium

18,284
860
153
48
181
22

7
0
0
1
65
0

1988

Raw milk

Canada

E. coli 0157:H7

30

1983

1984

From D'Aoust.

40

disease outbreaks caused by Salmonella spp., S. aureus, enteropathogenic E. coli,


and Bacillus cereus in manufactured dairy products such as dry milk, ice cream, and
a variety of cheeses made from raw or heated [but not pasteurized] milk14'40 (Table
5.13). Research dealing with the manufacturing processes, behavior of pathogens
during the manufacture and storage of dairy products, and role of starter culture
activity in controlling pathogens in cheese milk resulted in industry-wide surveillance programs (e.g., salmonella in dry milk) that helped in minimizing the problem
of pathogenic bacteria. However, well-publicized outbreaks of salmonellosis,38'39'242
listeriosis,243'244 yersiniosis,45-245 and campylobacteriosis20'23"26'246 occurred during
the 1980s (Table 5.13). In addition to the familiar pathogens such as Salmonella,
S. aureus, E. coli, and B. cereus, a new generation of foodborne pathogens such as
L. monocytogenes, Y. enterocolitica, C. jejuni, E. coli 0157:H7, and Streptococcus
zooepidemicus has emerged.14'40 Recent surveys have identified a variety of pathogenic bacteria in raw milk (Table 5.14). Although most pathogenic bacteria, except
some enterococci and sporeformers, are inactivated by commercial pasteurization,
several incidences of product recalls and reports of disease outbreaks implicating

Table 5.14 INCIDENCE OF FOODBORNE PATHOGENS IN RAW MILKa


Number of Samples

Pathogen

Country

Tested
100

Percent
Positive
9

B. cereus

U.S.(1982)

C. jejuni

U.S. (1982)
Netherlands (1981)
U.S.(1982)
England (1984-87)

108
200
195
1138

0.9
0
1.5
6.0

E. coli 0157:H7

U.S.(1986)
Canada (1986)

24
1912

4.2
2.0

Listeria monocytogenes

Spain (1982-83)
U.S.(1983)
U.S.(1984)
France (1986)
Canada(1986)

85
121
650
337
445

45.0
12.0
4.1
4.2
1.3

Salmonella spp.

U.S.(1985)
Canada (1985-86)
England (1984-87)

678
511
1138

4.7
2.9
0.2

Yersinia enterocolitica

Canada (1977)
France (1980)
U.S. (1982)
Northern Ireland (1985)

131
56
100
150

22.1
83.9
12.0
11.3

From D'Aoust.40

milk, ice cream, cheese, etc. have occurred during the 1980s.14 Inadequate pasteurization, poor manufacturing practices, and postprocessing contamination were the
primary causes of pathogenic contamination in dairy products. The common refrigeration practices for controlling pathogenic bacteria in milk and dairy products may
not always be adequate.14'47 The listeriosis and salmonellosis outbreaks and wellpublicized recalls of dairy products caused concern among the consumers and regulators regarding safety of the milk supply14'247 and prompted the Dairy Products
Safety Initiative by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.14
The main characteristics and illnesses caused by the more common pathogens
found in milk and dairy products are given in Table 5.15. The following is a brief
discussion on the so-called emerging pathogens.

5.6.1 Listeria Monocytogenes


L. monocytogenes is a Gram-positive, non-spore-forming rod-shaped organism with
coccoid or diphtheroid morphology. It is psychrotrophic and can grow at temperatures from 3 to 45C, optimally at 30 to 37C. The organism forms bluish-green
colonies on trypticase soy agar (oblique illumination) and shows characteristic tum-

Table 5.15

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PATHOGENS IN MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS3

Pathogen

Gram
Stain

Morphology

Temperature
Range for
Growth

Oxygen
Requirement

Catalase
Reaction

pHfor
Growth

Motility

Pathogenicity

Positive

Small coccoid
rodsno spores

2.5-42C

Microaerophilic

Positive

5.6-9.8

Positive
(20-250C)

p. listeriolysin lipase

Positive

Large rods, spore


forming

10-50Ca

Aerobicbc

Positive

4.9-9.3

Positive
petritrichous
flagella

Heat-labile diarrheal toxin,


enterotoxin and heat stable emetic
enterotoxin

Negative

Slender-curved
"vibrioid" rods

30-450C,
optimum
42-45C

Microaerophilic0

Positive

4.9-8.0

Motile
single polar
flagellum

Heat labile enterotoxin, cytotoxin,


colonization, invasiveness

E. coli

Negative

Small coccobacilli

10-35Cd

Facultative
anaerobic

Positive

5.6-6.8

Positive

Invasiveness, heat-labile anc iatstable enterotoxins, verotoxins

Salmonella spp.

Negative

Short rods

5-470C

Aerobic

Positive

6.6-8.2

Positive
peritrichous
flagella

Invasiveness, heat-labile
enterotoxin, heat-stable cytotoxin

S. aureus

Positive

Cocci in pairs or
irregular clusters

10-450C

Aerobic or
anaerobic

Positive

4.5-9.3

Small rods

4-34Ce

Aerobic

Positive

L. monocytogenes

B. cereus

C. jejuni

Y. enterocolitica

Negative

Negative
6.8-9.0
Negative

a
b
c
d
e

Psychrotrophic variants grow at 50C.


Vegative cells may grow anaerobically.
Optimum growth in an atmosphere containing 5% O2.
Fecal coliforms and pathogenic E. coli except E. coli 0157:H7 grow at 44-45-50C
Most strains grow best at 22-250C.

Seven enterotoxins (A, B, C 1 , C2


C3, D, and E), somewhat resistant
to heat and proteolytic enzymes
Plasmid-mediated, (HT)
enterotoxin virulence

bling motility when grown in trypticase soy broth at 25C. L. monocytogenes is


weakly /3-hemolytic on media containing blood. It grows in a pH range of about 4.8
to 9.6 and is catalase positive.
L. monocytogenes is distributed widely in nature and has been isolated from a
variety of sources including soil, manure, leafy vegetables, raw beef, and poultry.72
It also has been isolated from mastitic milk, improperly fermented silage, and from
unpasteurized raw milk.14-65-67-248
Listeriosis can manifest a variety of symptoms in humans, including meningitis,
infectious abortion, perinatal septicemia, and encephalitis. Often, it is the cause of
stillbirths or deaths of infants soon after birth. Surviving infants usually develop
meningitis, which can be fatal or result in permanent mental retardation.68-248
L. monocytogenes is heat sensitive and is inactivated by pasteurization. Doyle et
al.70 reported that L. monocytogenes in the intracellular phase (in leucocytes) may
survive pasteurization. However, further research71 has indicated that conventional
HTST pasteurization treatment is adequate to inactivate the organism.

5.6.2 Yersinia Enterocolitica


Y. enterocolitica is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacterium. It
is psychrotrophic and will grow at temperatures from 0 to 45C, optimally at 22 to
29C. Because Y. enterocolitica tolerates alkaline conditions, this characteristic is
used in its selection.42-250"255 On a selective medium such as the CefsulodinIragasan-Novobiocin (CIN) agar or the Yersinia Selective Agar (YSA), Y. enterocolitica forms characteristics "bulls eye" or "target" colonies.42"44
Y. enterocolitica is widely distributed in nature. It has been isolated from foods
of animal origin, including milk and cheese, beef, pork, and lamb.41 It also is known
to occur in waters of lakes, wells, and streams.41
Yersiniosis is characterized by gastroenteritis, mesenteric lymphadenitis, and terminal ileitis. Often, yersiniosis symptoms mimic acute appendicitis. Such was the
case in the well known outbreak of yersiniosis in Oneida County, NY, in which
several children were subjected to unnecessary appendectomies after drinking chocolate milk contaminated with Y. enterocolitica serotype 0:8,245 whereas Y. enterocolitica stereotype 0:3 is more prevalent in Europe and Canada.42-43
Although K enterocolitica and related bacteria have frequently been isolated from
raw milk,251-252-256 most isolates have been recognized as nonpathogenic, "environmental" strains. However, production of enterotoxin by Yersinia spp. isolated from
milk has been recently reported by Walker and Gilmour.257 The organism is heat
labile and is readily inactivated by conventional pasteurization.254-258

5.6.3 Campylobacter Jejuni


C. jejuni is a Gram-negative non-spore-forming bacterium with a characteristic S,
gull, or comma-shaped morphology. Under the phase-contrast microscope, C. jejuni
exhibits a characteristic darting, "cork-screw" motility. The organism is microaerophilic in nature and can be readily grown in reduced oxygen atmosphere of 5% O 2 ,

10% CO 2 , and 85% N 2 . 20 " 22 - 259 " 261 The organism grows at temperatures from 30 to
47C. Campylobacter jejuni is /3-hemolytic on media containing blood and is catalase
positive.21'22
C. jejuni has been isolated from feces of cattle, swine, sheep, goats, dogs, cats,
rabbits, and rodents.20'262 It causes mastitis in cows and has been isolated from raw
milk.260"262
Campylobacter infections are more common than cases of salmonellosis and
shigellosis combined.21 Symptoms of campylobacteriosis include mild enteritis or
sometimes severe enterocolitis. Often the patient experiences apparent recovery followed by relapse. Other symptoms include nausea, abdominal cramps, and bloody
diarrhea.22
C. jejuni is sensitive to heat, drying, air (oxygen), and acidic pH. It is readily
inactivated by normal pasteurization.20-262

5.6.4 Escherichia Coli


The presence of coliforms, particularly E. coli, in foods indicates the possibility of
pathogenic contamination, polluted water supply, or a breakdown in sanitation.
E. coli is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped organism. Four groups
of E. coli have been recognizedenteropathogenic, enterotoxigenic, enteroinvasive,
and colehemorrhagic.32'264

5.6.5 Escherichia Coli 0157.H7


E. coli 0157:H7 is recognized as an emerging pathogen. Several outbreaks involving
E. coli 0157:H7 have been reported.265-266 The organism causes hemorrhagic colitis
or bloody diarrhea. This infection is usually characterized by severe abdominal
cramps followed by watery and grossly bloody stools.33-267'268 Vomiting is common,
but fever is rare. The illness occasionally involves hemolytic uremic syndrome
(HUS), which is characterized by serious kidney dysfunction with urea in the
blood.268
Although E. coli 0157:H7 is often associated with ground beef, recently it was
implicated as the cause of an outbreak in Ontario where several kindergarten children
suffered from an illness after visiting a dairy farm where raw milk was served.269
Recently, dairy cattle have been identified as a reservoir of E. coli 0157:H7. Some
regulatory authorities warn that the increased slaughtering and processing of dairy
cattle resulting from the dairy diversion program and culling for mastitis management may increase the potential of E. coli 0157:H7 contamination. The significance
of E. coli 0157:H7 as a foodborne pathogen is not fully known.32
Enterotoxigenic E. coli 027:H20 is another strain of E. coli that caused gastroenteritis associated with eating imported Brie cheese.264-266-267 Several similar outbreaks occurred in the United States and one in the Netherlands associated with
consumption of cheeses from France.267

5.6.6 Bacillus Cereus


Bacillus spp., particularly B. cereus, B. cirulans, and B. mycoides, are the sporeforming psychrotrophic bacteria known to occur frequently in raw and pasteurized
milks. 610 These Gram-positive motile, aerobic, spore-forming, rod-shaped organisms have been implicated as the cause of a variety of proteolytic defects, including
bitterness and sweet-curdling in milk and cream.6 Outbreaks of food poisoning
caused by milk products containing B. cereus have been reported.59"61
On the mannitol-egg yolk-polymyxin (MYP) agar, B. cereus produces typical
pink colonies surrounded by a precipitate zone, indicating lecithinase activity.270 In
addition to lecithinase production, B. cereus is characterized by growth and acid
production from glucose anaerobically, reduction of nitrate to nitrite, production of
acetyl methyl carbinol, decomposition of L-tyrosine, and growth in the presence of
0.001% lysozyme.270 B. cereus is usually strongly hemolytic, producing a 2 to 4-mm
zone of /3 hemolysis on a blood agar plate. Differentiation of B. cereus from other
related organisms, for example, B. cereus var. mycoides, and B. thuringiensis is done
by tests for motility, hemolysis, and protein toxin crystals.61
B. cereus strains can produce both emetic and diarrheogenic toxins271 and have
been known to cause two different forms of gastroenteritis.59 The emetic toxin is
responsible for symptoms of nausea and vomiting within a few (0.5 to 6) hours after
consumption of food containing B. cereus toxin.59 The diarrheogenic toxin is responsible for diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and tenesmus occurring 5 to 6 h after
consumption of the contaminated food. The symptoms of diarrheogenic illness may
include nausea but rarely vomiting.
The diarrheal toxin is produced during the late logarithmic phase of growth at
temperatures and pH values of 18 to 43C and 6 to 11, respectively. Production of
emetic toxin by B. cereus occurs during the stationary phase of growth at temperatures and pH values ranging from 25 to 300C and 2 to 11, respectively. The emetic
toxin is extremely heat stable and can withstand heat treatment of 126C for 90 min.61
Although starchy foods containing corn and corn starch, mashed potatoes, pudding, soups, and sauces are most frequently associated with diarrheal-type food poisoning outbreaks, fried and boiled rice dishes and macaroni and cheese have been
implicated as vehicles of emetic-type illness.59'60

5.6.7 Economic Significance of Pathogens


According to Archer and Kvenberg,272 24 to 80 million episodes of acute foodborne
disease occur in the United States annually. An examination of etiologic agents and
food vehicles associated with 7458 outbreaks of foodborne illnesses (involving
237,545 cases) reported to the Center for Disease Control (CDC) between 1973 and
1987 revealed that a specific food vehicle was implicated in 3699 (50%) outbreaks.
Dairy products were responsible for 4% of outbreaks (158) and 14% (29,667) cases.
The massive outbreak of Salmonella typhimurium in Illinois was responsible for the
large proportion of cases.29 The outbreak was associated with 2% low-fat pasteurized
milk produced by a dairy plant in Chicago. Of > 150,000 persons who became ill

Table 5.16 ECONOMICS OF FOODBORNE DISEASE OUTBREAKS'*


Cost(Xl0 3 ) b

Number
Country

Etiological
Agent

111

Death

Raw milk

Scotland (1981)
U.S. (1985)

5. typhimuriwn
S. typhimuriwn

654
16,284

2
7

153
?

Cheese
Cheddar/
Monterey
Emmenthal
Cheddar

U.S. (1965)

S. aureus0

42

490

$11,676.00

Canada (1977)

S. aureusc

15

653

Food

Chocolate
a
b
c
d

U.S. (1976)
Canada, U.S.A.
(1973-74)

Direct

S. Heidelberg

234

S. eastbournre

>200

$62,063

25 l

Indirect

Cost/Case

$1,226
?

$ 2,108.00
?

43.00

$ 1,073.00
$30,317.00

From Todd,275 and D'Aoust.40


Cost estimates expressed in 1983 U.S. dollars.
Contamination of starter cultures.
Excludes cost to the manufacture.

there were > 16,000 culture-confirmed cases; 2777 were hospitalized and 14
died.30-273 In another noteworthy outbreak of Listeria monocytogenes infections due
to Mexican-style soft cheese in California,274 over 150 persons became ill. Over 50
deaths (fatality rate of 34%) were aborted fetuses or pregnant women and their
newborn offspring were reported.30 According to the CDC, dairy products were
associated with 103 deaths and the death-to-case ratio was 5.0 per 1000.29
Economic losses associated with foodborne illness and recalls have been estimated by Todd.275 These include direct costs attributed to expenses involved in
epidemiological investigations of outbreaks, laboratory diagnosis, treatment, loss of
income by patients, and financial losses to the food manufacturers as a result of
product recalls and loss of sales. Indirect costs involve expenses related to litigation,
settlement, and compensation for grief, pain and suffering, and loss of life.275 Table
5.16 shows cost estimates of economic losses associated with disease outbreaks
involving raw milk and cheese.

5.6.8 Mycotoxins and Amines


Besides the pathogenic bacteria and their toxins, the public health and food safety
concerns associated with milk and dairy products deal with the presence of mycotoxins and amines in milk and cheese. Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced
by certain molds during their growth on cereal grains such as corn, rice, sorghum
and peanuts, and other oilseeds. Possible sources of mycotoxins in milk and cheese
include consumption of contaminated feed by cow and subsequent passage of the
ingested mycotoxins or metabolites into the cheese milk, growth of toxigenic mold
on cheese, and organisms used in mold-ripened cheeses.276
Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasitcus, are of particular
concern because they are potent liver carcinogens and cannot be inactivated by

Next Page
pasteurization and sterilization of milk. Aflatoxin B, present in contaminated feed,
is converted into a carcinogenic derivative M, and secreted into milk. 277 Results of
studies of cheese manufacturing using milk from cows fed aflatoxin B, or milk with
M, added directly to it, have shown that 47% of the toxin present in the milk was
recovered in Cheddar cheese, about 50% in Camembert cheese, and 45% in why. 278
Other mycotoxins such as penicillic acid, patulin, cyclopiazonic acid, or PR toxins
may also be found in cheeses, including Cheddar and Swiss cheese. Certain mold
starter cultures used in the manufacture of mold-ripened cheeses such as Camembert
and Roquefort cheese are also capable of producing mycotoxins in cheese. 276 Further
information on the occurrence, synthesis, and control of aflatoxins and other mycotoxins is given below. Reviews by Applebaum et al. 279 Bullerman, 280 and
Scott 277 ' 281 " 283 may be consulted for additional information on the subject.
Biogenic amines, for example, histamine, tyramine, and tryptamine, found in
cheese and other foods constitute a negligible risk to all but the rare individuals
lacking monoamine oxidases (MAO). 284 However, the occurrence of these amines
in food, particularly cheese, may be responsible for causing hypertensive response
and even death from cerebral hemorrhage in persons on monoamine oxidase inhibitor
(MAOI) therapy. 285 ' 286
Several outbreaks of apparent amine intoxication have occurred from consumption of Gouda, Swiss, and other cheeses containing ^ 100 mg of histamine per
100 g of cheese. 284 - 287
The toxic amines are produced in cheese by decarboxylation of the appropriate
amino acids by certain bacteria, including strains of Streptococcus faecium, Streptococcus mitis, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus plantarum, viridans streptococci, and Clostridium perfringens.2S4'2SS Voight and Eitenmiller288 studied tyrosine and histidine decarboxylase activities in dairy-related bacteria and showed that
the lactic starter bacteria (group N streptococci) were not likely to be producers of
biogenic amines in cheese.
Certain diamines such as putrescine, cadeverine, and spermine enhance the toxic
amount of histamine. 284 Therefore, conditions allowing the formation of diamines,
particularly putrescine and cadeverine, should be monitored carefully. The production of biogenic amines in cheese depends on a number of factors including the
presence of certain bacteria, enzymes, and cofactors necessary for amino acid decarboxylation; existence of the proper environment, that is, pH, temperature, and
water activity during cheese ripening; and the presence of potentiating compounds
(e.g., diamines). Proper control of the cheese manufacturing process, particularly
regarding pH, salt, and moisture levels during ripening, is essential for minimizing
the potential threat of biogenic amines.

5.7 Mycotoxins in Milk and Dairy Products


Many different genera of molds can be isolated from dairy products. 283 Table 5.17
lists the most common molds that have been isolated from these products. Species
of mainly Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium can grow in milk and dairy prod-

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pasteurization and sterilization of milk. Aflatoxin B, present in contaminated feed,
is converted into a carcinogenic derivative M, and secreted into milk. 277 Results of
studies of cheese manufacturing using milk from cows fed aflatoxin B, or milk with
M, added directly to it, have shown that 47% of the toxin present in the milk was
recovered in Cheddar cheese, about 50% in Camembert cheese, and 45% in why. 278
Other mycotoxins such as penicillic acid, patulin, cyclopiazonic acid, or PR toxins
may also be found in cheeses, including Cheddar and Swiss cheese. Certain mold
starter cultures used in the manufacture of mold-ripened cheeses such as Camembert
and Roquefort cheese are also capable of producing mycotoxins in cheese. 276 Further
information on the occurrence, synthesis, and control of aflatoxins and other mycotoxins is given below. Reviews by Applebaum et al. 279 Bullerman, 280 and
Scott 277 ' 281 " 283 may be consulted for additional information on the subject.
Biogenic amines, for example, histamine, tyramine, and tryptamine, found in
cheese and other foods constitute a negligible risk to all but the rare individuals
lacking monoamine oxidases (MAO). 284 However, the occurrence of these amines
in food, particularly cheese, may be responsible for causing hypertensive response
and even death from cerebral hemorrhage in persons on monoamine oxidase inhibitor
(MAOI) therapy. 285 ' 286
Several outbreaks of apparent amine intoxication have occurred from consumption of Gouda, Swiss, and other cheeses containing ^ 100 mg of histamine per
100 g of cheese. 284 - 287
The toxic amines are produced in cheese by decarboxylation of the appropriate
amino acids by certain bacteria, including strains of Streptococcus faecium, Streptococcus mitis, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus plantarum, viridans streptococci, and Clostridium perfringens.2S4'2SS Voight and Eitenmiller288 studied tyrosine and histidine decarboxylase activities in dairy-related bacteria and showed that
the lactic starter bacteria (group N streptococci) were not likely to be producers of
biogenic amines in cheese.
Certain diamines such as putrescine, cadeverine, and spermine enhance the toxic
amount of histamine. 284 Therefore, conditions allowing the formation of diamines,
particularly putrescine and cadeverine, should be monitored carefully. The production of biogenic amines in cheese depends on a number of factors including the
presence of certain bacteria, enzymes, and cofactors necessary for amino acid decarboxylation; existence of the proper environment, that is, pH, temperature, and
water activity during cheese ripening; and the presence of potentiating compounds
(e.g., diamines). Proper control of the cheese manufacturing process, particularly
regarding pH, salt, and moisture levels during ripening, is essential for minimizing
the potential threat of biogenic amines.

5.7 Mycotoxins in Milk and Dairy Products


Many different genera of molds can be isolated from dairy products. 283 Table 5.17
lists the most common molds that have been isolated from these products. Species
of mainly Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium can grow in milk and dairy prod-

Table 5.17 MOLDS FOUND IN MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS3


Genera of Molds Identified6

Product
Raw milk

Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Mucor,


Penicillium, Rhizopus

Pasteurized milkc

Alternaria, Aspergillus, Aureobasidium, Chrysosporium, Cladosporium,


Epicoccum, Geotrichum, Mucor, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Phoma, Rhizopus,
Scopulariopsis, Stemphylium, Trichosporon

Dried milk

Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Mucor, Penicillium

Cream

Aspergillus, Geotrichum, Penicillium, Phoma

Butter

Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Mucor,


Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Phoma, Rhizopus, Scopulariopsis, Verticillium

Cheese

Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Geotrichum, Mucor,


Penicillium, Rhizopus
Cladosporium, Geotrichum, Monilia, Mucor, Penicillium

Yogurt
a
b
c

283

Scott.
Although toxigenic strains were isolated from some of these products, mycotoxins are rare.
Vadillo et al.289

ucts and produce mycotoxins if the conditions are correct.283-290"292 Mycotoxins are
secondary metabolites that are produced by molds and their consumption can result
in biological effects in animals and humans. The major biological effects of the
mycotoxins have been classified as acute toxic, carcinogenic, emetic, estrogenic,
hallucinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic.292293 The common mycotoxins that can
be found in dairy products are listed in Table 5.18.

5.7.1 Presence of Mycotoxins in Milk and Dairy Products


Dairy products can become directly contaminated with mycotoxins by molds that
grow on them and produce the toxins or indirectly by the carryover of mycotoxins
into milk as a result of dairy cows consuming mycotoxin-contaminated feeds.296'297
Aflatoxins and other mycotoxins can be produced during the growth of plants or
during their subsequent storage. Stresses that occur during growth of crops can
increase the chances of aflatoxin production, such as drought, reduced fertilization,
and competition with weeds.
There have been several studies done on the carryover of mycotoxins from contaminated feed, either natural or artificial, into the milk of dairy cows. Schreeve et
al. 298 showed that when 1 to 2 mg/kg of ochratoxin A or zearalenone was present
in feeds, there was no significant carryover into the milk; however, aflatoxin B 1 at
20 /ig/kg was converted to aflatoxin M1 in milk at concentrations of 0.06 /Ag/kg.
Patterson et al.299 found that cows consuming 10 /xg/kg of aflatoxin B 1 excreted
about 0.2 fig/kg of aflatoxin M 1 in milk daily. Munksgaard et al.300 fed four levels
of aflatoxin B 1 from naturally contaminated cottonseed meal. At 57, 142, 226, and

Table 5.18 SOME MYCOTOXINS THAT


CAN BE FOUND IN MILK AND
DAIRY PRODUCTS3
Mycotoxin

Molds

Aflatoxins

Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus parasiticus

Citreoviridin

Penicillium citreoviride
Penicillium toxicariwn

Citrinin

Penicillium

Cyclopiazonic acid

Aspergillus flavus
Penicillium camemberti
Penicillium cyclopium

Deoxynivalenol

Fusarium species

Moniliformin

Fusarium species

Nivalenol

Fusarium species

Ochratoxin

Aspergillus ochraceus
Penicillium viridicatum

Patulin

Penicillium patulin

Penicillic acid

Aspergillus species
Penicillium series

Penitrem A

Penicillium crustosum

Sterigmatocystin

Aspergillus nidulans
Aspergillus versicolor

T-2 Toxin

Fusarium species

Versicolorin A

Aspergillus versicolor

Zearalenone

Fusarium graminearum

Scott, 2 8 3 - 2 9 4 van Egrnond, 2 9 1 - 2 9 5 van Egmond and Paulsch. 2 9 2

311 fig/day of aflatoxin B 1 , the aflatoxin M1 produced in milk ranged from 27 to


74,38, to 128,60 to 271, and 96 to 138 ng/kg, respectively. There was great variation
from cow to cow on the amount of aflatoxin M1 detected even if the same level of
aflatoxin B 1 was fed. When Price et al.301 fed 5 to 560 /xg/kg levels of aflatoxin
B j-contaminated cottonseed to dairy cows as 15% of the total feed ration to 90 cows
for 70 days, the 0.5 ppb aflatoxin M1 action level was exceeded only when 280
fJLg/kg or more of aflatoxin B 1 was fed to the cows. When the level of aflatoxin B 1
was decreased, the level of aflatoxin M1 also decreased and fell below the 0.5 ppb
action level. Frobish et al. 302 noted that aflatoxin M1 occurred in milk within 12 h
of feeding Holstein cows with cottonseed meal containing 94 to 500 /xg/kg of aflatoxin B 1 . The level of aflatoxin M1 fell to below 0.5 ppb within 24 h after cessation
of feeding aflatoxin B 1 to the cows. Because 1.7% of the total aflatoxin B 1 was

converted to aflaxtoxin M1, feeding cows 33 fxg of aflatoxin Bj/kg in the diet would
result in exceeding 0.5 ppb of aflatoxin M1 in milk. Corbett et al.303 studied the
presence of aflatoxin M1 in milk to estimate the level of aflatoxin B 1 in feed. Although aflatoxin B 1 levels were all below 20 ppb, aflatoxin M 1 was found in the
milk of 40 cows in levels ranging from 0.001 to 0.273 ppb. When more aflatoxin
M1 was detected in the milk, the level of milk production was decreased for the
herd. More research is needed to see the long-term effects of chronic ingestion of
low levels of aflatoxin B 1 by dairy cows. Because all these previous studies have
shown that consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated feeds resulted in aflatoxin M1 in
milk, Fremy et al.304 analyzed milk for aflatoxin M1 after cows consumed peanut
cakes contaminated with aflatoxin B1 that was treated or untreated with ammonia
gas. In milk from cows that consumed treated peanut cakes no or only trace amounts
of aflatoxin M1 were detected, but >0.5 ppb aflatoxin M1 was detected in milk.
These and other research reports have shown that aflatoxin and other mycotoxins
can be carried over from the feed into milk.
The second way that milk can be contaminated by mycotoxins is the growth of
molds in or on dairy products. For maximum mycotoxin production, the proper
conditions of nutrients, temperature, pH, aeration, competition, and time are all important. Many studies have been done on the proper conditions for mild growth and
mycotoxin production in milk and dairy products. Some of the research done over
the past decade on growth and mycotoxin production in dairy products will be briefly
reviewed. The production of aflatoxins in dairy products has been researched often
because these are the most potent mycotoxins known. Park and Bullerman305-306
examined the effect of temperature on the production of aflatoxin in cheese and
yogurt by A.flavus and A. parasiticus. Both species of Aspergillus grew best at 25C
in Cheddar cheese with growth being detected within 2.5 days.305 As the temperature
was decreased to 18, 15, and 5C, the time to detect growth in Cheddar cheese took
4.6 and 5.2 days, 16 and 15 days, and nondetectable for A. parasiticus and A.flavus,
respectively. Sporulation in Cheddar cheese took longer than growth. At 25C
A. parasiticus sporulated in Cheddar cheese in 5 days compared to 8.4 days for
A.flavus. Sporulation at lower temperatures took considerably longer for both species
and no sporulation was noted at 5C. The effects of cycling temperatures from 5 to
25C were used to see if changes in temperature affected the production of aflatoxin
in Cheddar cheese.305 More aflatoxin B 1 was produced by A. flavus at a constant
temperature of 25C than at the cycling temperatures of 5 to 25C. A. parasiticus
produced more aflatoxin G1 than B 1 at 25C than at the cycling temperatures. For
both molds, much less aflatoxin was produced at 18 and 15C and none was produced
at 5C.
Further research using other dairy products showed that A. parasiticus produced
little to no aflatoxins on Cheddar cheese, cottage cheese, and yogurt.306 A. flavus
produced no aflatoxin in both Cheddar and cottage cheeses at 15C, but did in yogurt.
This is most likely due to the presence of more carbohydrate because aflatoxin is
produced best on substrates with high carbohydrate instead of high protein. This was
also shown by the high production of aflaxtoxin in rice. Similarly more aflatoxin

was produced at 25C than at 15C. A. flavus was able to use small amounts of
carbohydrate to produce aflatoxin in dairy products, but A. parasiticus could not.
The production of aflatoxin in the presence of lactic acid bacteria has been investigated, as these bacteria are important in cheese ripening. El-Gendy and Marth307
found that when both Lactobacillus casei and A. parasiticus were grown together,
there was both more mold growth initially but less aflatoxin production than when
the mold was grown alone. The aflatoxin was also degraded more after 7 to 10 days
of coincubation of L. casei and A. parasiticus. Mohran et al. 308 noted that the proteolytic activity of Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var.
diacety lactis, Lactobacillus casei, and Lactobacillus bulgaricus was not altered with
increasing levels of aflatoxin B 1 , but decreased for L. lactis subsp. lactis. The presence of aflatoxin B 1 in milk can have an effect on the subsequent use of the milk to
produce fermented dairy products; however, this depends on the species and aflatoxin
concentration.
Most of the research that has been done on the production of aflatoxins in dairy
products shows that aflatoxins are not produced unless there is sufficient carbohydrate; therefore, cheese is not a good substrate. Also, the storage of dairy products
at temperatures below 100C effectively prevents the toxigenic species of Aspergillus
from growing. Other molds will generally out-compete the aflatoxin-producing aspergilli in dairy products.
Aspergillus versicolor is frequently found growing on cheese.292 A. versicolor
can produce a toxin called sterigmatocystin, which has a chemical structure similar
to that of aflatoxin BY. For A. flavus and A. parasiticus sterigmatocystin is a precursor
to aflatoxin biosynthesis.309 Sterigmatocystin is toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic
and has an LD 50 in rats of 120 to 166 mg/kg of body weight when given orally.309
Sterigmatocystin has been found in hard cheeses, such as Edam and Gouda.292'309'310
Northolt et al. 310 noted that A. versicolor was frequently isolated from hard cheeses
stored in warehouses, especially aged cheese. A. versicolor could grow in the lower
water of aged cheeses and even penetrate the plastic coating in the cheese. When
cheeses were chemically analyzed, they had sterigmatocystin in the upper 1 cm of
the cheese. The concentrations of sterigmatocystin in the upper 1 cm layer ranged
from 5 to 600 /Ag/kg. Veringa et al.309 found that lactose, fat, and glycerol all stimulated A. versicolor's production of sterigmatocystin on cheese. Frequent turning of
cheese promoted growth of and toxin production by A. versicolor. If several layers
of plastic were used to coat the cheese, then the fatlike compounds, which are stimulatory to sterigmatocystin production, cannot diffuse through for the mold to grow.
Once sterigmatocystin is produced, it is stable in the refrigerator, freezer, and warehouses for several weeks.292
In addition to Aspergillus species, several toxin-producing Penicillium species
can be isolated from dairy products. Northolt et al. 310 showed that P. verrucosum
var. cyclopium could be isolated from cheeses that were refrigerated in shops, homes,
and warehouses. This species and several Penicillium and Aspergillus species311
produce penicillic acid. The oral toxicity of penicillic acid is low. Four strains of
P. cyclopium did not produce penicillic acid in either Gouda or Tilsiter cheeses at
16C for up to 42 days. The water activity of the cheeses was 0.97. Penicillic acid
is not produced very well in substrates low in carbohydrates and at water activities

below 0.97, which may occur in cheese. Also P. brevicompactum, producer of mycophenolic acid, and P. verrucosum var. verrucosum, which produces citrinin, ochratoxin, viridicatin, and viridicatic acid, were isolated from cheeses stored in warehouses.310 Ochratoxins are produced by species of Penicillium and Aspergillus?12
Ochratoxin can cause kidney and liver problems in laboratory animals. In some
Balkan countries human endemic nephropathy may be due to ochratoxin A. On Edam
cheese at a water activity of 0.95, ochratoxin A was produced by P. cyclopium at
temperatures from 20 to 24C. The toxicity of these mycotoxins is much lower than
that for aflatoxins. Also, these mycotoxins do not occur very frequently in cheeses.
Mold-ripened cheeses are made from strains of two Penicillium species, P. camemberti for Camembert and Brie cheeses and P. roqueforti for Roquefort and Blue
cheeses.294'313 Toxic metabolites can be produced by these species. The major toxic
metabolites that can be produced by P. roqueforti are patulin, penicillic acid, citrinin,
alkaloids (roquefortines A to D, festuclavine, marcfortine), PR toxin, mycophenolic
acid, siderophores (ferrichrome, coprogen), and betaines (ergothioneine and hercynine). These mycotoxins have either not been detected or detected only in very low
levels. Penicillic acid and PR toxin are not stable in cheese. Engel et al.314 found
that only Roquefort cheese from one factory had mycophenolic acid present. Strains
of P. roqueforti produced 50 to 100 times lower levels of mycophenolic acid in Blue
cheese compared to synthetic media. Because blue cheese is eaten in low quantities,
there should be no toxicological effects observed in humans. P. camemberti produces
cyclopiazonic acid that shows toxicity in rats. Cyclopiazonic acid was found in the
crusts, but not in the interior, of some Camembert and Brie cheeses. Also, production
was higher at 25C than at 4 to 13C.315 In an effort to develop cyclopiazonic acid
negative strains of P. camemberti, Geisen et al. 316 isolated mutants that either produced no detectable cyclopiazonic acid or only about 2% that of the parent strain.
The latter mutant produced a new metabolite within 21 days at 250C. Therefore, it
may be possible to produce strains for cheese manufacture that have low or no
detectable levels of cyclopiazonic acid. Care must be taken in the production of these
strains to ensure that no new toxic compounds are produced. Generally, mycotoxins
produced by these mold starter cultures pose no health hazards because the levels
of consumption of these cheeses are low.

5.7.2 Fate of Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Product


Manufacture and Storage
Because aflatoxin M1 can be present in milk as a result of carryover from the feed
consumed by cows, it is important to determine how stable it is during dairy product
manufacture. Wiseman et al.317 reported that aflatoxin M1 was stable in milk and
cream pasteurized at 64C for 30 min. Aflatoxin M1 was also stable in milk heated
up to 1000C for 2 h.318 Likewise, the aflatoxin was stable to pH from 4 to 6.6 for
the 4 days of the trial. Several studies have been done on the manufacture, ripening,
and storage of different varieties of cheese and other dairy products. Brackett and
Marth319 showed that aflatoxin M1 concentrated in the curd with a 4.3-fold increase
over that of the milk. The level of aflatoxin M1 did not decrease in either Cheddar
cheese or process cheese spread that was aged for over a year at 70C. In fact, the

initial and final levels were very similar. For Brick cheese, aflatoxin M 1 concentrated
by 1.7-fold because the washing step removed some of the toxin;320 however, the
level of aflatoxin M1 never dropped below the initial concentration for the 22 weeks
of aging at 100C. In the surface-ripened Limburger-like cheese, the level of aflatoxin
M1 after 22 weeks at 100C was the same as the initial concentration, indicating that
the aging did not degrade the toxin. In Mozzarella cheese, there was an 8.1-fold
increase in aflatoxin M1 and the levels remained constant for 19 weeks storage at
7C.321 For Parmesan cheese, the level of aflatoxin M1 concentrated 5.8-fold over
that of milk, but the level decreased in the cheese over 22 weeks of ripening at 100C
and then a slow increase was seen until 40 weeks of ripening.321 It was postulated
that the addition of lipase could allow more efficient recovery of aflatoxin M 1 initially
because similar increases in concentrations of aflatoxin M1 in Cheddar cheese ripening were noted when the lipolytic and proteolytic enzymes would be most active.
Wiseman and Marth322 showed that aflatoxin M1 was stable for 2 months during
both refrigerated and frozen storage of Baker's and Queso Blanco cheeses. Aflatoxin
M1 was also stable during ripening and frozen storage of Manchego-type cheese.323
For products that are not ripened such as cottage cheese, yogurt, and buttermilk, the
level of aflatoxin M1 remained stable during storage at 7 0 C. 297 ' 324 Aflatoxin M1
content decreased in Kefir; however, this could have been a result of the analysis or
the binding of casein to aflatoxin M 1 . 322 Munksgaard et al. 300 reported an apparent
increase in aflatoxin M1 in yogurt stored at 5C for 2 weeks; but the level in Ymer
remained constant. Aflatoxin M1 was also stable during skim and whole milk, nonfat
dried milk, and buttermilk manufacture.300-325 Lower amounts of aflatoxin M1 were
found in a butterlike spread, as the toxin concentrates with casein and not fat.317-325
All of this research has shown that aflatoxin M1 is stable during the manufacture
and storage of dairy products. Also, the level of aflatoxin remains stable during both
refrigerated and frozen storage.
Only a limited amount of research has been done on the fate of aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 ,
G1, and G2 in dairy products. Megalla and Mohran326 studied the fate of aflatoxin
B 1 in milk fermented by Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and found that aflatoxin B 1
was converted to nontoxic and less toxic components, namely B 2a and aflatoxicol,
respectively. Aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G1, and G2 distributed more in curd than whey on
a per weight basis in Manchego-type cheese manufacture. During manufacture, aflatoxins B1 and B 2 were lost up to 10% compared to 31% for G1 and G2. During
the 60-day ripening, there was no loss of aflatoxins B 1 and B 2 and aflatoxins G1 and
G2 increased by 133%. Although there were variations in samples during both refrigerated storage for 60 days and frozen storage for 90 days, the presence of aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G1, and G2 appeared to be stable. These results plus those published
in earlier reports indicate that aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G1, and G 2 will remain during
manufacture, ripening, and storage of cheese and other dairy products.

5.7.3 Elimination of Mycotoxins


Because aflatoxins are not destroyed during the manufacture, ripening, and storage
of dairy products, research has been done to see if these and other mycotoxins can

be degraded or inactivated by chemical, physical, or biological means. Aflatoxin M1


was decreased by 45% when 0.4% potassium bisulfite was used at 25C for 5 h.327
The bisulfites may cause the oxidation to a bisulfite free radical that reacts with the
dihydrofuran double bond of aflatoxin to give sulfonic acid products. Combinations
of hydrogen peroxide, riboflavin, heat, and lactoperoxidase were used to see if
aflatoxin M1 could be inactivated in milk.296 The best procedure resulted in 98%
inactivation of aflatoxin M1 after use of 1% H2O2 plus 0.5 mA/ riboflavin followed
by heating at 63C for 20 min. When milk was treated with 0.1% H2O2 plus 5 U of
lactoperoxidase and held at 4C for 72 h, 85% of aflatoxin M1 was inactivated. These
authors postulated that either singlet oxygen or hypochlorous acid were involved in
the destruction of the aflatoxin. Some physical methods have been experimented
with to determine if they are viable options for detoxifying milk. Bentonite was
added to milk in 0.1 to 0.4 g/20 ml for 1 h at 25C. It absorbed 65 to 79% of aflatoxin
M1;328 however, the removal of bentonite from milk could cause some problems.
Yousef and Marth329'330 reported that 0.5 ppb of aflatoxin M1 could be degraded by
100% in milk after a 60-min exposure to UV at a wavelength of 365 nm at room
temperature. The temperature increased by 15C during the 60-min treatment. When
1% hydrogen peroxide was added to the milk and it was irradiated for 10 min, total
destruction of the 0.5 ppb aflatoxin M1 was noted.330 Degradation of aflatoxin M1
by UV energy followed first-order reaction kinetics and was not affected by enzymes
present in the milk.
In addition to physical and chemical methods, mycotoxins can be degraded by
other microorganisms. Flavobacteriwn aurantiacum in a concentration of 7 X 1010
cells/ml completely degraded 9.9 fjug of aflatoxin M1AnI during 4 h at 3O0C.328 The
mechanism by which this bacterium degrades aflatoxin is not known. Some microorganisms, such as L. lactis subsp. lactis, can convert aflatoxin B 1 into aflatoxicol
and other metabolites that are either nontoxic or less toxic than B 1 . 326 - 328 Degradation
in other foods by other microorganisms is reported by Doyle et al.328
Feed can also be detoxified before it is fed to dairy cows. General reviews on
methods to detoxify feeds have been published.328-331 One example was reported by
Price et al.332 who ammoniated cottonseed meal to reduce the amount of aflatoxin
B 1 fed to cows. When ammoniated feed was consumed, aflatoxin M1 was below the
limits of detectability; however, when untreated feed was consumed, the level of
aflatoxin M1 increased to about 1 /xg/L in 7 days. When the contaminated feed was
removed from the diet and treated feed consumed, the level of aflatoxin M1 became
nondetectable again. The Food and Drug Administration authorizes ammoniation of
feeds in Arizona, California, Georgia, and North Carolina, but it has not declared
this treatment as being safe for all states to use.331 If measures to prevent the growth
of mold and aflatoxin formation in feed commodities fail, then detoxification with
ammonia can reduce aflatoxin by 97 to 98%. This ammoniation detoxification process is already used in different countries.
Mold growth and subsequent mycotoxin production can be prevented by use of
antifungal agents, such as sorbates, propionates, and benzoates. Ray and
Bullerman333 have reviewed the agents that prevent both mold growth and mycotoxin production.

5.7.4 Regulation of Mycotoxins in Foods


The presence of mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins, in foods and feeds can cause
potential harm to humans and animals; therefore, many countries have developed
regulations to control the amount of mycotoxins that can be in foods, or feeds. Under
the United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, aflatoxins are considered
poisonous or deleterious substances.334'335 This falls under Section 402(a)(l) of the
act. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) established a guideline in 1965 that
included an action level of 30 ppb aflatoxin in foods and feeds.334'335 This action
level was lowered to 20 ppb by 1969. In 1977 and 1978, aflatoxin M1 was detected
in market milk in the southeastern United States and in Arizona; hence, an action
level of 0.5 ppb aflatoxin M1 was then set for fluid milk.335 Over 50 countries now
have legislation for the presence of aflatoxins in foods and feeds.290 Tolerances range
from 5 to 20 ppb depending on the country and may be for either aflatoxin B1 or
the total amount of aflatoxins B1, B 2 , G1, and Gl2. Several countries also have set
tolerances for aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products ranging from 0 to 0.5 ppb.290
Van Egmond336 summarized data from 66 countries on the planned, proposed or
existing legislation for aflatoxins B1, B 2 , G1, G2, and M1 in foods, feeds, and milk
and dairy products. Other mycotoxins, namely chetomin, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin
A, phomopsin, T-2 toxin, stachyobotriotoxin, and zearalenone are regulated in some
countries.290-336 The acceptable tolerance levels depend on the country and the food
or feed.
Several surveys have been done to determine whether toxigenic molds or mycotoxins are present in milk and dairy products. The results of some of these surveys
will be summarized. Bullerman337 examined both domestic and imported cheese for
mycotoxin-producing molds. Penicillium species were isolated from 86.4 and 79.8%
of the domestic and imported cheeses, respectively. Aspergillus species were isolated
only from 2.3 and 5.4% of the domestic and imported cheeses, respectively. CIadosporium, Fusarium, and other genera made up the rest of the molds isolated from
these cheeses. Toxigenic speciesP. cyclopium, P. viridicatwn, A. flavus, and
A ochraceuswere found in only 4.4% of domestic and 4% of imported cheese.
When 118 imported cheeses from 13 countries were analyzed, 8 had aflatoxin M1
in levels of 0.1 to 1 ppb.338 Kivanc339 found that 65% of molds isolated from Van
hereby and pickled white Turkish cheeses were Penicillium species, and fewer than
4% were Aspergillus species. The rest of the molds were species of Mucor, Geotrichum, Candidum, and Trichoderma. No aflatoxin was detected in any of the cheeses.
Blanco et al.340 analyzed commercial UHT-treated milk over 1 year in Spain and
found that 30% of the samples contained 0.02 to 0.1 ppb aflatoxin M1. Most contaminated samples were detected in summer and autumn. Wood341 examined 182
samples of milk and dairy products in the United States and found no measurable
aflatoxin in them. From these studies, it appears that the presence of aflatoxins in
milk and dairy products is very low and most samples meet the tolerance or action
levels established for them.
The presence of molds and mycotoxins in dairy products and animal feeds will
continue to be a concern until the health effects in humans and animals are better

understood. The control of mold growth in foods and feeds will be important to
prevent mycotoxin production. New and improved analytical methods will help to
monitor the level of mycotoxins in foods and feeds.

5.8 Microbiology of Starter Cultures


Starter cultures are those microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and molds or their combinations) that initiate and carry out the desired fermentation essential in manufacturing cheese and fermented dairy products such as yogurt, sour cream, kefir, koumiss, etc. In cheesemaking, starters are selected strains of microorganisms that are
intentionally added to milk or cream or a mixture of both, during the manufacturing
process and that by growing in milk and curd cause specific changes in the appearance, body, flavor, and texture desired in the final end product.
Progress in dairy starter culture technology and advances in the scientific knowledge regarding the nature, metabolic activity, and behavior of starter cultures in milk,
whey, and other media have provided new and improved starter cultures for the dairy
industry. Research dealing with plasmid-mediated functions of starter cultures and
mechanism of genetic exchange has led to utilization of recombinant DNA and other
technologies for improvement of dairy starter cultures, particularly regarding development of bacteriophage-resistant strains. In this section, general information about
starter bacteria is given. Several excellent reviews64-75-342"345 have been published
and may be consulted for further details regarding starter bacteria.

5.8.1 Terminology
The fermentation of lactose to lactic acid and other products is the main reaction in
the manufacture of most cheese and fermented dairy products. Consequently, dairy
starter cultures are also referred to as lactic cultures or lactic starters. In the dairy
industry, single or multiple strains of cultures of one or more microorganism are
used as starter cultures.
The taxonomy and scientific nomenclature of the lactic acid bacteria have been
recently modified, for example, lactic streptococci, S. cremoris, S. lactis, and
S. diacetylactis are now classified in the genus Lactococcus and referred to as Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, and L. lactis subsp.
lactis biovar diacetylactis, respectively. However, for the sake of convenience, the
older names will be retained here. The nomenclature and some distinguishing characteristics of dairy starter cultures are listed in Table 5.19.
There are two main types of lactic starters: the mesophilic (optimum growth
temperature of about 300C) and the thermophilic (optimum growth temperature of
about 45C). Mesophilic cultures usually contain S. cremoris and S. lactis as acid
producers and S. diacetylactis and Leuconostocs as aroma and CO 2 producers. Thermophilic starters include strains of 5. thermophilus, and, depending on the product,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, L. helveticus, or L. lactis. Often, a mixture of thermophilic
and mesophilic strains is used as a starter culture for manufacturing Italian pasta-

Table 5.19

NOMENCLATURE AND SOME DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF DAIRY STARTER CULTURES3

Growth
Organism

Current
Nomenclature

Morphology

100C

450C

Type

Lactic
Isomer

Percent
Lactic
Acid
Produced
in Milk

Fermentations
Citrate
Metabolism

Glucose

Streptococcus
lactis

Lactosoccus lactis
subsp. lactis

GM + cocci

Streptococcus
cremosis

L. lactis subsp.
cremoris

GM -f cocci

Streptococcus
diacetylactis

L. lactis subsp.
lactis var.
diaceytilactis

GM + cocci

Leuconostoc
cremoris

L. mesenteroides
subsp. cremoris

GM + cocci

Streptococcus
thermophilus

S. salivarius subsp.
thermophilus

GM + cocci

Thermophilic

Lactobacillus
bulgaricus

L. delbrueckii
subsp. bulgaricus

GM + rods

Thermophilic

D(~)

1.8

Lactobacillus
helveticus

L. helve tic us

GM + rods

Thermophilic

DL

2.0

After Tamine,64 Cogan and Accolas.75


-f = positive reaction by > 90% strains
= negative reaction by > 90% strains
(d) = delayed reaction

Mesophilic

0.8

Mesophilic

0.8

Mesophilic

0.8

Mesophilic

0.2

Galac- Lactose
tose

Mal- Sutose crose


(d)

+
D(-)

(d)

0.6

(d)

NH3
from
Arginine

Table 5.20 LACTIC STARTER CULTURES, ASSOCIATED MICROORGANISMS,


AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY
Lactic Acid Bacteria

Associated Microorganisms

Products

Mesophilic
Streptococcus lactis,
Streptococcus cremosis,
S. lactis var. diacetylactis,
Leuconostoc cremosis

S. lactis var. diacetylactis,


Penicillium camemberti,
P. roqueforti, P. caseicolum,
Brevibacterium linens

Cheddar, Colby Cottage


cheese, Cream cheese,
Neufachatel, Camembert,
Brie, Roquefort, Blue,
Gorgonzola, Limburger

Thermophilic
Streptococcus
thermophilus,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus,
L. lactis, L. casei,
L. helveticus,
L. plantarum,
Enterococcus faecium

Candida kefyr, Torulopsis,


spp., L. brevis,
Bifidobacterium bifidum,
Propionibacterium
fureudenreichii, P. shermanii

Parmesan, Romano, Grana


Kefir, Koumiss yogurt,
Yakult, Therapeutic cultured
milks, Swiss, Emmenthal,
Gruyere

Mixed starters
S. lactis, S. thermophilus,
E. faecium, L. helveticus,
L. bulgaricus

Modified Cheddar, Italian,


Mozzarella, Pasta Filata,
Pizza cheese

filata type cheese. Some thermophilic starters, such as those used in Beaufort and
Grana cheese, contain only lactobacilli,75 whereas some fermented milks made with
thermophilic starters also contain Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. bulgaricus, and
bifidobacteria for their healthful and therapeutic properties.346 Table 5.20 lists
the common starter cultures and their applications in cheese and fermented dairy
products.
The lactic starter cultures are also subdivided into two groups: defined cultures
and mixed cultures. Defined cultures constitute starters in which the number of
strains is known. The concept of defined starter culture, mainly pure cultures of
Streptococcus cremoris, was developed in New Zealand to minimize the problem of
open textures in cheese thought to be caused by CO 2 produced by flavor-producing
strains in mixed cultures. The application of defined cultures did control the open
texture problem, however, and they were prone to slow acid production due to their
susceptibility to bacteriophage.75'347 The use of pairs of phage-unrelated strains and
culture rotation to prevent buildup of phage in the cheese factory were practiced to
minimize the potential for phage problems.75-347 Eventually, the use of multiple
strain starter and factory-derived phage-resistant strains was made to control the
phage problem.345-347-348
Lactic starter cultures are also categorized based on flavor or gas production
characteristics64'75 for example, B or L cultures (for Betacoccus or Leuconostoc)
contain flavor and aroma producing organisms, for example, Leuconostoc spp.
D cultures contain Streptococcus diacetylactis', BD or DL cultures contain mixtures
of both Leoconostoc and S. diacetylactis strains and O cultures do not contain any

flavor/aroma producers but contain S. lactis and S. cremoris strain. This nomenclature is commonly used in the Netherlands.349
Often, the lactic starters routinely used in dairy plants without rotation are called
P (practice) cultures as opposed to L (laboratory) cultures which have been subcultured in the laboratory. The P cultures are not usually affected by their own phages,
and unlike L cultures, they can recover following the attack of so-called ' 'disturbing" phage.

5.8.2 Function of Starter Cultures

5.8.2.1 Production of Lactic Acid


The primary function of lactic starter culture is the production of lactic acid from
lactose. The lactic acid is essential for curdling of milk and characteristic curd taste
of cultured dairy products. The manufacturing procedures for cheese and other fermented dairy products are designed to promote growth and acid production by lactic
organisms. The production of lactic acid is also essential for development of desirable flavor, body, and texture of cheese and cultured dairy products. The rate of
lactic acid production during the cheesemaking is affected by the temperature, calcium and phosphorus content of milk, the type and amount of starter culture used,
etc. Lactic acid production also results in a decrease of lactose in cheese and whey.
The presence of excessive lactose in the cheese is undesirable because it can be
metabolized by nonstarter bacteria during ripening and lead to flavor and body defects in cheese.
The mechanisms of lactose metabolism differ considerably in different lactic acid
bacteria,350 Streptococcus lactis employs the phosphoenol pyruvate phosphotransferase system (PES/PTS) to transport lactose which is hydrolyzed to glucose and
galactose and metabolized by the glycolysis and tagatose pathways, respectively.
Leuconostoc spp. and thermophilic lactobacilli, on the other hand, transport lactose
by a permease system. It is hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose by /3-galactosidase
and further metabolized. Lactose metabolism by different starter cultures is reviewed
elsewhere.52'54'75343'351"353

5.8.2.2 Flavor and Aroma and Alcohol Production


In addition to production of lactic acid, starter cultures also produce volatile compounds, for example, diacetyl, acetaldehyde, and ketones responsible for the characteristic flavor and aroma of cultured dairy products. Flavor-producing starter cultures metabolize citric acid to produce CO2 which is necessary for " e y e " formation
in some cheeses. Some starter cultures, mainly yeast, produce alcohol, which is
essential for the manufacturing of kefir and koumiss.

5.8.2.3. Proteolytic and Lipolytic Activities


The starter cultures produce proteases and lipases which are important during the
ripening of some cheese. Protein degradation by proteinases is necessary for active

growth of starter cultures as most lactic acid bacteria require amino acids or peptides
for their growth. Proteinase negative (Prot") strains of lactic starters depends on
PrOt+ strains in a multiple strain culture for growth in milk.

5.8.2.4 Inhibition of Undesirable Organisms


The production of lactic acid lowers the pH of the milk and inhibits many spoilage
organisms as well as pathogens. A number of metabolites produced by lactic cultures
can limit the growth of undesirable organisms, for example, Ibrahim354 reported that
lowering the pH with lactic acid in a simulated Cheddar cheese making resulted in
the inhibition of S. aureus. Rapid growth and acid development by lactic acid bacteria suppress growth of many spoilage and pathogenic bacteria.
Besides lactic acid, production of H2O2 and acetic acid by some starter cultures,
particularly those containing Leuconostoc or S. diacerylactis, can also inhibit pathogenic bacteria.354 The amount of H2O2 produced by lactic acid bacteria may not
be adequate in itself to control undesirable organisms in milk. However, it can allow
the enzyme lactoperoxidase (LPS) to react with thiocyanate (SNC") and produce
hypothiocyanate (OSCN"), which can inhibit various pathogens including S. aureus,
E. coli and Campylobacter jejuni?55
Certain strains of S. lactis produce nisin, which is inhibitory to various organisms
including species and strains of the genera Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeha, etc. However, the application of the nisin-producing strains as cheese starters is limited because of their slow acid production and susceptibility to bacteriophages. There is
considerable interest in developing nisin-producing cultures that may be suitable for
use in the dairy industry.
Several lactic acid bacteria, particularly streptococci, are capable of producing
bacteriocins that inhibit Gram-positive pathogens such as Clostridium or Listeria.
However, the application of these strains as cheese starters may be limited because
they inhibit other closely related strains in a cheese starter.

5.8.3 Growth and Propagation


Lactic starter cultures are generally available from commercial manufacturers in
spray-dried, freeze-dried (lyophilized), or frozen form. Spray-dried and lyophilized
cultures need to be inoculated into milk or other suitable medium and propagated to
the bulk volumes required for inoculating a cheese vat as follows:
Stock culture spray dried,
freeze dried, frozen
Intermediate
culture

Mother
culture
Bulk
culture

Intermediate
culture
Cheese
vat.

Many larger dairy plants develop their own cultures. However, preparing and
maintaining bulk cultures requires specialized facilities and equipment. Much research and development in the starter culture technology has been aimed at designing

specialized growth media for starters, protecting the starter cultures from sublethal
stress and injury during freezing, and minimizing the theat of bacteriophage during
starter culture preparations.
The specialized systems for starter culture propagation include the Lewis system,
the Jones system, the Alfa-Laval system, etc.64 The Lewis system356 utilizes reusable
polyethene bottles fitted with Astell rubber seals and two-way needles. The growth
medium (10 to 12% reconstituted, antibiotic-free skim milk) is sterilized in the
mother culture bottle. The stock culture is incubated through a two-way needle by
squeezing the stock culture bottle. The bulk starter tank used in the Lewis system is
pressurized to allow heating of the growth medium in the sealed vessel. The top of
the tank is flooded with 100 ppm sodium hypochlorite solution to prevent any contamination during the inoculation of bulk starter.
The Jones system uses a specially designed bulk starter tank.64 Unlike the Lewis
system, this tank is not pressurized. The bulk starter tank is inoculated by providing
the intermediate starter through a special narrow opening and a ring of flame or
steam is used to prevent any contamination during the inoculation of bulk starter.
Recently, a combination of the Lewis/Jones system has been developed in the
United Kingdom that improves on the Lewis technique of aseptic culture transfer
and economizes by using cheaper, nonsealed tanks as in the Jones system. The details
of the combined Lewis/Jones system have been described ty Tamime.64
The Alfa-Laval system uses filtered-sterilized air uner pressure, for transferring
the culture. The mother and intermediate cultures are prepared in a special unit called
a "viscubator" and transferred to the bulk starter tank using compressed air.64-357

5.8.3.1 pH Control Systems


There are two main reasons for using pH control systems in propagating bulk starter
cultures: (1) to minimize daily fluctuations in acid development and thereby prevent
"over-ripening" of the starter, and (2) to prevent the cellular injury that may occur
to some starters when the pH of the medium drops below 5.0.
In the pH control systems, the acid produced by the starter culture is neutralized
to maintain the pH at around 6.0.
The external pH control system, developed by Richardson et al.,358'359 uses wheybased medium fortified with phosphates and yeast extract. The pH is maintained at
around 6.0, by intermittent injection of anhydrous or aqueous ammonia, or sodium
hydroxide. This system has been used successfully in the United States for production of most American-style cheeses.
The internal pH control system, developed by Sandine et al., 360 " 363 uses a wheybased medium containing encapsulated citrate-phosphate buffers that maintain the
pH at around 5.2. Unlike in the external pH control system, no addition of ammonia
or NaOH is necessary. The internal pH control system is available as the phase 4
(Rhdne-PoulencMarschall Products Division) and In-Sure (Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Inc.) and is used in the United States and Europe for a variety of cheeses
and fermented products such as buttermilk.64

5.8.3.2 Phage Inhibitory and Phage-Resistant Medium


(PIM/PRM)
The PIM/PRM were developed following observations of Reiter64 that bacteriophage
of lactic streptococci were inhibited in a milk medium lacking in calcium.
Hargrove 364 reported on the use of phosphates to sequester free calcium ions in milk
or bulk-starter medium for inhibition of bacteriophage. The effectiveness of phosphates in the formation of PIM/PRM for phage control was confirmed by Christensen. 365 " 467 The PIM/PRM consisting mainly of milk solids, sugar, buffering agents
such as phosphates and citrates and yeast extract have been widely used in the United
States, Canada, and Europe for about 20 years. 345 However, the effectiveness of the
PIM/PRM in inhibiting bacteriophage and stimulating growth of the starter culture
media is somewhat limited, 64 Despite the absence of calcium, some phages can infect
the the starter culture at its optimum growth temperature. Also, phosphates in the
PIM/PRM can cause metabolic injury to some starter cultures.
The preparation of active bulk starter culture free of phage contamination is essential for cheese manufacturing. However, poor practices promoting phage contamination still exist in many commercial operations. 345 ' 368 Factors important in bulk
starter preparation and ways of minimizing bacteriophage problems in cheese factories have been reviewed by Huggins 345 and by Richardson. 368

5.8.4 Inhibition of Starter Cultures


The inhibition or reduction in activity of lactic starter culture results in consequences
ranging from ' 'dead vat'' or slow vat to production of poor quality cultured products.
Also, sluggish starter culture produces acid at a slow rate and fails to control spoilage
and potentially pathogenic bacteria. The primary cause of inhibition of starter cultures is the bacteriophage. Control of the bacteriophage problem depends on understanding of critical factors affecting phage infection and growth in lactic starter
cultures, 369 factors dealing with bulk starter culture production, factory design, sanitation, and whey processing. 345
Lactic starter cultures are very sensitive to antibiotic residues in milk, 171 ' 370 " 372
for example, 0.01 IU/ml of penicillin may inhibit a mesophilic lactic starter and a
yogurt culture.64 The sensitivity of starter culture to a specific antibiotic residue
depends on the species or strains of the starter culture, the antibiotic preparations,
and the test for determining antibiotic concentrations. The problem of antibiotic
residue is primarily associated with their use in mastitis therapy in the dairy cow
and failure to withhold the milk from cows treated with antibiotics. This problem is
currently receiving much attention in the United States dairy industry.
Residues of detergents and sanitizers used in the dairy industry for cleaning and
sanitation may also inhibit starter culture growth and activity. The effects of commonly used cleaning compounds such as chloride, quaternary ammonium compounds, and alkaline detergents on the activity of various dairy starter cultures have
been studied in detail. 373 - 374 Proper cleaning and sanitation, particularly adequate

rinsing, is important in minimizing the inhibition of starter culture growth and activity by residues of cleaners and sanitizers.
Occasionally, inhibition of the growth of starter culture may be caused by naturally occurring antibacterial compounds present in milk. For example, lactin and the
lactoperoxidase system (LPS) have been reported to cause inhibition of certain lactic
cultures.357'375-376

5.8.5 Genetic Engineering for Improving Starter Cultures


Recent advances in the genetics of lactic acid bacteria, particularly progress in our
understanding of the basic processes relating to transport, metabolism, and genetic
regulation of sugar utilization, bacteriocin production, and phage resistance have
created many opportunities for applying genetic engineering techniques for improving dairy starter cultures.12
In the past, fast-acid-producing and bacteriophage-insensitive strains were obtained through natural selection and mutation processes. However, many of these
strains were unstable due to spontaneous loss of properties, apparently due to the
loss of plasmid(s). The understanding of the functional properties of plasmids and
of the mechanisms of genetic exchange and gene expression in lactic streptococci
will allow the cloning of desirable traits into dairy starter cultures.
It is now well established that mesophilic lactic starter cultures harbor plasmids
of diverse sizes and that some of these plasmids code for several major functions of
lactic streptococci (Table 5.21). The knowledge of plasmid-mediated functions and
plasmid transfer systems may be used to develop specific starter cultures that may:
Table 5.21 PLASMID-UNKED METABOUC
FUNCTION OF MESOPHIUC
STREPTOCOCCP
Function

Reference

Sugar utilization

LeBlank et al. 377


Gasson and Davies 5 4
McKay 55
Gonzalez and Kunka 373

Proteinase activity

McKay 5 5
Kok et al. 3 7 9
Kempler and McKay 3 8 0

Citrate utilization
Bacteriocin production

Schenvitz et al. 381


Scherwitz and McKay 3 8 2

Nisin production

McKay and Baldwin 3 8 3

Bacteriophage resistance

McKay and Baldwin 383


Sanders and Klaenhammer 384
Chopin et al. 385
Sanders 80

Adapted from McKay.55'56

(1) produce desirable flavor compounds; (2) lower requirements for added sweeteners (sugar) in dairy fermentations; (3) produce enzymes necessary for cheese flavor, body, and texture development; and (4) resist bacteriophage attack during
cheesemaking.54"56'79'80'386'387
Research by Klaenhammer and others has indicated that several mechanisms for
bacteriophage resistance may exist in lactic streptococci.78"80'384-387 These include
prevention of phage absorption, restriction/modification controlled by the host and
abortive infection via lysogenic immunity, or other mechanisms. Bacteriophageresistant dairy streptococci have been obtained following conjugal transfer of a 30megadalton plasmid, pTR 2030, from a lactose-negative S. lactis to a fast-acid producing S. lactis and S. cremoris strains.80 The development and industrial utilization
of phage-resistant strains containing the pTR 2030 have been reported.79'80178
There exists a potential for application of genetic engineering for improvement
of dairy starter. Laboratories in the United States, Australia, and Europe are actively
engaged in research dealing with genetics of lactic acid bacteria. The use of genetically engineered lactic bacteria for dairy fermentation is limited although the genetic
approach for developing improved strains for dairy industry appears promising.12'388

5.9 Methods for Microbiological Analysis of Milk


and Dairy Products
Microbiological analysis of milk and dairy products is critical in evaluating quality,
shelf life, and regulatory compliance of raw milk, ingredients, and finished products
as well as in assessing the efficiency of manufacturing processes and cleaning and
sanitation practices. Although there is much progress made in analytical methodology used for chemical analysis of milk components, cheese, whey, and other dairy
products, the focus of microbiological testing in the dairy industry still remains on
conventional plating methods and isolation and biochemical characterization of the
microorganisms of interest. Unlike the chemical analysis of milk, where more traditional methods are used only for standardization of instrumental methods used for
routine analysis, microbiological testing of milk and milk products is largely done
by traditional plate count methods, most probable numbers (MPN) estimations, and
empirical tests such as the methylene blue and resasurin tests. These slow and retrospective methods are often not suitable for perishable, relatively short shelf-life milk
and milk products. During the past two decades, considerable interest in finding
suitable alternatives to these time-, material-, and labor-intensive methods has led to
development of several rapid and automated methods for routine microbiological
testing of milk and dairy products.91-389"399

5.9.1 Conventional Methods


Routine microbiological testing of milk and dairy products involves plating procedures for detecting and enumerating microbial contamination in milk, dairy products,
dairy equipment, and the dairy plant environment.

Table 5.22 METHODS FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS


OF MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
Conventional Methods

Rapid and Automated Methods

Direct microscope count (DMC)


Breed clump count

Bactoscan
Biofoss
Spiral plater
Direct epifluorescent
Filter technique (DEFT)

Standard plate count (SPC)


Pour plate
Surface plate
Drop plate

Plate-loop count
Petrifilm
ATP measurement
Bioluminescence
Limulus test

Most probable numbers (MPN)


Three-tube method
Five-tube method

Electrical conductance
Electrical impedance
Electrical capacitance

Membrane filter

HGMF-Isogrid
Direct epifluorescent
Filter technique (DEFT)

Dye reductions
Methylene blue
Resasurin

Microcalorimetry
Flow cytometry

RODAC plate
Rinse-filter method

Several procedures can be used to estimate a microbial population (Table 5.22).


The four general methods commonly used for "total" numbers are Direct Microscope Counts (DMC), Standard Plate Counts (SPC), the Most Probable Numbers
(MPN) methods, and the dye reduction tests. The following is a brief description of
these methods:
Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) involves preparation of a smear on an outlined
area of a microscopic slide, staining the slide with appropriate dye preparations, and
microscopic examination of stained smears using the oil immersion lens. Usually a
small amount (0.01 ml) of the sample or appropriate dilution of the sample is spread
over a 1-cm2 area. Microbial cells (individual or clumps) are counted in a given
numbers of microscopic fields, and the total number of organisms per gram are
determined by multiplying the average number of organisms per field by the microscopic factor (usually >500,000). The DMC method is widely used for determination of total microbial numbers in dry milks. The diret microscope somatic cell count
(DMSCC), which employs essentially the same procedure, is used to confirm mastitis
in cows or quality of bulk milk at the dairy farm. Further details of the direct microscopic count methods may be found in the Standard Methods for the Examination
of Dairy Products (SMEDP)58 and the IDF Document 168.241

Table 5.23 MODIFICATIONS OF THE STANDARD PLATE COUNT METHOD


AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Modification

Application

Preheat sample at 63C for 30 min.

Thermoduric bacterial count (TBC)


in milk and pasteurized products.

Incubate SPC plates at 7C for 10 days.

Psychrotrophic bacterial count


(PBC) for milk and dairy products.

Use SPC containing 10% sterile milk, incubation at 23-25C


for 48 h and flooding of plates w/ 10% acetic and/or 1% HCl.

Enumeration of proteolytic
organisms

Preheat milk at >80C for 10 min, incubation at 300C for 77


and/or 55 for 24-48 h.

Enumeration of mesophilic/
thermophilic bacteria, and spores

Surface plating on spirit blue agar, incubation at 300C for 6


days

Enumeration of lipolytic organisms

Acidified potato dextrose agar (PDA), incubation at 22-25C


for 5 days

Enumeration of yeasts and molds

Use violet-red bile agar, incubation at 35C for 24 h

Enumeration of coliforms

Standard Plate Count (SPC) involves preparing a 10-fold serial dilution of the
sample to be tested. A 1.0- or 0.1-ml sample of the dilution is placed in a sterile
petri dish followed by pouring of the liquified sterile agar medium (SPC agar). The
sample is mixed with the agar medium and agar is allowed to solidify. The petri
dishes are incubated at 32C for 48 h (or any other specified conditions). Following
the incubation, the plates with 25 to 250 colonies are counted and the total number
of microorganisms is determined by multiplying the average number of colonies by
the dilution factor. The details of the sampling, diluting, plating, and incubating
procedures and proper counting and reporting of the bacterial numbers in a sample
of milk and milk products are described in the SMEDP.58
Various modifications of the SPC have been used to determine the numbers of
psychrotrophic, thermoduric, proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria; coliforms; and yeast
and molds in milk and dairy products (Table 5.23); for example, the psychrotrophic
bacterial count (PMC) procedure involves the same method as the SPC, except that
the plates are incubated at 7C for 10 days.58 Also, various methods designed for
assessing the hygiene and keeping quality of milk are also based on the SPC
method.58400
Most Probable Numbers (MPN) involves the use of three sets of three or five
tubes each containing a sterile medium. These tubes are inoculated from each of
three consecutive 10-fold dilutions (10, HT 1 , 10~ 2 or HT 1 , 10" 2 , 10" 3 ). The
tubes are incubated and growth of the organisms is detected as turbidity or evidence
of gas formation. Numbers of organisms in the original samples are determined by
using standard MPN tables. The MPN is statistical in nature and the results are
generally higher than SPC.19

Dye reduction involves the use of redox dyes such as methylene blue, resasuring,
or 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC). The method depends on the ability of
microorganisms to reduce and hence change color or decolorize the dye. The time
required for reduction of the dye is generally correlated with the metabolic activity
and is universally proportional to the initial bacterial load of the sample. The dye
reduction method is simple and economical. However, they are unsuitable for analysis of milk having low bacterial numbers401 and are poorly correlated with the
bacterial counts in refrigerated milk.402 The dye reduction tests and their limitations
are discussed in detail by Edmonson et al.401

5.9.2 Rapid Methods and Automation in Dairy Microbiology


In the past 20 years, interest in the field of rapid methods and automation in microbiology has been growing steadily. Several international symposia have been held
on the subject since 1973.403 The Sixth International Congress on Rapid Methods
and Automation in Microbiology was held in June, 1990 in Helsinki, Finland. Developments in rapid methods and automation are discussed in detail in recent books
such as Rapid Methods and Automation in Microbiology?0* Rapid Methods in
Microbiology and Immunology,*05 Foodborne Microorganisms and Their Toxins:
Developing Methdology,406 Rapid Methods in Food Microbiology,401 Impedance
Microbiology,391 The Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique for the Rapid Enumeration of Microorganism,40* and Instrumental Methods for Quality Assurance in
Foods.403 Early developments in rapid methods and automations dealt with rapid
identification and characterization of pathogenic microorganisms in a clinical setting.
However, many of the procedures and instrumentations developed for the clinical
laboratory have been successfully applied to microbiological analysis of milk and
dairy products. Also rapid methods and automation for detection and enumeration
of microorganisms suitable for use in the dairy industry have been developed in
recent years.
The major areas of microbiological analysis of milk and dairy products include
sample preparation, total viable cell counts, somatic cell counts, monitoring of microbial growth and activity and detection, and isolation and characterization of pathogenic organisms and toxins. All of these areas have been subjects of research
and development to improve microbiological methods for milk and dairy product
analysis.

5.9.2.1 Improvements in Sampling and Sample Preparation


Sampling of milk and milk products is critical in obtaining meaningful, reliable
results. Different methods of sampling various products, care and handling of samples, storage and transportation, etc. are described in detail in reference sources such
as the Standard Methods for Examination of Dairy Products52' and the IDF. 409 Two
noteworthy developments in instrumentations for sample preparation include the
Stomacher (Tekmar, Cincinnati, OH) and the Gravimetric Diluter (Spiral Systems,
Inc., Bethesda, MD).

The Stomacher uses two reciporcating paddles to crush the sample and diluent
held in a polythene bag. Unlike the lab blender commonly used for sample preparation, there is no direct contact between the sample and the machine. Therefore,
there is no need for cleaning and sterilization between use; also, the Stomacher
minimizes the problem of aerosol formation. The Stomacher uses disposable sterile
bags, thus eliminating the need for large numbers of glass or metal jars to be cleaned
and resterilized. It is very easy to operate. Several reports on the comparison of total
bacterial counts obtained using the Stomacher and the laboratory blender have indicated that satisfactory results can be obtained by using the Stomacher.
The Gravimetric Diluter eliminates the need for accurately weighing the sample
(e.g., 10 g or 450 g) prior to adding the requisite amount of diluent to obtain a 1:10
or 1:100 dilution. The dilution operation is automated in that after weighing an
amount of the sample, the machine delivers a specific volume of the diluent required
to obtain the dilution. The Gravimetric Diluter is easy to operate and saves considerable time in routine microbiological analysis of milk products.

5.9.2.2 Modifications and Mechanization


of Conventional Methods
Several labor and material saving methods developed for determining colony counts
in milk and dairy products involve modifications and mechanization of conventional
plate count procedure. These are not truly "rapid" methods as they require the same
incubation period as the conventional methods. However, ease of operation, economizing of material and labor, and ability of handling large numbers of samples
possible have popularized the use of modified methods in dairy industry.399

Agar Droplet Techniques


These are developed as a modification of the Miles-Misra method.410 A variety of
delivery systems (calibrated pipettes, etc.) are used to deliver 0.1-ml droplets of
sample dilutions made in molten agar in a petri dish. After incubation at 300C for
24 h, the microcolonies are counted under magnification. A diluter/dispenser and a
projection viewer have been developed to aid rapid preparations of dilutions and
dispensing of the agar droplet and facilitating counting of microcolonies.407 Although data obtained with the droplet technique and conventional pour or spread
plate methods show no significant difference with most samples, significantly higher
counts with the droplet technique have been reported.41! Despite this and other minor
limitations, the agar droplet techniques are suitable for routine bacteriological testing
of milk and dairy products.410'411

The Plate Loop Count (PLQ


This method involves the use of a calibrated loop, capable of delivering 0.001 ml
of a sample. The loop is attached (preferably welded) to a Luer-Lock hypodermic
needle, which in turn is attached to a continuous pipetting outfit adjusted to deliver
1.0 ml. A 0.001-ml sample is placed in the petri dish by delivering 1.0 ml of sterile

diluent which eliminates the need for preparing serial 10-fold dilutions of the sample.
The rest of the procedure for pouring, incubating, and counting plates is the same
as the conventional SPC method. The PLC method is quite satisfactory for use with
routine bacteriological testing of raw milk, except manufacturing grade raw milk,
when counts exceed 200,000/ml.412
Noteworthy among the products on the market designed to facilitate conventional
plate count methods are the Isogrid system, the Petrifilm plates, and the Spiral system
with CASBA (computer-assisted spiral bioassay) data processor.
The Isogrid system393'413-414 is a filtration method that uses a Hypobaric Grid
Membrane Filter (HGMF) consisting of 1600 growth cells. The diluted sample is
first filtered through a prefilter (5 ^m) to remove large food particles and then
through the HGMF. The HGMF is placed on a selective agar and incubated under
specified conditions to allow the growth of microorganisms present in the food. The
HGMF method is officially recognized by the AOAC and FDA and is used for
detecting and enumerating Salmonella and coliforms, as well as for detecting aerobic
plate counts.415
Petrifilm plates are dual-layer film systems coated with nutrients and a cold water
soluble gelling agent. The diluted sample is inoculated on the Petrifilm surface,
similar to the regular surface plating method, and the resulting petri plate is incubated
under specified conditions to allow growth of the microorganisms. The standard plate
count and coliform counts may be determined by the Petrifilm SM and Petrifilm
VRB, respectively. Petrifilm plates have been evaluated extensively through collaborative studies416"419 and are recognized as an official method for microbiological
analysis of milk and dairy products.
The Spiral System420-421 involves precise delivery of a continuously decreasing
volume of a liquid sample onto the surface of an agar plate. Use of a hand or laser
counter and a CASBA data handling system can facilitate throughput. The Spiral
System greatly reduces media and dilution requirements. It is widely used for determination of aerobic plate counts of milk and dairy products.58

The Preliminary Incubation (PI) Count


Among the methods developed in recent years, various preincubation procedures for
estimating psychrotrophic bacteria in milk products have received much attention.
The 21C/25 h incubation of milk followed by a conventional standard plate count
procedure gives a good and reliable estimate of psychrotrophic bacteria.422'423 Since
Gram-negative psychrotrophs are the primary cause of spoilage in milk and dairy
products, the preliminary incubation procedures are widely used to assess the potential shelf-life of pasteurized milk and cream.398-424 Preincubations with selective
inhibitors such as benzalkonium chloride, bile salts, crystal violet, penicillin, and
nisin have also been used to determine spoilage potential and to predict shelf
life 39O*425-427
The Redigel system consists of sterile nutrients with a pectin gel in a tube and
special petri dish previously coated with gelation material. A 1.0-ml sample (or
appropriate dilution) is pipetted into the tube, mixed, and poured in the petri dish.

A pectin gel, resembling conventional agar medium, is formed in the petri dish,
which is incubated and the colony count determined as in the conventional SPC
procedure. Recently, the use of the Redigel system for determining microbial counts
in milk and dairy products has been reported.428"^31 A high degree of statistical
correlation was obtained when counts determined with the Redigel system were
compared with that with the conventional method428
A comprehensive analysis of the Redigel, Petrifilm, Isogrid, and Spiral System
using seven different foods, including raw milk, conducted by Chain and Fung428
indicated that these systems compared favorably with conventional methods and a
high degree of accuracy and agreement of the results were possible using alternative
methods. A comparison of cost per viable cell counts was: SPC ($13.62), Petrifilm
and Redigel ($8.22), Isogrid ($3.33), and Spiral System ($2.77).394 The Isogrid and
Spiral System require the initial purchase of specialized equipment. However, they
require only one plate per sample compared to four to six plates required for the
conventional SPC method.
Other applications of the Isogrid, Petrifilm, and Spiral System include enumeration of coliforms, S. aureus, and yeast and mold counts; detection of specific organisms such as Salmonella, E. coll 0157:H7, Yersinia enterocolitica, etc.; and determination of inhibitory properties and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of
antibacterial compounds.

5.9.2.3 Methods Based on Microbial Growth


and Metabolism
Several rapid and automated methods for microbiological analysis rely on parameters
of microbial growth and metabolism such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels,
detection of electrical impedance or conductance, generation of heat or radioactive
CO 2 , presence of bacterial exopolysaccharides or enzyme activity, etc. These methods are based on the assumption that increase in bacterial numbers is correlated with
the increase in various parameters of microbial growth and metabolism. A standard
curve correlating various parameters with the colony counts is developed for comparison of unknown samples. Although theoretically it is possible to detect as low
as one viable cell in a sample using these methods, populations of 106 to 107 organisms per milliliter are necessary for rapid (4 to 6 h) detection.
ATP levels in a sample are easily determined in terms of the bioluminescence
resulting from the reaction between the ATP and the luciferin/luciferase enzyme
system obtained from fireflies. The amount of light generated is proportional to the
levels of ATP and hence levels of bacterial contamination. It is measured as relative
light units (RLU) using instruments such as Lumac and Luminometer. The ATP
levels measurement as an indication of microbial load is widely used in Europe for
detecting postpasteurization contamination in milk and cream.391'432"434 Because somatic cells in milk constitute a nonmicrobial source of ATP, treatment of samples
to hydrolyze somatic cell ATP is necessary prior to determining ATP from bacterial
cells. The ATP method may be readily automated to allow handling of large numbers
of samples. It can also be used to monitor hygiene in dairy plants. A rapid (5-min)

test for judging bacteriological quality of raw milk at receiving in dairy plant has
been developed in Europe. 432 The principles and applications of ATP measurement
tests have been reviewed recently by LaRocco et al. 435 and Stannard.436
The growth of microorganisms results in unique and significant changes in electrical conductivity and resistance in growth medium. The changes in electrical
impedance, capacitance, or conductance are measured using specialized instruments
such as the Bactometer and Malthus system. 392 ' 437 The Bactometer is an instrument
designed to measure impedance changes resulting from microbial metabolism and
growth. 392 The impedance detection time (IDT), or simply detection time, is the time
(h) when the electrical parameter being measured changes significantly from the
starting value. The IDTs are inversely proportional to the initial levels of microorganisms present in the sample and are generally indicative of the time required to
reach population of approximately 1O6AnI. Impedance changes are affected by the
composition of growth medium, temperature of incubation, and specific growth kinetics of bacteria. Impedimetric methods have been used for a variety of dairy microbiology applications including detection of abnormal milk, 438 estimation of bacteria
in raw or pasteurized milk 439 " 441 and dairy products, 389 ' 390 ' 425 ' 442 detection of antibiotics, 443 measurements of starter culture activity, 444 - 445 and determining levels of
bacteriophage. 446 ' 447
The Malthus system is similar to the Bactometer in that both systems involve
continuous monitoring of changes in electrical parameters to obtain detection times.
However, they differ in the electrical component measured, the frequency at which
the measurements are made, and the specific design of electrode, measurement and
the instrument.437 The conductance curve generated by the Malthus system is similar
to the impedance curve obtained by the Bactometer. In both systems, screen displays
of green, yellow, and red colors indicating "accept," "caution," and "reject" or
"pass," "caution," and "fail" levels of microbial population are available for use
in routine monitoring of microbiological quality of samples being tested. 392 - 437
The Malthus system has been used for detection of postpasteurization contamination of pasteurized milk, 441 ' 448 estimation of lactic acid bacteria in fermented
milks, detection of psychrotrophic bacteria in raw milk, and determination of microbial levels in powdered dairy products. 437
A conductance method for the quantitative detection of coliforms in cheese has
been developed by Khayat et al. 442 Also, a special selective medium (selenite-cystine
broth) containing trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) and dulcitol was developed for
detection of salmonella by the conductance method. 449 " 451 Recently, Cousins and
Marlatt452 evaluated a conductance monitoring method for the enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae in milk. Detection of < 10 to 500 cfu/ml of Enterobacteriaceae in
raw milk in 6 to 12 h was reported. 452
Radiometry and microcalorimetry have been used to estimate numbers of microorganisms in clinical specimens and a variety of foods. The radiometric method
deals with monitoring the production of radioactive CO 2 by microorganisms growing
in a medium containing radioactive glucose. The 14 CO 2 generated, which is directly
proportional to the metabolic activity of the microorganisms present in a sample, is
measured by an instrument such as the Bactec. The microcaloric method involves

measurement of minute changes in heat using sensitive instruments such as the Bio
Activity Monitor. The applications of radiometry and calorimetry in food microbiology have been discussed by Lampi et al.,453 Rowley et al.,454 and Gram and
Sogaard.455
The Limulus Amoebocyte Lystate (LAL) method is a rapid (1 h) and sensitive
test for detection of low levels of Gram-negative bacteria in milk and dairy products.
All Gram-negative bacteria contain endotoxin (lipopolysaccharides, LPs) that can
be determined by the LAL test. In the classic LAL test, serial dilutions of the sample
are mixed with the LAL reagent (amoebocyte lystate of horseshoe crab, Limulus)
and incubated at 37C for 1 h. A positive reaction is indicated by formation of firm
gel and levels of endotoxin (ng) are calculated based on the highest dilution showing
a firm gel. Other LAL test procedures involving turbidimetric and colorimetric measurements of the LAL reaction have been developed, some for use with a robotic
system for automatic handling of large numbers of samples. A microfiltration method
for application of the limulus test in dairy bacteriology has been developed as a
commercial kit.456
The LAL is a simple, rapid, and sensitive test for low levels of Gram-negative
bacteria in milk and dairy products.457'458 It is also useful in determining the previous
history of the milk in investigating quality and shelf-life problems of heat-treated
products such as UHT milk and dry milk powders. Further details of the LAL test
and its applications in food microbiology may be found in a recent review by Jay459
and by Heeschen et al.460
The catalase test is another rapid method for estimating microbial populations in
certain foods. Because many psychrotrophic spoilage organisms, particularly Pseudomonas spp., important in causing spoilage of milk and dairy products are strongly
catalase positive, this test may be used as a rapid screening test for assessing milk
quality. Other important organisms such as Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, E. coli,
and others are also catalase positive and may be detected by this test.
Recently, an instrument called the Catalasemeter was developed for rapid detection of catalase activity. This instrument is based on the simple and rapid estimation
of catalase activity present in milk or culture filtrates. The principle is based on the
flotation time of a paper filter disc containing catalase in a tube containing stabilized
H2O2. On reaction, the evolved gases cause the disc to float. The time required for
the disc to float (disc flotation time) is inversely proportional to the catalase activity.
Because mastitic milk characteristically contains elevated levels of somatic cells and
high catalase activity, the catalasemeter has been used for rapid screening of abnormal and poor quality milk396-461-462 and for predicting milk quality and shelf life.426
Rapid screening methods for dairy microbiology also include the Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique (DEFT) test,395-408-463 which involves filtering of a sample
or dilution through a polycarbonate filter (0.6 /mm size, 25 mm diameter) to concentrate bacteria on the filter followed by staining the filter using acridine orange dye.
The filters are then examined with epifluorescent microscopy. The applications of
the DEFT include rapid estimation of viable cells in milk464 detection of postpasteurization contamination in cream,395 and assessment of keeping quality of milk
samples. However, it requires special equipment and skilled labor. Also, poor cor-

relations between DEFT count and colony counts in products such as milk powder,
pasteurized whey, and ripened cream butter limit the applications of the DEFT for
microbiological analysis of milk and milk products. The principle equipment and
applications of the DEFT test have been reviewed by Pettipher408-463 and Pettipher
et al.397'464-465
A reflectance colorimeter instrument has been developed for measurement of
microbial and enzyme activities in milk and dairy products,466 The instrument,
Omnispec, consists of a reflective colorimeter, computer, and a robotic laboratory
automations system. The instrument measures color changes in a microtest well
containing sample at frequent intervals. The color change measurements are then
related to biochemical changes caused by the activity of microorganisms or enzymes
and converted to estimates of microbial numbers by a computer. The Omnispec may
be used for traditional quality control tests in dairy industry including rapid estimation of microbial numbers, detection of antibiotics, screening abnormal milk,
culture activities test, coliforms, staphylococcal and yeast and mold counts, and
keeping quality tests.466

5.9.2.4 Rapid Methods for Detection and Identification


of Pathogens and Toxins
Routine microbiological analysis of milk and dairy products seldom involve isolation
and identification of microorganisms or detection of toxins. However, detection and
characterization of pathogenic organisms and toxins is often necessary to ensure
regulatory compliance and safety of milk and dairy products. Many diagnostic kits,
for example, API, Micro ID, Enterotube, etc., developed during the 1970s for clinical
applications are now being used to identify microbial isolates in the dairy industry. 467 ^ 71 More sophisticated tests such as the DNA probes and immunological
assays (enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay, ELISA or EIA) and latex agglutination
tests are available for rapid detection of pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella,
Listeria, E. coli 0517:H7, 5. aureus, Clostridium perfringens, and toxins including
aflatoxin, B. cereus toxin, and staphylococcal toxins. 410 ' 468 ' 472 ^ 74 Monitoring milk
supply for aflatoxin and animal drug residues such as antibiotics and sulfamethazine
has been facilitated tremendously by the ELISA-based and other rapid tests.475
Automated systems for rapid identification and characterization of microbial isolates include the Vitek System, the AMBIS system, and the HP Microbial Identification System. The Vitek Automicrobial System and the Vitek Jr. are computerdriven systems involving the use of specially designed test cards containing microwells lined with lyophilized media for specific biochemical tests. The test card is
aseptically inoculated with a suspension of pure isolate, and loaded into the incubator
equipped with a photometric reader/detector to detect turbidity or color difference
indicating a positive/negative test result. The biochemical reactions of the test microorganisms are compared with data for known standard microorganisms and an identification is made. The Vitek System can allow characterization and identification of
as many as 120 different isolates.

Table 5.24 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR AN IDEAL AUTOMATED MICROBIOLOGY


ASSAY SYSTEM
1. Accuracy for the intended purpose sensitivity: minimal detectable limits specificity of test system
versatility: potential applications comparison to referenced methods.
2. Speed-productivity in obtaining results number of samples processed per run; per day.
3. Cost initial, per test, reagents,others.
4. Acceptability by scientific community by regulatory agencies.
5. Simplicity of operation samples preparation operation of test equipment computer versatility.
6. Training on site; how long quality of training personnel.
7. Regents reagent preparation-stability-availability-consistency.
8. Company reputation
9. Technical service speed and availability cost scope of technical background
10. Utility and space requirements

The AMBIS microbiology system is based on a computerized comparison of


peptide banding pattern or microbial "finger printing" of polypeptide patterns for
known standard microorganisms. The pure colony is incubated in a medium containing L-[35S]methionine, followed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis of the cell free extract and automated comparison of the polypeptide
banding patterns of the unknown against that of the known standard microorganism.
The HP microbial identification system is based on the determination of cellular
fatty acid composition of unknown isolates by a computerized gas-chromatographic
method. The HP microbial identification system is reportedly capable of differentiating between two otherwise indistinguishable pathovars of Pseudomonas
syringae410
Rapid and automated methods are increasingly being adopted by the dairy industry. However, the main limitations appear to be the regulatory status (FDA or
AOAC approval), familiarity with various systems available, and initial cost of
equipment and supplies. Several important criteria of selection and adoption of rapid
and automated methods in dairy laboratories are listed in Table 5.24. New methods
may be justified based on reducing labor and expense and computerized handling,
interpreting, and retrieving of microbiological data. Given the current industry trends
for consolidation, reduction in work force, and implementation of new programs
such as HACCP, use of rapid and automated methods for microbiological analysis
of milk and dairy products will continue in the foreseeable future.

5.9.3 Microbiological Tests for Assessing Sanitation


and Air Quality in Dairy Plant
Microbiological quality of milk and milk products often depends on the status of
cleaning and sanitation practices, conditions of storage, and handling of raw and

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processed products as well as airborne contamination. Quality control programs include routine testing of plant and equipment surfaces, packaging material, and air
for the presence of microorganisms.
Surface sampling methods, for example, swab, surface rinse, and adhesive tape
methods are widely used in the dairy industry.402 These methods involve transferring
residual contamination on the designated area of the surface to be tested to sterile
dilution blanks using cotton swabs, followed by the plate count method. Following
specified incubation (e.g., 30C/48 h), the colonies are counted to determine the level
of contamination. Another method used for assessing microbiological contamination
on dairy plant surfaces is the RODAC plate method which involves pressing of small
plastic petri dish ( 25 cm2) containing solidified agar medium to the surface followed by incubation and counting of colonies. The RODAC plates are not suitable
for wet or heavily contaminated surfaces.
Recently, rapid dip-stick type methods for determining total or coliform counts
on dairy plant surfaces have been introduced. These methods may be used in conjunction with the swab or rinse method. They are preferred by some laboratories as
they eliminate the need for using petri dishes.

5.9.4 Shelf-Life Tests


Traditionally, shelf life of pasteurized milk and milk products has been determined
using the Mosley test,58'400 which involves the comparison of the plate count of the
sample on day zero and after 5 or 7 days of storage at 7C. The Mosley count yields
high correlation with the shelf life and is widely used in the dairy industry for
categorizing milks as "poor," "marginal," or "good." However, it is impractical
due to the time (up to 9 days) required to obtain results.
As the shelf life of milk and dairy products depends on the extent of postpasteurization contamination, particularly psychrotrophic bacteria, attempts have been
made to devise a modified psychrotrophic bacterial counts. Methods based on preincubation of the sample, increasing the incubation temperature, use of selective enrichment designed to enumerate Gram-negative bacteria, or a combination of these
have been developed for assessing shelf life of milk and milk products.422-423'427
Also, several rapid and automated methods, for example DEFT, the catalasemeter,
impedimetric evaluation, and the LAL test have been used for determining shelf life
of milk and milk products.398*422-426-427
Recently, mathematical models have been used for monitoring product quality107
and shelf-life prediction.476"478 In this procedure regression equations are generated
to predict the growth and relative growth rate of spoilage microorganisms at various
product temperatures. One such model is the square root model of Ratkowsky et
al. 479 This model has been used for predicting shelf life of pasteurized milk.476-477-480

5.10 Microbiology of Milk and Dairy Products


The microbiological spoilage of milk and dairy products will depend on the quality
of the raw milk used to make the products, the contamination during processing, the

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processed products as well as airborne contamination. Quality control programs include routine testing of plant and equipment surfaces, packaging material, and air
for the presence of microorganisms.
Surface sampling methods, for example, swab, surface rinse, and adhesive tape
methods are widely used in the dairy industry.402 These methods involve transferring
residual contamination on the designated area of the surface to be tested to sterile
dilution blanks using cotton swabs, followed by the plate count method. Following
specified incubation (e.g., 30C/48 h), the colonies are counted to determine the level
of contamination. Another method used for assessing microbiological contamination
on dairy plant surfaces is the RODAC plate method which involves pressing of small
plastic petri dish ( 25 cm2) containing solidified agar medium to the surface followed by incubation and counting of colonies. The RODAC plates are not suitable
for wet or heavily contaminated surfaces.
Recently, rapid dip-stick type methods for determining total or coliform counts
on dairy plant surfaces have been introduced. These methods may be used in conjunction with the swab or rinse method. They are preferred by some laboratories as
they eliminate the need for using petri dishes.

5.9.4 Shelf-Life Tests


Traditionally, shelf life of pasteurized milk and milk products has been determined
using the Mosley test,58'400 which involves the comparison of the plate count of the
sample on day zero and after 5 or 7 days of storage at 7C. The Mosley count yields
high correlation with the shelf life and is widely used in the dairy industry for
categorizing milks as "poor," "marginal," or "good." However, it is impractical
due to the time (up to 9 days) required to obtain results.
As the shelf life of milk and dairy products depends on the extent of postpasteurization contamination, particularly psychrotrophic bacteria, attempts have been
made to devise a modified psychrotrophic bacterial counts. Methods based on preincubation of the sample, increasing the incubation temperature, use of selective enrichment designed to enumerate Gram-negative bacteria, or a combination of these
have been developed for assessing shelf life of milk and milk products.422-423'427
Also, several rapid and automated methods, for example DEFT, the catalasemeter,
impedimetric evaluation, and the LAL test have been used for determining shelf life
of milk and milk products.398*422-426-427
Recently, mathematical models have been used for monitoring product quality107
and shelf-life prediction.476"478 In this procedure regression equations are generated
to predict the growth and relative growth rate of spoilage microorganisms at various
product temperatures. One such model is the square root model of Ratkowsky et
al. 479 This model has been used for predicting shelf life of pasteurized milk.476-477-480

5.10 Microbiology of Milk and Dairy Products


The microbiological spoilage of milk and dairy products will depend on the quality
of the raw milk used to make the products, the contamination during processing, the

processing that has been done to the products, the final pH and water activity of the
products, the packaging and storage conditions, and the intended shelf life of the
products. Zikakis481 has reviewed these factors that affect the keeping quality of
dairy products. Cooling and refrigeration have been extensively used to slow the
growth of psychrotrophic microorganisms and stop the growth of mesophilic and
thermophilic microorganisms. After milk reaches the processing plant, it can be
pasteurized or sterilized to reduce some or all spoilage microorganisms, respectively.
In addition milk can be fermented to make several different types of dairy products
that have decreased pH and, in some cases, water activity when compared to fluid
milk. A two-volume book on dairy microbiology has recently been revised and edited
by Robinson.482'483 In the first volume the microbiology of raw, heat-treated, dried,
and concentrated milks is reviewed. The second volume focuses on the microbiology
of cream, ice cream and frozen desserts, butter, cheese, and fermented milks. More
details on the spoilage of these dairy products can be obtained from these books.
This section will be a brief review of the microbiology and potential spoilage of
dairy products.

5.10.1 Pasteurized Milk and Cream


The microbiological quality of the raw milk before processing will have an effect
on the final milk quality after pasteurization. Cousin6 has reviewed the growth and
activity of psychrotrophs in milk. Generally, Gram-negative bacteria, such as species
of Pseudomonas, Moraxella, Flavobacterium, Acinetobacter, and Alcaligenes predominate over Gram-positive bacteria in causing spoilage of pasteurized milks.
These bacteria are part of the microflora of raw milk that can become resident in the
dairy plant and contaminate the milk after it has been pasteurized because these
Gram-negative bacteria are sensitive to heat and would be killed by normal pasteurization. Many Gram-negative bacteria produce proteinases and lipases that result
in decreased product quality. Acinetobacter species can also produce slime in
milk.484 Enterobacteriaceae, such as, Citrobacter freundii, Serratia liquefaciens,
E. coli, Enterobacter agglomerans, Enterobacter cloacae, and Klebsiella ozaenae
have been isolated from milk.485 In pure culture studies, these Enterobacteriaceae
decreased the pH to 6, reduced the redox potential, and produced protoeolytic and
lipolytic degradation in milk. Yeasts can be isolated from both raw and pasteurized
milks.99'486 Species of Rhodotorula, Candida, Cryptococcus, and Kluyveryomyces
can be found in milk but they are readily out-competed by the psychrotrophic
bacteria.
Gebre-Egziabher et al.487 reported that raw milk could be held for 3 days at the
farm if proper sanitation and storage conditions were followed. This milk would still
be acceptable for processing into fluid milk and other dairy products. Milks with
high psychrotrophic counts before pasteurization generally result in milk that spoils
faster at refrigeration temperatures.488 Off-flavors, particularly bitterness, are reported for these milks and are probably due to the proteinases produced by the
psychrotrophs. Muir and Phillips489 set the rejection level for raw milk at 5 X 106
cfu/ml after studying storage time and initial count to calculate the generation time.

Several studies have been done on the keeping quality of the milk once it has
been pasteurized and stored. Schroder490 studied the postpasteurization contamination of milk and reported that Gram-negative bacteria were not detectable immediately after pasteurization, but could be detected in the packaged milk samples. Psychrotrophic bacteria were recovered from storage tanks and filling equipment,
suggesting that these were areas where postpasteurization contamination was occurring. Flavor defects were noted when psychrotrophic levels reached 107 cfu/ml. The
temperature of pasteurized milk storage also plays a role in the overall spoilage of
the product. Much research has been done to predict the keeping quality or shelf life
of pasteurized milk. Griffiths et al.57 found that psychrotrophic counts rather than
total aerobic counts were better indicators for the shelf life of milk stored at 60C;
however, the prediction of shelf life was correct only 51 to 72% of the time. Hence,
preincubation tests that took 24 to 50 h to complete were used to improve the predictability to 83 to 87% for correct identification of pasteurized milk and cream that
would have an estimated shelf life. Bishop and White423 suggested that the ideal test
for estimating the shelf life of milk should be simple to do, indicate the exact number
of microorganisms in the milk, produce results in a very short time, and be economical. Some of the new methods discussed included detection of metabolites (proteases, lipases, and endotoxins) and use of automated estimation of total numbers
(impedance). Chen and ZaIl491 suggested using a bar-coded polymer that shows
temperature changes to determine potential spoilage of milk. The polymer reflectance
changes correlated to the taste of the milk for some of the samples, but not for all
samples. Therefore, more research needs to be done on the use of these temperature
indicators. Mathematical models have been used to study bacterial growth.107 Chandler and McMeekin477-480 studied a temperature function integration model based on
the square root to predict the spoilage of milk and found that at temperatures < 15C,
the curve had a T0 (conceptual temperature where the square root of growth is zero)
of 264 K if the spoilage limit was set at 107 5 cfu/ml for pseudomonads. This model
takes into account temperature variations during storage and can be used to monitor
a product continually. Obviously, more research needs to be done on the prediction
of the keeping quality of pasteurized milk and cream.
The microflora of the pasteurized milk will also be a result of the pasteurization
treatment that is given.105'492 Cromie et al.105 studied 15 temperatures between 72
and 880C for 1 to 45 s followed by aseptic packaging. In these milks coryneform
bacteria (Microbacterium and Corynebacteriwri) made up 83.8% of the population
followed by 12.8% Gram-positive cocci (species of Micrococcus, Aerococcus, and
Streptococcus) and by 3.4% Bacillus species. B. circulans was the predominant
microorganisms isolated when these milk(s), regardless of pasteurization temperature, were spoiled. This suggests that aseptic packaging prevents the entrance into
pasteurized milk of the normal Gram-negative postpasteurization spoilage microflora
and only the thermoduric bacteria will be of concern. Psychrotrophic Bacillus species
were found more frequently in the summer-autumn months than in the winter-spring
months.493 Psychrotrophic species most frequently identified were B. cereus, B. circulans, and B. mycoides. Therefore, Bacillus species become important when they
are selected by temperature and aseptic conditions of packaging.

5.10.2 Dried Milk Powder


Dried milk powder does not support microbial growth, but microorganisms and their
enzymes can be present and cause problems on use once rehydrated. Although there
is not agreement on the quality of the dried milk powder, some specifications
suggested for a quality milk powder are a total count of <50,000 cfu/g, a coliform
count of <10 cfu/g, a spore count of <1000 spores/g, a yeast and mold count of
<10 cfu/g, and the absence of Salmonella species.494 The total count and thermoduric bacterial count generally decreased throughout the drying of skim milk with
the greatest decreases at the higher temperatures of processing.494'495 As the total
solids content increased so did the thermal resistance of bacteria during spray
drying.496 The spray drying process did not result in straight lines for the plot of the
natural log (initial number/number after time t) versus the reciprocal of the absolute
outlet temperatures.497 Death of microbes during spray drying is, therefore, complex.
Stadhouders et al. 498 reported that Bacillus species, Clostridium perfringens, Microbacterium lacticum, Streptococcus thermophilus, and Enterococcus species (E.,fae~
cium and E. faecalis), S. aureus, and other thermoduric bacteria were isolated from
spray dried milk. Chopra and Mathur499 also isolated thermophilic Bacillus species
from spray- and roller-dried skim milk powder. Chopin500 reported that some Lactococcus bacteriophages were resistant to spray drying and were not reduced for 9
months during storage of milk powder. These bacteriophage could potentially cause
problems in cultured products that are made with milks where bacteriophage have
survived processing. Therefore, the survival of bacteria in dried milk could result in
problems for subsequent products that are made from the rehydrated powder.
Psychrotrophs that have previously grown in milk can change the properties of
dried milk. Burlingame-Frey and Marth501 reported that freeze-dried milk made from
milk with previous psychrotrophic growth and either increased or decreased dispersibility and foam production, depending on the type of psychrotroph and increased
insolubility. These changes were attributed to the degradation of milk proteins. Previous microbial growth can, therefore, affect the functional properties of the final
powder.

5.10.3 Evaporated Milk


Evaporated milk is heat processed in the can; therefore, the keeping quality will
depend on the successful commercial sterilization. One problem that has been noted
is flat sour due to Bacillus spores. Kalogridou-Vassiliadou et al.502 isolated bacilli
from 82.2% of spoiled evaporated milk samples. Most isolates were B. coagulans,
B. licheniformis, and B. stearothermophilus. These bacilli reduced the pH to 4.7 to
5.3 and produced acid and cheesy odors/flavors and dark colored milk. The sources
of these contaminants were studied during the processing of evaporated milk.503
B. coagulans and B. licheniformis were isolated from all raw milk samples used in
the processing and from some canned evaporated milks. B. stearothermophilus was
isolated from some raw milk samples. Enterococcus faecium and Bacillus subtilis
were isolated from an acid-coagulated evaporated milk.504 Both acid and gas pro-

duction that resulted in ruptured cans were noted in spoiled evaporated milk. Proteolysis by B. subtilis stimulated the E.faecium. The heat resistance of these isolates
was not studied in the evaporated milk. Usually evaporated milk will spoil because
the processing has not been adequate to inactivate the spore-forming Bacillus species
in the milk. The evaporation will concentrate both the milk and spores and make the
thermal processing more complicated.

5.10.4 Cottage Cheese


Cottage cheese is a nonripened cheese with a high water activity and pH around 5.0;
therefore, it is susceptible to both bacterial and fungal spoilage. Pseudomonas species
(P. putida and P. fluorescens) and Enterobacter agglomerans have been isolated
from spoiled cottage cheese.505-506 Most of these isolates grew at pH 4.9 at either 7
or 200C. E. agglomerans grew at pH 4.6 and some strains grew at pH 3.8 at 7C.
Brocklehurst and Lund507 studied the microbial changes in commercially produced
creamed cottage cheese. Bacteria in the genera Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Bacillus,
and Enterobacter were detected in spoiled cottage cheese that was stored at 7C.
Yeasts species of Trichosporon, Candida, Cryptococcus, and Sporobolomyces were
found at the end of the storage life of the creamed cottage cheese at 7C. Fleet and
Mian486 reported that cottage cheese samples had 101 and 107 yeasts/g, mainly species of Candida, Cryptococcus, and Rhodotorula. Bigalke508-509 suggested that raw
milk standards for cottage cheese be <1000 psychrotrophs/ml and <50,000 total
count/ml for good quality cottage cheese that has final product counts of < Vsog for
psychrotrophs and yeasts/molds. The keeping quality of cottage cheese will depend
on the contamination after processing by psychrotrophic bacteria and yeasts, and in
some cases molds.

5.10.5 Mold-Ripened Cheeses


Most mold-ripened cheeses are soft to semisoft in texture. These include blue-veined
cheeses, such as Roquefort, Blue, Gorgonzola, and Stilton, and Camembert and Brie.
These cheeses can spoil due to bacteria, yeasts, and molds. In a survey of blueveined cheeses in The Netherlands, de Boer and Kuik510 isolated Enterobacteriaceae, B. cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus from 40%, 10%, and 5% of the cheeses,
respectively. Yersinia enterocolitica and L. monocytogenes were isolated only from
1 and 2 cheese samples, respectively, out of 256 cheeses analyzed. The yeasts most
frequently isolated were Debaryomyces hansenii followed by Kluyveromyces marxianus, Sacchromyces cerevisiae, Yarrowia lipolytica, and Candida species. Some of
these yeasts may help to produce flavor in the cheeses and may not be spoilage
microbes. Fleet" reported that species of Torulopsis, Hansenula, and Pichia can
also be isolated from blue-veined cheeses. The lactose fermenting strains help to
open the texture of the cheese for better penetration of Penicillium roqueforti. Yeasts
produce alcohols for ester generation. Since many of these yeasts use lactic acid, the
pH of the cheese increases and bacteria can then grow. Molds, such as Geotrichum

candidum, Penicillium camemberti, P. verrucosum, and Cladosporium macrocarpum, also were isolated from the blue-veined cheeses.
Enterobacteriaceae were isolated from 85 and 88% of Brie and Camembert
cheeses, respectively.511 The highest number was in the rind as opposed to the core
of the cheese. Escherichia coli was isolated in >10 2 cfu/g in 23 to 32% of the
Camembert and Brie cheeses, respectively. Bacterial pathogens were found in relatively few samples. S. aureus was isolated from one Brie and three Camembert
cheeses; Y. enterocolitica was isolated from only three cheeses; B. cereus was found
in one Brie and four Camembert cheeses. Yeasts (mainly Yarrowia lipolytica, Debaryomyces hansenii, Kluyveromyces marxianus, and Candida spp.) were isolated
from over 80% of the Brie and camembert cheeses. In addition to P. camemberti,
other molds, such as G. candidum, Cladosporium macrocarpum, Stachybotrys chartarum, Mucor plumbeus, Aspergillus niger, and Fusarium were isolated from some
of these cheeses. Mold contamination was minimal.

5.10.6 Hard Cheese


Molds are the most common contaminant of hard cheeses. Tsai et al.206 examined
surplus commodity cheese in United States warehouses and found that all isolates
were Penicillium species. The major species isolated from these cheeses have been
identified as P. roqueforti, P. cyclopium, P. viridicatum, and P. crustosum. Although
molds are the major spoilage microorganisms for hard cheeses, there can be special
problems with bacteria and yeasts. Previous growth of psychrotrophic bacteria in
cheese milk can cause flavor and odor problems in the finished cheeses. Lipolytic
changes have been implicated in the low flavor scores for cheese.97'512-513 Proteolysis
has also been attributed to the presence of bitter and unclean flavors in cheese.6-97
In Edam, Emmenthal, Gouda, and similar cheeses, Clostridium tyrobutyricum can
cause late swelling defects.514 Rind rot of Swiss cheese was caused by Pseudomonas
putida and Klebsiella pneumoniae.515 This defect with soft white spots on the surface
is seen during ripening of the cheese at 22 to 24C for 4 to 6 weeks. In a study of
processed cheese, Warburton et al. 516 found that only 24% of the samples had >500
aerobic sporeformers/g and 15% had over 500 anaerobic sporeformers/g, suggesting
that good manufacturing practices were probably used in their manufacture.
Yeasts are infrequently reported as causing defects in hard cheeses.99 In a study
done by Fleet and Mian,486 Candida famata, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Candida
diffluens, Cryptococcusflavus, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were isolated from 38,
19, 14, 8, and 8% of the Cheddar cheese samples, respectively. The determination
of whether the presence of these yeasts constitutes spoilage depends on whether they
can grow in the cheese. Horwood et al.517 examined a 6-month-old commercial
Cheddar cheese that had a "fermented yeasty" defect and noted that high levels of
ethanol, ethylacetate, and ethyl butyrate were identified by gas chromatography.
About 105 yeasts/g of cheese were enumerated and the yeasts were identified tentatively as Candida species. As this cheese had a high moisture content and low
starter activity and salt content, Candida spp. or other yeasts could easily grow and

produce off-flavors. The final spoilage of hard cheeses will depend on the pH, water
activity, packaging, and storage conditions.

5.10.7 Yogurt and Cultured Milks


The pH of yogurt and fermented milks will normally limit the bacterial spoilage
potential and select for mold and yeast growth. Generally yeasts limit the shelf life
of yogurt because they can cause sufficient gas production at 105 to 106 yeasts/g to
produce a swollen package." Yeasts can contaminate the yogurt because of poor
sanitation or due to contaminated ingredients, such as fruits, nuts, and sweeteners.
Tamime et al.518 surveyed yogurts in Ayrshire and found that 80% of the samples
had <10 yeasts/g when examined after manufacture. However, after storage at 5C,
the counts increased to up to 104 yeasts/g depending on the season, source, and
flavor. Some of the fruit-flavored yogurts in this study also had preservatives added,
but that did not prevent the count from increasing to the high levels. A survey of
liquid yogurt in Saudi Arabia revealed that very low levels of molds and yeasts
(<100/g) were found in yogurts stored at 7C; however, if stored at 10 to 15C the
counts increased to 104 to 106 yeasts and molds/g.519 In several surveys of yogurts,
yeasts belonging to the genera Candida, Kloeckera, Kluyveryomyces, Pichia, Rhodotorula, Saccharomyces, and Torulopsis have been isolated.486'520"522 KcKay523
isolated Yarrowia lipolytica from yogurt. In all of these studies few of the isolated
yeasts were able to ferment lactose. Only Kluyveryomyces species520"522 and Torulopsis versatilis522 were able to ferment lactose. Many could use lactic acid and
several fermented galactose and sucrose and most fermented glucose and fructose.
Fleet and Mian486 and Suriyarachchi and Fleet522 reported that most isolates were
not inhibited by sorbate or benzoate and could grow in yogurt with these preservatives. Langeveld and Bolle524 isolated non-lactose-fermenting yeasts from yogurt
and reported that the availability of oxygen was the limiting factor for potential
growth. Banks and Board124 isolated species of Candida cryptococcus, Debaryomyces, and Rhodotorula from dairy products, such as yogurt, cheese, butter, and
quark.
Molds have also been isolated from yogurt. Garcia and Fernandez525 found that
the microflora of yogurt in Spain consisted of species of Penicillium, Monilia, CIadosporium, Micella sterilia, Alternaria, Rhizopusy and Aspergillus. Both Penicillium
and Monilia species were most frequently isolated. Only one toxigenic species, Penicillium frequentans, was isolated from these yogurt samples.525
Other cultured dairy products can be contaminated by microorganisms. Buttermilk can be contaminated by bacteria. Psychrotrophic bacteria can reduce diacetyl
yielding flavor loss, off-odors and -flavors, and discoloration in buttermilk.526 Generally, Pseudomonas spp. can grow if the pH is above 5.0 and cause these problems.
When Hankin et al.527 studied sour cream and sour dressings, they found that microbial contamination depended on the samples. Only 2 of 21 samples had high
aerobic counts (mainly Gram-positive bacteria), 7 of the 21 samples had yeast levels
>50/g, and over half the samples had >10 coliforms/g, suggesting poor processing

and packaging techniques. Very few Gram-negative bacteria, which are able to degrade protein and fat, were isolated from the products.

5.10.8 Butter
Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion that contains over 80% fat. Generally, well made
butter from pasteurized cream has few microbiological problems unless there is
postprocessing contamination and storage at temperatures above refrigeration. Hankin and Hanna528 did a survey on 32 butter samples and found that five had counts
>10 5 aerobic bacteria/g, four of the samples had psychrotrophic counts above 1000
cfu/g, only four samples had more than 200 yeasts and molds/g, and only five samples had high lipolytic or proteolytic bacterial counts (>5 X 103 cfu/g). Although
there are no definite microbial standards for butter, most of these samples would be
considered microbiologically acceptable and would be expected to have long shelf
lives. The incidence of yeasts in butter is very low.99-486 Jensen et al.529 found that
the storage temperature and salt had an inhibitory effect on yeasts in butter. Also,
both coliform and other bacteria were reduced in number over time in salted butter.
Mold growth in butter was effectively inhibited by 0.1% potassium sorbate with or
without an added 2% sodium chloride.530 The potential for microbial spoilage of
butter will depend on the microorganisms in the water phase, the temperature of
storage, and the amount of salt present.

5.10.9 Ice Cream and Frozen Dairy Desserts


Microorganisms cannot grow in ice cream and frozen dairy desserts as long as the
temperatures remain below 100C; however, the presence of microorganisms in
these products can give information about the raw ingredient quality and the sanitary
nature of processing and packaging. Bigalke531 reported that ice cream can become
contaminated by ingredients that are added postpasteurization and by improper sanitation of equipment and the environment. Hence, <10 coliforms/ml of ice cream
have been set in the United States to show that both good quality ingredients and
proper sanitation have been used in ice cream manufacture.532 There have been some
surveys in the last decade of the bacteriological quality of ice cream and related
products. Ryan and Gough533 surveyed soft-serve frozen dairy products over a 2-year
period in Louisiana and found that 38.5% of the ready-to-serve samples had >50,000
bacteria/g and 51.2% of these products had > 10 coliforms/g. These results suggested
that there were sanitation problems associated with soft-serve frozen products. A
study of the bacteriological quality of ice cream over three summers in the Netherlands revealed that 11% of the samples had >10 5 bacterial/ml which is the legal
limit and 33% of the samples exceeded the Dutch law for coliforms.534 Staphylococcus aureus was found in 7 of 89 samples, with the highest count at 2.2 X 104
cfu/ml and Bacillus cereus was isolated from 30 of 100 samples with the highest
count at 2.8 X 102 cfu/ml. Massa et al.535 surveyed Italian ice cream over 15 months
and found that all ice cream samples had counts <10 5 cfu/g (Italian Standard) with
most being < 102 to 103 cfu/g. Only 6% of the samples had fecal coliforms exceeding

the 100 cfu/g limit and only 3.2% of the samples exceeded the limit of 12 cfu/g for
S. aureus; none of the isolates could produce enterotoxins A to D. Yeasts are reported
only in low levels in ice cream, generally <10 3 cfu/g.99'486

5.11 Microbiological Considerations of New


Processing Technologies
Processing technologies for dairy products are continually changing and being updated to meet the needs of consumers for new and improved foods that have acceptable sensory attributes and extended shelf life. If these technologies are to be
effectively used, then their effects on microorganisms must be thoroughly evaluated
and understood. During the past decade, some technologies that have been used to
a limited extent began to gain more interest and commercial use in the dairy industry.
Three of these technologies are ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, and ultra high temperature (UHT) processing. Three new processing technologies that are not used
commercially to any great extent are irradiation, microwave, and supercritical CO2
processing. The microbiology of all these processing technologies will be briefly
discussed.

5.11.1 Ulatrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis


Although they are not new technologies, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis are still
evolving and more information on the microbiological aspects has been generated
over the past decade. Ultrafiltration (UF) is a fractionation and concentration process
that is pressure driven and uses a semipermeable membrane with specific pore sizes
that act as a molecular sieve. Molecules with molecular weights larger than the
molecular weight cutoff of the membrane are retained (retentate) and molecules that
are smaller pass through the membranes (permeate). UF has mainly been used to
concentrate milk for production of soft cheeses (Camembert, Brie, Feta, Quarg,
Ricotta, and cream cheese) and some hard cheeses (Mozzarella, Blue, Cheddar,
Brick, and others). A recent review by Lelievre and Lawrence536 gives more details
on cheese manufacture with UF. Much research has been done on cheese, yogurt,
and other dairy product manufacture, but not much research has been done on the
microbiology of UF milk.
Bacterial cells, spores, and bacteriophages are retained and concentrated with the
milk proteins.537 The bacteria can grow during UF if the temperature is in the right
range. Viellet-Poncet et al. 537 reported that both mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria increased eightfold when milk was concentrated to 4:1 at 35C. Increases from
2.8- to 10-fold in the mesophilic and psychrotrophic counts have been reported
during ultrafiltration.538'539 When milk was ultrafiltered at 500C, the bacterial count
concentrated proportionally to that of the milk.229 A spore-forming contaminant,
tentatively identified as Bacillus cereus, also concentrated and caused problems later
in the use of the milk. Eckner and Zottola540 reported that UF of reconstituted skim
milk at >50C reduced or eliminated the levels of Pseudomonas fragi in retentates.

Barbano et al.240 reported that levels of psychrotrophs from <100 to 14 X 106/ml


did not change the flux during UF. Bacteriophage concentrated, mainly with the
casein, at about the same rate as protein when concentrated twofold, but only 2.4:1
when concentrated fourfold.541 These phages were destroyed at 85C for 30 min.
Zottola et al.542 reported that bacteriophages did not pass through the UF membrane,
but were trapped in the polysulfone membrane or remained in the retentate. The
temperature of the ultrafiltration process can, therefore, affect the kinds and numbers
of surviving microorganisms.
Limited research has been done on the growth of pathogens in retentates. Haggerty and Potter543 noted that Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, and
Escherichia coli grew as well in a twofold retentate as in skim milk at 13C. Enteropathogenic E. coli survived and grew better in UF retentates than in skim milk due
to the high buffering capacity.544 Growth of enteropathogenic E. coli could be prevented in Camembert cheese if milk was preacidified to pH 5.9 and an active starter
was used545 or if partial fermentation followed by diafiltration to reduce the buffering
capacity was used.546 Salmonella typhimurium var. Hillfarm grew in retentate concentrated twofold at 7 and 100C, but S. aureus grew only at 100C.540 When grown
in the presence of Pseudomonas fragi, S. aureus grew better probably due to the
proteolysis by P. fragi. In high moisture Monterey Jack cheese, S. aureus levels
remained stable and Salmonella spp. decreased during 6 months at 4.5C.547 The
thermal resistance of S. aureus did not change from whole or skim milk to fourfold
concentrated milk.548 Similar results were reported by Haggerty and Potter543 for
twofold concentrated milk.
The growth of various lactic acid starter cultures has been studied in ultrafiltered
milk549 to determine whether they produce the same amount of acid and lower the
pH to the same level as in nonfiltered milk. Hickey et al. 550 reported that strains of
Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris produced more lactic
acid in UF retentates of 5:1 and 2.5:1 compared to whole milk. Although more acid
was produced, the corresponding pH values did not decrease accordingly. Other
researchers reported similar results.229-549'551552 The increased buffering capacity in
the UF retentates prevented the pH from being decreased to its normal level. Mistry
and Kosikowski551 noted that increasing the inoculum level did not change the ability
of the culture to lower the pH and retentates of four- to five-fold concentration could
not have the pH reduced to 4.6 even after 11 h of fermentation. Srilaorkul et al.549
reported that the maximum buffering capacity was pH 5 to 5.4 due to the protein
and minerals, especially phosphate, calcium, and magnesium. The high buffering
capacity could be overcome if a high inoculum level (up to 10%) of a very proteolytic
starter was used. However, use of highly proteolytic strains can result in bitter flavor
development. Other ways that have been used to overcome the buffering capacity
are acidification of milk before UF or diafiltration of UF milk to reduce the mineral
content. Ultrafiltration to five-fold decreases the B-vitamins, thiamin, riboflavrn, niacin, pantothenate, and biotin by 85,71, 87, 82, and 84%, respectively.553 Free amino
acids also decreased by 50 to 98% in five-fold retentates. Mistry et al. 554 found that
neither mineral nor vitamin B addition to 2- to 2.4-fold retentates produced significant increases in lactic production by L. lactis subsp. cremoris or L. lactis subsp.

lactis. Qvist et al.555 made Havarti cheese from UF five-fold retentates and found
that the degradation of /3-casein was retarded in UF cheeses and slower flavor development by diacetyl producers was noted as a result of slow protein breakdown.
There results plus those given above for growth of lactic acid starters in UF retentates
suggest that special concerns for pH, decreased moisture, and proper flavor development are needed when cheese is made from UF retentates.
Because UF retentates have high buffering capacity, they could be used as media
for propagation of lactic starter cultures for dairy manufacture. Christopherson and
Zottola556 found that strains of L. lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris
generally grew to higher cell numbers in UF retentates with 12 to 13% total solids
compared to nonfat dry milk reconstituted to 8.3 and 15% solids; therefore, retentates
could serve as natural buffered media for starter culture propagation. Whey permeate
could also serve as a medium to propagate lactic starter cultures because the decreased lactose and increased solids content compared to skim milk kept the pH
higher. 557558 Addition of 1% yeast extract to the permeate stimulate growth of the
Lactococcus spp. Cheddar cheese whey permeate was used successfully to propagate
strains of L. lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris over several transfers
for Colby cheese manufacture.557 The pH and bacterial count from Colby cheese
made with a two-fold retentate were comparable to cheese made from unconcentrated
milks; however, the moisture content was higher.
Whey permeate has a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) that can result in
high sewage treatment costs. Reinbold and Takemoto559 showed that Bacillus megaterium, Rhodopseudomonas sphaerroides, and Kluyveromyces fragilis could reduce
the BOD of permeate from 15,500 mg/L to 1580 mg/L. Further research is needed
on the reduction of BOD in permeate by bacteria and yeasts.
Another concern of using UF technology is the ability to properly clean and
sanitize the membranes after use.560 Several reports have been published on the
inability of commercial cleaners and sanitizers to effectively remove microorganisms
from the membranes.561"565 Bisulfite was not an effective sanitizer of unclean membranes because it needed a pH of 3.5 which resulted in corrosion and pitting of
stainless steel fittings and rubber gaskets.562 Even if the membranes were clean, none
of the sanitizers (50 ppm available chlorine, 0.2% hydrogen peroxide, acid anionic
surfactant at pH 2.5) were completely effective because of circulation problems.563
A new sanitizer that releases chlorine dioxide and chlorous acid from a sodium
chlorite solution at pH 2.7 effectively sanitized a polysulfone UF membrane; however, electron micrographs showed that the membranes were still plugged with particulates, such as protein and possibly nonviable bacteria.561 More research needs to
be done to improve the UF membranes, produce better cleaners than are now available, and manufacture acceptable sanitizers.
Reverse osmosis (RO) has not had as much acceptance as UF because the cellulose acetate membranes could withstand temperatures to only 35C.566 RO is a
concentration method that allows most water to pass through the membane under
pressure and retains most other components. Normal RO operating temperatures of
20 to 35C allowed psychrotrophic and mesophilic microorganisms to grow. Now
new composite membranes can be operated up to 500C; however, little research has

been done with them. Previous research with the cellulose acetate membranes had
shown that RO could be used to manufacture yogurt that compared to conventionally
manufactured products for culture growth, acid production, viscosity, and flavor.567
RO has been used for experimental production of butter, reduced water content in
fluid milks, yogurt, and skim milk powder.568 Drew and Manners569 showed that
processing at 50 to 55C reduced the bacterial population in RO concentrates; however, psychrotrophs grew at about the same rate in RO and raw milk at 5C. Cromie
et al.566 reported that preheating milk to 500C before RO of 2:1 reduced the psychrotrophic, proteolytic, lipolytic, and coliform bacteria, and yeasts and molds by
16 to 50%. In RO concentrates it took 3.5 days longer for the count to reach the
same level as in the raw milk. As newer, more temperature-stable membranes are
developed, there will be a need for more research on RO.
Microfiltration is a separation process that uses filters with pore sizes of 0.1 to
10 fim to remove microorganisms from liquid that results in a permeate (filtrate)
and retentate (concentrate).570 A small pressure differential is used across the membrane.571 Microfiltration of milk reduced the B. cereus spore count by 99.95 to
99.98% and the total count by 99.99%.571 Microfiltration units that can filter viscous
liquids are pleated tangential crossflow cartridges.572 This type of filtration can be
used to separate bacteria from milk in addition to fat from milk and casein from
milk protein. Microfiltration can remove bacteria and clostridial spores from milk
better than by bactofugation. Trouve et al. 573 showed that a 1.4 /xm membrane
retained 99.93 to 99.99% of the bacteria when milk was microfiltered. Microfiltration
may find greater uses in the future for removing bacteria from milk for both fluid
consumption and manufacturing uses.

5.11.2 Ultrahigh Temperature Sterilization of Milk


and Dairy Products
Ultrahigh temperature (UHT) sterilization is not a new technology; however, it is
plagued with some microbiological problems. Burton574 reviewed 35 years of research and development in UHT processing of milk and dairy products. The bacteriology of UHT processing, especially resistance of spores to high temperatures, has
been reviewed by Brown and Ayres575 and Burton.576 Two major concerns of UHT
processing of milk and dairy products are the heat resistance of bacterial spores and
bacterial or native enzymes, particularly proteases and Upases.
Cerf577 reviewed the techniques for measuring heat resistance of bacterial spores
for optimizing UHT processing. The best microbes to use for the thermal process
calculations are natural thermophilic sporeformers from milk. The best process is to
use the actual UHT equipment to determine the heat resistance of the spores. Duquet
et al.578 studied the thermal resistance of mesophilic and thermophilic spores during
UHT processing of milk and found that the DX2\c w a s 0.6 and 58s, respectively.
Z values were 10 and 9.6 K, respectively. D values of Bacillus stearothermophilus
spores in sterilized milk were 22.4 , 3.5, and 0.37 min at 115.5C, 121.10C, and
126.6C, respectively.579 The spores for these experiments were produced at 55C
in trypticase soy broth (pH 7.1) with 25 ppm of calcium, 31 ppm of iron, 30 ppm

of manganese, and 11 ppm of magnesium. One concern with spores at the temperatures above 121C is whether they have a Z value of 100C. Brown and Gaze580
studied the thermal resistance of Clostridium botulinum from 120 to 1400C and found
that the Z value was 11C; therefore, the traditional botulinal process can be safely
extrapolated to UHT-processed foods. Lembke and Wartenberg234 suggested using
a bactofuge to remove bacteria from milk before it was UHT processed. Some Bacillus species that were isolated from spoiled UGT-processed milk were identified
as mesophilic Bacillus species, B. subtilis, and B. cereus.581 As these strains had
Z values of 5.6 to 8.8C, they should have been inactivated by the UHT process.
This could suggest postprocess contamination of the UHT milk. The studies that
have been done suggest that spores, even thermophilic ones, should be inactivated
by the UHT processing.
Proteinases and Upases have not been inactivated by UHT processing and can
cause problems in the milk during extended storage. Adams and Brawley582 reported
that lipase from a Pseudomonas sp. had D values of 1620 to 63 s at 100 to 1500C.
The Z value was 38.4C. Kroll2 and Fox et al.1 have reviewed the heat resistance of
proteinases and lipases, especially those produced by Pseudomonas species. A modified UHT treatment of 1400C for 5 s followed by 600C for 5 min reduced the proteolytic and lipolytic activity in milk.583-584 The presence of proteinases and lipases
in the milk used for UHT processing can therefore create problems with the final
product. Gillis et al.585 and Mottar et al.586 reported that milk with high proteolytic
and psychrotrophic counts, especially Gram-negative bacteria, showed more proteolysis in the final UHT milks. Mottar et al.586 used in HPLC method to determine the
proteolytic quality of milk for UHT processing. Two components, identified only as
2 and 3, were highly correlated to protein breakdown by bacterial proteinases. Gillis
et al.585 found that both the Hull and the trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) tests
correlated proteolysis to milk samples with microbial populations between 105 and
106 cfu/ml. One of the problems is the ability to measure the proteolytic activity.
Rollema et al.587 did a collaborative study to compare several methods of detecting
bacterial proteinases in milk. The 2-fluorescamine, azocoll, and TNBS assays were
equally sensitive and gave comparable results. The results of the proteolytic assays
needs to be compared to the keeping quality or shelf life of the UHT milk.
Several of the effects of proteinases and lipases have been reviewed by Cousin100
and Mottar.97 The keeping quality of the milk is related to the presence and activity
of heat-resistant enzymes, especially proteinases. Bitter flavors and gelation are common factors in UHT milk spoilage. Keogh and Pettingill588 found a highly significant
correlation between proteolytic enzyme activity and age gelation of UHT milk. The
increase in free amino groups during 4 weeks of storage at 210C indicated that
proteolytic enzymes were active in UHT milk.589 Although Pseudomonas spp. are
most frequently identified as the protease producers, Keogh and Pettingill590 identified coryneform bacteria, such as Arthrobacter spp., as being involved in age gelation of UHT milk. Aseptically packaged UHT cream became bitter due to proteolytic enzymes that were optimally active at 30 to 37C.591 Heat-resistant lipases have
caused rancid flavors in UHT milks,592 but they are usually of lesser importance
than proteinases.97 The increase in lipolytic activity is normally followed by the acid

degree value or increase in free fatty acids, especially those with C4 to C12 chain
lengths.97'589-592 Both heat-resistant proteinases and lipases can affect the quality of
UHT milk. Hence, good quality assurance programs are needed to ensure that UHT
milk is of acceptable quality. Various aspects of quality assurance and final UHT
product quality are reviewed by Cordier,5 Dunkley and Stevenson,593 Farahnik,594
and Reinheimer et al.595 Additional research is needed to determine new methods
for the detection of heat-resistant proteinases and lipases in milk that is used for
UHT processing. Also, new methods are needed for the final assessment of sterility
of UHT-processed milk and dairy products.

5.11.3 Low-Dose Irradiation of Milk


Low-dose irradiation has been suggested for improving safety of foods by reducing
populations of food pathogens, such as Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, and others, and for increasing the shelf
life of perishable foods.596-597 Low-dose gamma-irradiation has been suggested for
milk, cheese, yogurt, and other dairy products. Raj and Roy598 reported that 10, 50,
and 100 Krad increased the storage life of raw milk at 8 to 100C by 33, 120, and
120 h, respectively. There was no change in either flavor or color after irradiation
at these doses. Sadoun et al.599 reported that irradiation of pasteurized milk above
0.5 KGy at 4C resulted in objectionable off-flavors. At this level, the total population
was reduced only by about 2 logrithmic cycles; however, if the milk was irradiated
at room temperature and stored at 4C, then the shelf life doubled. Pseudomonas
fluorescens and other species were easily killed by irradiation in this study. Searle
and McAthey600 found that it took about 200 Gy in air to decrease P. aeruginosa
by 5 logarithmic cycles and 600 Gy in nitrogen and that more than 1600 Gy were
needed to sterilize the UHT milk with P. aeruginosa added. The absence of air during
irradiation helps to lower the lipid peroxidation, but increases the time needed to kill
bacteria. Because the irradiated milk spoiled within 21 days, these authors suggested
that the bacteria were not being killed exponentially at higher irradiation levels. More
research needs to be done to determine what is happening with the irradiation of
milk because many of these experiments were done with different radiation doses,
different temperatures, and either raw or pasteurized milks.
Gamma irradiation has been used experimentally to decrease microbial populations in several dairy products. A dose of 400 Krad decreased the total microbial
count by 4 log cycles in fluid milk, but in whole milk powder this decreased the
microbial count only by 2 log cycles.601 The color and flavor were adversely affected
by irradiation in the milk powder. When Gouda cheese was irradiated at 60 Krad
for 1 h at 27,40, and 48C, coliforms, yeasts and molds, and psychrotrophs decreased
by 2 to 3 logarithmic cycles as the temperature increased from 27 to 48C. Additional
results of research have shown that 0.75 Gy decreased microbial populations by 96
to 99% in Camembert and cottage cheeses.602 Yiiccer and Giinduz603 suggested that
irradiation could be used as a supplement to other preservation methods because
levels of irradiation over 0.15 Mrad caused off-flavors and colors in Kashar cheese
and yogurt. At doses of 0.02 to 0.04 Mrad for 8 min at a rate of 0.0025 to 0.005

Mrad/min, irradiation increased the shelf life of cheese by four- to live-fold and
yogurt by three-fold. Irradiation at 78C and 40 KGy sterilized ice cream and
frozen yogurt, but not Mozzarella or Cheddar cheese.604 The 12 D values for B.
cereus spores in ice cream, frozen yogurt, and Mozzarella cheese were 49,47.9, and
43.1 KGy, respectively. Listeria monocytogenes was inactivated by irradiation at
-78C using low doses.604 The 12 D in Mozzarella cheese was 16.8 KGy. In ice
cream, the 12 D was 24.4 KGy. The results of this research indicate that low-dose
gamma irradiation can be used to lower the level of microorganisms and some pathogens in dairy products. More research is needed in this area to correlate levels that
reduce microorganisms versus those levels that result in organoleptic changes.

5.11.4 Microwave Processing of Milk and Dairy Products


The use of microwaves for pasteurization and sterilization of foods has been researched for years. Although the use of microwaves has been suggested as a way to
process milk and dairy products, its use is mainly in the laboratory phase.605"609'625
Pasteurized milk had to be heated to 55 to 600C by microwaves before significant
inactivation of psychrotrophs was noted.610'611 Jaynes612 showed that a microwave
treatment at 2450 MHz resulting in a temperature of 72C for 15 s hold could be
used as a continuous system for HTST pasteurization of milk. The use of microwaves
to simulate low temperaturelong time (LTLT) processing of 65C for 30 min was
as effective as conventional pasteurization.84 Knutson et al. 613 found that a simulated
HTST process by microwaves that achieved a temperature of 71.7C for 15 s did
not inactivate all cells of Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and
E. coll. Similarly, the simulated microwave LTLT did not inactivate Streptococcus
faecalis to the same level as seen in conventionally treated milk at 62.8C for 30
min. It was suggested that nonuniform heating in microwave ovens caused these
results. Tochman et al. 614 showed that microwave treatment of cottage cheese in the
package could extend the shelf life by 1 month over that of the nontreated control.
The microwave treatment resulted in a temperature of 48.8C that reduced the spoilage microorganisms and did not affect the organoleptic quality of the cottage cheese.
Additional suggested uses of microwave processing are for tempering and thawing
of frozen milk or butter and drying or evaporation of dairy products.609'615 Although
there are several advantages for using microwaves in food processing, several disadvantages, especially the cost for equipment and operation, low efficiency of conversion of electrical energy to microwave energy, uneven product heating, and organoleptic changes in products, have prevented widespread adoption of this new
technology.

5.11.5 Use of Carbon Dioxide and Supercritical Carbon


Dioxide for Reduction of Microbial Populations
CO2 in various atmospheres (modified atmospheric packaging) can affect populations of aerobic microorganisms. The use of CO 2 in packages with high barrier
properties has been used to extend the shelf life of refrigerated foods. Chen and

Hotchkiss616 reported that a headspace or 35 to 45% CO2 resulted in cottage cheese


in glass jars that had no increase in psychrotrophic microbial counts for 30 days at
70C or 80 days at 4C. Yeasts and molds were not detected in any cottage cheese
with added CO2. Research needs to be done with the plastic containers that are
currently used for cottage cheese packaging. Modified atmospheric packaging of
dairy products needs to be further investigated.
Supercritical extraction of milk fat using CO 2 has been evaluated because this
technique offers advantages over current separation processes. In supercritical CO2
extraction a range of both temperature and pressure of the gas is used at levels higher
than the critical values.617 This results in the separation based on molecular size.
Little is known about the microbiological effects of using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction methods. Kamihira et al.618 found the supercritical carbondioxide at
200 atm and 35C could drastically reduce populations of wet cells of yeasts, E. coli,
S. aureus, and Aspergillus niger, but no effect was seen with dry cells or spores of
Bacillus species. The death of microorganisms by supercritical CO 2 still needs a lot
more research before it can be suggested for use in pasteurizing or sterilizing milk
and dairy products.

5.12 Assuring Microbiological Quality and Safety


of Milk and Milk Products: HACCP Approach
Traditionally, quality and safety of milk and dairy products is evaluated in terms of
the presence (and levels) or absence of certain microorganisms in raw or finished
products. The traditional quality control programs emphasized inspection and endproduct testing to determine compliance with standards, specifications, and regulations pertaining to milk and dairy products. The major goal of these programs was
to reduce manufacturing defects in dairy foods through the use of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) in processing, random inspections, and laboratory analysis
of finished, packaged products, to ensure compliance with specifications and regulations. Recent incidences of pathogenic contaminations and recalls have clearly
demonstrated limitations of traditional quality control programs and emphasized the
need for a proactive, systematic approach to prevent defects from occurring in the
first place by monitoring the manufacturing process and raw material rather than
testing end products for defects or presence of contamination. The Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is an integral part of the total quality system
(TQS) or total quality management (TQM) approach currently in vogue worldwide.
The HACCP system was pioneered in the 1960s by the Pillsbury Company, the
U. S. Army Natick Research and Development Laboratories, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for designing pathogen-free foods for the space
program.619 Since the 1970s, the HACCP has been used for assuring safety of the
low-acid canned foods.620 The HACCP approach was adopted by major food companies and endorsed by national and international organizations and regulatory
agencies621"623 in the 1980s. The principle and basic elements of the HACCP system
are briefly reviewed.

5.12.1 HACCP Principle


The HACCP involves two main aspects:
1. Hazard Analysis: A critical examination of entire food manufacturing process to
determine every step, or point, where a possibility of physical, chemical, or microbiological contamination may enter the food and render it unsafe or unacceptable for human consumption.
2. Critical Control Points: A point in a food process where there is a high probability
that the lack of control may cause, allow, or contribute to a hazard or to filth in
the final food, or to decomposition of the final food.
Originally the HACCP included three principles: (1) hazard analysis and risk
assessment, (2) determination of CCPs, and (3) monitoring of the CCPs. However,
the U.S. National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria of Food
(NACMCF) expanded the original principles of the HACCP to seven principles: (1)
conduct hazard analysis and risk assessment, (2) determine CCPs (including CCP1
and CCP2 where complete or partial control of a potential hazard is affected), (3)
establish specifications for each CCP, (4) monitor each CCP, (5) establish corrective
action to be taken if a deviation occurs at a CCP, (6) establish a record-keeping
system, and (7) establish verification procedures.

5.12.2 Elements of the HACCP System


Some of the major elements of the HACCP system are as follows:
1. Develop an up-to-date plant flow diagram indicating clearly various streams
raw materials, processed products, CIP-lines, etc. The process flow diagram may
consist of several subsystems with an overall flow diagram showing integrated
systems. The product/process flow diagram must be accurate and match with
plant engineering blue prints.
2. Monitor quality or raw products and ingredients to ensure compliance vendor
agreements and specifications. This is particularly important for minimizing the
potential hazard of microbial contamination, metal fragments, filth, and other
impurities. Raw material quality control is the first line of defense against quality
problems in finished products.
3. Determine process compliance by frequent, if possible, on-line monitoring of
critical parameters such as temperature, pH, salt content, etc. It can be claimed
that if quality control of raw material and ingredients is perfect and the manufacturing process is in compliance with set specifications for that process, the
final product will be a quality product requiring very little end-product inspection
and testing.
4. In addition to cleaning and sanitation of processing equipment, control of plant
environment is critical to product safety and quality. Many organisms can be
transmitted through airborne contamination. Therefore, monitoring heating, ventilating and air conditioning system, drains, screen traps, etc. is essential for a
successful HACCP. Results of dairy plant surveillance by the industry and the

Next Page

FDA had indicated that organisms such as Listeria may indeed be isolated from
the plant environment. Isolating critical areas from main traffic flow and minimizing employee movement from the raw to the finished areas is critical in reducing the risk of pathogenic contamination.
5. Keep accurate records of critical control point monitoring and other process variable. Designate a specific location for these records and person(s) responsible
for maintaining records of the critical control point monitoring.
6. Finally, plan a good product recall (retrieval program that is adequately tested).
Designate a "response team" and a plan of action to be followed in the event of
product contamination.
The HACCP approach provides a systematic way to minimize hazards associated
with the raw or processed foods, including potential consumer abuse. Development
and implementation of the HACCP by major dairy food processors worldwide indicate the desire of the industry to provide high-quality, safe dairy products to the
consumer.

5.13 Conclusion
The significance of dairy microbiology vis-a-vis processing, manufacturing, safety,
quality, and shelf life of milk and dairy products, particularly new technologies such
as membrane processing, microwave, and UHT technology cannot be overemphasized. Much research has been done to understand the behavior of spoilage and
pathogenic organisms in milk and dairy foods. Yet, much information is needed to
devise practical ways of managing microbiological problems in the dairy industry.
Genetic manipulations of starter bacteria offer much promise for development of
strains with desirable properties for fermentation of conventional and novel dairy
foods and ingredients. Understanding of the crucial role of dairy microbiology has
led to regulations regarding the maximum levels of microbial contamination permitted. The increasing need for microbiological testing of milk and dairy products
has also prompted developments of rapid and automated methods in dairy microbiology.
This chapter has only touched on the main areas of dairy microbiology as it is
impossible to discuss in great detail the myriad of microorganisms that may be
associated with milk and dairy products. Further information on any of the areas
mentioned may be found in several recently published monographs, reviews, and
reference books, some of which are listed in this chapter. It is our hope that those
in the dairy industry interested in acquainting themselves with a basic knowledge of
dairy microbiology as well as those seeking review of research dealing with microbiological aspects of milk and dairy products processing, quality, and safety will
find the information presented here useful.

5.14

References

1. Fox, P. F., P. Power, and T. M. Cogan. 1989. Isolation and molecular characteristics. In R. C.
McKellar (ed.), Enzymes ofPsychrotrophs in Raw Food, pp. 57-120. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Previous Page

FDA had indicated that organisms such as Listeria may indeed be isolated from
the plant environment. Isolating critical areas from main traffic flow and minimizing employee movement from the raw to the finished areas is critical in reducing the risk of pathogenic contamination.
5. Keep accurate records of critical control point monitoring and other process variable. Designate a specific location for these records and person(s) responsible
for maintaining records of the critical control point monitoring.
6. Finally, plan a good product recall (retrieval program that is adequately tested).
Designate a "response team" and a plan of action to be followed in the event of
product contamination.
The HACCP approach provides a systematic way to minimize hazards associated
with the raw or processed foods, including potential consumer abuse. Development
and implementation of the HACCP by major dairy food processors worldwide indicate the desire of the industry to provide high-quality, safe dairy products to the
consumer.

5.13 Conclusion
The significance of dairy microbiology vis-a-vis processing, manufacturing, safety,
quality, and shelf life of milk and dairy products, particularly new technologies such
as membrane processing, microwave, and UHT technology cannot be overemphasized. Much research has been done to understand the behavior of spoilage and
pathogenic organisms in milk and dairy foods. Yet, much information is needed to
devise practical ways of managing microbiological problems in the dairy industry.
Genetic manipulations of starter bacteria offer much promise for development of
strains with desirable properties for fermentation of conventional and novel dairy
foods and ingredients. Understanding of the crucial role of dairy microbiology has
led to regulations regarding the maximum levels of microbial contamination permitted. The increasing need for microbiological testing of milk and dairy products
has also prompted developments of rapid and automated methods in dairy microbiology.
This chapter has only touched on the main areas of dairy microbiology as it is
impossible to discuss in great detail the myriad of microorganisms that may be
associated with milk and dairy products. Further information on any of the areas
mentioned may be found in several recently published monographs, reviews, and
reference books, some of which are listed in this chapter. It is our hope that those
in the dairy industry interested in acquainting themselves with a basic knowledge of
dairy microbiology as well as those seeking review of research dealing with microbiological aspects of milk and dairy products processing, quality, and safety will
find the information presented here useful.

5.14

References

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624. Merin, U., and I. Rosenthal. 1984. Pasteurization of milk by microwave irradiation. Milchwissenschaft 39:643-644.

APPENDIX

Food and Drug Administration


Part 135Frozen Desserts
April 1,1992*

Subpart AGeneral Provisions


Sec.
135.3 Definitions.
Subpart BRequirements for Specific
Standardized Frozen Desserts
135.110
135.115
135.120
135.125
135.130
135.140
135.160

Ice cream and frozen custard.


Goat's milk ice cream.
Ice milk.
Goat's milk ice milk.
Mellorine.
Sherbet.
Water ices.

AUTHORITY: Sees. 201, 401, 403, 409, 701,

ment to one of the temperatures specified in


the table in this section and held continuously
at or above that temperature for the specified
time (or other time/temperature relationship
which has been demonstrated to be equivalent thereto in microbial destruction):

Temperature
155F
175F

Time
30 min.
25 sec.

[42 FR 19132, Apr. 12, 1977]

706 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic


Act (21 U.S.C. 321, 341, 343, 348, 371, 376).

Subpart AGeneral Provisions

Subpart BRequirements for Specific


Standardized Frozen Desserts

135.3 Definitions.

135.110 Ice cream and frozen custard.

For the purposes of this part, a pasteurized


mix is one in which every particle of the mix
has been heated in properly operated equip-

(a) Description. (1) Ice cream is a food


produced by freezing, while stirring, a pasteurized mix consisting of one or more of the

*In order to provide the most recent standards for frozen desserts, this legal document is reproduced
as an appendix to this volume instead of to Chapter 2.

optional dairy ingredients specified in paragraph (b) of this section, and may contain one
or more of the optional caseinates specified
in paragraph (c) of this section subject to the
conditions hereinafter set forth, and other
safe and suitable nonmilk-derived ingredients; and excluding other food fats, except
such as are natural components of flavoring
ingredients used or are added in incidental
amounts to accomplish specific functions. Ice
cream is sweetened with nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners and may or may not be characterized by the addition of flavoring ingredients.
(2) Ice cream contains not less than 1.6
pounds of total solids to the gallon, and
weighs not less than 4.5 pounds to the gallon.
Ice cream contains not less than 10 percent
milkfat, nor less than 10 percent nonfat milk
solids, except that when it contains milkfat at
1 percent increments above the 10 percent
minimum, it may contain the following milkfat-to-nonfat milk solids levels:

^
*
Percent milkfat

10
11
12
13
14

Minimum
percent
.
r
nonfat
milk
solids
10
9
8
7
6

Except that when one or more bulky flavors


are used, the weights of milkfat and total milk
solids are not less than 10 percent and 20 percent, respectively, of the remainder obtained
by subtracting the weight of the bulky flavors
from the weight of the finished food; but in
no case is the weight of milkfat or total milk
solids less than 8 percent and 16 percent, respectively, of the weight of the finished food.
Except in the case of frozen custard, ice
cream contains less than 1.4 percent of egg
yolk solids by weight of the food, exclusive
of the weight of any bulky flavoring ingre-

dients used. Frozen custard shall contain 1.4


percent egg yolk solids by weight of the finished food: Provided, however, That when
bulky flavors are added the egg yolk solids
content of frozen custard may be reduced in
proportion to the amount by weight of the
bulky flavors added, but in no case is the content of egg yolk solids in the finished food
less than 1.12 percent. A product containing
egg yolk solids in excess of 1.4 percent, the
maximum set forth in this paragraph for ice
cream, may be marketed if labeled as specified by paragraph (e)(l) of this section.
(3) When calculating the minimum amount
of milkfat and nonfat milk solids required in
the finished food, the solids of chocolate or
cocoa used shall be considered a bulky flavoring ingredient. In order to make allowance
for additional sweetening ingredients needed
when certain bulky ingredients are used, the
weight of chocolate or cocoa solids used may
be multiplied by 2.5; the weight of fruit or
nuts used may be multiplied by 1.4; and the
weight of partially or wholly dried fruits or
fruit juices may be multiplied by appropriate
factors to obtain the original weights before
drying and this weight may be multiplied by
1.4.
(b) Optional dairy ingredients. The optional dairy ingredients referred to in paragraph (a) of this section are: Cream, dried
cream, plastic cream (sometimes known as
concentrated milkfat), butter, butter oil, milk,
concentrated milk, evaporated milk, sweetened condensed milk, superheated condensed
milk, dried milk, skim milk, concentrated
skim milk, evaporated skim milk, condensed
skim milk, superheated condensed skim
milk, sweetened condensed skim milk,
sweetened condensed part-skim milk, nonfat
dry milk, sweet cream buttermilk, condensed
sweet cream buttermilk, dried sweet cream
buttermilk, skim milk that has been concentrated and from which part of the lactose has
been removed by crystallization, skim milk
in concentrated or dried form that has been
modified by treating the concentrated skim
milk with calcium hydroxide and disodium
phosphate, and whey and those modified

whey products (e.g., reduced lactose whey,


reduced minerals whey, and whey protein
concentrate) that have been determined by
Ft)A to be generally recognized as safe
(GRAS) for use in this type of food. Water
may be added, or water may be evaporated
from the mix. The sweet cream buttermilk
and the concentrated sweet cream buttermilk
or dried sweet cream buttermilk, when adjusted with water to a total solids content of
8.5 percent, has a titratable acidity of not
more than 0.17 percent, calculated as lactic
acid. The term "milk" as used in this section
means cow's milk. Any whey and modified
whey products used contribute, singly or in
combination, not more than 25 percent by
weight of the total nonfat milk solids content
of the finished food. The modified skim milk,
when adjusted with water to a total solids
content of 9 percent, is substantially free of
lactic acid as determined by titration with
0.1 N NaOH, and it has a pH value in the
range of 8.0 to 8.3.
(c) Optional caseinates. The optional caseinates referred to in paragraph (a) of this section that may be added to ice cream mix containing not less than 20 percent total milk
solids are: Casein prepared by precipitation
with gums, ammonium caseinate, calcium
caseinate, potassium caseinate, and sodium
caseinate. Caseinate may be added in liquid
or dry form, but must be free of excess alkali,
(d) Methods of analysis. The fat content
shall be determined by the method prescribed
in "Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists,"
13th Ed. (1980), sections 16.287 and 16.059,
under "Fat, Roese-Gottlieb MethodOfficial Final Action," which is incorporated by
reference. Copies may be obtained from the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
2200 Wilson Blvd., Suite 400, Arlington, VA
22201-3301, or may be examined at the Office of the Federal Register, 1100 L St. NW.,
Washington, DC 20408.
(e) Nomenclature. (1) The name of the
food is "ice cream"; except that when the
egg yolk solids content of the food is in excess of that specified for ice cream by para-

graph (a) of this section, the name of the food


is "frozen custard" or "french ice cream"
or "french custard ice cream".
(2) (i) If the food contains no artificial flavor, the name on the principal display panel
or panels of the label shall be accompanied
by the common or usual name of the characterizing flavor, e.g., "vanilla", in letters
not less than one-half the height of the letters
used in the words "ice cream",
(ii) If the food contains both a natural characterizing flavor and an artificial flavor simulating it, and if the natural flavor predominates, the name on the principal display panel
or panels of the label shall be accompanied
by the common name of the characterizing
flavor, in letters not less than one-half the
height of the letters used in the words "ice
cream", followed by the word "flavored",
in letters not less than one-half the height of
the letters in the name of the characterizing
flavor, e.g., "Vanilla flavored", or "Peach
flavored", or "Vanilla flavored and Strawberry flavored",
(iii) If the food contains both a natural
characterizing flavor and an artificial flavor
simulating it, and if the artificial flavor predominates, or if artificial flavor is used alone
the name on the principal display panel or
panels of the label shall be accompanied by
the common name of the characterizing flavor in letters not less than one-half the height
of the letters used in the words "ice cream",
preceded by "artificial" or "artificially flavored", in letters not less than one-half the
height of the letters in the name of the characterizing flavor, e.g., "artificial Vanilla", or
"artificially flavored Strawberry" or "artificially flavored Vanilla and artificially flavored Strawberry''.
(3)(i) If the food is subject to the requirements of paragraph (e)(2)(ii) of this section
or if it contains any artificial flavor not simulating the characterizing flavor, the label shall
also bear the words "artificial flavor added"
or "artificial
flavor
added", the
blank being filled with the common name of
the flavor simulated by the artificial flavor in

letters of the same size and prominence as the


words that precede and follow it.
(ii) Wherever the name of the characterizing flavor appears on the label so conspicuously as to be easily seen under customary
conditions of purchase, the words prescribed
by this paragraph shall immediately and conspicuously precede or follow such name, in a
size reasonably related to the prominence of
the name of the characterizing flavor and in
any event the size of the type is not less than
6-point on packages containing less than 1
pint, not less than 8-point on packages containing at least 1 pint but less than one-half
gallon, not less than 10-point on packages
containing at least one-half gallon but less
than 1 gallon, and not less than 12-point on
packages containing 1 gallon or over: Provided, however, That where the characterizing flavor and a trademark or brand are presented together, other written, printed, or
graphic matter that is a part of or is associated
with the trademark or brand, may intervene
if the required words are in such relationship
with the trademark or brand as to be clearly
related to the characterizing flavor: And provided further. That if the finished product
contains more than one flavor of ice cream
subject to the requirements of this paragraph,
the statements required by this paragraph
need appear only once in each statement of
characterizing flavors present in such ice
cream, e.g., "Vanilla flavored, Chocolate,
and Strawberry flavored, artificial flavors
added".
(4) If the food contains both a natural characterizing flavor and an artificial flavor simulating the characterizing flavor, any reference
to the natural characterizing flavor shall, except as otherwise authorized by this paragraph, be accompanied by a reference to the
artificial flavor, displayed with substantially
equal prominence, e.g., "strawberry and artificial strawberry flavor".
(5) An artificial flavor simulating the characterizing flavor shall be deemed to predominate:
(i) In the case of vanilla beans or vanilla
extract used in combination with vanillin if

the amount of vanillin used is greater than 1


ounce per unit of vanilla constituent, as that
term is defined in 169.3(c) of this chapter,
(ii) In the case of fruit or fruit juice used
in combination with artificial fruit flavor, if
the quantity of the fruit or fruit juice used is
such that, in relation to the weight of the finished ice cream, the weight of the fruit or fruit
juice, as the case may be (including water
necessary to reconstitute partially or wholly
dried fruits or fruit juices to their original
moisture content) is less than 2 percent in the
case of citrus ice cream, 6 percent in the case
of berry or cherry ice cream, and 10 percent
in the case of ice cream prepared with other
fruits,
(iii) In the case of nut meats used in combination with artificial nut flavor, if the quantity of nut meats used is such that, in relation
to the finished ice cream the weight of the nut
meats is less than 2 percent,
(iv) In the case of two or more fruits or
fruit juices, or nut meats, or both, used in
combination with artificial flavors simulating
the natural flavors and dispersed throughout
the food, if the quantity of any fruit or fruit
juice or nut meat is less than one-half the applicable percentage specified in paragraph
(e)(5) (ii) or (iii) of this section. For example,
if a combination ice cream contains less than
5 percent of bananas and less than 1 percent
of almonds it would be "artificially flavored
banana-almond ice cream". However, if it
contains more than 5 percent of bananas and
more than 1 percent of almonds it would be
"banana-almond flavored ice cream".
(6) If two or more flavors of ice cream are
distinctively combined in one package, e.g.,
"Neopolitan" ice cream, the applicable provisions of this paragraph shall govern each
flavor of ice cream comprising the combination,
(f) Label declaration. Each of the optional
ingredients used shall be declared on the label
as required by the applicable sections of Part
101 of this chapter, except that sources of
milkfat or milk solids not fat may be declared
in descending order of predominance either
by the use of all the terms "milkfat and non-

fat milk" when one or any combination of


two or more of the ingredients listed in
101.4(b) (3), (4), (8), and (9) of this chapter
are used or alternatively as permitted in
101.4 of this chapter. Under section 403(k)
of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act,
artificial color need not be declared in ice
cream, except as required by 101.22(c) of
this chapter. Voluntary declaration of all
colors used in ice cream and frozen custard
is recommended.
[43 FR 4598, Feb. 3, 1978, as amended at 45
FR 63838, Sept. 26, 1980; 46 FR 44433, Sept.
4, 1981; 47 FR 11826, Mar. 19, 1982; 49 FR
10096, Mar. 19, 1984; 54 FR 24894, June 12,
1989]
135.115

Goat's milk ice cream.

(a) Description. Goat's milk ice cream is


the food prepared in the same manner prescribed in 135.110 for ice cream, and complies with all the provisions of 135.110, except that the only optional dairy ingredients
that may be used are those in paragraph (b)
of this section; caseinates may not be used;
and paragraphs (e)(l) and (f) of 135.110
shall not apply,
(b) Optional dairy ingredients. The optional dairy ingredients referred to in paragraph (a) of this section are goat's skim milk,
goat's milk, and goat's cream. These optional
dairy ingredients may be used in liquid, concentrated, and/or dry form,
(c) Nomenclature. The name of the food is
"goat's milk ice cream" or, alternatively,
"ice cream made with goat's milk", except
that when the egg yolk solids content of the
food is in excess of that specified for ice
cream in paragraph (a) of 135.110, the
name of the food is "goat's milk frozen custard" or, alternatively, "frozen custard made
with goat's milk", or "goat's milk french ice
cream", or, alternatively, "french ice cream
made with goat's milk", or "goat's milk
french custard ice cream", or, alternatively,
"french custard ice cream made with goat's
milk".

(d) Label declaration. Each of the optional


ingredients used shall be declared on the label
as required by the applicable sections of Part
101 of this chapter.
[47 FR 41526, Sept. 21, 1982]
135.120

Ice milk.

(a) Description. Ice milk is the food prepared from the same ingredients and in the
same manner prescribed in 135.110 for ice
cream and complies with all the provisions
of 135.110 (including the requirements for
label statement of optional ingredients), except that:
(1) Its content of milkfat is more than 2
percent but not more than 7 percent.
(2) Its content of total milk solids is not
less than 11 percent.
(3) Caseinates may be added when the content of total milk solids is not less than 11
percent.
(4) The provision for reduction in milkfat
and nonfat milk solids content from the addition of bulky flavors in 135.110(a) applies, except that in no case will the milkfat
content be less than 2 percent, nor the nonfat
milk solids content be less than 4 percent.
When the milkfat content increases in increments of 1 percent above the 2 percent minimum, it may contain the following milkfatto-nonfat milk solids levels:

Minimum
Percent milkfat

2
3
4
5
6
7

.
nonfat milk
solids
9
8
7
6
5
4

(5) The quantity of food solids per gallon


is not less than 1.3 pounds.

(6) When any artificial coloring is used in


ice milk, directly or as a component of any
other ingredient, the label shall bear the statement "artificially colored", "artificial coloring added", "with added artificial color",
or "
, an artificial color
added"; the blank being filled in with the
common or usual name of the artificial color;
or in lieu thereof, in case the artificial color
is a component of another ingredient, '4
artificially colored".
(7) If both artificial color and artificial flavoring are used, the label statements may be
combined,
(b) Nomenclature. The name of the food is
"ice milk".
[43 FR 4599, Feb. 3, 1978, as amended at 48
FR 13024, Mar. 29, 1983]
135.125

Goat's milk ice milk.

(a) Description. Goat's milk ice milk is the


food prepared in the same manner prescribed
in 135.115 for goat's milk ice cream, except that paragraph (c) shall not apply, and
which complies with all the requirements of
135.120(a) (1), (2), (4), (5), (6), and (7) for
ice milk,
(b) Nomenclature. The name of the food is
"goat's milk ice milk" or, alternatively, "ice
milk made with goat's milk".
[47 FR 41526, Sept. 21, 1982]
135.130

Mellorine.

(a) Description. (1) Mellorine is a food


produced by freezing, while stirring, a pasteurized mix consisting of safe and suitable
ingredients including, but not limited to,
milk-derived nonfat solids and animal or
vegetable fat, or both, only part of which may
be milkfat. Mellorine is sweetened with nutritive carbohydrate sweetener and is characterized by the addition of flavoring ingredients.
(2) Mellorine contains not less than 1.6
pounds of total solids to the gallon, and
weighs not less than 4.5 pounds to the gallon.
Mellorine contains not less than 6 percent fat

and 2.7 percent protein having a protein efficiency ratio (PER) not less than that of
whole milk protein (108 percent of casein) by
weight of the food, exclusive of the weight
of any bulky flavoring ingredients used. In no
case shall the fat content of the finished food
be less than 4.8 percent or the protein content
be less than 2.2 percent. The protein to meet
the minimum protein requirements shall be
provided by milk solids, not fat and/or other
milk-derived ingredients.
(3) When calculating the minimum amount
of milkfat and protein required in the finished
food, the solids of chocolate or cocoa used
shall be considered a bulky flavoring ingredient. In order to make allowance for additional sweetening ingredients needed when
certain bulky ingredients are used, the weight
of chocolate or cocoa solids used may be
multiplied by 2.5; the weight of fruit or nuts
used may be multiplied by 1.4; and the
weight of partially or wholly dried fruits or
fruit juices may be multiplied by appropriate
factors to obtain the original weights before
drying and this weight may be multiplied by
1.4.
(b) Fortification. Vitamin A is present in a
quantity which will ensure that 40 international units (IU) are available for each gram
of fat in mellorine, within limits of good
manufacturing practice,
(c) Methods of analysis. Fat and protein
content, and the PER shall be determined by
following the methods contained in "Official
Methods of Analysis of the Association of
Official Analytical Chemists," 13th Ed.
(1980), which is incorporated by reference.
Copies may be obtained from the Association
of Official Analytical Chemists, 2200 Wilson
Blvd., Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22201-3301,
or may be examined at the Office of the Federal Register, 1100 L St. N.W, Washington,
DC 20408.
(1) Fat content shall be determined by the
method: "Fat, Roese-Gottlieb Method
Official Final Action," section 16.287.
(2) Protein content shall be determined by
one of the following methods: "Nitrogen
Official Final Action," Kjeldahl Method,

section 16.285, or Dye Binding Method, section 16.286.


(3) PER shall be determined by the
method: "Biological Evaluation of Protein
QualityOfficial Final Action," sections
43.212-43.216.
(d) Nomenclature. The name of the food is
"mellorine". The name of the food on the
label shall be accompanied by a declaration
indicating the presence of characterizing flavoring in the same manner as is specified in
135.110(c).
(e) Label declaration. The common or
usual name of each of the ingredients used
shall be declared on the label as required by
the applicable sections of Part 101 of this
chapter, except that sources of milkfat or
milk solids not fat may be declared, in descending order of predominance, either by
the use of the terms "milkfat, and nonfat
milk'' when one or any combination of two
or more ingredients listed in 101.4(b) (3),
(4), (8), and (9) of this chapter are used, or
alternatively as permitted in 101.4 of this
chapter.
[42 FR 19137, Apr. 12, 1977, as amended at 47
FR 11826, Mar. 19, 1982; 49 FR 10096, Mar.
19, 1984; 54 FR 24894, June 12, 1989]
135.140

Sherbet.

(a) Description. (1) Sherbet is a food produced by freezing, while stirring, a pasteurized mix consisting of one or more of the
optional dairy ingredients specified in paragraph (b) of this section, and may contain one
or more of the optional caseinates specified
in paragraph (c) of this section subject to the
conditions hereinafter set forth, and other
safe and suitable nonmilk-derived ingredients; and excluding other food fats, except
such as are added in small amounts to accomplish specific functions or are natural components of flavoring ingredients used. Sherbet is sweetened with nutritive carbohydrate
sweeteners and is characterized by the addition of one or more of the characterizing fruit
ingredients specified in paragraph (d) of this
section or one or more of the nonfruit-

characterizing ingredients specified in paragraph (e) of this section.


(2) Sherbet weighs not less than 6 pounds
to the gallon. The milkfat content is not less
than 1 percent nor more than 2 percent, the
nonfat milk-derived solids content not less
than 1 percent, and the total milk or milkderived solids content is not less than 2 percent nor more than 5 percent by weight of the
finished food. Sherbet that is characterized by
a fruit ingredient shall have a titratable acidity, calculated as lactic acid, of not less than
0.35 percent,
(b) Optional dairy ingredients. The optional dairy ingredients referred to in paragraph (a) of this section are: Cream, dried
cream, plastic cream (sometimes known as
concentrated milkfat), butter, butter oil, milk,
concentrated milk, evaporated milk, superheated condensed milk, sweetened condensed milk, dried milk, skim milk, concentrated skim milk, evaporated skim milk,
condensed skim milk, sweetened condensed
skim milk, sweetened condensed part-skim
milk, nonfat dry milk, sweet cream buttermilk, condensed sweet cream buttermilk,
dried sweet cream buttermilk, skim milk that
has been concentrated and from which part
of the lactose has been removed by crystallization, and whey and those modified whey
products (e.g., reduced lactose whey, reduced
minerals whey, and whey protein concentrate) that have been determined by FDA to
be generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for
use in this type of food. Water may be added,
or water may be evaporated from the mix.
The sweet cream buttermilk and the concentrated sweet cream buttermilk or dried sweet
cream buttermilk, when adjusted with water
to a total solids content of 8.5 percent, has a
titratable acidity of not more than 0.17 percent calculated as lactic acid. The term
"milk" as used in this section means cow's
milk,
(c) Optional caseinates. The optional caseinates referred to in paragraph (a) of this section which may be added to sherbet mix are:
Casein prepared by precipitation with gums,
ammonium caseinate, calcium caseinate, po-

tassium caseinate, and sodium caseinate.


Caseinates may be added in liquid or dry
form, but must be free of excess alkali, such
caseinates are not considered to be milk solids,
(d) Optional fruit-characterizing ingredients. The optional fruit-characterizing ingredients referred to in paragraph (a) of this section are any mature fruit or the juice of any
mature fruit. The fruit or fruit juice used may
be fresh, frozen, canned, concentrated, or partially or wholly dried. The fruit may be thickened with pectin or other optional ingredients. The fruit is prepared by the removal of
pits, seeds, skins, and cores, where such removal is usual in preparing that kind of fruit
for consumption as fresh fruit. The fruit may
be screened, crushed, or otherwise comminuted. It may be acidulated. In the case of
concentrated fruit or fruit juices, from which
part of the water is removed, substances contributing flavor volatilized during water removal may be condensed and reincorporated
in the concentrated fruit or fruit juice. In the
case of citrus fruits, the whole fruit, including
the peel but excluding the seeds, may be
used, and in the case of citrus juice or concentrated citrus juices, cold-pressed citrus oil
may be added thereto in an amount not exceeding that which would have been obtained
if the whole fruit had been used. The quantity
of fruit ingredients used is such that, in relation to the weight of the finished sherbet,
the weight of fruit or fruit juice, as the case
may be (including water necessary to reconstitute partially or wholly dried fruits or fruit
juices to their original moisture content), is
not less than 2 percent in the case of citrus
sherbets, 6 percent in the case of berry sherbets, and 10 percent in the case of sherbets
prepared with other fruits. For the purpose of
this section, tomatoes and rhubarb are considered as kinds of fruit,
(e) Optional nonfruit characterizing ingredients. The optimal nonfruit characterizing
ingredients referred to in paragraph (a) of this
section include but are not limited to the following:

(1) Ground spice or infusion of coffee or


tea.
(2) Chocolate or cocoa, including sirup.
(3) Confectionery.
(4) Distilled alcoholic beverage, including
liqueurs or wine, in an amount not to exceed
that required for flavoring the sherbet.
(5) Any natural or artificial food flavoring
(except any having a characteristic fruit or
fruit-like flavor),
(f) Nomenclature. (1) The name of each
sherbet is as follows:
(i) The name of each fruit sherbet is
"
sherbet", the blank being filled in
with the common name of the fruit or fruits
from which the fruit ingredients used are obtained. When the names of two or more fruits
are included, such names shall be arranged in
order of predominance, if any, by weight of
the respective fruit ingredients used,
(ii) The name of each nonfruit sherbet is
"
sherbet", the blank being filled in
with the common or usual name or names of
the characterizing flavor or flavors; for example, ' 'peppermint'', except that if the characterizing flavor used is vanilla, the name of
the food is "
sherbet", the blank
being filled in as specified by 135.110(e)(2)
and (5)(i).
(2) When the optional ingredients, artificial flavoring, or artificial coloring are used
in sherbet, they shall be named on the label
as follows:
(i) If the flavoring ingredient or ingredients
consist exclusively of artificial flavoring, the
label designation shall be "artificially flavored",
(ii) If the flavoring ingredients are a combination of natural and artificial flavors, the
label designation shall be "artificial and
natural flavoring added",
(iii) The label shall designate artificial coloring by the statement "artificially colored",
"artificial coloring added", "with added artificial coloring", or "
, an artificial
color added", the blank being filled in with
the name of the artificial coloring used,
(g) Characterizing flavor(s). Wherever
there appears on the label any representation

as to the characterizing flavor or flavors of


the food and such flavor or flavors consist in
whole or in part of artificial flavoring, the
statement required by paragraph (f)(2) (i) and
(ii) of this section, as appropriate, shall immediately and conspicuously precede or follow such representation, without intervening
written, printed, or graphic matter (except
that the word "sherbet" may intervene) in a
size reasonably related to the prominence of
the name of the characterizing flavor and in
any event the size of the type is not less than
6-point on packages containing less than 1
pint, not less than 8-point on packages containing at least 1 pint but less than one-half
gallon, not less than 10-point on packages
containing at least one-half gallon but less
than 1 gallon, and not less than 12-point on
packages containing 1 gallon or over,
(h) Display of statements required by
paragraph (f)(2). Except as specified in paragraph (g) of this section, the statements required by paragraph (f)(2) of this section
shall be set forth on the principal display
panel or panels of the label with such prominence and conspicuousness as to render them

likely to be read and understood by the ordinary individual under customary conditions
of purchase and use.
(i) Label declaration. Each of the optional
ingredients used shall be declared on the label
as required by the applicable sections of Part
101 of this chapter.
[43 FR 4599, Feb. 3, 1978, as amended at 46
FR 44434, Sept. 4, 1981]
135.160

Water ices.

(a) Description. Water ices are the foods


each of which is prepared from the same ingredients and in the same manner prescribed
in 135.140 for sherbets, except that the mix
need not be pasteurized, and complies with
all the provisions of 135.140 (including the
requirements for label statement of optional
ingredients) except that no milk or milkderived ingredient and no egg ingredient,
other than egg white, is used,
(b) Nomenclature. The name of the food
is "
ice", the blank being filled in,
in the same manner as specified in
135.140(f)(l) (i) and (ii), as appropriate.
[42 FR 19132, Apr. 12, 1977]

CHAPTER

1
Quality Assurance and
Dairy Processing
John E. Stauffer
1.1 Introduction, 3
1.1.1 Definition of Quality, 3
1.1.2 Quality Assurance Versus Quality Control, 3
1.1.3 Organization and Management, 4
1.2 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, 4
1.2.1 Basic Concepts, 4
1.2.2 Food Hazards, 5
1.2.2.1 Microbiological Hazards, 5
1.2.2.2 Chemical Contamination, 7
1.2.2.3 Extraneous Matter, 8
1.2.2.4 Functional Hazards, 8
1.2.3 Critical Control Points, 8
1.2.3.1 Blended Products, 9
1.2.3.2 Raw Milk Quality, 9
1.2.4 Pasteurization, 12
1.2.4.1 Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 12
1.2.4.2 Pasteurization Conditions, 14
1.2.4.3 Two Tragedies in 1985, 19
1.2.5 Cheese Processes, 20
1.2.6 Ice Cream Processes, 23
1.2.7 Yogurt Processes, 25
1.2.8 Butter and Milk Processes, 27
1.3 Product Specifications, 30
1.3.1 Food Additives and GRAS Substances, 30
1.3.2 Unavoidable Contaminants, 33
1.3.3 Standards of Identity, 33
1.3.4 USDA Grades, 35
1.3.5 Analytical Methods, 37
1.3.6 Codex Alimentarius, 39
1.4 Good Manufacturing Practice, 40
1.4.1 Regulatory Requirements, 41

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

1.10

1.4.2 Sanitation, 41
1.4.2.1 Materials of Construction, 41
1.4.2.2 Equipment Design and Standards, 42
1.4.2.3 Cleaning of Equipment, 43
1.4.2.4 Sanitizing Compounds, 44
1.4.2.5 Application of Cleaning/Sanitizing Solutions, 45
1.4.2.6 Maintenance of Equipment, 46
1.4.3 Plants and Grounds, 47
1.4.3.1 Environmental Concerns, 47
1.4.3.2 Pest Control, 48
1.4.4 Employee Training, 49
Product Labeling, 50
1.5.1 Ingredient Labeling, 50
1.5.2 Nutritional Labeling, 52
1.5.3 Fortification, 55
1.5.4 Imitation and Substitute Foods, 57
1.5.5 Open Date Labeling, 59
1.5.6 Kosher Certification, 59
Packaging, 60
1.6.1 Functional Needs, 61
1.6.2 Materials Testing, 62
1.6.3 Tamper-Evident Closures, 63
1.6.4 Aseptic Packaging, 63
1.6.5 Packaged Weight Control, 64
Distribution, 65
1.7.1 Shelf Life, 65
1.7.2 Warehousing and Shipping, 65
1.7.3 Product Recall, 66
Summary, 67
1.8.1 Importance of Process Controls, 67
1.8.2 Need to Avoid Recontamination, 68
Future Developments, 68
1.9.1 The Promise of Biotechnology, 68
1.9.2 Internationalization of the Dairy Industry, 69
1.9.3 Proliferation of New Products, 69
References, 70

L l Introduction
1.1.1 Definition of Quality
Traditional concepts of quality need to be modified when discussing dairy products.
Quality can be thought of as the ''degree or grade of excellence," but something
more specific should be added to this definition when coping with everyday problems. A survey by the Dairy & Food Industries Supply Association indicated that
the primary quality concern of dairy processors is the organoleptic attributes (taste
and texture) of their products. Safety issues, that is, bacterial control and sanitation,
ranked second among the concerns expressed.1 This priority undoubtedly reflected
the outstanding progress that has been made over the years to ensure product safety.
Consumers also expect and demand convenience, sound value, and, increasingly,
good nutrition. The meaning of nutrition, however, has undergone dramatic changes.
Whereas at one time quality was equated with the fat content of a dairy product (the
richer the better), now consumers are substituting low-fat or "light" dairy products
into their diets. This switch has been prompted by fears of excessive intake of saturated fat, cholesterol, salt, and sugar, all of which have been shown to contribute
to such chronic diseases as hypertension, heart disease, and some cancers.2
The new concerns about nutrition have exerted a strong effect on consumer preferences. Skim milk and cheese, for example, have become dominant staples as meal
items. At the same time such high-calorie treats as ice cream and sherbet remain
popular.3 In an attempt to have it both waysgood nutrition while being self indulgentconsumers are availing themselves of new introductions of engineered
dairy products containing fat substitutes and artificial sweeteners.

1.1.2 Quality Assurance Versus Quality Control


A distinction should be made between quality assurance and quality control. Too
often these terms have been used interchangeably with the result that the difference
between them has become blurred. Quality assurance can be defined as a strategic
management function that establishes policies related to quality, adopts programs to
meet the established goals, and provides confidence that these measures are being
effectively applied. Quality control is a tactical function that carries out those programs identified by quality assurance to be necessary for the attainment of the quality
goals.
Quality assurance covers a wide range of programs. It has oversight responsibility
in the areas of product planning, manufacturing, customer service, and distribution.
Its duties include the approval of specifications for raw materials, additives, processing aids, finished products, labeling, and packaging. In the preview for a symposium on dairy products, sponsored by the Institute of Food Technologists in June
1989, the point was made that, "Quality Management now involves all facets of the
process of moving milk from the producing farm to the processing plant to the
consumer."4

1.1.3 Organization and Management


In order to fulfill their responsibilities, dairy processors need to allocate significant
resources in terms of both manpower and funds to quality assurance. Perhaps no
other segment of the food industry can match these efforts. Indeed, the dairy industry
is considered to be the most regulated. To carry out its mandate to produce safe,
wholesome products, each processor requires the services of well trained and experienced personnel. These individuals must be melded into a strong organization
that is professional and dedicated to its tasks.
Management structure can best be illustrated by an organizational chart. Although
each company will favor its own management style, certain practices are widely
accepted throughout the industry. Foremost among these practices is the need to
have the individual responsible for directing the quality assurance function report
directly to senior management.5 By this means senior management will have ready
access to operational data, and line supervisors will have an open line of communication. Nothing can be more important to quality assurance than defining individual
responsibilities and establishing clear channels of communication.

1.2 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points


1.2.1 Basic Concepts
Process controls are necessary to produce a dairy product that is safe and acceptable
to the consumer. The means by which such controls can be established is a methodology known as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). The effectiveness of this procedure is so widely documented that it has received general
acceptance throughout the food industry. Therefore, HACCP is the basis for most
discussions of quality assurance including this treatment of the subject.
Several steps are required during a HACCP review of a process. First, all the
potential hazards associated with the process are analyzed. These hazards will include microbiological dangers, possible chemical contamination, and the potential
inclusion of extraneous matter. Next, process parameters or control points that have
a direct bearing on the hazards in question are identified. Through practical experience, it has been found that lack of control at any one of these points, for example,
ingredient inspection, pasteurization, or finished product analysis, may cause, allow,
or contribute to a hazard in the final product. Thus, these control points are deemed
to be critical to the successful operation of the process.
A complete description of a critical control point must include the following five
specifications:

Location of the control point and its parameter(s)


Monitoring procedure for each parameter
Frequency of monitoring
Decision criteria for acceptable and unacceptable control
Action to be taken if the control is unacceptable.6

Such a formalized procedure will ensure that proper attention will be given to the
control of a given hazard.

1.2.2 Food Hazards


The hazards that plague the dairy processor are legion. For convenience, most of
them can be grouped into the categories that follow. A further advantage of listing
hazards by type is that the grouping helps in their identification and suggests means
for their control. Because milk is such an excellent medium for the growth of microorganisms, dairy products are most susceptible to microbiological hazards.

1.2.2.1 Microbiological Hazards


The dairy industry, much like the canners, was driven to microbiological control by
outbreaks of disease. Dating from the 19th century, such milkborne diseases as
typhoid fever, diphtheria, septic sore throat, brucellosis, and tuberculosis were widespread. By 1939 these dangers led health authorities in the United States to establish
requirements covering animal health, sanitation, pasteurization, refrigeration, and
microbiological standards.7
Modern methods for the control of foodbome disease depend on the detection of
the causative microorganism. The more significant bacteria responsible for food
poisoning have been covered in several excellent reviews.8"10 Below are summarized
the principal microorganisms of interest.
Clostridium botulinum is responsible for the most feared form of food poisoning.
Under low-acid, anaerobic conditions this microbe will produce a toxin that is one
of the most poisonous substances known. The optimum temperature for growth and
toxin production is about 35C (95F). Even in minute quantities the toxin will cause
sudden death. Control of C. botulinum is made difficult because it forms spores that
are heat resistant. Any viable spores remaining in improperly canned foods will
germinate and multiply, producing their deadly toxin. A wide variety of foods including dairy products are susceptible to contamination. Although the toxin is heat
labile and can be made innocuous by boiling, in all instances where botulism is
suspected, the food should be discarded.
Clostridium perfringens has been implicated in many outbreaks of food poisoning in the food service industry, particularly at catered events. It is most common
when food is prepared in advance and kept warm for hours before serving. Illness
is caused by a foodborne infection that results from exposure to live pathogens. With
symptoms of nausea, intestinal gas, and diarrhea, the sickness is discomforting but
not especially serious. C. perfringens is an anaerobic, spore-forming bacteria. Although it is commonly associated with meat and poultry products, this pathogen has
been found in virtually all types of processed foods.
Staphylococcus aureus is an ubiquitous organism. People are carriers of this
pathogen, which occurs in boils, skin lesions, and nasal passages. Under unsanitary
conditions, food can be contaminated with this organism which will then multiply,
producing a powerful enterotoxin that causes vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea. Be-

cause the toxin is heat stable and may be present after the organism is destroyed,
diagnosis of the illness can be complicated. It is important to avoid contamination
with this bacteria by maintaining personal cleanliness and adhering to recognized
sanitation procedures in the handling of foods. Refrigeration of foods below 4.4C
(400F) inhibits the growth of this organism. Typical foods that can be adulterated
with 5. aureus are pastries and foods of animal origin such as meats and dairy
products.
Salmonella, of which there are more than 2000 different serotypes, is transmitted
primarily by farm animals which pass the organisms on to such foods as eggs, meat
products, poultry, and raw milk. The symptoms of salmonellosis include diarrhea,
abdominal cramps, vomiting, and fever usually within 24 h after consuming the
contaminated food. Consequences, however, may be more severe for the very young,
the elderly, and those already weakened by disease. Salmonella is very heat sensitive,
and therefore it is readily destroyed by normal cooking of food and proper pasteurization of milk. Nevertheless cross-contamination of foods after heat treatment must
be guarded against. Because Salmonella is so pervasive in nature, complete control
of this organism has remained elusive.
Listeria monocytogenes is characterized by its ability to grow even under refrigeration temperatures. It is heat sensitive, however, and the preponderance of evidence indicates that the microorganism is destroyed by pasteurization. Most healthy
people can survive infection, but certain individuals such as newboms, pregnant
women, and persons with impaired immune systems are particularly susceptible to
listeriosis. The mortality rate among sensitive individuals can be as high as 30 to
40%. Raw milk and soft cheese are the dairy products most commonly associated
with listeriosis.
Campylobacterjejuni has been reported on a number of occasions when raw milk
was consumed. These incidents occurred usually under special circumstances, such
as during visits by school children to dairy farms. This organism can be controlled
by proper pasteurization.
Yersinia enterocolitica has been the cause of serious outbreaks of food poisoning.
Such dairy products as pasteurized milk, reconstituted dry milk, and chocolate milk
were thought to have been contaminated through unsanitary handling. The afflicted
persons, many of them children, developed symptoms of intense abdominal pain
often misdiagnosed as apendicitis. These errors resulted in a number of unnecessary
appendectomies.
Escherichia coli is common in the intestinal tract of humans and animals. As a
result it has long been used as an "indicator" organism, the presence of which in a
food product would suggest insanitation. More recent evidence indicates that certain
strains of E. coli are pathogenic. There have been several reports of cheese contaminated with this organism.
Molds produce mycotoxins which may have adverse effects on humans. Therefore care should be taken to avoid eating molds except such intentional ones as
veined in Roquefort and other blue cheeses. These organisms are capable of growth
on a variety of substrates, notably cheese among dairy products. Conditions of high
humidity and warm temperatures favor the growth of molds.

One toxin that has received much attention is aflatoxin, produced by the mold
Aspergillus flavus. This toxin is highly poisonous and potently carcinogenic. The
commodities peanuts, corn, and cottonseed, are most susceptible to aflatoxin contamination. When contaminated feeds have been included in the rations of dairy
cows, the milk produced by these animals has been found to be adulterated with the
toxin.
Moldy cheese is a common occurrence and a problem that must be faced by
consumers. The normal reaction of most persons is to discard such food, but by
careful trimming, good cheese can often be recovered. Some guidelines have been
suggested for this practice:
1. Trim only cheese that has been kept properly refrigerated.
2. If the mold growth is extensive, do not attempt to recover the cheese.
3. Consider trimming only solid cheeses; do not try to recover semisolid or soft
cheese, such as cream cheese or Brie.
4. To minimize mold growth, practice good sanitation in the handling of the cheese,
keep it well wrapped and stored under adequate refrigeration, and consume it
within a reasonable time span.
5. Keep in mind that manufacturers' use of mold inhibitors (preservatives) such as
potassium sorbate and calcium proprionate will delay mold growth but not prevent it indefinitely.11
Viruses are not a major problem with dairy products. Until the 1940s poliomyelitis was the only viral disease known to be foodborne. This foodborne disease
was largely associated with unpasteurized or recontaminated milk. It should be noted
that viruses cannot multiply in foods, and even the modest heat treatments of milk
pasteurization will inactivate foreseeable quantities of most viruses that might be
present.12
Somatic cells are not microbes, but their presence in milk is significant from a
health standpoint. Somatic cells are white blood cells or body defense cells whose
primary function is to eliminate infections and repair tissue damage. Increasing numbers of these cells will be detected in milk from cows that are fighting off mastitis
infections. These cells are an indication of the overall health of the herd and the
quality of milk that is being produced. Thus, the goal of producers should be to
supply milk with the lowest possible somatic cell count (SCC).13

1.2.2.2 Chemical Contamination


Animal drug residues found in milk are a continuing health and regulatory concern.
These drugs include the sulfa drug, sulfamethazine, and such antibiotics as penicillin
and tetracycline. Concern arises because sulfa drugs have been found to cause cancer
in test animals and antibiotics may cause allergic reactions in people. A report by
the General Accounting Office, an investigative agency of Congress, was critical of
regulatory efforts and called upon the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to take
a more active role in enforcement.14

The problem of drug residues is compounded by ' 'extra-label'' drug use to treat
several common diseases in dairy animals. There are few approved drugs for lactating dairy animals because pharmaceutical manufacturers do not have an economic
incentive to obtain such registrations. Under the circumstances, veterinarians will
prescribe and producers will make use of drugs that are not labeled for such use.
Generally these extralegal acts will not be prosecuted so long as certain precautions
are taken, for example, the drug is withdrawn in sufficient time before resumption
of milking so as to avoid residue contamination. With the increasing sensitivity of
new testing methods, however, residues are being found in milk that previously
escaped detection.15
Chemical contaminants are not limited to animal drug residues but cover a multitude of other substances. These compounds include such pesticides used on crops
as dieldrin, chlordane, and heptachlor. Surveillance of Florida's milk supply has
disclosed in addition to drug residues the following chemical contaminants: vinyl
chloride, 2-4D, cyanide, lead and other heavy metals, volatile organic solvents, chlorine, and acid sanitizers.16 Although some of these contaminants can be traced to
specific infractions; others are the result of an increasing background of synthetic
substances that have pervaded our environment.
Another group of contaminants is chemical germicidals: iodophores, hypochlorites, and strong ionic surfactants. These substances are used in formulations for udder
hygiene, including teat dips and washes, to control the spread of bovine mastitis.
The same germicidals are also applied to sanitize dairy process equipment. These
substances can leave toxic residues in milk.17

1.2.2.3 Extraneous Matter


Foreign bodies such as metal filings, wooden splinters, and paint chips may be
introduced into the product through ingredients or during plant operations. Sediment
(dirt, soil) is commonly found in milk supplies and is routinely evaluated by the disk
filtration method. Means for the detection and removal of extraneous matter will
depend on the handling characteristics of the product: whether it is in a divided state,
such as fluid and powder milk, or it is in bulk form like cheese. It is advisable to
use a combination of detection methods throughout a process.18

1.2.2.4 Functional Hazards


Functional hazards may not pose the same dangers encountered with other hazards
but are extremely important to the dairy processor. If a product has a poor taste, a
container is slack filled, or appearance is unappetizing, the manufacturer will surely
hear from irate customers. More to the point, sales will turn downward. Misbranding
errors will catch the attention of regulatory authorities.

1.2.3 Critical Control Points


The identification of critical control points requires a thorough familiarity with the
food process, including each step in the operation from the receiving of raw materials

to the shipping of finished product. A flow diagram showing all of the processing
streams is indispensable for understanding the key elements of the process. With
this knowledge at hand, a systematic search can then be made to identify the potential
entry points of each hazard. Many of these entry locations are obvious, for example,
raw materials, but others are less apparent, such as open vats, exposed conveyor
lines, and even the equipment itself. The latter may be a source of hazards because
of broken parts or unclean surfaces.

1.2.3.1 Blended Products


It is instructive to take a look at a process for blended products in order to appreciate
how the critical control points are identified. Figure 1.1 shows a milk replacer process.19 The critical control points are indicated by numbered diamonds and the other
control points by numbered circles. Complete agreement does not exist among
professionals concerning the distinction between critical control ponts and all other
control points. Some people, for example, would include as critical control points
only those control points which monitor microbiological hazards.
Referring still to Figure 1.1, the differences between the control points can be
illustrated. Control point No. 2 might test for the protein content of the soy flour
whereas critical control point No. 2 would test for Salmonella. Critical control points
4,6, and 7 are established to check for tramp metal and other foreign objects. Critical
control point 5 monitors product uniformity whereas No. 8 is for final product testing.
Finally, critical control point 9 records the filled weights of containers.

1.2.3.2 Raw Milk Quality


Inasmuch as milk is the common ingredient of all dairy products, its quality is key
to these products. It has been said that a milk product can be no better than the
quality of the raw materials that go into it. Because the quality of the raw milk cannot
be improved through processing, dairy farms must provide the highest quality raw
milk from the beginning. The following controls are routinely used to evaluate the
quality of raw milk supplies.2021
Flavor, including odor, taste, mouthfeel, color, and appearance, is the most critical attribute of raw milk. There is a consensus that flavor is the most important
yardstick for consumer acceptance of milk. Because milk flavor is so bland and mild,
the presence of any off-flavor can easily overshadow its pleasant, slightly sweet taste.
Flavor can be affected not only by the health of the dairy herd but also by the feed
composition. In spite of extensive efforts to develop instrumental analyses for flavor
testing, the only reliable method is sensory evaluation. These screens must be conducted by experienced individuals and under proper conditions, for example, the
milk sample should be tempered to 15.6 to 21.TC (60 to 700F).
Standard Plate Count (SPC) is a standardized procedure to estimate the total
aerobic, viable bacterial cell count in a sample of raw milk. Historically this test is
required by public health authorities. It also gives a good general idea of the milk
quality. Although maximum regulatory values for SPC may range from 50,000

SOY

WHEY

CALCIUM CARBONATE

1/8" SCREEN

5.

RIBBON BLENDER

BAR
MAGNET

SWECO
FILTER

PRODUCT

SCALE
9

PACKAGING

SHIPPING

CONTROL POINT
CRITICAL CONTROL POINT
Figure 1.1 Milk replacer process.

to 100,000 per milliliter, lower counts of 20,000 per milliliter or less are highly
desirable.
Preliminary Incubation (PI) Count is a variation of the SPC test. A raw milk
sample is held for 18 h at 12.80C (55F) before being subjected to a standard plate
count. This procedure is effective for indicating the presence of psychrotrophic or
cold-loving bacteria. Such types of microorganisms contribute to the spoilage of the
milk, and therefore the PI count is a good measure of shelf life. High PI counts are
evidence of sanitation shortcomings in milk production and storage. Values of PI
counts in excess of three or four times SPC are basis for rejection.
Laboratory Pasteurization Count (LPC) is obtained by subjecting raw milk
samples to a simulated vat or batch pasteurization step, which is conducted in a
laboratory water bath. This test indicates the presence of bacteria that most likely
would survive the pasteurization process and are known as thermodurics. The legal
limit in California for LPC is 750 per milliliter.
Coliform Plate Count is obtained by using a different media from that employed
in a SPC test. It thus enumerates the group of bacteria found in the intestinal tract
of mammals, for example, E. coli. The coliform count is a good index of the level
of sanitation. Although this test may not be used in every state for raw milk, generally
it is applied to pasteurized milk which should test at less than or equal to 10 per
milliliter.
Direct Microscopic Count (DMC) is a good screening test because the results
are obtained rapidly without plating. The DMC often provides an indication of the
cause of a sanitation problem, as the general types and range of bacteria present can
be ascertained when a Gram stain is used. One disadvantage of the method is that
it does not differentiate dead from living bacteria, thus limiting its use with pasteurized milk.
Antibiotics are screened by the Bacillus subtilis or B. stearothermophilus plate
disc test. Raw milk must test no zone ^ 1 6 mm with the B. stearothermophilus disc
assay method to comply with federal standards.
Somatic Cell Count (SCC) in excess of about 300,000 per milliliter is usually
indicative of mastitis. Somatic cells may be counted by the direct microscopic
(DMCC) procedure. The Federal standard is less than or equal to 1,000,000 per
milliliter.
Freezing Point Determination is the standard method for ascertaining whether
raw milk has been adulterated with water. The freezing point of raw milk is sensitive
to slight changes in water content. Unadulterated raw milk has a freezing point of
= -0.30 0 C (31.5F). Each increase of 0.0060C in the freezing point is indicative of
approximately 1% added water.
Titratable Acidity (T.A.) measures the formation of lactic acid by lactic acid
bacteria due to delayed or inadequate cooling of the raw milk. Because of the buffering components of milk, pH is not a practical means of determining lactic acid
formation. Excessive acid will cause a sour taste and possible milk coagulation. Low
values of T.A. are indicative of alkali producers, namely, psychrotrophs or spoilage
bacteria. Normal fresh milk exhibits a T.A. of 0.14 to 0.17% acidity (as lactic acid).

Sediment is determined by the disk filtration method which indicates the level
of extraneous material in the raw milk. Disks covered with the filtered sediment are
compared to standards and assigned a grade, either No. 1, 2, 3, or unlawful. Only
No. 1 and 2 grades will qualify in premium quality milk programs.
Although the above tests provide a good indication of raw milk quality, effective
quality assurance must start with farm management. All the testing will be to no
avail unless proper steps are adhered to by the producer. Such practices as milking,
transferring, storage, overall sanitation, and housekeeping must be tightly controlled.
No variable is more critical than the temperature of the raw milk. Regulations
require that milk be cooled to 100C (500F) within 1 h after completion of milking
and to 7.2C (45F) within 2 h after milking. Preferred practice, however, is to cool
the milk to 7.2C (45F) within 1 h and to 4.4C (400F) or less within 2 h. Rapid
cooling and holding the raw milk at these temperatures are vital for the maintenance
of raw milk quality. Recording thermometers are required in some states to check
compliance with these standards.
Of utmost importance to the production of quality milk is the health of dairy
herds. Udder infections or mastitis is a continuing problem that must be controlled
in order to maximize production of the highest quality milk. The National Mastitis
Council, a nonprofit organization, assists producers in achieving these aims. This
group actively supports research and educational programs related to its objectives.22

1.2.4 Pasteurization
Testing alone cannot ensure the absence of microorganisms in the raw milk used in
the manufacture of milk products. In dairy processes the manufacturer must take for
granted the microbiological contamination of the raw milk supply. Therefore in these
situations the processor has to depend on a "kill step" in order to eliminate or control
potentially harmful organisms. The definition of a kill step is a process adjustment
that will achieve the reproductive inactivation of a given microorganism. This kill
step is a critical control point. In dairy processing the kill step consists of a heat
treatment known universally as pasteurization.
The principles that laid the foundation for pasteurization were first elucidated by
Louis Pasteur in the middle of the 19th century. Working with the French liquor
industry, he showed that the development of undesirable organisms that ruined the
quality of wine could be controlled by a moderate heating step. Such a heating step
provided temperatures high enough to inactivate the harmful organisms but not so
high as to impair the taste of the wine. Subsequently this technology was adapted
to the processing of milk and has been used in this application ever since.

1.2.4.1 Pasteurized Milk Ordinance


The Standard Milk Ordinance was introduced in 1924 by the U.S. Public Health
Service to assist states and municipalities in managing a safe milk supply. This model
regulation, now known as the Grade 64 A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO), is
available for adoption by the more than 15,000 state, county, and local health juris-

dictions. The ordinance was developed and is currently updated with the assistance
of milk sanitation and regulatory officials at every level of federal, state, and local
government. These individuals are members of the National Conference on Interstate
Milk Shipments (NCIMS) which has a Memorandum of Understanding with the
FDA prescribing their joint responsibilities in protecting the nation's milk supply.
Milk products processed under PMO are accepted as Grade A (not to be confused
with USDA grades) and can be so labeled.
The PMO requires that only Grade A milk and milk products may be sold to the
final consumer or to restaurants, soda fountains, grocery stores, or similar establishments. This requirement means that these products must be pasteurized, ultrapasteurized, or aseptically processed. Pasteurization is defined in the PMO as the process
of heating every particle of milk or milk product in properly designed and operated
equipment to a specified temperature and held at that temperature for a given length
of time as indicated in Table Ll. 2 3 Ultrapasteurized means that the product shall
have been thermally processed at or above 138C (2800F) for at least 2 s, either
before or after packaging. Aseptic processing means the product has been subjected
to sufficient heat processing and packaged in a hermetically sealed container so as
to maintain the commercial sterility of the product under normal nonrefrigerated
conditions.
Besides providing specifications for pasteurization, the PMO gives rules governing, among other provisions, the inspection of milk haulers, tests for antibiotics,
tamper-proof caps and closures, product labeling, and sanitation practices. Former
Table 1.1 PASTEURIZATION
CONDITIONS
Milk and Milk Products Except Eggnog
Temperature

Holding Time
a

63C(145F)
72C(161F)a
89C (191F)
90C(194F)
94C (2010F)
96C (2040F)
1000C (212F)

30 min
15 s
1.0 s
0.5 s
0.1 s
0.05 s
0.01s
Eggnog

Temperature
69C (155F)
8O0C(175F)
83C (180F)
a

Holding Time
30 min
25 s
15 s

If the fat content of the milk product is 10% or


more, or if it contains added sweeteners, the
specified temperature shall be increased by 300C
(50F).

product definitions given in the PMO have been replaced by references to FDA
standards of identity, which are published in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
Dairy products other than milk products are covered by separate regulations,
which provide for the pasteurization of their ingredients. Thus, the food standard for
frozen desserts including ice cream specifies that these products be produced from
a pasteurized mix (21CFR135.3). Cheeses and cheese products must be manufactured from pasteurized dairy ingredients (21CFR133.3) unless other provisions are
met. For example, in the production of Cheddar cheese, if the dairy ingredients are
not pasteurized, the cheese shall be cured at a temperature of not less than 1.7C
(35F) for at least 60 days (21CFR133.113).
Other dairy products such as butter and nonfat dry milk are covered under USDA
grading and inspection programs. Butter, for instance, shall be made from cream
that is pasteurized at a temperature of not less than 73.9C (165F) for 30 min or by
other approved methods giving equivalent results (7CFR58.2622). All milk and but-"
termilk used in the manufacture of dry milk products shall be pasteurized at the plant
where dried and under conditions as specified in the regulations (7CFR58.236).

1.2.4.2 Pasteurization Conditions


The heat treatment to which a milk product is subjected under pasteurization must
be sufficient to ensure public health safety and to ensure adequate keeping quality
of the product. At the same time the most desirable flavor and body characteristics
of the finished product should be retained. The time-temperature relations as provided for in the PMO and other regulations are designed to meet the above criteria.
Under these conditions the microorganism Mycobacteriwn tuberculosis will be
killed. In addition, other non-spore-forming pathogens and a large percentage of the
lactic acid producers will be destroyed.
Dairy processors should keep in mind that although pasteurization devitalizes
harmful organisms, it does not destroy the toxins that may be formed in milk when
certain staphylococci are present. Thus, the need to refrigerate milk before pasteurization is clearly apparent. Proper pasteurization can be ascertained by assaying the
treated milk for its content of phosphatase, an enzyme found in raw milk. This
enzyme is more resistant to heat deactivation than any pathogen. Hence its destruction indicates that pasteurization has been adequate. This test is simple to run, and
it is sensitive to processing upsets.
A process called blanching has been proposed for heat-treating fresh, uncooled
raw milk. Soon after collecting, the milk is heated to 74C (165F) for 10 s. Although
not strictly a pasteurization process, blanching is said to provide significant control
over milk spoilage. Using this process, farmers could reduce the frequency of milk
pickups without sacrificing quality.24 Also, a heat treatment step can be used instead
of pasteurization in certain cheese processes where pasteurization is optional. Such
a heat treatment has been found to be beneficial by controlling the development of
off-flavors.
The PMO provides considerable flexibility in the means by which pasteurization
is achieved. Three principal methods of pasteurization have been developed: batch

or vat pasteurization, sometimes called low-temperature holding (LTH), high-temperature-short-time (HTST) pasteurization, and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) pasteurization. Because of their importance, each of these modes is described in some
detail below.
Batch Pasteurization is the oldest method of pasteurization, and it has the advantage of simplicity. Raw milk is heated in a large, closed vat by means of a steam
coil or hot-water jacket. Every particle of milk, by law, must be held at 63C (145F)
for 30 min. An agitator keeps the milk in continuous circulation to ensure uniform
heating and to prevent the formation of a scum on the surface that would protect
bacteria by inhibiting the penetration of heat.
Proper heating is assured by means of an automatic temperature controller and a
recording thermometer. In addition a mercury-indicating thermometer is required to
provide a check on the accuracy of the recording thermometer. The holding period
of 30 min does not include the time spans required for filling or emptying the vat
or the time required to bring the milk up to the required temperature. No milk shall
be added to the vat after commencement of the holding period.
Operating experience has shown that when foam is present during pasteurization,
the temperature of the foam may be well below the pasteurization temperature. Furthermore, in filling vats, milk is frequently splashed on surfaces above the milk level
as well as on the underside of the vat cover. Droplets of this splash may drip back
into the body of the milk. For the above reasons, heating of the air space above the
milk is necessary. The temperature of the air above the surface of the milk must be
kept at not less than 3C (5F) higher than the pasteurization temperature. To check
on compliance with this regulation, each pasteurizer must be equipped with an airspace recording thermometer.
All equipment used in batch pasteurization must be of sanitary design. Unless the
inlet and outlet valves as well as all connections to the vat are properly designed,
cold pockets of milk may be present during pasteurization. Precautions should also
be taken to avoid possible leaks from valves and fittings.
High-Temperature-Short-Time (HTST) pasteurization is a continuous process
that possesses several advantages over batch pasteurization. In HTST pasteurization
the raw milk flows through a holding tube in which it is heated to 72C (161F) and
held at that temperature for 15 s. Higher-heat-shorter-time (HHST) pasteurization
utilizes a temperature of 89C (191F) and above with holding times of 1 s and less.
HTST processing allows high volume production in a minimum of processing space.
The process also affords operating efficiencies because it uses a regenerative heater.
This heater, which simultaneously heats the raw milk and cools the pasteurized milk,
conserves energy.
The HTST process provides additional advantages over batch pasteurization as a
result of the effects of temperature on bacterial destruction as opposed to its effects
on chemical reactions. For example, a 100C (18F) rise in processing temperature
produces about a 10-fold increase in bacterial destruction while only doubling the
chemical reactions. (Batch pasteurization used to be conducted at 143F or 18F
below HTST pasteurization.) These chemical reactions are responsible for the destruction of certain nutrients and flavors. Therefore, the higher the temperature and

the shorter the processing time, the greater the retention of vitamins. Milk pasteurized
by the HTST process retains 90% of its vitamin C and 100% of its vitamin B 12
content compared with batch pasteurized milk which has none of its original vitamin
C and only 90% of its initial vitamin B 12 . Furthermore, HTST pasteurization results
in little or no loss of vitamin A, niacin, and riboflavin.25
The success of the HTST method of pasteurization depends on accurate, fail-safe
controls. Figure 1.2 is a schematic diagram of the HTST process, showing the critical
elements of this process.26 Significant features of the system are described below.
A constant level tank holds the cold raw milk to be pasteurized. The tank must
be equipped with controls to maintain a constant level of milk so as to provide a
uniform head pressure on the milk being sucked from it by the timing pump. At all
times when the pasteurizer is in use, the tank must be covered.
In the raw milk side of the regenerator, the cold raw milk is heated by the hot
pasteurized milk flowing in a counter-current direction on the opposite side of the
regenerator plate. The pressure of the milk flowing through the raw side of the
regenerator must always be lower than the pressure of the pasteurized milk. Thus,
if any pinholes develop in the plate regenerator, pasteurized milk will leak into the
raw milk; the reverse will never occur.
The timing pump usually is a positive displacement type that is connected to
an electric motor through a common drive shaft, gears, pulley, or variable speed
drive. The linkage and the motor controls must be sealed by the appropriate regulatory inspectors so that unauthorized changes cannot be made in the pump operation.
In 1982 FDA cleared the use of microprocessor-based, solid-state, AC variablefrequency controllers on metering pumps.27 When variable speed drives are used,
they shall be of such design that wearing or stretching of the belt results in a slowdown rather than a speedup of the pump. In some newer pasteurization systems, the
positive displacement pump is replaced by a centrifugal pump operating in concert
with a magnetic flow meter. The signal from the flow meter will regulate either a
control valve or the speed of the pump.
The heater further heats the raw milk to bring it up to the pasteurization temperature, namely, 72C (161F). The milk may be heated with steam or hot water
circulating through a plate heat exchanger.
The holding tube must be of minimum length to hold every particle of the
heated milk for 15 s when the timing pump is running at maximum speed. The
holding tube should have a uniform bore with a diameter of 17.8 cm (7 inches) or
less. The tube should be installed with an upward slope in the direction of flow. This
slope should be not less than 2.1 cm/m (0.25 inch/foot) in order to preclude the
entrapment of air.
The regulations provide that the holding tube be an empty pipe. This design,
however, has a drawback, namely, product near the wall of the tube will travel
appreciably more slowly through the tube than product at the centerline. Such variation in flow rates could be reduced by installing a motionless or static mixing device
in the holding tube, thereby providing more uniform retention times.28
An indicating thermometer and the sensor for a recorder/controller are located
downstream for the holding tube to indicate and record the temperature of the milk

REAKER
PASTEURIZED
REGENERATOR

PASTEURIZED PRODUCT

COOLER I
RECORDER
CONTROLLER

FLOW DIVERSION
DEVICE

CONTROLLER SENSOR

HOLDING TUBE

DIVERT UNE

RAW
REGENERATOR

HEATER

RAW PRODUCT
TIMING fUMP
f ASTEURIZED FRODUCT

CONSTANT UVEL TANK

RAW fRODUCT
Figure 1.2

HTST pasteurizer.

at this point. The accuracy of the recorder/controller must be checked daily by reading the indicating thermometer. The recorder/controller shall be sealed by the proper
regulatory authority.
A flow diversion device is essentially a three-way valve used to divert any milk
not properly pasteurized back to the constant level feed tank. This device must be
installed not more than 46 cm (18 inches) downstream from the sensor of the recorder/controller. The position of the flow diversion device is controlled by the
recorder/controller. The flow diversion device shall be so designed that failure of
the primary motivating power shall automatically divert the flow of the milk.
In the pasteurized milk side of the regenerator, the pasteurized milk is partially
cooled.
The cooler further reduces the temperature of the pasteurized milk to 4C (400F)
or below.
An effective vacuum breaker shall be installed at least 30.5 cm (12 inches)
above the highest point reached by the raw milk in the system. This device ensures
that any flow-promoting equipment located downstream from the system will not
create a negative pressure.
Ultrahigh Temperature (UHT) pasteurization is designed to sterilize the milk
product by killing all microorganisms present. The UHT process is capable of destroying the bacterial spores of Bacillus stearothermophilis; however, certain enzymes present in the raw milk are many times more heat resistant. These protease
and lipase enzymes, which survive pasteurization, can initiate chemical changes that
limit shelf life.29 When UHT processed milk products are packaged in presterilized
containers that are hermetically sealed, these products are commonly known as aseptically processed.
UHT pasteurization is a continuous-flow process much like HTST pasteurization
but with more sophisticated controls. By law, UHT pasteurization is defined as heating a milk product to 138C (2800F) or higher and holding it at this temperature for
at least 2 s. Because holding times are shorter than in HTST pasteurization, greater
care must be exercised to ensure that minimum processing conditions are being met.
The rationale for UHT processing is the dramatic increase in shelf life of the milk
product. This advantage, however, is not gained without some drawbacks. The effect
most noticeable to consumers is the change in flavor. A "cooked" flavor is initially
formed followed after some days of storage by various stale flavors. In addition to
flavor changes, some effects on physical properties have been noted. 3031
Improvements have been sought in the UHT process to minimize its disadvantages. One approach is establishing greater control over the heating method so as to
eliminate hot spots on the heat transfer surfaces and to provide for more uniform
heating of the milk product. Ohmic resistance heating is one answer that has been
proposed. In this process an electric current is passed through the milk product which
is heated by means of its electrical resistance. Thus, there is no need for heat transfer
surfaces.32
Microwave pasteurization is another approach to UHT processing that has generated interest. Rapid, uniform heating can be achieved by the application of microwaves to a milk product. Laboratory testing has been conducted showing the effec-

tiveness of this method in destroying microorganisms. Nevertheless, this technology


is only at the experimental level, and considerably further research is required before
commercialization is feasible.33

1.2.4.3 Two Tragedies in 1985


In spite of the many safeguards established for the pasteurization and processing of
dairy products, two tragedies associated with these products occurred in the United
States during 1985. These events, widely publicized, led to a critical reexamination
of standard practices. Out of this assessment a number of suggestions were put
forward. Many of these ideas appear extremely valuable and deserve the attention
of those persons responsible for manufacturing safe products.
Toward the end of March, 1985, the Hillfarm Dairy plant in Melrose Park, Illinois,
was implicated in an outbreak of salmonellosis. Operated by Jewel Companies, Inc.,
a major supermarket chain in the Chicago area, this plant produced 2% low-fat milk,
some of which was found to be tainted. The cause of the adulteration was suspected
to be postpasteurization contamination. Over 16,000 confirmed cases of salmonellosis were eventually reported. Two deaths were attributed directly to the disease
while nine other persons died from complications. The plant was shut down shortly
after the outbreak, never to be reopened, and 200 employees lost their jobs. This
epidemic was said to be the world's worst outbreak of salmonellosis ever recorded.
Not much later, in June 1985, an outbreak of listeriosis was reported in southern
California. The cause was traced to adulterated Mexican-style soft cheese, produced
by Jalisco Mexican Products, Inc. at its plant in Artesia, a suburb of Los Angeles.
There were 142 recorded cases of listeriosis of which 47 were fatal, making this
outbreak the most deadly in United States history. Although the exact reason for the
outbreak was not determined, numerous improper procedures were uncovered during
the investigation. Most evidence indicated that raw milk had been mixed with pasteurized milk or that postpasteurization contamination had occurred. Officers of the
company were found to be criminally negligent and given jail sentences. The manufacturer, which had been in business for 17 years, went bankrupt, and lawsuits were
filed amounting to over $800 million.
The immediate reaction of health officials to these tragedies was to tighten enforcement procedures. Clare Berryhill, director of the California Department of Food
and Agriculture, began lobbying for stricter regulations. Changes in state law were
sought to make it a felony for a plant operator to:
Process without pasteurization any milk product required by state regulations to
be pasteurized
Falsify pasteurization records pertaining to thermometer readings and to maintenance
Sell milk products without being a licensed operator
Produce soft cheese unless phosphatase tests are performed daily to ensure proper
pasteurization.34

The Food and Drug Administration responded with more measured steps to determine what reforms, if any, might be needed. On April 1, 1986, the agency, in
cooperation with the states and industry, launched its Dairy Safety Initiative Program, a three-part investigation comprising microbiological surveillance, check ratings of interstate milk plants, and FDA inspections. Out of this effort have come
some preliminary assessments.
In general it was noted that dairy plants are getting bigger, though there are fewer
of them, so that when contamination problems do arise, the effects are magnified.
More specifically, Sanford A. Miller, director of FDA's Center for Food Safety &
Applied Nutrition, observed, "The real problem is that plant technology is far outrunning the technology we use to assure safety."35 Jerome J. Kozak, chief of FDA's
Milk Safety Branch, commented that much of the new dairy equipment needs to be
better designed for ease of cleaning and maintenance, minimizing product exposure,
and providing proper product protection. Kozak went on to outline a comprehensive
program consisting of:
1. Training and industry programs such as the Product Assurance Safety System
(PASS) developed by the Milk Industry Foundation and the International Ice
Cream Association.
2. Product-safety programs in every dairy plant addressing all aspects of safety
instead of merely the "organism of today. The marriage of microbiology and
sanitation must finally be consummated."
3. Research and testing for "a pragmatic indicator organism for pathogens, rather
than target our efforts on a selective organism."
4. Better utilization and increased effectiveness of the coliform test. "We should
establish a reduction to less than 1 coliform per ml for Grade A finished product,
and similar standards for non-Grade A products."
5. Continuance and expansion of environmental sampling by plants.
6. Continued, thorough, in-depth check ratings and inspections with the focus on
critical control items which are "selectively regulated."
7. Consideration to establishing a National Foundation of Dairy Industry Training
and Education.36

1.2,5 Cheese Processes


Cheese quality is affected by many factors extending back to the quality of the raw
milk used, cultures and coagulating enzymes added, methods of manufacture, and
the aging applied. Total quality control over these factors is required to produce
products that consistently meet high standards. The necessary control points for a
typical cheese process are indicated in Figure 1.3. This flow diagram illustrates a
batch process for the production of stirred curd Cheddar cheese.37
The control points in Figure 1.3 are shown as capital letters enclosed in boxes as
follows: " C " designates a microbiological critical control point; " H " stands for
either a chemical or physical hazard critical control point; " Q " indicates a quality
control point relating to flavor, color, texture, appearance, etc.; " E " is used for an

VATER
MILK
INTAKE

STORAGE

PASTEURIZER

FILTER

FILTER

SALT

ANNATTO
RENNET
CaCL 2

LACTIC
STARTER
CULTURE

STARTER
KESIA

STARTER
TANK

DRAIN
TABLE

CHEESE
VAT

VHEY
UETAL
DETECTOR

PACKAGING

VHEY
FINISHED
PRODUCT
SAMPLES

CDOLER

SHIPPING

VHEY
BARRELS

Figure 1.3 Stirred curd Cheddar cheese process. (Reproduced with permission from National
Cheese Institute.)
economic control point such as yield, weight control, composition; and " R " is
reserved for a regulatory control point exemplified by labeling, coding, standards,
and weight control. The preparer of this figure has elected to include only those
control points that are specific to the process. Other control points, of a more general
nature but still of equal importance, have been omitted. Both the control points
indicated in the figure and other selected control points are reviewed below.
Raw milk receipts require special attention beginning with "dock tests" prior
to being unloaded. Microbiological, chemical, and physical hazards must be monitored and controlled. Test procedures for many of these hazards are discussed in
Section 1.2.3.2. In addition, incoming milk may be checked by infrared analysis for
such quality attributes as the fat-to-protein ratio. This ratio has been found to affect
both yield and quality.38 If the cheese plant is under USDA inspection, then the raw
milk intake is also a regulatory control point.
Ingredients other than raw milk need to be inspected. These ingredients include
water, starter media, starter culture, calcium chloride, annatto, rennet, and salt. Microbiological hazards associated with these ingredients are minimal. Research on the
growth of Listeria monocytogenes in cultures, rennet, and annatto indicated that these
ingredients would not be likely sources of contamination.39"41 The quality of these
ingredients, however, is critical. Rennet attributes, for example, have a significant
bearing on the yield and quality of the cheese produced.42
The milk intake line filter is a critical control point that monitors potential
physical hazards. It is also considered to be a quality control point for detecting
extraneous matter, such as hair, in incoming milk shipments.
Milk storage has been identified as a microbiological critical control point. Milk
must be maintained at refrigerated temperatures in order to retard growth of micro-

organisms. A further step that has been proposed is the inoculation or preculturing
of the raw milk to control psychrotrophs.43
The pasteurizer is labeled as a microbiological critical control point. Details of
its operation are given in Section 1.2.4.2. Aside from factors already discussed, tight
control of this point is important to minimize protein denaturization. All cheese
products are oil/water emulsions, which are stabilized by the natural proteins in
cheese acting as surfactants. These proteins are adversely affected by processing,
particularly by the heat of pasteurization.44 The pasteurizer is also a regulatory control point inasmuch as its controls must be lead-sealed.
Starter production is a microbiological critical control point because of the
necessity of producing an active starter for subsequent rapid lactic acid development
in the cheese vat. Slow (weak) or dead starters added to the vat permit the growth
of post pasteurization microbial contamination. Starter production can be regulated
by means of automatic pH control. Starter production is also labeled a quality control
point since it affects the quality of the finished cheese.
The cheese vat is considered to be a quality control point. At this location proper
acidity must be developed by the starter, and curd firmness needs to be developed
through the action of the rennet.
The metal detector is a physical hazard control point designed to pick up any
tramp metal that may be introduced at any point in the system.
Packaging is labeled an economic control point where the packaged weight
must be checked.
Finished product samples are taken to monitor microbiological critical control
points, quality control points, and regulatory control points. Every vat of cheese
produced must be sampled and tested for pH because pH is critical to the control of
microbiological growth. Batches with excessively high reading of pH, above 5.4,
should be diverted to other uses, for example, pasteurized process cheese. Other
attributes that need to be checked on a periodic basis include salt content, moisture,
the percentage of milkfat, product consistency, color, flavor, extraneous matter, and
microbiological specifications. The moisture content, for example, directly affects
shelf life.45 The meltability of the cheese is an important criterion for many applications. Development work on correlating this property to flow viscosimetry measurements has been carried out.46
The cooler is a microbiological critical control point, as storage temperatures
are critical to the quality and safety of cheese products. As a rule, cheese is aged for
a minimum of 60 days; medium cheese for 90 to 120; and sharp cheese for 6 months
or longer. The curing temperature is reported to be held at about 4C (39F).47
Accelerated cheese ripening systems have been introduced in order to reduce holding
times by as much as one half.48'49
Shipping is shown to be the location of microbiological, chemical, and physical
critical control points. Prior to loading, each vehicle must be inspected for possible
filth and other contamination. The van temperature should comply with shipping
instructions. Shipping can be considered to be a regulatory control point as every
food manufacturer is responsible for keeping accurate shipping records that must be
made available during inspections or product recalls.

1.2.6 Ice Cream Processes


The Frozen Desserts Standard (2ICFR135) permits wide latitude in the manufacture
of ice cream and related products. Ice cream can be made from a large selection of
optional dairy ingredients ranging from cream and nonfat dry milk to whey and
sweet cream buttermilk. The variety of flavoring ingredients that may be used is
almost unlimited. Any nutritive carbohydrate sweetener may be added to sweeten
the product. Unspecified functional additives, usually emulsifiers and stabilizers, may
be used at the manufacturer's discretion. Although certain minimum requirements
are established for total solids content, weight, milkfat, and nonfat milk solids, these
specifications place few constraints on producers.
Given the freedom in determining product specifications, the modern ice cream
plant turns out a vast array of bulk products and frozen novelties in large quantities.
At the same time the plant is expected to achieve high efficiencies and to maintain
unmatched quality. Thanks in large part to computer technology and quality control
programs based on the HACCP principle, ice cream producers have met the challenges.50 A model of what a modern processing line looks like is illustrated in Figure
1.4. This flow diagram shows the location of the critical control points which are
identified as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Raw dairy product safety assessment and quality monitoring.


Ingredient safety assessment and quality monitoring.
Pasteurization standards.
Pasteurization equipment maintenance and inspection.
Fruit preparation/straining.
Ingredient exposure at feeder.
Air quality at barrel freezer.
Contamination during filling/packaging.
Adequate sanitation and hygiene throughout the plant.51

Because of their importance, some of these critical control points require elaboration. Of considerable interest is the fact that a number of nondairy ingredients are
added to the product after pasteurization. This practice immediately flashes danger
signals. Postpasteurization contamination by microorganisms becomes a real worry.
For example, with the addition of fruits to dairy products, quality control personnel
need to monitor not only the microbiological quality of the fruit but also the sanitation associated with the handling of the fruit.52
Some guidelines have been offered to govern the addition of ingredients after
pasteurization. Only those flavoring and coloring ingredients that meet the following
qualifications may be added:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Subject to prior heat treatment sufficient to destroy pathogenic microorganisms


Of 0.85% water activity or less
OfpH<4.7
Roasted nuts (added at the freezer)
Contain high alcohol content
Bacterial cultures

Cnrloni and wrappers


Cold storuge

Dry
Receiving

Flavor fruit and nuls


lngredienu

Condensed
Cream
Corn sugar
Liquid
Receiving

Cane sugar
Water
Milk

SANITATION

Buiier

Fruit
Preparation
Distribution
Flavor and
color added

UQUlFII-R

FruiU
and
nuts
Storage
10u>-2O 0 F

Air
Source
Storage
tank
32 to 400P

Blending
Pasteurising

Homogenizing

Cooling
32to 40

Freezing
2I 0 F

Pmp

Pump

RERUN

Pp

RERUN

Packaging
2J 0 F

Wrapping

Pump

Strainer

Figure 1.4 Ice cream process. (Reproduced with permission from Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation.)

Hardening
-45 to-5O0F

7. Fruits and vegetables added at the freezer


8. Subjected to any other process that will ensure that the ingredient is free of
pathogenic microorganisms.53
Further, it should be noted that some colorants have a history of bacterial contamination requiring careful monitoring and extra precautions to ensure finished product
safety.
Pasteurization requires some commentary. All dairy products, eggs, egg products,
cocoa, cocoa products, emulsifiers, stabilizers, liquid sweeteners, and dry sugar
should be added to the ice cream mix prior to pasteurization. In addition, all dry,
powdered, or condensed ingredients that are reconstituted with water must be added
prior to pasteurization. Rerun from the freezer should be recycled to the mix ahead
of the pasteurizer, never to an intermediate point downstream, such as the flavor
tank. The pasteurization conditions are different from those for milk products. The
ice cream mix may be vat pasteurized at 69C (155F) for 30 min or subjected to
HTST pasteurization at 8O0C (175F) for 25 s (21CFR135.3).
The freezing operation needs considerable attention. Barrel freezers, containing
many intricate parts, require thorough cleaning and sanitizing. The air supply to the
freezer must be assured. Air may be drawn from either the plant environment or
from a compressed air line. Regardless of the source, the air must be free of contamination by filth or microorganisms.

1.2.7 Yogurt Processes


Yogurt processes have some of the same aspects of cheesemaking and of ice cream
production. Like cheese, yogurt is made by a culturing step. Yogurt also has some
similarity to ice cream. Sweeteners and flavoring ingredients may be added to yogurt
to increase its appeal. In addition, yogurt can be frozen to either a hard-pack or softserve consistency.
The regulations define yogurt as the product of culturing cream, milk, partially
skimmed milk, skim milk, or any combination of these dairy ingredients with the
lactic acid-producing bacteria Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. (21 CFR131.200). One or more of several classes of optional ingredients may
be added, including nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners, flavoring ingredients, color
additives, and stabilizers. The final product must have a titratable acidity of not less
than 0.9%, expressed as lactic acid. These standards, when finalized in 1981, led to
some objections from the industry which felt that they were overly restrictive.54
Some controversy surrounds a practice, used by a few producers, to heat treat the
final product in order to destroy the viable microorganisms and thereby to extend
the shelf life of refrigerated yogurt. Although this procedure is permitted by the
regulations, many consumers and producers alike strongly feel that such a step deprives consumers of the potential health benefits associated with ingesting the live
organisms. These concerns led to the formation in 1986 of a nonprofit trade organization to promote the acceptance of live culture yogurt products. Known as the
National Yogurt Association, this organization has been successful in leading the
yogurt industry away from processes that heat treat the product after culturing.55

Yogurt is a traditional product that has its roots in antiquity. As a result it has not
always been so precisely defined as it is today.56 As in the case of other cultured
dairy products, pure laboratory starter cultures were not used to produce yogurt.
Rather, the inoculum was obtained from a previous production batch, and its microbiological identity was unknown. Yogurt belongs to a large class of fermented milk
products known throughout the world. These products differ one from another by
the source of the milk cultured, the type of starter used, and the processing conditions.57 United States federal regulations recognize the diversity of cultured milk
products and, in addition to yogurt, make allowance for their production. These
products may be labeled to reflect the type of culture used, for example, *'kefir
cultured milk," or "acidophilus cultured milk" (21CFR131.112).
To gain a better understanding of how yogurt is produced, Figure 1.5 shows a
simplified flow diagram for a yogurt process. Actual operating conditions will vary
from one producer to another, but the salient features that have been reported are
discussed below.58-59
Dairy ingredients are blended in the right proportion so that the final yogurt
product (but before the addition of bulky flavors) will contain not less than 3.25%
milkfat and not less than 8.25% milk-solids-not-fat, as required by the standard for
yogurt. The milkfat requirements for low-fat yogurt and for nonfat yogurt are reduced. In addition to the dairy ingredients, any nondairy ingredients are added to
the yogurt mix at this point. These may include a stabilizer such as gelatin and
sweeteners, typically sucrose and corn syrup solids. Only the flavoring ingredients
may be added later in the process after pasteurization.
The yogurt mix is pasteurized and homogenized.

KECIIVIMO

VAT*

BATCH
TAMKI

HTIT

IL(NO

YOOUB-I

M i l

INCUBATIOM
TAMKI

nun*

Figure 1.5 Yogurt process. (Reproduced with permission from Food Engineering.)

Acceptable starter cultures are necessary to produce the desired flavor and texture in the yogurt product. A microscopic check of the culture will indicate the ratio
of rods to cocci, which ideally should equal a 1:1 ratio. For a long set method of
incubation, a 2% active yogurt starter culture is used, whereas a 5% culture is needed
for the short set method.
Incubation may be carried out at different temperatures and holding times. For
example, the long set method requires incubation at 32C (900F) for approximately
18 h, and the short set method specifies 44C (1 H 0 F) for 3 to 4 h. In either case the
process is controlled by monitoring the pH. When the final pH is reached, given in
one example as pH 3.9, the process is terminated.
Flavoring ingredients, commonly fruit, are added to the yogurt before filling
and packaging. The quality of the fruit is extremely important to the shelf life of the
yogurt product. In an attempt to keep yeasts and molds to an absolute minimum,
one manufacturer specifies the use on only aseptically processed fruit.
The critical control points for the yogurt process are not shown on Figure 1.5,
but they can be summarized as follows. All ingredients must be inspected, and the
final product must be tested to meet specifications. As with other dairy processes,
pasteurization is a critical control point. In addition, pH control of the incubation
step would be considered a critical control point in order to comply with the specification for titratable acidity in the finished product.

1.2.8 Butter and Milk Processes


In some respects butter and milk processes are the simplest of the dairy processes
under discussion. Still, the production of butter and milk products is of considerable
interest in showing how dairy processes can be integrated to achieve maximum
efficiencies. Because butter and milk processing complement each other, these products dovetail extremely well into a unified operation.
An integrated butter and milk operation is illustrated in Figure 1.6. A complete
line of fluid milk products is produced, including skim milk low-fat milk, milk, and
cream. These products are designed to serve local markets. In addition, nonfat dry
milk and butter are made and sold as commodities. The key steps of this operation
are discussed below:
Raw milk receiving is a critical control point. Immediately on arrival a shipment
of raw milk is subjected to a battery of tests known as "dock tests" before it can
be unloaded. These tests, all of which can be performed rapidly, include titratable
acidity, antibiotic residues, flavor, temperature, and general cleanliness. The criteria
call for a temperature of 7C and below, and no zone r 16 mm with the Bacillus
stearothermophilus disc assay method. Many dairies use the Charm Test II for antibiotics to obtain results within 10 to 12 min as opposed to 2 Vi h required with the
disc method.60
A separator splits the raw milk into skim milk and heavy cream. This step is a
critical control point and must be closely monitored in order to ensure that milkfat
specifications will be met for all of the products produced in the plant. High-capacity,

Spray Drier

Nonfat Dry Milk


Skim Milk
(<0.5% fat)

Skim
Milk

Raw Milk

Lowfat Milk
(2% fat)

Separator

36-40%
Cream

Lowfat Milk
(1%fat)

Pasteurizer

Blender /
Homogenizer

Milk
(3.25% fat)
Half and Half
(10.5% fat)

Pasteurizer

Light Cream
(18% fat)
Heavy Cream
(36% fat)
Butter
Churn

Butter
(>80% fat)
Buttermilk

Figure 1.6 Butter and milk processes.

sophisticated separators are available for cream separation and standardizing/


clarifying.61
Pasteurization is required for both the skim milk and the heavy cream as elaborated on in Section 1.2.4.1. Pasteurization of the heavy cream used for butter
production accomplishes several purposes. This step not only destroys harmful
microorganisms, but it also inactivates lipase enzymes which cause rancidity to develop in the butter. Proper pasteurization thus greatly increases the shelf life of the
butter produced.
Cream is churned into butter in a revolving, barrel-type churn. Churning consists of agitating the cream until the microscopic fat globules coalesce into butter
granules. This step is a critical control point that determines whether the milkfat
specification for butter can be met (7CFR58.2621).
Nonfat dry milk is typically produced in a spray drier which removes water in
a heated air stream. This operation is a critical control point, which ensures that the
dried milk product conforms with specification for maximum moisture content and
maximum scorched particles (7CFR58.2527). Energy efficiencies are improved by
utilizing evaporators to concentrate the milk before spray drying.62 The severity of
the drying operation can be adjusted to produce "Low-heat," "Medium-heat," or
"High-heat" grades of nonfat dry milk (7CFR58.2539). Low-heat powders have a
minimum amount of cooked flavor and good solubility and therefore are suitable for
confections such as caramels. High-heat powders possess higher moisture-absorption
properties due to their higher content of denatured protein.63 The spray dryer is a
critical control point for yet another reason: compliance with environmental
standards. Bag filters remove dry milk particles from the vented air stream. A reliable
detector is required to ensure the integrity of the filter.64
Fluid milk products are produced by blending the correct proportions of skim
milk and heavy cream. Although not required except in the standard for evaporated
milk, the products are generally homogenized in order to maintain uniformity during
storage. The blending step is a critical control point, which is required to ensure the
correct milkfat levels are present in the various products.
Missing from Figure 1.6 is the fortification step for adding vitamin A and D
concentrates. These fat-soluble vitamins are commonly added to fluid milk products
to compensate for the amounts of these nutrients removed in the cream separation
step. Fortification is a critical control point inasmuch as the level of addition must
be precisely controlled.65
Many dairies coproduce butter and nonfat dry milk because these products provide a "relief value" for surpluses of raw milk. In essence, they act as flywheels
for the dairy industry, smoothing out the fluctuations in supply and demand. These
products are well qualified for this role. First, they are mutually exclusive; neither
product contains a significant amount of the other, and any dairy product can be
produced starting with some combination of the two. Second, they are storable,
having a relatively long shelf life compared to other dairy products. Holding times
exceed a year for both products. Third, their cost of manufacture is less than for
other dairy products, thus requiring less investment to carry inventory. Fourth and

Next Page

last, they are standardized commodities for which worldwide markets of huge dimensions have been created.
To achieve manufacturing efficiencies, effective control must be established over
any operation producing butter and milk products. One of the best approaches to
achieving such control is to determine milkfat balances for the entire plant. This
procedure involves measuring the milkfat content of each stream and multiplying
these results by the quantities of the streams. In this manner all the milkfat taken
into the plant as raw milk can be accounted for in the products produced or as losses.
In order to make the necessary milkfat balances, accurate methods of analysis are
required. The earliest test for milkfat was developed near the end of the 19th century
by S. M. Babcock. This analytical method has been improved on by infrared analysis.
Accurate data also depend on the care taken to obtain samples. Significant variations,
for instance, have been noted in samples taken from bulk holding tanks. Finally, the
quantities or weight of each processing stream must be determined as precisely as
possible for accurate results.66
Batch processes have traditionally required considerable manual operation. This
mode of operation has made inefficient use of personnel and has led to excessive
human errors. Because dairy processes, for the most part, are batch systems, there
has been a need for improvements in the industry. Now, some attempts have been
made to develop computer software programs for controlling batch operations. One
such program has been reported for running a fluid milk plant.67 As first steps in the
direction of total automation, dairies have installed control systems for refrigeration,
tank inventory, and clean-in-place operations.68 Progress has also been made in
controlling individual batch operations using microprocessors.69

1.3 Product Specifications


1.3.1 Food Additives and GRAS Substances
Food products are regulated in the United States under the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act. A key feature of this Act is the Food Additives Amendment of 1958,
which for the first time placed the responsibility on the food manufacturer to demonstrate that all food ingredients are safe. Thus, before any new food ingredient may
be used in food, it must be thoroughly tested by industry and an application must
be submitted to FDA.
The Amendment recognized, however, that many foodstuffs, such as milk, sugar,
and salt, have been eaten for centuries with no deleterious effects. These foods were
termed "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) and were approved under a separate
clause. Although there are special exceptions, food ingredients generally fall into
one of two somewhat arbitrary classifications for regulatory purposes: "food additives," which require regulatory approval in advance of use, and GRAS substances,
which are accepted outright because their safety is generally recognized as a result
of common use without perceptible harm.
Because it may not be perfectly clear whether a substance is GRAS, FDA will
consider, on request, whether or not an ingredient meets the "GRAS test." If the

Previous Page

last, they are standardized commodities for which worldwide markets of huge dimensions have been created.
To achieve manufacturing efficiencies, effective control must be established over
any operation producing butter and milk products. One of the best approaches to
achieving such control is to determine milkfat balances for the entire plant. This
procedure involves measuring the milkfat content of each stream and multiplying
these results by the quantities of the streams. In this manner all the milkfat taken
into the plant as raw milk can be accounted for in the products produced or as losses.
In order to make the necessary milkfat balances, accurate methods of analysis are
required. The earliest test for milkfat was developed near the end of the 19th century
by S. M. Babcock. This analytical method has been improved on by infrared analysis.
Accurate data also depend on the care taken to obtain samples. Significant variations,
for instance, have been noted in samples taken from bulk holding tanks. Finally, the
quantities or weight of each processing stream must be determined as precisely as
possible for accurate results.66
Batch processes have traditionally required considerable manual operation. This
mode of operation has made inefficient use of personnel and has led to excessive
human errors. Because dairy processes, for the most part, are batch systems, there
has been a need for improvements in the industry. Now, some attempts have been
made to develop computer software programs for controlling batch operations. One
such program has been reported for running a fluid milk plant.67 As first steps in the
direction of total automation, dairies have installed control systems for refrigeration,
tank inventory, and clean-in-place operations.68 Progress has also been made in
controlling individual batch operations using microprocessors.69

1.3 Product Specifications


1.3.1 Food Additives and GRAS Substances
Food products are regulated in the United States under the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act. A key feature of this Act is the Food Additives Amendment of 1958,
which for the first time placed the responsibility on the food manufacturer to demonstrate that all food ingredients are safe. Thus, before any new food ingredient may
be used in food, it must be thoroughly tested by industry and an application must
be submitted to FDA.
The Amendment recognized, however, that many foodstuffs, such as milk, sugar,
and salt, have been eaten for centuries with no deleterious effects. These foods were
termed "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) and were approved under a separate
clause. Although there are special exceptions, food ingredients generally fall into
one of two somewhat arbitrary classifications for regulatory purposes: "food additives," which require regulatory approval in advance of use, and GRAS substances,
which are accepted outright because their safety is generally recognized as a result
of common use without perceptible harm.
Because it may not be perfectly clear whether a substance is GRAS, FDA will
consider, on request, whether or not an ingredient meets the "GRAS test." If the

substance in question does meet the test, the agency will affirm this result via official
publication in the Federal Register. Hundreds of substances have had their GRAS
status affirmed in this way, and new substances are added to this list from time to
time.
A special class of ingredients, namely, color additives, are regulated under separate legislation. The Color Additive Amendments, passed in 1960, regulate those
color additives not GRAS. Specifically, these substances include compounds that
are chemically synthesized, such as any coal tar dye, which must be certified before
use in food. Only a limited number of these substances are allowed. Certified colors
are identified by assigned numbers, to wit, FD&C Blue No. 1, FD&C Blue No. 2,
FD&C Green No. 3, FD&C Red No. 40, FD&C Yellow No. 5, and FD&C Yellow
No. 6. These dyes can be used as is, or they may be reacted with alumina hydrate
to produce lakes, which are advantageous for coloring products containing fats and
oils.
Restrictions may apply even to those food ingredients approved under the law.
First, only those ingredients specifically permitted in a food standard, for example,
ice cream, may be used to make that particular food. Second, many food additives
and affirmed GRAS substances are limited in their use by the amounts that may be
added to a food, by the types of food in which they may be used, or by the functions
for which they may be utilized. Even when no restrictions apply, the regulations
require that a food ingredient (cf. lecithin) be used in accordance with "good manufacturing practice," which is defined as:
1. The quantity of a substance added to food does not exceed the amount reasonably
required to accomplish its intended physical, nutritional, or other technical effect
in food; and
2. The quantity of a substance that becomes a component of food as a result of its
use in the manufacturing, processing, or packaging of food, and which is not
intended to accomplish any physical or other technical effect in the food itself,
shall be reduced to the extent reasonably possible.
3. The substance is of appropriate food grade and is prepared and handled as a food
ingredient... (2ICFR 182.1)
Food ingredients generally are grouped on the basis of their intended purpose.
The following classes of ingredients not derived from milk are commonly used in
dairy products. The listings within each class are incomplete but serve to point out
some of the more interesting applications.
Colors, by special provisions, may be added to the butter, ice cream, and cheese
without declaring the color on the label. The rationale for these provisions is that
coloring is added only to compensate for seasonal variations in the appearance of
dairy products. For a long time coloring was not permitted to be added to margarine
for the purpose of making it resemble butter. These restrictions were relaxed in the
1950s as a result of economic pressures, so that today margarine manufacturers may
color their products. In general, a producer may not color a product in deceptive
ways or to cover up unwholesomeness. A producer of an eggnog mix was censured

in 1981 for adding Yellow No. 5 to its product to give it the appearance of containing
more eggs than it actually did.
Liquid dyes, added just after pasteurization, are used to color ice cream. Lakes
are useful to color fat-based coatings, for example, ice cream bars, variegated sauces,
wax coatings for cheese, and fruit filling for yogurt. Uncertified colors, namely, the
carotenoids, are commonly used to color such flavors of ice cream as vanilla and
strawberry, and sherbet with lemon, cherry, or orange flavorings. The carotenoids
are also added to margarine, butter, and cheese. The carotenoids vary in hue from
yellow for (3-carotene to orange for apocarotenal and red for canthaxanthin.70
Flavors are widely used in dairy products. Although the manufacturer is restricted primarily by his imagination, a few popular flavors account for most usage.
These include vanilla, chocolate, coffee, and such fruit flavors as raspberry and
strawberry. In addition, bulky flavors such as nuts are common. Although sweeteners, salt, and organic acids, for example, citric acid, may contribute to the taste
profile of a product, these ingredients are classified separately.
Preservative usage in dairy products is restricted. For example, these additives
are not permitted in yogurt. Antimicrobials are primarily used in cheese and cheese
products to suppress yeast and mold. Changes in the standards for cheese permit the
application of antimycotics as a surface treatment, thereby giving protection to the
cheese during curing and aging. Antimycotic agents may also be applied to the
surface of slices or cuts in consumer-sized packages. Such safe and suitable preservatives as benzoates, sorbates, and parabens are used in these applications.71
Emulsifiers and stabilizers provide desirable textural properties to dairy products. Both natural ingredients and synthetic compounds are used in these applications. Because dairy products generally consist of water/fat dispersions, emulsifiers
help to keep these phases intimately mixed. Egg-yolks and lecithin are natural emulsifiers that are frequently used. The synthetic organic chemicals polysorbate 60,
polysorbate 65, and polysorbate 80 are extremely effective emulsifiers. Polysorbate
60 may be used to prepare nondairy coffee creamers while polysorbate 65 and polysorbate 80 may be incorporated into ice cream and sherbet. Certain phosphate salts
are common emulsifiers for cheese products.
Stabilizers are high molecular weight colloids that act as thickeners. In small
quantities they provide body and mouthfeel to dairy products such as ice cream and
chocolate milk. Each particular stabilizer has unique properties that dictate its use.
Common stabilizers used in dairy products include pectin, gelatin, sodium alginate,
carrageenan, guar gum, and locust (carob) bean gum.
Vitamins may be added to milk products as noted in Section 1.2.8. Under the
food standard for margarine, the fortification with vitamin A is required with or
without vitamin D (2ICFR166). The same is true for low-fat milk.
Processing aids are those substances added to a product during manufacturing
in order to aid in the processing of the food. These substances, however, have no
function in the finished product. Rennet used in the manufacture of cheese falls into
this category.

Indirect additives are unintentional additives that may enter a food from such
sources as packaging or lubricants used on food machinery. The subject of packaging
materials is usually dealt with separately.
Other additives include sequestrants such as calcium disodium EDTA used in
margarine, and anticaking agents such as calcium silicate added to grated cheeses.
The above discussion of food additives by no means exhausts the subject.

1.3.2. Unavoidable Contaminants


The food regulations make accommodations for the fact that with present technology
food cannot be grown and processed so that it is entirely free from impurities. The
sources of these contaminants may be pesticides used to grow crops, environmental
contaminants, or naturally occurring toxicants. The standard of unavoidability is
whether a given contaminant can be prevented by good manufacturing practice, or
in other words, by proper control over all phases of production.
Formal procedures have been adopted for handling cases that arise.' 'Tolerances"
or " Action Levels" may be established specifying the level of impurity found in a
food product at or above which the food will be considered adulterated and therefore
prohibited. A tolerance may be established when sufficient information is available
concerning the toxicity of the impurity and when conditions contributing to the
contamination are stable. Action levels have been used in cases where data are
incomplete or speed of response to a problem is critical.
In controlling the level of pesticide residues, the Environmental Protection
Agency is assigned the lead role in promulgating tolerances. Tolerances may be
established for environmental contaminants besides pesticides. Examples are the
tolerances set for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in milk (1.5 ppm fat basis) and
in manufactured dairy products (1.5 ppm fat basis). PCBs are so ubiquitous in our
environment that for the foreseeable future they cannot be eliminated.
Action levels have been established for a range of deleterious substances in human
food and animal feed.72 This list must be updated periodically. Action levels for
polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) in milk and dairy products, for example, were
revoked in 1987.73 Milk and dairy products are included in the list of action levels
because these foods can become contaminated through the consumption of adulterated animal feed.74 Recent action was taken by FDA to replace action levels by
"Regulatory Limits." Action levels were challenged because they had been set
without formal notice and comment procedure. The new regulatory limits have the
same intent as the old action levels.75

1.3.3. Standards of Identity


For traditional dairy products, standards of identity have been established to ensure
that these products will meet certain minimum expectations of quality. These
standards have their roots in the early part of the 20th century when the processing
of dairy products was shifting away from farms to centralized food plants. The

standards were passed to control the deceitful practices of an unscrupulous fringe of


the food industry. At the time, these regulations were welcomed by both consumers
and the vast majority of food companies.
References have already been made in this chapter to a number of standards. They
include Milk and Cream (21CFR131), Cheese and Related Cheese Products
(2ICFR133), Frozen Desserts (2ICFR135), Margarine (2ICFR166), and Lactose
(2ICFR168.122). Butter is regulated by USDA under Grading and Inspection, General Specifications for Approved Plants, and Standards for Grades of Dairy Products
(7CFR58). Legislation establishing specifications for butter date as far back as 1886.
This law was revised in 1902 and again in 1923. The statutory standards for butter
have remained unchanged ever since.76
In addition to federal standards, the states until recently have been free to promulgate their own standards. For example, since 1962 California has required minimum milkfat and solids-not-fat levels in fluid milk products significantly above those
established by federal regulation. With enactment of the Nutrition Labeling and
Education Act of 1990, however, federal standards will preempt state measures. (See
Section 1.5.2.) Exemptions to uniform federal standards will be granted only in
special circumstances when there is a demonstrated need for separate treatment and
interstate commerce will not be adversely impacted. California has become the first
state to apply for an exemption under the new act.
Besides adopting standards of identity, other mechanisms are available for accomplishing the same results. With GRAS affirmation, complete specifications for
whey and whey products have been finalized (21CFR184.1979). Under provisions
of the Common or Usual Name for Nonstandardized Foods (2ICFR102), FDA proposed in 1976 the use of the term "spreads" for butter and margarinelike products
that contain <80% fat. Those spreads containing exclusively milkfat would be called
"dairy spreads." 77 The proposed regulation was withdrawn in 1986 because of a
lack of interest. In February 1991, however, The American Butter Institute (ABI)
petitioned FDA to establish "Light Butter" as the common or usual name for a 52%
milkfat product resembling butter. Containing one-third less fat, it nevertheless was
said to taste like the standardized product. ABI maintained that use of the term
"spread" was inappropriate because it has been associated with nondairy products.78
Over the years the standards for dairy products have undergone revisions to bring
them more into conformance with prevailing sentiment. That sentiment has often
opposed the restrictive nature of the standards. With the introduction of nutritional
labeling to supplement the information provided by ingredient labeling, questions
have been raised about the continuing need for any standards whatsoever. A less
extreme course, however, has prevailed whereby greater flexibility has been built
into the standards by adopting certain expedients.
One major innovation has been the widespread adoption in the standards of the
use of optional ingredients. This change gives the manufacturer some discretion to
adjust his recipes in accordance with market demands and the availability of ingredients. Thus, for instance, a whole range of whey products can now be used in frozen
desserts.

Another accommodation in the standards was introduced by the use of "safe and
suitable" ingredients. The ice cream standard, for example, permits the mix to contain "other safe and suitable nonmilk-derived ingredients" (21CFR135.110). For
the exact meaning of this expression one must refer to the regulations that stipulate
that "safe and suitable" requires that the ingredient:
1. Perform an appropriate function in the food in which it is used.
2. Is used at a level no higher than necessary to achieve its intended purpose in that
food.
3. Is not a food additive or color additive as defined in Section 201(s) or (t) of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act as used in that food, or is a food additive
or color additive as so defined and is used in conformity with regulations established pursuant to Section 409 or 706 of the act.
(21CFR130.3)
Additional flexibility in the standards has been achieved by permitting new manufacturing technology. The standards for certain cheeses (cf. Cheddar, Mozzarella,
and Limburger cheese) were amended in 1985 to permit their preparation "by any
other procedure which produces a finished cheese having the same physical and
chemical properties." This adjustment in the standards has opened the way to the
use, for example, of milk processed by ultrafiltration provided that equivalent cheese
products can be made.79
Finally, in response to popular demand for "light" dairy products, a number of
derivative products with low milkfat or low sodium content have been proposed or
adopted. Temporary permits have been issued by FDA for "light eggnog," 80 "light
ice cream,"81 and "lite sour cream." 82 FDA has also proposed removing the
standards of identity for low-sodium Cheddar and low-sodium Colby cheeses, and
in their place, amending the standards for Cheddar and Colby cheese to allow for
use of salt substitutes as optional ingredients.83
What has been the effect of loosening the restrictions in the food standards?
Enlightened citizens would probably assess the result as a compromise between rigid
standards of quality and greater choice of products. Ice cream is a case in point.
Under the revised regulations, manufacturers can produce a relatively inexpensive
but nutritious frozen dessert, condescendingly referred to as "supermarket ice
cream," or they can supply a high cost, premium ice cream to "white tablecloth"
establishments. Considering the diversity of lifestyles, the trend toward greater flexibility is probably inevitable.

1.3.4. USDA Grades


Through its Agricultural Marketing Service, the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) plays an important part in the regulation of dairy products (7CFR58). Over
the years a set of grade standards has been promulgated by USDA in order to promote
the marketing of dairy products. These standards are completely voluntary, except
that they become mandatory for those manufacturers who want to participate in

government programs. They also are so well recognized by the public that they have
become widely accepted.
USDA grade standards are all-encompassing. They establish requirements for
plant engineering and equipment design, good manufacturing practice, processing
conditions, and product characteristics. The standards are strictly enforced by routine
inspections for which fees are assessed. Products that meet the standards are identified by the USDA grade shield and the specific grade printed on the product's label.
Dairy products are assigned different grades depending on their quality. In determining quality, USDA places considerable weight on organoleptic properties.
These attributes are most noticeable to consumers and are therefore of prime economic importance. Over the long history of the grading system, USDA has developed
numerous objective tests. These tests plus the inspectors who are thoroughly knowledgeable in their fields result in an inspection process that is highly regarded.
The standard USDA grades for various dairy products are given in Table 1.2. The
terminology, one will note, is not uniform. The variations in language result from
the fact that these standards have been adopted at different times and under different
circumstances. They are so well known at this point that they will likely continue

Table 1.2 USDA GRADES FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS


Dairy Product
Bulk American cheese

Monterey cheese

Colby cheese

Cheddar cheese

Nonfat dry milk


Swiss cheese and Emmentaler cheese

Dry whey
Butter

Dry sweetcream buttermilk


Ice cream

U.S. Grade Designation


Extra Grade
Standard Grade
Commercial Grade
Grade AA
Grade A
Grade B
Grade AA
Grade A
Grade B
Grade AA
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C
Extra
Standard
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C
Extra
Grade AA
Grade A
Grade B
Extra
Standard
"Meets USDA Ingredient
Standard for Ice Cream"

Reference
7CFR58.2458

7CFR58.2467

7CFR58.2477

7CFR58.2503

7CFR58.2526
7CFR58.2572

7CFR58.2603
7CFR58.2625

7CFR58.2652
7CFR58.2827

to be used well into the future, notwithstanding suggestions that a uniform nomenclature be adopted.

1.3.5. Analytical Methods


Quality control personnel are responsible for running the analytical tests that are
required to monitor such critical control points as raw materials, intermediates, and
finished products. The tests and procedures go hand in hand. One cannot specify a
test without indicating the method used to conduct the test. Complete product specifications will also dictate sampling plans, limits of product variables, and actions to
be taken. For the most part, the required tests are specified by the applicable regulations, including USDA grade standards, standards of identity, the provisions for
food additives and GRAS substances, and the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance.
An example of product specifications is shown in Table 1.3, which gives the
specifications for sweet dry whey, USDA Extra Grade. The test values comply with
the USDA provisions for Extra Grade and with the FDA requirements for dry whey

Table 1.3 PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS FOR SWEET DRY WHEY, USDA EXTRA
GRADE
Test

Method

Frequency

Specification

Milkfat

AOAC 16.199

Spot check

NMT 1.5%

Moisture

AOAC 16.192

Each lot

NMT 5.0%

Standard plate
count
Coliform

USDA 918-109-2

Spot check

NMT 50,000/g

BAM ch. 5

Spot check

NMT 10/g

USDA 918-109-2

Spot check

NMT 15 mg

AOAC 16.023

Each lot

NMT 0.16%

AOAC 16.193

Spot check

NLT 11%

Visual check

Each lot

Alkalinity of
ash
Ash

USDA 918-109-3

Spot check

Creamy white
color, free
from hard
lumps
NMT 225 ml

AOAC 16.196

Spot check

NMT 12.5%

Heavy metals

FCC 3 rd ed., pp.


512-513
BAM ch. 6

Spot check

NMT 10 ppm

Every quarter

Negative

Scorched
particles
Titratable
acidity
Protein (N X
6.38)
Physical
appearance

Salmonella

Action
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.

Retest and reject


if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.
Retest and reject
if out of spec.

under GRAS affirmation. Lactose, not shown in the table, can be determined by
difference, that is, subtracting the proximate analyses for milkfat, moisture, protein,
and ash from 100. The maximum level of ash was set by the manufacturer at below
the upper limit established by FDA.
The significance of the tests deserve some comments. From a food safety point
of view, the microbiological tests and the heavy metals test are important. The tests
for scorched particles, titratable acidity, and ash alkalinity measure product integrity.
A high level of ash alkalinity, for example, would suggest that an excessive amount
of alkali had been added to the raw whey to neutralize or cover up high acidity.
The protein and ash levels of the dry whey indicate the product's economic benefits. Whey is primarily used for its content of protein and lactose. High ash would
suggest the inclusion of salt drippings which would be of no economic value. Finally,
the milkfat and moisture values are of interest in determining the keeping properties
of the product. High moisture causes caking of the product, and it also accelerates
protein degradation. Milkfat may turn rancid, thus limiting shelf life.
Standard tests for dairy products, such as the ones mentioned in Table 1.3, are
described in a few official references. These texts are:
1. Bacteriological Analytic Manual, Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Arlington, VA.
2. Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
3. Food Chemicals Codex, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
4. Methods of Laboratory Analysis, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D.C.
5. Official Methods and Recommended Practices of the American Oil Chemists'
Society, American Oil Chemists' Society, Champaign, IL.
6. Official Methods of Analysis, Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA.
7. Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy Products, American Public
Health Association, Washington, D.C.
Rapid methods of analysis are being used increasingly to provide results more
quickly than can be obtained by the standard tests. The importance of speed was
illustrated in Section 1.2.8 in which dock tests were described, including one for
antibiotic residues. Because of the limited holding times for dairy products, it is
critical that laboratory results be obtained as soon as possible. Unfortunately, this
objective is not always easy to achieve, particularly in microbiology where incubation times can run into days.
The challenge of developing rapid methods of analysis is being met by many
independent suppliers. These firms have introduced a wide variety of sophisticated
instrumentation that is revolutionizing the dairy industry.84"86 Offering greater convenience, these methods must nevertheless be correlated with standard tests. In some
instances the rapid method gives only a presumptive positive result which then needs
to be confirmed by official methodology.

On-line instrumentation is one step further along the road toward plant automation. It can provide continuous control over an operation and respond immediately
to process upsets. Limitations exist in the number of attributes that can be measured
directly. Still the opportunities are considerable. Using a single-beam infrared
measuring technique, a West Coast dairy has installed an on-line system for measuring two milk components: fat and protein.87 The potential advantages of on-line
control are so great that the future belongs to this technology.
A resource not to be overlooked by manufacturers is the availability of commercial laboratories.88 Well equipped to handle a variety of tasks, these certified facilities
can fulfill several needs. They can provide additional evidence in cases that are being
disputed with government or private businesses. Independent laboratories can perform difficult or expensive procedures that may not be cost effective to run internally.
They can also handle tests that are required only infrequently. Finally, as a precautionary measure, outside laboratories can be used for those tests involving pathogens,
avoiding any possible contamination of on-site facilities.

1.3.6 Codex AIimentarius


International food standards are established by the Codex AIimentarius Commission
for the guidance of its member nations. The commission was organized in 1962 by
two bodies of the United Nations, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and
the World Health Organization (WHO). It not only develops product standards but
also codifies hygienic and technical practices, specifies methods of analysis and
sampling, and establishes maximum limits for pesticide residues.
A painstaking procedure has been adopted by Codex AIimentarius for developing
its standards. A total of 10 steps must be followed from the beginning when the
commission decides there is a need for a standard to the last step of publishing the
completed standard in the commission's organ. In between there are at least three
review steps when drafts are submitted to the members for comments and actions.
Because of these many safeguards, this process can take years for completion.
Finalized standards can be adopted by member nations in one of three ways. Full
Acceptance means a country will allow the free movement of any food that complies
with the standard, and conversely, product that does not meet the standard will be
excluded. Acceptance with Specified Deviations occurs when a country adopts a
standard but stipulates additional requirements more stringent than the Codex conditions. Target Acceptance indicates that a nation intends to adopt a standard at a
future date, but in the interim it will permit the unhindered exchange of goods
meeting the standard. Even in countries that do not adopt a standard, its mere existence has a beneficial result by establishing a reference for product quality.
An example of a standard that was developed by Codex AIimentarius is the one
for lactose, also known as milk sugar. Even though this standard was not adopted
at the time by the United States, it filled gap in the regulations. Prior to the development of the Codex standard for lactose, there was no other food grade standard
for this product to which American producers of this important commodity could
turn. Once the Codex standard was established, several producers voluntarily met

its provisions which were more restrictive than the loose practices then prevailing.
Lactose is manufactured from whey as a coproduct of modified whey, and the carbohydrate is widely consumed in infant formulas, confections, and other foods.

1.4 Good Manufacturing Practice


1.4.1 Regulatory Requirements
A set of standards has been promulgated under the food laws to provide for the
proper handling and processing of food products. Commonly known as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), these regulations are delineated in 2ICFR110. According to these regulations a food shall be deemed to be adulterated if "the food
has been prepared, packed, or held under insanitary conditions whereby it may have
become contaminated with filth, or whereby it may have been rendered injurious to
health." This directive applies to all stages of food handling including processing,
distribution, and warehousing. It is this principle that forms the legal basis for the
emphasis that must be placed on sanitation and employee training.
The GMPs as outlined in 2ICFRl 10 are sometimes referred to as the ''Umbrella
GMPs" because they cover all food categories and perforce are general in nature.
These regulations address such matters as personal hygiene, plant and grounds upkeep, the design and cleaning of equipment, and process controls. The regulations
include some topics, for example, batters and breading, that have nothing to do with
dairy products, and they leave out important details such as pasteurization conditions.
The dairy processor, therefore, must turn to four other documents for guidance:
Thermally Processed Low-Acid Foods Packaged in Hermetically Sealed Containers
(2ICFR113), the Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (see Section 1.2.4.1), Grading and
Inspection . . . of Dairy Products (7CFR58), and the 3-A Sanitary Standards, to be
discussed in Section 1.4.2.2.
Although the above-mentioned guidelines are based on years of experience and
provide detailed information on all aspects of dairy processing, they can and should
be supplemented whenever new data become available. In a sense, manufacturing
standards are a moving target that is constantly undergoing revision. The sources of
new information are manifold. For example, National Food Processors Association
has proposed a set of guidelines for refrigerated foods.89 Although these guidelines
specifically state that they are not directed at dairy products, they nonetheless raise
some important issues. The guidelines recommend that the upper limit for holding
refrigerated foods be 4.00C (400F) in place of 7.2C (45F) as given in the GMPs.
The guidelines also recommend that one or more safety factors or "barriers" in
addition to refrigeration be designed into a food product to protect it from contamination by microorganisms. These barriers might include such measures as pH adjustment, controlled moisture, competitive flora, preservatives, thermal processing,
and modified atmospheres.

1.4.2 Sanitation
In Section 1.2.3 on Critical Control Points, the argument was made that entry points
in a food process where potential hazards can be introduced include the processing
equipment itself. This equipment, due to unclean food contact surfaces, may harbor
filth or harmful microorganisms. All efforts at maintaining product integrity can be
undone by exposing the dairy product to dirty equipment. For this reason extreme
precautions are taken to ensure that all utensils and equipment are maintained in
sanitary condition. These precautions are outlined in some detail in the following
sections.

1.4.2.1 Materials of Construction


The historical advancement in the design of dairy processing equipment has proceeded in step with the development of sanitary materials of construction. In the
early part of the 20th century the materials in use for food equipment were limited
to such metals as iron, steel, brass, bronze, copper, tin, and galvanized iron. These
materials were not entirely satisfactory because they were subject to corrosion, produced off-flavors in food products, and were difficult to clean properly. Only pure
nickel gave satisfactory results, but its prohibitive cost restricted its application.
Thus, progress in the design of equipment depended on the development of new
materials of construction.
Manufacturers of equipment for the dairy industry led the search for a sanitary
metal. After exhaustive experiments with over 400 alloys, Loomis Burrell of D.H.
Burrell & Co. discovered in the late 1920s a composition of nickel, copper, and other
metals that performed satisfactorily. Given the trade name, "Diamond" metal, it
was first used in castings for sanitary milk pipeline fittings. Simultaneously with
Burrell's development, the Waukesha Foundry Co. came up with German Silver, a
cupro-nickel alloy that the firm called "Waukesha Metal." It was used for casting
pump parts, fittings, and valves. Both of the alloys developed by Burrell and Waukesha are known as "dairy" or "white" metal. They can easily be worked, readily
cleaned, and to this day provide excellent service.
Across the Atlantic, Fried. Krupp in Essen, Germany, discovered stainless steel
in 1908. A ferroalloy containing approximately 18% chrome and 8% nickel, this
material was found to possess outstanding properties but required completely new
techniques for its fabrication. After World War I, Allegheny Steel took the lead in
developing stainless steel sheet, strip, and bars in the United States. These products
caught the attention of the J.G. Cherry Co., which made the first pasteurizer out of
this material in 1926. Two years later the Cherry and Burrell companies merged to
form the Cherry-Burrell Corporation.
The search for improved materials of construction is never ended. Recent advancements include electropolishing of stainless steel to provide smooth surfaces for
improved sanitation and maintenance. Ceramic coatings are generating interest but
await further development before their acceptance. Perhaps the most notable im-

provement is the use of titanium in such applications as plate heat exchangers. This
metal stands up better than stainless steel to free chlorine and chlorides which are
present in some sanitizing and cleaning agents.90 A wide variety of rubber and plastic
materials is used in dairy processing equipment. Criteria for their acceptance are
given in the 3-A Sanitary Standards.

1.4.2.2 Equipment Design and Standards


Of significance equal to the development of materials was the establishment of design specifications for dairy processing equipment. The proliferation of sizes,
threads, and designs prevented parts from different manufacturers from being used
interchangeably. In the early 1920s, representatives from the International Association of Milk Dealers (which became the Milk Industry Foundation) and the Dairy
and Ice Cream Machinery & Supply Association (now the Dairy and Food Industries
Supply Association) met to simplify the specifications for pipe, fittings, and outlets
on processing equipment. This group was joined by a committee from the International Association of Milk and Food Sanitarians. Because the original standards were
established by three cooperating associations representing dairy processors, equipment manufacturers, and sanitarians, the code came to be known as 3-A Sanitary
Standards.
Participation in setting design specification has been increased by replacing the
founding organizations with the International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians; the U.S. Public Health Service; and the Dairy Industry Committee. The latter group represents the Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association,
and five processor organizations: The American Butter Institute, The American Dairy
Products Institute, The International Ice Cream Association, The Milk Industry
Foundation, and The National Cheese Institute. Complete sets of 3-A Sanitary
Standards are available from the International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians in Ames, Iowa. Equipment that complies with the standards
may display the 3-A symbol, consisting of the numeral " 3 " superimposed on a
capital 44 A."
While the original purpose of setting equipment standards was greater uniformity
between manufacturers and a reduction in the number of sizes, the eventual rewards
were far greater. Out of these considerable efforts some important principles for
sanitary equipment design were enunciated. These principles have been summarized
as follows:
1. Product contact surfaces must be at least as smooth as a No. 4 ground finish on
stainless steel sheet.
2. Product contact surfaces shall be free of such imperfections as pits, folds, and
crevices.
3. Internal angles must be finished with fillets of minimum radius.
4. Permanent joints are to be welded. Grooves and recesses for retaining gaskets or
O-rings are to be free of sharp corners.
5. Equipment must be self draining and contain no dead ends.

6. Product contact surfaces must be readily accessible for inspection.


7. Equipment must be designed to protect the contents from external contamination.
8. Nonproduct contact surfaces must be constructed and finished in such a manner
so as to prevent the accumulation of soil, bacteria, or vermin.
9. Proper clearance of equipment from the floor and walls must be provided.91"93
The 3-A Sanitary Standards do not address the operating efficiency, reliability,
or efficacy of dairy processing equipment. Although this exclusion may be understandable, it does overlook important considerations in the design and selection of
equipment. For example, a new pump design is available that can pump large curd
cottage cheese without damaging the curd.94 Thus each piece of equipment must be
considered on the basis of its performance as well as its safety features.
From a review of the effort that has gone into the development of sanitary
standards, one might get the impression that few challenges remain. In Section
1.2.4.3 covering two tragedies in 1985, however, the situation was found to be
otherwise. Observations were made that new dairy equipment often failed to emphasize ease of cleaning and maintenance. More attention should also be paid to
minimizing product exposure and to providing better product protection. As an
example, an FDA administrator cited the need to eliminate defoamers on filling
machines which recycle product foam back to the fillers. Because foam has a large
surface area, it is particularly susceptible to environmental contamination. Such problems can be avoided only if equipment manufacturers become more attentive to the
needs of dairy processors.

1.4.2.3 Cleaning of Equipment


How well any dairy processing equipment has been designed and built will determine
the ease with which it can be cleaned. Proper cleaning is equally dependent on an
expert evaluation of the job to be done and the correct selection of cleaning compounds and conditions. Special problems are encountered with certain types of equipment. Cleaning membranes in ultrafiltration units is especially difficult because these
membranes become fouled with proteins, fats, and suspended solids during operation.95 Heat transfer equipment also presents problems. Studies have shown that as
the temperature differential in a heat exchanger is raised, the formation of deposits
noticeably increases. In addition, when milk is being heated, its pH also affects the
fouling rate. To minimize these problems the suggestion has been offered that milk
and milk-derived products such as whey be heated by electromagnetic means.96 This
approach has been alluded to in Section 1.2.4.2 where microwave pasteurization was
mentioned.
The cleaning procedure will generally consist of six sequential steps: prerinse,
clean, intermediate rinse, sanitize, postrinse, and dry. One or more of these steps
may be omitted or combined with another step in special circumstances. For example, surfaces sanitized with an iodophor can be dried spot-free without using a
postrinse. In other instances the drying step can be eliminated, provided the surfaces
do not come into contact with dry product. Sometimes the cleaning and sanitizing

steps can be combined by using such specially formulated products as those containing anionic surfactants and acid. By eliminating steps in the cleaning cycle,
substantial savings may be realized by reducing downtime, water requirements, energy consumption, and the usage of chemicals.
Effective detergent formulations may contain several additives including a surface-active agent (surfactant), a chelating agent (sequestrant), and either an alkali or
acid. The choice of additives will depend on the type of soil to be removed from the
equipment, the materials of construction, and the method of applying the cleaning
compound. The surfactant, commonly either anionic or nonionic, promotes rapid
wetting, penetration, and the emulsification of fats and oils. It also aids in the dispersion and suspension of dirt particles. Inorganic alkalis including caustic soda,
sodium metasilicate, and trisodium phosphate are effective in removing fats and
protein. To tie up calcium ions in alkaline solutions, sequestering agents, for example, polyphosphates, gluconic acid, or ethylenediamine tetracetic acid (EDTA),
are critical.
To clean equipment that is subjected to elevated temperatures during food processing, an acid formulation would be selected. Containing phosphoric, nitric, or
sulfamic acid, such a cleaning compound is capable of dissolving carbonate scales
and certain mineral deposits such as milkstone. An acid wash may be preceded or
followed by an alkaline cleaning step. Frequently in dairy plants an alkaline wash
is used first, and then an acidic sanitizing solution is applied to brighten the equipment by neutralizing excess alkalinity, thus preventing the buildup of mineral deposits. Most importantly the mild acid solution passivates the stainless steel, making
it inert to corrosive attack.
Completely different procedures must be used for cleaning equipment that handles
dry materials such as milk powder. As required, the equipment is dismantled, and
all product contact surfaces are thoroughly vacuumed or brushed clean. External
parts are likewise cleaned. Vacuum cleaning is preferred to brush cleaning as the
former method minimizes the formation of dust. Air blowers should be avoided at
all times. Brushes or vacuum cleaning fittings used for product contact surfaces
should not be used for cleaning nonproduct contact surfaces. Occasionally wet cleaning may be required to remove stubborn dirt. In such cases all parts must be completely dried before reassembly.

1.4.2.4 Sanitizing Compounds


Once the equipment has been cleaned, it must be sanitized to destroy residual yeast,
mold, bacteria, and spores. Experts repeatedly warn that any attempt to sanitize
surfaces that are not absolutely clean is done so in vain. Although a conscious effort
is made to approach total kill of all organisms, no pretense is made that the equipment
will be sterilized or disinfected. Such extreme action would be impractical and unnecessary in an environment that is permeated with microorganisms.
Sanitizing is usually accomplished by means of bactericidal chemicals. Another
way to achieve sanitation is by the application of heat, for example, steam, but this
method has been found to be difficult to control. FDA has passed on the acceptability

of some 37 sanitizing solutions at last count (21CFR178.1010); however, most products used by industry fall into one of four categories. In the selection of cleaning
and sanitizing compounds, care must be taken to prevent corrosion of food contact
surfaces. Corrosion will cause pitting which will only make future cleaning immeasurably more difficult. The following four types of approved sanitizers fulfill
most of the needs of dairy processors.
Chlorine compounds, typified by hypochlorites, are the most economical of the
common sanitizers and thus the most widely used. With excellent germicidal power,
they are effective against all microorganisms, bacteriophage, and even spores if the
temperature is sufficiently high. They are relatively nontoxic at use strength of <200
ppm chlorine, and they do not form films. Chlorine compounds do have drawbacks.
They have limited shelf life and are corrosive to most metals.
Iodophors, which are combinations of iodine and solubilizing agents, possess
good stability. They are active against all microorganisms except spores and bacteriophage. Generally used at a concentration of 25 ppm iodine and under acidic
conditions, iodophors exhibit good penetration and do not leave a film on drying.
They are noncorrosive and nonirritating to skin. Their amber color provides an indication of the presence of active iodine. Principal disadvantages are that they are
relatively expensive and are limited to temperatures under 49C (1200F).
Quaternary ammonium compounds, or quats as they are commonly called,
provide better control of Gram-positive bacteria including staphylococci than Gramnegative bacteria, such as coliforms and psychrophiles, for example, pseudomonas.
They are ineffective against spores and bacteriophage. They have a long shelf life
and are noncorrosive and are therefore suitable at higher temperatures than permitted
with hypochlorite sanitizers. At the recommended concentration of 200 ppm, quats
possess considerable detergency and provide excellent penetration; however, with
mechanical agitation they may cause foaming. Negative aspects include their higher
cost and incompatibility with anionic surfactants.
Acid-anionic surfactants are effective only at a lower pH, the optimum range
being 1.9 to 2.2. Used at 100 ppm of ionic surfactant, they are capable of controlling
a wide spectrum of microorganisms, including some thermodurics, but they are ineffective against spores. These sanitizers are stable, noncorrosive to stainless steel,
and can be used at higher temperatures. They are effective in removing such mineral
deposits as milkstone. Their chief disadvantages are that they are corrosive to metals
other than stainless steel, and they present foaming problems in mechanical systems.

1.4.2.5 Application of Cleaning/Sanitizing Solutions


One of the great innovations in sanitation is clean-in-place (CIP). This procedure
entails the sequential circulation of rinse, cleaning, and sanitation solutions through
processing lines and equipment. Storage tanks and the like may be cleaned by the
application of jets through nozzles and pressure spray balls. CIP systems range in
sophistication from manual hookups to semiautomatic operations or installations that
are fully controlled by microprocessors. To place a circuit in the cleaning cycle, an
operator may have to break into the system to connect lines to the supply of cleaning

solution. Accidental intermixing of product and detergent can be prevented by designing the plant with * 'key pieces" of pipe sections that fit between only two points
in the system.97 Successful CIP depends on the careful adjustment of the following
conditions.
Time of contact with the cleaning solution is important to allow penetration of
the soil film and its removal. The suggested length of time ranges from 10 to 20 min
for cleaning cold surfaces and 15 to 30 min for equipment in hot service. Excessive
times will only lead to lost production and an unwanted drop-off in the temperature
of the cleaning solution.
Time is also a factor in the application of sanitizing solutions. Studies have shown
a logarithmic relationship between the number of microorganisms killed and the
time of exposure.
Temperature of the cleaning solution is typically held around 71 to 85C (160
to 185F) for cleaning surfaces in hot applications and somewhat lower, 57 to 710C
(135 to 1600F), for cold surfaces. As a rule each H 0 C (200F) increment in temperature will double the activity of the cleaning agent. Higher temperatures also increase
the rate of kill by sanitizers. Upper limits are set by consideration of sanitizer stability
and corrosion rates.
Concentrations of the cleaning solutions for optimum results have been determined by the suppliers and are indicated on the labels. Most alkaline cleaners work
best at around 0.5 to 1% by weight. Acid cleaners are usually adjusted to a desired
pH range. For sanitizers, increasing the concentration accelerates the destruction of
bacteria. Maximum use levels are specified by FDA for approved sanitizing solutions. In automated CIP systems the strength of cleaning solutions can be monitored
by conductivity measurements.98
Physical action is of utmost concern in cleaning. To obtain the necessary agitation, a velocity of 5 feet per second or greater is required. Compensations must be
made if different sizes of pipes are installed in the same line. Sufficient pressures
must be supplied to operate spray devices which have to be correctly designed and
placed to ensure complete irrigation of all surfaces. A new development is the application of bursts of spray for 20 to 45 s durations.

1.4.2.6 Maintenance of Equipment


Unless equipment is properly maintained it will not function as designed. The effort
required to keep equipment in good working condition is substantial. One report
indicated that in 1970 maintenance took 1% of operating costs in the food industry.
By 1986 this expenditure had grown to 10% and was still rising.99 More than money,
however, is required for an effective maintenance program. Careful planning must
be devoted to the job, and management needs to be committed to the objectives.
Preventive maintenance of equipment is the key to a successful program. Computerized systems are available to track each piece of equipment in order to anticipate
when maintenance is required. Suppliers can play an important role in maintenance
programs. Nobody knows a piece of equipment better than the firm that manufac-

tured it. Beginning with the sale of each new piece of equipment, the supplier should
be prepared to offer instruction and training in the maintenance of that equipment.100
Coordination of maintenance with production is mandatory in order to minimize
dislocations and to reduce hazards. When the largest dairy cooperative in Canada
was faced with the need to paint its storage tanks, it realized that sandblasting of the
tanks to prepare the surfaces would raise havoc with production. It therefore decided
to use an epoxy coating material that could be applied without surface preparation.
In so doing, the dairy avoided the extra cost of erecting temporary barriers.101 When
maintenance is planned and coordinated with production, as was the case with the
Canadian processor, inadvertent product contamination caused by misjudgments or
oversights can be avoided.

1.4.3 Plant and Grounds


Dairy processes are open systems that are exposed to environmental hazards. For
this reason every precaution must be taken to reduce the possibility of product contamination from this source. Absolute control is beyond the reach of present day
technology, but risks can nevertheless be kept to a minimum. The following sections,
which review environmental concerns and pest control, indicate some of the steps
that can and should be taken to ensure product integrity.

1.4.3.1 Environmental Concerns


All nonproduct contact surfaces can harbor harmful microorganisms. For this reason
these surfaces must be cleaned, sanitized, and inspected on a regular basis. An
acceptable job can be done only if buildings and facilities are of sanitary construction. The following appurtenances are frequently mentioned as locations requiring
attention: floors, drains, walls, ceiling, pipes, equipment, air ductwork, conveyors
(including lubricants), and storage racks. 102103 Mobil equipment is also critical, particularly those items that leave the plant and are later returned. In this category dairy
cases and pallets have been found to be a source of contamination. Not to be overlooked are even the smallest objects such as brushes and tools. Porous materials,
such as wooden handles, and absorbent items including sponges and rags should not
be used in production areas.104
The effectiveness of plant sanitation programs needs to be checked through routine environmental sampling. As a rule, samples or swabs will be taken from various
locations to check total bacterial counts using the standard plate count method. These
tests can be supplemented by testing for a target organism of particular interest, for
example, Listeria. Attention should be given to microbiological havens where the
four requirements for bacterial survival and growth are present: temperature, water,
pH, and food. Samples should be taken under plant operating conditions, not immediately after a cleanup, for example. The sanitarian should look especially hard
for areas that show dirt, grease, or condensate. Unless an effort is made to obtain
meaningful samples, a false sense of security will ensue.105

The plant air supply is another environmental concern. Ambient air may contain
between 1000 and 5000 germs per cubic meter including bacteria, yeasts, molds,
bacteriophages, and viruses.106 This air must be properly compressed, cooled, dehumidified, and filtered before it can be used. A so-called 95% filter will trap 95%
of all particles 1 jxm or larger. It is capable of removing all yeasts and molds as well
as essentially 100% of airborne bacteria as the latter tend to agglomerate either to
other bacteria or to dust and dirt particles. Ultimate results can be achieved by using
an absolute or High Efficiency Particular Air (HEPA) filter, which has a rating of
99.97% with 0.3 |xm-size particles. Such a filter can adequately control bacteriophage. The temperature and humidity of the air supply are critical in such locations
as a cheese packaging line to prevent condensation from forming on the surface of
the cool cheese before it is wrapped.107
Proper air distribution throughout the working areas of the plant is especially
important. In such critical places as starter culture rooms, positive air pressure is
maintained to seal this operation off from outside contamination by bacteriophage.
Air distribution within other rooms is also critical. Without proper air flow, walls
and ceiling can become damp thereby presenting ideal breeding grounds for microbes. Air supplied to equipment such as ice cream freezers, air agitation tanks,
and air blowers becomes intimately mixed and even incorporated into the product.
Obviously this air must be pure. Finally, there is increasing awareness of the advantage of using controlled-atmosphere enclosures to create a near-sterile environment.
This approach has been perfected to the point where it is used for the packaging of
aseptic products.

1.4.3.2 Pest Control


To understand pest control, one must appreciate the dynamic relationships between
the number of pests found within a food establishment and those outside the premises. The number of pests inside a plant is equal to the number of pests entering that
facility over a period of time, plus the propagation of pests within the confines of
the building, less the number of pests eliminated. In turn, the number of pests entering the facility depends on the tightness or security of the building and on the
population of pests in the immediate environs. Thus, pest control will depend on
four factors: the elimination of pests within a facility, means taken to limit reproduction, preventive measures to keep pests from entering the facility, and steps
adopted to reduce the number of pests on the grounds adjacent to the plant.
Control of pests is important to good sanitation inasmuch as these vermin are
carriers of filth and disease. * Tests" is a general designation covering rodents, birds,
and both flying and crawling insects. Rodents receive the most attention because
they are most noticeable and they cause the greatest destruction. Also, the specific
steps taken to control rodents will have a generally favorable input on all pest control,
and therefore these steps merit some discussion.
A sound pest control program requires that access to food and water be restricted
and that breeding places and natural habitats be eliminated in so far as possible.
These measures call for stacking product off the ground on pallets and setting it

back from the walls. In addition, all spills must be cleaned up immediately. Traps
should be set at strategic points in the plant. One study urges that charts be maintained of all areas of rodent activity; however, it advises that this information be
kept in strict confidence.108
Entrance by rodents into a plant must be restricted. Carriers are notorious offenders in contributing to infestation problems. Therefore all truck and railcar deliveries should be inspected carefully. Building openings should be kept closed or
screened, and all cracks must be caulked. The plant grounds should be well maintained by keeping lawns mowed, the drives well paved and drained, and the area
free from weeds, refuse, and discarded equipment. Because pests are known to travel
only relatively short distances, the immediate surroundings are the most critical to
keep tidy. Unfortunately there is no single solution to pest control, but a combination
of partial responses can be extremely effective.

1.4.4 Employee Training


A viable dairy industry depends on professional training at all levels of management.
Foremost in this effort are the strong courses of study in dairy science offered by
leading state universities. Recently state universities in California, Minnesota, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, and
Wisconsin have contributed to the formation of six regional dairy research centers
under the auspices of the National Dairy Board. Established by an act of Congress,
the National Dairy Board is charged with promoting innovation in dairy technology.109 Besides furthering the economic goals of the dairy industry, these new dairy
research centers can be expected to become an outstanding educational resource.
Graduates trained in dairy science will continue to supply the core of talent needed
by government and industry.
Outside the United States there are many recognized centers of dairy science. For
example, the Dalum Dairy Training Center in Denmark is a model for similar institutions throughout the world. This center with assistance from FAO helped to establish in 1987 a new dairy training center at Harbin in the Peoples Republic of
China. This new center joined the Chinese-Swedish Dairy Training Center already
operating in Beijing. The mission assigned to the new center at Harbin was the
ambitious goal to triple or even quadruple milk production in China by the end of
the decade.110
Formal education must be supplemented by on-the-job training. Dairy processors
can turn to a number of sources for assistance in this task. Teaching materials,
including slides and videotapes, are available from lending libraries established just
for this purpose.111 Based on the premise that passive instruction is not nearly so
effective as student participation, a series of microbiological experiments has been
designed to illustrate the importance of good hygiene.112 Finally, there are always
available a number of excellent short courses and workshops organized to cover
topics of specific interest.113"115
The materials that need to be stressed in training sessions include the requirements
for personal hygiene. The GMPs outline approved practices and therefore should be

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used as a guide. Specific instructions include many do's and don't's, all of which
must be assimilated (21CFR110.10). In approaching the subject of personal hygiene,
one should keep in mind that people account for a major source of microbiological
contamination and are the most difficult variable in a process to control. Therefore
the full cooperation of employees is absolutely essential in order to achieve the
objectives of any sanitation program.

1.5 Product Labeling


1.5.1 Ingredient Labeling
Minimum labeling requirements for milk products are given in the PMO and in
federal regulations promulgated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
and the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act. Other dairy products are covered by the
same federal regulations and any applicable standards of identity. The PMO provides
that consumer products be so labeled as to contain the following information.
1. The words ' 'Grade A.''
2. The identity of the plant where pasteurized, ultrapasteurized, or aseptically
processed.
3. The word "reconstituted" or "recombined" if the product is made by reconstitution or recombination.
4. The volume or proportion of water to be added for reconstituting or recombining
in the case of concentrated milk or milk products.
5. The words ' 'keep refrigerated after opening" in the case of aseptically processed
milk and milk products.
6. In the case of aseptically processed and packaged milk or milk products, the term
"UHT."
7. The words * 'ultrapasteurized'' if the milk or milk product has been ultrapasteurized.
8. The word "Goat" shall precede the name of the milk or milk product when the
product is or is made from goat milk.116
The several states may require additional information, for example, the word
"pasteurized," to be included on labels as appropriate. Approved suppliers of milk
and milk products are listed in the quarterly publication, Sanitation Compliance and
Enforcement Ratings of Interstate Milk Shippers (IMS List).117 All milk product
facilities have been assigned plant numbers by the states in accordance with the
Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS), and these numbers must be placed
on all labels to identify the producing plant.
Federal regulations (2ICFRl01) require all consumer food products to show the
name of the product; the name and place of business of the manufacturer, packer,
or distributor; the quantity of product in English units; and a list of ingredients by
common or usual name in descending order of predominance by weight.

Previous Page

used as a guide. Specific instructions include many do's and don't's, all of which
must be assimilated (21CFR110.10). In approaching the subject of personal hygiene,
one should keep in mind that people account for a major source of microbiological
contamination and are the most difficult variable in a process to control. Therefore
the full cooperation of employees is absolutely essential in order to achieve the
objectives of any sanitation program.

1.5 Product Labeling


1.5.1 Ingredient Labeling
Minimum labeling requirements for milk products are given in the PMO and in
federal regulations promulgated under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
and the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act. Other dairy products are covered by the
same federal regulations and any applicable standards of identity. The PMO provides
that consumer products be so labeled as to contain the following information.
1. The words ' 'Grade A.''
2. The identity of the plant where pasteurized, ultrapasteurized, or aseptically
processed.
3. The word "reconstituted" or "recombined" if the product is made by reconstitution or recombination.
4. The volume or proportion of water to be added for reconstituting or recombining
in the case of concentrated milk or milk products.
5. The words ' 'keep refrigerated after opening" in the case of aseptically processed
milk and milk products.
6. In the case of aseptically processed and packaged milk or milk products, the term
"UHT."
7. The words * 'ultrapasteurized'' if the milk or milk product has been ultrapasteurized.
8. The word "Goat" shall precede the name of the milk or milk product when the
product is or is made from goat milk.116
The several states may require additional information, for example, the word
"pasteurized," to be included on labels as appropriate. Approved suppliers of milk
and milk products are listed in the quarterly publication, Sanitation Compliance and
Enforcement Ratings of Interstate Milk Shippers (IMS List).117 All milk product
facilities have been assigned plant numbers by the states in accordance with the
Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS), and these numbers must be placed
on all labels to identify the producing plant.
Federal regulations (2ICFRl01) require all consumer food products to show the
name of the product; the name and place of business of the manufacturer, packer,
or distributor; the quantity of product in English units; and a list of ingredients by
common or usual name in descending order of predominance by weight.

The requirement for listing ingredients calls for considerable legal expertise on
the part of the manufacturer, as any novice will soon discover. One of the first lessons
learned by the beginning law student is that for every legal principle put forward,
invariably there are exceptions to the principle, and not infrequently there are exceptions to the exceptions. To give a concrete example, as noted above, a list of
ingredients is required on all food products. An exception to this rule, however, is
made for standardized foods, which do not require such labeling. On the other hand,
if the standardized food in question contains optional ingredients, then these ingredients must be disclosed. Thus, in the case of ice cream, all of the ingredients must
be listed on the label, even though this is a standardized food, because all ingredients
are designated as optional in the standard.
As mentioned in Section 1.3.1, color additives need not be declared on butter,
cheese, and ice cream. In general, however, colors as well as spices and flavors are
declared by their collective names, that is, the individual compounds do not need to
be identified. Especially in the case of flavoring where as many as 125 separate
substances, each with complex names, can be used in a single product, practicality
dictates the use of collective terms. Exceptions to this rule exist where an individual
compound such as FD&C Yellow No. 5 causes allergic reactions in some people
and therefore must be declared. A chemical preservative must be listed by its common or usual name as well as by its generic function, such as "preservative," "to
retard spoilage," or "a mold inhibitor."
Besides colors, spices, and flavors, other collective names are permitted in ingredient labeling. Milk, concentrated milk, reconstituted milk, and dry whole milk may
be declared simple as "milk." Rennet and other clotting enzymes of animal, plant,
or microbial origin used in cheese may be disclosed as "enzymes." Bacterial cultures may be declared by the word "cultured" followed by the name of the substrate,
for example, "made from cultured milk."
Fats and oils, if they do not constitute the predominant ingredient, may be disclosed by their collective name, for example, vegetable oils, when followed by a
listing of each individual component in parentheses. This parenthetical list, however,
need not be given in descending order of predominance. Furthermore, a suitable
phrase such as "and/or" or "contains one or more of the following" may be used
to indicate that some of the components may not be present at all times. The terms
"hydrogenated" or "partially hydrogenated" should be used to indicate any fat or
oil so treated.
A recent ruling exempts minor ingredients from listing in descending order of
predominance. Those ingredients present at levels of 2% or less by weight may be
disclosed at the end of the ingredient list after a qualifying statement, for example,
"contains 2% or less of."118 Incidental additives that may be present in a dairy
product at insignificant levels and do not have any technical or functional effect need
not be listed at all. These substances include the following examples.
1. An additive may be incorporated in an ingredient for a functional purpose, but
when that ingredient in turn is used in a finished food product, the additive loses

its effect. Thus, an anticaking agent added to milk powder has a technical effect
and must be declared on the label of the milk, but when the milk is used to make
a gravy, that anticaking additive no longer is relevant and need not be declared
on the label for the gravy.
2. A processing aid is a substance that is useful in treating a food during a manufacturing step but has no technical effect in the finished product and is present
in insignificant amounts. For example, hydrogen peroxide may be used in making
Cheddar cheese provided that residues are eliminated by the addition of catalase.
Consequently hydrogen peroxide would not be declared on the label.
3. Indirect additives, such as those migrating from packaging materials or introduced from food equipment, do not have to be included in the ingredient statement.
A characterizing flavor, in addition to being included in the ingredient list, will
be declared prominently in association with the name of the food, for example,
14
vanilla ice cream." Such a declaration is mandatory whenever labeling or advertising makes any direct or indirect representation with respect to such a flavor. If the
characterizing flavor is simulated by means of an artificial flavor, for example, vanillin, then the product must be labeled prominently "artificial vanilla" or "artificially flavored vanilla." In instances where only natural flavors are used to characterize a product, for example, ice cream, but the principal flavor, say strawberry, is
supplemented or rounded out with other natural flavors, then the product should be
labeled as "strawberry flavored ice cream."

1.5.2 Nutritional Labeling


The year 1990 was an eventful period for nutritional labeling. On February 13, FDA
proposed guidelines for health claims that may be placed by manufacturers on food
labels. Then on July 19, FDA's initiative on nutritional labeling was published disclosing major shifts in regulatory policy. In the meantime the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS) was busy preparing a detailed report on nutritional labeling, which
was issued in September. This activity was capped on November 9 when President
Bush signed into law the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990. The sum
total of these efforts amounted to a drastic revamping of nutritional labeling, which
suddenly became mandatory for all major categories of food regulated by FDA.
Until the events of 1990, nutritional labeling was optional except in cases where
the manufacturer either added a nutrient to its product or made any nutritional claim
on the label or in advertising. The interest among consumers in nutrition has been
so great, however, that many food manufacturers volunteered nutritional information
on labels not required to disclose such data. Much of the recent concern by the public
over nutrition has been generated by studies showing the effects of macronutrients
on such chronic diseases as cancer, hypertension, and heart disease. In fact, anxiety
over nutrition became so great that FDA in 1986 relaxed its long-standing prohibition
against any health claims made for a food product.
By allowing limited use of health claims and by mandating nutritional labeling
on most food products, the United States has stepped into the forefront of this aspect

of food regulation. Codex Alimentarius and those countries that adhere to those
standards continue to require nutritional labeling only for foods that are fortified or
for which nutritional claims are made. Because of the sweeping changes in United
States law, the necessary regulations to implement the new provisions will take some
time to prepare and issue. Final rules are slated to be adopted within 2 years after
passage of the new act. Even before these regulations are finalized, however, certain
specifics of the new law can be discussed with some degree of certainty.
Food categories requiring nutritional labeling will be extended to most foods
regulated by FDA including packaged foods, fresh produce, and seafood. Meat and
poultry were not included in the new act as these products are under USDA jurisdiction. Exemptions from nutrition labeling are made for small retail outlets that will
not be required to post nutritional information for bulk foods, fresh produce, or
seafood. Restaurants and food service institutions are also exempted. Food of little
nutritional interest such as coffee and tea will not require nutritional labeling. In
summary, nutritional labeling of all dairy products will now become mandatory
regardless whether they are fortified or not, or whether any claims are made for
them.
Nutrient content of the information panel is shifted under the new law significantly away from the current emphasis on vitamins and minerals toward a greater
stress on macronutrients. This new focus is in keeping with concerns about chronic
illnesses. The micronutrients that will have to be reported will be left to the judgment
of FDA, which currently proposes only vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.
Macronutrients would include not only fat, carbohydrate, protein, dietary fiber, cholesterol, and sodium, but also a breakdown of total fat to show saturated fat, and a
breakdown of total carbohydrate to indicate both complex carbohydrates (dextrins
and starches) and sugar. The macronutrients would be reported in grams per serving
except cholesterol and sodium, which would be given in milligrams. Total calories
per serving and the caloric equivalent of total fat would also be required.
Serving sizes until now have been arbitrarily set by manufacturers, thus causing
confusion about the significance of reported nutritional values. FDA's new proposals
establish standard serving sizes for 159 food product categories including dairy products and substitutes; desserts, for example, ice cream; and spreads (butter, margarine). These serving sizes are to be stated in household measuring units that are
appropriate for the given food. The use of standard serving sizes will prevent manufacturers from manipulating the serving size to make their products seem more
attractive to the consumer.
Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) will replace the current U.S. Recommended
Daily Allowances (RDAs) as nutritional standards for individual micronutrients.
Values for RDIs have been proposed by FDA for persons four or more years of age
as well as for specific population groups, namely, infants, children between 1 and 4
years of age, pregnant women, and lactating women. RDIs are based on average
values of required nutrients rather than the maximum recommended values as were
used to establish RDAs. In addition to RDIs, FDA has proposed Daily Reference
Values (DRVs) for macronutrients including fat, saturated fatty acids, unsaturated

fatty acids, cholesterol, carbohydrate, fiber, sodium, and potassium. These values
could be used by a manufacturer to develop a nutritional profile for its product.
Health claims can now be regulated without dispute by FDA under provisions
of the new act. Thus, the permissible claims that manufacturers can make will be
tightly controlled in the future. To guide manufacturers in the kinds of statements
that would be allowed, FDA plans to develop for each recognized "diet and chronic
disease topic area" a scientific summary, a consumer health message summary, and
model label statements. FDA initially identified six topic areas: (1) calcium and
osteoporosis, (2) sodium and hypertension, (3) lipids and heart disease, (4) lipids
and cancer, (5) fiber and cancer, and (6) fiber and cardiovascular disease.119 To these
six topics the new act has added four more, bringing the total to ten. Manufacturers
are not required to adhere to proposals presented by FDA for health claims, but the
agency warned that firms that deviate inappropriately from the model label statements would risk regulatory action.
Descriptors used to modify names of nutrients will be given more precise and
consistent definitions. The descriptors that are specified in the new act include
"free," "low," "lean," "light" or "lite," "reduced," "less," and "high." These
descriptors have been used by manufacturers in conjunction with such nutrients as
fat, cholesterol, sodium, calcium, and fiber as well as with the term "calories" to
denote the nutritional quality of particular foods. Their use, however, often has been
misleading in spite of steps already taken by FDA to define them. In the future, the
use of descriptors will be restricted to avoid situations where the wrong impression
might be conveyed to the consumer. Thus, "low cholesterol" could not be claimed
for a product that is high in saturated fat even though it may indeed contain little
cholesterol. Also, a claim could not be made about the absence of a nutrient unless
that nutrient is usually present in the particular food. Exemptions from the rules
regarding descriptors would be allowed for certain standardized foods, for example,
"low-fat milk." Furthermore, FDA would be empowered to permit such terms as
"light butter" if such claims were consistent with the regulations.120
Federal preemption is provided by the new act covering, for the first time,
standards of identity; imitation labeling; label identification of the manufacturer,
packer, or distributor; net contents declaration; and ingredient declarations. Also
covered are nutritional labeling, health claims, and nutrient claims. Not included in
the preemption clause are statements dealing with safety, such as California's Proposition 65. Also exempted are other labeling matters not covered by the act, including
open date labeling and restaurant-served meals. Labeling uniformity has been sought
for some time by food manufacturers, which were concerned about the proliferation
of state regulations.
Analytical methods have not been specified by the new act or by FDA. General
concern has been expressed about the availability and cost of reliable data. In some
instances the use of databases might be an acceptable alternative to direct laboratory
analyses. For example, Agriculture Handbook No. 8-1. Dairy and Egg Products,
published by USDA, provides extensive data on the composition of dairy products.
As with existing nutritional labeling, reasonable ranges of nutrient values, consis-

tent with good manufacturing practice, would be acceptable under the proposed
regulations.
Label format was not addressed by the new act, nor has FDA yet made any
proposals in this regard. The agency is solicitous in knowing the opinions of the
public, and it plans to obtain such advice before adopting any measures. NAS, however, in its labeling study did propose formats for mandatory information panels,
and for mandatory and voluntary information panels. Together with the current information panel for 2% low-fat milk, these formats are shown in Figures 1.7, 1.8,
and 1.9. Even though the nutrient listings do not conform with FDA's proposals,
these sample panels are of interest in illustrating some of the possible alternatives
available for label formats.121

1.5.3 Fortification
The rationale for fortification (sometimes called enrichment or restoration) is the
need to replace nutrients that are lost during processing, storage, or handling of a
food. Further justification for fortification is the objective to provide a level of nutrition in substitute foods equivalent to that obtained from the traditional foods that
are replaced in the diet. Nutrients may also be added to fabricated or engineered
foods to provide balanced nutrition. Finally, fortification has been used in limited
situations as a public health measure to correct a widespread nutritional deficiency
among a population group.
While the judicious use of fortification has proven to be beneficial to consumers,
numerous excesses have caused concern among regulators. In an effort to control
the indiscriminate use of fortification, FDA has published guidelines for the proper
fortification of food (21 CFR 104.20). The principles enunciated in these guidelines

2% LOWFAT MILX
Nutrition Information Per Serving
SERVING SIZE
ONE CUP
SERVINGS PER CONTAINER .. 8
CALORIES
120
PROTEIN
8 GRAMS
CARBOHYDRATE
11 GRAMS
FAT
5 GRAMS
SODIUM
130 mg
Percentage of U.S.
Recommended Daily Allowances (U.S. RDA)
PROTEIN
20 RIBOFLAVIN
25
VITAMINA
10 NIACIN
VITAMIN C
4 CALCIUM
30
THIAMINE
6 IRON
CONTAINS LESS THAN 2% OF THE U.S. RDA FOR THESE NUTRIENTS
Figure 1.7 Current information panel for 2% Low-fat milk. (Reproduced with permission
from Food Technology?)

2% LOWFAT MILK
Serving size

1 cup (8 fi oz)

Servings per container

Nutrition Information Per Serving


Calories
120
Total Fat
5 g (45kcal)
Saturated Fat
3 g (27kcal)
Unsaturated Fat
2 g (18kcal)
Carbohydrate
11 g
Protein
9 g
Total Dietary Fiber
O g
Cholesterol
20 mg
Sodium
120 mg
A very good source (over 20% [standard]) of:
Calcium.
Figure 1.8 NAS proposed mandatory information panel for 2% Low-fat milk. (Reproduced
with permission from Food Technology.)

2% LOWFAT MILK
Serving size

1 cup (8 fl oz)

Servings per container

Nutrition Information Per Serving


Calories
120
Total Fat
5 g (45kcal)
Saturated Fat
3 g (27kcal)
Unsaturated Fat
2 g (18kcal)
Total Carbohydrate
11 g (44kcal)
Complex Carbohydrate
0 g (Okcal)
Sugars
11 g (44kcal)
Protein.,
9 g (36kcai)
Total Dietary Fiber
0 g
Cholesterol
20 mg
Sodium
120 mg
Potassium
430 mg
A very good source (over 20% [standard]) of:
Vitamin D, Calcium, Riboflavin, Phosphorus.
A good source (11-20% [standard]) of:
Vitamin A, Vitamin B12.
Contains (2-10% [standard]): Vitamin B6,
Vitamin C1 Magnesium, PantothenicAcid,
Thiamin, Zinc.
Figure 1.9 NAS proposed mandatory and voluntary information panel for 2% Low-fat milk.
(Reproduced with permission from Food Technology.)

have been carried over into the food standards. Notwithstanding the steps already
taken, some issues are still unresolved. FDA recently proposed that if any micronutrient is added to a food so that a single serving provides 50% or more of the RDI,
such action would make the product a "food for special dietary use." 122
Dairy products and dairy substitutes were among the first food products to be
fortified. In 1918 Denmark, recognizing a deficiency of vitamin A in people's diets,
provided for the fortification of margarine with this nutrient. Then the United States
around 1933 introduced the fortification of milk with vitamin D. Today, in addition
to margarine and milk, the following dairy products are commonly fortified: skim
milk, low-fat milk, nonfat dry milk, dry whole milk, evaporated milk, and infant
formula.123
Whole milk is an excellent source of a number of important nutrients, particularly
protein, calcium, and riboflavin (vitamin B2). It contains lesser amounts of vitamin
A, vitamin C, and vitamin D. 124 During pasteurization, heat-sensitive vitamins, notably vitamin C, may be destroyed. Loss of vitamin C, however, is not considered
to be critical. Milk is a relatively unimportant source of vitamin C compared with
citrus fruits and other foods, and for this reason fortification of milk with vitamin C
is not practiced.
The fat-soluble vitamins, A and D, are lost when milkfat is separated from whole
milk. Therefore restoration of vitamin A is mandated for low-fat milk and skim milk.
The addition of vitamin D to these products is optional but generally done. To
compensate for the loss of total milk solids in low-fat milk and skim milk, the
standards provide for the addition of nonfat milk solids. In this case, the label declaration for products containing not less than 10% milk-derived nonfat solids requires
the phrase, "with added milk solids not fat." The more catchy expression, "protein
fortified," is not permitted.125

1.5.4 Imitation and Substitute Foods


The original incentives for making imitation dairy products were mostly economic.
Milkfat has always been a relatively expensive food so that its replacement in dairy
products by cheap tallow or vegetable oils offered considerable economic reward.
While economic considerations will continue to be a factor, nutrition has become an
important motivation for manufacturing imitation dairy products. In Section 1.5.2
the effects of such macronutrients as fat and saturated fat on chronic diseases were
discussed. Accordingly, perceived health benefits can be obtained by substituting
vegetable oils that contain monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, or medium-chain
saturated lipids for milkfat comprised of long-chain saturated fatty acids.126
The production of imitation food products has long been a complex regulatory
issue. Section 403(c) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act states that a food
is misbranded if it is an imitation of another food unless its label indicates that fact.
The law, however, does not provide a definition for "imitation." At first FDA considered the meaning of imitation to include any substitute food, that is, any food that
resembles and is intended to replace another food in the diet. Then in an abrupt
reversal of policy, FDA in 1973 revised its definition for imitation. The new inter-

pretation, which has been upheld in the courts, states that a substitute food is an
imitation food only if it is nutritionally inferior to the food it replaces. To determine
nutritional inferiority, a comparison is made of the levels of essential nutrients, for
which RDIs have been established, in the traditional food and the intended substitute
food. The regulations also include a provision allowing FDA to consider regulatory
action should a substitute food be shown to be otherwise inferior to the traditional
food for which it is a replacement.127
Foods, therefore, that might ordinarily be considered imitations of traditional
foods do not have to be labeled "imitation" if they conform to FDA's conditions
for waiving this requirement. These foods can avoid the stigma of being branded
second rate. They do, however, have to comply with the regulation for Common or
Usual Name for Nonstandardized Foods. These regulations provide that a suitable
name, which may be a coined term, must accurately identify or describe the new
food product. The label may also bear a fanciful name that is not false or misleading.
Whenever a standard of identity, however, has been promulgated for a substitute
food, then the provisions included therein take precedence.
Standards of identity have been adopted for two notable imitation dairy products:
margarine which is a substitute for butter, and mellorine (2ICFR135.130) which is
a substitute for ice cream. In both imitation products, animal or vegetable fats are
exchanged for milkfat. Similar imitation products for milk and milk products, however, are expressly prohibited under the Filled Milk Act, which was enacted in 1923.
This law states that the sale of filled milk "constitutes a fraud upon the public."
"Filled milk" is defined as any milk, cream, or skimmed milk, whether fluid or
dried, to which has been added any fat or oil other than milkfat, resulting in a product
resembling milk or any milk product. Nonetheless, a number of substitute products,
for example, whipped toppings and coffee creamers, have managed to skirt around
this law.
Substitute cheese products have generated considerable interest in recent years.
FDA has not issued standards of identity or specific labeling requirements for these
products, and therefore manufacturers must follow the rulings for imitation foods.
Partial imitation or filled cheeses are made with vegetable oil replacing butterfat in
combination with domestic nonfat milk solids. (By nature of being domestically
produced, these nonfat milk solids are made under local supervision but invariably
cost more than imports.) Complete imitation or analogue cheeses also use vegetable
oils but in addition use either foreign casein or nondairy proteins such as soy to
replace domestic nonfat milk solids. The public has been slow to accept substitute
cheese products when packaged to look like cheese. On the other hand, these
substitutes have made significant inroads into such derivative products as frozen
pizzas.128
Many states, including some with large dairy industries, have not agreed with the
federal interpretation of imitation. They have taken such actions as requiring that
substitute cheese products be labeled "imitation" regardless of whether or not the
products may be nutritionally equivalent to traditional products. Confusion in state
regulation has been compounded by the introduction of products that defy clear
definition. Does a frozen pudding on a stick, sold on the basis of both net weight

and fluid volume (see Section 1.6.5 for commentary on contents declaration) qualify
as a pudding, a frozen dessert, or something new? New York State, when confronted
with such a product, ruled that it falls under the frozen dessert regulations.129 Much
of the controversy over imitation labeling should be removed by the recently passed
legislation that provides for federal preemption in this area (Section 1.5.2).

1.5.5 Open Date Labeling


As consumers become more familiar with open date labeling, they are making greater
use of this convenience. An open date is a calendar date (as opposed to a code date
which has meaning only to the manufacturer or distributor) that is stamped on the
container to indicate the freshness of the product. Generally the date is prefixed by
such language as "sell by" or "better if used by" to convey to the consumer the
significance of the date. Open date labeling should be accompanied by directions
for storage if such conditions have a bearing on the open date. Thus, where appropriate, products should be labeled "keep frozen" or "keep refrigerated."
Federal law is surprisingly void of any directives concerning open date labeling.
In this regulatory vacuum, Massachusetts in 1978 was the first state to pass encompassing legislation which for the first time mandated certain practices concerning
open date labeling. This legislation covered perishable and semiperishable foods
except fresh meat, poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables. It left optional open date
labeling for frozen foods. As a result of this legislation, fluid milk products and any
other perishable or semiperishable dairy products became subject to open date labeling in Massachusetts. In the meantime open date labeling has spread through
voluntary actions and legislation to most of the other states in the country.130
FDA has made the point that open date labeling has historically been used as an
indicator of quality, rather than for the purpose of assessing health risks.131 This
statement is no doubt true for traditional dairy products with which consumers are
quite familiar. Ample warning of product deterioration is usually given through
souring reactions or other telltale signs. As more substitute foods and dairy derivatives enter the market, however, the need to provide consumers with better information becomes increasingly important. Open date labeling can be of great assistance
in this regard.

1.5.6 Kosher Certification


Kosher foods are defined as products prepared according to Jewish dietary laws and
under the supervision of recognized authorities. Dating back to antiquity, kosher
practices are undoubtedly the oldest code of food laws still in existence. These
practices are grounded in Hebrew dogma which antedates the Christian era. The
market for kosher foods is not limited to Jewish consumers. Other religious groups
that demand kosher foods are Moslems and some Christians, for example, the Seventh-Day Adventists and Seventh-Day Baptists. Because of the very substantial consumer demand for kosher foods, many American food companies have felt the need
to obtain kosher certification for their products.

Not all foods are inherently accepted as kosher. Furthermore, those foods that do
qualify as kosher must be prepared with strict adherence to exacting standards. Milk
is considered to be kosher provided it comes from animals considered kosher, for
example, cows or goats. On the other hand, animal fat, that is, tallow, is not kosher
and may not be eaten. Therefore margarine and food emulsifiers in order to be
accepted must be prepared entirely from vegetable oils. Other products of vegetable
origin, for example, sweeteners, are kosher approved. Microbiologically produced
rennin is accepted, but rennin extracted from animal stomachs may be disallowed
unless the animal is kosher.
All mineral derived ingredients such as salt and inorganic phosphate emulsifiers
are accepted as kosher without question. Because petroleum is considered to be a
mineral, organically synthesized ingredients from petrochemicals are considered to
be kosher. In this category would be included certified food colors and chemical
preservatives. For the same reason synthetic glycerine is accepted whereas natural
glycerine produced from tallow is not approved.
Although dairy products are accepted as kosher, they may not be eaten with meat.
Thus, cheeseburgers are forbidden and ice cream may not be served for dessert at
the end of a meal in which meat was consumed. Some products, for example, of
vegetable origin, may be eaten either with meat or dairy products and are designated
pareve. An example is an ice cream substitute called tofu, which is based on soy
protein and vegetable oils. So-called "nondairy" creamers formulated with sodium
caseinate are considered in fact to be dairy and therefore are not permitted with
meat.132 Although Moslem dietary laws follow kosher rules in most respects, they
differ notably in that milk products including butter are allowed to be consumed
together with meat.133
Only those products that have been approved kosher and are produced under
rabbinical supervision may be labeled as kosher. Federal regulations provide that
the term "kosher" should be used only on food products that meet certain religious
dietary requirements (2ICFR101.29). In addition, a number of states including New
York and New Jersey specify penalties for infractions involving kosher labeling.
Because of the complexity of Jewish dietary laws, any dairy producer interested in
this topic should seek expert advice.

1.6 Packaging
1.6.1 Functional Needs
The functional needs of packaging are manifold. First and foremost, packaging must
protect the freshness and integrity of the dairy product from the time it leaves the
plant until it is used by the consumer. In addition, packaging should be cost effective
and convenient. Containers in a wide range of sizes are required, and they must be
available for products in different forms including liquids, spreads, solids, aerosols,
granules, and powders. Of more recent concern, packaging should not contribute to
environmental problems, whether caused by the escape of propellants to the atmosphere or the disposal of containers in landfills.

The packaging of dairy products has undergone major transformations. Products


were formerly sold from bulk bins and reusable containers. In recent times the wonders of modern packaging have led to our "throwaway" life style, only to be challenged of late by the need to recycle materials. Back in the days of the general store,
things were much simpler: milk was dispensed from metal cans, and cheese was
sliced from blocks. Then one of the great innovations took place in the latter part of
the 19th century when Gail Borden discovered how to can evaporated milk. For the
first time milk could be stored for long periods and distributed widely in commerce.
The old practice of distributing fresh milk and cream in reusable containers had
drawbacks even though expensive and scarce materials were conserved. Relatively
heavy and cumbersome containers, whether metal cans or glass bottles, had to be
saved, picked up, and returned to the plant. There these containers had to be cleaned
and inspected before filling. As long as labor was comparatively cheap and dairy
plants supplied only local customers, these practices could be tolerated.
Changes began to occur in the middle of the 20th century as new materials became
available. Coated paperboard, plastics, and laminated films not only provided effective product protection but were disposable. Typical of the new packaging are the
gable-top cartons made of coated paperboard which is impervious to milk and
cream.134 This container with its pull-out spout is both sanitary and convenient, and
when empty it can be thrown away. Despite its advantages this package has not been
immune to progress. In 1975 approximately one-third of the milk sold was packaged
in plastic containers, and by 1988 this fraction had increased to two-thirds.135 Even
in large sizes, packaging has become disposable. Twenty-four quart bag-in-box containers supply institutions with their needs for milk.
Advances in packaging solid products have paralleled those for liquids. An early
success was the use of wax-coated cellophane to package individually wrapped portions of cheese. Now this film is being supplanted by SARAN laminates which
provide excellent machineability, transparency, and barriers against moisture and
oxygen.136 As another example of changes in packaging materials, bulk ice cream
used to be distributed in reusable metal cans. Later these cans were replaced
by cardboard containers, and now disposable plastic pails are being used in this
application.137
The transition to disposable packaging has scarcely been completed, but already
state legislatures are beginning to pass bills mandating the recycling of packaging
materials. Suddenly consumers are being forced to sort their trash, separating and
rinsing metal, glass, and plastic containers for collection by municipalities. The reason for this about-face is that dump sites are rapidly being used up and new landfills
cannot be found. Disposable products, recently considered a convenience, now have
become an embarrassment. How this shift in priorities is ultimately resolved will be
of considerable interest to the dairy industry. For possible answers American producers might take a closer look at foreign countries which have traditionally recycled
a much larger proportion of their materials.
Notwithstanding environmental concerns, packaging has made great strides in
accomplishing its primary goal: the protection of freshness and integrity of products.
New problems, however, continue to arise. With the growing popularity of delica-

tessen counters, retail establishments are getting more involved with food packaging.
Frequently, though, they are ill equipped for their new role. In response to growing
concerns about vacuum packaging in retail stores, FDA has issued guidelines for
this activity. As applied to dairy products the following six control steps are
recommended.
1. The food must be limited to those products that do not support the growth of C.
botulinum including foods with a water activity below 0.93, foods with a pH of
4.6 or less, and foods with high levels of nonpathogenic competing organisms,
such as natural hard and semisoft cheese containing live cultures.
2. Vacuum-packaged food must be maintained at 7.2C (45F) or below.
3. Consumer packages must be labeled with storage instructions.
4. Shelf life, which must not exceed 10 days or extend past the shelf life of the
original food, shall be indicated on the package.
5. Acceptable procedures for the packaging operation must be written and followed.
6. The responsible regulatory authority must approve these procedures.138

1.6.2 Materials Testing


Section 201(s) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act states that any packaging material that indirectly may become a component of food is considered to be
a food additive unless it is generally recognized as safe. Therefore all packaging
materials must be tested and approved prior to being used in such applications. As
part of the testing procedure, studies are conducted to determine the possibility of a
packaging component migrating into and becoming part of a food product. This
work may be performed through the observation of long-term storage of the food
in the proposed container or by extraction studies designed to simulate these
conditions.139
With the development of many new types of synthetic polymers, the need for
careful screening of proposed packaging materials has assumed major importance.
As a result of these efforts, a number of synthetic resins have been approved in food
packaging. Two of them, however, account for more than 80% of the plastic used
in consumer products. One is high-density polyethylene used in milk bottles, and
the other is polyethylene terephthalate which is widely accepted for large soda bottles.140 So far, most attention has been paid to the use of virgin materials; very little
concern has been expressed about the safety of recycled materials. As more plastics
are recycled, this issue will be of greater interest.141
Traditional packaging materials are not free from problems. Recent studies indicated that dioxin, a known carcinogen, can migrate into milk from bleached paperboard cartons. While the levels of dioxin found in milk have been so low that this
chemical has not presented a health risk, paper companies hope to eliminate even
these trace amounts by switching from chlorine-based bleaching to an oxygen-based
method.142 Another toxicant of concern to dairy processors is lead, which has been
detected in evaporated milk and baby formulas packaged in lead-soldered cans. After
years of concerted effort, this contamination has been dramatically reduced. Even
so, plans are underway to completely phase out the use of lead-soldered cans.143

1.6.3 Tamper-Evident Closures


The PMO provides that caps or closures for milk and milk product containers shall
be designed and applied in such a manner that they cannot be removed without
detection. This stipulation is made to ensure the consumer that the milk or milk
product has not been contaminated after packaging. The principle outlined in the
PMO for packaging milk and milk products using tamper-evident closures also applies to all other dairy products. Even though caps or closures may not be used in
packaging other dairy products, any number of design features, for example, shrink
wrapping, are available to ensure product integrity.
The impetus for using tamper-evident closures has been the continuing disclosures
of criminal acts involving adulterated food and drug products. None of these violations received more publicity than the Tylenol episode in 1982 when seven people
were killed. At the scene of the crime unused capsules of this analgesic were found
laced with cyanide poison. Although this heinous crime was never solved, it had a
monumental impact on the packaging industry, which began a complete overhaul of
its practices. While tamper-evident closures may help to foil the malicious acts of
criminals, these closures are even more significant in discouraging thoughtless consumers from tampering with packaged goods.

1.6.4 Aseptic Packaging


The term aseptic packaging is defined as the processing of a milk product by subjecting it to sufficient heat to destroy all microorganisms and packaging it in a
hermetically sealed container. Aseptic packaging is equivalent to subjecting the product to UHT pasteurization followed by packaging the product in a presterilized container. The advantage of aseptic packaging is that the shelf life of the product can
be greatly extended even without refrigeration. The actual results obtained, however,
will depend on the effectiveness of the controls used in the aseptic packaging
operation.
Although aseptic packaging is simple in concept, its execution is intricate. In
order to prevent recontamination of the product after UHT pasteurization, the filling
operation must be maintained under aseptic conditions. Three requirements must be
met: the machinery must be sterilized, the containers also must be sterilized, and the
environment has to be aseptic. A description of a typical filling line will indicate
common approaches to these problems.
In a package-forming section of the equipment, containers are formed from blanks
made, for example, of a plastic laminate or a paperboard composite. The cups or
cartons so formed are sterilized with hydrogen peroxide and then dried. FDA regulations permit up to 0.5 ppm residual hydrogen peroxide in such applications.144 The
dried containers are filled from the bottom up to reduce foam generation. Once filling
is complete, the headspace is flushed with nitrogen so as to reduce the oxygen
concentration to < 1 % . Finally, the container is closed by applying a top of foil/
plastic laminate or by tucking and sealing bottom flaps. During the entire packaging

process, the container stock, lidding material, and filled product are enclosed in a
sterile air tunnel. 145146
All the precautions taken during the filling operation are to no avail unless the
container is tightly sealed. With the limitations of present technology, obtaining a
good seal is the most pressing problem. Defective seals are reported to run normally
between 10 and 100 per thousand containers filled. This performance compares
unfavorably with the reject rate experienced on canning lines, said to be roughtly
four defects per ten thousand cans. Furthermore, as opposed to canning operations
that have on-line detection systems, aseptic packaging lines have no such safeguards.147 The major challenge, therefore, seems to be the development of improved
containers for aseptic packaging. A number of firms are devoting considerable energies to this task. 148149

1.6.5 Packaged Weight Control


The declaration of net contents will depend on the type of dairy product being
packaged. The quantities of fluid milk products are stated in terms of volume measure, namely, U.S. gallon, quart, pint, and fluid ounce. Volume measure is also used
for frozen desserts, and it is determined as the volume of the product in its frozen
condition. Solids including butter and cheese are sold on a weight basis using the
English units of pounds and ounces (21CFR101.105). Except for the United States,
all major nations use the metric units for weight and volume. Dual declaration of
net contents by weight and volume is not permitted by FDA.150
Packaged quantities are regulated jointly by FDA and the National Bureau of
Standards (now called National Institute of Standards and Technology) of the U.S.
Department of Commerce. The applicable regulations are spelled out in NBS Handbook 133, Checking the Net Contents of Packaged Goods, available from U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. Handbook 133 sets forth two principles
for the control of net contents:
1. The average quantity of contents of a lot, shipment, or delivery of packages must
at least equal the quantity printed on the label.
2. The variation of individual package contents from the labeled quantity must not
be "unreasonably large."
The handbook goes on to define "unreasonably large" in tables, which give permissible variations for the net weight and net volume of individual packages. The
allowable errors increase on a percentage basis for smaller packages.
In order to comply with the regulations for measure and at the same time avoid
undue losses from overfill, dairy producers need to rely on statistical methods. One
of the most useful tools of statistics is the control chart, in which the data for some
variable, say net weight, are plotted as a function of time. At a glance the control
chart indicates how close the data lie to a desired target weight. Using these data,
corrections can be made as needed to the process controls.151 Statistics are useful
not only in packaging but also to control such process variables as product moisture.

1.7 Distribution
1.7.1 Shelf life
Product shelf life is the controlling factor in the distribution of dairy products. It
dictates the total elapsed time allowed from production to consumption. For perishable products such as milk, shelf life assumes even greater importance than in the
case of other foods. The shorter the shelf life, the smaller are the inventories of
product that can be maintained at key distribution points, for example, plant loading
dock, warehouse, supermarket. Lower inventories call for more frequent and smaller
shipments. Therefore the goal of every supplier must be to extend the shelf life of
its products without sacrificing quality.
Shelf life depends on the care taken during processing and on the treatment of
the product in distribution. The elements of quality control, for example, sanitation,
that are so important to shelf life have been discussed in previous sections of this
chapter. Testimony of these findings is given repeatedly. By improving its CIP operation, a Midwestern diary was able to guaranty a refrigeration shelf life for its fluid
milk products of 14 days.152 A study conducted at Pennsylvania State University
indicated that a shelf life of 14 days is attainable for fluid milk products held at
7.2C (45F) provided that the best available processing and sanitation procedures
are regularly followed. These procedures include hot water sanitizing at 76.6C
(1700F) of processing and packaging equipment. By reducing storage temperature
to 4.40C (400F) even a longer shelf life is achievable.153
No variable is more critical to shelf life than the holding temperature during
distribution. Unfortunately effective control over temperature is not always maintained. Particularly at transfer points, this variable may exceed the established limit
by wide margins. In order to obtain better management of this key variable, numerous proposals have been made to apply time-temperature sensors. These devices
integrate the temperature variable with time to obtain a thermal history of the product. These results have been found to correlate well with the keeping properties of
fluid milk products. 154155

1.7.2 Warehousing and Shipping


Automation is the byword in warehousing and shipping. Because of the limited shelf
life of fluid milk products, computerized operators are needed more for these products than even for ice cream or yogurt, for example. Automation ensures accuracy
of stock rotation on a first-in, first-out basis. With on-line, real-time computer control, the response time to incoming orders is fast. One automated warehouse reported
that only 3 min are required to fill an order from the time it is entered into the
computer until the time the item arrives on the dock for shipment.
The other advantages of automation are almost of equal importance. By eliminating people from product handling and storage operations, improved hygiene is
realized. In addition, losses due to careless material handling are reduced or eliminated, and better security of the premises is possible. Working conditions for the

few people still needed are improved, as they are not required to enter the refrigerated
storage areas. Automated warehouses have the flexibility to adjust to changing volumes of orders without reassigning personnel.
Not only is efficiency realized in automated warehouses through the reduction in
manual labor, but savings in refrigeration space and in energy costs are possible.
The compactness of these warehouses permits much greater utilization of cold storage areas, thereby reducing refrigeration needs. Additional energy can be saved
inasmuch as there is little need for lighting in the storage and transfer areas. When
all the advantages of automation are considered, the extra capital investment needed
for machinery and computers seems well justified,156"158
With the advent of aseptic packaging, worldwide distribution patterns are changing. Particularly in Europe and lesser developed countries that lack adequate refrigeration facilities, the use of aseptic packaging has brought benefits to people, many
of whom were previously deprived of good nutrition. By contrast, in the United
States where refrigeration is commonplace, aseptic packaging has been a failure.
Consumers object to the cooked, almost burnt taste of milk so processed. The overriding consideration, however, is that aseptic packaged milk costs three times as
much as regular milk. 159160 The first aseptic plant built in the United States at a cost
of $25 million was hardly completed when it was put up for sale in 1985.161
Although aseptic packaging has not made headway in the United States, another
trend, UHT pasteurization, has swept the dairy industry. The days of home delivery
of milk are almost gone forever, as consumers become increasingly dependent on
supermarkets for their needs. Between the years 1963 and 1991, the amount of milk
delivered by milkmen nationwide fell from 30% to 1%.162 One survey indicated that
the number one item on shopping lists is fresh milk, which is bought by 33% of
supermarket customers.163 More and more what these customers are purchasing from
the refrigeration counter, however, are not pasteurized milk products but UHT
processed milk products.
Milk that is UHT processed and refrigerated is reported to have a shelf life of 30
to 45 days as opposed to 16 or 18 days otherwise. The longer shelf life means that
dairies can restock supermarket shelves on a weekly basis rather than at shorter
intervals as formerly was necessary. Similar conveniences are enjoyed by customers
who can shop less often. The flavor of UHT milk products, however, does not have
parity with that of pasteurized ones. But by using direct steam in the UHT pasteurization step and by rapidly cooling the milk via vacuum flashing, dairies can reportedly minimize undesirable cooked flavors.164 Whatever unfavorable comparisons are made with pasteurized milk products, the growing acceptance of UHT
processed milk products still seems assured.

1.7.3 Product Recall


In the United States, product recall is a voluntary action, not a requirement of the
food laws. (An exception to this generalization is infant formula, for which product
recall regulators have been promulgated.) If a manufacturer is confronted with a
problem of nonspecification or possibly harmful product, the decision to institute a

recall is the manufacturer's own. This provision does not mean that FDA cannot or
will not bring pressure to bear on this decision. Through its power to seize products,
obtain injunctions, and prosecute criminal acts, the agency has considerable sway
over the affairs of dairy producers.
FDA has established guidelines to be followed in a product recall, and the agency
will hold the manufacturer accountable for meeting these standards of conduct. A
manufacturer faced with the prospect of a product recall is best advised to notify
FDA. Cooperation beginning at an early stage of a recall can avoid misunderstanding
and punitive action at a later date.
Four classes of product recall, based on the seriousness of the infraction, have
been defined by FDA to convey to the public as clearly as possible the seriousness
of any action taken. Class I is specified for the most dangerous cases, such as botulism. Class II includes situations that may cause illness but are not life threatening;
Class III is reserved for relatively minor violations; and Market Withdrawal; is an
action by the manufacturer that carries no implication of wrongdoing.
Although the classification of a recall does not automatically dictate the depth of
the recall, the classification is the most important consideration. In general, a Class
I recall shall be made to the consumer level, a Class II recall to the retail level, and
a Class III recall to the wholesale level. When a recall is made to the wholesale
level, product already on supermarket shelves and in the homes of consumers does
not need to be returned. An appropriate communication plan must be formulated and
implemented to warn the necessary individuals of the action being taken.
Regarding the question of the disposal of recalled product, FDA has issued policy
statements. If product can be reconditioned, this step becomes an option. Otherwise
the product must be discarded in an environmentally acceptable manner such as
spreading contaminated milk on farmland. The product may not be diverted to animal
feed unless the safety of this application has been demonstrated. Apropos of reconditioning, FDA has warned that this action can only be taken under strict regulatory
supervision and may not include the blending of adulterated and unadulterated products. Furthermore, adulterated product must be reconditioned by such methods that
it cannot be distinguished after processing from wholesome product.165

1.8 Summary
L8.1 Importance of Process Controls
Section 402(a)(3) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act states that if a food
contains "any filthy, putrid, or decomposed substance, or if it is otherwise unfit
for food," it is deemed to be adulterated and therefore banned. The only way compliance with this provision is possible is by establishing suitable controls over food
processes. In dairy processing no control point is of greater importance than pasteurization. Only by heat-treating raw milk in such a pasteurization step can the
control of pathogens be assured. This fact is underscored every time there is an
outbreak of illness caused by the consumption of raw milk. Notwithstanding new

regulatory issues such as nutritional labeling, food safety continues to dominate the
concerns of quality assurance.

1.8.2 Need to Avoid Recontamination


Section 402(a)(4) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act specifies that if a
food is "prepared, packed, or held under insanitary conditions whereby it may have
become contaminated with filth, or whereby it may have been rendered injurious to
health," it is considered to be adulterated. Stated simply, this provision mandates
that sanitary procedures must be followed at every step in the processing and distribution of dairy products. The worst food epidemics in recent history were traced
to such lapses in sanitation as employee negligence and the cross-contamination of
products. These tragedies demonstrated once again that milk products are extremely
sensitive to mishandling. For this reason the dairy industry is obliged to adhere to
the highest standards of sanitation.

1.9 Future Developments


1.9.1 The Promise of Biotechnology
Already the initial fruits of biotechnology are apparent in dairy processing. The first
major breakthrough was the development of microbial rennet for use in cheese processing. This advance has come just in time to fill the shortages of this clotting enzyme
extracted from calf stomachs. Sophisticated technology was used to develop the
process for microbial rennet. Recombinant DNA was implanted in cells of E. coli.
With the new transplanted genes, these bacterial cells are capable of producing via
fermentation rennet that is identical to rennet of animal origin. Chymosin, the active
component of rennet, has received GRAS affirmation when produced by this new
process.166'167
Applied Microbiology, a small biotechnology firm in Brooklyn, New York, has
developed a teat dip to prevent bovine mastitis. This product is based on bacteriocins
that are produced via genetically engineered bacteria. Marketing was to begin in
1990, but delays were caused by the need to reformulate the product to assist farmers
in its use.168
Another wonder of biotechnology is bovine somatotropin (BST), a hormone that
can increase milk production anywhere from 15 to 20%.169 Naturally occurring in
cows in small quantities, this hormone can be produced synthetically by means of
fermentation. Injections of the synthetic material increased milk production from a
cow without any observed side effects. The milk so produced has been undergoing
testing for several years now, and regulatory approval for general use of BST is
being awaited.170
The development of BST may well become a case study for the introduction of
new products from biotechnology. Fears are being expressed among consumer
groups about the safety of BST. Questions are being raised about the advantages of

the new technology. Meanwhile potential manufacturers of the hormone are pressing
their case for approval. Inevitably scientific debate has become enmeshed with economic and social issues. In this mileau regulatory bodies everywhere have taken a
wait-and-see attitude. Although the delays are frustrating for the parties concerned,
this additional time does provide an opportunity for the political process to run its
course.171

1.9.2 Internationalization of the Dairy Industry


In spite of prevailing tariffs and quotas, national boundaries are no longer the barriers
to commerce that they once were. In the dairy industry there has been an increasing
exchange of technology, product ideas, and investment from one national market to
another. Witness the following:
Alfa-Laval with its home office in Sweden offers pasteurization equipment, ultrafiltration technology, and centrifuges on a worldwide basis.
With the growing demand for ethnic foods in the United States, Italian and Mexican style cheeses are booming in this country.
Nestle's acquisition of Carnation in the United States consolidates the position of
this Swiss company as one of the world's largest dairy enterprises.
Trade statistics for the food industry support the conclusion about the internationalization of this business. The combined exports and sales by foreign subsidiaries
accounted for 31% of worldwide sales of American food processors in the early
1980s.172 Imports of dairy products into the United States in 1986 amounted to
$612 million. The leading products within this category were cheeses and evaporated
milk.173 With the growing exchange of food products in general and dairy products
in particular, the need for more international standards has become clear. Product
standards of identity, food labeling, and manufacturing practices all need to be rationalized. In this regard Codex Alimentarius offers the greatest hope for progress.

1.9.3 Proliferation of New Products


There is underway an explosion in new product introductions by the dairy industry.
These new entries include product extensions, convenience foods, nutritional foods,
and dairy substitutes.174 The new perceptions of quality, alluded to in the beginning
of this chapter, are having a strong effect on the industry. Traditional dairy products
seem to be going the way of the horse and buggy. In Section 1.5.4 the growth of
substitute dairy products was discussed. By substituting vegetable oils for milkfat
and using nondairy protein in place of nonfat milk solids, any number of product
creations are possible. These concepts are now being joined by even bolder schemes.
Fat is being replaced entirely by fat substitutes and nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners
by artificial sweeteners.175176 When all the permutations are considered, almost an
endless number of product ideas are possible.
Although the flood of new product introductions may be a delight to the consumer,
they threaten to become a regulatory nightmare. Labeling alone poses numerous

challenges. But of even greater concern is the education of consumers in the proper
handling of these new products. In Section 1.5.5 concerning open date labeling, the
point was made that whereas consumers are knowledgeable about the shelf life of a
traditional dairy product, they are much less familiar with new products entering the
market. Confusion is compounded when a new product looks like one type of food
but has the characteristics of another kind. Safety concerns, however, are not limited
to the consumer. Manufacturers need to be made aware of the pitfalls of new product
introductions. In this regard the dairy processor is well advised to rely in its planning
on the HACCP principles, which by now have been so well expounded.177

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61. Separators are vital part of dairy plant production. Food Engin. February 1988, pp. 71-72.
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Food Process. July, pp. 116-117.
63. Dziezak, J. D. 1989. Milk products. Food Technol. October, pp. 101-102.
64. Broken bag detector proves to be an accurate monitor for milk processor. Food Engin. February
1988, p. 80.
65. Precise metering pumps automate vitamin dosing. Food Process. May 1988, p. 290.
66. Packard, V., et al. 1988. A study of farm receipts of milkfat . . . Dairy Food Sanit. April,
pp. 179-182.
67. Okos, M. R., and Reklaitis, G. K. 1985. Computer-aided design and operation of food processes
in industry and academia. Food Technol. April, pp. 107-118.
68. Swientek, R. J. 1986. Dairy upgrades tank gauging . . . Food Process. May, pp. 156-159.
69. Russell, M. J. 1988. Process control: emphasis on batch. Food Engin. July, pp. 53-64.
70. Dziezak, J. D. 1987. Applications of food colorants. Food Technol. April, pp. 78-88.
71. Andres, C. 1985. Antimicrobials. Food Process. March, pp. 26-30.
72. Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed,
HFF-342, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C, June 1978.
73. PBB action levels no longer needed. Food Technol. March 1987, p. 64.

74. Farley, D. 1989. Setting safe limits on pesticide residues. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit. March,
pp. 135-137.
75. Regulatory limits' to replace action levels. Food Technol. July 1990, p. 48.
76. Small, E. 1981. Tracing the definition and standard for butter. Dairy Rec. November, pp. 114-118.
77. Shank, F. R., and Carson, K. L. 1990. Light dairy products: regulatory issues. Food Technol.
October, p. 91.
78. Light butter. Food Chemical News, March 4, 1991,cp. 19.
79. Przybyla, A. E. 1986. Expanding uses of milk proteins. Food Engin. December, pp. 51-56.
80. Light eggnog market permit issued. Food Technol. November 1990, p. 50.
81. Permit issued for nonstandard ice cream. Food Technol. January 1990, p. 48.
82. Market permits issued for 'lite' sour cream. Food Technol. December 1989, p. 28.
83. Low-sodium cheese changes proposed. Food Process. January 1988, p. 20.
84. Swientek, R. J. 1987. Food-borne disease outbreaks spur development of rapid microbial assays.
Food Process. May, pp. 196-210.
85. Dziezak, J. D. 1987. Rapid methods for microbiological analysis of foods. Food Technol. July,
pp. 54-73.
86. Dilley, C. L., and Dixon-Holland, D. 1990. Rapid residue test for aflatoxin M, and sulfamethazine
in dairy products. Food Technol. June, p. 132.
87. Swientek, R. J. 1988. On-line analytical sensors improve product quality. Food Process. August,
pp. 136-139.
88. Dziezak, J. D. 1987. Quality Assurance through commercial laboratories and consultants. Food
Technol. December, pp. 110-127.
89. Factors to be considered in establishing good manufacturing practices for the production of refrigerated foods. Dairy Food Sanit. June 1988, pp. 288-291.
90. Freeman, L. K. 1988. Heating up the marketing wars. Food Engin. September, pp. 145-149.
91. Gilmore, T. M. 1989. Cleanability requirements of dairy processing equipment Meeting 3-A Sanitary Standards. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., February, pp. 75-76.
92. Gilmore, T. M. 1990. The 3-A Story. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., February, pp. 60-63.
93. The 3-A Sanitary Standards program: a review and a look forward. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit.,
February 1991, pp. 87-89.
94. Supplier profiles, sine pump. Food Engin., April 1988, p. 168.
95. Dziezak, T. D. 1990. Membrane separation technology offers processors unlimited potential. Food
Technol., September, pp. 108-113.
96. DFISA/ASAE Award to Wisconsin's Lund. Food Engin., May 1987, p. 31.
97. No more tangled pipelines. Food Engin., February 1985, p. 83.
98. Ebel, J. A., and Ellis, R. F. 1988. CIP management program automates cleaning jobs. Food
Process., February, pp. 96-97.
99. Freeman, L. K. 1988. Cleaning up the bottom line. Food Engin., November, pp. 113-124.
100. Rogers, D. G. 1986. A preventive maintenance program: it's a productivity 'blind spot'. Food
Engin., December, p. 62.

101. New coating system saves dairy cooperative $2,000 per storage tank. Food Engin., May 1988,
p. 184.
102. Taylor, D. L. 1986. Attacking sanitation problems. Food Engin., November, pp. 99-103.
103. Developing a total cleaning/sanitation program. Food Process., February 1987, pp. 112-113.
104. Recommended guidelines for controlling environmental contamination in dairy plants. Dairy Food
Sanit., February 1988, pp. 52-56.
105. Fuqua, R. G. 1988. A practical environmental sampling plan for dairy processing plants. Dairy
Food Sanit., October, pp. 521-523.
106. Verhoefen, U. 1987. Putting the brakes on bacterial contamination in the food industry. Food
Engin., August, pp. 116-117.
107. Proper food plant air conditioning helps fight dangerous contaminants. Food Engin., October 1987,
pp. 110-113.
108. Starting your rodent elimination programgood advice for food facilities. Dairy Food Environ.
Sanit., June 1990, pp. 356-357.
109. Mason, M. E. 1987. Potential benefits to the food industry of industry-university cooperative research. Food Technol., December, pp. 105-106.
110. Dairy training center aids China's milk production. Food Technol., September 1987, p. 45.
111. IAMFES audio visuals library. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., July 1989, p. 407.
112. Ligugnana, R., and Fung, D. Y. C. 1990. Training of food and dairy staff for microbiological air
and surface hygiene. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., March, pp. 130-135.
113. Basic pasteurization courses and special problems courses. Dairy Food Sanit., April 1988, p. 214.
114. Dairy laboratory workshop. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., May 1989, p. 260.
115. 100 Years of dairy manufacturing short courses. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., December 1990,
p. 742.
116. Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 1989 Revision, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C.
117. Sanitation Compliance and Enforcement Ratings of Interstate Milk Shippers, Public Health Service,
Food and Drug Administration, HFF-346, Washington, D.C. 20204, April 1, 1987.
118. Exemption to predominance listing of ingredients. Food Technol., June 1990, p. 60.
119. Industry fears draft rule will make health claims illegal. Food Chemical News, January 29, 1990,
p. 59.
120. Nutrition labeling bill could save FDA money, House report says. Food Chemical News, June 25,
1990, p. 40.
121. Porter, D. V., 1991. Nutrition labeling: comparisons of proposals for regulatory reform. Food
Technol., January, pp. 68-75.
122. Nutrition labeling pegged to 'meaningful sources'. Food Chemical News, July 23, 1990, p. 6.
123. Use of vitamins as additives in processed foods. Food Technol., September 1987, pp. 163-168.
124. Lecos, C. 1982. Milk. FDA Consumer. June, pp. 16-20.
125. Stays effective date of skim milk standard. Food Technol., May 1982, p. 50.
126. Babayan, V. K., and Rosenau, J. R. 1991. Medium-chain-triglyceride cheese. Food Technol., February, pp. 111-114.

127. Vanderveen, J. E. 1987. Nutritional equivalency from a regulatory perspective. Food TechnoL,
February, pp. 131-132, 140.
128. Graf, T. 1981. Imitations giving natural cheese a strong competitive tussle. Dairy Rec, July,
pp. 94-95.
129. Sandier, J. 1981. Pudding: new star for dairies? Dairy Rec, June, p. 7.
130. Food labels and food safety. Dairy Food Sanit., February 1988, p. 68.
131. Food Chemical News, February 6, 1989, p. 35.
132. Regenstein, J. M., and Regenstein, C. E. 1988. The Kosher dietary laws and their implementation
in the food industry. Food TechnoL, June, pp. 86-94.
133. Twaigery, S., and Spillman, D. 1989. An introduction to Moslem dietary laws. Food TechnoL,
February, pp. 88-90.
134. Gonyeau, V., and Rice, J. 1985. 3-Qt gabletops help gain shelf space in more stores. Food Process.,
August, p. 76.
135. Limited supplies of ethylene & HDPE pose problems for milk industry. Food Process., November
1988, p. 30.
136. Film switch improves cheese pack performance. Food Process., February 1988, p. 135.
137. Advertisement by Ropak Corp., Dairy Food Sanit., April 1988, p. 185.
138. FDA outlines controls measures for retail vacuum packaging. Food Chemical News, February 6,
1989, pp. 32-35.
139. Migration of toxicants . . . Food TechnoL, July 1988, pp. 95-102.
140. Holusha, J. 1991. An industry tries to improve its record on plastic. The New York Times, March 31,
p.F5.
141. FDA's 'informal' review of recycled plastics raises concern. Food Chemical News, March 25,
1991, p. 23.
142. Dioxin and milk safety. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., July 1990, p. 437.
143. Lead-soldered cans phase-out recommended. Food TechnoL, November 1990, p. 50.
144. OK's higher H2O2 residuals. Food Process., September 1987, p. 14.
145. Aseptic formulations evaluated rapidly using new Hercules/PFW Div. Pilot Plant. Food TechnoL,
December 1986, pp. 68-69.
146. Lisiecki, R., et al. 1990. Aseptic package addresses a variety of needs. Food TechnoL, June, p. 126.
147. Morris, C. E. 1988. Talking with Ted Labuza. Food Engin., July, p. 67.
148. Fuhrman, P. 1990. Boxed in. Forbes, October 29, pp. 102-104.
149. Rice, J. 1986. Aseptically packaged products enter new growth phase. Food Process., June,
pp. 62-68.
150. Dual weight/volume net contents labeling rejected by FDA. Food Chemical News, January 15,
1990, pp. 29-30.
151. Hess, J. L. 1989. Managing quality. Chemtech, July, pp. 412-416.
152. Popovitch, G., and Ellis, R. F. 1986. Computerized CIP system saves 35% in cleaning costs. Food
Process., February, pp. 62-64.
153. Barnard, S. E. 1991. Extending the keeping quality of fluid milk. Paper abstract, Dairy Food
Environ. Sanit., March, p. 159.

154. Singh, R. P. 1988. Stock management utilizing time-temperature integrators. Paper given at Fall
1988 Meeting, Research and Development Associates for Military Food and Packaging Systems,
Inc., San Antonio, TX.
155. Chemg, Y. S., and ZaIl, R. R. 1989. Use of time temperature indicators to monitor fluid milk
movement in commercial practice. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., August, pp. 439443.
156. Ellis, R. F., 1985. Automated guided vehicles move packaged milk in and out of cooler storage.
Food Process., April, pp. 84-85.
157. Computerized cold storage system helps get milk to market quickly. Food Engin., October 1985,
pp. 104-106.
158. Advertisement by Descorp, Food Process., May 1987, p. 38.
159. Let's talk about UHT milk. Dairy Food Sanit., June 1988, p. 309.
160. Some facts about UHT milk. Food Process., October 1988, p. 131.
161. Failing UHT milk sales force dairymen to seek new options. Food Engin., March 1985, p. 27.
162. Foderaro, L. W. 1991. Believe it or not, a milkman making rounds in Scarsdale. The New York
Times, July 11, pp. Bl and B2.
163. Milk # 1 shopping list item. Food Process., June 1987, p. 179.
164. Swientek, R. J., and Duxbury, D.D. 1987. Dairy industry trends. Food Process., September,
pp. 108-120.
165. FDA restates policy on disposition of adulterated milk. Food Chemical News, November 26,1990,
p. 24.
166. Duxbury, D. D. 1988. Alternate-source milk coagulant enzyme developed by rDNA technology.
Food Process., May, pp. 44-46.
167. Chymosin preparation affirmed as GRAS. Food TechnoL, May 1990, p. 46.
168. Feber, B. J. 1991. An urban start-up's rural twist. The New York Times, June 6, 1991, pp. Dl, D5.
169. Jacobs, E. 1989. BST believers. Michigan Farmer, August 5, pp. 18-19.
170. FDA Talk Paper, T89-50. August 4, 1989, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD.
171. Schneider, K. 1989. Stores bar milk produced by drug. The New York Times, August 24,
pp. Al, A18.
172. Growth and economic impact. Food TechnoL, May 1988, pp. 108-109.
173. International foods. Food TechnoL, September 1987, pp. 125-127.
174. New product analysis. Food Engin., April 1989, pp. 102-103.
175. Fat-free Eskimo pie. Fortune, December 3, 1990, p. 104.
176. Keller, S. E., 1991. Formulation of aspartame-sweetened frozen dairy dessert without bulking
agents. Food TechnoL, February, pp. 102-106.
177. Corlett, D. A., Jr. 1989. Refrigerated foods and use of hazard analysis and critical control point
principles. Food TechnoL, February, pp. 91-94.

CHAPTER
2

Biotechnology of Dairy
Starter Cultures
Jeffrey R. Broadbent and Jeffrey K. Kondo
2.1 Introduction, 77
2.2 Applications and Successes, 78
2.2.1 Low-Fat Dairy Products, 79
2.2.2 Bacteriocins as Food Preservatives, 80
2.2.3 Bacteriophage Resistance, 83
2.2.4 Accelerated Cheese Maturation, 84
2.3 Yesterday and Tomorrow: Tools for Biotechnology, 85
2.3.1 Conjugation and Cell Fusion, 85
2.3.1.1 Conjugation, 85
2.3.1.2 Protoplast Fusion, 87
2.3.2 Transformation and Gene Delivery Systems, 88
2.3.2.1 Electroporation, 88
2.3.2.2 Gene Delivery Systems, 89
2.3.3 Manufacture of Heterologous Proteins, 91
2.4 Regulatory Aspects of Dairy Biotechnology, 92
2.5 Summary, 95
2.6 References, 95

2.1 Introduction
The applications for biotechnology in the dairy industry that will be addressed in
this chapter are those linked to the improvement of starter cultures utilized in fermented products. Most of these cultures are lactic acid bacteria, organisms that
produce lactic acid from lactose fermentation and significantly lower the pH of
fermented products. The lactic microorganisms employed to ferment foods are included within five genera: Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus,
and Streptococcus.

Species from all genera except Pediococcus are commonly used in dairy fermentations. Because lactic acid bacteria can be isolated from raw milk, it is likely that
fermented dairy products have been part of the human diet since the time milk was
first collected in containers and held for a day or two. Over the centuries these
fermentations evolved into the unique cheeses, yogurts, and buttermilks that are
available today. It was not until this century, however, that commercial manufacturers of these products recognized that substantial improvements in product consistency and quality were gained from the use of well characterized starter cultures.1
Since this development, the economic value of fermented dairy products has grown
to represent approximately one-fifth of the world total of all fermented foods including alcoholic beverages.23 Propagation of this important economic resource has
relied on modern microbiology and fermentation technology to consistently produce
uniform, high-quality products. Manufacturers have found that achieving this goal
is largely dependent on the starter cultures utilized in the fermentation. As in the
past, the key to continued viability of this valuable economic resource in the future
will be starter cultures with known, predictable, and stable characteristics.
Biotechnology now offers investigators powerful methods to both firmly establish
these qualities among cultures and to amend other traits of dairy microorganisms.
Increased quality, decreased production and storage losses, and an expanded diversity of dairy products in the marketplace are examples of how biotechnology may
contribute to a sound economic future for the dairy industry. With an estimated 800
industrial and academic laboratories worldwide now devoting resources to this area,
it is clear that biotechnological approaches will have a significant role in the dairy
industry. The 1980s have predominantly been a time for development of biotechnological techniques with applications in a few key areas such as bacteriophage
resistance. We anticipate the 1990s will see a consistent effort to utilize these techniques in more dairy applications.
This chapter will discuss a few of the pertinent applications of biotechnology in
the dairy industry, review various new biotechnological methodologies and techniques available, and summarize some of the legal ramifications of biotechnological
applications in human food. Several reviews on the historical development of dairy
starter culture biotechnology have recently been published4'5 and so this subject will
not be addressed here.

2.2 Applications and Successes


During the past decade, several key applications for biotechnology in the dairy starter
culture industry have been identified. Examples include:

Bacteriophage resistance
Stabilization of plasmid-linked activities
Flavor and texture enhancement; accelerated ripening of cheese
Production of bacteriocins and other natural antimicrobials

Biogum production
Control of flavor defects
Probiotics
Production of food grade enzymes and heterologous proteins
Specialty markets: decreased browning of Mozzarella cheese, improved cultures
for low-fat dairy products, cold-sensitive yogurt starter cultures.

Because several recent books and review articles have been devoted to these
subjects, this chapter will not attempt to discuss all of these applications in detail.
Topics such as probiotics and the therapeutic properties of fermented milk were
covered extensively in a new book by Robinson6; microbial testing of foods was
recently addressed in a book chapter by Firstenberg-Eden and Sharpe7; and the
production of biogums has been discussed by Baird and Pettitt8 and also by Ceming.9

2.2.1 Low-Fat Dairy Products


One emerging new area of focus of the 1990s is the production of low-fat fermented
dairy products. A clear interest exists within the dairy industry to provide alternative
products for consumers who wish to reduce their level of dietary fat intake. Manufacture of high-quality, low-fat cheese, however, can present a real challenge to the
cheesemaker. When a significant percentage of the fat is removed, the rheological
properties change and the flavor and texture are adversely affected.10 In general, the
lower the fat content, the more difficult it becomes to produce a low-fat cheese of a
quality similar to full-fat cheese. Common defects include a lack of flavor in reducedfat cheeses and a texture that is described as curdy and gummy. In addition, the
higher moisture content of low-fat cheeses creates new constraints on the starter
culture system.
One consequence of higher moisture content is a tendency for culture overacidification in low-fat cheese. The pH values on the following day can easily decrease below pH 5.0 (L. Talbott, Marschall Products, personal communication). This
problem has often been associated with the use of cultures capable of very rapid
acid production. Many low-fat cheesemakers employ a lower cook temperature to
maintain the higher moisture. Increased culture growth and survival during lowtemperature cook contributes to higher cell populations and results in elevated acid
production. In addition, a higher moisture also brings a decreased percentage of salt
in the moisture, which further promotes culture growth and acidification. As a result,
control over acid development in low-fat cheese, particularly with the cultures employed for full-fat cheeses, may be difficult.
Culture-related flavor defects may also be enhanced in low-fat cheese. These
varieties are, in general, more susceptible to off-flavor development.10 Bitterness and
meaty-brothy flavor are the most common starter culture-related defects. As mentioned previously, fat removal decreases flavor and makes the texture more curdy
and gummy. The lower the fat content, the more difficult it is to develop proper
cheese flavor and texture. One further constraint involves the selection of bulk starter

media for low-fat cheeses. pH control bulk starter media yield high cell numbers
which, in low-fat applications, may be disadvantageous due to the development of
acid cheese and other inconsistencies in production of low-fat cheese.
At present, correct starter and media selection are the keys to manufacture of
high-quality, reduced-fat cheese. Starter cultures and media that perform well in the
production of full-fat cheese often are not suited to low-fat cheese (D. Willrett,
Marschall Products, personal communication). The limited number of starter cultures
useful for low-fat cheese manufacture also restricts the number of strain rotation
schemes available to guard against bacteriophage. As a result, bacteriophage resistance is an important attribute in low-fat starter cultures (for further discussion of
phage resistance, see Section 2.2.3). Other strategies that may facilitate the manufacture of high-quality low-fat cheese are the use of adjunct cultures or enzyme
preparations. Adjuncts are species of lactic acid bacteria not traditionally used to
manufacture the product, but that are sometimes added to the product with the starter
blend. These cultures may provide enzymes or other unique capabilities that contribute to improved flavor or textural properties in low-fat cheese. Proteolytic enzyme
preparations have been used with limited success to accelerate cheese flavor development (see Section 2.2.4), and similar applications may also improve flavor development in low-fat cheese. Identification and molecular analysis of starter enzyme
systems that promote the manufacture of high-quality low-fat cheese should eventually yield strategies to construct specialized culture systems that satisfy low-fat
cheesemaking constraints.
Fat substitutes, such as Simplesse 100, are also currently being used in 50%
reduced fat cheeses with success (R. Snook, The Nutrasweet Company, personal
communication). For further discussion of fat substitutes in foods, see Iyengar and
Gross.11 In summary, present trends indicate that low-fat dairy products will be one
of the most important topics of the 1990s and biotechnology will likely provide
important contributions to the consumer acceptability and success of these products.

2.2.2 Bacteriocins as Food Preservatives


The bacteria utilized to produce fermented dairy foods produce a number of organic
compounds that are antagonistic to other microorganisms. Combined, these products
help to create an environment within the fermented food that strongly inhibits the
growth of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. Examples of these antimicrobial
compounds include organic acids such as lactate, acetate, and propionate, and other
compounds such as ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, and proteinaceous bacteriocins. The
unique physical and inhibitory properties of the latter compounds have generated
considerable interest toward their application as food preservatives.
Bacteriocins have been found among both Gram-positive and Gram-negative species and, in general, these molecules exert a bactericidal effect only toward closely
related species of bacteria. Some of the bacteriocins produced by Gram-positive
bacteria, which include microorganisms used for dairy fermentations, exhibit a much
broader spectrum of antagonism. These antimicrobial molecules may act not only
against related species but also against unrelated pathogenic and spoilage bacteria

and even fungi. Bacteriocin production has been demonstrated in every genus of
lactic acid bacteria12"14 as well as within the propionibacteria.15 Because of their
proteinaceous nature, bacteriocins are degraded by stomach enzymes when consumed as part of a fermented food. This feature, combined with desirable physical
and inhibitory properties, has prompted the utilization of two of these compounds,
nisin and Microgard, as preservatives for dairy foods.
Nisin, a peptide secreted by some Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strains, is by
far the most successful example of a bacteriocin with applications for food preservation. Current and potential applications for nisin are shown in Table 2.1. Often
described as an antibiotic, nisin is bactericidal toward a wide variety of Grampositive bacteria16 and some Gram-negative organisms may also be affected.17 In
many countries, the protein has been used since the late 1950s to effectively control
spore-forming bacteria and prolong the shelf stability of processed dairy and canned
foods.1618 FDA has approved addition of a commercial nisin preparation, as an
antibotulinal agent, to processed cheese spreads in the United States.19 In addition
to food preservation, some interest has recently focused on nisin as a potential therapeutic agent to combat bovine mastitis.20"22
Microgard (Wesman Foods Inc., Beaverton, OR, U.S.A.) is a skim milk product
that has been fermented by a strain of Propionibacteriumfreudenreichii subsp. shermanii and then pasteurized. The preparation contains a small bacteriocin that inhibits
Gram-negative bacteria and fungi but not Gram-positive organisms.23'24'25 A 1%
solution of Microgard is widely used to preserve cottage cheese in the U.S.25 Further
characterization of this compound may identify additional applications for Microgard, such as the control of rind rot defect in Swiss cheese.26
Lactic bacteriocins with relatively narrow spectra of activity may also prove useful for food preservation. A number of these compounds have been identified within
members of the genus Lactobacillus14 which contains species important to both food
fermentation and spoilage.27 Bacteriocins inhibitory only to the lactobacilli may be
quite useful in high acid products where spoilage by these microorganisms is predominant. Biotechnological techniques such as protein engineering through sitedirected mutagenesis might also be utilized to alter and expand the specificity of
narrow spectrum bacteriocins.24
At present, most of the successful food preservation applications derived from
bacteriocins have relied on commercial preparations added directly to processed
foods. Analogous applications clearly exist, however, within fermented products if
the fermentative microorganisms possess the capability to synthesize the bacteriocin.
European investigators28 pioneered studies that demonstrated the efficacy of nisinproducing starter cultures to control clostridial blowing of rennet set Edam and
Emmental cheeses. Unfortunately, these studies also demonstrated that the nisinproducing culture inhibited the other starter cultures required to manufacture quality
cheese, and that nisin-producing strains of L. lactis subsp. lactis alone did not possess
all of the traits necessary to produce quality cheese.16-28 The discovery and development of gene transfer systems during the past 10 years now presents investigators
with the capability to overcome these problems and significantly expand the
applications for "built in" food preservation mechanisms. The methodology is now

Table 2.1 EXAMPLES OF CURRENT AND POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR NISIN


Food Applications3:
Dairy products:
Cheese
Processed cheese, cheese spread, and cheese food
Cheese powder
Pasteurized milk
Flavored milks
Evaporated milk
Nonrefrigerated milk
Buttermilk
Confectionery and clotted cream
Desserts
Yogurt
Canned foods:
Vegetables
Soups
Tomato paste and puree
Mushrooms
Other foods:
Alcoholic beverages
Bakery products and fillings
Margarine
Mayonnaise
Meats
Medicinal Applications:
Animal:
Prevention and control of bovine mastitis
Human:
Mouthwash
Prevention and control of acne
Other Applications3:
Ice for storing fresh fish.
Prevention and control of Gram-positive contamination in industrial fermentations that utilize
Gram-negatives, yeasts, or fungi
Improved silage quality
a

Portions adapted from Delves-Broughton.18

available to custom engineer organisms for a particular fermentation that will produce bacteriocins known to combat the unique spoilage organisms associated with
that product. For this reason, bacteriocins produced by lactic organisms have remained a focal point of genetic studies.
Several laboratories have now cloned and sequenced genes associated with nisin
production.29"32 Genes that encode other lactic bacteriocins have been located on
plasmid or chromosomal DNA14 and a few have subsequently been cloned and

sequenced.33 36 Cocconcelli et al.37 have reported heterologous expression of the


Pediococcus pentosaceous bacteriocin Pediocin A in an electrotransformed strain of
Lactobacillus reuteri. In addition, many bacteriocin genes have been located on
conjugative plasmids or transposons,1438'39 which facilitates their distribution to
other organisms. Broadbent and Kondo40 utilized conjugation to genetically construct nisin-producing variants of fast acid-producing strains of L. lactis subsp. cremoris, the organism most commonly used to manufacture Cheddar-type cheeses.
These results demonstrate the clear potential that exists for construction, from starter
cultures that produce a high-quality product, of cultures with the added capability
to specifically inhibit the spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms associated with that
product. This strategy should provide an effective mechanism to enhance product
safety and stability without any compromise in product quality. Widespread and
specific application of these natural food preservatives may be envisioned as more
of these bacteriocins and the genes that control their synthesis are identified, isolated,
and characterized.

2.2.3 Bacteriophage Resistance


The destructive effect and cost of bacteriophage on the dairy fermentation industry
has been unparalleled among other fermentation industries.41 Mesophilic lactococci
have suffered the greatest incidence of attack, in part due to the almost continuous
utilization of cheese vats typified by modern Cheddar cheese manufacture. These
conditions have favored the emergence of bacteriophage and have placed an increased demand on starter cultures to resist phage infection.42 As a consequence,
bacteriophage resistance in lactic acid bacteria has persisted as a central theme for
genetic studies in these organisms.
Bacteriophage were recognized as a problem within the dairy industry long before
genetics studies were possible. This realization led to a series of control measures
that included strain rotation practices, isolation and employment of phage resistant
mutants, aseptic starter propagation, and improved plant sanitation (for a review see
ref. 42). Although these measures have helped to significantly control bacteriophage
proliferation in the factory, they have not provided a solution to the problem and
increased production rates have served to exacerbate it. With the arrival of modern
genetics studies, however, came the technology to develop creative new weapons
for the fight against bacteriophage attack.
The genetics work performed with lactococci over the past decade has provided
a large deposit of information related to the various mechanisms for bacteriophage
resistance, and the loci that encode them, within these organisms (for reviews see
refs. 24, 41, 43, and 44). Rather than provide an extensive review of this work, we
would like to present some of the key approaches and successes that have been
derived from studies of lactococcal phage resistance.
Much of the data has already been employed to benefit the cheese industry. Sanders et al.45 utilized conjugation to introduce a plasmid that encoded restriction/modification (R/M) and abortive infection phage defense mechanisms into a commercial
strain that has since been used for Cheddar cheese manufacture in the United States.

This collaborative work between research groups at Marschall Products (M. E. Sanders) and North Carolina State University (T. R. Klaenhammer) provided the key
success story to demonstrate the potential for genetic methods in starter culture
improvement programs.
More recently, Klaenhammer and Sing46 proposed an innovative strategy that
utilized rotation of different R/M and abortive phage defense mechanisms within a
single-strain starter system. This system not only thwarted proliferation of bacteriophage, but it also actually removed contaminating phage from the medium. Other
recent advancements designed to help combat phage infection are the use of antisense
mRNA technology,47 identification of external cellular components required for infection,48-49 and studies of bacteriophage gene expression.50"52 The cumulative
knowledge derived from genetics studies has now provided an optimistic outlook
toward stringent control of the bacteriophage problems that have dogged lactococcal
starter cultures for years.
Whereas effective mechanisms for the control of lactococcal phage problems
appear imminent, the opposite appears true of thermophilic cultures where increased
production of Italian cheeses has initiated problems similar to those observed in the
lactococci 40 years ago.53 If the Italian cheese industry is to avoid increased economic losses due to bacteriophage attack then it must support basic research required
to identify phage resistance mechanisms in thermolactic bacteria. This work has been
initiated in several laboratories and some progress has been achieved. Restriction
endonucleases have been isolated54'55 and a few reports have linked differences in
bacteriophage sensitivity to plasmid DNA in some of these organisms.56'57 Although
these are certainly positive developments, considerable work remains before a bacteriophage resistance system for thermolactic cultures may be developed. The need
for such systems, however, will grow because the demand for Italian cheeses continues to escalate and increased production will place even greater stress on thermolactic cultures to resist bacteriophage attack.

2.2.4 Accelerated Cheese Maturation


Cheese maturation describes the biochemical conversion of a bland-flavored curd
into a palatable, well-bodied final product. The microorganisms present in the curd
contribute flavor compounds as well as proteolytic, lipolytic, and other enzymes that
together effect this transformation.58-59 Maturation often requires several months to
complete, and the cheese is stored under low temperature throughout most of this
process. Because of the economic burden that refrigeration and storage of ripening
cheese pose to the cheesemaker, interest has turned toward methods to accelerate
this process. The intimate role of microorganisms in cheese maturation has indicated
that biotechnology may present strategies to realize this objective.
Within the past two decades tireless efforts have sought to identify and characterize the myriad of flavor components and enzymes that contribute to the desirable
organoleptic properties of ripened cheese. Proteolytic enzyme systems, crucial for
rapid growth in milk, have been found to make very important contributions to flavor
and texture development in cheese.60 For these reasons, proteolytic enzymes have

received considerable attention and a number of these enzyme systems have been
well characterized in lactic acid bacteria (for review see refs. 61, 62). Protein engineering of lactococcal proteases has also received attention, and proteinases with
altered specificities have been developed.63 Proteinase enzymes with altered specificity and activity may have future commercial applications that might include acceleration of cheese ripening.24
Other studies have examined lipase activity in both starter and nonstarter (i.e.,
part of the secondary microflora of cheese) Lactobacillus spp.64'65 and in Micrococcus spp.,66 an organism that also contributes to the nonstarter microflora. Interest
in secondary microflora has grown because investigators noted that during maturation the numbers of starter bacteria decline whereas those of nonstarter bacteria,
particularly lactobacilli, increase.3'67
Intensive genetics and microbiological studies continue to focus on the flavors
and enzyme systems involved in cheese maturation. Results from previous studies
have provided investigators with a number of potential strategies that may soon yield
the technology to accelerate the maturation process. A few of these strategies, notably
those that utilized enzyme preparations or Lactobacillus spp. adjuncts with the starter
blend, have demonstrated restricted success with accelerated cheese maturation (for
a review see ref. 68).
Another strategy toward accelerated cheese ripening was taken by Feirtag and
McKay,69-70 who employed thermolytic lactococcal strains as an enzyme delivery
system. Thermolytic strains lyse at cook temperatures of 39 to 400C, and thus deliver
intracellular cheese ripening enzymes to the curd. Studies of accelerated ripening
with these strains indicated that potential exists for this approach. Classic mutagenesis and molecular techniques might be used to expand the number of strains
that display the thermolytic response.
As these investigations continue, more effective technologies will likely emerge
that should eventually allow cheese manufacturers to cut expenditures associated
with cheese maturation. The knowledge gained from studies of flavor and texture
development will also benefit other applications such as the production of low-fat
dairy products described previously.

2.3 Yesterday and Tomorrow: Tools for Biotechnology


2.3.1 Conjugation and Cell Fusion
2.3.1.1 Conjugation
Conjugation among bacteria is a natural form of gene transfer that requires physical
contact between viable donor and recipient cells. A sequential model for the physical
events involved in conjugal transfer emerged from studies focused principally on
transfer of the fertility (F) plasmid in E. coli (for reviews see refs. 71 -73). In simplest
terms the steps may be divided into three parts: stable cell-cell pair formation, DNA
exchange, and resolution of the mating pair.

Formation of stable cell-cell contact between most Gram-negative donor and


recipient bacteria requires sex pilli that are produced by the donor cell.72 Donor and
recipient aggregation between Gram-positive cells, however, involves distinct mechanisms because these cells do not produce pilli. Studies of Enterococcus faecalis
have demonstrated that the exchange of conjugative plasmids that encode hemolysin
is often mediated by specific sex pheromones produced by recipient cells. The pheromones are small, target-specific peptides that trigger synthesis of proteins, from
conjugative plasmids in donor cells, required for conjugal exchange (for a review
see ref. 74). Among the substances produced in response to the pheromone is an
aggregation substance that facilitates stable cell-cell pair formation. Recent evidence
has suggested that conjugal transfer of lactose utilization among Lactococcus lactis
subsp. lactis may possess features similar to those of the Enterococcus faecalis
system, such as the synthesis of aggregation substance.39'75'76 The production of
pheromones, however, has not been reported and the events involved in stable pair
formation remain poorly understood among lactic acid bacteria and other Grampositive organisms.
Even less understood among Gram-positive bacteria are the molecular events that
follow stable pair formation. Data obtained from studies of Gram-negative bacteria
indicate that DNA transfer occurs in single-stranded form and is initiated at a specific
locus designated the origin of transfer (oriT13). Transfer is followed by complementary strand synthesis in the recipient cell and dissociation of the mating pair. For
more detailed discussions of the molecular events involved in conjugation, see refs.
72-74.
Conjugation among lactic acid bacteria was first discovered in lactococci and
reported independently by Gasson and Davies77 and by Kempler and McKay,78 each
of whom noted transfer of lactose fermenting ability. Although investigators have
since demonstrated conjugation of a few plasmid DNA and chromosomally encoded
traits within several species of lactic acid bacteria38-79"86 most of the information
acquired to date has been derived from studies of lactococcal conjugation.
Among lactococci, conjugation has proven very useful for studies of plasmid
biology and genetics.5'38-39 One important result of these studies has been the discovery that many industrially important traits of lactococcal starter cultures, such as
the utilization of lactose and casein,77-78-80 bacteriophage resistance,87""89 and production of bacteriocins90-91 are conjugative (for reviews see refs. 38, 39). This fortunate situation is of great practical significance to the biotechnological improvement
of these organisms. Because conjugation occurs naturally between these food grade
organisms, lactic acid bacteria that are genetically improved by this technique bypass
many of the obstacles associated with the industrial application of strains that contain
recombinant DNA.38-45 Sanders et al.45 utilized this strategy to effectively improve
bacteriophage resistance among industrial strains of Lactococcus lactis.
Fewer conjugative traits have been identified among lactic acid bacteria other
than lactococci, but within a few species of the lactobacilli used in dairy fermentations investigators have found conjugal transfer of lactose fermenting ability92 and
bacteriocin production.14 Of related significance have been reports of interspecific
and intergeneric conjugal exchange among lactic acid bacteria.39'79'81^4"86 Although

these reports have principally involved transfer of broad host range conjugative
plasmids that encode antibiotic resistance, rather than genes useful to industry, they
have demonstrated conjugal mechanisms for intergeneric transfer. These mechanisms have since been manipulated to transfer genes associated with nisin production
from Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis into Lactobacillus plantarum39 and Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus (Broadbent, Kondo, and Sandine; unpublished
data). The availability within food grade lactic acid bacteria of conjugative DNA
that encodes industrially significant traits, and the existence of mechanisms for interspecific and intergeneric transfer, indicate that conjugation remains a viable technique for the biotechnological improvement of lactic acid bacteria.

2.3.1.2 Protoplast Fusion


A second biotechnological technique that merits further investigation is protoplast
fusion. This method is based on observations that enzymatic removal of the microbial
or plant cell wall in hypertonic solution, to yield a plasma membrane bound protoplast, may not affect viability and a new wall may be regenerated on an appropriate
medium.93 Protoplast fusion was originally developed in plant systems by Kao and
Michayluk,94 who had found that polyethylene glycol (PEG) facilitated intergeneric
fusion between cell membranes. Regeneration of the fusants produced hybrid cells
with characteristics from both parental cell types. Subsequent work with bacteria
demonstrated that PEG induced fusion of these protoplasts as well.95-96
Gasson97 was the first to apply this technology to lactic acid bacteria and demonstrated recombination of both plasmid and chromosomally encoded genes among
derivatives of Lactococcus lactic subsp. lactis 111. Okamoto et al.98 also reported
recombination of chromosomal genes among auxotrophic mutants of Lactococcus
lactis subsp. lactis as a consequence of protoplast fusion and regeneration. Intergeneric transfer of plasmid and chromosomal genes to lactic acid bacteria has also been
demonstrated with this technique.99100 These results indicate that protoplast fusion
may be a powerful tool for the construction of hybrid microorganisms. With this
technology, investigators could potentially combine the desirable traits (e.g., flavor,
acid, and bacteriocin production) from distinct genera into one new lactic organism.
Such hybrid bacteria could be used to prepare improved versions of traditional fermented dairy products (i.e., greater shelf stability, improved flavor and texture qualities), or to develop new products based on the unique metabolic capabilities hybrid
organisms might possess. Protoplast fusion may also be an effective method to obtain
mutants with increased expression levels of important proteins. Russian investigators
have obtained fusants that expressed a 10- to 12-fold increase in nisin production
levels when compared to the original parental strains.101
Despite the clear potential that protoplast fusion holds as a powerful tool for the
biotechnology of lactic acid bacteria, relatively little investigative attention has been
given to the procedure in recent years. Some of this negligence may stem from the
need to preestablish protoplast formation and regeneration conditions for each organism under study.93 Further studies with regard to protoplast formation and re-

generation among lactic genera other than lactococci are required if protoplast fusion
is to approach the potential it offers for strain construction and improvement.

2.3.2 Transformation and Gene Delivery Systems


2.3.2.1 Electroporation
The development of recombinant DNA technology within the past 25 years has
provided modern microbiologists with extraordinary power to precisely alter physiological characteristics of the lactic acid bacteria used to ferment dairy products.
The possibilities for substantial and precise strain improvements have never been
greater. In order to apply this technology and genetically alter strains for industrial
application, reliable and efficient methods for bacterial transformation must be available.102 The most promising transformation method to emerge in recent years has
been electroporation.
Initially developed as a method to facilitate cell fusion in eukaryotes,103 electroporation is a physical treatment based on the phenomena of ' 'electric pore formation" in cells.104 Cellular membranes exposed to a high electric field become polarized and develop a voltage potential across the membrane. If this potential exceeds
a threshold limit, localized breakdown of the membrane occurs and the cell becomes
permeable to extraneous molecules. 105106 Under conditions that must be experimentally established, the breakdown is reversible and treated cells may be recovered.
The transfection of mouse fibroblasts by Neumann et al.107 was the first reported use
of electroporation for introduction of exogenous DNA into cells. Although the actual
mechanism for DNA entry into cells has remained mysterious, use of the technique
has spread to include transfection of plant protoplasts and efficient, high-frequency
electrotransformation of a variety of bacterial genera and species.108
Harlander109 first reported electrotransformation of intact (nonprotoplasted) cells
of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis. The transformation frequencies obtained were
comparable to those offered by more difficult and time consuming protoplast transformation procedures110'111 that previously were the only available means to transform lactic acid bacteria. At approximately the same time, Chassy and Flickinger112
reported successful and efficient electrotransformation of Lactobacillus casei subsp.
casei. Within 1 year of these reports, the number of successfully electrotransformed
species of dairy lactic acid bacteria had grown to include Streptococcus salivarius
subsp. thermophilus,113 Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris,114'115 Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris and subsp. dextranicum.116 Perhaps the most encouraging aspect of these reports was the common observation that a single protocol for electroporation allowed transformation of
different strains and even different genera of bacteria. 112114116 This was in sharp
contrast to protoplast transformation techniques where investigators found that a
given procedure often worked with only a limited number of related strains.116"118
While the list of lactic acid bacteria that have been genetically transformed by
electroporation continues to grow,119"121 interest has shifted toward identification of
parameters that yield very high transformation frequencies. The capability to effi-

ciently transform cells is directly tied to the ease with which recombinant DNA
technology may be applied to a particular bacterium. Among the lactococci, studies
have demonstrated that very efficient transformation frequencies (up to 107 transformants/jjig of DNA) may be obtained if the thick Gram-positive cell wall is weakened prior to electroporation.114122 These results suggest that the lactococcal murein
layer may act as a barrier to DNA entry but it is unclear whether the same is true of
other lactic organisms. Wycoff et al.120 have obtained high-frequency electrotransformation (>10 6 transformants/|xg of DNA) with whole cells of Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris AA-A. Although significant progress has been realized
toward the development of very efficient electrotransformation procedures of lactic
acid bacteria, most notably among lactococci, transformation frequencies remain
orders of magnitude lower than the 1010 transformants/|xg of DNA reported for
electroporation of E. coli.123 Further investigation of the various parameters that
affect the efficiency of electrotransformation of lactic organisms may eventually
yield results comparable to those for E. coli.
Although most reports of high-efficiency electrotransformation in bacteria have
involved relatively small plasmids,120'122'123 the technique has also proven useful to
transform larger plasmid DNAs. Gillies and Kondo124 electrotransformed a Lac~
Pit" strain of L. lactis subsp. lactis, albeit at low frequency, with 55 kb lac and
43 kb prtA plasmids isolated from L. lactis subsp. lactis C2O. The relationship
between plasmid size and the efficiency of electroporation remains unclear. Some
reports have indicated that greater plasmid size adversely affected transformation
frequency,113116 whereas others have found no obvious relationship between size
and electrotransformation efficiency.114-125 Resolution of this question requires direct
comparison, as yet not performed, between the transformation frequency of plasmids
that contain the same origin, regulatory sequences, and markers, and that differ only
size.108
In conclusion, electroporation presents the most direct and efficient method for
the development of a genetic transformation protocol among lactic acid bacteria. The
technique offers significant advantages over previous methods and this feature, combined with the commercial availability of reliable instruments, have made electroporation the method of choice for the introduction of exogenous DNA into lactic
organisms. For more detailed discussions of the experimental parameters affect electrotransformation efficiency and cell recovery, or the events surrounding cell membrane breakdown, see refs. 104,108.

2.3.2.2 Gene Delivery Systems


With the development of transformation systems for lactic acid bacteria came a need
to construct useful vectors for gene delivery. Cloning vectors may be loosely divided
into two general categories: those for experimental research and food grade vectors
designed for safe application in food systems. The former typically encode resistance
genes to one or more clinically useful antibiotics whereas the latter must not contain
any such DNA. The minimal requirements of either type of vector are that it
(1) replicate within the host species of bacteria, (2) encode a gene that facilitates

selection of transformed from nontransformed cells, (3) possess unique restriction


endonuclease site(s) where DNA fragments may be inserted without damage to replication or selection functions, and (4) be of relatively small size so that recombinant
constructs may be readily transformed into host cells. Modern cloning vectors typically include more sophisticated features such as two selective markers and a
multiple cloning site located such that insertion of cloned DNA fragments inactivates
one of the markers. Loss of the corresponding phenotype is then used to directly
select cells with recombinant molecules from those that contain only vector DNA.
The first cloning experiments performed with lactic acid bacteria, reported by
Kondo and McKay110 shortly after they had developed protoplast transformation in
lactococci, utilized a vector initially developed for Streptococcus sanguis research.
With the advent of transformation, however, other investigators quickly constructed
vectors based on cryptic lactococcal plasmids.126127 These vectors proved especially
useful because of their ability to replicate in Bacillus subtilus and E. coli hosts,
where DNA manipulation techniques were well established. Although this group of
vectors remain useful for cloning, expression of heterologous DNA in lactic acid
bacteria has required functional lactic expression and processing signals within the
cloned DNA fragment.
The next family of laboratory research vectors to emerge were designed to investigate lactic processing signals. This group included vectors developed to collect
lactic promoter and terminator sequences,128"132 and protein secretion signals.133'134
These vectors have been utilized to obtain important information on gene expression
which has allowed development of sophisticated expression and secretion vectors. 129135136 The latter two types of cloning vectors specifically promote expression
and secretion in lactic organisms of protein from cloned, heterologous DNA. The
development of expression and secretion vectors for lactic acid bacteria has been an
important advancement because these tools are prerequisite for these organisms to
be utilized in the manufacture of genetically engineered proteins (Section 2.3.3).
The final class of experimental gene delivery systems under development for
lactic acid bacteria are integration vectors.137"139 In contrast to the vectors described
above, which typically exist in host cells as extrachromosomal plasmid molecules,
integration vectors are designed to recombine with the host chromosome on cell
entry. Interest in construction of these vectors has stemmed from the inherent instability of plasmid DNA in cells which can produce the concomitant and irreversible
loss of any traits they encode. It was the instability of several important metabolic
traits in lactococci that first led investigators to examine these organisms for plasmid
DNA.140 Since then the genes that encode a number of these traits have indeed been
located on various plasmid DNAs.141 One potential method to stabilize important
genes in lactic acid bacteria is through chromosomal integration. McKay and
Baldwin142 were the first to demonstrate stabilization of plasmid genes in a lactic
organism. They employed transduction to integrate genes for lactose utilization and
proteinase into the chromosome of a L. lactis subsp. lactis C2 derivative and demonstrated improved stability of these traits in the construct.
Modern integration vectors are designed to achieve comparable results with any
gene of interest. Most of the integration vectors developed for lactic acid bacteria

utilize host mechanisms for homologous DNA recombination to enter the chromosome. 137138 Raya et al., 139 however, have constructed an integration vector for
Lactobacillus gasseri which instead utilizes integration functions isolated from the
genome of a temperate bacteriophage. Although integration vectors are a relatively
new development in lactic acid bacteria, Leenhouts et al.143 have already demonstrated stabilization of proteinase genes in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis with one
of these vectors.
Information gleaned from the work outlined above has provided investigators
with a solid framework for gene cloning and expression in lactic acid bacteria. This
background information was also necessary for the development of successful food
grade gene delivery systems. In principle, food grade vectors are identical to their
laboratory counterparts. Because they may become distributed in foods, however,
safety concerns dictate that food grade vectors cannot employ antibiotic resistance
genes as selective markers because they may be transmitted inadvertently to other
microorganisms.144 Because of this concern, all of the potential food grade vectors
constructed to date have utilized selective markers isolated from food grade, generally regarded as safe (GRAS), bacteria. The lactic markers employed in these
vectors include genes for nisin resistance,145"147 P-galactosidase,148 or thymidylate
synthase.149 A number of other lactic genes, such as those that encode bacteriocin
production and immunity or the utilization of various carbohydrates, may also be
useful selective markers for food grade gene delivery systems.
Although reports that describe potential food grade vectors have emerged only
recently, it is probable that more sophisticated versions will follow quickly. Leenhouts et al.150 recently discussed a method to construct a potential food grade integration vector. Before any of these food grade vectors may be utilized to improve
bacteria utilized in food, however, the constructs will have to satisfy regulatory
concerns. At present no precedent for such a food application exists and the regulatory process will certainly affect the role of these vectors for biotechnology in
fermented foods.

3.3.3 Manufacture of Heterologous Proteins


One of the most significant applications to emerge from biotechnology involves the
capability to genetically construct microorganisms that produce copious amounts of
important proteins that were previously difficult to obtain in good quantity. This
technology relies on recombinant DNA manipulation to combine genes from divergent prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells which, when expressed in the host bacterium,
yield heterologous proteins. If the appropriate expression signals are provided, continuous synthesis of the protein may be feasible. The pharmaceutical industry has
experienced the greatest success with this application, and genetically engineered
products such as human insulin have been commercially available since 1982.151
The technology has since moved into other industries, and the milk coagulating
enzyme chymosin recently became the first commercially available genetically engineered product for food processors.152

Among the criteria used by FDA to evaluate the potential safety of these products
is the relative safety of the producer organism.152153 At present, most of these biological compounds are obtained from species of microorganisms that are not GRAS.
It is the burden of the petitioner to verify that the product in question does not contain
any deleterious impurities,152 and one method to simplify this requirement may be
to utilize GRAS microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria to synthesize these
proteins.
European laboratories have led the investigations of heterologous gene expression
and development of secretion vectors required for success. 129135154 The results obtained with these hostvector systems have been encouraging; expression of several
heterologous proteins, which include bovine chymosin,154 hen egg white Iysozyme,135 and the Bacillus subtilus neutral protease155 has been obtained in lactococci.
Among other lactic acid bacteria, expression of the a-amylase enzyme of Bacillus
lichenformis and a Streptomyces cholesterol oxidase have been reported in Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus.129'156
As the food industry grows to embrace biotechnology, more genetically engineered products will be developed and utilized. Logic indicates that the potential
health risks associated with these products may be diminished if they are produced
by safe, food grade microorganisms. The suitability of lactic acid bacteria as hosts
for the manufacture of heterologous proteins has been demonstrated and should
stimulate industrial pursuit of this application.

2.4 Regulatory Aspects of Dairy Biotechnology


Substantial progress has now been made toward the isolation of genes important to
dairy fermentations and the food grade delivery systems needed to introduce those
genes into the fermentative microorganisms. Before these systems may be commercially applied to foods, however, the safety of new organisms and products must be
verified and approved by the agencies that regulate food safety in each country.
Within the United States, those agencies include the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Because several agencies of the United States government are involved in the
regulation of biotechnology products, the Executive Office of the President, Office
of Science and Technology, established the Biotechnology Science Coordination
Committee (BSCC). The role of the BSCC was to develop a unified federal policy
that would avoid potential conflicts between the various agencies. The committee
designed a coordinated framework for the regulation of biotechhnology that indicated that new products derived from biotechnology should be reviewed by the
respective agencies in essentially the same manner as products manufactured under
more traditional processes.157 With respect to foods and food products obtained from
biotechnology, this meant jurisdiction rested with FDA and USDA.
Commercial manufacturers of dairy foods are subject to regulations from both
FDA and USDA; FDA promulgates standards of identity that describe and define
characteristics of individual dairy products, whereas USDA regulates grading of
finished dairy products.158 Because actual production of these foods is regulated by

FDA, however, organisms or products derived from biotechnology for dairy foods
applications presently require approval from FDA.
Although FDA issued a policy statement for regulation of biotechnology products
in 1986,159 important questions exist with regard to how the agency will view genetically altered microorganisms in human food. For example, would a recombinant
DNA molecule derived entirely from the DNA of GRAS organisms, and subsequently transformed into another GRAS bacteria, yield an organism that would require approval as a food additive? What about transformation of a native plasmid
isolated from one GRAS bacteria into another? In the latter situation, would approval
require, as dictated for recombinant molecules, that the entire DNA sequence of the
plasmid be provided to FDA? How will FDA view intraspecific versus interspecific
and intergeneric constructs, achieved by duplicate technology, of GRAS microorganisms? At present, FDA policy toward biotechnology has focused on a case by
case basis for review and approval.159 Biotechnology is an expensive process, however, and until these issues are clarified and a firm prospect for regulatory approval
of genetically altered microorganisms exists, it is unlikely that the dairy industry
will embrace this new science. Unfortunately, events in recent years have lent little
form to the FDA position toward the use of genetically engineered microbes in
human food.
Further insight into the FDA position may be available from proposed USDA
guidelines that pertain to the release of genetically altered organisms into the environment.160 The validity of such an inference is based on BSCC actions,157 whose
mission has been to ensure consistent and coordinate biotechnology regulations
among federal agencies, and because altered microorganisms in food will likely
become distributed into the environment. Among other things, the USDA document
specifically proposes to exclude from regulation microorganisms modified solely by
movement of nucleic acids, if they have not first been manipulated in vitro, through
physiological processes such as conjugation, transduction, and transformation.
Whereas transduction and conjugation are documented physiological processes
among lactic acid bacteria,38 natural transformation systems in these organisms have
not been identified. As discussed previously, the latter form of gene transfer is today
usually achieved by electroporation, a technique based on physical phenomena rather
than natural physiology. The conclusions drawn from this inference are that the FDA
position toward the safety of organisms that are genetically altered by physiological
processes will likely be determined by the status of the parental organisms. The
agencies opinion of bacteria improved by transformation, however, remains unknown, even if recombinant DNA molecules have not been employed in the construct. The latter condition provides an important distinction because two situations
may be envisioned with regard to the safety review of lactic organisms genetically
altered by transformation. The first involves transformation into one GRAS organism
of whole, unaltered native plasmids isolated from another GRAS bacteria, whereas
the second applies to recombinant DNA molecules.
One of the most significant discoveries to emerge from studies of lactic acid
bacteria, particularly lactococci, has been that many important traits for milk fermentations are encoded by plasmid DNA141 If some of these plasmids were trans-

formed into industrial strains, they would probably contribute an immediate refinement to the fermentation. The interests of the dairy industry would certainly be
served if the question of how intraspecific and intergeneric constructs of transformed
GRAS bacteria, which employed whole, unaltered plasmids from other GRAS bacteria, will be addressed by FDA. These answers may require the dairy or culture
industry to submit test cases to FDA, the expense of which cannot be foreseen.
The criteria for FDA review of organisms obtained through the use of recombinant DNA has been established.159 It remains unclear, however, whether the agency
would consider a transformed GRAS organism, which contained a recombinant
DNA molecule derived entirely from other GRAS bacteria, as GRAS or as a food
additive. FDA has clearly indicated that the latter situation is possible but has stated
it will review petitions case by case.159 Food additive approval requires considerable
time and expense, features that industry chooses to avoid whenever possible. Furthermore, petitions for GRAS affirmation of new products and organisms require
the same scientific data as those for food additives plus documentation of literature
that supports GRAS designation.153 Thus, GRAS affirmation may be even more
laborious to a company than approval as an additive. Because of the potential expense, clarification of the FDA position is critical if biotechnology is to be accepted
by the dairy industry. Resolution of this issue will require action by the dairy fermentation industry, either through dialogue or submission of test cases. Even greater
confusion surrounds the status of hybrid microorganisms that might be obtained by
protoplast fusion technology. It appears that at present these organisms, because they
may involve substantial yet poorly defined DNA recombination, would receive
added scrutiny during review and are the most probable constructs to receive food
additive status.
In an effort to resolve some of these issues and to address the use of biotechnology
in human food, an expert panel, The International Food Biotechnology Council, was
formed in 1988. Last year the IFBC proposed a series of criteria and procedures that
they felt would assist regulatory evaluation and safety determination of biotechnology products.161 When evaluating the safety of whole foods produced from microorganisms, the IFBC recommended that regulatory agencies first consider the genetic
origins of all nucleic acids used for the construct. This would be followed by evaluation of whether the construct resulted in new food constituents, and finally,
whether the new product would alter the intake levels of food constituents among
consumers. If FDA employs these recommendations, then cultures that are constructed entirely from GRAS microbes and DNA, regardless of the technology employed in the construct, would quite possibly retain GRAS status. In summation,
although progress has been achieved further action is required of both dairy foods
producers and FDA to clarify impressions regarding the safety of genetically altered
microorganisms in fermented foods.
Although clear guidelines based on scientific fact will serve to promote the application of biotechnology in the dairy foods industry, the success of these products
will also rely heavily on public knowledge of biotechnology. As discussed recently
by Harlander,151- 162 consumer perceptions and fears toward food biotechnology
cannot be trivialized or ignored if the technology is to succeed. A good example of

the dangers that face new developments in biotechnology is offered by the global
controversy that has surrounded the proposed use of recombinant DNA-derived bovine somatotropin (r-bST) to increase milk production in dairy cattle.163"165 Although FDA concluded several years ago that milk obtained from cattle treated with
this hormone was safe for human consumption, and use of r-bST will likely be
approved by FDA,165 negative consumer perceptions could determine the eventual
success of this biotechnological development.164-165 Further obstacles to the application of biotechnology may result from state or local regulations. Legislation at this
level is far more susceptible to amendments that address public concerns which lack
scientific basis than is federal law.
In summary, biotechnology holds great potential to improve and expand our supply of fermented dairy foods. If this potential is to be realized, however, both industry
and consumers must accept the new science. Acceptance of biotechnology among
the dairy fermentation industry may be accelerated by clarification of the FDA perspective toward the use of genetically altered microorganisms in foods. Acceptance
among the general public will require education and dialogue. Harlander162 has provided an excellent outline designed to meet the challenges posed by public misconceptions of biotechnology. If these challenges are met, the dairy industry could
experience an unprecedented revolution in product quality, variety, and supply all
as a consequence of biotechnology.

2.5 Summary
With the arrival of biotechnology to the dairy lactic acid bacteria 20 years ago, the
dairy fermentation industry entered a revolution that has since provided modern
investigators with unprecedented power to ensure the success of dairy fermentations.
Within this short period, important biochemical pathways have been elucidated; gene
transfer and delivery systems were discovered and refined; gene expression and
secretion signals were identified; and a large number of important genes were located, isolated, and examined at the DNA sequence level.144 Although most of these
studies initially focused on lactococci, work has now expanded to include all dairy
lactic acid bacteria and other important genera such as Propionibacteriwn spp. and
Bifidobacterium spp. As this research continues, the dairy fermentation industry will
rise to a new era which should witness the evolution of new products and technologies designed to ease the economic pressure upon manufacturers and provide safe,
delicious, and healthy dairy products to consumers.

2.6 References
1. Foster, E. M. 1989. A half century of food microbiology. Food Technol. 43:208-216.
2. Sharpe, M. E. 1979. Lactic acid bacteria in the dairy industry. J. Soc. Dairy Technol. 32:9-18.
3. Thomas, T. D. 1975. Role of lactic acid bacteria and their improvement for production of better
fermented animal products. N. Z. /. Dairy Sci. Technol. 20:1-10.

4. Kondo, J. K. 1989. Gene cloning and transfer in dairy lactococci. J. Dairy Sci. 72:3381-3387.
5. Kondo, J. K., and L. L. McKay. 1985. Gene transfer systems and molecular cloning in group N
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Rev. 94:28-36.

CHAPTER
3

Computer Applications:
Expert Systems
Robert L Olsen
3.1 Introduction, 106
3.1.1 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, 106
3.1.2 Relationship to Traditional Programming, 108
3.2 Knowledge-Based Architecture, 109
3.2.1 Knowledge Representation, 109
3.2.2 Searching and Inference Strategies, 113
3.2.3 Uncertainty, 116
3.3 Building Expert Systems, 117
3.3.1 Feasibility, 117
3.3.2 Knowledge Acquisition, 118
3.3.3 Tool Selection, 120
3.4 Expert Systems and Process Control, 121
3.4.1 Preexpert System Developments, 121
3.4.2 Expert System Applications, 123
3.4.3 Knowledge Representation in Process Control, 126
3.4.4 Commercial Examples, 127
3.5 Business and Manufacturing Operations, 128
3.5.1 Physical Goods Management, 128
3.5.2 Time Management: Planning and Scheduling, 130
3.5.3 Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 132
3.6 Quality Management Applications, 138
3.6.1 Quality Control Programs, 138
3.6.2 Laboratory Systems, 140
3.6.3 Quality Defect Analysis, 142
3.7 Strategic Operations, 143
3.7.1 Simulation, 143
3.7.2 Research and Development, 146
3.7.3 Training, 149
3.8 Future Trends, 150
3.9 References, 151

3.1 Introduction
This chapter explains what expert systems are, how they work, and their strengths
and limitations. Expert systems have four major applications. The first is for intelligent process monitoring and control. This involves managing a real-time system
by interpreting incoming data and taking suitable actions. A real-time system refers
to a computer system that can respond to incoming data fast enough to continue the
process at the desired speed. The second application is diagnosis or troubleshooting.
The main task of a diagnostic system is to locate the cause of an observed defect.
This type of expert system application has been most widely used. The third application is instruction or learning. In the area of computer-assisted instruction, expert
systems can be used as intelligent tutors. The fourth application is design and configuration. This involves constructing a solution from a set of components given a
set of constraints. Complete computer systems are configured or assembled according to a customer's requirements using an expert system. Sections 3.4 through 3.8
describe applications of these areas in the food industry. However, the sections are
organized according to subject areas and not according to the above categories. Dairy
processing will be emphasized where possible. Because expert systems are often
added to existing traditional computer systems, descriptions of those traditional areas
will be included.

3.1.1 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems


Computers were first used as calculating devices. As computer languages developed,
computers were used to process symbols representing numbers. The symbols could
also be text or even concepts. Early computers worked well with numbers and physical quantities. In performing numerical data operations, the computer had specific
instructions on dealing with separate components of data. However, not all human
thinking and decision-making depended on numbers. The computer was aware of
positions of data but not of the internal meaning of words. The word " i s " in the
phrase ' 'temperature is cold" has no significance in its relationship to the other words
in the phrase. It became apparent that existing tools of numerical reasoning were
inappropriate for modeling intelligence. In order for artificial intelligence to develop,
new languages, or at least new structures, were required that could manipulate symbols and understand meanings of words, as well as numbers. Symbolic processing
was then developed to model thought and reasoning. The term "artificial intelligence" (AI) was proposed by John McCarthy in naming the Summer Research
Project at Dartmouth College in 1956.
"Artificial intelligence is the study of mental facilities through the use of computational models."1 Areas of AI research include robotics, natural language comprehension, machine vision, and expert systems. Expert systems are computer-based
processes that can assist a user in drawing conclusions from a set of facts, and in
prescribing how the conclusions should be used.2 Expert systems are able to solve
problems of scientific and commercial importance using human expertise that has
been built into the program.

One of the earliest expert systems was developed in the 1960s by research workers
at Stanford University. They were asked by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration to construct a computer program to help analyze the soil chemistry
on Mars using a mass spectrometer. In order to analyze the spectra, the expertise of
a soil chemist had to be encoded into the program. Although the system turned out
to be too large for the spacecraft, it led to the development of the successful DENDRAL expert system. Significant features of DENDRAL distinguishing it from previous expert system attempts were its highly specific rules and narrow area of expertise. Another widely known expert system developed at Stanford is MYCIN.
MYCIN can diagnose bacterial infections and prescribe treatments for them. Current
applications of expert systems span a wide array of subjects. They include topics as
diverse as optical fiber cable design, container loading, preventive maintenance of
diesel engines, control of a cement kiln, machine operation planning, airline scheduling, forest fire prevention, analysis of computer systems performances, DNA restriction mapping, and legal advisement. Major fields of business, science, education,
medicine, and agriculture all have had many workers developing and evaluating
expert systems.
The discovery that earlier general purpose reasoning programs were limited led
to the development and success of these narrowly focused expert systems. Once
closely constrained, practical problems were solved with success, it became apparent
that basic knowledge representation and reasoning techniques could be useful in
solving commercial problems.
Some critics have suggested that the term ''expert systems" is limiting because
the same general methods can be used to create intelligent behavior without the
human expert. These same critics argue that generally available knowledge or information, rather than expert knowledge, can be accessed and manipulated, and made
more useful through the inference process. To accommodate this attitude, the term
"knowledge-based systems" has been proposed and is often observed in the literature. For the sake of consistency the term "expert system" will be used in this text.
The development of expert systems has enriched traditional programming. Expert
system procedures are embedded in programs such as symbolic compilers, multiwindow high-resolution displays, and object-oriented software. Expert systems use
symbolic data rather than numeric data. Symbols can take the form of characters or
digits. Numeric and symbolic processing programs both use symbols, but conventional computer programs use numeric or computational operations. Expert system
programs differ from conventional programs in that they understand relationships
between symbols. Databases and word processors appear to be symbolic on the
surface, but manipulation of all data is numeric. Although expert system programs
use symbols that are numbers according to ASCII code, expert system programs
involve symbolic concepts and interconnected symbols at a higher level. Conventional programs are more rigidly designed. With an expert system language or tool,
the information-containing portions of the program are kept apart from the inference
mechanism. This allows portions of the program to be changed without affecting the
whole program. In addition, relationships can be derived that might exist but that

are not apparent from examining data by usual means. Programs often reveal relationships unrecognized by human experts.
Adaptive expert systems can exchange operations in response to past experiences.
In the case of adaptive expert systems, the logic techniques are similar to a mechanical clock in which the hands are continually adjusted until they finally arrive at the
right time. Adaptive or self-learning systems derive rules from experience. They
start with blank rules and guess answers for given input. Rules are modified depending on whether they are wrong or right.

3.1.2 Relationship to Traditional Programming


The strength of an expert system lies more in its knowledge than in new programming techniques. With expert systems the data structure is referred to as the knowledge base. The difference between a conventional data structure and the knowledge
base lies mainly in the complexity and organization of the information being stored.
Databases store only definite facts. Knowledge bases contain definite facts as well
as rules and probablistic information. Knowledge bases can deal with uncertain information whereas databases cannot. Knowledge bases can handle more complex
relationships between groups of data. In contrast to conventional programs, expert
systems are able to use information based on experience or intuition. Expert systems
can be updated more easily than conventional programs. They are also able to provide explanations on their line of reasoning.
In nonbranching segments of traditional programs, the flow of execution always
moves forward. The lines of program are executed one after another. Although an
expert system program also moves from one line to the next, the rules do not follow
a predefined sequence. It would appear that the program can be executed in a forward
or a reverse direction. Even if the lines of code are not actually read backwards, the
concept of independent rules is useful and gives the system much flexibility. Because
the restrictions of execution flow are reduced or eliminated with expert systems, the
difference between input and output data decreases. Traditional programs usually
have input and output variables such as f(x) = 2x = y where x is defined as the
input and y is defined as the output.
Methods of organizing expert systems data structures include bits, bytes, alphanumeric symbols, words, sentences, and frames. Programming designs are comprised
of data structures and methods to control computations. Whereas in traditional programming these are closely associated, with expert system methods, the data structure is more independent of the controlling element.
Although the differences between traditional programming and expert systems
are emphasized here, expert systems procedures are used in most complex software
systems. Many regard them as more of a programming tool rather than a separate
area of computer science. Expert system principles are often embedded in commercial software with no mention of the terms expert system or AI. Terms such as
4
'intelligent" and "smart" are sometimes used instead. Any case in which the program reasons about knowledge, applies it, and communicates it to others can be

referred to as an expert system. The technology is becoming more commonplace.


More and more it is becoming simply a part of standard programming procedure.

3.2 Knowledge-Based Architecture


Knowledge is information that allows the expert systems to make decisions. An
expert system is as powerful as its effective use of knowledge. Knowledge is represented in a knowledge structure. These structures can be compared to data structures; only instead of data, they store and work with knowledge. Knowledge representations include the various ways in which knowledge can be organized and
displayed. Inference refers to the process of combining facts and rules. A visual form
of the inference process is to construct a tree of possibilities. The branches of the
tree show the different paths a line of reasoning may take. As much of the knowledge
in expert systems is subjective and qualitative, the degree of confidence that can be
placed in the knowledge needs to be expressed. Dealing with knowledge that is less
than totally true or false introduces uncertainty. The ability to deal with uncertainty
is a major advantage expert systems possess.

3.2.1 Knowledge Representation


Concepts used in knowledge representation are called objects. Once a set of objects
is selected, the objects need to be defined and their relations described. To accomplish this it is useful to consider basic components of knowledge. These include
naming, describing, organizing, relating, and constraining.3
Names are used for identification purposes and for clarity. Names need to be
unique to avoid confusion. To make a name more unique, more detail can be added,
or a special code or property can be assigned. Addresses or telephone numbers are
commonly used for this purpose. The function of naming is usually performed by
nouns.
Objects can be described by their various properties. Because a large number of
properties could be found for most objects, they are usually limited according to the
particular application of interest. The function of describing is usually performed by
adjectives or values.
The main purpose in organizing is to assist in locating information. Filing systems
have developed over many years to accomplish this purpose. A common problem
occurs when the same information can fit within different files. If a researcher finds
information on the effects of milk heat treatment on cheese yield, does it go in a file
called cheese yield, or into a file called heat treatment? Expert systems provide
methods for organizing knowledge into categories. Categories contain objects with
similar properties.
Relationships link objects together. Moisture content of cheese is related to fat
content of milk. The way in which objects are related is the basis for logical rule
construction. If/Then rules express relationships between objects. For example, if
ice cream is coarse, then storage temperature is high. Relationships may also be

established with frames using slots or inheritance. A frame is similar to a database


record and slots are similar to fields.
Constraints place limits on values. They are useful in limiting the values objects
can be assigned. For example, percent moisture cannot be greater than a predefined
value. Constraints help exclude invalid data from the system, such as the same cheese
made on two different days.
Knowledge can be represented in the form of facts, semantic networks, rules,
frames, and objects.
Facts are segments of information. A fact combined with an If/Then rule can
draw a conclusion. Facts may be entered into a knowledge base prior to program
execution. They can be provided directly through the user interface. Facts may also
be obtained from external devices such as a temperature probe in real-time and from
external databases containing information such as dairy herd records or fill weights.
A semantic network is a symbolic data structure using nodes and arcs in a graphical notation. With this type of notation, each node represents an object or attribute
while the arcs represent relationships between the nodes. The nodes are drawn as
boxes, ovals, or circles. The links are drawn as arrows connecting the nodes. Figure
3.1 represents a node and arc graph. Nodes in one semantic network can connect
with nodes in other networks. This allows the principle of inheritance to take place.
A problem with semantic networks is that they can become difficult to manage as
their size increases.
Rules are the most common form of knowledge representation. They seem to
correspond to the way in which experts use and discuss knowledge. Rules are somewhat similar to IF/THEN statements used in conventional programming languages.
IF
(set of conditions)
= premise

THEN
(set of conditions)
= conclusion

Agitator

Boiler

Steam

Pasteurizer

Sanitary
MtIk Tank
Company

Milk Silo

Temperature
Gauge

Figure 3.1 A semantic network with node and arc notation.

Processing
Vat

Blue Moon
Dairy

The conclusion is reached only if the premise is true. With rule-based programs a
rule interpreter uses a pattern matching procedure to see if the IF conditions in the
rules match up with information in the knowledge base. Rules are modular and
independent in nature. They contain many possible paths to other procedures. To
outline all of the possible pathways showing the relationships between various rules
would be difficult using conventional programming. Conventional programs are so
structured as to be difficult to change.
Several problems exist with rules. Rules may lack variation and are unstructured.
They can be difficult to use successfully in representing cause-and-effect knowledge
because too many rules and too much effort are required to get all effects of the
causal model. Large numbers of rules are difficult to manage. Although rules are
considered to be independent, it is true mainly in the sense that they are unsequenced.
However, when they are written, the expert is often thinking of them in terms of
other rules. This may create unnoticed relationships. A new rule can violate a previously established relationship, resulting in a nonsense inference.
Frames are templates or patterns for clusters of related knowledge. Related items
of knowledge are grouped together. Frames package both data and procedures into
knowledge structures. A typical frame is made of a name, parents of the frame, slots
and their values, and attached predicates. A generic representation and an applied
example of frames are shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3. Frames contain slots that can
be filled with values. Fields in a database can contain data, attributes, and descriptions. Slots in frames contain these and also additional information such as rules,
hypotheses about a situation, questions to ask users, graphical information, explanatory information, and debugging information.
An inheritance method helps organize the frames into parent-child relationships.
Frames are related through hierarchies. A frame for 2% milk can inherit knowledge
from a parent frame for raw whole milk. Lower frames inherit the knowledge from

Frame:
Parent:
Value:

Slot:
If needed:

Predicate

or
If added:

Predicate

Figure 3.2 A generic frame representation.

Frame: Pasteurized low-fat milk


Parent: Raw whole milk
Slot: Fat

Value: 2%

Slot:

Protein

Slot:

Standard Plate Count

Value: 3.4%
Value: 100 cfu/ml

if needed:

Predicate

Quantity in silo - see inventory

If added:

Predicate

Fat > 2% - hold & restandardize

Figure 3.3 An applied frame representation.


higher frames, but they do not actually contain the information. Frame slots describe
characteristics of objects of the system being designed such as placement, connections, distances, various pertinent data, and operations that can be performed on the
object.
Computational power is added to frames by allowing information to be attached
to each frame. This information includes instructions about how to use the frame
and what to do if expectations are not achieved. As shown in the example, if the
antibiotic slot has a value that is positive, the milk is rejected. If the quantity to
process slot requires a value, the order database will have to be accessed. Generally
speaking, constructing a frame-based system is more difficult than constructing a
rule-based system.
Scripts are similar to frames but form more of a scenario or outline of particular
events. Because a group of activities is associated with a script, results of a specific
activity can be predicted. An example of a script might be all the events associated
with presenting a taste panel. An abbreviated script is shown in Figure 3.4.
Object-oriented methods are closely related to semantic nets, frames, and scripts.
Sets of objects are self-sufficient modules that contain the information needed to
handle a given data structure. The modules are situated in networks or hierarchies
enabling rapid inheritances of information from one class to another.
Objects are denoted by unique names. Usually, additional identification is required, such as date, lot number, or variety, to locate a specific individual. In describing objects, some or all of these additional properties are required. Some properties are shared by more than one object. Fat content is determined for many dairy
products. A property may be of more interest to one individual or department than
another. Cheese appearance is a critical factor for the quality-control supervisor, but
of less importance to the distribution manager. After naming and describing objects,
it is necessary to organize them into categories. A common method of organization
is to describe a specific object as it relates to a more general class. In the knowledge

Codes:

Script: Taste Panel


Track: Hedonic
Props:

JJudge
T - Technician

Preparation Counter
Sink
Refrigerator
Booths
Samples
Scorecards
Water

Entry Condition

Results

J: Invited
J: Has Time
J: Wants Compensation

J: Is Compensated
T: Has Data
T: Has Fewer Samples

Event
Event
Event
Event

1
2
3
4

Enter Panel
Read Instructions
Taste Sample
Mark Card

Figure 3.4 A possible taste panel script.

domain of a dairy processing plant, different sets of objects can be used. The objects
involved in cheese quality control would be different than the objects dealing with
waste disposal, energy utilization, inventory control, or patron incentive programs.
As it becomes apparent that some object sets overlap with others it is necessary to
define the objects and their interactions.
An interesting feature of objects is that their relevant properties differ depending
on the existing conditions. The pertinent properties of milkfat in premium ice cream
are different from those of unwanted milkfat residues in milk lines. Also, basic
objects can be modified according to current interests. A generic object for frozen
dessert can be modified for reduced fat, alternative bulking agents, or other novel
ingredients. An object-oriented taste panel is shown in Figure 3.5.
Because of their similarities, the trend has been for object-oriented and framebased systems to combine their strengths into one structure.

3.2.2 Searching and Inference Strategies


Inference is the process by which new facts are derived from old facts. The inference
engine contains the inference and control strategies of the system. It combines facts
and rules to arrive at conclusions. The inference engine tries to establish whether a
goal statement is true or false. It needs to decide the order in which rules will be
processed at each stage of the reasoning process. When a consultation with an expert
system is begun, the inference engine searches the knowledge base to see if it can

Mike
Technician

(send
message)
Need
Sample

(send
message)
Read
Instructions

(send
message)
Bring
Sample

(send
message)
Finished

Judge

Judge
Ellen

(send
message)
Compensation

Technician

Technician
Joan

Cashier
Ron

Cashier
Figure 3.5 An object-oriented taste panel session.

reach a conclusion and make a recommendation. The pathway the inference engine
will follow is not known in advance. It depends on the response given back to the
questions the computer generates.
A series of rules can join together to form a line of reasoning. Graphically, this
can have the appearance of a network structure or a tree. The line of reasoning leads
to a goal or a fact. Viewing problems in a network array or decision tree is useful
because of the complexity of many problems. It helps to illustrate the problem
clearly. It soon becomes apparent that there is more than one pathway to the goal.
All possible lines of reasoning are called a network. Networks are observed in many
situations. An example would be a dairy delivery route (Fig. 3.6). A delivery network
would connect various stores and warehouses around a city and neighboring communities. The connections can vary just as the connection for a network or a rule
tree seem to vary.
In designing the inference strategy, two main approaches could be taken: forward
chaining and backward chaining. A forward chaining strategy starts at the plant and
continues until the last destination is reached. If the line of reasoning begins at the
last delivery point and works backwards toward the starting point, it is called backward chaining. Forward chaining or goal-oriented reasoning is carried forward from
available facts. It is expected that the deduction of new facts will eventually lead to

East High School

Fred's Market
Highland
Elementary

Ella's Delicatessen

Sandy's Daycare

Savemore Foods
University Hospital
Figure 3.6 Components of a dairy delivery route.

the goal. The inference engine cycles through rules until one is found whose premise
matches a true fact. Forward rules try to prove goals in their premise.
IF cheesemaker needs flake salt (goal)
THEN receiving buys flake salt (if successful adds this to fact base)
If no direction or a very general goal is provided in forward chaining, poor efficiency
is observed. An advantage of forward chaining is that goals can be generated as
conclusions are found. Forward chaining is also advantageous where the system has
to interpret a set of incoming facts. Often the facts are supplied interactively by the
user.
Backward rules try to prove goals in their conclusion.
receiving buys flake salt (begins with goal)
IF cheesemaker needs flake salt (tries to provebecomes another goal)
Backward chaining takes a goal as a hypothesis and tries to prove subgoals by
working backward from the goal. Each subgoal becomes a hypothesis during the
reasoning process. The THEN or ELSE part of the IF/THEN statement of the rule
is checked first to see if it matches the desired goal. The premise of the rule is then
examined to see if its truth can be deduced from the knowledge base. Backward
chaining helps to solve diagnostic problems in which the conclusion is known and
the causes sought.
Suppose the objective is to efficiently find a route from University Hospital to
Sandy's Daycare (Fig. 3.6). One could either work forward from University Hospital
or work backward from Sandy's Playhouse. Using forward chaining there is only

one path from University Hospital to Sandy's Daycare. With backward chaining,
there are several paths originating from Sandy's Daycare. Because these other paths
do not lead to University Hospital it makes no sense to pursue them unnecessarily.
Consider a second route going from Fred's Market to Highland Elementary. Departing from Fred's Market in a forward direction can result in a useless sidetrack
down to University Hospital. Working backward from Highland Elementary will
result in fewer distractions. From Sandy's Daycare, if Savemore Foods and Ella's
Delicatessen are examined, they will be found incorrect and routes beyond them will
not be pursued.
The decision of which pathway and strategy to follow depends on the connections,
destination, origin, and all the constraining factors. In the delivery example, a number
of route patterns or networks can be constructed. Constraining factors include speed
limits, one-way streets, preferred delivery times, size of delivery, changing customer
base, other stops, traffic conditions, size of truck, size of load, and distance. The
inference engine decides which pathway is best by deciding which is shortest, most
efficient, and most accurate.

3.2.3 Uncertainty
An expert system that mimics human intelligence in real-world situations must be
able to deal with uncertainty. Information that is incomplete leads to uncertainty.
Although knowledge can be improved and made complete, much knowledge is inherently imprecise.
Areas such as the medical, biological, and agricultural fields suffer from having
too little data and too much imperfect knowledge. Rigorous probability principles
no longer apply. Because a valid statistical record of data is required to utilize probability theory, alternatives need to be considered. These include certainty theory and
fuzzy logic.
With certainty theory inexactness is represented as a confidence factor between
0 and 100. The use of these values to indicate partial truth is known as fuzzy logic.
Often the value has to be estimated. Consideration of the context of the relationship
is important. Old as it relates to Cheddar cheese is much different compared with
old relative to Cottage cheese. Also, the relationship between sharp flavor and age
is arbitrary. Although 6 months or perhaps 9 months is defined as the age for a sharp
cheese, samples will vary considerably. Because judges' opinions may differ and
may change, it is necessary to allow for uncertain decisions. Uncertainty values are
determined for specific events and then combined to arrive at an uncertainty value
for compound or complex events. Once a statement is assigned a confidence level
there are more precise ways of combining and weighing statements that have differing confidence levels.
One method of combining uncertainty is to use Bayes's Theorem. Although not
valid as a statistical probability approach to this application, the theorem is useful
to simply combine inexact values. The likelihood of one hypothesis over another
can be based on the strength of the given evidences using Bayes's Theorem. The
formula is given as follows:

LR(H:E) = P(E:H)/P(E:H')
where LR is the likelihood ratio, H is a particular hypothesis, E is the evidence or
event, and H' is the false hypothesis. Stated in words, the probability or likelihood
of the hypothesis given an event is equal to the probability of the event given the
hypothesis is true, divided by the probability of the event given the hypothesis is
false. For example, the probability of developing high-moisture cheese (hypotheses),
knowing the starter culture is slow developing acid (event), can be calculated if the
probabilities of the event, given the true and false hypotheses, are known. The false
hypothesis is that the cheese is not high in moisture.
The theory behind the statistics used in decision-making with expert systems has
been widely discussed. Because no rigorous theory has been developed in AI for
decision-making, expert system decision procedures are often merely a combination
of logical inference and probability theory. Techniques used to deal with uncertainty
in expert systems have not yet employed the most satisfactory statistical methods.4
However, AI is increasingly turning to statisticians in seeking solutions to problems
in uncertainty.

3.3 Building Expert Systems


3.3.1 Feasibility
Although expert systems are useful for many applications, there are some problems
that are better solved using a conventional program. In addition, there are very
complex or abstract applications in which computer utilization is unpractical. In
order to determine if an application is suitable for an expert system to analyze, the
following criteria can be considered: (1) the problem solution requires cognitive
reasoning, which took a human expert at least 10 years to acquire: (2) the problem
domain is self contained and the boundaries are well defined; (3) the problem usually
involves the application of more variables than an average human can retain in active
memory at one time; (4) an expert exists and is available; (5) the expert's knowledge
still has value and may soon be lost to the company; (6) there is a measurable
incentive to the company, which may relate to accuracy, timeliness, consistency, or
training of new employees.
After the potential application of an expert system of a problem is determined, it
is useful to consider the advantages and disadvantages of carrying out the project.
This procedure is desirable for persuading management to support the project and
to protect against unrealistic expectations. Several advantages of expert systems
include the following:
1. Limited or difficult to access expertise can be captured. The problem-solving
knowledge of a group can be combined into a computerized system.
2. The process of constructing the knowledge base helps organize and formalize
expert knowledge and decision-making processes. The consistency of the human
improves by the expert becoming properly organized. The expert becomes more
repeatable and consistent.

3. The expertise can be made more widely available.


4. The expert's time can be saved. Routine decisions delegated to an expert system
allow the human expert to concentrate on the more abstract, currently developing
problems.
5. It takes years for human experts to learn their specific skills. Expert systems can
be copied on magnetic media in seconds or minutes.
6. Humans become sick, retire, and die. Expert systems continue to work consistently and predictably.
7. Human expertise is expensive.
8. Savings can be realized on maintaining and updating the knowledge base. Software maintenance is a large cost of software systems over their lifetime. Much
of the programming time is spent in finding and adjusting for modification side
effects on programs. The emphasis on structured analysis and programming techniques in software development because of deadline pressures detracts from the
goal of a more structured approach. The result is that a less than ideal code is
generated. The clear distinction of facts, heuristics, and inferencing knowledge
in knowledge-based systems reduces maintenance and update costs because
effects of changes are restricted.
Disadvantages of expert systems that can be considered are as follows:
1. When considering cognitive activities to other human tasks, expert systems are
good at extracted, cognitive, logical thinking. They are not well suited for managing highly sophisticated sensory input or mechanical motor output.
2. Expert systems exhibit a narrow band of simulated intelligence based on a narrow
range of codified, heuristic knowledge. They do not respond well to situations
outside their range of expertise.
3. Expert systems are weak in common-sense knowledge. Human reasoning uses
associations, which may not be appreciated or even realized when developing
the knowledge base. These associations and thought processes are based on a
range of contextual information including social surroundings, random memories,
feelings, emotions, and other nonrational information. Even more difficult to
capture is human intuition. In this case, humans draw spontaneously from their
subconscious of creativity and insight. If a decision maker goes by hunch more
than by facts or logical arguments, the problem is not appropriate for an expert
system.
4. It is difficult for an expert system to learn unless through the human user or
knowledge engineer.

3.3*2 Knowledge Acquisition


Expert systems rely greatly on knowledge. In order to obtain quality knowledge for
implementation of a successful expert system, the following elements should be
considered: application selection, domain expert selection, knowledge engineer

selection, tool selection, knowledge acquisition, and system development and


deployment.
A useful technique in developing a list of potential expert system applications is
to observe any knowledge bottlenecks. These can be recognized as people waiting
for others to m&ke decisions and people stopping to search for needed information.
Typically, small expert systems are used as intelligent job aids. Most expert systems
in use today are of this size. They accomplish small procedural or diagnostic functions such as equipment maintenance or product defect analysis. An expert system
can be selected based on its ability to assist, accelerate, or improve the quality of
decision-making in groups already using computers.
Midsize expert systems are designed to be installed on mainframe computers. In
addition to the functions of the small systems, most midsize applications include
diagnostics and large configuration and scheduling systems. Large expert systems
have traditionally been developed in LISP and on LISP machines. They capture
large amounts of expertise and make it widely available through the organization.
Valuable heuristic knowledge that might be lost through retirement is often an
appropriate candidate for an expert system application. On-line operators could take
advantage of expert knowledge when the human expert is not available. However,
the task should be well defined and narrow.
The domain is the area of knowledge or expertise being captured. A knowledge
domain expert will typically have 10 or more years of experience. If possible, an
individual should be sought who can analyze a problem and explain his or her
thinking in specific terms. He or she should have the ability to analyze problems
systematically. A good working environment needs to be created. In addition, the
domain expert needs to be both knowledgeable and cooperative.
The role of the knowledge engineer is to research existing knowledge and to help
the expert describe his or her own problem-solving procedures. The knowledge
engineer needs to understand symbolic programming techniques. Interpersonal skills
are also a necessary attribute.
The expert system tool should be selected in terms of the type of problem to be
solved. Types of systems include diagnostic, training, and decision support. More
specific information of tool selection will be covered in Section 3.3.
The knowledge acquisition process involves gathering recorded relevant information and preparing it for entry into the computer. Knowledge can be represented
in several ways including frames and rules.
Initially a prototype is constructed to demonstrate the basic operations. Refinements can then improve accuracy, completeness, and user-friendliness. The prototype is then field tested to verify its accuracy and usefulness. Users can document
all of their decisions in the domain area for a specified time period. The period
should be long enough to include multiple occurrences of most events in the system.
When the system is operating in an on-line situation, it should be taken off-line and
presented with the same problems. The answers should be in agreement.
An important factor in successful implementation of the system is user training.
Users' concerns and needs should be anticipated. Continued support should be available as new knowledge accrues and new needs develop.

3.3.3 Tool Selection


The term tools refers to expert system software. Shells are developmental tools that
provide users with a framework within which to build their knowledge base. The
alternative is to use a symbolic language such as LISP. First-generation tools were
written in LISP, but eventually tools were designed to integrate with existing hardware and software. Languages are more flexible than shells, but more difficult and
time consuming. In order to match the tool to the problem, it is necessary to know
problem requirements and the types of knowledge representation and inferencing
strategies a particular tool does well.
In selecting an appropriate tool, both the shell and the interfaces need to be
considered. Although the shell may allow the desired knowledge development, if it
is unable to interface with the process and existing software, its practical application
will be limited. Debugging aids and technical support are additional factors.
Expert systems can be categorized into four classes: specialized tools, smaller
tools, middle-range tools, and sophisticated tools.5 An example of a specialized tool
is PICON [LISP Machines, Inc., (LMI), Andover, MA, U.S.A.]. PICON is used in
process control equipment and in complex applications such as weather forecasting
and financial market monitoring. Examples of smaller tools are VP Expert (Paperback Software, Berkeley, CA, U.S.A.) and Magellen (Emerald Intelligence, Ann
Arbor, MI, U.S.A.). Generally, these tools use a single representation scheme and
are designed for lower priced microcomputers. Middle-range tools include products
such as GURU (Micro Data Base Systems, Inc., Lafayette, IN, U.S.A.) and KEW
& KESII (Software Architecture and Engineering, Arlington, VA, U.S.A.). Sophisticated tools such as ART (Inference Corporation, Los Angeles, CA, U.S.A.)
and KEE (Intellicorp, Mountain View, CA, U.S.A.) employ multiple knowledgerepresentation schemes and advanced graphical display mechanisms.
The basic design of expert system shells centers around the knowledgerepresentation structures and inference mechanisms. The basic schemes are If/Then
production rules, frames and networks, objects, and access triggers or demons. Most
products represent knowledge using If/Then production rules as the primary scheme.
Goal-directed, backward chaining is the simplest form of If/Then production rule
representation and inference mechanism, followed by forward chaining combined
with backward chaining. Some systems support only one method at a time whereas
others support a mixed mode. The number of premise conditions allowed for each
rule is sometimes limited. To avoid complicated logic or decision trees, modular
development capability is required. This may be referred to as rule sets, knowledge
modules, sections, state objects, or frames. Other factors to consider in tool selection
are support of uncertainty, rule sequencing procedure, user interface, help facilities,
knowledge acquisition features, access to other programming facilities, capacity and
response time, hardware requirements, pricing, and vendor support.
The demands on a well utilized expert system normally increase, so expandability
is important. Also expert system tools consume large quantities of RAM and CPU
MIPS. This is particularly the case with the middle-range and higher systems.

Larger systems are referred to as environments. Large-scale environments provide


a wide range of development and execution utilities. They have multiple programming and support capabilities. Some of the features include utilities for design of
custom windows and mouse-sensitive menus, debugging tools, multitasking services,
libraries of routines, and mathematical and statistical functions.

3.4 Expert Systems and Process Control


Before discussing the application of expert systems to process control, a description
of traditional computer process control is useful. This type of control is in widespread
use and expert systems generally build on or integrate with traditional systems.
Athough promoted expert systems are being applied to an increasing number of
manufacturing processes, reports of applications actually in use are few. Problems
that have hindered their progress will also be discussed in the following sections.

3.4.1 Preexpert System Developments


Although the study of dairy processing often centers around specific classes of dairy
products, there are often common operations involved such as cooling, heating, or
mixing. A systematic approach to the study of dairy processing is to examine these
common or unit operations. A unit operation accomplishes some specified function
on a product such as heating, cooling, pumping, mixing, evaporating, dehydrating,
separating, and cleaning.
The control of process parameters such as temperature and pressure was originally
maintained normally by human operators as they observed gauges and sight-glasses.
In the 1940s pneumatic instrumentation was developed, which was able to sense
process parameters and provide feedback control. Signal transmission to a remote
control room was possible. The control equipment usually remained with the piece
of equipment or was routed to a control panel. Pneumatic instrumentation is still
used in plant control equipment. Its longevity is due in part to its high reliability.
These systems are based on single-loop control throughout a plant. Single loops
involve one measurement, one control algorithm, one actuator, and one process
variable. For instance, the function may be to maintain a temperature or a particular
flow rate. Feedback control is observed based on the difference between the measurement and a specified setting or set-point.
In the 1960s digital computer usage began in process control. Analog instrumentation became available, and electronic instrumentation became more stable and
repeatable than comparable pneumatic controllers. Signals could be transmitted over
longer distances. With traditional control, operating conditions are predetermined to
maintain certain levels or temperatures. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) replaced many of the discrete relays. Computer-based control systems were much more
flexible than traditional hard-wire, relay-logic control systems.

Widespread adoption of the technology was slow because of concern over massive problems due to a single computer failure. By taking advantage of PLCs in
distributing computing over a wider area, concerns over large-scale failures were
alleviated.
Digital-controlled systems are widely used control mechanisms in use today.
Once computer-based control systems are interfaced with sensors, valves, and
switches, the measurement devices can provide input for the computer while signals
from the computer provide input for the control device. A key feature in this system
is the ease with which process changes can be made by reprogramming the computer.
Computer-based process control begins with the monitoring and control of unit
operations. These include blending, pumping, heating, and storage operations as well
as clean-in-place (CIP) operations.
Blending or formulation can be considered as a unit operation. For instance,
computers can be used in standardizing cheese milk to give the correct casein/fat
ratio. Yield prediction formulas can be used in the calculations. The 44ASEA Master
Batch" control system for process control in ice cream manufacturing uses programs
comprised of modules from an integrated software library.6 Batch movement and
formulation are fully automated. Quantities of raw materials and finished product
are tracked and reported.
Blending operations using least cost formulation and computer-aided optimization
are well established in the food industry. Blending operations must also consider
legal and sensory requirements.
Metering of milk and other ingredients is often computer controlled. The casein/
fat ratio for cheesemilk can be determined on-line using an infrared multicomponent
analyzer. The speed of the :ream meter is adjusted as needed. Pumping systems have
been designed to avoid problems associated with centrifugal pump cavitation. The
systems include a PLC, a sound sensor, and a variable speed drive at the pump
motor. The sensor can detect preliminary cavitation impulses, signaling the variable
speed drive to adjust the pump's revolutions.7
During pasteurization, a computer can monitor all of the parameters of the process. These include temperatures, valve positions, liquid levels, and feed rates. Some
control systems are limited to data acquisition without real-time control ability. In
these cases, process control adjustments are still dependent on the operator. A retort
management system has been developed (TechniCAL, Inc., Metairie, LA, U.S.A.)
that provides temperature and pressure control. The system monitors these signals
along with all facets of retorting including cooking, venting, and cooling. If a temperature deviation occurs, the system automatically recalculates a new process time
and makes all necessary adjustments. USDA and FDA officials were involved in
developing and implementing the system to ensure regulatory compliance.
Controllers and recording devices for dairy pasteurizers must also meet federal
and state health codes. Instrumentation for these applications includes differential
pressure controller and single- and dual-point diversion recorder/controllers. The
pressure controllers measure and indicate pressures at the raw product inlet of a hightemperature-short time (HTST) pasteurizing regenerator. The diversion recorder/
controllers specify control temperature levels.

Liquid levels in tanks can be monitored simultaneously. The data can be used in
production tracking and inventory control. Enclosed cheese vats are well suited for
automated control. Ingredient addition, temperature control, cutting, stirring, draining, and washing are commonly computer controlled.
CIP systems have long been established as major computer process control systems in the dairy industry. Recent developments include computer-controlled detergent dosing systems, environmentally friendly CIP systems, automatic analyzers,
and CIP data logging systems.
Some difficulties encountered in automation and computer utilization in the food
industry are a lack of suitable sensors, low profit margins, use of batch/continuous
operations, and the installation of equipment that is not integrated into the whole
process.
Beyond unit operations, these systems currently can supply data to a higher level
host computer for further data manipulation. Devices can be mixed and matched and
integrated into plantwide control schemes. The use of single loop controllers involves
only configuration without dedicated software.
Configurable software is used to sequence control systems so that the process
operates as a sequential series of linked operations that can operate independently
of each other (fill tank, empty tank, sterilize, etc.) but are still related in terms of
order and integrity to process operation. To design suitable control systems around
these concepts, all tasks must be uniquely defined and self contained and the plant
must be divided into areas of unit operations. The distributed operator interface can
then use a single coaxial cable to connect modules rather than thousands of strands
of wire.
For example, consider diverse processes such as manufacturing regular, flavored,
and evaporated milk; storing products; and cleaning. The status of the process is
shown by means of matrices at the operator station. Some of the linked computers
control manufacturing while another acts as a management computer. With a computerized control system, the desired functions can be monitored and the system
programmed for the next product. Computers can chart equipment conditions and
locate developing problems at any point in a process. Products such as the System
30 (APV Crepaco, Inc., Chicago, IL, U.S.A.) are useful for small plants yet allow
for expansion to scan and control thousands of sensors and actuators and combine
with many different users. Features of the System 30 include the ability to network
with other systems; to communicate with a wide range of protocols including intelligent sensors, bar code readers, PLCs, and PC software packages; and to provide
fault-tolerant operation.

3.4.2 Expert System Applications


Application of software-based automation to a process plant results in much less
repetitive manual adjustment. Automation requires clearly defined algorithms and
the appropriate design, installation, and maintenance of sensors, controllers, and
actuators. Included in the form of software is much of the operator's knowledge and
expertise in management of the process. This almost suggests a sort of preexpert

system. Process control software is able to monitor many operating, trend, and alarm
parameters. Networked with a host computer to make process information available
to appropriate personnel, the necessary information system is in place to permit online, expert-system applications.
Placing microcomputers in plants for local solutions is useful. However, production operations require changes in programs and few qualified technicians are available to make changes when problems occur. Documentation is often incomplete.
Expert systems can be used to take the place of experts or qualified technicians.
Three types of expert systems used in process control are self-tuning controllers,
control system configurations, and fault analyzers.
Self-tuning controllers automatically change controller settings based on control
loop performance. Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) refers to a three-mode algorithm for this type of controller. PID controllers use either pattern-recognition or
frequency filters. With pattern-recognition, responses are characterized for overshoot, damping, and period, and corrective adjustments are made. Frequency filtering
achieves control by forcing the outputs of two filters to conform to a given ratio.
Using pattern recognition, a controller can identify a disturbance response in the
loop-error signal. When the loop error exceeds a specified threshold level, it is tested
against a series of rules. The information obtained is used for a tuning calculation.
Another type of self-tuning controller is model based. These controllers are adjusted
according to the difference between the process response and a model used for
comparison.
Control system configurators are used to connect components together to form a
control system. With many controlling devices interacting, the optimal configuration
becomes important. Expert systems are able to select optimum configurations for
control systems. The user can enter known operating conditions and process parameters and the program will select the configuration that best satisfies the requirements.
Expert systems can provide steps on configuration of the system. Connecting
many I/O points with accompanying information can be accomplished more easily.
The system can be regularly checked for accuracy with on-line help provided as
required. Expert system configurators can simulate data in order to test a system
prior to actual operation. Therefore, errors in control or other functions can be observed and corrected.
Fault analyzers diagnose problems as they arise and provide corrective instructions to operators. In serious failure conditions an expert operator may not be available or may have insufficient time to respond. An expert system can be used to
interpret a series or pattern of alarms quickly, resulting in a description of the fault
and a recommendation for corrective action.
On observing an out-of-control situation, an operator must determine the cause
of the situation and the best solution. The knowledge of how one or more experts
would respond could be obtained from a properly designed expert system. The
knowledge base can be continually updated by human experience and by information
the computer gains as failures occur. Several advantages the expert system has are
the depth of experience coming from several human experts and the much larger

amount of data and factors an expert system can assimilate that is available to the
user.
Personal computer (PC)-based systems can be networked to provide performance
levels equivalent to much larger machines. Coprocessors are additional processors
used to speed up operations by handling some of the duties of the main processor
or CPU. Coprocessor technology in the PC allows the accessing of real-time information. PLCs can transfer data directly into a monitoring PC, which can run an
expert system based on those data.
A user can define conditions or rules that are continuously checked. If conditions
are found to be true, certain functions are performed. For example, a cluster of valves
may be checked to see if all are closed. If all valves are closed, the status of the
calculated point is false. If a valve is open, the status is true. Another rule sends a
start command to the pump if a valve is open or a stop command if all valves are
closed. This rule based arrangement, sometimes referred to as an event processor,
allows maximum flexibility in developing control strategies.
The processing capability of computer-based controllers can be increased with
the integration of expert systems. Expert systems can provide an intelligent interface
to the controlling device or sensor. Many process variables can be examined and
assimilated. However, integration of expert systems with a process control system
is complicated by the real-time interaction requirements. Not all tools are useful for
this purpose, and the language constructs become critical. For these reasons incorporation of expert systems into on-line process control has been slow to develop.
Some of the problems associated with expert system integration have been addressed
by workers at Honeywell, Inc. resulting in their expert systems development and
delivery environment called TDC 3000 Expert.
The development of many successful expert systems has centered mainly around
small-scale prototypes. Some of the requirements may differ with medium and largescale systems. In the larger systems, integration with the existing data structures is
required. To build intelligent applications of scheduling, simulation, supervision,
and statistical process control, integration of management information systems and
database technology with expert systems methodology is critical.
To successfully integrate expert systems into a process control environment, the
expert system must access the real-time manufacturing data and communicate with
the human operator. The inference engine instructs the data accessor. Because a
large number of variables are probably being referenced, and data points are changing often, access needs to be timely. Otherwise the data collection can interfere with
the reasoning process and reduce the pertinence of the system's advice. The inference
engine keeps track of what data are needed and then instructs its acquisition while
the knowledge base is inactive. In providing information to the operator, the expert
system must prioritize results as to their importance. Specific declarative and procedural mechanisms allow the expert system to reason about how intelligent it can
afford to be and still provide a timely response. Language constructs need to support
change and trends. Procedural representation should be avoided.
For a knowledge base, input is needed from expert and process engineers about
normal plant behavior as well as problem situations. What constitutes a problem

depends on the state of the process. For example, what constitutes high pressure
during the cheesemaking set is different than high pressure during stirout of the curd.
A slight problem with temperature control adjustment on an enclosed cheese vat
may be less critical than an out-of-position discharge valve.

3.4.3 Knowledge Representation in Process Control


Classes of objects and their attributes can be used in a knowledge base to track
normal behavior of a plant. Various classes of objects are defined by name. Members
of a class have various attributes. For example, a class named vats could have the
attributes pressure, diameter, or phase-of-process. Classes may inherit attributes or
they may be defined for them. Context-sensitive rules change their own values and
make concomitant assertions about values of other variables in the system. Some
classes and attributes can be used in a knowledge base to represent and track the
normal behavior of a plant. For example, filling a vat covers different phases. These
all belong to the phase attribute. Each context of the phase attribute provides rules
for recognizing when a process for the vat has moved to the next phase.
To track abnormal or undesirable behaviors, the expert system needs (1) conditions from which problems conceivably can arise; (2) evidence that can confirm or
rule out the actual existence of a problem; (3) descriptions of other problem situations, if there are any that can possibly be causes of the problem; and (4) actions of
the operator to remedy the problem. If a knowledge base contains information to
identify a problem, there must be a structure to the knowledge so that the firing of
a rule or frame leads to the application of other related knowledge. Knowledge could
be represented using rules or general purpose frames, but those techniques have
disadvantages. An inherent structure is needed in the knowledge base to identify the
reasons for a process upset. Using rules, this structure is not evident. At run time
the inference engine would not know the boundaries of its own knowledge. In a
dynamic, real-time application, a simple forward or backward chaining inference
engine cannot distinguish between a lack of rules resulting from the temporary absence of pertinent data and lack of rules because of an inadequate rule base.
A second and related disadvantage to the use of general purpose knowledge representation techniques is that a lack of knowledge structure makes selective activation and deactivation of knowledge at run time very difficult.
With generic rule or frame representations, the different criteria for ordering advice-giving knowledge are difficult to distinguish. A knowledge base written as
generic situation-action rules requires more development and maintenance effort by
the knowledge engineer. Frames can be organized into specialized structures called
situation frames. Slots are available for holding knowledge. Slots connect with other
frames in knowledge base links. An inference engine can traverse cause-effect structure from top down and can issue operator advisories.
The human interface aspects of integration need to be considered. Collaborations
should take place with the operator. An exhaustive search for all possible undesirable
process situations must be performed. As not all evidence can be obtained from
instrumentation, what is practical needs to be decided. Redundant and trivial nuis-

ance messages, which the operator already knows, must be eliminated. The operator
needs time to observe, comprehend, and act. The operator needs to access process
data in the knowledge base using terminology with which process engineers are
familiar.
Reference needs to be made to trends in process data over various time intervals.
Trend intervals and statistics can be predetermined and precomputed into the system.
Historical buffers of raw data can be maintained and made available for the engineer's questions.
Ways to interact with an operator in real-time application need to be provided.
Occasionally, the system cannot get information from the data and needs to query
the operator. However, an operator may not be there, and the system cannot stop. A
special class of query objects can be treated for which instances are declared. An
instance can be when an answer attribute is needed to evaluate the expression, the
latest answer is unknown, and the corresponding question is not displayed. The
evaluation then causes the text of the question to get delivered to the operator's
console.
The main decision is to determine what kind of explanation capability should be
provided and what information operators will find useful. The expert system could
explain why the problem exists, how to perform the recommended action or how to
obtain the information needed, why the action should be performed and how it will
help, and how the conclusion was determined or the line of reasoning.

3.4.4 Commercial Examples


In developing industrial touchscreen workstations, a graphic display is configured
using "If/Then/Else" statements and English language commands (Nematron, Ann
Arbor, MI, U.S.A.). The G2 real-time expert system has been implemented in a
number of process control situations including chemical process control, flight monitoring, network management, manufacturing, simulation, training, energy management, robotics, and water treatment. G2 uses object-oriented representation of plant
equipment and models of process behavior. Heuristic and analytical knowledge is
used. Heuristics are a simplification tool to reduce the search in a large problem
space. To avoid time constraints, the system uses metaknowledge to focus the inferencing resources. Metaknowledge involves rules acting on rules to reduce the
search space. The application developer can create classes of objects or import preexisting object classes from G2. An integrated simulator allows the developer to test
an application prior to its deployment. After the application is developed, tested, and
deployed on-line, G2 can communicate with control systems, PLCs, databases, or
other sources of real-time data.
INFI 90 (Baily Controls, Wickliffe, OH, U.S.A.) is entitled a strategic process
management system. This process control system is able to access embedded expert
systems. Referred to as EXPERT 90, the expert system is represented as a series of
"If/Then" rules that may involve time relationships as well as uncertainty data. The
expert system offers advanced advisory, analytical, and control functions such as
adaptive control, alarm interpretation and management, and cause-and-effect advi-

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sories. These can act as guides before operating boundaries are breached. Problems
with using expert systems for real-time control include separation from the process
control system, extensive interface hardware, and complex program creations. EXPERT 90 has addressed these by embedding the expert system within the Process
Management System. This allows easier exchange of data between the expert system
and the control system. EXPERT 90 also provides a distributed architecture facility
and a modular system building approach.
Although not an expert system itself, the Lynx-OS (Lynx Real-time Systems,
Inc., Los Gatos, CA, U.S.A.) is a real-time operating system specifically designed
for process control, data acquisition, and communication. Lynx-OS is multitasking,
allowing users to run several control applications, expert systems, program development jobs, and maintenance tasks concurrently. It accommodates an expert system
in a real-time environment by preempting it with a higher priority control task whenever necessary. In the food industry it has been successfully used to standardize and
optimize beverage extract quality.
A process control system with expert system features has been incorporated into
a sugar refining operation (System 3, Rosemount, Inc., Eden Prairie, MN, U.S.A.).
Referred to as a distributed process control system. System 3 offers diagnostic features and allows in-house installation and configuration. The step of sugar boiling
requires highly skilled and experienced operators. The program for the operational
sequence of the vacuum pans is based on a flow chart constructed from the knowledge and experience of the expert operators. One of the results was a reduction in
processing time. An expert system is being developed to measure mixture consistency (OpCon, Eaton Corp., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A.). Torques on mixing shafts are
measured. These values can be combined with other process information such as
temperature, pH, moisture, and color.

3.5 Business and Manufacturing Operations


This section is an expansion of Section 3.4. In that section the elements of computerbased process control were mainly applied to unit operations. This section will describe additional computer-based activities in the plant including information systems. As monitoring and control devices for unit operations have developed and
have been applied in food processing plants, information systems have also become
well established. Information from many areas of the company including receiving,
inventory, scheduling, quality systems, distribution, and marketing is being managed
on computer databases. Part of this information is being generated automatically by
data collection devices. Expert systems can help manage and analyze the increasing
amount of data. This section will discuss efforts to integrate the manufacturing systems with the information systems.

3.5.1 Physical Goods Management


Physical goods management refers to inventory and distribution control. One of the
early applications of computers in manufacturing plants was the tracking and dis-

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sories. These can act as guides before operating boundaries are breached. Problems
with using expert systems for real-time control include separation from the process
control system, extensive interface hardware, and complex program creations. EXPERT 90 has addressed these by embedding the expert system within the Process
Management System. This allows easier exchange of data between the expert system
and the control system. EXPERT 90 also provides a distributed architecture facility
and a modular system building approach.
Although not an expert system itself, the Lynx-OS (Lynx Real-time Systems,
Inc., Los Gatos, CA, U.S.A.) is a real-time operating system specifically designed
for process control, data acquisition, and communication. Lynx-OS is multitasking,
allowing users to run several control applications, expert systems, program development jobs, and maintenance tasks concurrently. It accommodates an expert system
in a real-time environment by preempting it with a higher priority control task whenever necessary. In the food industry it has been successfully used to standardize and
optimize beverage extract quality.
A process control system with expert system features has been incorporated into
a sugar refining operation (System 3, Rosemount, Inc., Eden Prairie, MN, U.S.A.).
Referred to as a distributed process control system. System 3 offers diagnostic features and allows in-house installation and configuration. The step of sugar boiling
requires highly skilled and experienced operators. The program for the operational
sequence of the vacuum pans is based on a flow chart constructed from the knowledge and experience of the expert operators. One of the results was a reduction in
processing time. An expert system is being developed to measure mixture consistency (OpCon, Eaton Corp., Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A.). Torques on mixing shafts are
measured. These values can be combined with other process information such as
temperature, pH, moisture, and color.

3.5 Business and Manufacturing Operations


This section is an expansion of Section 3.4. In that section the elements of computerbased process control were mainly applied to unit operations. This section will describe additional computer-based activities in the plant including information systems. As monitoring and control devices for unit operations have developed and
have been applied in food processing plants, information systems have also become
well established. Information from many areas of the company including receiving,
inventory, scheduling, quality systems, distribution, and marketing is being managed
on computer databases. Part of this information is being generated automatically by
data collection devices. Expert systems can help manage and analyze the increasing
amount of data. This section will discuss efforts to integrate the manufacturing systems with the information systems.

3.5.1 Physical Goods Management


Physical goods management refers to inventory and distribution control. One of the
early applications of computers in manufacturing plants was the tracking and dis-

position of goods using computerized databases. Whether dealing with raw materials
or finished products many of the techniques are the same. Both deal with handling
and delivering items to a customer, one being internal and the other external. Materials handling systems control raw material storage, conveyance, and batch blending of dry and liquid products. Material consumption and inventory is automatically
monitored and logged. Integration of this information with other areas of the manufacturing operation is a basic part of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM).
Automatic storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) have enabled companies to reduce
labor costs and product damage. More efficient structures and energy saving designs
can be achieved using AS/RS. Once an automated system is in place, computer
integration and intelligent control can be incorporated.
Computerized delivery and distribution systems are widely used. Sales and order
information from remote locations can be logged via a modem to the central office
on a daily basis. This information can be useful in timely production planning and
scheduling. Raw material demands can be more accurately predicted. The systems can coordinate the information for delivery documents and vehicle loading
information.
Computer Aided Production Management (CAPM) is a subset of CIM dealing
mainly with information management. The software for CAPM is modular with each
module representing a different area of production. The central module is a single
database of information on materials, production machines, operations, and routings.
Another database module manages the inventory. This information includes raw
materials, partially completed products, and finished goods. Current information on
labor is also included. Another module deals with sales order processing. This system
provides information for documents such as order acknowledgements, picking lists,
and invoices. Current information of sales order, stock levels, and discounts is readily
available. CAPM systems can also access external accounting software.
An integrated software system enables data from one module, such as sales order
entry, to be automatically shared throughout the system. Errors due to reentry of
data can be eliminated. A customer order can be used to develop production orders,
and production supplies can be subtracted from inventories. Invoices can be sent out
more rapidly. Customer payment information can be used for sales analysis. Inventory and sales data can be updated rapidly.
Several commercial applications are described. A cane sugar computer program
was developed to calculate the balance of materials at each stage of the sugar production process.8 Many developments in warehousing and material handling have
been observed. A system of driverless forklifts has been installed in a bottled water
facility in France.
Computer systems designed mainly for the dairy industry are available from
Albasoft Systems International Ltd. (Glasgow, U.K.). The systems are fully integrated and provide control of distribution, doorstep delivery, stock, processing, sales,
purchasing, payrolls, and transportation.
A software program called SLAMSYSTEM (Pritsker Corporation, Indianapolis,
IN, U.S.A.) can evaluate high-volume packaging lines. The system can simulate a
packaging line design. It can examine interactions of line components and evaluate

operating efficiencies. The user observes problem areas and modifies the model
accordingly. The effects of the changes can then be measured in the form of diagnostic reports and graphs.
An expert system called Packaging Advisor (E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.,
Wilmington, DE, U.S.A.) was reported for rigid food container design.9 Packaging
Advisor was implemented to help induce customers to examine du Pont's barrier
resins. It automates the design process, allowing the customers to design their own
packages. The system provides information on alternative materials, quantities to
meet performance specifications, and estimates of costs. The packaging advisor was
used to inform customers and field office staff of new and existing products.
An expert system for truck routing and certain warehouse management functions
has been developed by Performance Analysis Corporation (Research Triangle
Park, NC, U.S.A.). Performance Truck Routing was specifically designed for food
distribution.
An example of a highly automated warehouse is provided by C&H Sugar (Crockett, CA, U.S.A.). Flow of sugar into packages is regulated by PLCs. Bags are bundled
and bar coded. After they are palletized, the AS/RS takes control. A scanner reads
the bar code and palletizer logic configures the load pattern. After the load is stretch
wrapped and weighed, sensors check the profile of the load misshapen stacks. At
the warehouse the computer checks available space among racks and assigns a rack
space. Items with a higher turnover are placed closer to the front. Product types are
balanced among six aisles for optimum availability. Shipping schedules and orders
are generated. The trucker gets a printout of the proposed load pattern along with
the manifest.
Performance Analysis Corporation (Research Triangle Park, NC, U.S.A.) builds
expert systems and near optimal systems for truck routing and certain warehouse
management functions. Performance Truck Routing forecasts future orders based on
past orders. Driving distances are minimized as routes are constructed and delivery
times established. Because the optimal route is known, the cost of any extra customer
service can be quantified. The system was designed specifically for food distribution
to a fixed customer base.
Performance Analysis has developed a warehouse efficiency application that determines the best location for item storage. Balancing capabilities are provided relative to aisle, loop, and level for optimal retrieval. An expert system is used for
maintenance of product layout and family grouping. Family grouping saves time by
grouping products that can be selected and palletized together. The expert system
recommends an initial pick slot assignment based on predefined parameters such as
the family group or case height. Family groups can be defined based on store merchandizing, thus reducing the time required at the store to sort the products. Pallets
of product arriving at the store can be taken directly from the truck into the aisle
and stocked.

3.5.2 Time Management: Planning and Scheduling


Common goals of a computer-based planning system would be to schedule equipment and processes, maximize effective use of equipment, eliminate idle time, and

provide intelligent advice to the user. Various expert systems for scheduling have
been developed and implemented in industrial settings. Some of the systems are
coded in LISP and require sophisticated hardware. Smaller packages, usually coded
in PROLOG, PASCAL, or C, have also been successful in some applications.
The number of precise computer-based planning and scheduling systems has been
growing in recent years. Advances in database technology have helped make data
more accessible for planning and scheduling. Expert systems are qualitative and less
structured and use inferential reasoning. Operations research designs are well structured, quantitative, and numerical in their optimization procedures. The integration
of operations research, expert systems, and database technologies can more effectively solve planning and scheduling problems. Although a number of expert system
tools are available on the market, to deal with large scheduling problems an expert
system needs to be embedded within the database technology.
The three-way integration of operations research, expert systems, and database
technology is the basis for the software products MIMI/MJ and MIMI/E (Chesapeake
Decision Sciences, Inc., New Providence, NJ, U.S.A.). MIMI/MJ is designed for
production planning and scheduling. It includes long- and short-term planning, interactive reporting, and database integration functions. MIMI/MJ considers inventory, customer orders, raw material lead times, production capacity, setup cost, and
forecast demands. It can than deliver daily production schedules, material and resource requirements, equipment utilization, projected inventories, potential problems, and expected production costs. MIMI/E captures the knowledge of expert
modelers and the intuition of experienced production schedulers. MIMI/E analyzes
and improves the schedule based on the scheduler's knowledge of the plant. Production schedules can be developed using the knowledge and intuition of an experienced scheduler. MIMI/E uses both backward and forward chaining on a flexible
knowledge base. It can be linked to other databases and can be completely integrated
with operations research techniques.
Japanese workers have reported using an expert system to solve planning problems in a goods distribution situation.10 They examined work scheduling, packing
layout planning, and perishable food processing planning.
Schedulex (Numetrix, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) is a production scheduling system that combines the computational capabilities of the computer with the intuitive
abilities of the human scheduler. The goal of the scheduler is to find the lowest sum
of all inventory and manufacturing costs. Once the costs are defined in a scheduling
model, Schedulex can evaluate various "What/If" scenarios. Optimization algorithms can search for an optimum solution. The optimization algorithms are a combination of nonlinear integer math programs and heuristics. The simulator in Schedulex uses data in the model to evaluate schedule alternatives. Advantages of this
system include inventory reduction, less overtime, and fewer rush shipments.
The development and implementation of an expert system for scheduling in a
liquid packaging plant have been reported.11 The packaging plant produces cartons
for milk, juice, and other beverages. A critical point during the process is the printing
and cutting operation. Two to four cartons are produced simultaneously at the press.
When changing orders, the entire press is shut down and the time required depends
on both the previous order and the new order. Common colors or common plates

reduce the preparation time. The amount of preparation time required and the intricacy of the package design affect the quantity of waste generated before the process
settles. It is desirable to be able to change more than one carton while the press is
stopped. However, sufficient labor must be available at that time. Also, the rate at
which one side of the press can run due to the nature of the package controls the
rate at which the other side of the press runs.
First a model was formulated based on the quantity of cartons, the degree of
difficulty, the color codes, and the plate codes. Initially, the makespan, or time
required to finish all jobs, was minimized. After interviewing the human expert
scheduler and plant management a multiple objective scheme was determined to be
more useful. The program was written in PASCAL and was incorporated in an
integrated software package, which includes (1) a database management program in
which the orders are filled, (2) the daily and weekly scheduling program, and (3) a
4
'manipulator" that allows the user to make last-minute changes. The manipulator
was found to be critical to the successful adoption of the system. The user would
often have last-minute information not available from the database. It also accommodated disruptions and unforeseen events.

3.5.3 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing


Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) brings together manufacturing systems,
information systems, and human systems. Manufacturing systems include product
design, production process, material flow, machine performance, and plant layout.
Information systems include system architecture, databases, communication networks, fault tolerance, and man-machine interfaces. Any successful implementation
of a CIM requires close work and communication with the human element. The
financial risks associated with automation need to be delineated. The goals and
objectives need to be clearly defined and the technical and managerial skills needed
for operations identified. Appropriate training programs can then be developed.
Currently, it is more common for factory automation implementation to occur in
small increments. Also, implementation of CIM techniques is usually a gradual process involving detailed planning, equipment acquisition, training, and implementation. A common practice is to begin with islands of automation that are well suited
for eventual computer integration. Stages for a large-scale implementation of CIM
might include defining and developing the system concept; functional requirements;
functional design; detailed design, coding, and testing at the unit, module, and system
level; then installation, start-up, and audit.
The objective of integrating automated factory systems with office information
systems is to improve performance. Specific goals include improved productivity,
reduced inventory costs, improved quality, and more flexibility. As computer-based
tools are becoming more available, the competitive advantages of using CIM techniques are increasing. Product analysis from suppliers can be received and processed
quicker, reducing inventory holding time prior to shipping. With the ability to deliver
timely information, a company can respond to customer demands more readily.

A major advantage of CIM lies in automatic data acquisition. If handled properly,


there is less duplication of data and effort. There are fewer mistakes, and the data
are more accessible. This results in more consistent decision-making. Centralized
process control increases the value of individual PC-based stations throughout a
plant. By integrating these stations, the data acquisition rate can increase. Improved
monitoring of product quality is beneficial for regulatory compliance. Before beginning a CIM project the application needs to be adequately defined and all of the risks
and benefits considered. Mathematical models of the system can be used to simulate
performance.
Differences exist between the food manufacturing industry and other industries
in which CIM has been applied. Operations in which low volume, high return, nonfood products are made will benefit more from a more flexible system. The added
expense may not be justifiable in a high-volume, commodity-oriented business.
However, many parts of the food industry have been difficult to automate because
of the high degree of process flexibility required. These same companies stand to
benefit greatly if they can adopt automation technology. For example, process control
parameters are more easily modified and the accompanying quality and inventory
data made available sooner. Along with the benefits of integrating various computers
and control stations throughout a plant, meters, sensors, and other data acquisition
and control devices are becoming more sensitive and accurate than previously used
equipment.
Current software programs allow engineers to configure cell level monitoring,
diagnostic, and supervisory control systems. The software can then gather, analyze,
and present data to floor operators. It can respond to detected conditions and take
control actions automatically. Specific applications include data acquisition. On-line
configuration enables definition and modification of system objects without shutting
down the system. Various alarms are provided. Most cell alarms are handled at the
cell level. Certain alarms can be made visible for hierarchical alarm strategy. Configured cell applications can initiate transactions with other applications. Typically
the cell serves as a bridge between the shop floor and the rest of the factory. The
system implements requests from other applications and generates transactions to
notify the factory of material movements, production results, and quality data. Record management and historical data management functions are provided. Reports
and plots can be generated from logged data. Statistical process control techniques
can be implemented and control charts read automatically. An alarm is generated
when the process is out of control or violates trend rules.
With CIM the business person needs a general knowledge in many areas including
finance, computing, manufacturing, and marketing.
In an effort to determine the extent of CIM implementation in the food industry,
a recent survey of western United States food companies was taken.12 The survey
focused on eight CIM functions including computer-aided design, computer-aided
manufacturing, computer-assisted quality control, automated materials handling,
production planning and control, maintenance scheduling and control, distribution
management, and finance and accounting. Companies were specifically queried as
to what level computer integration was used in their business. The most widespread

use of computers was in the area of accounting, followed by production planning,


and distribution management. Database systems have become well established in the
office environment.
The next most common application was in production planning and control. All
firms used computers in inventory control, whereas fewer used them in material
requirement planning and manufacturing resource planning. Less than half of the
companies used computers in distribution management, which includes order processing, sales inventory, shipping, and invoicing. Also, less than half of the companies
used computer-aided manufacturing techniques (CAM). CAM refers to automated
manufacturing techniques including weight monitoring, numerical control, robots,
and flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). About one-third of the companies used
computers in quality-control activities. Statistical quality control is causing this percentage to increase. Materials handling, maintenance scheduling, and computeraided design are used in a relatively few number of companies.
Dairy processing plants face various challenges as they adopt CIM systems. Many
older and smaller plants simply have a control panel with on-off switches for the
different pumps and valves. Automated process control may not extend beyond the
flow-diversion valve on the HTST pasteurizer and the CIP system. Other plants may
have several PC units without a central computer. One approach taken for a major
upgrade in the process control system is to install the new system in parallel with
the old. The new system can be tested during nonworking hours. Changeover to the
new system will require only a matter of minutes. Another approach that is useful
when several isolated control units are in place is to integrate them one at a time. A
Canadian company with a large number of stand-alone PC units in operation changed
gradually by first selecting a central control room and an appropriate computer to
communicate with the existing PCs.11 Next, they converted the manometric gauge
systems showing milk volumes with electronic pressure sensors. Then, various meters were interfaced with the control center. This method was chosen to minimize
plant disruption.
In reporting the development of CIM in one food company, a number of observations were made.14 Initially the company wanted a network of integrated data
processing systems, but rapid development of process control technologies forced
their inclusion. This required significant coordination between electronic engineers
and data processing specialists.
Relative to product development, prior to CIM implementation there was more
flexibility on issuing new product formulations. Although the reduced formulae flexibility was good for the quality, production, and planning staff, it was viewed as
counterproductive for marketing and product development.
Work load was increased in certain areas, such as receiving, to identify incoming
material and match it with purchase orders. However, this was compensated for by
work savings elsewhere. Manufacturing information was more effectively shared
between different areas. With management of data as a corporate whole, new applications were designed to take advantage of already available data.
Orlac Dairy (Vienne, France) uses a three-level hierarchy of computers to control
and monitor all plant operations. One computer handles raw milk reception, milk

storage, and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) processing; another deals with packaging
and palletizing; and the third controls overwrapping, pallet labeling, and finished
product storage.
A vendor-independent systems integrator, ITP/Boston, Inc. (Cambridge, MA,
U.S.A.) describes systems integration as the combining of the three components that
make up a factory: manufacturing systems, information systems, and human systems.
The emphasis on human systems addresses concerns expressed by others.15 Some
of these include a need for more user training, more end-user involvement in the
decision-making process, organization of a formal project team headed by users, and
installation of the required manpower prior to implementation.
Relative to the food industry, ITP developed a large, real-time hierarchical control
system for material handling at the Kellogg Salada cereal plant in London, Ontario,
Canada. The equipment that this system controls includes a high-rise AS/RS, which
has 6000 storage locations in six aisles, a monorail system, three roller conveyor
networks, and 61 special automatic and manual material handling operation stations
serving the various plant production areas. The control system is based on a hierarchical architecture of computers and PCs. The PCs are coordinated by real-time
minicomputers. The entire operation is directed by material handling management
software on a central plant computer. The system is integrated with other production
control, scheduling, and plant management systems.
CIM systems have been developed with expert system capability. To be practical,
an expert system must integrate itself in MIS and CIM environments. Access to
external databases is almost always necessary in order to perform the desired inferencing procedure. A difficulty lies in the lack of industry standards for interconnecting knowledge bases. A successful architecture is to place the expert system as
the center of a star with the other systems each connected. Wide, local, and bus area
networks are non-AI techniques for integrating data.
MAC-PAC (Andersen Consulting, Chicago, IL, U.S.A.) is an operational system
designed to integrate manufacturing, distribution, and finance. Applications provided
by MAC-PAC include production scheduling, order processing, inventory control,
purchasing, accounting functions, capacity planning, product costing, and material
requirements. An expert system technique used by MAC-PAC is Expert Configurator. With this application the expert knowledge of the employees is transferred to
the system to control all processing from sales order entry through manufacturing.
Its comprehensive design can be applied in production and process definition, customer service, inventory management, and production planning and control. Expert
Configurator lets the user design order entry screens and help text. Valid values may
be accessed from each screen for rapid order entry. The Expert Configurator adapts
to a particular pricing structure with procedures such as adding a fixed price when
a particular option is selected, calculating a percent discount for a customer type or
class, or calling external programs for more complex calculations. Bills of material
and routings can be generated dynamically for selected options.
The I/A Series Systems (The Foxboro Company, Foxboro, MA, U.S.A.) are another class of industrial automation that is up a level from distributed control. The
Intelligent Automation Series integrates the entire production process. It offers an

open architecture in which specifications are made public. A dual operating system
runs in every processor module in the system. A Real-Time Executive in each processor oversees the real-time tasks, while an Application Executive runs under the
Real-Time Executive to simultaneously manage the more resource-oriented, highlevel applications tasks such as process optimization and report writing.
The control strategies include EXACT, a knowledge-based system able to tune
difficult control loops. EXACT stands for Expert Adaptive Controller Tuning and
is reported by Foxboro as the first successful application of expert system technology
in process control. For example, in filling a container or vat it is able to respond to
fouling, varying flow rate, nonlinear behavior, vessel modifications, and other process dynamics. Other features referred to as high-level application tools combine with
the relational information management structure to provide high-quality, real-time
information. Intelligent measurement products such as flow, pressure, and level
transmitters have been developed to help integrate process information. Sophisticated
self-diagnostics isolate problems and report them to the system. The I/A Series Systems support high-level application tools for reports, cost analyses, product quality
tracking, and process optimization. Foxboro has developed several modular packages
for specific industry applications, including a multiple effect evaporator control for
the food industry.
Gensym (Cambridge, MA, U.S.A.) has made the observation that up until the last
few years a commonly held philosophy was that plant automation was simply an
aid or substitution for manual operator control. The introduction of regulators for
numeric control equipment with centralized monitoring was often the extent of automation. However, by using advanced programming and integration techniques,
much better results could be achieved. In applying their INTEGRAL 2000, Gensym
outlines four levels in an integrated factory automation scheme: Level 1, process
control; Level 2, process monitoring; Level 3, process management; and Level 4,
management information systems. In the third level of Process Management, Gensym utilizes their expert system G2. In order to maximize economic results, immediate access to both technological (first and second levels) and strategic-economic
(fourth level) data is necessary. The management staff must be able to modify and
implement it with ease and have an on-line simulation facility to allow the consequences of management decisions to be examined. G2 provided the required computation and simulation functions. The application of this system in the food industry
has been observed in a sugar factory. On-line simulations are used to calculate the
effects of the modifications and the most appropriate strategy to follow. For example,
if a centrifuge fails, the processing capacity is reduced. Once repair time is determined and entered, the system evaluates the best operating strategy on the basis of
the forecast duration of the fault, costs incurred, the space available to stock thick
juice, the possibility of recycling the juice, and changes in power requirements.
Process Operations Management System or POMS (Industrial Computing Designs Corporation, Reston, VA, U.S.A.) is a PS/2-based software system developed
expressly for the food and pharmaceutical industries to accomplish three objectives:
(1) link planning, MRP, quality analysis, and engineering with process control and
operations; (2) create a complete electronic batch or run record; and (3) monitor and

enforce good manufacturing practices. In daily use POMS sends either the operator
or the controller instructions, interfaces with on-line sensors, and passes process
information along the network. POMS is designed to incorporate the common information needs of users within a specific vertical market. The POMS software
consists of seven main nodules including manufacturing procedures, host interface,
orders server, operations supervisor, and operator's module. In addition to the POMS
modules, third-party software packages can be incorporated into POMS. These include expert system based process modeling and schedule optimization programs.
Gensym has developed an architecture for distributed real-time expert systems
and communications products known as Gl Network. G2 can integrate a wide range
of computer products and operating systems from major vendors. Each G2 knowledge base may be accessed from all other G2s in the network. This allows users to
transfer knowledge freely around the organizations. Local expert systems solutions
can be combined with decision support expert systems covering an entire organization. The GSI data server can connect to multiple data sources such as data acquisition systems, mainframe databases, and user programs in other computers. The
communication between computers in the G2 Network is generally over Ethernet.
With the G2 Network users can build networks quickly and easily. Each G2 expert
system can oversee a multitude of tasks occurring within a complex local application.
By connecting several G2s, a distributed intelligent network can be assembled. Telewindows enables users in G2 to get real-time advice from a remote G2 knowledge
base. Engineers, operators, and maintenance personnel can get current expert information about the system being monitored.
Databases are a major feature of CIM. Closely related to the application of expert
systems in CIM is the use of intelligent databases. Mercury KBE (Artificial Intelligence Technologies, Inc., Hawtorne, NY, U.S.A.) is a knowledge base environment
geared for the construction of intelligent database applications. It is able to integrate
smoothly with SQL compliant relational databases such as Oracle and Db2. SQL
stands for structured query language, which is a language designed to interrogate
and process data in a relational database. The production engine provides forward,
backward, and integrated chaining. An SQL object-oriented compiler generates code
at the lowest level of the supported database for increased speed. The developer adds
declarative statements to class definitions in the object system. They are then automatically transformed into the proper SQL accessor functions. Included is a presentation management facility for generation of end user interfaces including forms,
menus, charts, and icons. An application can be delivered on a single work station
or a network of computers.
The Ministry of the Environment in Germany contracted with Digital Equipment
Corporation GmbH to develop an intelligent, on-line, environmental detection and
corrective action system. The system detects potential environmental pollution, suggests corrective actions, and performs on-line decision support. Various databases
are supplied by on-line data acquisition. Also, laboratory tests of air, soil, and water
quality are entered into databases. The user interface includes a map of Germany
and presents any state of contamination, the likely cause, and a recommended corrective action.

3.6 Quality Management Applications


3.6.1 Quality Control Programs
The nutritional properties of dairy products make them useful foods for the growth
of microorganisms as well as humans. Rigid sanitation and quality standards have
been imposed both by governments and companies to provide a safe product with a
maximum shelf life. Various programs and tools have been developed to help accomplish this. The American Butter Institute/National Cheese Institute (Chicago, IL,
U.S.A.) has prepared a Total Quality Systems HandbookHAACP along with a
video presentation. HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) is a system
of quality assurance that provides monitoring of critical points during food processing in order to prevent defects before they occur.16 General steps include construction
of product and production flow charts, identification of control points, monitoring
procedures, and a record-keeping system. Although the program is not computer
based, its efficiency can be greatly enhanced with the use of currently available
software. In addition to computer programs for flow charts, inspection, and report
generation, expert system advisors could be useful for correction of problems when
they develop. For instance, an example given in the Total Quality Systems Handbook
suggests some actions for starter culture problems: (1) carefully review all procedures used in the starter room; (2) test the pasteurized milk for inhibitors; (3) review
the sanitation procedures at the cheese vat; (4) check for phage buildup; (5) rotate
cultures; (6) use a direct vat set backup; (7) use frozen or dried backups; and (8) try
another supplier's culture. Statements such as these could be prepared as goals in a
backward chaining expert system. Information given by the user in response to the
system's inquiries about the problem can lead to the most likely successful solution.
The application of statistics in controlling a process is referred to as statistical quality
control (SQC) or statistical process control (SPC). The use of SPC assists supervisors
and other managers to know if a process is operating within predetermined limits.
Inspection at a 100% level is unnecessary because properly designed statistical sampling can accurately estimate the population. Computer programs for SPC have
become widely available. These systems are often able to interface with external
data collection devices in real-time and other software programs (SPC Express, Major Microsystems, Huntington Woods, MI, U.S.A.). Quality-control procedures are
combined with data analysis and graphics. Control charts, diagnostic tools, and statistical reports can be provided to help measure performance and performance potential (STATGRAPHICS, STSG, Inc., Rockville, MD, U.S.A.). Various manipulations can be performed on the data. Programs such as Minitab (Minitab, Inc., State
College, PA, U.S.A.) are capable of integrating SPC procedures with statistical functions for monitoring and troubleshooting.
In response to foodbome disease outbreaks in the 1980s, the Milk Industry Foundation and the International Ice Cream Association prepared a computer program
known as the Product Assurance Safety System (PASS, Diagonal Data Corporation,
Lakeland, FL, U.S.A.) to assist in improving quality-control programs. PASS helps

to identify risk items, such as the cleaning procedures in the receiving area. Specific
duties are entered into the computer and a work order is generated. For example, a
list of duties could include the following: (1) clean and sanitize using CIP systems;
(2) clean receiving hose by hand (cream loadout hose stored in separate location);
and (3) clean and inspect manhole vent at the end of the day and replace filter. Also
listed are costs and hours required for the activities. Duties for management can also
be specified. These might include checking records from the receiving room, such
as the tank CIP charts. Another management duty could be an inspection of the
receiving area for irregularities.
A major objective behind the development of SPC for unit operations has been
improved performance. Depending on the needs of the application, this performance
could be defined as improved precision. Losses due to overfilling containers could
be reduced as the standard deviation of the fill weights is reduced. Another definition
could be reduced human operator or worker hours through automation. The development of microprocessors has allowed process control devices to greatly improve
in reliability and usefulness. Coupled with data acquisition capability, computer
control can provide operators, quality support personnel, and general management
large amounts of information on which intelligent judgments can be made.
Although increased automation decreases operator time, it does create new demands. The remaining operators will be required to have a higher level of expertise
in order to supervise the system in an out-of-control situation. The judgment required
to correct a process failure within a highly automated system may reside with only
a few individuals. They may be unavailable at the time of the crisis. In these situations an expert system can function as an on-line advisor.
Reports of expert systems in food quality control programs are emerging. An
analysis and selection computer program was reported for malting barley quality.17
Quality traits are stored on a database. Data can then be queried to select the breeding
lines for any set of criteria contained in the database. The program offers a summary
of quality traits and an objective means of selecting for overall malt quality. It is
also applicable to other crops. The use of expert systems in quality control using a
yogurt manufacturing process as an example has been reported.18
Although the applications of expert systems in dairy processing are only now
emerging, their use in various agricultural and dairy production activities has been
widely investigated.19'20 Assistance to patrons regarding dairy production operations
can help ensure high-quality milk for processing. Automatic registering and recording of milk production data can be achieved with sensors, terminals in the barn and
milking parlor for direct access by the herdsman, and a master computer to enter
additional data and perform various calculations. Information about milk yield and
components is useful not only for quality monitoring but also for controlling disease
and adjusting rations. Expert systems for monitoring dairy production can compare
incoming data to preestablished standards, interpreting deviations to provide information on corrective action. In addition to this type of monitoring activity, specific
expert systems can be used as diagnostic devices and planning systems.

3.6.2 Laboratory Systems


A major impact of laboratory computers is the ability to get information to clients
and to respond to product development requests in a timely manner. The application
of computer techniques, including expert systems, in the laboratory can help accomplish this purpose.
Computer utilization in food laboratories includes data management, real-time
data acquisition and control, sample tracking, and ingredient control.21 Computer
applications in food laboratories fall into two main categories. The first is laboratory
information management. This includes data acquisition, data organization, and report generation. Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) are used for
organizing laboratory information and for networking computers in the laboratory.
The second category is the automation of activities previously requiring human labor.
Large quantities of identical, repetitive operations have traditionally been required
to justify the expense of laboratory automation. However, with the introduction of
laboratory robotics providing flexible automation for various laboratory unit operations (LUOs), new applications are developing. Unit operations include repetitive
activities such as weighing, pipetting, separation, and pH determination. These LUOs
can be combined and rearranged for various applications.
Software systems are available to integrate or network all lab data for archival
storage, planning, plotting, and processing. The platform is able to access data
quickly, and from a single location. Data transfer from lab instrument to PCs may
be required. Data or format conversion may be necessary. Typical software can
process spectra for word processing or slide-making procedures. Systems can automatically control and acquire data from instruments, analyze and process data, and
produce customized reports and real-time charts.
Digital computers are components of many laboratory instruments. Electronic
transducers convert physical or chemical information into electronic form. The development of solid-state electronics and microprocessors has had a significant impact
on analytical instruments. Microprocessors are used in analytical instruments as control elements and as data recorders.
Improved methods of data acquisition, sensor development, increased regulatory
activity, improved instrumentation, and inexpensive electronic memory have all contributed to the accumulation of large amounts of quality-control data. Knowledge
based systems can assist in the screening and analysis of these data. The application
of computers to several quality-control areas is reviewed, along with techniques to
assimilate that data into useful information.
In addition to the general LIMS, other computer programs and systems are available that will accomplish a variety of specific tasks. A computer-based system for
cereal dough quality data acquisition and analysis has been developed using three
mixographs and one farinograph interfaced to an IBM PC.22 The application software
used to program ASYST (ASYST Software Technologies, Inc., Rochester, NY,
U.S.A.). PSYCHR is a program designed to calculate psychometric properties including enthalpies, entropies, and exergies.23 At a given pressure, the program requires input of two properties and then outputs 23 corresponding properties. Salt

penetration into hams can be observed using computer X-ray tomography.24 Creep
behavior in viscoelastic foods can be analyzed much more rapidly.25 The needs for
more rapid and more reliable methods of microbial food analysis are being met with
automated techniques such as impedance measurement, image analysis, and computer-assisted identification of bacteria.26 Robots have been used for automatic titrations, total solids sample preparation, gas chromatography, differential scanning
calorimetry, thin-layer chromatography, nitrogen analysis, texture measurement, microbial plate counts, and fat analysis. An expert system entitled SEXIA was developed to characterize certain foods, particularly olive oils.27 Up to 50 analytical variables such as acidity, color, fatty acids, sterols, and triglycerides can be examined.
Characterization of foods uses numerous tools including discriminant analysis and
cluster analysis. These tests are based on chemical data. A problem with this and
any type of analysis is that dispersion or variation in data can occur over time due
to environmental factors such as temperature and humidity. This type of dispersion
can be reduced using expert systems. Each rule is associated with a chemical parameter. Because expert system rules are constructed independently, the displacement
of a chemical parameter over time is minimized with the data of another chemical
parameter.
With the expert system SEXIA, samples of olive oil can be characterized and
identified according to the following parameters: (1) if oil is genuine olive oil; (2) the
olive zones within Spain where oil was obtained; and (3) the majority variety among
the most representative varieties of those zones. With SEXIA interviews take place
with an analyst and the database. Inference rules then relate the findings. The expert
system handles values of 50 analytical variables. The taxonomic organization of the
data is a tree graph. The nodes of the tree contain information on the chemical
parameters. This information is stored in frames. Ranges of chemical parameters are
obtained from results of the statistical tests that analyzed the data distribution. They
were specified as low, medium, and high.
The system uses three kinds of rule sets: the identification rule set, the interrelation
rule set, and demons. The demon rules are interrelated with the user/computer interface. The identification rules deal with varieties, olive zones, and denominations
of origin.
There are three groups of rules. The first determines confidence factors associated
with varieties, zones, and origins. The second rule group works with the results
obtained with the different kinds of varieties, olive zones, and origins. It determines
the evidence of all categories. The third group combines results obtained by the
second kind of rules to get the final evidence.
An improvement using SEXIA over stepwise discriminant analysis is that the
many rules based on different chemical parameters can be used to get optimal results.
The statistically based classification models of discriminant analysis programs are
more limited and produce less confident results.
Overall, SEXIA tries to eliminate data dispersion in the identification of foods.
More specifically, SEXIA presents the following features: (1) it allows the use of
heuristic rules combined with others deduced by statistical programs; (2) rules and
propositions are built independently so the effect of random errors is minimized;

(3) it facilitates aggregation of evidence gathered at varying levels of detail: (4) a


combination of certainty factors and the Dempster-Shaffer theory gives more vigorous results than classical statistical methods; and (5) the system provides more
information than statistical programs. Considerations for the next generation SEXIA
include the use of fuzzy sets, which will eliminate the restrictions of numeric ranges
specified for the chemical parameters.

3.6.3 Quality Defect Analysis


Expert systems have found perhaps their most popular application in fault diagnosis
or defect analysis. Because this is often an activity of the quality systems department,
such technology should be useful. An example of an expert system designed to
diagnose faults on the production line of a chocolate biscuit (cookie) factory was
described.28 The knowledge representation uses five different types of objects in its
knowledge base. A trigger notifies the operator that something is wrong. Hypotheses
are formulated that linked faults to triggers. Each fault is checked by a test and action
is taken. The system can use a combination of backward and forward chaining
strategies.
Several expert systems for the quality control of cheese have been reported. The
SEAF (Sistema Esperto per Analisi dei Formaggi) computerized system is designed
to permit rapid analysis of Sicilian cheese compared with a standard reference.29 It
uses and MS/DOS operating system and is written in Turbo Prolog.
GRUYEX30 is an expert system for assistance in improving Gruyere technology.
Although the Institut Technique du Gruyere (ITG) provides quality control and technical assistance to the French Gruyere cheese industry, the large number of small
producers have difficulty justifying the cost. GRUYEX was developed to be made
available through the VIDEOTEX system. VIDEOTEX is the widely used French
electronic information access system made available for professionals and families.
GRUYEX is designed to help factory personnel correct a cheese fault or determine
the risk of a technology modification.
Five experts, the ITG manager, and a knowledge engineer were involved in the
knowledge acquisition phase. Because technicians were analyzing between 100 and
200 values during their visits, the possibility of eliminating irrelevant factors was
considered. Only those parameters that were most easily explained and justified were
included. By this means the pertinent parameters were reduced to 20 or 30. The
knowledge was represented by constructing trees showing links between the faults.
All of the entities of the knowledge base are as follows: (1) description of the faults;
(2) description of the hypotheses; (3) description of the parameters; (4) explanation
rules; (5) verification rules; and (6) action rules.
The GRUYEX system was developed using GOLDEN COMMON LISP in the
expert system tool GOLDWORKS (Gold Hill Computers, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A.).
Fifteen typical faults were selected. These included too many eyes, wrong overall
shape, two-tone paste, cracks in the paste, and colored spots on the crust. Some of
the faults required more description and were divided into subfaults. For example,
"the texture of the holes is not smooth" was further described as being "orange

rind-like or nut shell-like." Faults were classified into categories such as paste faults,
crust faults, and taste faults to facilitate their selection. Faults were represented as
objects in GOLDWORKS to assist knowledge-base modifications. A fault was defined by (1) name, (2) definition, (3) documentation text, and (4) name of its group.
The faults were considered as facts in the explanation rules.
The hypotheses were the causes of the faults. Although some were very specific
and others more general, no priority was attributed to a specific hypothesis. Hypothesis were either established or not. Probabilities or fuzzy logic were not used.
The hypotheses were verified by parameters. For example, a parameter to verify the
hypothesis "soft cheese" could be "extrusion force." More specific hypotheses to
refine the initial hypothesis such as "too fat," "too humid," or "too proteolyzed"
could be verified with their own appropriate parameters. Parameters are also represented as objects and are characterized by (1) name; (2) explanation text; (3) type:
numeric or not; (4) domain: list of alphanumeric values or numeric interval; and (5)
group: used in prevision approach to help in parameter selection.
The explanation rules link hypotheses to faults or other hypotheses. The rules are
used to generate all possible causes of a fault. They can support both backward
chaining and forward chaining. Verification rules link parameters to hypotheses.
Action rules link verified hypotheses to corrective actions.
The system can function in three ways. In the fault approach, the user tries to
establish the fault, generate hypotheses and parameters, and provide corrective action
for the cheese manufacturer. In the report approach, the user presents a fault to the
computer and receives all of the actions that apply to the specified fault. The prevision approach determines the production risks incurred following some modification to the system. The effects of changing a parameter, such as heat treatment,
can be measured.
An expert system was developed to trace Cheddar cheese defects to their source.31
In this program the user initially provides information about the sensory attributes
of the cheese such as appearance, body and texture, and flavor. The system then
follows its own lines of reasoning toward the eventual cause of the defect, asking
for additional information about the raw materials, the process, and analytical data
as it proceeds. Several conclusions are normally given, with a confidence rating for
each one.

3.7 Strategic Operations


3.7.1 Simulation
In order to meet changing consumer demands, flexible manufacturing strategies are
required. Much time and energy can be spent or wasted if the wrong decision is
made. Simulation modeling is a tool that can help predict the performance of a
product or process before it is made or built. Simulation is the construction of a
computer-based model of an operation that predicts how the operation will perform.
Conditions can be varied and their effects observed using the model system. Simu-

lation modeling can be applied to many areas. Most of the food industry applications
include material flow and packing. Expert systems are able to incorporate results
from these models and make them more generally useful. Expert systems can fuse
knowledge from different sources and fields of knowledge, and can help in distributing scarce human expertise to many locations.
Computer models have long been used for thermal processing.32"35 Real time
calculations of time and temperature relationships can be made with models. Cooking effects such as bacterial destruction, nutrient loss, and sensory deterioration can
be predicted. As an alternative to placing a thermocouple in a test can with every
retort batch, the temperature of the geometrical center of a can can be predicted.
Using a numerical computer model to simulate thermal processing, rapid evaluation
of process deviations and on-line corrections can be made (TechniCAL, Inc.,
Metairie, LA, U.S.A.). During simulation, measurable changes in temperature are
projected for the entire process cycle. Results include reduced downtime and improved productivity.
The Pathogen Modeling Program (PMP) (USDA/ARS Eastern Regional Research
Center, Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A.) explores how combinations of various factors
affect the growth of pathogenic organisms. Version 3.0 considers five organisms
including Salmonella spp., Listeria monocy to genes, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, and Aeromonas hydrophila. Factors considered are temperature, pH,
sodium chloride content, sodium nitrite content, aerobic conditions, and anaerobic
conditions. Equations for the models were derived by response surface analysis. PMP
was designed to be used with Lotus 1-2-3 (Cambridge, MA, U.S.A.). The "program" was written using a series of Lotus macros and menu-driven queries. A series
of queries is presented, and with the last query, the program will display a second
menu through which results can be viewed. A kinetics options displays the calculated
values for exponential growth rate, generation time, lag phase duration, and maximum population density. The time option provides an estimate of the time required
for the microorganism to grow to the predefined level. A growth curve calculated
from the combination of the variables selected can be displayed. Any of the factors
can be changed, and new results presented.
Initial efforts in microbial modeling have been directed at pathogens. However,
as the databases and models develop, information on spoilage organisms will accumulate. Forecasting during each stage of food production will then be possible.
This will allow a more integrated approach from raw materials to finished product.
Computer programs have been useful in the control of energy consumption.36
Controlling energy consumption is important economically due to the high cost of
energy, but keeping track of consumption can help lead to other more specific problems. For example, high energy may be traced to poor heat exchange. The poor heat
exchange may represent food or cleaner residues coating the equipment surfaces.
Once the problem is recognized, corrective actions can be taken.
Consumption of fuel or electricity can be compared to predicted values, and can
be expressed as fuel or electricity per unit of milk processed. When prepared in
graph form, deviations are easily removed. Various sums and ratios of raw materials
used, energy consumed, products consumed, and costs incurred can be calculated.

An expert system may be useful here in providing specific recommendations to


correct out-of-control situations.
Fouling of food processing equipment involves a two-stage process during which
the surface is first conditioned by protein/surface or protein/salt interactions to allow
nucleation. This-is followed by heavy deposits based on protein/protein interactions.
Chemical processes involved in fouling have been examined in developing fouling
models for a heat exchanger.37 The models have been used to assess fouling problems
during operation and cleaning and to develop procedures and designs to minimize
fouling. Each model is dependent on the type of food material involved.
The structural properties of aluminum cans can be tested using a computer simulation program.38 To traditionally test a can design, various cans would be manufactured, filled, and then physically abused by dropping or hitting. In a simulated
drop test, the computer knows the shape of the can, its impact speed, the mass and
pressure of the contents, and the characteristics of the can material. Calculations
relate factors such as mass, velocity, acceleration, and pressure. Using this procedure,
testing costs are greatly reduced.
Mathematical models have been developed for many processes ranging from
potato storage systems39 to sun drying of tropical fish.40 A computer model developed by an ingredient supplier determines the most effective chelent formula to
control metal ions in food processing operations. Selecting the right chelant to tie
up unwanted metal ions such as iron, copper, and zinc is complicated and normally
a trial-and-error procedure. The computer program, using a database of more than
2700 equilibrium reactions, will predict the most effective chelant or combinations
of chelants.41
Simulation modeling has been applied to the development of a new cheese cooling
and brining process.42 A mathematical model was developed based on the transient,
three-dimensional heat transfer of a cheese block. The shape of the block was considered, as well as the rate of temperature change in the block and in the brine.
Information from the model was used in the decision of whether or not to purchase
a new brining system.
Expert system technology has been combined with modeling and simulation technology and referred to as intelligent simulation. Traditional simulations have little
flexibility and require much customizing to have practical applications. A high level
of computer and simulation expertise is required to design and implement simulation
techniques. These limitations can be overcome with the development of an expert
simulation tool. With the development of larger expert system shells, process specialists have been able to capture the knowledge of simulation experts and create
generic equipment models (Mercury ISIM, Artificial Intelligence Technologies, Inc.,
Hawthorne, NY, U.S.A.). The mathematical techniques are selected and monitored
by the expert system. The user describes the processing plant by specifying equipment, and the system responds by asking questions about flow rates, pressures, and
other process parameters.
Traditionally, simulation designs consist of blocks linked together. The blocks
are subroutines with predetermined solutions based on mathematical equations. A

simulation usually consists of at least several hundred blocks. Their complexity leads
to difficulty when changes are made.
A particular configuration represents the final equations after the interactions between equipment and materials have been considered. This makes it difficult to
isolate and see the change of any one part or material. The ISIM (Intelligent Simulation) system was created using an object-oriented methodology. Each component
of the simulation is implemented separately, and the implementer can specify how
the components interact. ISIM simulation blocks represent physical devices that
manipulate objects. Traditional simulation blocks manipulate numbers. The manipulation of an object or material is called a simulation variable. Codes associated with
the simulation variable can determine the effects of various actions taken. For example, a boiler will add BTUs to material in an evaporator, without knowing the
physical properties of the material. The simulation variable modeling whey protein
concentrate will then change the temperature appropriately. The simulation variable
acts to integrate separate parts of a process acting on material.
Each unit operation can be modeled independently by a domain expert without
modifying other modules. Another advantage is that the knowledge base can use
heuristic simulation methods. Traditional simulation environments require much customizing in practical applications. With ISIM the user can much more easily build
a manufacturing unit from unit operations. The use of object-oriented programming
has been an important factor in the development of intelligent simulation.

3.7.2 Research and Development


Many of the activities of a research and development (R&D) department can be
assisted by the use of expert system programs. Expert systems can provide advice
on functions such as database manipulation, ingredient interactions, and strategic
planning. Although expert systems have been developed for many food applications,
there are certain tasks to avoid. Reasoning involving volatile expertise, which is
constantly changing, is difficult to capture. Also, knowledge that is disputed between
different experts should be avoided. R&D departments often deal with new and
changing information. Disagreements over new knowledge domains are common.
A major advantage of expert system programs is to free the human technician from
routine or tedious tasks and allow more time for the type of reasoning for which
humans are better suited.
An R&D operation is very dependent on the information it can acquire and manipulate. Intelligent databases are a new technology for information management.
The amount of information is constantly growing and the integration of an expert
system with the database makes the right information more accessible. In addition
to in-house databases, large external databases are available through a number of
search services. Intelligent information retrieval can assist in finding specific references more easily. Expert systems provide not only a method of organizing expertise,
but also higher level language constructs that can be used in database programming.

Several key databases include product line information, raw material specifications, and finished product shelf life progression. These functions overlap with quality control responsibilities, but provide useful information in product development.
A knowledge of the functional properties of food ingredients is critical for R&D.
The wide range of ingredients available and the many interactions with other ingredients in the food product justify the time and expense involved in capturing as much
relevant information as possible. Information is available in the scientific and trade
literature. Much information is resident with the human experts. Because expert
knowledge tends to be quite specialized, several experts may be needed during the
product development process. Capturing this domain specific knowledge is the object
of much expert system development work.
Quality of products can often be traced to poor experimental design. An incomplete understanding of cause-and-effect relationships during the design phase of a
product can lead to high costs of scrap, rework, and inspection. Statistically based
experimental designs allow scientists to get the largest amount of information from
the smallest number of experimental trials. The development of computer software
packages with statistical techniques has greatly simplified the use of experiment
designs. Dziezak43 suggests the following steps to implementing designed
experiments:
1. Define the purpose of the study and identify the factors and the responses. The
factors can be ingredients or process conditions. The responses are the dependent
variables that are measured.
2. Develop a model for each response that will predict response values for different
factors.
3. Select an optimization design to test the factors in a minimum number of trials.
4. Conduct the experiments in a random order if possible.
5. Fit the model to the data using regression analysis generating a prediction
equation.
6. Examine the data in a graphical form to discern relationships and regions for
further investigation.
The beginnings of computer applications in sensory analysis were the use of
statistical software packages to analyze the panel data. Devices designed to automate
data collection are a more recent development. A system may operate as a network
with a server computer and several terminals. Typical features of a sensory program
include panelist registration, score card preparation and presentation, and results
management.
Touch screens have been developed to automate data collection. One system
comprised of touch screen hardware, software, and user interface has been designated
' 'computer aided sensory testing." 44 Besides response input, the system can perform
other sensory tasks such as project setup, rating form construction, and data analysis.
King and Morzenti45 compared a computerized mode of quantitative descriptive
analysis (QDA) scoring with a manual mode. Various samples such as turkey patties,
doughnuts, and citrus fruit were judged by four to seven panelists. Results indicated

that computerized QDA was better than, or as good as, manual QDA. Other factors
such as cost would need to be evaluated.
Even more extensive automation is reported in an Apparatus for Automated Sensory Testing (ASST).46 The system prepares samples for sensory evaluation, instructs the subject during the test, records and processes the results, and provides
the next series of samples according to the previous performance of the subject.
Expert systems can be applied to statistical modeling. Object-oriented expert system tools provide a system for capturing statistical expertise. A library of statistical
techniques can be related to one another. Objects, which pass data between themselves, can be supervised by other objects or rules to direct problem-solving skills
and automated statistical reasoning. Intelligent Statistical Process Analysis (ISPA,
Artificial Intelligence Technologies, Inc., Hawthorne, NY, U.S.A.) contains three
major cooperating expert subsystems. The first subsystem is the Statistical Master.
It is an object-oriented model of the expert procedure to develop statistical models.
The second subsystem is the Process Expert. This system asks the user about the
process and then self-generates an expert system for use in model validations and
variable selection. The last subsystem is the Object-Oriented Database. It allows
specific data to be manipulated and passed from module to module. The total system
builds a tree of potential model variables and the tree is then pruned to reduce the
statistical search space.
Planning and scheduling procedures in R&D are similar to those previously discussed. Corporate success will be achieved as the right plans are constructed and
performed. In some respects, planning techniques are similar to design methods,
only with the element of a structured time frame added. It is desirable to have all of
the available information possible. R&D planners must also see how information is
interrelated. Intelligent decision systems using expert system technologies can help
deal with complex decision processes such as these. The knowledge of leading R&D
decision consultants has been captured in a computer-based decision workstation
called R&D Analyst (Strategic Decisions Group, Menlo Park, CA, U.S.A.). The
R&D Analyst expert system constructs an influence diagram. The influence diagram
represents decision problems in a graphical format that shows relationships of decisions and uncertainties. The Analyst constructs mathematical models that represent
this information. Critical factors such as number of competitors, foreign demand, or
initial price are then identified, quantified, and ranked.
The R&D Analyst also provides an analysis of the current projects showing a
plot of the probability of technical success versus the commercial value given technical success. The result is an overall status of all the R&D projects showing the
most profitable projects and the areas in which the R&D management should focus
their efforts. The third analytical tool develops and runs decision analysis models.
Commercial search services are an important resource for current information on
competitive market activity and R&D activities (DIALOG, Palo Alto, CA, U.S.A.;
Orbit Search Service, McClean, VA, U.S.A.). Information commonly accessed includes financial condition of competitors, new product development, and marketing
strategies. Expert systems can be useful in the development of searching strategies.

3.7.3 Training
People are the most important assets of food and dairy processing plants. The people
operate the plants. They make decisions concerning operations at all levels. While
the top management is charting the course with company goals and objectives, line
workers and supervisors are making decisions and contributing to the company on
a daily basis. It is critical to remember that people are more important than technology. Unless projects have supportive people who are well informed, involved,
well trained, and well led, difficulty and failure are likely results. Unfortunately,
much of the best training and development is provided for upper management, while
the individuals closest to the product receive either less or poorer quality training.
A common complaint among employers is the need for extensive training of
recent college or university graduates. This is understandable because most food
science and dairy manufacturing programs cover a wide variety of subject areas. A
thorough education in the basic sciences and communications skills should be expected. However, training specific enough to meet the needs of each processing entity
is unrealistic. Some type of structured training for new employees is almost always
required.
One area of employee training that has become mandatory is hazardous chemical
exposure. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has a goal
of ensuring that employers and employees know about chemical work hazards and
know how to protect themselves. To accomplish this they have implemented a rule
called "Hazard Communications" (HAZCOM). Under HAZCOM, chemical suppliers are required to communicate hazard information determined by the chemical
manufacturers for each of their products. Employers are required to communicate
the hazards of chemicals they use to workers. They are also to provide training in
chemical safety. Hazard information and use of labels and material safety data sheets
must be communicated to employees through a formal training program.
One technique that can help reduce the manager and supervisor time devoted to
employee training is the use of intelligent tutoring computer programs. These systems not only allow self-paced, unsupervised learning, but they are able to make the
most efficient use of the employee's time. The time spent relearning what is already
known and understood is eliminated.
Individualized self-paced learning materials have long been available in various
forms. These include frame-based written materials, slide presentations, movies and
video presentations, various computer programs, and even interactive video disks.
Intelligent tutoring, which utilizes expert system procedures, is one area within the
larger field of computer-assisted instruction. The major advantage of intelligent tutoring is the ability to focus on the specific areas that are lacking in the employee's
training or background. For example, an individual may be very familiar with heat
transfer and flow rates through a heat exchanger, yet have little understanding of the
effects of heat, acid, and mineral balance interaction on protein destabilization. The
intelligent tutoring system is designed to detect those areas, instruct, and evaluate
the information transfer.

Although little activity in the use of intelligent tutors has been reported in the
food and dairy industry, a prototype industrial-training system at Bell Communications Research (Livingston, NJ, U.S.A.) called Word of Intelligent Tutoring System (WITS) captures the knowledge of the company's best workers. For feedback
purposes, it compares student responses with that knowledge. The system charts
students' progress and selects supplementary material. Licensing of WITS is expected in 1991.
For references to manuals expert system based software can be used on-line. This
allows the manual to be customized for a particular application or personnel. With
expert system techniques the system can determine the skill level of the operator
and provide the appropriate information. Also, information can be made available
in spreadsheets and database software.
The incorporation of hypertext into an expert system as a means of providing the
user with additional information during a problem-solving session has been reported
for a program dealing with decreased milkfat yield.47 The form of the information
can be textual, graphical, or procedural. Several benefits include clarification of
ambiguous and technical terms and description of underlying principles involved in
the problem-solving strategy. The flexible hypertext interface allows users to explore
information in a nonlinear method according to their abilities and interests.

3.8 Future Trends


The next likely period following the current information age could be referred to as
the knowledge age. Expert systems extend the capabilities of traditional programming techniques to handle knowledge-oriented tasks. Many people have become
acquainted with knowledge-based systems as they have been developed thus far.
However, the technology is changing and with it future trends change. For example,
the number of knowledge engineers bringing expert systems and domain experts
together has increased greatly from its once shortage level. In the meantime the
expert system tools, at least for small and midsized computers, are developing to the
point where intermediaries may become less in demand.
Standardization of knowledge bases from different suppliers is likely. This will
become increasingly important as more domain-specific systems are marketed. Improved standardization will allow an expert system shell to support various knowledge bases and interface with other software with greater ease. Any progress in
standardization will require an increase in cooperation among suppliers.
Expert system advisors will become more active than passive as they are applied
to real-time process control systems. Improvements in software are already increasing the use of on-line expert system strategies. This trend will help ease the shortage
of experienced operators. The improved control and monitoring functions will also
help compensate for a decreasing regulatory presence.
Consumer and industrial products will increase in intelligence using expert system
principles. Expert systems are already being used in traditional software. This trend
is likely to increase. In this respect it is interesting that some vendors are careful to

make no reference to the use of expert systems or artificial intelligence. Apparently,


this is to avoid a possible stigma associated with this area of computer science
because of its early promotion in the late 1970s and early 1980s, followed by slow
implementation.
An enormous amount of information is becoming available to business managers.
Much data is generated around a company's products, including production records,
analytical results, and distribution records. Marketing data are available from sources
such as universal pricing code (UPC) records taken at retail stores, surveys, business
reports, and commercial databases. In an effort to organize their data into useful
information, companies have started Decision Support System (DSS) groups. Expert
systems are being investigated as tools to analyze large amounts of information.48
An expert system can take an overwhelming amount of data, interpret it, and return
a short and pertinent summary, complete with brief graphs.
A trend that will occur among successful companies is increased integration of
marketing and research and development departments. Expert analysis of data will
assist in this process by reducing miscommunications.
Developments in areas such as physics will assist in the creation of new applied
technologies. Computer science technologies are largely applications of the developments in physics. A breakthrough in parallel processing could supply unprecedented quantities of processing power to tackle artificial intelligence research issues.

3.9

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52:38-46.

CHAPTER
4

Dairy Equipment and Supplies


Thomas Gilmore and Jim Shell
4.1 Dairy Equipment and Supplies, 156
4.2 Equipment Common to All Dairies, 160
4.2.1 Tanks, 160
4.2.2 Heat Exchangers, 171
4.2.3 Pumps, 179
4.2.3.1 Introduction, 179
4.2.3.2 Centrifugal Pumps, 181
4.2.3.3 Positive Displacement Pumps, 181
4.2.3.4 Pump Selection Factors, 187
4.2.3.5 Pump Efficiency, 190
4.2.4 Pipe, Valves, and Fittings, 195
4.2.4.1 Sanitary Piping and Tubing, 195
4.2.4.2 Installation: Joining, 196
4.2.4.3 Installation: Layout and Engineering Requirements, 197
4.2.4.4 Sanitary Fittings and Valves, 199
4.2.5 Centrifuges, 203
4.2.6 Homogenizers, 213
4.2.7 Cleaning Dairy Processing Systems, 217
4.2.7.1 Introduction, 217
4.2.7.2 Clean-In-Place, 218
4.2.7.3 Cleaning and Sanitizing, 218
4.2.7.4 Mechanical Cleaning Systems, 219
4.2.7.5 Sanitary Criteria for Processing Equipment, 226
4.2.7.6 The Relation of pH to Cleaning, 234
4.2.7.7 Types of Cleaners, 236
4.2.7.8 Types of Sanitizers, 237
4.2.7.9 Safe Chemical Handling Check List, 238
4.2.7.10 Elements of Chemical Use Control, 240
4.2.7.11 Manual Cleaning and Clean-Out-Of-Place, 241
4.3 Specialty Equipment, 241
4.3.1 Ice Cream and Frozen Dessert Equipment, 241
4.3.1.1 Introduction, 241
4.3.1.2 Mix Preparation, 242
4.3.1.3 Mix Freezing, 246
4.3.1.4 Bulky Flavor Addition, 250
4.3.1.5 Novelty Equipment, 250

4.3.2 Butter Manufacture, 254


4.3.2.1 Cream Preparation, 254
4.3.2.2 Traditional Churning, 254
4.3.2.3 Continuous Churning, 255
4.3.2.4 Packaging, 256
4.3.3 Cheesemaking Systems, 256
4.3.3.1 General Processes, 256
4.3.3.2 Cheese Vats, 257
4.3.3.3 Accessory Equipment/Mechanical Innovations, 258
4.3.3.4 Processed Cheese, 261
4.3.4 Concentration and Drying, 261
4.3.5 Cottage Cheese and Other Cultured Products, 277
4.3.5.1 Cottage Cheese, 277
4.3.5.2 Yogurt, 279
4.3.5.3 Fermented Milk Products, 281
4.3.5.4 Green Cheese Products, 281
4.3.6 High-Temperature Processes, 281
4.3.7 Membrane Separation, 288

4.1 Dairy Equipment and Supplies


In all dairies the raw product, milk, moves through or by various pieces of equipment
during processing prior to packaging as a finished product for the consumer. Items
found in all dairies include tanks; heat exchangers; pumps; centrifuges; homogenizers; clean-in-place (CIP) systems; refrigeration systems; boilers; and pipes, valves,
and fittings tying all of this equipment together.
Some equipment is particular to specialty dairy plants such as ice cream freezers
to ice cream plants, churns to butter plants, vats to cheese plants, and evaporators to
concentration plants, to name a few. All the major items specific to specialty plants
will be discussed in the middle section of the chapter.
Equipment found in all dairies as well as specialty equipment requires a method
of control and recording of the process. The controls and method of tracking can be
very simple or quite high tech. The types and degree of automation/control will be
reviewed in the final section.
It would be remiss at this point not to discuss the sanitary standards for dairy
equipment, that is, what they are and how they are set and enforced. The PMO or
Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance is prepared by the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services with the assistance of Milk Sanitation and regulatory agencies
at various federal, state, and local government departments. The PMO is generally
recognized and accepted by the dairy industry and U.S. public health agencies as a
national standard for milk sanitation. The 3-A Sanitary Standards and 3-A Accepted
Practices for processing dairy foods are the main documents used for determining if
equipment design and construction meets the sanitary requirements to ensure such

items will not cause contamination to the dairy product. The 3-A Sanitary Standards
Program is a voluntary and self-regulated tripartate, cooperative program within the
industry that working together with state and federal regulators has provided equipment manufacturers with defined standards for equipment and the processors a
method of assuring the sanitary condition of equipment they purchase.
Although Chapter 5 in this volume discusses in detail the designs of a dairy
processing plant, some basic illustrations of typical plants are provided here.
Although there are many differences in floor plans and equipment juxtaposition,
the following diagrams are illustrative of a generic plant. They are based on a plant
that is mid to large size, processing about 1 million pounds of milk a day. The
products manufactured include milk and ice cream.
Figure 4.1 is a plot plan of 15 acres and is a minimum for this size facility. All
expansions to double the capacity are shown and expansion to double the capacity
will not interrupt current production. Traffic patterns keep trucks backing to the
driver's sidea safety consideration.
Figure 4.2 is a main floor plan showing a continuous production flow from raw
products and dry storage through process to load-out. A separate machine room for
homogenizers and separators segregates noise from the rest of the plant. With the
tendency toward products with extended shelf life, a room pressurized with filtered

900* APROX.

TRUCK
SERVICE
GARAQE

F\JT.
M
AEC.lLK

UO
RO
ELER
MILF
KUTO

FUTURE
1.0. STORAGE

ITAUF DOWN

Figure 4.1 Plot plan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company, Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)

FfK)NT STREET

EMPLOYEE PARKINS

VISITOR
PARKING

DRYSTORAQC
PENTHOUSE
COLDTK.
RM.&
PROCESS &
TANK MEZZ.

MtLK COOLER
AND
CASE STORAGE

TRUCK PARKINQ

FUTUBE TRUCK PARKINO

730' APROX.

1.0. STORAGE

Of FIC AREA

FUTUW I. . STO*.
MtLK COOCEM
oun

OLE*

FUTURE MILK COOLER

AMA

BOILEK ROOM

BLOW MOLD ROOM

OMT

WHV 10M)IN(I

MAM PROCESS AREA

KMOC(H

. C, ITOH.

TKkUi C0t*ACT0fl
AMA NOl

FUTURE PROCESS AREA

FUTURE DRY STORAOC

DMV STOAAOt WCCNMO

DRY STOflAOE
FUT. BLOW MOLD RM.

Figure 4.2 Main floor plan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company, Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)

air is used for filling and adds a degree of bacterial isolation. The cold storage area
is designed to ensure first in-first out inventory control.
Figure 4.3 for the second floor plan describes a visitor tour route and an employee
lunch room. These locations provide a view of processing while assuring bacterial
isolation. Vertical storage tanks are located in an environmentally controlled room
directly above their respective process function. Empty cases are washed on entry
and stored directly above the cold storage area.
The basement floor plan is shown in Figure 4.4 and describes the utility functions,
all of which are located directly below the points of use. This figure also shows the

bd
HAlI. MlOW
ULX MC. OTF. 4

W0WCM4 IKH

MUOVMll P A H ( I *

Ml.

COLO TANK ROOM

HtUOVt(M P

PtNTHOUSC
TKAAM COMTACtOD *E10W

LUNCH AREA

CMTTV CASf STOAAOC

r2
5

CAtI* DOWM-

Figure 4.3 Secondfloorplan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company, Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)

TUNNEL

REGRN
ID AREA

CI E BUL
IDERS

c^Ur, ou..
Cl* ARCA NO2.
PITCH TO oa*

ELEC. & M C C

I KAM* UP

ElXC. I M C C

8ASCMENT LEVEL

PENTHOUSE

EMPTY CASC STORAGE

TIACM COMPACTOH

MKK COOLER

OTTC
l
t~]

COLO TK. RMJ


VUHCM AHlA
MAIN PROCESS AREA

MACH
ROOM

O*Y STORAOt

BASEMENT AREA
ELEVATION / SECTION VIEW A-A

Figure 4.4 (a) Basement floor plan, (b) Elevation plan. (Courtesy of The Omega Company,
Janesville, WI, U.S.A.)
elevation plan and the relationship of one function to another. The penthouse is the
location of the air handling system and provides for environmental zone control.
Figure 4.5, is a schematic typical for fluid milk processing, including by products
batching, drink blending, high-temperature-short-time (HTST) pasteurization, storage, packaging, and filling.
Careful planning of the facility, equipment location, product flow, and employee
traffic flow cannot be overemphasized. The benefits are bacterial isolation, lower
production costs, and higher product quality. It should also be mentioned that all
new construction and equipment changes (especially if welding is necessary) should
be reviewed by the local control authority before the project is started.
As you read each section in this chapter, you should use some of these diagrams
of dairy processing plants as a frame of reference in relation to the placement of
various dairy equipment and supplies.

4.2 Equipment Common to All Dairies


4.2.1 Tanks
There are many uses of tanks throughout the dairy plant such as raw storage, heating,
mixing, finished product storage, and as a balance prior to process systems or the
filling unit.

NON DAIRY
NCfWDIENTS

DAMY
INCRCDIENTS
BU

CREAM

KEt

WATER

CORN SYKUP
METER BASED
BATCH SYSTEM

OKY INCREDCNT
MD(ER

CCRTinED METER
KECEMNC SYSTEM
r

msr

"BD

luz

WATER

HOLDING TUBE

AC DWVE

HOMO

HT*

HECEN

ZLi
HTST

AC DWVE
BASE

DRINKS
BLCMMNG SYSTEM
TO COOLER
1/2 GAL JUG FILLER

TO COOLER
1 GAL JUG FILLER

METGR BASCD
TtMIHG SYSTEM

CONSTANT
LEVEL
TANK

OUT
STAMMROIZMC
SCPARATO*
Figure 4.5 Typical fluid milk process flow diagram including byproducts batching, drinks blending, HTST pasteurization, and pasteurized product storage and filling. (Courtesy of Accurate Metering Systems, Inc., Schaumburg,
IL, U.S.A.)

Milk coming to the plant from the farm is first stored in a raw product storage
tank. The purpose of this vessel is to cool the product to holding temperature, usually
34 to 36F if it is not already at that temperature and to keep it cool prior to processing
which occurs within 2 days after being received at the plant. Raw milk storage time
is minimized, thus reducing degradation of quality due to bacterial growth and enzyme activity.
The size of the raw milk storage tank and the number of tanks are determined by
the product capacity of the dairy plant and the logistics problem the dairy may have
from the raw product source. Standard size vessels, or silos as they are commonly
called, range from 5000 to 60,000 gallons. When more than one tank is required,
which is usually the case, they are installed in groups called banks or batteries.
Because silos are designed as vertical cylinders they are installed in rows on cement
pads with a hallway in between for plant personnel to make piping connections and
other checks, such as temperature indicators, as required. The vessels are installed
close to the raw milk receiving area to reduce pumping costs and to minimize shear
damage to the raw milk. Figure 4.6A shows the cross-section of a silo tank and thus
the basic construction. The tank is of double shell construction which means it
consists of an outer shell of mild steel with the inner liner made of AISI304 stainless
steel. The mild steel is furnished primed by the manufacturer, then final painting is
the responsibility of the dairy plant as shown in Figure 4.6B. Of course the inner
liner is constructed in a manner so there are no square corners and all surfaces are
polished to a minimum of 150 grit finish. The reader should see the 3-A Sanitary
Standards for further clarification. Insulation of cork or urethane foam is used as a
thermal barrier to keep the product cool and is installed between the inner liner and
the outer liner. The outer shell can be made of stainless steel, however, mild steel
is more economical. The CIP connection for the tank is preinstalled and consists of
a spray device in the top of the silo, thus allowing for CIP solution to be sprayed on
the dome and to cascade down the sides, therefore covering the entire product contact
surface of the tank. The connection for the CIP is located in the tank's alcove (see
Fig. 4.7.). A central CIP system is used to supply the cleaning regimen to the tank.
All silo tanks include an air vent and an overflow line to permit air to be expelled
from the tank during filling and vent filtered air into the tank during emptying, thus
eliminating collapse of the vessel by creating a vacuum.
The alcove is made of AISI304 stainless steel and is used as the interface between
the outside and the inside of the plant. Due to the enormous size of the tanks they
are installed in banks or batteries as indicated earlier. The alcove then allows the
tank to be fitted up next to the building and properly sealed to keep out the weather
elements. Contained in the alcove is a manhole to allow entrance into the silo by
plant personnel and inspectors for physical examination of the unit for cleanliness
and any possible defects. The inlet and outlet connections for the tank are included
in the alcove and are sized depending on the capacity of the tank and the desired
product filling and removal rate. Wells for level indication or control are also part
of the silo plus a well for temperature indication or control which are installed in
the alcove. Thus the operator can always tell how much is in the tank and the
temperature. Low and high level alarms can be part of the level indication controls.

O.D.
I.D.

INSIDE

APPROX.
OVERALL

Figure 4.6.A Cross-section of a silo tank. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)

Figure 4.6.B An outside view of silo tanks. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)
Also low and high temperature alarms are available to alert the plant personnel to
possible problems. All of this information can be recorded on standard charts or
computerized and printed out. All silo tanks should have a refrigeration surface of
some design unless the tanks are installed inside of a refrigerated room, which usually is not economically feasible. The surface is designed for water, glycol, ammonia,
or Freon. The amount of surface per tank is dependent on the heat exchange media,
the outside conditions, and if the tank will be used to simply maintain product
temperature or cool the product during storage. Control of the cooling media is by
temperature controls, thus cooling and maintaining the product at the desired temperature. Figure 4.8 shows a typical mechanical agitator used to keep the raw milk
properly mixed. Note the unit is CIP cleanable. Agitation is of the utmost importance
for the silo tank and consists of a mechanical agitator and sometimes an air agitation
mechanism to keep the raw milk continuously in gentle motion. Low-level indicators
are used to shut agitation off, thus reducing over-agitation of the product as the tank
empties. Timers are also used to regulate the amount of time the milk is agitated,
therefore reducing the possibility of over-agitation.

Figure 4.7 Alcove of a silo tank. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)

Processing tanks are the next vessels the milk can come into contact with in the
dairy plant. They are used for incorporation of ingredients such as solids-not-fat for
fortification of 1% and 2% milks or addition of cocoa powders and sugar for preprocessing of chocolate milk and drinks. Another use for processing tanks can be
for vat pasteurization of specialty products. Thus one can readily recognize a variety
of designs are required due to the different functions desired. Processing tanks can
be single- or double-shell vessels. For example, a tank used for mixing purposes
only could be a single-shell vessel as no heating or cooling is required. A doubleshell tank would be required for vat pasteurization or if any heat treatment or cooling
of the product is to be done. Unlike the raw milk silo the processing double-shell
tank would consist of an AISI 304 stainless steel for the interior lining and the
exterior shell also would be of the same material. The interior would be polished to
150 grit finish with 2B finish exterior being acceptable.
The heat exchange surface for processing tanks is divided into zones; therefore,
if the vessel is not full only the zones fully covered with product will be used. The
surface can be designed for steam only but is more versatile if it is designed for hot
water for heating purposes and chilled water or glycol for cooling.
There are two basic top designs for processing tanks, the bridge and cover or the
dome top as illustrated in Figure 4.9. The type of top selected should be determined
by whether or not additional ingredients need to be added and how the ingredients
will be added.

TANK C.I.P.
LINE
C.I.P. HEADER
INTERLOCK
AGITATOR
MOUNT

AGITATOR
C.I.P. LINE
QUICK-CONNECT
COUPLING

Figure 4.8 A typical horizontal sanitary type agitator. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN,
U.S.A.)

Figure 4.10 shows two types of bottoms used in processors and many types of
agitators available. The pitched and dish-bottom type tanks are used for products
with low viscosity whereas the cone-bottom type vessels are more applicable to
highly viscous materials. Agitators used in processing tanks are bottom sweep, bottom and side sweep, scraper combinations, and high-speed propeller and turbine
type. Bottom sweep is used for products where gentle motion of the product will
suffice to keep it evenly mixed whereas bottom and side sweeps are required for
high-viscosity products. Various scraper type combinations are used on extremely
thick products. The high-speed propeller and turbine types are found in vessels used

PRESSURE/VACUUM DOME TOP


IO P.S.I. & FULL VACUUM

ATMOSPHERIC DOME TOP

BRIDGE AND COVERS

PRESSURE/VACUUM DOME TOP


15 PSI &FULL VACUUM

Figure 4.9 Two basic top designs for processing tanks. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud,
MN, U.S.A.)
for incorporating difficult ingredients and blending. Each type of agitator is designed
for certain functions and therefore should be appropriately applied.
The size of processing vessels can be as small as 50-gallon capacity or as large
as 5000-gallon capacity. Inlets are usually installed in the top of the tank and are of
the no-foam variety while the outlets are in the cone or in the lowest portion of the
pitched bottom tanks for total emptying or drainage. CIP-able units consists of a
variety of sprayball combinations to ensure all areas of the tank surface are cleaned
properly. A separate CIP system supplies the cleaning program to the processing
tank while in smaller dairies each processor may be cleaned by recirculating CIP
solution through the sprayballs until the vessel is clean.

BOTTOM SWEEP

BOTTOM AND SIDE SWEEP

BOTTOM SWEEP AND SIDE SCRAPER

BOTTOM AND SIDE SCRAPFR

RADA
I L TURBN
IE
PROPELLER (4) BLADE AXIAL
TURBN
I E TYPE
TYPE
TYPE
MOUNTED OFF-CENTER ON TANKN
, O BAFFLE REOUR
I ED
AGITATOR OPTIONS
FOR PROCESSORS
A-2O2S-B
Figure 4.10 Two examples of processors' bottoms and types of agitators. (Courtesy of dci,
Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)

Controls for processors can range from simple to very high tech. For example,
hand-operated valves can be used to regulate heating or cooling media to the tanks
with product indicator thermometers showing the operator the product temperature.
Or all controls can be automatic and of course can be computerized for heat treatment
programs, mixing, addition of ingredients, discharge of finished product, and CIP.
After the product has been blended, standardized, and pasteurized it is pumped
into pasteurized/finished product tanks for storage prior to filling or final packaging.
The pasteurized storage tanks can be single shell if they are located in a refrigerated
room; however, as indicated previously this is expensive use of valuable floor space
and refrigeration is costly; therefore most tanks are double shell with a minimum
amount of cold water or glycol heat exchange surface to maintain the pasteurized
dairy product at below 36F. In large dairies a tank with the same design as the raw
milk storage tank is used with the tank itself installed outside on a cement pad and
an alcove connecting it to the inside of the manufacturing plant.
Another type of tank commonly used for pasteurized storage is a horizontal tank
as shown in Figure 4.11. As the name implies it is a vessel built horizontally instead
of vertically. Again the interior shell is AISI 304 stainless steel with the exterior
liner being painted mild steel. A stainless steel exterior can be purchased if the vessel
will be setting in the processing or wet area. This is usually not the case because
processing area in the plant is more expensive than warehouse area; therefore the
one end of the tank containing the inlet, outlet, and manhole is usually bulk headed
through the wall into the program area, thus allowing the major porting of the tank
to set in the warehouse area. The horizontal tank requires a different spray device
for CIP which consists of one or more sprayballs with holes drilled in designed
locations to ensure cleaning to the vessel.
The pasteurized storage tanks are smaller than raw tanks because the product is
stored for only a very short time period, always 24 h and in most plants only a few
minutes. Thus 5000- to 20,000-gallon capacity is a common size for the storage tank.

OLA.

an

LDi

Figure 4.11 A horizontal tank. (Courtesy of dci, Inc., St. Cloud, MN, U.S.A.)

The size of plant and the product mix determine the size and number of pasteurized
tanks required.
As with the previous tanks the controls can be very simple or be highly technical
depending on the desires and requirements of the individual plant. The more simple
controls require more attention by the operator while automatic controls, alarms, and
indicators can reduce man hours required for attending to the pasteurized storage
area. However, as automation of controls increases so does the initial investment by
the plant owner. Because the pasteurized storage area is the last control of the product
prior to packaging it is more important to have charts and printouts of the conditions
of the finished products during their storage to packaging.
Another tank, although simple in nature, deserves some attention in the discussion
and that is the balance or surge tank which is used in the dairy plant as a staging
area between the preparation of product and the HTST (see Section 4.2.2). They are
also used prior to the filling equipment and are usually a part of the filling machine
itself. These tanks vary in size from 20- to 1000-gallon capacity and are single-shell
vessels without agitation. Figure 4.12 shows a typical surge tank available for today's
dairy plant. Balance/surge tanks are equipped with inlet and outlet connections as
well as the return connection for the flow diversion valve of the HTST. Level controls
monitor the amount of liquid in the tank and alarm the operator when product is low
or not present. These tanks are also used for a CIP makeup tank for cleaning of the
HTST system.
Tanks are a necessity in every dairy plant and have many uses throughout the
facility. It is evident from the discussion that first one must decide what the function
of the tank will be and then decide on the characteristics the tank must have so the
desired function will be accomplished.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:

Round Tank

Rectangular Tank

Figure 4.12 Typical surge tanks. (Courtesy of A & B Process Systems Corp., U.S.A.)

1. DCI, Inc., St Cloud, MN, U.S.A.


2. Walker Stainless Equipment Company, Inc., Elroy and New Lisbon, WI, U.S.A.
3. Paul Mueller Company, Springfield, MO, U.S.A.

4.2.2 Heat Exchangers


In the modern dairy it is necesary to be able to control the temperature of the product
at various stages throughout the process. Low-pressure steam and hot water are used
as the primary media for heating milk; however, milk is used itself in a regenerative
process. Chilled water and glycol are used as cooling media and again milk is used
as a cooling medium in a regenerative process.
Heat is transferred from one material to another when each has a different temperature. The heat always flows from the warmer material to the colder one. The
greater the temperature difference the more rapidly the heat transfer takes place. As
the two substances equalize in temperature the transfer slows, thus one can understand that generator temperature differentials improve process efficiency.
Heat transfer occurs in the dairy plant via convection and conduction. Conduction
is the transfer of heat through solid materials and through liquids without mixing of
the liquid. Convection takes place when particles with a high temperature are mixed
with cold particles. For example, convection and conduction occur when water is
heated by directly injecting steam into it. This is considered the direct method of
heating and is very efficient. Another example of this is the direct steam injection
of steam into milk for some high temperature processes. (See Section 4.3.6.) Now
direct heating is forbidden in some countries due to the possibility of introducing
contaminants into the milk via the steam. Thus the indirect method is the more
common of the two heat transfer methods. The indirect method involves hot water
or steam on one side of a barrier and product on the opposite side. A boundary layer
is formed on each side of the barrier. The velocity of the product/media is slowest
in the boundary and increases the further it is from the boundary layer; therefore, it
is highest in the center of the channel. Heat transfer through the boundary layer is
basically via conduction, whereas in the middle of the channel the heat transfer
occurs via conduction and convection.
The heat exchanger is the device used to transfer heat in the dairy and has many
uses in the dairy industry inclusive of precooling raw milk received prior to storage,
heat shock treatment for specialty products, pasteurization, and postpasteurization
cooling prior to final packaging. The duties mentioned require heat exchangers which
are designed and constructed to 3-A Sanitary Standards. Heat exchangers for other
duties such as for heating water or cooling glycol will not be discussed as they are
considered as industrial exchanger and are used in any industrial plant. Because
worldwide we are in a continuous energy crisis this section is of the utmost importance too the dairy plant owner/engineer. Heat exchangers are central to most dairy
processes. They are very energy intensive and therefore must be designed for efficiency, as well as flexibility and cleanliness. Proper heat treatment of typical and
specialty dairy products is vital to produce a quality finished product.

Three types of heat exchangers will be reviewed in this section; the plate heat
exchanger, the shell and tube heat exchanger, and the spiraflow. The requirements
for heat exchangers vary over a wide spectrum in the dairy plant. Before choosing
a heat exchanger for a given function the following items should be considered: (1)
materials of construction; (2) performance requirementstemperature, pressure
drop, flows; (3) scaling/fouling tendencies; (4) ease of cleaning, inspecting, and
servicing; (5) physical changes in the product during the heating/cooling process;
and (6) overall efficiency.
A commonly recognized heat exchanger in the plant is the plate heat exchanger
which has been used for heat transfer of dairy products for over 50 years. As product
is pumped through the plate heat exchanger the flow is distributed in a thin film that
moves over the irregular surface, producing a turbulence desirable for uniform heating and maximizing the length of process runs. This is the most efficienct means for
heat transfer due to the thin exchanger wall and the turbulence of the product and
media, thus resulting in a high heat exchange value. The plate heat exchanger (PHE)
consists of the following main components: (1) plates, (2) gaskets, and (3) frame
inclusive of a fixed end, movable end, intermediate piece, top hanging bar, and lower
guide rail (see Fig. 4.13). The plates are thin stainless steel strips pressed into various
configurations to guide the flow of product evenly over the plate with the maximum

Figure 4.13 A plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems Corp.,
Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)

turbulence possible to create good heat transfer and to give the plate the rigidity it
needs for proper meshing into subsequent plates within the plate pack (see Fig. 4.14).
The plate pack is a series of plates placed parallel to each other to create a heat
transfer system if you will. The plates are made from many materials; however,
those most common for dairy PHEs are AISI 316 stainless steel. More expensive
metals or metal alloys are available that are more corrosive resistant but these characteristics are not required in the dairy operation. Plates used in dairies vary in
thickness from 0.01968 to 0.03346 inch. Horizontal and vertical corrugations are the
most common configurations of the plate stamping. The horizontal is used most
often because it produces more product turbulence and thus is a more energy efficient

Figure 4.14 Plates in a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems
Corp., Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)

plate. The vertical configuration is used for products with higher viscosity such as
ice cream mix or yogurt because it reduces the pressure drop in the PHE. So-called
dimples are used to give the plate rigidity and allow for the metal-to-metal contact
to give the total plate pack the mechanical strength required. The plates also come
in many different sizes. In general the plate design must ensure constant flow, pressure drop, and thermal characteristics when any two plates are put together. Gaskets
on each plate prevent mixing of the heat exchange media with the product and both
from leaking onto the floor. Port gaskets are vented to the atmosphere to prevent
internal leakage. Gaskets can be made of any food-grade material providing it withstands the heating function, the cleaning program it is subjected to, and forms a
proper seal. Rubber type compounds are most commonly used; however, EPDM is
also used because of its elasticity and thus provides superior sealing quality. Other
more expensive materials are available but are not used for dairy plate heat exchanger
gaskets because their particular characteristics are not required. In the past glue was
used to adhere the gaskets to the plates. The gluing process is time consuming and
somewhat unhealthy to those doing the task. Therefore new improved lock-in type
gaskets have been developed and are being supplied by all major plate heat exchanger manufacturers (see Fig. 4.15). This eliminates all the disadvantages of glued
gaskets including the reduction of crevices that are difficult to clean and sanitize.
The plates are all assembled into a frame. The fixed end of the frame is just that,
fixed and does not move. If possible, utilities are connected to the fixed end as there
is then no need to disconnect these when opening of the unit. Opposite the fixed end
is a so-called floating or movable end. This end draws toward the fixed end for
tightening of the plate pack. A top hanging bar is used for hanging the plates in the
unit with the bottom guide bar ensuring proper alignment for the plates. The frame
is usually made of mild: steel materials and is clad with AISI 304 stainless steel.
The cladding is then glass beaded or buffed to give the unit an aesthetic appearance.
The take-up or tightening of the plate pack is accomplished with bolts located on
the perimeter of the frame (see Fig. 4.16), single and twin screw arrangements with
manual tightening, and single and twin tightening rams with pneumatic or hydraulic
driving closure devices. Each method has its advantages; for example, bolts on the
perimeter gives the best sealing of the plates because the pressure is applied more
evenly over the sealing surface and is the least expensive method of tightening the
plate pack; however it is the most labor intensive method. On the other end of the
spectrum is the hydraulic closure device which reduces the labor required to open
and close the PHE but is very expensive when compared to the bolt take-up. The
amount the plate pack is compressed is determined by the manufacturers and should
be indicated on the nameplate of the PHE. A maximum and minimum will be given
because the plates with new gaskets will not require as tight a compression of the
plate pack as plates with older gaskets. The plate pack must not be tightened past
the maximum as doing so could damage the plates.
One of the advantages of PHEs is the ability to put two, three, four, or even more
different heat exchange sections in the same PHE frame. To do this an intermediate
piece is required to allow product and heat exchange media to be introduced or
discharged from the heat exchanger. The intermediate piece is made of mild steel

LOCK-IN System

Cut away showing the intermittant lock point in a plate pack.


Figure 4.15 Gaskets for a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems,
Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)

Figure 4.16 Tightening of plate pack in a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food &
Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)

and is clad similar to the main PHE frame. Because gaskets do leak, especially as
they grow old, and deteriorate, safety shields made of AISI 304 stainless steel can
be supplied to protect workers in the area and other equipment from hot product or
hot cleaning solution. Piping to the PHE must be done in such a manner as to not
create stress on the fittings of the unit. Properly placed pipe hangers will allow the

connections to be made without undue stress. Clamp type fittings are common because they allow for easy dismantling and inspection to the heat exchanger.
Figures 4.17 and 4.18 give the reader a better understanding of how the PHE
works. A section is designed with a number of streams and passes. For example, a
plate could have two passes of two streams each, thus indicating the product flows
in two channels and changes direction within the section two times. The combination
of streams and passes is infinite and depends on the functions required and the
utilities available.
In a typical plate pasteurizer for milk the product enters what is called the raw/
up side of the regenerator where cold raw milk coming in is preheated by the warm
already pasteurized milk in the opposite side of the plates. The pasteurized milk is
thus precooled. A major savings of the thermal requirement for heating and cooling
the milk is accomplished in this regenerative section, usually 85 to 90%. After passing through the raw/up side of the regenerator the milk is heated to pasteurization
temperature via recirculating hot water or steam on the opposite side of the plate
from the product. Next the product flows through the legal holding tube, the flow
diversion valve, and then through the regenerator down side. If the product is not
up to the preset temperature the flow diversion valve routes the product back to the
balance tank until the system is up to legal standards. The milk then enters the cooler
section which uses chilled water or glycol as a cooling medium to cook the milk to
approximately 34 to 38F.
Recent improvements for PHEs include improvement in the plate design, more
durable frame, gasket design, and gasket materials which decrease capital costs and
improve total PHE operation life.
Tubular type heat exchangers are also used in the dairy plant for heat treatment,
pasteurization, and cooling of product. The configurations include tube within a tube,
triple tube, and the conventional tube in a shell. Most of these type heaters are straight
tubes; however, some are in a spiral arrangement in order to save valuable floor
space. Heat transfer is usually less in tubular heaters than in PHEs due to a greater
thickness of the product layer and less product turbulence. Tubular heat exchangers
can be attached to walls or hung from ceilings and therefore are extremely useful in
dairies having limited floor space but ample overhead area.
The tube-within-a-tube configuration consists of a tube made of AISI304 stainless
steel inside of a larger tube made of the same material. The product flows through
the inner tube and the heat exchange media flows through the outer tube. High
product velocity is required to increase turbulence and thus improve heat transfer
efficiency. These units are used for various functions in the plant but are more
commonly used for higher viscosity products or products containing paniculate matter that are difficult to process on the PHE. The triple tube or tube within a tube
within a tube is also common. This unit has the same advantages as the tube within
a tube but in addition is more efficient because media can flow on both sides of the
product to be treated. Either unit can be used for regenerative purposes.
The tube in shell heat exchanger consists of a number of tubes through which the
product flows surrounded by a shell through which the media flows (Fig. 4.19). The
tubes of course are made of stainless steel with the shell being made of mild steel

Figure 4.17 Components of a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)

Next Page

fixed plate

intermediate plate
end plate

loose plate
end plate

Figure 4.18 Schematic drawing for a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food &
Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
or stainless steel. These units are not suitable for regenerative purposes. They are
used in dairy plants especially most often as concentrate preheaters prior to spray
drying and as heat recuperators for the evaporation process.
The spiraflo heat exchanger consists of a series of concentric corrugated tubes
located in headers with a central bolt holding the unit together. Because the tubes
are spirally corrugated, product turbulence is promoted. Units can be individually
designed for the function required and like the other tubular units they can be installed in any location.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.
2. GEA-Ahlborn and GEA-Finnah, GmbH & Co., Sarstede, Germany.
3. Alfa Laval Food & Dairy Company, Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.

4.2.3 Pumps

4.2.3.1 Introduction
Milk, milk products, and cleaning solutions require movement throughout the plant
from raw milk receiving to filling and packaging. Gravity flow, although most de-

Previous Page

fixed plate

intermediate plate
end plate

loose plate
end plate

Figure 4.18 Schematic drawing for a plate heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food &
Process Systems, Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)
or stainless steel. These units are not suitable for regenerative purposes. They are
used in dairy plants especially most often as concentrate preheaters prior to spray
drying and as heat recuperators for the evaporation process.
The spiraflo heat exchanger consists of a series of concentric corrugated tubes
located in headers with a central bolt holding the unit together. Because the tubes
are spirally corrugated, product turbulence is promoted. Units can be individually
designed for the function required and like the other tubular units they can be installed in any location.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.
2. GEA-Ahlborn and GEA-Finnah, GmbH & Co., Sarstede, Germany.
3. Alfa Laval Food & Dairy Company, Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.

4.2.3 Pumps

4.2.3.1 Introduction
Milk, milk products, and cleaning solutions require movement throughout the plant
from raw milk receiving to filling and packaging. Gravity flow, although most de-

Figure 4.19 Shell and tube heat exchanger. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems,
Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)

sirable for optimum product quality, is usually not practical. Compressed air may
be used to "blow down" lines. But one usually finds several types of sanitary pumps
available for movement of milk and milk products and nonsanitary types for pumping
cleaning solutions. Each type is best suited for particular applications.
There are two basic types of pumps-the positive displacement type and kinetic
pumps. Reciprocating and rotary pumps are two most common styles of positive
displacement pumps whereas the centrifugal pump is the most common in the kinetic
group.

4.2.3.2 Centrifugal Pumps


The centrifugal pump consists of three partsa casing, impeller, and shaft. The
impeller and shaft makeup the rotating unit, which develops the necessary liquid
velocity. The casing is the stationary unit, which directs and contains the liquid flow
while converting the developed velocity energy into pressure energy. The liquid
enters the impeller at its center as the impeller begins to rotate. The liquid moves
toward the eye of the rotating impeller at typical speeds of 10 feet/s (30 m/s) and
encounters the rotating impeller. The liquid travels through the impeller passages
and to the tip of the impeller. On reaching the stationary passage the liquid is now
at a high speed-typically 100 feet/s (300 m/s). During the passage of liquid through
the pump, mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy as the rotating
impeller moves the liquid at high absolute velocity. As the liquid moves from the
numerous passages of the impeller into the stationary unit there is a reduction in
speed and a corresponding increase in hydraulic energy. Within one revolution or
less the liquid approaches the discharge end of the pump and the cut-water which
separates most of the rotating flow away from the impeller and into conical section
of the volute. The conversion of velocity to pressure continues. Some liquid is recirculated to the low pressure area while other stays in the impeller for another
revolution and still other liquid moves through the mechanical seal area. The liquid
in the discharge section is now fortified with the hydraulic energy necessary to move
through the system until the energy has been expended. Ultimately, the purpose of
a centrifugal pump is to move a volume of liquid from its source to another location
at a specified rate of flow. Figure 4.20 shows a typical centrifugal pump. Figures
4.21, 4.22, and 4.23 illustrate its components.

4.2.3.3 Positive Displacement Pumps


The positive displacement pump uses a reciprocating piston(s), gears, screw, vanes,
or lobes in a fixed casting to create the motivating force to move the liquid. Piston
pumps are generally used for high-pressure applications. The liquid is directly displaced without the application centrifugal force. Because the liquid is directly displaced, rotary pumps are classified as positive displacement pumps, along with reciprocating and diaphragm pumps. There are two types of gear pumps; the internal
or external gear teeth-type. In the internal gear type the liquid is forced between the

Figure 4.20 A typical centrifugal pump. (Courtesy of Waukesha Pumps, Delavan, WI,
U.S.A.)

teeth and discharged under pressure. In the external gear type, the liquid flows between the gear teeth and pump housing where pressure is generated. The gear pump
has the disadvantage of causing damage to certain products such as cheese curd and
has limited use in conveying products of this type (see Fig. 4.24).
The lobe-type positive displacement pump is frequently used for the transfer of
fluid particulate-containing products. The lobes are dynamically balanced and do not
mesh. In this type of pump the lobes or impellers are counter rotating, creating a
positive displacement force. It is possible to pump liquids containing entrained gases
or vapors without loss of prime. However, a loss of volumetric efficiency will be
noted. The capacity per revolution will vary slightly with fluctuations in speed and
pressure. To vary the pump capacity, it is necessary to vary the pump speed.
Pressure developed by rotary pumps is independent of speed and is determined
by the dynamic head. Positive displacement pumps cannot be operated against closed
discharge lines without damage to the pump or power source or discharge system;
when such an operation is required, it is necessary to provide a bypass relief valve
in the pump or in the discharge pipeline.
Rotary pumps are versatile pumps, finding wide application. Pumps have been
developed for pressures up to 300 psi (2100 kPa) and capacities of several thousand
gallons per minute. Rotary pumps may be used where high vacuums are required.

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Exclusive one-pe
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Top efficiency

No clips
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contamn
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Fvi e ba
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impeler
Figure 4.21 Casing, shelf, and impeller of a centrifugal pump. (Courtesy of Waukesha
Pumps, Delavan, WI, U.S.A.)

They are useful for pumping highly viscous liquids. Most of the positive displacement pumps in the dairy industry are of this type because, depending on impeller
selection, they have few contact surfaces, large ports and large cavities making it
suitable for pumping nonabrasive particulates. The seals between the rotary gears or
impeller and the face plates are of concern because of possible leakage. Also these
are areas of low velocity, requiring some gear or lobe-type positive pumps to be
manually cleaned.
The capacity of this type of pump is controlled mainly by pump and pump size.
Other variables such as inlet location, discharge pressure, product viscosity, and air
content of the product also affect this type of pump's capacity. It is also important
to maintain a fully flooded inlet. Positive rotary pumps are typically available from

Heave
ir front
bBdnoo extends
life
Overszied motor
sttaft eliminates
vibration
Meets Hydraucil
Institute &
ANSI specs
Nosbaft
extenso
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Ibtaflyeodosed
fan cooe
ld
Figure 4.22 Schematic diagram for a centrifugal pump. (Courtesy of Waukesha Pumps,
Delavan, WI, U.S.A.)

1 to 6 inches with capacities up to 510 USGPM (2000 L/h) and pressures up to 300
psi (2100 kPa).
Rotor selections are usually a function of the product being pumped. For products
containing solids in suspension a twin lobe is preferred whereas for viscous liquids
a tri- or multilobe pump is used. Rotors may be of stainless steel, rubber, or other
materials where required for special applications.
The flexible impeller pump is another variation of the positive pump. In this case
the impeller is fabricated from synthetic elastomers and the impellers make contact
with stainless steel housing as they pass over a cam, creating an almost perfect seal
and high vacuum for self-priming. As the impeller rotates each successive blade
draws in product as it passes the inlet and carries the product to the outlet port. As
the liquid in each blade approaches the discharge, it reaches the cam and its volume
is decreased, creating the pressure to force the liquid out of the continuous, uniform
product flow.
The flexible impeller pumps offer many of the advantages of solid impeller pumps
such as high outputs, energy effectiveness, self-priming, excellent lift, and the ability
to handle a wide range of high-viscosity products. It has the additional advantages
of being able to handle solids in suspension (including abrasives) without clogging
and gentle pumping action to minimize emulsification, aeration, or damage to delicate suspended solids.
Other types of positive displacement pumps are those equipped with sinusoidal
impellers. The cross-sectional view of the pump illustrates its essential features (Fig.
4.25). The rotor's sinusoidal shape containing two complete sine curves creates four
separate, symmetrical pumping compartments. As the rotor turns in the housing,

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Figure 4.23 Cross-section of a centrifugal pump. (Courtesy of Waukesha Pumps, Delavan,


WI, U.S.A.)

these four compartments travel through liners providing a positive displacement of


fluid from suction to discharge. The sliding scraper gate prevents return of product
past the discharge and back to the suction side to the pump. The high points of the
sine curve are always in close proximity of the liners and scraper gate which ensures
low slip and excellent lift. The pump has large, constant volume pumping compart-

Figure 4.24 A positive displacement rotary pump. (Courtesy of ?).

Figure 4.25 A typical progressive cavity pump. (Courtesy of Netzsch, Inc., Exton, PA,
U.S.A.)

ments, eliminating compression and damage to particulates. Because the suction


ports volumetric area is constant and the sine curve rotor are fed simultaneously,
there is no pulsation, no axial thrusting, and negligible effect from viscosity within
the pump. The single-rotor, single-shaft design combines to create a compressionfree transfer pumping cycle, enabling the pump to gently handle shear-sensitive
products. Frequently the sine-type pump also handles large, fragile particulates efficiently and will pull a vacuum lift of 30 feet (9 m) of water which often eliminates

the need for auxiliary feeders even when pumping highly viscous liquids. The pulsefree flow also means less damage to the product, less pump maintenance, elimination
of pressure spikes in the process line, and a smooth metered product flow.
The progressive cavity pump v/as invented in 1929 by the French Scientist Rene
Moineau. Although introduced in the United States in 1936, it is better known outside
the dairy industry (Figs. 4.26 and 4.27). The progressive cavity pump is very simple.
It consists of one moving elementnormally a single helical rotor and a stationary
element, a double-threaded helical rotor having twice the pitch. Operation does not
require pistons, vanes, gears, lobes, or diaphragms to establish fluid flow and valves
are not required to control pumping action. The mechanical relationship between the
stator and rotor forms a service of sealed cavities that are phased by 180 degrees.
The cavities progress from suction to discharge as the rotor turns. While one cavity
diminishes, the opposite cavity increases in volume at the same rate, resulting in
uniform, nonpulsating flow. The effect is like that of a piston pump that is continually
on the pressure stroke. The resulting low shear and low velocity provide excellent
capabilities for handling viscous materials (up to 1,000,000 cps), abrasive slurries,
shear-sensitive fluids, and solids in suspension (solids up to 1.8 inch or 45 mm
diameter). These pumps operate at low speeds, thus lowering maintenance requirements. The pump can be disassembled quickly and easily for cleaning and
maintenance.
The shear pump has slotted or drilled stators or rotors. These may be interchangeable, making these pumps versatile and compact systems for component blending,
mixing, emulsifying, texturizing, and smoothing with no aeration. Its operation involves mechanical, ultrasonic, hydraulic, and controlled cavitation. For processing
high-viscosity products in a shear pump, positive pressure provided by a positive
pressure pump may be required.
The colloid mill is characterized by having close fitted groved rotors and stators.
This design produces highly sheared, uniform emulsified products and is capable of
dispersing agglomerates in slurries. The product processed with a colloid mill is
stabilized to a small, uniform globule size. Colloid mills are fed with a positive
displacement pump.
4.2.3.4 Pump Selection Factors
To effect the transfer of mechanical energy from pump to liquid, it is necessary that
the liquid be conveyed into the pump chamber. The energy required to accomplish
this must come from a source outside the pump.
With rotary pumps, a vacuous condition is created by the action of the moving
rotors in the pump chamber. The differential pressure between the vacuous condition
in the pump and the free surface of the liquid, plus suction head, when available,
supplies the energy transferring the liquid to the pump. As the differential pressure
is usually <14.7 psi (103 kPa) atmosphere pressure, the suction side of the pump
becomes a limiting factor in application.
The vacuous condition at the entrance of the pump may be determined with a
vacuum gauge. The gauge indicates the differential pressure as measured in inches

4
Gear-type universal
joint, either single SM
sealed* or double
3
Rotor available in mild sealed. Pin-type univer2
sal joints also available.
steel, tool steel,
Stator available in a
stainless steel and a
wide range of natural or variety of other mate- Patent # 4.305.596
synthetic rubbers, tool rials. Chrome plating
steel, stainless steel or available.
a variety of rigid
plastics.
1
Thru-bolt construction
for easier maintenance.

5
Suction housing flange
can be rotated to any of
four positions in 90
increments.

6
Solid drive shaft. Unlike
hollow shafts, material
cannot accumulate or
8
cause clogging.
Discharge flange is a
standard connection
matched to individual
7
pump's discharge
Packed stuffing box,
pressures.
mechanical seals or
special seals.

9
Drain plug allows draining of housing.
10
Connecting rod is extra
long for extremely low
angularity (approx. 1),
resulting in longer
joint life.

Figure 4.26 Cross-section of a progressive cavity pump. (Courtesy of Netzsch, Inc., Exton, PA, U.S.A.)

11
Clean-out port.
12
Deep-groove ball
bearings.

Item
2
t

1617
18
2019

Ottcription
Pump Body
Pump Body - Flushing
Pump Cover
Pump Cover -Vented
Pump Cover - Jacketed
Bearing Housing
Bearing Housing Cover
Gear - Drive Shalt
Gear - ShoM Shall
Orive Shalt
Short Shall
Rotor - Twin Blade
Stud
Wmg Nut
Grease Seal - Front Brg Retainer
Grease Seal - Front Brg Rear
0:1 Seal-8H Rear
Oil Seal- BH. Cover
Bearing Rear
Bearing Front
Key-Gear
Seal Brg Retainer
Socket Head Capscrew-Shim

Qty
1
1
11
682
22
2
22
2
41

Pirl No
060 001^010
060
001-011
COO 002-SOO
055-002-VOO
CD0
002J10
070-105
000
070
106000
060
007-001
060060-008000
007002
060-009000
060010000
060011000
CD0016O02
000
030 009
000-030-010
000
030030012
011
000
060
035000
060 037-000
036-000
060
070-038
000
039 000
008

Item
t 22
2324
26
27
28
29
30
t
333234
363537
3839

MODEL 60
Ottcription
01. Part No
Dowel
Pin - CS Upper
OowelPm-CS
lower
coao4t>oo6
OowelPm-BHS
Upper
COO 040RO0
040-100
Dowel Pm -BHB Cover
H S Lower
CO0
Gasket
CO0O40R10
Hex
Capscrew-Fill
Dram.
Level
070-042-000
Rotor
Shi
m NuI
-FrtGearBrg
as reqd 000046003
060
052000
Spacer
060054XXX
Spacer
Rear
Front Beari
Bearinngg
060055000
Spacer

060
055
001
FiBeari
ber nWasher
060
055002
g Retain-erDram andCoverLevel
ADO-064-000
HtCapscfew-8H
060
080 000000
HexCapscrew-Brg
8BB-058
Grease
Retainer RearRetBrg
ST0081022
Grease
Fitting
STO
091 002
Shi
m -BushingB H. Base'Upper
800092
000
Dowel
070-110-000
Dowel
Bushi
n
g

Lower
COO
116000
'Stop
0' RiPm-Seal
ng Cover - Buna N
CCOO-117000
00-116 100
223-126000

Hem
Description
Pan No.
' 22 COO-T26
000
Spacer
127-000
22 060
424341 fcyeLockwastier
BoU Sea! - Gear
STO
129 009001
SIO
136
22 SlO 136011
4445 Lockwasher
-BrgFrom
Big
0 RingB70 137 154
4647 lockout
Locknui
-- Gear
-Re!
Hear-Inner
22 STD-236-009
FiontBfg
STO064236000011
070
OIL1-MICRO-PLATE
140
Gallon Can
OBI-140-000
1 -Quart
OBM41-000
GREASE
MICROCan
1 - Pound
Tube- PLATE 555
0BI-t42-OOO
A00 -096 -001
t1 0 RiRolngorRemoval
Tool
060019-000
NuI Wrench
t Net Shown
* See Vented Cover Section. Page 44. for Assembly Ophons and Pans
Breakdown
PumpS/N Required

Figure 4.27 Cross-section of a positive displacement pump. (Courtesy of ?)

of mercury. One inch Hg of vacuum is equivalent to .49 psi (3.4 kPa), or 1.13 feet
(96.4 mm) of dynamic suction lift.
Successful operation of any pump is dependent on proper proportioning of the
suction line. When suction lines are too long, or not of sufficient size, cavitation will
occur. The effect of cavitation will be a loss of capacity and noisy operation.
When proportioning the suction line it is necessary to consider the following
factors: (1) the vertical distance from the source of supply, (2) entrance losses,
(3) velocity losses, (4) friction losses, and (5) absolute pressure required to prevent
vaporization of the liquid in the suction line of pump.
The effect of viscosity on suction line size, length, and capacity is very important.
Viscosity is that property of a liquid that resists any force tending to produce flow.
Consequently, greater frictional losses will be encountered with increased viscosity.
High frictional losses in the suction line will occasion a reduction in capacity and
in the velocity of the liquid in the suction line. The reduction in suction line capacity
occasioned by increased viscosity will require a reduction in pump speed so that the
pump displacement does not exceed the line capacity.
If the absolute pressure in the suction line or pump chamber falls below the vapor
pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid being pumped, vaporization
will occur. When this situation prevails, cavitation and loss of capacity ensues. The
term Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is used to indicate the absolute pressure, as
measured, at the pump suction port. When suction conditions require the pumping
of volatile liquid without sufficient NPSH, best results may be obtained with short
suction lines and high liquid velocities. This is due to the time element involved in
vaporization of the liquid.
It is of interest to note that pump capacities are usually determined by suction
conditions. The proper procedure is to size the suction line so as to convey the
required quantity of liquid to the pump. The pump size is then determined by the
size of the suction line and the pump speed is determined by correlating the displacement to suction line capacity.
Pump efficiency is the ratio of liquid horsepower to brake horsepower required
by the pump. Efficiency of the rotary pump is subject to wide variation. Volumetric
efficiency, mechanical losses, and viscosity of the liquid being pumped are major
factors in determining pump efficiency.
High volumetric efficiency is conducive to favorable pump efficiency. With favorable volumetric efficiency, the ratio of liquid horsepower expended in pumping
slip to the brake horsepower input assumes satisfactory proportions. At a constant
pressure, reduced pump efficiency will be encountered at low pump speeds because
slip is constant and independent of speed. With a constant pump speed, increased
pressure will result in decreased pump efficiency occasioned by increased slip.
Mechanical losses are incurred in timing gears, bearings, and stuffing boxes.
Losses in timing gears and bearings may possibly amount to 10% of the power
consumption in a medium or large size pump. An improperly adjusted stuffing box
may account for more friction than all other mechanical losses combined as stuffing
boxes are notorious power consumers. Mechanical losses in small-capacity pumps
may exceed the liquid horsepower required. The efficiency of small-capacity pumps

will usually be very low. Viscosity has a marked effect on pump efficiency. A
reduction in efficiency is encountered with increased viscosity. This is due to energy
required in effecting viscous shear in the pump clearances. Viscous liquids often
possess adhesive properties which will occasion a further reduction in pump efficiency. This is due to the additional power required to start a pump handling tacky
liquid. After the pump has been started, the power requirements may diminish with
a tacky liquid, and improved efficiency will be obtained with relieved clearances.
Conventional practice in determining pump efficiencies is to conduct tests on
water or other liquids of low viscosity. Such tests are not indicative of efficiencies
with highly viscous liquids. Close clearances required for favorable efficiency on
these liquids will require excessive power when pumping viscous liquids. Open
clearances conducive to satisfactory operation with viscous liquid will occasion a
reduction in pump efficiency when pumping thin liquid due to increased slip.
Maximum efficiencies are usually encountered with medium- and large-capacity
pumps. This is due to the fact that mechanical losses are not proportional to pump
size, and also due to better volumetric efficiencies encountered with large pumps.
Rotary pump efficiencies seldom exceed 60%, even with favorable conditions.
With very viscous adhesive liquids, pump efficiencies may be as low as 15 to 20%.
The term cavitation is derived from the word cavity, meaning a hollow space.
Cavitation in a pump is an undesirable vacuous space in the port of the pump rotor
that is normally occupied by liquid. Cavitation occasions a loss of volumetric efficiency and noisy operation. The useful life of the pump will be materially shortened
through mechanical damage, increased corrosion, and erosion when cavitation is
present.
Vaporization of liquid in the suction line of the pump or in the pump chamber is
a common cause of cavitation. Vapor bubbles will be carried along with the liquid
until a region of higher pressure is encountered, at which time the bubbles will
collapse with shock. The magnitude of the shock is dependent on pressure, amount
of slip, and nature of the pump. To prevent vaporization, the NPSH must exceed the
vapor pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid being pumped.
The presence of dissolved or entrained vapor or gas in a liquid will have the same
effect as vaporization when suction conditions require vacuum. Mechanical agitation
of a liquid will tend to entrain quantities of air. The presence of bubbles or foam on
the surface of the liquid being pumped may indicate entrained vapor or air. Air leaks
in the suction line or stuffing box will also cause cavitation.
When pumping highly viscous liquids, the speed of the pump must be adjusted
to the viscosity of the liquid. Viscosity is a friction effect and reduces the capacity
and velocity of the flow through the suction line. Cavitation will occur if the velocity
of the rotor does not allow sufficient time to fill the liquid cavity of the fluid chamber.
It is interesting to note that there is a definite relation between suction line velocity
and rotor velocity.
Cavitation in pumps handling highly viscous liquids will usually be accompanied
by greater shock and noise than occurs with cavitation in pumps handling thin liquids. This is because less slip is encountered on highly viscous liquids, and slip

accomplishes the partial collapse of the vacuous space before the region of high
pressure is reached.
Excessive cavitation may be recognized by the noise produced and ensuing vibration. If the pump knocks or rumbles as though the rotors are out of time, in all
probability the cause is due to cavitation. Cavitation is the most commonly encountered of all pump difficulties. It occurs with all types of pumpsrotary, reciprocating, or centrifugal. When encountered, excessive pump speed or adverse suction
conditions will be found responsible. Reducing the pump speed or rectiflying the
suction condition will usually eliminate the difficulty. Slip is the liquid lost by leakage through the pump clearances. The direction of the flow will be from the highpressure to the low-pressure side of the pump. The amount of slip depends on several
factors. As might be expected, increased clearance will result in greater slip. The
size and shape of the rotor will be a factor determining the amount of slip. Rotors
with long sealing surfaces, or with labyrinth effect, have less slip than those without,
providing clearances and size are constant. On most pumps the shortest sealing
surface will be found at the sides of the rotor, and it is at this point that the majority
of slip occurs.
Theoretically, slip will vary as the square root of the pressure differential for a
condition of turbulent flow; slip will vary directly for a condition of laminar flowthrough characteristics.
Viscosity is a factor in determining slip. Theoretically, the slip will vary inversely
with the viscosity. Due to heating of the fluid in the pump clearances, slight variations
from the theoretical will be encountered. The effect of slip may be disregarded with
very viscous liquids as the quantity becomes negligible.
Slip is independent of pump speed. This factor must be taken into consideration
when operating pumps at low speeds with thin liquids. For example, the quantity of
slip at 400 rpm pump speed will be the same as the quantity at 200 rpm provided
the pressure is constant.
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual capacity to the theoretical displacement of the pump. Volumetric efficiency is subject to considerable variations with
conditions. A volumetric efficiency of 100% is possible only when the absolute
pressure at the suction port of the pump is equal to that of the discharge port. Because
this condition is seldom encountered in practice, volumetric efficiencies are usually
<100%.
Slip is a factor in determining the volumetric efficiency of a pump. Because slip
is constant per unit of time, the volumetric efficiency will change with pump speed
when pumping thin liquids, being greater at maximum pump speed. A volumetric
efficiency of zero will occur at the speed at which pump displacement equals slip.
When estimating volumetric efficiencies when pumping highly viscous liquids, the
effect of slip may be disregarded.
The presence of entrained gas or air in the liquid being pumped will occasion a
reduction in volumetric efficiency with dynamic suction lift conditions. Air leaks in
the suction line or through the stuffing box will also result in a loss of volumetric
efficiency.

Viscous liquids require pump speed and displacement to be synchronized with


suction line capacity so to preclude cavitation and loss of volumetric efficiency.
When handling water or medium viscosity products, the pump's volumetric efficiency can be determined from the standard performance curves by expressing the
pump's output as percentage of the theoretical displacement at the particular speed,
for example, the pump running at 500 rpm would deliver 4400 igph of water against
a pressure of 40 psig and approx. 6000 igph at 0 psig; therefore the pumps volumetric
efficiency are assured for calculation purposes to be 90% at all pressures.
Pump size is usually determined by the diameter of the suction line; therefore,
for trouble-free operation, correct proportioning of the suction line is essential. The
normal procedure is to size the suction line to carry the specified capacity of fluid
under the desired operating condition and the pump size is hence ascertained.
This may seem simple; however, all the following factors affect suction line size:
(1) NPSH required by the pump, (2) fluid velocity, (3) fluid viscosity, (4) fluid vapor
pressure at pumping temperature, (5) friction losses in pipework, and (f) suction lift
required, or positive head available.
The NPSH required by a rotary pump can be defined as the losses with the pump
head caused by slip (internal leakage), friction and viscosity drag. The NPSH available in a suction system is atmospheric pressure, that is, 33.9 ft of water at sea level,
minus the suction lift (or plus positive head), minus frictional losses in the pipework
and minus the vapor pressure of the fluid:
NPSH available = atmospheric pressure
- (suction lift + friction losses + vapor pressure)
It is of the utmost importance when designing suction pipework that NPSH available
is in excess of that required by the pump; otherwise that liquid being pumped will
flash into vapor, causing cavitation and loss of capacity or even a complete breakdown in flow.
For rotary pumps, the NPSH required increases with speed, capacity, and viscosity. Hence the lower the NPSH available for a given suction system, the larger
and thus slower running the pump required. Therefore, from the economic aspect
excessive suction lifts should be avoided and suction lines kept as short as possible.
In addition, liquids should be handled at the lowest temperature practical where
high vapor pressure is a problem. Otherwise, large slow operating pumps have to
be used. Similarly, when a pump is required to extract from vacuum conditions, such
as an evaporator, there is little or no NPSH available, as the fluid is in effect boiling,
and it is essential the suction vessel is located well above the pump with a large
diameter feed line to give a positive head, this making some NPSH available. However, even under favorable head conditions, when extracing from a high vacuum (26
to 28.5 inches Hg) it is necessary to oversize the pump to keep the NPSH to a
minimum.
This is the most frequent of pumping problems and occurs when the NPSH available does not exceed the NPSH required by the pump. Cavitation is easily identified
by the serious vibration, noisy operation, and loss of capacity which are inherent. If
allowed to cavitate unchecked, mechanical damage to bearings or mechanical seals

will follow, together with rapid corrosion and possible corrosion of the pumping
chamber, resulting in early pump failure.
Cavitation can be defined as the implosion of vapor bubbles in the fluid, usually
with the pump head, although it can also occur in the pipework. In simple terms,
vaporization of liquid causes gaseous pockets in the fluid that are carried along with
the flow until the region of high pressure in the pump head is met, at which point
the vapor bubbles suddenly collapse causing shock, noise, and vibration. The degree
of shock is proportional to the differential pressure across the pump and the viscosity
of the fluid.
Cavitation can also result if a fluid contains dissolved or entrained gases; alternatively any leaks through the pump stuffing box or suction line will have the same
effect. Further, viscous products will flow only slowly into the pump chamber, hence,
if the pump is too fast to allow the rotor cavity to fill with liquid, cavitation will
ensue. To prevent this problem from occurring, the selected pump speed should be
checked against viscosity on the maximum rpm/viscosity curve, particularly as
greater shock is experienced with cavitation when handling viscous products. This
is because partial collapse of vapor bubbles takes place before reaching the discharge
side of the pump due to slip with low-viscosity liquids, but with viscous products
slip is only nominal and collapse is almost instantaneous.
To overcome cavitation, it is necessary to increase the NPSH availability by
reducing the suction lift (or raising the static positive head), alternatively, friction
losses can be reduced by increasing the suction pipe diameter or shortening the
length. The problem can also usually be solved by slowing the pump speed which
reduces the NPSH required by the pump.
When determining flow conditions, the velocity of liquid through a pipe can easily
be calculated using the formula:
Q = 0.7854D2K
where Q = quantity, D = pipe bore, and V = flow velocity.
Pipes are assumed to be filled; however, the flow velocity determined is only a
mean figure as frictional forces slow the flow in contact with pipe wall, causing a
velocity gradient across the section of the flow.
Streamline (or laminar) flow is indicative of low velocity with viscous forces
predominating. The velocity profile will be a smooth parabola, with maximum velocity at the center of the pipe, approx. 1.5 times the mean velocity.
Turbulent flow is experienced with high velocity, when forces of inertia predominate and velocity profile is not predictable and constantly changing. Velocity profile
is not important, although as a rough rule the maximum velocity is approximately
1.75 to 2.0 times the mean velocity, depending on the Reynolds number and surface
finish of the pipe.
The friction losses with streamline and turbulent flow are quite different; therefore, it is important to know the flow condition. For streamline flow friction losses
are predominant due to viscous drag and are independent of pipe surface roughness.
However, with turbulent flow, shear stresses in the liquid are higher than those due

to viscosity; surface finish has an appreciable effect on fictional losses. Factors affecting flow condition are viscosity, velocity, and pipe size which are related by the
unitless formula for Reynolds number:
DV
Reynolds no. = 0.7740
where D = pipe diameter, V = fluid velocity, and JJL = viscosity.
If the Reynolds number is <1200, flow will definitely be streamline and may
under certain conditions continue up to 2000, but if the number is 3000 or above,
the flow is always turbulent.
44
Slip" is the term used to describe the internal leakage taking place through the
rotor clearances. Several factors affect the amount of slip, but theoretically slip varies
as the square root of the pressure differential for turbulent flow and directly for a
condition of streamline flow. Further, slip varies inversely with viscosity and for
high-viscosity fluids the effect is only nominal. It is important to note the slip is
constant for given operating conditions and is independent of pump speed; hence
slip at 300 rpm and 500 rpm would be the same quantity.

4.2.4 Pipe, Valves, and Fittings


Fluid flow and mass transport of raw materials and product is an essential support
mechanism in all dairy plant operations. The piping and associated fittings are what
veins and arteries are to higher life forms, and other dairy operations may be likened
to the organs of the body. The general acceptance of technological advances in
methods of joining pipe lines and mechanical cleaning of most or all of the dairy
processing system has led to maximizing the use of permanently installed pipe lines
in dairy plants and a minimum and manual handling and movement of ingredients.
This increased use of piping has led to the increased use of power-activated valves
coupled to automatic controls as the method of choice to precisely route and control
the movement of fluids in the plant. These developments have played a major role
in improvement of milk plant efficiency, increased product quality, and increased
product safety.

4.2.4.1 Sanitary Piping and Tubing


AISI 300 series stainless steel is the material of choice for sanitary tubing because
of its resistance to corrosion and wear. Glass tubing is rarely, if ever, found in a
processing plant although it is still found on farms. Other nontoxic, nonabsorbent
metals that are at least as corrosion resistant as the 300 series stainless steel are
acceptable. In some special applications "super ferritics" and proprietary austenitic
grades such as titanium or high nickel alloys may be used. Where welding is involved, the carbon content should not exceed 0.08% and preferably be at 0.05%.
The tubing may be seamless or welded type. The product contact surfaces of the
tubing shall have ground or polished finish at least as smooth as a No. 4 finish on

stainless steel sheets free of imperfections such as pits, folds, and crevices. The way
of obtaining this surface finish is to successively polish the tubing with increasing
grit number of silicon-carbide, the last being 150 grit. In some special applications
a higher grit number or electropolishing may be necessary. Sanitary tubing is covered
by the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Polished Metal Tubing for Dairy Products, Number 33-00 and the applicable provisions of ASTM Specification for Seamless and
Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Sanitary Tubing Designation A270. Polished tubing is required for sanitary applications.

4.2.4.2 InstallationJoining
Methods most commonly used to cut sanitary stainless steel tubing include sawing,
abrasive wheel, and lathe cutting. Sawing is the most economical but may not provide perfect end edges. Abrasive wheel cutting is the fastest method and with proper
fixturing will provide squared ends and accurate cut length with minimum burrs.
Tubing should be cleaned thoroughly after abrasive cutting. Lathe cutting is the most
accurate method and usable on all sizes and wall thicknesses.
Sanitary stainless steel tubing is joined by welding or by various mechanical
means which usually involve welding a sanitary fitting to the tube. The tubing or
fitting ends must be square cut and deburred. The welding surface (interior, face,
and exterior) must also be cleaned and freed of all foreign matter and surface oxide
prior to welding. Iron-free abrasive shall be used when cleaning the surfaces.
There are several welding methods that are used to join stainless steel tubing but
only one is recognized as being suitable for sanitary applications and that is the
tungsten inert gas (TIG) method. The TIG method is electric arc welding with a
tungsten electrode shielded by an inert gas, to produce a butt fusion weld. The inert
gas may be either argon or helium, depending on whether it is a manual or automatic
welding operation. The inert backup gas protects and controls the interior of the
weld.
The design of the weld joint should be such as to avoid pits, craters, ridges, or
imbedded foreign materials. Welding procedures shall ensure uniform and complete
penetration of the weld surfaces. Penetration of the root bead into the bore shall be
kept to a minimum. With skilled technicians, hand welds, in which the positioning
of the weld is manually controlled, give satisfactory results. Both semiautomatic and
automatic welding methods are available. A semiautomatic weld is described as that
made using equipment that requires manual strike or manual control during the
welding cycle and will consistently make repetitive welds. A fully automatic weld
is described as that made by equipment that starts and completes the weld, strikes
and controls the arc with no manual adjustment of control during the welding cycle,
and will consistently make repetitive welds. The fully automatic orbital method is
capable of welding a wide range of diameters, including 1 inch (25 mm) to 4 inches
(100 mm) O.D. Sanitary tubing is suitable for butt welding tube to tube or tube to
fittings such as standard or long tangent elbows and tees or short quick-disconnect
type fittings. Each size weld head may be operated up to 100 feet (30 m) away from

the power supply. Once these automatic systems are set up, fully penetrated, smoothfinished, perfect welds are easily and repeatably made at a touch of a button.
Visual inspection of welds is the basic inspection method. Good lighting and a
low-power (5 to 10 X) hand-held lens are necessary. A straight-edge and measuring
tape may also be useful. As an adjunct to visual inspection, dye penetration test may
be useful but only in the hands of skilled technicians. A boroscope is often required
by dairy control authorities to inspect representative welds.
Internal and external grinding or polishing of welds used to join pipelines is not
required. If grinding or polishing of external weld surfaces is desired, it shall be
delayed until after inspection and acceptance by the proper control authority unless
internal weld surfaces are easily accessible for inspection. Internal or external grinding or polishing should never be used as a substitute for proper welding technique.
The frequency and numbers of welds inspected is an often asked question. The
answer will vary depending on the circumstances but must meet the local control
authority's requirements. The following are suggestions on the extent of inspection.
Where new piping or substantial extensions to pipework are being installed: (1) all
branch connection welds should be inspected; (2) the first five butt welds made by
each technician should be inspected; if satisfactory, then reduced to three randomly
chosen welds for each of the next five butt welds and finally to one in five randomly
chosen; (3) if any welds are unsatisfactory the sequence should be repeated. All
repair welds should be reinspected.
Several mechanical joining methods are possible with stainless steel tubing. They
include threaded connections, bolted joints, interlocking connections, compression
fittings, swagging and rolled fittings. These are generally unsatisfactory for sanitary
application and used only where butt welding of tubes or welding a sanitary fitting
to a tube end is not possible for essential functional reasons. ACME-threaded, bevelseated joints are acceptable but do require frequent inspection where mechanical
cleaning is used, and will often require manual cleaning.

4.2.4.3 Installation: Layout and Engineering Requirements


The size of piping to be installed depends on the volume of product to be pumped
through it in a given period of time (the flow rate). Tubing size must be considered
when sizing the CIP system. This will be discussed in Section 4.2.7. Table 4.1 gives
the capacity of the most common standard size dairy tubing. It is important that the
pipe capacity is fully integrated with the capacities of the processing equipment.
The supporting of pipelines is necessary for maximum service, correct drainage,
and proper functioning of attached equipment. Pipelines should be firmly supported
so that there is no sag but not rigidly anchored to equipment. Temperature changes
result in expansion and contraction so some flexibility is necessary. To prevent sag
straight runs of piping should be supported every 10 feet (3 m). Supports should be
used on both sides of a valve and near the inlet and outlet fittings of pumps and at
all tank connections. There should also be one support at each change of direction
in a pipe line.

Table 4.1 SANITARY PIPE CAPACITIES


Tubing Diameter
(OD)

Milk Capacities

in.

mm

lb/hr

Rg/hr

1
VA
2
21A
3
4

25
40
50
65
75
100

4250 to less
4251 to 14,500
14,501 to 33,400
33,401 to 51,900
51,901 to 82,500
82,501 to 160,000

2000 or less
2001 to 6600
6601 to 15,000
15,001 to 23,600
23,601 to 37,500
37,501 to 352,000

For viscous or high solids products use the next larger size.

Prior to installation a drawing or equivalent plan should be submitted to the


appropriate control authority for written approval before installation or subsequent
addition or modification. The drawing should show all permanent circuits, and the
associated equipment and their juxtaposition.
All connections between any solution circuit and any product circuit shall be
effectively separated to positively prevent the commingling of the product and solution during processing. This same reuqirement exists for raw and pasteurized product and for Grade A and non-Grade A products. It should be noted that effective
separation is not achieved with the use of one valve. Physical make-break ells are
a common method for achieving effective separation when required.
Separation by at least two automatically controlled valves with a drainable opening to the atmosphere between the valves is another way to achieve effective separation of cleaning and processing circuits. The opening to atmosphere should be
equal to the diameter of the largest pipeline and the valve position should be detectable. Automatic fail-safe systems are recommended when valves are used.
There shall be no cross-connections between any safe water supply used for the
CIP circuit and any unsafe or questionable water supply, or any source of pollution
through which the safe water supply might become contaminated. For example a
connection between the water supply piping and makeup tanks must be protected
by an air gap or backflow preventor.
The design of pipeline systems should provide for the permanent installation of
as much pipeline as possible. All unnecessary bypass and return connections should
be eliminated. The piping configuration should enable all processing to be completed
without piping changes and yet permit easy conversion to cleaning circuits except
those changes required for separation of Grade A products and non-Grade A
products.
A new concept in piping called matrix piping is used to differentiate a sanitary
process design concept from traditional methods. Matrix piping is the piping system
of a sanitary process to be permanently connected (hard piped). Furthermore, matrix
piping systems are designed to allow cleaning operations to take place safely in part

of piping system while product processing operations are underway elsewhere in the
same piping system.
In the matrix piping systems all product and CIP valves are consolidated into
compact grids or matrices. In order to create a matrix, the pipe work is arranged so
that one group of parallel pipes crosses another group of parallel pipes, usually at
90 degrees.
A valve can be installed at any point where two pipelines cross. The valves are
mixproof double-seat valves. These valves are used at every point where a closed
valve must absolutely isolate incompatible products or product and cleaning solutions. In the United States, the PMO limits use of double-seat valves to separate
compatible products or solutions.
Matrix piping systems design eliminates tees and other physical separations such
as hoses, swing panels, and multiple-valve block and bleed arrangements. In addition
to the above, there are numerous reasons why matrix technology is used. The use
of this system and proper valving provides a piping system that has no pockets or
traps, thus providing end-to-end cleaning. Because there are no dead ends, CIP
solution and rinse quantities can be reduced. Also because there are no make-break
connections, the system is completely automated and may be operated from one
central location. The elimination of all manual operations minimizes the chances for
operator error. The matrix systems uses fewer valves than nonmatrix ones, thereby
lowering capital and maintenance costs.
Glass piping was used in many installations with the general adoption of CIP.
Glass piping has to be of the boro-silicate type and be able to withstand the chemical
used in CIP and sanitizing and temperatures to at least 212F (1000C). The most
important advantage of glass piping is the ability for visual inspection for cleanliness.
Glass has the very important disadvantage of not being able to withstand stress or
strain and requires special installation techniques. Today glass piping is seldom
found in dairy plants but is still used in many farm milk handling systems.
Flexible plastic and rubber tubing are often used where rigid piping is not feasible
because of vibration, reciprocating motions, or desired pitch or to reduce the number
of sanitary fittings. Plastic or vinyl line and rubber tubing for example has found
extensive use for bulk tanker unloading and on farm pickup trucks. Their use in this
application reduces the number of fittings to two and allows easy and quick connection of a milk transport tank outlet valve to the raw milk receiving pump. Flexible
tubing also has found use on filling and packaging equipment, membrane processing
equipment, and occasionally on pumps or other equipment that vibrates excessively.
Although rubber and rubberlike materials and plastics meeting 3A Sanitary
Standards are considered sanitary, it is desirable to use as much stainless steel piping
as possible.

4.2AA Sanitary Fittings and Valves


A variety of devices must penetrate process vessels, equipment, and pipelines while
maintaining a sanitary process. The function of these devices is to allow for connection of piping or equipment, to control or redirect flow, to interface instruments

to the system, to sample and measure flow, and as sight gauges. There are literally
hundreds of examples of these devices, thus discussion will be limited to a general
one using examples for which there are sanitary specifications.

Sanitary Fittings
The dairy industry has long been concerned with simplifying and standardizing fittings design. The first attempts by the United States dairy industry to develop
standards were those pertaining to fittings. These first "standards" were proposed
to unify specifications for fittings. In 1944, the 3-A Sanitary Standards Program's
priority became and remains that of developing uniform standards for equipment
reflecting practical advances in sanitary science.
There are currently 12 3-A Standards for fittings and valves, one for flow meters,
and an additional four that cover instrument fittings and filters. The general sanitary
concepts embraced by all of the standards may be summarized as:
1. These devices must be easily accessible and readily cleanable, either when in an
assembled position or when removed.
2. All product contact surfaces shall be self draining.
3. All permanent joints in metallic product surfaces shall be welded and polished
to a No. 4 finish.
4. If threads are necessary, they shall be wide, open, and easily cleaned (ACME
type preferred).
5. When equipment is assembled, no pipe or fitting threads should be in the product
zone.
6. Interior junction surfaces must be smooth without crevices or projections.
7. Gaskets, when used, should provide a flush interior surface.
To illustrate the importance of fittings in a medium sized dairy with 6600 to
10,000 feet (2000 to 3000 m) of pipes there may be a thousand or more fittings
installed. The fittings may be bends, tees, in-line sight glasses, reducers, cross-type
fittings, or fittings for special functions such as those for interfacing thermometers
and pressure sensors to the process.
The threaded fitting was the first detachable fitting used by the dairy industry.
Early ones were undoubtedly not sanitary. Today threaded fittings are available in
numerous styles and sizes. The most common style is the bevel seat using ACME
threads in 1 inch (25 mm) to 4 inch (100 mm) size. This type of fitting may be used
to join pipe to pipe, pipe to equipment, or a fitting to an instrument. The union is
made with a hexagonal nut to a threaded ferrule. The fabrication of this fitting
provides a relatively leakproof union and is suitable for pressures up to 100 psi (700
kPa). Although sanitary, this type of fitting requires disassembly and manual cleaning. There is another type of threaded fitting that is gasketed and joins a threaded
ferrule to a gasket seat ferrule with a hexagonal nut. These modified bevel seat fittings
are useful for daily make-break connections in CIP systems.
The clamp and yolk-type, quick disconnect fitting is widely used in systems where
CIP is done. In these systems joints must often be changed when switching from

processing to CIP and when joints are disassembled for inspection purposes. The
clamp-type gasketed fitting is quite satisfactory in that it provides a smooth internal
surface free of crevices and is easily attached or removed by one person without the
use of tools. Proper alignment of the fitting is assured because the clamp or yolk
will not lock into place if the joint is not properly aligned. Because the resulting
union presents no possibility of trapping product or cleaning solution and is easily
assembled and taken apart, it is the fitting-type of choice where CIP is the norm.
Now that CIP is widely accepted and practiced, welded joints are considered the
most satisfactory and although not always practical, are being used wherever possible. As plants get larger and more automated, welded fittings have the obvious
advantages and welded pipelines need not be taken down except for occasional
inspection. Inspections are done at points joined by sanitary fittings.
Valves are necessary to control and direct flow processes. The types of valves
available to the dairy plant operator are numerous and may be classified in several
ways. The dairy plant operator is limited to those of sanitary construction but they
may be manually cleanable or CIP-able. Valves may be further classified as manually
or power operated and by their configuration: compression type, butterfly type, plugtype, diaphragm type, and so forth.
The discussion here will be limited to those used in the dairy industry and, with
two exceptions, to those for which there are 3-A Sanitary Standards. The manually
operated, plug-type valve was one of the first to have service in the dairy industry
and is still used in applications requiring manual cleaning. They may be of one-way
or three-way configurations. Manual plug-type valves are used on batch pasteurizers
and other critical processes where leak detection is necessary. These are inlet and
outlet leak-protector valves. They are designed so that when the valve is in any
closed position, it will prevent leakage of the product passed through the valve. Leak
protector valves are provided with one or more leak-protection grooves 3/16 inch
(5 mm) wide and 3/32 inch (2 mm) deep at the center. These grooves shall be
positioned to divert leakage occurring at all points throughout the depth of the seat
and to prevent air binding. They must also be fitted with a stop to guide the operator
in closing the valve so that unpasteurized product may not enter the outlet line or
the pasteurizer. They must also be designed to prevent the accumulation of unpasteurized product in the product passages of the valve when the valve is in any closed
position. Although the norm is manually operated and cleaned, power actuation is
available and at least one manufacturer claims CIP.
The diaphragm-type valve controls the flow of product by a flexible rubber or
plastic diaphragm. These valves are useful for varying flow rates. The diaphragm
separates the product from the working bonnet assembly. They may either be manually controlled or power operated. The bonnet is attached to the body. The chamber
on the exterior side of the diaphragm shall have one or more 3/32 inch (2 mm) leak
detection holes above the bonnet flange.
The boot-seal type valve is a second example of a sanitary valve using rubber or
plastic materials to control fluid flow. The valve assembly consists of a boot-seal,
poppet, helix pin, knob, cap, and body. The boot seal separates the product from the
working assembly. These valves must also provide for leak detection by having 3/32-

inch (2 mm) holes on the end of the poppet and two holes 180 degrees apart on the
sidewall.
The automatic positive displacement samplers deserve mention even though they
are not flow controlling devices because they do serve an important function. These
are difficult to design in a sanitary manner because of close tolerances and small
passages and therefore should be manually cleaned. The sampler consists of a body,
plunger, head, O-rings, seals, and a power-operated mechanism. They also consist
of a closure plug or sample bottle port closure suitable for sealing the sample bottle
opening when the sampler is not in use. Automatic positive displacement samplers
do not require leak detection ports, but they must be capable of being automatically
controlled to prevent overfilling of the sample bottle. Manually operated sampling
valves are also available.
The rupture disc is another fitting (or single service ' Waive") that needs to be
mentioned because of its near universal use on silo-type milk storage tanks and on
other larger vessels. Its function is to break or rupture before a tank explodes or
implodes from high or low pressure. Rupture disc assemblies consist of a disc holder,
top section, seal, a girdle, and means for rupturing the seal. They may also be fitted
with alarm devices (recommended especially on silo tanks). Rupture discs are usually
attached to the tank with a sanitary fitting and a quick disconnect-type clamp.
The butterfly valve is one for which there are no printed 3-A Sanitary Standards.
They are however used on many United States farm holding tanks and are common
in the alcohol beverage industry. These valves consist of a body, a plate or butterfly,
a shaft, and appropriate seals. They may be manually or power operated. Their design
is such that manual cleaning and visual inspection must be done.
The valve type with the most use in the industry is the power-operated compression valve. This type valve has gained popularity as more dairies use CIP and automated procedures. The power-operated compression valves are usually a rising
stem type with the valve seat flush or nearly flush with the outside ports. The acturators are available as normally open or normally closed. The normally open close
on activation whereas the normally closed open by the release of the activating force.
The activation force is often supplied by air pressure but may also be magnetic or
electrical. Although not required by 3-A Sanitary Standards many have a stem indicator. 3-A Standards do require the open yolk design for powered acturators with
an open space of at least 1 inch (25 mm). Manually operated compression valves
must be disassembled for cleaning. Those with powered activators may be cleaned
in place provided the valves are pulsed during cleaning and sanitization.
A variation on the compression valve is the double-block and bleed valve. This
valve has two seats in one body with a leak detection port. These mixproof doubleseat valves allow solid connections between product piping and cleaning systems.
A mixproof double seat valve is defined as a valve that, in the closed position,
provides one sealing element to block fluid on one side of the valve and a second
sealing element to block fluid on the other side of the valve. Between the two sealing
elements is an atmospheric break that provides a back pressure-free pathway for the
discharge of leakage fluid from either side of the valve in the event of failure of
either of the sealing elements. Mixproof double-seat valves are specifically designed

Next Page

to protect process fluids against commingling. In addition, this style of valve is


designed to provide immediate indication of required maintenance in the event that
either of the seals fails.
Although the compression-type valve, whether single or double seat type, is uncomplicated and rugged which allows it to operate for long periods of time, a preventive maintenance program (PM) is desirable. A preventive maintenance program
will prolong the valve's life and minimize the potential for a catastrophic event. In
any dairy plant there may be several hundred powered valves controlling flow and
operating thousands of times per working day. A PM program for this often overlooked device is necessary. The frequency of PM will depend on the product type,
frequency of opening and closing, temperatures, cleaning and sanitation regimen,
and applied motivating forces. The maximum recommendation is a time interval of
12 months for valves seeing limited use and nonsevere service to as often as 3 months
for valves operated continuously and under severe conditions. The processor should
establish norms for valve PM, remembering that valve failure is always more costly
than the downtime required for scheduled PM and possible product recall.
Specialized fittings are required to interface instruments to processing equipment
and interconnected piping. Instrument fittings are defined as those fittings or connections for instruments or sensing elements installed in the equipment or sanitary
pipelines for the measurement of temperature, pressure, or other process variables.
Instruments may be permanently installed or removable. Examples include threaded
and clamp-type fittings for indicating thermometers and recording thermometers,
and pressure sensors, temperature sensor wells, pressure sensor spuds, and dual ferrule type fittings. PH electrodes, ORP, and conductivity sensors are also finding use
in the dairy. The tank outlet valve is a specialized valve that uses a bootseal and
poppet mechanism. These valves consist of a flange, flange gasket, body with helical
slot, outlet boot, poppet with a stud and ball, U-clamp, and O-rings. When used on
an over-the-road milk tanker, the tank outlet valve assembly includes an end cap,
dust cover, and lock nut. They are also always provided with one or more 3/32-inch
(2 mm) leak detection holes on the end of the poppet.

4.2.5 Centrifuges
The dairy industry has used the principle of centrifugal separation since the turn of
the 20th century. Prior to the centrifuge, cream was separated from milk via the
principle of sedimentation, that is, the milk was left to set in a quiescent state which
allowed the lighter fat globules to rise to the top while the heavier skim milk settled
to the bottom. Of course this method was very slow and inefficient. The first separators (Fig. 4.28) built in the 1890s were hand operated and used on the farm to
separate the cream and skim portions of milk. Since then the separator has become
electrically power driven, capacities have increased, and efficiency improved. Typical applications for separators by the industry include warm milk separation, cold
milk separation, whey separation, milk and whey clarification, and milk standardization. They are also used in processing products such as quark, cream cheese,
butteroil, casein, caseinate, and lactose, and for removal of bacteria from milk. Due

Previous Page

to protect process fluids against commingling. In addition, this style of valve is


designed to provide immediate indication of required maintenance in the event that
either of the seals fails.
Although the compression-type valve, whether single or double seat type, is uncomplicated and rugged which allows it to operate for long periods of time, a preventive maintenance program (PM) is desirable. A preventive maintenance program
will prolong the valve's life and minimize the potential for a catastrophic event. In
any dairy plant there may be several hundred powered valves controlling flow and
operating thousands of times per working day. A PM program for this often overlooked device is necessary. The frequency of PM will depend on the product type,
frequency of opening and closing, temperatures, cleaning and sanitation regimen,
and applied motivating forces. The maximum recommendation is a time interval of
12 months for valves seeing limited use and nonsevere service to as often as 3 months
for valves operated continuously and under severe conditions. The processor should
establish norms for valve PM, remembering that valve failure is always more costly
than the downtime required for scheduled PM and possible product recall.
Specialized fittings are required to interface instruments to processing equipment
and interconnected piping. Instrument fittings are defined as those fittings or connections for instruments or sensing elements installed in the equipment or sanitary
pipelines for the measurement of temperature, pressure, or other process variables.
Instruments may be permanently installed or removable. Examples include threaded
and clamp-type fittings for indicating thermometers and recording thermometers,
and pressure sensors, temperature sensor wells, pressure sensor spuds, and dual ferrule type fittings. PH electrodes, ORP, and conductivity sensors are also finding use
in the dairy. The tank outlet valve is a specialized valve that uses a bootseal and
poppet mechanism. These valves consist of a flange, flange gasket, body with helical
slot, outlet boot, poppet with a stud and ball, U-clamp, and O-rings. When used on
an over-the-road milk tanker, the tank outlet valve assembly includes an end cap,
dust cover, and lock nut. They are also always provided with one or more 3/32-inch
(2 mm) leak detection holes on the end of the poppet.

4.2.5 Centrifuges
The dairy industry has used the principle of centrifugal separation since the turn of
the 20th century. Prior to the centrifuge, cream was separated from milk via the
principle of sedimentation, that is, the milk was left to set in a quiescent state which
allowed the lighter fat globules to rise to the top while the heavier skim milk settled
to the bottom. Of course this method was very slow and inefficient. The first separators (Fig. 4.28) built in the 1890s were hand operated and used on the farm to
separate the cream and skim portions of milk. Since then the separator has become
electrically power driven, capacities have increased, and efficiency improved. Typical applications for separators by the industry include warm milk separation, cold
milk separation, whey separation, milk and whey clarification, and milk standardization. They are also used in processing products such as quark, cream cheese,
butteroil, casein, caseinate, and lactose, and for removal of bacteria from milk. Due

Figure 4.28 The first hand-operated milk separator. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale,
NJ, U.S.A.)

to the many requirements it is necessary to specifically design the separator for the
function or process. Separators are rated on capacity and clarification/separation
efficiency.
There are two basic types of construction for separators/clarifiers. Separators with
solid wall bowls are used for discontinuous processing and separators with selfcleaning bowls for continuous processing as shown in Figure 4.29. The space for
holding solids in the discontinuous operating separator is formed by the solid outer
bowl wall. Foreign materials that are removed from the milk accumulate on the inner
wall of the bowl in the solids holding space. The bowl must be taken apart and
manually cleaned after each day's operation. The length of the production operation
depends on the amount of solids separated which is mainly dictated by the solids in
the feed. The process must be stopped and the unit cleaned when the solids reach
the edge of the disc stack. Thus the need for self-cleaning separators is apparent for
processes where continuous operation is desired. The separation occurs in the disc
pack whereby the solids are separated out into the solids holding space. The solids

Figure 4.29 A milk separator of the new generation with "soft-stream" inlet system, type
MSD 200-01-076. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)

holding space is a double conical form which incorporates ejection ports that are
opened and closed via hydraulically lowering and raising a sliding piston. During
the production period the accumulated solids are ejected almost instantaneously at
preset intervals by lowering the sliding piston. At the end of production the centrifuge
is automatically cleaned in place.
Three types of centrifuges will be discussed, the first one being the warm milk
separator (see Fig. 4.30). For warm milk separation a self-cleaning separator fitted
with an internal hydraulically operated sliding piston can be used. The milk is separated into the cream and skim portions in the disc stack with the continuous separation of the foreign materials also occurring at the same time. The foreign materials
slide down the discs toward the periphery and accumulate in a holding space prior
to being ejected through ports at preselected intervals and without reducing the bowl
speed. This is accomplished by hydraulically lowering and raising a sliding piston.
The milk feeds into a rotating bowl via a central feed tube. The kinetic energy in
the stationary feed tube is converted to pressure energy in the enlarged inlet chamber.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Feed
Cream discharge
Skim milk discharge
Centripetal pump for skim milk
Centripetal pump for cream
Feed tube
Distributor tube
Disc stack
Separating disc
"Soft-stream** inlet system
Rising channels
Solids holding space
Solids ejection ports
Sliding piston
Closing-water chamber
Opening-water feed duct
Piston valve
Solids outlet

Figure 4.30 Cross-section of a bowl of a separator. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale,


NJ, U.S.A.)

The lower section of the distributor is kept full by throttling the feed to the disc
stack. The milk enters the disc stack through the rising channels. The fat globules
are separated from the skim out in the disc stack and flow to the center due to the
lower specific gravity. The cream is then discharged from the bowl under pressure
to eliminate foam via a self-contained centrifugal pump. The skim flows above the
separating disc, which seals the separation chamber from above. The skim milk is
also discharged via a built-in centrifugal pump under pressure to eliminate foam.
In a warm milk separation system, as shown in Figure 4.31, the milk is pumped
from the balance via a centrifugal/positive displacement pump through the up side
of a split regenerator where the milk is prewarmed to separation temperature. The
pump must be sized to supply the proper flow of product to the separator at the
manufacturer's recommended feed pressure, usually 20 to 30 psi.
The skim milk is discharged from the separator at a maximum of 70 psi which
is adjusted by the control pressure of a constant pressure valve. In order for the
constant pressure valve to function properly, the total pressure in the downstream
equipment should not exceed 65 psi. If the downstream pressure is over the 65 psi,
a booster pump will be required in the line to meet the necessary requirements. Note

1 Storage tank
(whole milk)
2 Pump
3 Balance tank with lloat
valve
4 Pump (output
approx. 10 % higher than

separator throughput
8 Pressure gauge
capacity)
9 Constant pressure valve
5 Flow constrictor
for adjusting the
PI - |>2 at least 0.5 bar,
operating pressure
max. 2.0 bar
10 Flow diversion valve
6 Heat exchanger
1 1 Line to tank
7 Milk separator
12 Flowmetcr

13 Adjustable flow
constrictor
14 Cream heater
15 Flow diversion valve
16 Line to cream tank
17 Booster pump

Figure 4.31 Installation diagram for warm milk separation. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)

the pump is not installed immediately on the skim discharge of the separator since
it could disrupt the function of the constant pressure valve. The cream is discharged
from the separator at a slightly higher maximum pressure, 75 psi, than the skim milk.
The butterfat content of the cream is adjusted either by a hand-operated cream adjusting valve or via an adjustable flow constrictor. The volume of the cream is read
from a flowmeter. If an adjustable flow constrictor is used on the cream side it is
necessary to make sure the maximum pressure difference does not exceed 22 psi. If
the cream flows from the separator directly into a balance tank and then pumped to
the storage tank the fat content must be regulated by a hand-operated cream adjusting
valve.
Milk that is stored below 500F for over 48 h prior to separation requires a higher
temperature because such storage of milk causes a more uniform and stronger water
bond between the fat globule membrane and the skim milk. That is, the difference
in specific gravity between the skim phase and the fat phase is less. Thus there is an
increase in the butterfat content in the skim milk which needs to be offset by higher
separation temperatures, which help to destroy the water bonds and thereby improve
the separating efficiency.
As indicated, regulating valves in the cream and skim milk discharge lines are
used to adjust the required ratio of cream and skim milk. The constant pressure valve
in the skim milk discharge line is set at a fixed value. The butterfat content in the
cream is then adjusted with the regulating valve in the cream discharge line. Corresponding regulating valves in the feed line maintain a fixed feed to the separator.
The adjusted butterfat content does not affect the separation efficiency in normal
separation conditions. However, as the butterfat content of the cream is regulated
to above 50%, the separation efficiency is reduced and thus the skim contains
more fat.
Listed below are some factors that affect the separation efficiency of warm whole
milk separators:

Time of year
Type of feed and the breed of the milk cow
Quality of milk delivered to the dairy plant
Temperature/time in storage prior to separating
Shear of the milk before processing
Process-related factors during separation (pressures, temperatures, capacities, etc.)
Free air in the process milk
Effect on milk subjected to high vacuum.

Thus by proper control of the above factors separation efficiency can be optimized
and fat lost in the skim milk kept to a minimum.
Cold milk separators can be of the self-cleaning or the solid wall bowl variety.
They basically function the same as the warm milk separators. The process parameters do however change, especially the separation temperature which is between 40
and 500F. If the temperature is too cold the cream will not flow through the separator.
Also the maximum fat content in the cream is 42% due to the high viscosity of the

cream at the separating temperature. It is best to maintain a 40% fat level in the
cream to prevent any malfunctions of the machine.
When choosing a separator for buttermilk it is necessary to know the source of
the buttermilk such as whether it is from sweet cream, from sour cream, from neutralized cream, or from the cask churning process. Self-cleaning and non-self-cleaning separators can be used for all of the above except the buttermilk produced from
sour cream. Buttermilk from sour cream contains a large amount of coagulated protein which is separated out and would cause large accumulations in a short period
in nonself-cleaning separators, thus requiring frequent cleaning. Therefore the selfcleaning separator is required because in this type of separator the protein can be
discharged routinely without shutdown of the system.
The second type of centrifuge used in the dairy industry is the clarifier (Fig. 4.32)
which is used to remove foreign materials in milk such as dirt particles, blood cells,
udder cells, and bacteria. This material, sometimes called sludge, does not have a
consistent composition. Other methods have been used to remove these materials
from milk but the clarifier has proven to be the most satisfactory way. As with
separators, clarifiers can be either the self-cleaning or nonself-cleaning variety. In a
typical milk clarifier milk to be clarified is pumped through the central inlet tube
into the clarifier bowl. The milk flows via the distributor and rising channels into a
disc set. The milk is divided into many thin layers. The solid material slides outward

Figure 4.32 Bacteria-removing clarifier for bacterial clarification of cheese milk. (Courtesy
of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)

under the effect of the centrifugal force and leaves the separation space at the edge
of the disc. The milk that has been clarified flows inward and is pumped via a
centripetal pump from the clarifier. The foreign materials slide outward and collect
in the double-conical sediment holding space. In the case of self-cleaning clariflers
the hydraulic system ejects the solids at preselected intervals. As with the separators
the bowl is desludged at full speed.
Centrifuges are also used for whey processing as clariflers to remove cheese fines
from the whey and as a separator to recover butterfat lost during the cheesemaking
operation. Cheese fines occur in whey in a suspension similar to the foreign matter
found in raw milk. For clarification of whey the whey is fed into the disc pack at
the periphery as opposed to the separator where the liquid flows from the center to
the periphery. Thus as the liquid enters the bowl at the periphery, the cheese particles
are subjected to a very high centrifugal force. The liquid flows to the center in an
opposite direction to the centrifugal force in order to discharge from the clarifier
bowl. With this method the very small cheese fines are removed from the whey. Due
to the large amount of fines required to be removed it is necessary to divide the
processing into the clarifying process and the separation process. The clarifier bowl
has a larger sediment holding space which allows for longer intervals between the
desludging process.
The design of the whey separation process is affected by the following factors
and thus should be examined carefully prior to making equipment selections:
The types of cheese being produced
If the whey is a mixture from many types of cheese what is the range of the ratios
of the blends?
Will a salt containing whey be processed? Will the salt whey be processed separately? What is the volume of salt in the whey and the volume of the whey?
Is there any whey from cheese presses being processed? What is the volume of
fat content?
What is the butterfat content of the whey to be processed?
What is the percent of cheese fines in the whey?
How are the fines to be removed, with screens or clarifier or a combination of
both?
What is the length of the daily process period?
Is the process continuous or discontinuous?
What is the history of the whey prior to the process, that is length of storage, heat
treatment, or any other factors affecting the characteristics of the whey?
Each manufacturer has his own desludging mechanism designed into the centrifuge. In one such system the hydraulically actuated sliding piston is the bottom of
the centrifugation chamber. When the bowl is rotating the sliding piston is kept in
the raised position by the pressure exerted on it by the water in the closing chamber.
Therefore the ejection ports are in the closed position. The piston valve controls the
closing water and thus the position of the sliding piston. Operating water is fed to
the piston valve to open the bowl ports. The piston valve is opened, allowing the
closing water from underneath the sliding piston to drain through the outlet. The

centrifugal pressure of the product rotating with the bowl then forces the piston
downwards, opening the ports in the bowl periphery through which the solids are
ejected. The operating water fed is stopped to the piston valve and the centrifugal
force pushes the piston valve outward, therefore sealing the outlet for the closing
water and closing the ejection ports. The operating liquid is then fed into the closing
chamber below the sliding piston. Because the liquid pressure in the closing chamber
is greater than the pressure in the centrifugation chamber the sliding piston is forced
upwards. A timing unit controls the valves automatically to allow the centrifuge to
desludge.
Some accessories for centrifuges include timing units, constant pressure valves,
and flow constrictors. The self-cleaning separators are equipped with timing units to
fully automate the centrifugation process. The electronic timing unit (Fig. 4.33)
automatically controls the closing and opening of the water valves as well as the
pneumatic constant pressure valve in the skim milk discharge line of the separator.
Controls are available for either total or partial desluding. Constant-pressure valves
(Fig. 4.34) are required in processes where the skim milk discharge pressure varies.
A spring-loaded or air-operated valve is installed in the skim milk discharge line to
maintain constant pressure. A flow constrictor (Fig. 4.35) is used to maintain a
maximum throughput capacity at a preset value. Each centrifuge supplier has his
own design for the constrictor that matches the capacities of his units.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. Alfa Laval Food & Dairy Company, Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.
2. Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.

Figure 4.33 Timing unit, type TVE 2-M. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)

Figure 4.34 Constant pressure valve. (Courtesy of Centrico, Inc., Northvale, NJ, U.S.A.)

Figure 4.35 Flow constrictor.

4.2.6 Homogenizers
Milkfat has a tendency to rise in milk and form an area of cream or cream line. This
property of milk/cream separation is not accepted by today's consumer; thus a
method was developed to disperse the fat, homogenization. Homogenization is subjecting the fat globules to mechanical treatment that breaks them into smaller globules that are evenly dispersed throughout the milk. The treatment reduces the mean
diameter of the globule by a factor of about 10. Homogenization is also used for
other products in other areas of the dairy industry such as for ice cream mix to
provide for a smooth mixture that does not separate on storage in tanks or to improve
viscosity in sour cream or yogurt.
The homogenizer (Fig. 36) is composed of a reciprocating piston type highpressure pump, usually three- or five-cylinder piston pump, with a back pressure
device, the homogenizing valve. The pistons run in cylinders bored in a high-pressure
block, all of which are made of resistant, compatible materials. Seals are provided
to prevent oil from leaking into the product and to seal the product into the system.
Water is used to cool the pistons as they move in and out of the cylinder. (See Figure
4.37) for further details of the homogenizer head.) In the case of high-temperature
processes steam or condensate is used to lubricate the pistons.

Figure 4.36 Homogenizers. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)

UPPER CAP
HOMOGENZ
IN
IG
PRESSURE GAUGE

DS
ICHARGE
VALVE

DS
ICHARGE VALVE STOP
TAPERED DS
ICHARGE
VALVE SEAT

GAUGE BLOCK
N
I LETCAP
SUCTO
I NVALVE
TAPERED SUCTO
IN
VALVE SEAT

PLUNGER
CYLN
I DER
N
I LET
CONNECTO
IN

N
I LET FEED PRESSURE GAUGE
PLUNGER PACKN
IG
FRONTCAP
Figure 4.37 Typical pumping cylinder. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington, MA,
U.S.A.)

Although all components of an homogenizer are important the heart is the homogenizing valve itself (Fig. 4.38). It appears the primary factor in homogenization
is cavitation with a secondary factor being turbulence. To create these effects the
milk/ice cream mix enters the homogenizing valve assembly from the pump section
of the machine at high pressure and low velocity. As the product enters the space
between the valve and the seat which is very narrow the velocity greatly increases
(Fig. 4.39). There is a corresponding decrease in pressure to the vapor pressure of
the liquid and vapor bubbles in the product. As the liquid flows through the valve/
valve seat area the velocity decreases and presure regains, resulting in the implosion
of the bubbles. The formation and implosion of bubbles is referred to as cavitation.
The intense energy release and turbulence associated with cavitation cause disruption
of the fat globule. The homogenization process occurs over an extremely small
distance and a time of <0.005 s.
The power base for a typical homogenizer consists of a frame, lubrication system,
gears, drive, eccentric shaft, and connecting rods (Fig. 4.40). The frame is usually
cast iron mounted on a steel fabricated sub-base with ball feet or lugs for embedding
in the floor. The lubrication system is a forced feed system accomplished by small
oil pump with high/low pressure switches to protect the gears. The gears are double
helical and are pinion mounted on a driveshaft. The drive unit can be a constant
speed motor with V-belt drive or variable speed motor. The eccentric shaft is a single
piece, high strength shaft with three cams heat shrunk to the shaft. The connecting

Two-stage manual
homogenizing valve
actuator assembly

Single-stage manual
homogenizing valve
actuator assembly

Two-stage
HVA System

Micro-Gap*
valve assembly

Figure 4.38 The valve of a homogenizer. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington, MA,
U.S.A.)

rods are self-aligning with babbitt-lined field replaceable bearings. The previous
description was taken from an APV Gaulin data sheet.
The homogenization process described previously was for what is considered
single-stage homogenization, that is, the homogenization taking place through one
valve/effect. However, for some products such as ice cream mix single-stage homogenization is not enough; therefore a two-stage valve is available that consecutively passes the product through two valves. The first valve breaks the fat globule
up as indicated; however due to the nature of the product the small globules have a
tendency to form agglomerates and thus will rise in the product like unhomogenized
product. Thus a second stage is required to further break up the agglomerates and
thus make sure the fat is evenly dispersed throughout the product. The pressure on
the second stage is always less than on the first stage because not as much work is

VALVE
SEAT
BASIC
PROLXJCT

HOMOGENIZED
PRODUCT

VALVE

MFBCTRiNG

Conrtol 1000 PS
G
I
SULFUR

CB
oE
nN
rtoT
lON
6000CLA
P
SG
I
TIE
Y

CTo
tN
tU
0O
0
SG
I
T
In
Ao
IM20D
I XD
IPE

Co
illBON700
G
I
Cn
Ao
R
B0
LACP
KS

CM
oA
nG
troN
lES
3000OX
P
G
I
U
IM
O
IS
E

ConK
lN S
O
O
O
G
I
IrtoO
O
X
D
IEPS

Figure 4.39 The valve and homogenization. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc., Wilmington,
MA, U.S.A.)

required to break up the agglomerates. The manufacturer always recommends the


pressure settings for each stage.
The homogenizing valve, both single-stage and two-stage, can be set manually
and indicated on a locally mounted gauge. However, large plants have homogenizers
with the valve being remotely set and indicated in a control panel. Usually a hydraulic system is used to position the valve in the proper position.

Next Page

OIL PUMP

GEAR CASE
DRIVE SHAFT

OIL PUMP GEAR ,


PINION
DRIVEN
SHEAVE
ASSEMBLY

BASE

SUB BASE
DRIVING SHEAVE ASSEMBLY

MOTOR

Figure 4.40 Homogenizer base with major sub-assemblies. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc.,
Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)

Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Gaulin and APV Rennie, Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.

4.2.7 Cleaning Dairy Processing Systems


4.2.7.1 Introduction
Cleaning in the dairy industry is the application of materials to all product contact
surfaces at specified intervals to remove all visible product residue or other soil
followed by the application of suitable antibacterial chemicals to sanitize all surfaces.
Nonproduct contact surfaces are also cleaned. This section is devoted to cleaning
and sanitizing product contact surface using circulating chemical solutions and water
rinses or mechanical cleaning.
The sanitary design of equipment and its proper installation are necessary to have
effective mechanical cleaning. These criteria include:
1. Product contact surfaces must be impervious, corrosion-resistant, nontoxic, and
nonabsorbent to product and cleaning/sanitizing solutions.
2. Product contact surfaces must be smooth; nonporous; free of pits, folds, and
crevices; and have proper radii at junctions and in gasket grooves.

Previous Page

OIL PUMP

GEAR CASE
DRIVE SHAFT

OIL PUMP GEAR ,


PINION
DRIVEN
SHEAVE
ASSEMBLY

BASE

SUB BASE
DRIVING SHEAVE ASSEMBLY

MOTOR

Figure 4.40 Homogenizer base with major sub-assemblies. (Courtesy of APV Gaulin, Inc.,
Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)

Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Gaulin and APV Rennie, Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.

4.2.7 Cleaning Dairy Processing Systems


4.2.7.1 Introduction
Cleaning in the dairy industry is the application of materials to all product contact
surfaces at specified intervals to remove all visible product residue or other soil
followed by the application of suitable antibacterial chemicals to sanitize all surfaces.
Nonproduct contact surfaces are also cleaned. This section is devoted to cleaning
and sanitizing product contact surface using circulating chemical solutions and water
rinses or mechanical cleaning.
The sanitary design of equipment and its proper installation are necessary to have
effective mechanical cleaning. These criteria include:
1. Product contact surfaces must be impervious, corrosion-resistant, nontoxic, and
nonabsorbent to product and cleaning/sanitizing solutions.
2. Product contact surfaces must be smooth; nonporous; free of pits, folds, and
crevices; and have proper radii at junctions and in gasket grooves.

3. The equipment must be designed so that all the product contact surfaces will be
in contact with circulating clean solutions in sufficient volume and velocity to
clean them.
4. All interior surfaces with product contact must be self draining and contain no
dead ends.
5. Product contact surfaces must be visible for inspection when assembled or be
easily disassembled for inspection to ensure mechanical cleaning and sanitizing
procedures are effective.
6. If these items are not satisfactory manual cleaning procedures must be used.
7. Nonproduct contact surfaces must also be designed to protect the contents from
contamination and constructed in such a manner to prevent harboring of soil,
bacteria, or vermin and be readily cleanable.
Why the stringent criteria? Dairy foods are perishable, are potential carriers of
disease, and contain spoilage bacteria. A high quality and safe dairy food cannot be
made using unclean equipment; 98% clean is still 2% dirty!

4.2.7.2 Clean-In-Place
Mechanical cleaning, frequently referred to as clean-in-place (CIP), was first applied
in the dairy industry in the 1940s. Prior to that time cleaning of all milk processing
equipment involved complete disassembly, manual cleaning by rinsing, brushing
with a cleaning solution and rinsing, and reassembly followed by application of a
sanitizing solution just prior to processing. This was a very labor intensive process
requiring up to 50% of the total labor. It also was not conducive to large plants,
automation and the economics of scale associated with the former. The transition
period from manual to mechanical cleaning was lengthy and usually occurred during
complete plant overhaul or during the design phase of new, highly automated plants.
Today mechanical cleaning is the most common commercial method for closed
systems of lines and for cleaning most pieces of equipment. This method of cleaning
is highly effective when processing systems are constructed and operated properly.
Mechanical cleaning also lends itself to automation and large, multiproduct plants.
The objective of mechanical cleaning is to clean product lines, tanks, and processing
equipment without dismantling and cleaning manually. A word of cautionpipeline
systems and equipment designed and properly operated for mechanical cleaning
require periodic disassembly for inspection for cleaning effectiveness.

Cleaning and Sanitizing


To understand the problems of designing dairy processing equipment for mechanical
cleaning as a major design factor, it is first necessary to understand the basics of
sanitation. First a definition of terms:
1. Cleaning shall mean the removal of soil particles from surfaces by rinsing, brushing, or use of chemical agents with mechanical cleaning being limited to circulating chemicals and water rinses onto and over product contact surfaces.

2. Sanitizing shall mean treatment of a cleaned surface to destroy disease and spoilage organisms to reduce the total vegetative cell population to a safe level.
3. Disinfecting shall mean destruction of all vegetative organisms.
4. Sterilization shall mean the complete destruction of all organisms including
spores.
There are seven factors that affect microorganism growth:
1. Source of microbesraw milk must be assumed to be contaminated.
2. Nutrient source is requiredmilk residue is an excellent source.
3. Microbes require free waterall fluid dairy products and many manufactured
ones have high water activities.
4. pH is a factor and varies depending on microbe species but many fluid and
manufactured products have a pH conducive to microbe growth.
5. Proper osmotic pressure is required for microbe growth and survival.
6. Temperature is importantmost bacteria thrive at 37 to 82C (100 to 1800F).
Heating above 82C (1800F) or cooling below 4C (400F) will inactivate or inhibit
growth of most bacteria. Certain bacterial spores are resistant to 82C and bacteria
will remain dormant even at below freezing temperatures.
7. Competing bacteria will affect the population mix.
All dairy processing and cleaning/sanitization procedures use techniques to alter
one or more of the above factors to produce safe dairy products.

4.2.7A Mechanical Cleaning Systems


Because many large automated dairy processing systems are mechanically cleaned,
it is often thought the CIP and automation and the 3-A symbol are synonymous.
This is not always the case. CIP taken in the strictest sense would mean circulation
cleaning without ever disassembly for inspection. In the United States, dairy control
authorities recognize only welded pipelines and large tanks (such as silo-tanks) as
being CIP-able without periodic disassembly although periodic inspection should
still be done. Meeting 3-A Sanitary Standards or 3-A Accepted Practices should not
automatically mean CIP or mechanical cleaning techniques are employed. 3-A Sanitary Standards provide for manual or mechanical cleaning in most documents. Third,
the use of mechanical cleaning techniques does not require automation even though
many CIP operations are automated. In many cases automation can be used to ensure
consistent operations and techniques or to alleviate time-consuming operations.
It should be understood that automation cannot do anything that cannot be done
manually.
There are many equipment configurations or system designs for mechanical cleaning. They can be classified as two broad types: recirculating systems and oncethrough systems. The simplest form of a mechanical cleaning system is a single tank,
once-through one. This tank is used to contain the initial rinse water, the cleaning
solution, final rinse, and the sanitizer rinse (Fig. 4.41).
Figure 4.42 represents a slightly more sophisticated approach to a mechanical
cleaning system in that two tanks are provided. The initial rinse solution is circulated

WATEH HEADER BY OTHERS


CC

WATER
WATER HEADER BY OTHERS

CITY WATER

LlOUID
LEVEL
PROBES

ClPS
ISTtI

WATER
SUPPLY
TANK
75 GALLONS

SiT
COND
TRAP BY OTHERS

FOR RTD
CHEHICAL FEED

CIPS
PUMP-IO HP

Figure 4.41 A one-tank cleaning system. (Courtesy of Sani-Matic Systems, Madison, WI, U.S.A.)

FOR RTD

WATER HEADER BY OTHERS


CIPR

UPPER
SPRAY BAR
STM

FRESH
RINSE
TANK
300 GAL.

WASH
TANK
300 GAL.

SiT
CONO

TRAP BY OTHERS
TANK 2

TANK 1
LOVER
SPRAY BARS
30 HP
CIPS PUMP

7 1/2 HP
RETURN PUMP

Figure 4.42 A two-tank cleaning system. (Courtesy of Sani-Matic Systems, Madison, WI, U.S.A.)

through the lines and discharged to a drain removing a large portion of the soil.
Following the initial rinse, various cleaning solutions are circulated for the required
period of time. The solutions can be returned to the wash tank and recirculated.
Recirculating systems are desirable because of lower operating cost due to more
conservative use of water and chemicals. Water is conserved in a multiple tank
recirculation system by returning the final rinse water to the prerinse hold tank. This
allows the system to clean with the wash solution for a longer time without adding
makeup water to the system.
Another variation is a system designed to clean lines and tanks at the same time.
(Also see Figures 4.43 and 4.44.) The preparation of rinse and cleaning solutions
are as in the two-tanks lines-only system. The system is more complicated in that
lines and tanks are cleaned at the same time, and the first rinses in tank cleaning are
different than those required for the line cleaning. A balance of cleaning solution
flow adequate to clean the lines and supply the sprayballs to the tanks must be
accomplished. This requires careful sizing of the pumps and lines. Also proper sequencing and establishment of time, temperature, and cleaning cycles must be accomplished. Rinse cycles must be arranged so adequate rinsing of body lines and
the tank is done prior to cleaning. Air blows must be incorporated at both pumps.
The next step to a more complex system is one that cleans product line, tanks,
and additional processing equipment. All the requirements of a line-tank system
apply here plus all requirements that must be satisfied for rinsing and cleaning the
processing equipment. In this case the processing equipment will probably be the
most difficult to clean, hence the cleaning procedures used for equipment are usually
more than adequate for lines and tanks. Because of this individual circuits are often
fabricated to clean process equipment, thereby allowing independent cleaning of
lines and equipment and obtaining a more efficient use of cleaning solutions and
equipment.
The above systems may be manually controlled or a certain degree of automation
can be incorporated into these systems particularly in the preparation of cleaning,
rinse, and sanitizing solutions. Controlling the flow of rinse and cleaning solutions
to the individual areas is dependent on the individual process layout and can be quite
simple to very complex.
There are numerous automated mechanical cleaning system configurations available (Figures 4.45 thru 4.49). They are nearly always of the recirculating type because of their lower operating costs. The heart of these systems is the rinse and CIP
solution center (Figure 4.43). Water and solution are conserved in a multitank recirculating system by returning final rinse water to the prerinse tank and by enabling
the system to clean without adding makeup water to the system. An example of such
a system is illustrated in Figure 4.50. It is typical of those used in the dairy industry.
The rinse tank is provided with water, steam, and control openings as well as necessary connections, valves, and piping. The wash or cleaning tank is equipped in a
similar manner but also has provisions for controlling the solution and CIP return
lines. The tank size is dependent on the complexity and size of the process to be
mechanically cleaned.

WATER HEADER BY OTHERS


CU

CIPR

!CHEM
FEED
ug
RINSE
TANK
GAL.

CHEM
FEED

LLC

ACID
REUSE
TANK
GAL.

DET
REUSE
TANK
GAL.
[CC

CIPS
STM
64-2

pC

Si T

COND
TRAP BY OTHERS
STRAINER

CHEMICAL FEED OPTIONAL

CIPS
PUhP

Figure 4.43 A three-tank cleaning system. (Courtesy of Sani-Matic Systems, Madison, WI, U.S.A.)

FV

SB-2
PT-2

PT-I

PT-3

PP
DASHED LINES ARE PRODUCT CONTACT SURFACES
SOLID LINES ARE SOLUTION CONTACT SURFACES

RP

UATER VALVE

CIPS

U
ER
DA
G
UR
R
IE
ST
N
IEE

STEAM VALVE
SHELL & TUBE
HEAT EXCHANGER

3-Af CIP SOLUTION SYSTEM


CI
PNTS
S
CO
RY
O
LTEM
PANEL
OPEN YOKE DRAN
VALVES (TYPl I
Figure 4.44 A three-tank cleaning system. (Courtesy of Sani-Matic Systems, Madison, WI,
U.S.A.)

Sanitizing and cleaning solutions are prepared by metering the required amount
of chemical agent into the line carrying the rinse water. Sanitizing solutions are not
returned to the supply tank but are prepared fresh for each use. The controls include
the conductivity control for solution strengths, thermostats, and level controls on
tanks. The cleaning tank is fitted with a temperature recorder to record the temperature of the returning cleaning solution. With this type of cleaning center, the control
system may initiate and complete all cleaning and sanitizing sequences once the
sequence is initiated. With the instrumentation and computer controls available today, any number of items and sequences are controllable automatically. It must be
pointed out that the interlocked sequences are not changed automatically and deviations are more difficult.
Most larger dairy plants will integrate the CIP circuit, process lines, tanks, and
process equipment. An entire system may be mechanically and automatically cleaned
at the end of production. Because no processing is occurring all appurtenances requiring manual cleaning are removed, sprayballs are positioned in tanks and proc-

Raw milk

Figure 4.45 Cleaning of several circuits from a central CIP station. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval
Food & Dairy Group, Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)

ClP
return

Cold
water

Hot
water

Rinse
water

Detergent

Acid

Rinse
milk

CIP
pressure
Figure 4.46 Design of a central CIP station. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group,
Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)

Raw milk

Figure 4.47 Decentralized CIP system. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group, Inc.,
Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)

essing equipment, as needed, and any piping changes are made to connect CIP lines
to equipment. Doors and vents are opened on tanks and process vessels. An additional CIP return pump is controlled by CIP controller, and the CIP cycle is begun.
The advantages of CIP systems are numerous but the most important one is that
the CIP operation will be performed satisfactorily and in a controlled manner. No
shortcuts may be taken. Records are automatically made of the entire sequence and
if an aberration occurs it will be recorded. The second most important reason for
automated CIP is economics, especially if cleaning is done often or the system is a
large one. CIP has a place in practically all dairy operations; only the degree of
automation required varies. When choosing a CIP system one should consider first
the additional assurance that effective cleaning will be accomplished, then economics, production schedules, capital costs, and personnel.
See Figures 4.49 to 4.48 are additional examples.

4.2.7.5 Sanitary Criteria for Processing Equipment


The scope of this discussion will be limited to the consideration of general sanitation
specifications for processing equipment. It is concerned with the hardware and its
requisite sanitary design, that is, the intimate substantive consideration of the product
contact surface. In this case the product being considered is a fluid dairy product for
thermal processing and packaging intended for the consumer package. It is concerned
with the continuous handling of perishable foods and advocates a sophisticated organization of sanitation criteria in the plant for sanitary design standards. The
standards are based on the substantive aspects of individual criteria found in the 3-A

Supply of
' Equipm.
itobe
daaned

Supply and return


oftye1%70C
Fig. 10a Filling the batch tank with
water

Supply of

Supply of
cone
acid
Equipm.
to be
daaned

Supply and ratum


ofh/e1%70C
Fig. 10b Filling the CIP circuit

Supply of
cone
add

cone
acid

Equipm.
to be
daaned

Supply and retitfn


of tye1%70C

> Equipm.
itobe
deaned

Supply and return


oftye1%70C

Figure 4.48 Rinsing with water (a,b); filling with detergent or with water and acid. (Courtesy
of Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group, Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)

Sanitary Standards. The standards attempt to provide the major indicators or guidelines for evaluating sanitary equipment so it may be used as a check list for compliance with rigid health and quality assurance concepts.
At the outset it should be understood that these standards will be concerned only
with equpment that has product contact surfaces. It will not involve such items as
surfaces of crates, refrigerators, cabinets, or material handling devices that do not
contact the product. These standards are based on the criteria for the cleanability
and product protection that had been adopted and published by the 3-A Sanitary
Standards Committees. Although these standards had their genesis in the milk industry, they are broadly applicable and should be considered more as universal
standards for any industry utilizing thermal processing and packaging of fluid food
products.
As the 3-A Sanitary Standards are used as a basis for this discussion, the evolution
of accepted 3-A Sanitary Standards criteria and their implementation today has left
a history of development that should be of interest. These requirements are based
on highly deliberative motives whose informative rationale has convinced leaders in
the dairy industry and regulatory community of a reasonable way of doing things.

Figure 4.49 Satellite CIP unit in decentralized system. (Courtesy of Alfa-Laval Food &
Dairy Group, Inc., Pleasant Prairie, WI, U.S.A.)

Before we discuss the nuts and bolts of sanitary criteria, consideration needs to
be given, in a preliminary way, to the concept of cleanability. Cleanability is a term
one lives with daily in the field of sanitation control and is an integral part of quality
control. One hesitates to attempt to define cleanability but it is a term that relates to
empirical criteria for the restoration of the original condition of a product contact
surface, assuming of course that the word "original" pertains to the ideal of pristine
first appearance of the equipment for use. Cleanability means in addition the properties aiding the release of soil from a product contact surface, and the preparation
of the surface for reuse. Many interrelated factors are involved in the phenomenon
factors of surface tension, smoothness, corrosion resistance, and even electrical or
galvanic action.
A finite mesurement for cleanability is difficult but such a methodology is sorely
needed and there is a substantial literature on the efforts to establish such evaluation.
Some of the techniques that have been tried are those of sterile swabs, radioactive
or "tag" soil, reflectance, and ultraviolet absorption, but none to date are practical

for routine in-plant measures of cleanability. Thus, the degree of cleanability remains
a visual evaluation of surfaces.
Equipment for processing fluid dairy products should be designed to include
minimum criteria for cleanability and product protection. Such criteria should ensure
capability for cleaning and reuse of product contact surfaces for any food material.
This concept does not accommodate the theory that there are degrees of sanitation
requirements based on the perishability of the dairy or food product or its epidemiological history as a disease factor. All product contact surfaces must first be safe
and they must be cleanable, whether they be used to convey milk and milk products,
liquid eggs, beer, fruit juices, water for bottling, or most any other food with a
moderate to high water activity.
Standards should be comprised of four essential segments: scope, definitions,
materials, and fabrication. In putting together uniform guidelines for equipment sanitation, two pivotal and highly substantive segments are the latter twomaterials
and fabrication.
All published 3-A Sanitary Standards have the same four basic sections: Scope,
Definitions, Materials, Fabrications, and an advisory section called an Appendix.
The balance of this discussion will deal with the philosophy that is inherent in these
subject areas.
Under materials we consider the self-limiting characteristics of the materials that
compose the equipment. Under fabrication we should consider sanitary design insofar as it can be determined or effected by the fabrication process. That is, the finish
of the material; the limitation of radii for inside angles; self-draining characteristics;
accessibility for cleaning and inspection; and the design for mechanical cleaning,
floor clearance, integrity of surface for product contact, and nonproduct contact or
exterior surfaces.
The principal tried and proven material for dairy and food processing equipment
is AISI 300 series stainless steel and the corresponding American Cast Institute
grades for castings. Sanitary specifications should spell this out with an ultimate
provision for equally corrosion-resistant metal. The determination of ultimate materials should be made in the context of the environment of its intended use. Even
with this proviso, however, the latitude is not generous enough to permit wholesale
use of other metals. There is recognition for the use of dissimilar metals for bearing
surfaces and functional requirements, such as hardness.
There are other exceptions to the AISI 300 series requirements, such as the need
for engineering plating and, in the nonmetallic area, recognition has to be made of
rubber and plastics and to a lesser degree glass, carbon, and ceramics, all of which
have relatively minor uses in equipment from the standpoint of volume used but the
applications themselves are virtually nonsubstitutable in many cases. Overall there
is little flexibility for selection of materials by the equipment fabricator.
Sanitary rubber, for example, must first comply with the Food, Drug and Cosmetic
Act. Then it should exhibit rather narrow limits of absorption and changes in physical
properties as measured by the durometer test for hardness. Criteria for rubber have
been published by the 3-A Sanitary Standards Committees based on durometer limits

and other physical properties as a rough index of cleanability based on residual


absorption of moisture.
Further consideration of nonmetallic materials involves plastics. Initially viewed
as having limited critical application, like that for rubber, interest in plastics has
surged ahead with proposals for their expanded use. When interest was first generated
by plastics in the milk products industry, it was for the limited replacement of metallic machine parts and for flexible tubing for raw milk pickup. The 3-A Sanitary
Standards Committees eventually promulgated the plastic standards which contained
a test regimen and the weight gain values were established for a limited number of
generic classes of plastics. The plastic standards are based on absorption characteristics of a material when it is immersed in a series of environmental-stimulating
solutions. It measures the cumulative effect of these environmental solutions. These
are prepared solutions that represent the product environment and the cleaning and
sanitizing environment. No loss of weight is permitted and the weight gains are
limited according to the generic class of plastic. The standard evaluates only the
absorption characteristics as an index of sanitation and does not consider the application or misuse of the plastic. There will be a further discussion of plastics later.
So far the discussion has been limited to material. Some other factors related to
materials should be considered. The following are highlights of the specifics that
should be included:
Where rubber and plastic materials may be used, for example, gaskets, O-rings,
and diaphragms, needs to be determined.
Bonded rubber and rubberlike materials and bonded plastic materials having product contact surfaces need to be of such composition as to retain their surface and
confirmation characteristics when exposed to the conditions encountered in the environment of extended use and in cleaning and bactericidal treatment. The final bond
and residual adhesive, if used, of bonded rubber and bonded plastic materials must
be nontoxic.
Silver-soldered or braized areas and silver-soldered or braized material shall be
nontoxic and corrosion resistant.
Materials having a product contact surface used in the construction of devices
designed to be used in a processing system to be sterilized by heat and operated at
a temperature of 250 0 F (121 0 C) or higher need to be of such construction that they
can be (1) sterilized by saturated steam or water under pressure at a temperature of
at least 250 0 F (121C) and (2) operated at the temperature required for processing
(the processing temperature is often greater).
Nonproduct contact surfaces need to be of corrosion-resistant material or material
that is rendered corrosion resistant. If coated, the coating used must adhere. Nonproduct contact surfaces need to be relatively nonabsorbant, durable, and cleanable.
In summary, the intent of the materials section is to provide safe substances that
can be cleaned and reused and will withstand repeated product and cleaning/sanitizing contact.
The other major part or section of the sanitary standards deals with the details of
fabrication and workmanship. It is here that we come to the real heart of equipment
sanitation, those features determined by fabrication technique. The next considera-

tion is surface integrity. As a sanitary factor, its importance is without peer. No


amount of sophisticated sanitary design will provide the ultimate in sanitation control
unless the surface is entire in itself, that is, it is free from imperfections. Surface is
everything. The simplest configuration will not clean if the surface is disrupted.
Although still an area of unresolved controversy, there is general agreement with
the concept that a smooth finish is directly related to effective cleanability. Beyond
this, there is some lack of understanding on what is meant by "smooth," and what
factors are involved in cleanability.
Some progress has been made in defining smoothness by relating it to the application of calibrated abrasive discs in the polishing of stainless steel surfaces. Yet,
even here there is a lack of agreement on the preferred finish. Sanitarians understand
the polishing process and what is achieved by it. They have uniformly required a
44
No. 4 finish" and have equated it with a surface polish by 150 grit silicon carbide
abrasive. Silicon carbide is not a requirement. It is merely an example of one way
in which to achieve No. 4 finish. There is pressure for acceptance of unpolished
surfaces, such as 2B cold rolled sheet. Manufacturers have unequivocally stated that
a 2B finish is smoother than No. 4, hence it is more cleanable. Claims are admittedly
couched in an empirical context but based on highly satisfactory field experience. A
2B finish is a reportedly less costly surface to prepare and its cleanability has been
demonstrated but its end use is not without its own inherent problems.
For example, to ensure that unpolished sheets are free of pits, scales, or other
forms of surface disruption requires careful quality control and individual sheet
selection. Polishing reveals pits. Polishing can also remove pits and preserve surface
integrity. It is unlikely with the present technology that random use of 2B sheets
without detailed surface inspection can satisfy the criteria for the final surface. Nevertheless, 2B finish is permitted under the new criteria for surface finish.
Surface finish technology is fluid and dynamic and new developments can be
expected. Space does not permit further elaboration of this complex field, but electrolytic and chemical finishes are possible alternatives, and who knows what new
abrasive applications will appear and offer new advantages for sanitary surfaces?
The historic position for surface finish has been to require a No. 4 ground finish
for equipment to be used for liquid and semiliquid dairy products. Recently, after
much deliberation, the criteria has changed. No. 4 ground finish is now used as a
point of reference. The latest concept for surface finish reads like this in 3-A documents: 44AIl product contact surfaces shall have a finish at least as smooth as a No.
4 ground finish on stainless steel sheets and be free of imperfections such as pits,
folds and crevices in the final fabricated for." As you will note from this, a ground
finish is no longer specifically required and the operative words are "at least as."
Recently the 3-A Sanitary Standards Committee has considered an Ra of 32 microinch (0.8 micrometer) to be equivalent to a No. 4 finish.
Once the integrity of the surface is assured, then its configuration becomes important. It is here that such matters as radii, drainability, accessibility, floor clearance,
and other features are provided.
The fabrication section of a standard includes the many 4<nuts and bolts" aspects
of construction. Limitation is placed on sharp corners and the radius of an internal

angle. There are provisions for bonding and welding, accessibility of surfaces, selfdraining characteristics, protection of product through covers, gasket groove dimensions, limitations of threads in the product zone (with specific exceptions), floor
clearance, and many specialized considerations for different types of equipment.
The highlights of the additional fabrication criteria can be reviewed quickly. Permanent joints in metallic welded product contact surfaces need to be continuously
welded. Welded areas on product contact surfaces shall be at least as smooth as a
No. 4 ground finish on stainless steel sheets free from imperfections such as pits,
folds, and crevices.
Appurtenances having product contact surfaces need to be easily removable for
cleaning or shall be readily cleaned in place.
Product contact surfaces need to be self draining except for normal clinage.
Gaskets having a product contact surface need to be removable or bonded. Gasket
retaining grooves in product contact surfaces shall be no deeper than their width.
Internal angles of 135 degrees or less on product contact surfaces need a radii of
not less than 1A inch (in some applications Vs inch is acceptable) except where smaller
radii are required for essential functional purposes.
When the radius is V32 inch or less, the product contact surface of this internal
angle must be readily accessible for cleaning and inspection.
The radii in grooves for standard Vz inch O-rings shall be not less than !/32 inch.
There shall be no threads on product contact surfaces.
The specifications that have been discussed here are applicable to the fabrication
of food equipment in general. Naturally, individual standards will provide a number
of specialized considerations for different types of equipment. For example, if a
standard for instrument fittings is being considered, the following should be included
in the fabrication section:
Fittings, connections, gaskets (if used), and other component parts to be used in
the processing system to be sterilized by heat and operated at a temperature of 2500F
(121C) or higher need to comply with the following additional criteria:
1. The construction is to be such that all product contact surfaces can be: (a) sterilized by saturated steam or water under pressure at a temperature of at least 250F
(121C) and (b) operate at temperatures required for processing.
2. All fittings to be used in such processing systems need to be permanently installed.
3. The fittings for instruments that have product contact surfaces to be used in such
a processing system, not designed so that the steam automatically is shut down
if the product pressure in the system becomes less than that of the atmosphere
and cannot be restarted until the system is resterilized, shall have a steam or other
sterilizing medium chamber surround the joint at the product contact surface
between the fitting and the device.
4. The connections on the steam or other sterilizing medium chamber for the steam
or other sterilizing medium lines shall be such that the lines can be securely
fastened to the connection. The lines shall be connected in a manner that they

may be disconnected to allow the sterilizing medium chamber to be inspected


and cleaned if necessary.
In addition to 3-A Standards, the 3-A Sanitary Standards Committees have developed a series of documents called 3-A Accepted Practices. These practices are
concerned with a specific processing system as a whole and not a specific type of
equipment. Some of these practices are of interest only to the milk industry, such as
those for milking machines. Other practices are of interest to the food industry as
they cover methods for producing a source of purified air under the pressure for food
contact surfaces, high temperature-short time and higher heat-shorter time pasteurization, a method for the installation of permanent pipe lines and cleaning systems, a practice for spray drying systems and instantizing systems, the method for
producing culinary steam, and criteria for membrane filtration systems. The latter is
of wide interest to the food industry and frequent requests are received from the
nondairy industry for copies of these accepted practices.
Sanitary standards and the criteria on which they are built may present some very
special challenges in the future. There are the constraints on sanitary elastomers as
imposed by a critical carbon black supply. There will simply have to be another type
of rubber.
The future for plastics is indeterminate. Many machined parts may be made of
nonmetallic plastic resins. Proposals have been made for all-plastic vessels, including
large storage tanks, and also all-plastic fittings and plug valves that are now conventionally seen in stainless steel configurations. The use of large areas of plastics
materials for product contact is found in membrane processing equipment. There are
3-A Standards for membrane modules and all plastic plug valves.
When first molded or extruded, plastic surfaces can be smoother than a No. 4
finish, but no regimen is at present available to weigh the functional life of that
surface. When will it abrade or crack, and what are the sanitary meanings of these
surface imperfections?
The future for stainless steel is likewise imponderable. The dairy and food industry is wedded to it and perhaps the supply is deemed satisfactory. However, the
world supplies of important alloying components, chromium and nickel, lie outside
the continental United States and both metals are sensitive to either labor disruption
or geopolitics. The stainless threat is probably not serious at the moment, but it
reflects the fact that the dairy and food industry should have alternative or other
suitable metal materials ready to press into use.
Standards must be interpreted and complied with in light of the knowledge, experience, and understanding of all factors, including the microbiological significance
to the food processors involved. No one standard is the recipe for the design, fabrication, and construction of all equipment used in the production, preparation, and
service of foods, drugs, and beverages. New standards will be needed as sanitary
science advances and equipment innovations become commercially available. There
is one constantThe 3-A Sanitary Standards Program is the only recognized body
currently providing this service. Tapping its resources of manpower and technical

expertise in voluntry compliance, the 3-A Program offers the logical mechanism for
developing sanitary criteria for all food, pharmaceutical, and consumable goods. The
consumable goods industries would benefit from uniform guidelines for sanitary
equipment designthe need for stringent cleanability design and product protection
is the constant. 3-A was a good idea 50 years agoit is a better idea today.

4.2.7.6 The Relation ofpH to Cleaning


Many attempts have been made to use pH as an indication of cleaning ability or
efficiency of cleaning materials or solutions. It has been advocated as a means of
controlling cleaning solutions. It has been said that pH is the measure of alkalinity
or acidity, that pH is the measure of the strength of an alkali or an acid, and that the
cleaning efficiency of solutions is directly related to the pH of those solutions.
Examine Figures 4.50 and 4.51. Figure 4.50 shows that at all concentrations
the pH of trisodium phosphate is greater than that of soda ash. Figure 4.51 shows
that at all concentrations the alkalinity of soda ash is greater than that of trisodium
phosphate.
It must be pointed out by this that pH is not a measurement of alkalinity or acidity,
also, that alkalinity is not an indication of pH. Alkalinity is measured by determining
the amount of acid of a known concentration necessary to neutralize a definite weight
of the material or solution being tested.
The alkalinity of any solution is proportional to the concentration.
Also note in Figure 4.50 that, although the pH of both soda ash and trisodium
phosphate solutions increases as the concentration increases, the total pH increases
when the concentrations are increased from 1% to 7% are less than one full pH unit.

pH at 7O0F

CAUSTIC
T.S.P.
SODAASH

CONCENTRATION PER CENT


Figure 4.50 The pH of caustic, T. S. P., and soda ash at different concentrations.

% SODIUM OXIDE BY TITRATION

In other words, changing the concentration by 600% changes the pH less than one
unit. Therefore, pH measurement is of practically no value as an indication of how
much alkali is present in a given solution.
Figure 4.52 shows the alkalinity of the same commercial alkalies as in Figure
4.50. You will note that as the concentration of the solution increases, the alkalinity
as measured by titration increases proportionally. The first point that must be made

CAUSTIC
SODA ASH
T.S.P.

CONCENTRATION PER CENT


Figure 451 The alkalinity of caustic, T. S. P., and soda ash.

PRODUCT C
PRODUCT B
PRODUCTA

PH

Figure 4.52 The pH of 1% solutions of Product A, Product B, and Product C at different


0
F.

absolutely clear is that because pH is not a measurement of alkalinity it cannot be


used to determine the concentration of cleaning solutions.
The basis of all true pH measurement is the hydrogen electrode. To make one
reasonably accurate measurement requires extremely careful technique, a great deal
of time, and considerable training and experience and is best done in a laboratory.
It requires different apparatus and quite different technique to measure pH at elevated
temperatures. In other words, pH measurements made between 16 and 43C (60 and
1100F) requires a different apparatus.
A series of tests as to the accuracy with which pH measurements can be made in
commercial use has indicated that most pH measurements are in error by at least
two-tenths of a pH unit. Many such measurements are in error by three-tenths of a
pH unit, and in these cases, this represents an actual error well over 100%. Obviously,
much of the equipment used for industrial pH measurement today does not give
results within this limit of error.
The second point is that pH cannot be measured accurately by the ordinary apparatus commonly used for this purpose. Certainly, for this reason, pH alone is to
be considered as practically useless as a means for controlling detergent solutions.
As the temperature of an alkali solution is increased, the pH decreases. Most
people who are attempting to use pH measurements in connection with cleaning
material do not realize this fact. Figure 4.52 shows that as the temperature is increased from 27 to 600F to 1400F the pH of a 1% solution of each of the products
is actually decreased by approximately a full pH unit. This is true of all alkaline
products. However, in most cases, as the temperature of a cleaning solution is increased, the detergent efficiency also is increased. If the detergent efficiency increases and the pH decreases with increase in temperature, what relationship exists
between detergent and pH? A high pH does not indicate good detergency and a low
pH does not indicate poor detergency. In many cases, the product with the lower pH
does a much better job than the one with a high pH.
The pH of solutions must be controlled, however, to prevent attack, etching, and
corrosion of certain metals. Magnesium, for example, can be cleaned with a product
of pH 12 without attack to the metal surface, but if the pH is allowed to drop to 10
or 8, severe etching occurs. pH control is also used to produce certain desirable
properties in conversion coatings.
To summarize it should be remembered that:
1. pH is not a measure of alkalinity and cannot be used to control concentration of
solutions.
2. pH cannot be measured accurately except in the laboratory by means of special
electrical apparatus.
3. As the temperature of alkaline solutions increases, the pH decreases.
4. pH is not an indication of detergent efficiency.

4.2.7.7 Types of Cleaners


Water may be used to dislodge and remove large soil particles and to rinse other
solutions from surfaces, but is not well suited for removal of oily proteinaceous or
other films.

Acids are used to remove hard water and other mineral films, to brighten stainless
steel equipment, and to ensure complete neutralization of alkaline cleaners.
Alkalies are used to remove fatty solids and carbohydrates and for most cleaning
applications. The strength of alkalies varies greatly from general purpose manual
cleaner to highly caustic compound ones.
Chlorine when used as an additive to alkaline cleaners, never acids, improves
protein film removal. NOTE: Chlorine in an alkaline cleaner is for soil removal, not
sanitizing.
Water conditioners are used to prevent formation of hard water and other mineral
films and scale. They are normally added to alkaline cleaners or rinse water. Once
films are allowed to build up, it is usually necessary to descale with an acidic product.
Wetting agents are used with both acidic and alkaline products to increase soil
penetration, improve rinsing, or to control foaming properties. Foam control may be
"defoaming" or "foam addition" depending on the specific wetting agents, solution
temperature, and concentration.
Sanitizers are not cleaners but used following a cleaning operation to destroy
remaining organisms that may present health problems.

4.2.7.8 Types of Sanitizers


The most popular and familiar group of sanitizers are the chlorine types. Bleach or
inorganic types are the most widely usedsodium or potassium hypochlorite, swimming pool chlorine (granular) calcium hypochlorite.
Organic types such as granular chlorine releasing organic compounds are another
form, exemplified by sodium dichloroisocyanurate.
Another difference between chlorine sanitizers is pH of the use solutions. The
amount of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) or hypochlorite ion (OCl") in solution is
determined by pH.
Hypochlorous acid is the more active chlorine state. That is why the organics are
used at 100 ppm Cl2 vs. 200 ppm for hypochlorites.
Chlorine sanitizers work by a combination of disrupting essential enzyme activity
of bacteria, penetrating into bacteria and forming toxic compounds, and chlorine
disrupts cell walls and causes lysis cellular material.
Iodine solutions are also commonly used as sanitizers. Elemental iodine may be
blended with a surfactant and acid. Hypoiodous acid is the active form in solution
and at its effective pH of 2.5 to 3.5 is narrow. They kill bacteria pretty much like
the chlorines do.
Surfactant sanitizers are cationicpositively charged moleculesan example is
quaternary ammonium compounds. Anionic surfactants are negatively charged longchain, detergentlike molecules.
When bacteria are put into an alkaline solution, they are negatively charged; the
positively charged quat couples with it, and denatures bacteria. Bacteria in acid
solution are positively charged and require an anionic surfactant sanitizer for coupling to occur. Tables 4.2 to 4.4 summarize the characteristics, use conditions, and
disadvantages of some commonly used sanitizers.

Table 4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMONLY USED SANITIZERS


Acid
Sanitizer

Active
Chlorine

Steam

Iodophors

Good

Vegetative cells

Good

Good

None

Depends on
wetting agent
Yes
Excellent

Yes
Excellent
Excellent

Fast
Poor
No
None

Varies with
temperature
Fast
Poor
None
High

Excellent

Speed
Penetration
Film forming
Affected by organic
matter
Affected by other water
constituents
Ease of measurement
Ease of use
Odor
Taste
Effect on skin
Corrosiveness

Depends on
wetting agent
Yes
Varies with
temperature
Varies with
temperature
Fast
Good
None to slight
Moderate

Fast
Good
None
Low

Fast
Excellent
Yes
Low

No

High pH

High pH

Yes

Poor
Poor
None
None
Bums
No
High

Excellent
High foam
None
None
None
Bad on mild
steel
Moderate

Excellent
High foam
None
None
None
None

Cost

Excellent
Excellent
Iodine
Iodine
None
Not to stainless
steel
Moderate

Low pH and
Iron
Excellent
Excellent
Chlorine
Chlorine
Some
Bad on mild
steel
Low

Characteristic
Germicidal efficiency
Toxicityuse dilution
Toxicityshelf strength
Stabilitystock
Stabilityuse

Yes
Low

Quats
Somewhat
selective
Moderate

Moderate

4.2.7.9 Safe Chemical Handling Check List


1. Be aware of potential chemical hazards. Develop a healthy respect for all chemical cleaners and sanitizers.
2. Precautionary statements are printed on all chemical cleaner container labels.
Read carefully all cleaning chemical labels. Check material safety data sheets.
OSHA Right-to-Know regulations require MSDS be easily accessible to all
employees.
3. First-Aid instructions are found on chemical container labels, and on material
safety data sheets and marketing sheets. Read them and be aware of location of
first-aid materials.
4. Follow manufacturer's chemical use instructions carefully.
5. Prevent breathing of chemical fumes. Replace lid or cap on chemical container
after using product.
6. Store chemicals in a neat, organized manner with labels turned so they can be
read.
7. Protect your eyes with safety glasses or goggles when handling concentrated
chemicals.

Table 4.3 SPECIHC AREAS OR CONDITIONS WHERE PARTICULAR SANITIZERS


ARE RECOMMENDED
Specific Area or Condition
Aluminum equipment
Bacteriostatic film
CIP

Film formation, prevention of


Fogging, atmosphere
Hand dipproduction
Hand sanitizerwashroom
Hard water
High iron water
Long shelf life
Low cost
Noncorrosive
Organic matter, stable in presence of
Plastic crates
Porous surface
Processing equipmentstainless steel

Rubber belts
Tile walls
Visual control
Walls
Water treatment
Wood crates

Recommended Sanitizer
Iodophor
Quat
Acid sanitizer
Active chlorine
Iodophor
Acid sanitizer
Iodophor
Active chlorine
Iodophor
Iodophor
Phenolic
Acid sanitizer
Iodophor
Iodophor
Iodophor
Quat
Hypochlorite
Iodophor
Quat
Quat
Iodophor
Active chlorine
Quat
Acid sanitizer
Active chlorine
Iodophor
Iodophor
Iodophor
Iodophor
Active chlorine
Quat
Active chlorine
Active chlorine

Concentration
25 ppm
200 ppm
130 ppm

130 ppm
800-1000 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
2-3%
130 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm

200 ppm
25 ppm
200 ppm
200 ppm
130 ppm
200 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
200 ppm
200 ppm
20 ppm
1000 ppm

8. Wear rubber aprons, boots, gloves, and face shields before working with cleaning chemicals.
9. Smoking and eating are not permitted in chemical storage or use area.
10. Chemical containers should not be used on stools, ladders, shelves, etc.
11. Wipe up chemical spills promptly.
12. Do not switch drum pumps or scoops from one chemical container to another.
13. Do not mix chemicals unless specifically instructed in writing by the manufacturer.
14. Never mix an acid cleaner with a chlorinated cleaner. Mixing acid with chlorine
or chlorine-bearing compounds will produce dangerous chlorine gas.

Table 4.4 DISADVANTAGES OF COMMONLY USED SANITIZERS


Iodophors

Hypochlorites (liquid)
Short shelf life
Odor

Not as effective against spores and


bacteriophage as hypochlorites
Expensive

Precipitate in iron

Should not be used at temperatures


exceeding 1200F

Adverse effect on skin

Staining of porous and some plastic


surfaces
Germicidal action adversely
affected by highly alkaline water
or carryover of highly alkaline
detergent solutions

Corrosiveness on some
metals

Use concentration: 200


ppm Cl

25 ppm I

Quats
Incompatibility with common
detergent components
Germicidal efficiency varied and
selective
Slow in destruction of coliform and
Gram-negative psychrophilic
bacteria (such as Pseudomonas)
Not effective in destruction of
spores and bacteriophage
Expensive

Slow to dissipate (residual


problem)
Objectionable film on surfaces
treated
Foam problem in mechanical
application
200 ppm quat

15. Slowly add the chemical cleaner to cold water: DO NOT ADD WATER TO
A CLEANER.
16. In case of chemical burns, rinse skin with cool water for at least 15 min. Follow
first-aid instructions. Notify supervisor and seek medical aid, if required.
18. Avoid transfer of bulk chemicals into intermediate containers. If this cannot be
avoided, label the intermediate container and never use cup, glasses, or other
4
'household" containers.
19. For chemical splashes in the eyes: Wash eyes thoroughly at an eye wash station
with cool, flowing water for at least 15 min. Seek medical attention. Notify
supervisor.
20. Chemical safety is no accident. Work defensively, work smart, stay safe, and if
in doubt DON'T.

4.2.7.10 Elements of Chemical Use Control


1. Establish realistic cost objectives and be sure that all concerned are aware of the
objectives.
2. Follow chemical use instructions carefully. Make no chemical changes without
discussing with management or supplier.
3. Weigh or measure chemicals into properly labeled containers. Do not guess at
quantities.

Next Page

4. Titrate and record chemical concentrations daily. Report over- or underusage.


5. Check chemical bulk tank inventory daily. Immediately report usage discrepancies.
6. Report or repair chemical pump and line leaks or malfunctions.
7. Keep accurate written records on a form shown on Table 4.5.

4.2.7.11 Manual Cleaning and Clean-Out-Of-Place (COP)


This section describes the use of manual cleaning techniques using brushes and
general purpose, chlorinated alkaline cleaners suitable for manual cleaning. Cleanout-of-place or COP procedures are exactly what the term suggests-moving or disassembling the equipment for cleaning. Manual cleaning aids include hot water generators and a delivery system, a stainless steel cleaning solution, tank with a highvolume recirculation pump, special valves that deliver a round or a flat stream of
water or solution, shelves, wall hangers, drying racks, and a variety of specialty
brushes for specific applications. The brushes should be one-piece plastic molded
oneswooden brushes are to be avoided. Also color coding brushes for cleaning,
sanitary, and nonsanitary applications is recommended. Often this equipment is assembled in a cleaning room of proper construction.
There is some confusion, at least in the United States, about the cleanability
requirements of dairy handling, processing, and packing equipment meeting 3-A
Sanitary Standards or bearing the 3-A Symbol. The 3-A Symbol does not necessarily
mean CIP or mechanical cleaning techniques can be applied. Most 3-A Sanitary
Standards provide design criteria for mechanical and manual cleaning. Parameters
of time, temperature, cleaning-solution type and concentration, flow velocity, and
soil type and load must be considered as well as design, fabrication, and installation
of equipment and systems for mechanical cleaning. The question of mechanical
cleaning therefore initially becomes a process or equipment supplier/installer decision. Once established the cleaning regimen (whether CIP or COP) must be monitored and evaluated. To effectively monitor any cleaning regimen, it is necessary to
disassemble the equpiment periodically for visual inspection. Be sure CIP means
clean-in-place, not clean-in-part.

4.3 Speciality Equipment


4.3.1 Ice Cream and Frozen Dessert Equipment
4.3.1.1 Introduction
Frozen desserts include ice cream, custard, parfait, ices, ice milk, sherbets, frozen
confections, mellorine, parevine-type products, and novelties. A description of these
products and the processing is found in Volume II, Chapter 4 of this series. For
purposes of equipment used to process frozen desserts, the above classification
scheme may be simplified to hard frozen bulk products (pints to 3 gallon sizes) and
novelty products (slices, sandwiches, quiescently frozen stick novelties, cup items,

Previous Page

4. Titrate and record chemical concentrations daily. Report over- or underusage.


5. Check chemical bulk tank inventory daily. Immediately report usage discrepancies.
6. Report or repair chemical pump and line leaks or malfunctions.
7. Keep accurate written records on a form shown on Table 4.5.

4.2.7.11 Manual Cleaning and Clean-Out-Of-Place (COP)


This section describes the use of manual cleaning techniques using brushes and
general purpose, chlorinated alkaline cleaners suitable for manual cleaning. Cleanout-of-place or COP procedures are exactly what the term suggests-moving or disassembling the equipment for cleaning. Manual cleaning aids include hot water generators and a delivery system, a stainless steel cleaning solution, tank with a highvolume recirculation pump, special valves that deliver a round or a flat stream of
water or solution, shelves, wall hangers, drying racks, and a variety of specialty
brushes for specific applications. The brushes should be one-piece plastic molded
oneswooden brushes are to be avoided. Also color coding brushes for cleaning,
sanitary, and nonsanitary applications is recommended. Often this equipment is assembled in a cleaning room of proper construction.
There is some confusion, at least in the United States, about the cleanability
requirements of dairy handling, processing, and packing equipment meeting 3-A
Sanitary Standards or bearing the 3-A Symbol. The 3-A Symbol does not necessarily
mean CIP or mechanical cleaning techniques can be applied. Most 3-A Sanitary
Standards provide design criteria for mechanical and manual cleaning. Parameters
of time, temperature, cleaning-solution type and concentration, flow velocity, and
soil type and load must be considered as well as design, fabrication, and installation
of equipment and systems for mechanical cleaning. The question of mechanical
cleaning therefore initially becomes a process or equipment supplier/installer decision. Once established the cleaning regimen (whether CIP or COP) must be monitored and evaluated. To effectively monitor any cleaning regimen, it is necessary to
disassemble the equpiment periodically for visual inspection. Be sure CIP means
clean-in-place, not clean-in-part.

4.3 Speciality Equipment


4.3.1 Ice Cream and Frozen Dessert Equipment
4.3.1.1 Introduction
Frozen desserts include ice cream, custard, parfait, ices, ice milk, sherbets, frozen
confections, mellorine, parevine-type products, and novelties. A description of these
products and the processing is found in Volume II, Chapter 4 of this series. For
purposes of equipment used to process frozen desserts, the above classification
scheme may be simplified to hard frozen bulk products (pints to 3 gallon sizes) and
novelty products (slices, sandwiches, quiescently frozen stick novelties, cup items,

extruded items, fancy three-dimensional/molded items, and other specials). A flow


diagram for a typical frozen dessert operation is provided in Figure 4.53. Much of
the equipment used in frozen dessert mix processing is covered elsewhere in this
chapter and will not be repeated except as necessary. The basic steps in frozen dessert
manufacture are composing the mix, pasteurization, cooling, aging, flavoring, freezing, packaging, and hardening/storage. These operations may range in scope from
batch operations where each ingredient is weighed or metered into a batching and
pasteurizing tank to large continuous processes with considerable automation. Both
processes use the same order of unit operations and follow Figure 4.53.

4.3.1.2 Mix Preparation


This is the first processing step unique to frozen dessert manufacture. Preparing the
mix is done by moving the ingredients from dry or liquid storage area or vessels
and weighing or metering them into an ingrediator followed by pasteurization, homogenization, cooling, and storage. The equipment includes piping valves and fittings, ingrediators, pumps, pasteurization equipment (batch or HTST), cooling
equipment, and aging vessels. Only that equipment different from that found in
Section 4.2 will be discussed here.
In smaller batch operations either round or rectangular vats are used. These vats
may also be used for pasteurization. In either case it is important to have sufficient
agitation to facilitate the proper dispersion of the ingredients, especially stabilizers,
if used. If batch pasteurization is done in the same vat, it must be jacketed and must
be equipped to meet the requirements for vat or batch pasteurization found in the
Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) and fabricated to the criteria specified
in the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Non-coil type Batch Pasteurizers for Milk and
Milk Products, Number 24-02. These requirements are to ensure proper pasteurization, to protect the product from contamination, and to provide design criteria for
manual or mechanical cleaning. For example, the temperature difference in the pasteurizer shall be designed so that the simultaneous temperature difference of the mix
shall not exceed 1F (.50C) and the air space above the mix shall be at least 5F
(3C) higher than the minimum required pasteurization. Vat pasteurizers shall be
fitted with both recording and direct reading air space and product thermometers
meeting PMO specifications. The inlet and outlet valves must be of the leak protector
type and meet the specifications found in the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Fittings
Used on Milk and Milk Products Equipment and Used on Sanitary Lines Conducting
Milk and Milk Products, Parts I and II (Inlet and outlet Leak-Protector Type Valve),
Number 08-17E. Any instrument fittings must also conform to applicable 3-A Sanitary Standards. If pasteurization is not being done in the mix preparation, the vat
must conform to the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Batch-Type Processors, Number
25-02 or other applicable 3-A Sanitary Standards for milk or milk products storage
tank. The two types of batch mixers in wide use may be classified as rounded,
jacketed type with revolving paddles or propellers and rectangular jacketed ones
equipped for high shear agitation.

FROH HTST DISCHARGE


en

13

CD SUPPLY

ClP RCTURN
TYPICAL
PASTCURIZCD
MX STOKAGC
VITH
FLAVOR
VATS, FItCCZINa
FILLINGTAHKS
AND
ROCLT
COUVHCNT.

ClP SUPPLY

VATCR
PASTCURIZO ICC CRCAH MX STORAOC

ClP RCTURN

[EYI

EX

FKXZCR

EYJ
HIXCR
PANEL

ROCLT SYSTCM
BRY WGRQIEMT
HIXCR

FRCCZCR CCNTCR

INGRCDICNT ICC CRCAH


rCCDCR
FILLER

Figure 4.53 Typical ice cream production and schematic flow diagram. (Courtesy of Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.,
Schaumburg, IL, U.S.A.)

After an adequate soak period to ensure complete hydration and blending of the
dry ingredients, the mix is pasteurized. Pasteurizing may be done in the mix preparation vat or in a HTST system using plate or tubular heat exchangers and a holder
tube. There are some ice cream plants using a hybrid of the two methods. If vat
pasteurization is used, every particle of the mix must be heated to at least 155F
(69C) and held at that temperature for a minimum of 30 min. Other times and
temperatures for vat pasteurization of ice cream mix are 15 min at 1600F (710C) and
165F (74C) for 10 min. The air space must be at least 5F (3C) higher than the
minimum required temperature of pasteurization during the hold period. Smaller
plants (<250,000 gallons [950,000 L] per year) tend to use this method of pasteurization. This method is less capital intensive, but more labor intensive. Also vat
pasteurization yields a somewhat more functional mix and a slight cooked flavor
which is desirable in some markets. Larger plants (over 1 million gallons [3.8 million
L] per year) use HTST systems for mix pasteurization. HTST systems are discussed
in Section 4.2.2. Plate design may be slightly different than those used for low solids
products to accommodate the higher internal pressures encountered pasteurizing ice
cream mix. The minimum HTST pasteurization times and temperatures are 25 s at
175F (800C) or 15 s at 1800F (83C). There is a trend today to even higher-temperature, shorter-time (HHST) pasteurization for ice cream mix pasteurization and
temperatures up to 212F (1000C) for .01 s may be used. The reasons for this higherheat shorter-time pasteurization are (1) to yield a mix with lower bacterial counts,
(2) to increase mix viscosity, (3) to increase protein functionality with resulting
savings in stabilizer usage, and (3) to obtain a slight cooked flavor which is desirable
in some markets. HTST or HHST pasteurization is continuous and automatically
controlled and is always less labor intensive than batch methods and offers the
economy of scale. Other advantages of continuous pasteurization are (1) the incorporation of regenerative heating and cooling, (2) longer run times, and (3) more
effective control which yields a more uniform mix.
There are hybrid pasteurization systems using plate or tubular heat exchanges to
heat and cool the mix and a vat for the continuous holding of the mix for at least
the minimum times and temperatures listed above for vat pasteurization conditions.
In these systems all the requirements for vat pasteurization must be met. The warmup
time in the plate or in the tubular heat exchanges must not be included in determining
the holding period. It is also recommended that the minimum pasteurization time
and temperature combinations be exceeded where possible.
Homogenization is universal for all dairy-based mixes. Homogenizers are described in Section 4.2.6. The reasons for homogenization are to disperse the fat
particles, disrupt the fat globule membrane, and, for some stabilizers, to provide the
required shear to activate them. Homogenization is achieved by forcing the mix
through a small orifice at proper temperature and pressure using a positive displacement pump to supply the energy. The breakup of the fat particles is caused by shear
forces applied to a thin stream of mix traveling at up to 30,000 fpm. Also the sudden
release of pressure causes cavitation (the formation of vapor) in the mix.
Homogenization of dairy based ice cream mixes is done at temperatures of 145F
(63C) to 1700F (77C) because at lower temperatures fat clumping occurs and some

emulsifiers are not activated. In a HTST-HHST system this necessitates placing the
homogenizer between regeneration and final heating (the most common position) or
after the final heating. When using high temperature pasteurization the mix may be
cooled to 1500F (660C) and then homogenized. If batch pasteurization is used, the
homogenizer is downstream from the pasteurizing vat.
Pressures for homogenization of dairy-based mixes depend on many factors such
as mix composition, desired viscosity, mix stability, temperature, and whether a
single-stage or two-stage homogenizer is used. Thus only a range is suggested here
with the realization that one must experiment to find the most suitable pressures for
a particular product. The range for single-stage homogenization is usually between
2000 and 2500 psi (13,800 to 17,700 kPa). For two-stage homogenization the first
valve is set between 2500 and 3000 psi (17,700 to 20,700 kPa) with the second stage
at 500 psi (3500 kPa). Chocolate mixes and other high solids mixes will develop
enough viscosity with pressures reduced by 500 psi (3500 kPa) on single-stage or
on the first value of two-stage homogenizers.
The homogenized mix is then cooled to at least 45F (7.2C) but preferably to
400F (4.4C) or less. If a continuous system is used, cooling will be effected by a
plate which may have glycol coolant in the final stage. In batch systems a plate may
be used or in some cases surface coolers are still used. Surface coolers are also used
if the mix is too viscous to be cooled with a plate cooler. If used a surface cooler
should be constructed so that condensate of the tube cannot flow into the mix or
drop into the lower trough.
The cooled mix may be aged before further processing. The mix could be aged
in the pasteurization vat but this is rarely done. In smaller plants, the pasteurized
mix is aged in cylindrical, rectangular, or oval jacketed tanks of a few hundred to
several thousand gallons. In larger operations, vertical silo-type tanks of greater than
10 feet (3050 mm) are used to store and age mix. These tanks must meet specifications found either in the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Storage Tanks for Milk and
Milk Products, Number 01-04 or the 3-A Sanitary Standards for Silo-Type Storage
Tanks for Milk and Milk Products, Number 22-06 Silo-type tanks may be refrigerated and agitated if the mix is to be held for an extended period of time. Aging tanks
may be fitted with power-operated valves and pumps that will permit the freezer
operators to move mix from storage to flavor tanks.
The white or unflavored mix must be flavored with nonbulkly flavors before it
enters the freezer. The mix is transferred into a single shell tank containing one or
more compartments. The flavor tank must be fitted with vertical or horizontal mechanical agitator(s) and should also have a thermometer. The 3-A Sanitary Standards
for Uninsulated Tank for Milk and Milk Products, Number 32-01 provide the sanitary aspects for uninsulated tanks. If the volume of the mix or the subsquent freezing
rate is such that the temperature of the mix cannot be maintained at 400F (4.4C) or
less, then the flavor tank should be jacketed and cooled with chilled water. Flavor
tanks may be equipped with probes or positive-displacement pumps to transfer measured quantities of mix or liquid ingredients to the tank. Once the nonbulky ingredients (flavor or color) are added, the mix is now ready to freeze.

The only ingredients that may be added after pasteurization of the mix are those
flavoring and coloring ingredients that meet one or more of the following conditions:
(1) they are subjected to prior heat treatment adequate to destroy pathogenic microorganisms; (2) they have a water activity of .85% or less; (3) they have a pH of less
than 4.7; (4) they are roasted nuts and added at the freezer; (5) they contain high
alcohol content; (6) they are bacterial cultures; (7) they are fruits or vegetables and
added at the freezer; or (8) they are subjected to any other process that will ensure
that the ingredient is free of pathogenic microorganisms. All dairy ingredients, eggs
or egg products, cocoa or cocoa products, emulsifiers or stabilizers, dry or liquid
sweeteners, any dry or condensed ingredients mixed with water and added water
must be added prior to pasteurization. Also note that some colorings fruits or vegetables contain bacterial contamination; thus careful monitoring and extra precaution
may be needed to ensure finished product safety and quality.

4.3.1.3 Mix Freezing


For purposes of this discussion, mix freezing will be categorized into freezing done
by a scraped surface heat exchangers (SSHE), and that done using a combination
SSHE and a brine tank. Final hardening is considered a separate unit operation.
Freezing the mix is one of the most important unit operations of making frozen
desserts and the ice cream freezer is considered to be the heart of the process. The
objectives when freezing the mix are to (1) freezer a part of the aqueous portion of
the mix and (2) to incorporate the desired amount of air into the partially frozen
product which results in overrun. Freezing should be done rapidly so small ice
crystals result and the overrun must be carefully controlled for uniform quality and
cost. SSHEs used to freeze frozen dessert are classified as batch freezers or continuous freezers. Soft-serve or counter freezers are a subset of the batch type usually
found in retail outlets where further hardening of the product is not done.
The importance of the freezer cannot be minimized because, other than the quality
of the ingredients and the mix formula, the freezer has the most profound effect on
the final product and is largely responsible for that part of the phase change where
small ice crystals are formed. It is desirable to freeze and draw the mix from the
freezer as quickly as possible. Continuous freezers once equilibrated for draw temperature and desired overrun accomplish freezing within a few seconds whereas
batch freezers may take up to a few minutes to do this. The factors affecting freezing
point depression in ice cream and frozen dessert mixes are discussed in Volume II.
The following are "typical" freezing times to reach 90% overrun and draw temperatures for various types of freezers: batch types7 min at 24 to 26F ( 4.4 to
- 3.3C); continuous types24 s at 20 to 23F ( - 4 . 7 to - 5.00C), low-temperature
continuous freezers30 s at 16 to 19F ( - 8.9 to - 7.2C); and soft-serve freezers
3 min at 18 to 200F ( - 7 . 8 to -6.7C). The factors affecting the freezing time are
mechanical and those inherent because of the mix composition. The mechanical
factors include (1) type of freezer and draw temperature as illustrated previously;
(2) the condition of freezer barrel and blades; (3) speed of the dasher; (4) refrigerant

type and the velocity with which the refrigerant passes through SSHE; and (5) for
batch freezers the rate of unloading.

Batch Freezers
Batch freezers, as the name indicates, are not used for continuous mix processing
and are generally used where production of frozen dessert is 20 to 100 quarts (19 to
95 L) per batch. Typically a batch freezer is sized to accept 40 quarts (130 L) of
mix and produce 70 gallons (265 L) of partially frozen mix per hour. The batch
freezer is sometimes used in large plants for specialty low-volume items but is most
often found in low-volume plants. The smaller batch freezers are the counter freezers,
more commonly called soft-serve freezers, but with the same essential features.
The essential features of a batch feezer are a jacketed, cylindrical chamber provided with suitable refrigeration, usually self contained; a device for air incorporation
(the dasher); and scraping blades to remove the partially frozen mix from the cylinder
walls. The cylinder may be horizontal or vertical with the horizontal type being the
most common. Frozen dessert freezers must comply with the 3-A Sanitary Standards
for Batch and Continuous Freezers for Ice Cream, Ices and Similarly Frozen Dairy
Foods, Number 19-05. The batch freezer may also include accessory devices for the
addition of fruits, nuts, or other flavoring materials, and always provides an expelling
device and a discharge gate.
The freezing cylinder liners are made of AISI 300 series stainless steel. If of
stainless steel, or other structurally suitable materials, the liners may be covered with
an engineering coating of chromium and always are chromium plated for wear resistance if stainless steel scraper blades are used. Liners must be plated with chromium if base the heat-exchange material is other than AISI300 series stainless steel.
The liner is jacketed by placing a larger concentric cylinder around the freezing
cylinder with end plates to form an enclosed space. The refrigeration is of the direct
expansion type and may be supplied by self-contained chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) or
ammonia units. The advantages of CFC units are lower capital and maintenance
costs but they have the disadvantages of CFCs which are an increased energy use
due to lower efficiency, compared with ammonia units. Under the Montreal Protocols
CFCs will be phased out by the 36 countries that are the heaviest users of CFC
during the 1990s. The jacketed freezing cylinders are insulated and covered with
sheet metal.
On the inside of the freezing chamber there are revolving parts whose functions
are to whip or add air to the mix, to remove the partially frozen layer of mix from
the liner surface, and to move the mix from inlet of the freezing chamber to the
discharge port. The dasher and the scraper assembly accomplish the above by
counter-rotating at equal speeds. The outer unit is the scraper blades and the expelling
device. The inner unit is the dasher or beater. The blades are hinged so that the
rotational forces and the viscosity of the mix will keep the blades firmly against the
concentric liner. The liner should be smooth and free of voids and of uniform diameter. The scraper blades should be sharp for efficient removal of the frozen layer
of mix. In batch freezers dull or improperly sharpened scraper blades are the most

frequent cause of poor freezing rate and may also be a cause of coarse textured
product.
The expeller consists of one or more angled bars or expelling lugs mounted on a
flat bar. The expeller does not touch the liner wall, although nearly so, and is placed
so that when the unit revolves the mix is moved foward in the freezer. With the
discharge closed the mix returns to the center of the freezer and during unloading
the expeller aids in discharge.
The dasher mechanism is the device that adds or whips the partially frozen mix.
Dasher configurations are bladelike, squirrel-cage types, a blade and rod, or a compound dasher. The blades are at 90 degree angles to the shaft and are pitched to
cause return circulation. The squirrel-cage type has rods lengthwise to the axis of
rotation. The compound dasher consists of several small rods each revolving on its
own axes.
Operation of batch freezers requires careful attention to details to produce a product of uniform quality. The freezer is assembled and, while assembling, all parts
should be checked for wear and, more importantly, inspected to be sure they are
clean and dry. Sanitizing is done next using hot water (at least 1800F or 82C) or a
cold chemical sanitizing agent. Sanitizing is done just prior to freezing. Chemical
sanitizers should not be allowed to concentrate or dry on any surfaces because this
is a major cause of corrosion. Also while sanitizing do not rotate the dasher assembly
more than a few turns, thus avoiding excessive wear on blades and the liner. The
sanitizing step also serves as a check for proper assembly and as a test for leaks.
Before the mix is added, the freezer should be cooled if hot water was used or
drained completely if chemical sanitizing was done. The mix at 400F (4.4C) is
introduced usually through an integral mix supply tank meeting 3-A Sanitary
Standards. If the mix tank is of such a capacity that the contents are not transferred
into the freezing cylinder within 30 min, it shall be designed so the temperature of
the mix will not exceed 45F (7.2C) at any time. In determining conformity with
this requirement, the test shall be conducted in an ambient temperature of 1000F
(37.8C).
The freezer motor is started only after mix is introduced, the refrigerant is turned
on, and nonbulky flavorings or colors added. Bulky ingredients are added near the
end of the freeze cycle or at discharge. The mix is allowed to whip and freeze. In
recent machine design, the proper stiffness (degree of freezing) is achieved before
the desired overrun is obtained. If this is the case the refrigent may be turned off
and whipping continued until the desired overrun and consistency is attained.
Through experience the operator will learn the freezing characteristics of each mix
and also those of his freezer and adjust the whipping and freezing times accordingly.
However, when the ice cream is drawn from the freezer it should be stiff enough to
produce a ribbon and not so stiff to prevent it from settling when packaged. The
partially frozen product is quickly drawn from the freezer, packaged, and placed in
a hardening room.

Continuous Freezers
The continuous frozen dessert mix freezer is one designed to be operated in such a
manner as to partially freeze and incorporate air into the product as it flows continuously through the freezing cylinder(s) and to discharge the product continuously.
Continuous freezers may have a single-barrel or multiple barrels up to six. The
multiple-barrel freezer may be operated as a unit for maximum volume or barrels
operated independently, fed by several compartment flavor tanks producing multiple
flavors.
Formerly continuous freezers were used only in large plants. Now self-contained
continuous freezers are available down to 40 gallon (15 L) per hour output at 100%
overrun. These lower capacity continuous freezers offer an alternative to batch freezers for freezing small volumes of mix. These lower capacity continuous freezers are
available skid mounted with homogenizers, pasteurization equipment, pumps, tanks,
ingrediators, and other accessory equipment to form a complete ice cream plant.
These are very useful for product development and university pilot plants. Typically
a single barrel continuous freezer will discharge 50 to 300 gallons (200 to 1000 L)
per hour finished product, two barrel freezers to 600 gallons (2000 L) per hour, and
1200 gallons (4500 L) per hour and the very large capacity six-barrel configurations
up to 2000 gallons (7600 L) per hour.
The continuous freezers have the same essential features as a batch freezer plus
a few additional ones. The additional features include one or more of the following:
mix and air pumps, mix pressure gauges with sanitary fittings, overrun and product
hold back valves, and more elaborate ones that often are automatically controlled.
Other differences between the two freezer types are continuous freezers which may
be mechanically cleanable (especially new designs) whereas batch freezers seldom
are mechanically cleanable. A further subdivision of continuous freezers are those
low-temperature ones capable of delivering product at 16 to 7F ( 8.9 to 8.3C)
which is 5 to 6F (2.8 to 3.3C) less the 21 to 23F ( - 6 . 1 to -5.0 0 C) for conventional continuous freezers.
The principal function of the continuous freezer is to partially freeze the mix, to
incorporate air into the mix, and provide sufficient force to move the partially frozen
product to the next operation. The operator's main input is to regulate the amount
of air being incorporated into the mix and to regulate the temperature of the refrigerant on the freezing cylinder(s) until the desired overrun and consistency are
achieved. At this point the freezer is brought to an equilibrium state and continuously
operated until the day's operation is complete or the mix is changed. Refrigeration
may be ceased momentarily to clear the barrels between mixes. Also adjustment to
overrun and refrigerant temperature may be necessary for different mixes or as the
final product may dictate. These two variables will require frequent checks on older
machines, however, on well-maintained freezers, changes are not frequent. In new
continuous freezers these variables are automatically controlled and large quantities
of frozen product can be made with little variations in quality.

4.3.1.4 Bulky Flavor Addition


Making ice cream requires more than ice cream freezers and mix processing or
storage equipment. Bulky flavor addition, with the exception of chocolate or cocoa,
is usually done immediately after freezing. Ingredient feeders or fruit and nut feeders
are usually piped into the system between ice cream freezer and filling/packing
machinery or extruder. While ingredient feeders may range from simple inline
blenders to the more complex with one or more hoppers and pumps, they are all
designed to provide controlled insertion of fruits, nuts, candies, purees, and syrups
in a wide range of shapes, sizes, and forms into a continuous flowing stream of the
partially frozen base product.
Positive, accurate metering is accomplished by means of an agitator and auger
feed combination which transfers the ingredients from the main hopper into the ice
cream stream via a pump. The controlled speed and smooth action of the agitator
and augur ensure gentle handling of the ingredients, permitting incorporation of
whole strawberries, cherries, raisins, nuts, and peach slices.
Syrups and other liquid ingredients are pumped directly into the enrobing rotor,
bypassing the hopper and thus allowing the simultaneous incorporation of two or
more ingredients. An accessory kit called a "bridge breaker" is necessary when
feeding hygroscopic materials such as cookies in humid environments. The kit consists of a pneumatic cylinder attached to the enrobing chamber and reciprocates into
it keeping the enrobing chamber free of buildup.
Another accessory is a vibratory ingredient feeder. It consists of a hopper and a
vibrating chute. Dry ingredients such as coconut flakes, raisins, nuts, peanuts, miniature marshmallows, seeds, and candies may be continuously metered directly into
the enrobbing chamber at a controlled but variable flow rate.
It is important when choosing this equipment that throughout capacities are
matched to that of the freezer and other component equipment. Most companies will
have models with throughputs suited for novelty lines and low production rates,
typically 40 to 300 gph (150 to 1100 Lph), as well as high-capacity units suitable
for 300 to 1800 gph (1100 to 6800 Lph).

4.3.1.5 Novelty Equipment


The equipment used to produce the novelty items listed in the introduction is varied
and specialized by function and manufacturer. It can, however, be divided into four
general categoriesthat used for molding products; equipment for extruded pieces;
sandwich machines; and cup, cone, and tube filling equipment plus associated wrapping and packaging equipment.
By the broadest definition, the ice cream cone could be considered a novelty item.
The first ice cream cone was produced in 1896 in New York City by Italo Machiony,
who was granted a patent for a core mold in December 1903. In 1904 a Syrian waffle
maker named E.A. Hamwi teamed up with an ice cream vendor at the St. Louis
World's Fair to roll up waffles in a cone shape and fill them with ice cream. Thus
the commercial novelty business was born. Prefilled waffle cones remain a favorite

today. Other products such as stick products, bars, and sandwiches had their beginnings in the 1920s. The sales performance of novelties remains strong at $1.4 billion
in supermarket sales plus $1.8 billion for away from home consumption.
Novelty products are a varied lot with sales lists containing up to 500 items. They
come in many sizes, shapes, formulations, and package types. Novelty products may
be dairy or nondairy based with or without overrun; slush frozen; and deposited in
molds, cones, or cups or be drawn at temperatures for packaged goods or less. Some
products melt slowly and others very slowly, and the list continues. Yet many ice
cream makers expect all of these products to be frozen with one type of ice cream
freezer.
There are continuous ice cream freezers available and in use that are designed for
making specialized frozen desserts. Ice cream products for filling molds or small
cups at high speed must be very fluid so they will mold quickly and allow entrapped
air to escape. The partially frozen ice cream is drawn from the freezer so warm when
filling molds (25F or - A-0C), it is near its initial freezing point. It also melts in the
filler hopper and losses overrun. Specially designed freezers are available to allow
production of warm-drawn ice cream that has well developed air cells and holds
overrun during molding or high-speed cup filling. These freezers have a mix pump,
an ice cream discharge pump, and a recirculation pump.
The pump arrangement is such that air for overrun is admitted at cylinder pressure
between the mix pump and the cylinder. Sometimes dual-mix pumps are used. The
recirculation pump takes the semifrozen mix from the line between the discharge
port and discharge pump and pumps it into the mix between the mix pump and
cylinder. The effect is to produce a product that melts more slowly in the hopper
and retains more overrun. The savings for a 2.75 fluid ounce bar at 65% overrun
versus 100% is nearly 0.3 fluid ounces of mix.
Extruded products require a stiff, dry ice cream product from the freezer. Mix
formulations are often changed to produce the required physical properties or ice
cream may be drawn at lower temperatures. Ice cream from standard freezers in
good repair may be drawn as low as 19 to 200F ( - 7 . 2 to -6.7C). At 2O0F
( 7.2C), about 56% of the free water is frozen vs. 50% at drawing temperature of
22.5F ( 5.3C) typically used for packaged ice cream. The additional 6% frozen
water increases the concentration of suspended solids, lowers the available water,
and increases viscosity. Low-temperature freezers are capable of extruding at temperatures as low as 14F ( - 100C) in a single pass. They are modified for heavyduty use. Frames are stronger, larger pump drives are used, and dashers are of the
displacement type supported with heavy duty bearings. The freezer may also be used
to draw products at the more normal temperatures of 21 to 23F ( - 6 . 1 to -5C)
without changes to the freezer except the usual operational ones.
Sherbets, ices, and sorbets contain little or no milk solids, high sugar content, and
often have added citric acid. Overrun of these products may be 0 to 40% and sugar
content of 28 to 35%. These products freeze considerably different from ice cream.
The high sugar content depresses the freezing point and, coupled with low milk
solids and low overrun, increases wear on internal reciprocating parts. The acidity
in some products may increase corrosion. The products offer yet another set of

challenges to the ice cream freezer manufacturer. Modifications to conventional


freezers are available to meet these challenges. Modifications in dasher speed, and
to pump ratios and pump arrangements, can be made to meet the special requirements
for sherbets and ices.
The manufacture of bar-type novelties is done in special machines that perform
all or most of the following operationsmolding, stick insertion, hardening, demolding, enrobing, and wrapping. This equipment is available in rotary or linear
configurations. Rotary bar molding equipment typically is made in 4 to 16 wide
mold configurations with throughputs of 4000 to 45,000 pieces per hour. Linear
units or inline plants also come in 4 to 16 wide mold models with throughputs of
6000 to 24,000 pieces per hour. The throughputs will vary depending on the exact
mold shape and size and refrigeration capacity.
Although certain functions are modular, molding plants are usually self contained
and bought as a unit from the manufacturer. When purchased as a unit molding
plants have their own brine unit, moving mold, depositor, stick inserter, enrober, or
dry coating attachment. Also usually supplied are bar wrappers and bar accumulators.
A complete unit requires only connections to power and refrigeration.
The sequence of operations in an ice cream bar plant is the same for two geometrical plant configurations. Partially frozen ice cream product or water ice is placed
in a hopper that deposits the product into a mold. The mold is surrounded by a brine
solution (saturated caclium chloride) at 400F (-40 0 C). The product is partially
hardened and a stick is inserted into each mold. The bars are further hardened and
then put into a warm bath to defrost the product surface for demolding. After the
bars are withdrawn, they are dipped in a chocolate or other coating mass if it is an
enrobed item. The surplus coating is allowed to drain and harden before the bars are
wrapped.
The wrapping system may be single or multiple lanes. As with the molding and
freezing equipment, the finished piece can also be wrapped and accumulated automatically. The wrapping equipment wraps, seals, cuts off, and moves the piece to a
conveyor without coming into human or machine contact. For easier cartoning of
the wrapped bars, a bar stacker is often used. AU this equipment can be made to
operate in a synchronized and fully automatic manner.
Other accessory items available include many three-dimensional mold shapes,
automatic washers and sanitizer accessories and specialty fillers. One's imagination
is the only limit to mold shapes. The mold washer/sanitizer accessory allows for
mechanical cleaning and steam sanitization without dismantling the machine. An
additional advantage to mechanical cleaning is that water and steam use is greatly
reduced. There are filler adaptations for ice cream products and water ices and a
variety of nozzle plates to produce two and three flavored bars. Bottom-up fillers
are available for filling molds or cups with comparatively stiff ice cream. Bottomup fillers can be used for two-flavor fillings. A shell and core filler is another adaptation that allows an ice cream core covered by a thin water ice shell of one or more
flavors. In shell and core production, the mold is first filled with juice or water ice
followed by partial freezing of a thin shell of juice or water ice. Then a second
attachment removes the unfrozen portion of the juice or water ice and returned to

the original filler. The frozen shell is then filled with an ice cream core by a second
filler. There are also fillers that can fill molds with larger sizes of fruit or even whole
fruit. Stickless novelty bars are yet another example of the versatility of molding
plants. Removal of the bars is assisted by stainless steel combs which replace stick
attaching mechanisms with specially designed remover arms with tongs (called
combs) to lift the bars from the molds.
For stick insertion there are fully automatic devices that eliminate touching of
sticks or product by human hands. Manually operated devices are also available.
Wet and dry coating is the last step before wrapping. The wet coating (chocolate)
is kept in a heated jacketed container controlled by a thermostat. From the reservoir
the wet coating is pumped into the dip tank with constant overflow. The dip tank
can be set to coat part or all of the bar surface from the tip upward to the stick.
Small pieces of nuts or confections may be added to the wet coating. Dry coated
bars are easily produced by using an oil or chocolate in the dip tank followed by
lowering the coated bars into the dry coater where paddles distribute flour-based
crumbs, confections, or nuts over the coated bar. A hopper for the dry coating material and a vibrator plate ensure the supply of dry coating material is continuous.
Cut and extruded novelty plants can be as simple as a multiple nozzle of required
geometry and hot wire cutting devices and increase in complexity and enrobing
devices to multiple station plants that extrude and deposit ice cream and one or more
ingredients such as fudge, caramel, and nuts followed by enrobing. The latter products are often ice cream novelties that mimic a candy bar. A hardening tunnel or
tower is required for extruded products. The freezing and forming process of extruded bars begins at the ice cream freezer, drawing at lower temperatures than
molded items followed by extrusion into a specific size and shape. In the United
States square or rectangular shapes are the most common although just about any
geometry can be accomplished such as hearts, Santa Clause, or animal shapes. The
extruded ice cream ribbon is cut to desired height or length synchronous with the
speed of discharge. If enrobing is the only other ingredient operation, the block is
fed directly into a hardening tunnel or tower. If other ingredients are to be added,
they are layered on top of the ice cream ribbon in as many stations as there are layers
prior to hardening. Following hardening for 10 to 15 min the ice is wet enrobed, dry
enrobed, or both. Wet enrobing is usually followed by a second but short hardening.
The enrobed bars are conveyed downstream for wrapping, collating, and packaging
or shrink wrapped.
Equipment for the production of rectangular, square, and round ice cream sandwiches is available from only one or two manufacturers. They consist of extruding
nozzles, slice indexing wheel, product control devices, cookie or wafer dispenser,
roll feed for wrapper, and the associated sealing mechanism. The output ranges from
30 pieces per minute to several hundred. These machines require many complex
motions but recent improvements have resulted in very sanitary machines. Recent
advances in sanitary design include drip shields, use of stainless steel materials for
all product contact surfaces, sealed threads, packless bearings, ground and polished
welds, protected wafer chutes, and a more open-type construction. In addition to the
sandwich maker, these systems include collators and boxers and may include a dry

coater for applying crunch, miniature chocolate pieces, or cookie crumbles to sandwich edges. Advances in sanitary design and fabrication of these accessory items
are similar to those for the sandwich maker. Collators and boxers can be operated
up to several hundred sandwiches per minute. An integrated system can produce 375
dozen sandwiches per hour with one operator and one carton packer.

4.3.2 Butter Manufacture


Buttermaking involves many of the same steps as fluid milk and cream processing
such as raw milk or cream receiving and storage, separation (if milk), chilling, and
pasteurization. There are several additional stages necessary that require special
equipment. It also should be noted that in the United States, much of the butter
production is done in skim milk powder plants. These plants have access to excess
milk supplies, especially during the spring, and convert it to less perishable products.

4.3.2.1 Cream Preparation


The milk is separated to cream of 30 to 40% milkfat and is immediately pasteurized
or held at 45F (7.2C) for later pasteurization. The skim milk is also pasteurized
and stored for later use (often for spray drying). Vacuum deaeration can also be used
prior to pasteurization. The cream is preheated and then rapidly cooled with expansion to remove objectionable volatile flavor compounds. The cream is ripened following pasteurization at 155 to 175F (68 to 79C) for 30 min in a vat or 185 to
2500F (85 to 121C) for 15 s using HTST equipment. Typically cream for butter
manufacture is pasteurized at about 1900F (88C) for 25 s.
The pasteurized cream is placed in a jacketed tank for ripening. The ripening
treatment is designed to give the fat the required crystalline structure and solid-toliquid ratio. The exact heat treatment is chosen as a function of degree of unsaturation
and desired properties of the final butter. The range for ripening temperatures is 40
to 55F (4.4 to 13C) and takes 12 to 15 h. The temperature is often programmed to
increase to a preset maximum for holding. If acid-producing cultures are used, they
are added prior to the temperature program. The ripening tank is stirred and carefully
temperature controlled. Ripening and culture addition is more common in Europe
than in the United States.
The cream is moved from storage at 400F (4.4C) or from the ripening tank via
a plate heat exchanger to raise the cream to the proper temperature, commonly 500F
to 56F (10 to 13C). The cream is then churned.

4.3.2.2 Traditional Churning


Traditional churning is a batch process where the 40% cream is placed in a horizontally mounted churn with internal vanes. The churn rotates on its axis and in 30
to 45 min the oil-in-water emulsion is destabilized and butter granules form. The
churns are cylindrical, conical, or double conical in shape and are usually stainless
but a few aluminum churns are in use. The inside surfaces are not polished as are

most other equipment product contact surfaces but sandblasted to prevent butter from
sticking to the surface. The churns may be designed for partial vacuum operation or
for inert gas flushing. Working butter under a partial vaccum reduces air entrainment
in the butter. The churning process is continued until the butter granules reach pea
size or 0.5 to 1 mm in diameter. The buttermilk is drained and stored. Cold water
is added and churning is resumed for a short period. The wash water is drained and
salt is thoroughly worked into the butter. Working is continued until the butter is
completely compacted and no water droplets are seen. The churn's internal vanes or
ribs cause the butter to tumble and fold as the churn rotates and the butter passes
between the vanes.
The butter may be removed manually from small churns but this is usually a
mechanized procedure. The butter may be dumped into a trolley and manually emptied into the filler hopper or augered to the filler. Bulk packaging is 60 to 68 Ib (27
to 31 kg) cubes whereas butter for resale is printed (formed) into 1 Ib, 1A Ib, or
chiplet (single service pieces).

4.3.2.3 Continuous Churning


Continuous buttermaking is used more frequently than the traditional churn in the
United States and most of Europe. In the United States there are two basic steps in
continuous butter manufacture. One method passes 40% cream through a churning
chamber that produces sufficient agitation to destabilize the oil-in-water emulsion to
form butter granules within a few minutes. The other churns 80% cream on a continuous basis to rapidly form butter granules. In both cases the fat emulsion is destabilized and the buttermilk is continuously removed.
Each brand of continuous churn is somewhat different in design and specific
operation details. The equipment consists of several sections to perform certain functions. The cream enters through a cream inlet into the primary churning cylinder.
This churning cylinder is fitted with beaters driven by an external motor that rapidly
cause transmutation. The buttermilk is drained as the butter granules enter the separating cylinder or the working section of the churn. The butter granules are washed
with water or buttermilk enroute to this section.
The butter is worked by means of a screw which also conveys it to the next stage.
The next steps may differ depending on the equipment manufacturer.
In some the butter is salted using 50% brine to which color is added as necessary.
The brine is mixed with high-speed agitators in the texturizing section and the butter
is then extruded as a continuous ribbon into a hopper for packaging. In other equipment the butter passes from the working section to a conical section for further
buttermilk removal and is immediately washed a second time. This is a high-pressure
wash that breaks down the butter to remove any residual milk solids. Salt brine is
added next through a high-pressure injector and the mass is then worked again under
partial vacuum. In the final mixing section the butter passes through a series of
perforated plates and star wheels. Water is added here if necessary and the butter is
discharged in a continuous ribbon from an end nozzle.

4.3.2.4 Packaging
The finished butter is transported to the packaging equipment by one of three methods. The butter is placed in a silo with a bottom screw conveyor which feeds the
butter to the packaging machine. The butter may be pumped to the packaging machine or it may be moved using a trolley. The trolleys are often equipped with screw
conveyors. A combination of these methods can also be used.
The butter is either packaged in bulk or for retail use. Bulk packs are preferred
if the butter is to be stored for several months or longer. Bulk packs are more than
11 Ib (5 kg), and, in the United States, a 68-lb (31-kg) pack is common.
Printing butter is the process of molding or cutting butter into retail size. Common
United States sizes are quarter, half, and pound pieces and chiplets or pats for individual servings. The most common number of pats are 48, 72, or 108 per pound.
The primary packaging material must be grease and moisture proof. It is usually
parchment or parchment-coated foil. The wrapped prints are then placed in a carton
that is impervious to light and cartons are placed into corregated cardboard boxes.

4.3.3 Cheesemaking Systems


Cheese is probably the oldest known manufactured dairy food. Its origins go back
to the earliest days of man's domestication of animals and came about because of
the storage and transportation of goat milk in pouches made from the stomach of a
goat. The resulting cheeselike product and that which was purposedly made in pottery was quite different from today's highly controlled processes.
FAOAVHO defines cheese as the fresh or ripened product obtained after coagulation and whey separation of milk, cream, or partly skimmed milk, buttermilk, or
a mixture of these products. From this broad definition result 18 distinct types of
cheese with over 500 named varieties. The 18 types of natural cheeses differ distinctively in the method of manufacture whereas the 500 varieties are often named
for the town or region of origin and have many similar salient qualities. A complete
review of cheese types is contained elsewhere in this series. Defined for purposes
of this chapter, cheese contains protein, fat, water, and salt all in varying amounts
depending on cheese type and manufacturing process.

4.3.3.1 General Processes


Cheesemaking involves a number of common steps of all types of cheese. There are
treatments that are specific to certain varieties. Space allows only for a description
of general processes and related equipment. The general process involves coagulation of the milk, cutting the curd, cooking, whey draining, curd knitting, acid development in the vat or hoop, hooping, pressing the curd, and salting. Manipulation
of one or more of the above, type of starter and other added microorganisms or
enzymes, and the conditions and time of curing are the major parameters that provide
the many varieties of cheese.

4.3.3.2 Cheese Vats


Following clarification, heat treatment or pasteurization, and standardization of
cheese milk, the first step is adjusting the milk to proper temperature for addition of
starter and rennet to coagulate the milk. This is done in jacketed rectangular, cylindrical, or oval vessels called vats. The vats may be open topped or closed. The size
may vary from 100 Ib (450 kg) to 50,000 Ib (22,730 kg). The most basic cheesemaking system is a standard open top jacketed vat. The entire cheesemaking process
up to pressing and aging can be carried out in one vat. The milk is heated, coagulated,
and cut.
The whey is drained, and the curd is matted if necessary, followed by salting and
hooping. All processes are done by hand. This type of vat is appropriate for small
farm cheesemakers or very small specialty cheese companies.
The next step in equipment sophistication is to add a mechanical agitator to the
open vat. This reduces manual labor and ensures more uniform cheese quality. Usually with this addition, a curd mill is also incorporated. The curd mill will reduce
the time for cutting and matting the curd. The next refinement is to add a finishing
vat. The finishing vat permits reduced processing time due to its faster whey drainage
and frees up the setting vat so it can be refilled sooner, thereby increasing cheese
plant capacity.
This cheesemaking system can be improved by replacing the mechanized, open
rectangular vat with one or more enclosed round end or cylindrical vats. This type
vat allows for true automation with controls that automate vat filling, starter and
rennet addition, stirring, curt cutting, whey predraw, and vat emptying. In addition
to the automation, enclosed vats reduce fat and fines losses, improve cheese quality,
and standardize make procedures. Total energy consumption is reduced. High production rate cheese plants use multiple parallel lines of automated fully closed vats
plus finishing vat combinations.
Further refinement to cheesemaking is to automate the cheese finishing with the
addition of fully closed salting and finishing vats. These vats are generally used for
nonmilled cheeses such as stirred curd Cheddar, Colby, and Monterey Jack types.
For matted and milled curd cheese types fully automated and enclosed draining and
matting conveyors are used in larger cheese plants.
The milled curd can then be salted and mellowed in an open finishing vat, an
enclosed salting and finishing vat, or in a salt-retaining vat. This system when coupled with pneumatic conveying, automatic block forming, and automatic controls
represents nearly a totally automatic cheesemaking system.
Open cheese vats may be round ended or square and are 8 to 40 feet (2500 to
12,000 mm) long with widths of 42 to 78 inches (1100 to 2000 mm). While there
are two styles with respect to vat depth both are jacketed. Most are 24 to 27 inches
(600 to 700 mm) deep. This results in a vat top rail and floor plant height which
allows the cheesemaker to conveniently make and finish the cheese. Vats between
34 and 40 inches (875 to 1000 mm) are deep-make vats. These vats give large
capacities in a small area but are too deep for manual cheesemaking techniques and
must be fitted with mechanical agitation while the lower vats may be mechanized at

a later date. The low style vats have internal stainless steel steam distribution systems
that heat both the bottom and the sides of the inner shell, whereas the deep-make
style vats are heated on the bottom only.
All product contact surfaces and many nonproduct contact surfaces are AISI 300
series stainless steel. All product surfaces must be smooth and free of imperfections.
The inner floor pans must be well supported and structurally sound to keep the inner
pan flat. The pans are sloped from side to side to the middle and from one end to
the drain point on the other. Squared end vats are most popular in the low form and
shorter lengths, and are generally used without the aid of mechanical agitation. However, mechanical agitation can be effective. The deep-make vats are usually in the
rounded end configuration to ensure uniform cheese quality.
Other vats for special functions are available. Spray film cheese vats use recirculating hot water rather than steam heat. The hot water is continuously sprayed
from a spray rail located in the inside of the jacket, continually recirculated, and
temperature controlled. These vats are designed to meet the delicate heat requirements for cottage cheese. Modern Swiss cheese vats utilize a reusable woven plastic
belting rather than traditional cheesecloth. This innovation increases whey drainage
rates while producing a good surface finish. Also the reusable belting is labor saving
and eliminates expensive cheesecloth.

4.3.3.3 Accessory Equipment/Mechanical Innovations


There are numerous other accessory pieces of equipment available to the cheesemaker. These are all intended to reduce labor costs or enhance product recovery.
For many years fine recovery units have been used in cheesemaking. By removing
the fine curd particles from the whey, the fines may be returned to the main cheese
vat or sold for further processing or used for manufacturing cheese powders. Other
benefits derived from the use of fine savers include better recovery of milkfat from
whey and reduced sludge buildup in the whey separator. Automated curd recovery
units are generally used in high-volume plants and have throughputs of 50,000 to
100,000 lb/h (23,000 to 45,000 kg/h). Although inside the vat strainers function as
fine savers and are nearly always used, fine recovery units are a desirable adjunct to
most cheese operations.
Curd mills are necessary for traditional Cheddar cheese manufacture. The cheddared slabs are milled (cut into small pieces) using a combination of disc cutters and
rotating knives. They may be made portable by mounting on wheels or affixed to
the cheese vat. Curd capacities are up to 11,000 Ib (5000 kg) per hour. Spacings
may be adjusted from Vs inch to 1 inch (10 mm to 25 mm) and accommodate curd
slabs of varying sizes.
Cheese hoops and molds vary in size and shape depending on the type of cheese
and volume of the plant. In smaller plants the cheese hoops are hand filled into
cheesecloth-lined hoops of cylindrical or rectangular shapes. A longhorn hoop is a
6 inch (150 mm) by 15 inch (375 mm) high mold with a finished 12-lb (5.5 kg)

6 inch by 13 inch (330 mm) cheese. A young American produces a 10-lb (4.5 kg)
cheese of about 7 by 7 inches (175 mm X 175 mm). The ever popular daisy produces
a 22-lb (10 kg) 13.5 inch by 4.25 inch (340 X 110 mm) cheese. The Wilson style
rectangular hoop is often used and is available in 20 to 60 Ib (9 to 130 kg) sizes.
These are only a few examples of the many styles and sizes available.
The hooped cheese is placed next into a press. This operation is to remove still
more whey. While screw presses are in use, the newer ones are hydraulic. They can
accommodate large and small hoops and even different size hoops at the same time.
Mold presses are also available as tunnel presses, as wagon presses, and as vacuum presses for 640-lb (290 kg) cheese blocks. The tunnel press consists of a top
body including press cylinders and a mold table. The tunnel press can be used for
continuous or periodical pressing and is completely enclosed. It is fixed but offers
large production in minimal room height. Wagon presses are portable and consist
of a table, pressing cylinders above a movable plate. Above the cylinders there is a
removable cover. They are used in small and large plants, are easy to move, and are
suitable for narrow spaces. In very large plants there are complete systems for production of 640-lb (290 kg) cheese blocks. The large hoops are assembled and filled
with a cyclone filler in two steps and brought up to final capacity after settling. The
next step is to allow free whey drainage and prepressing. The blocks are then pressed
and moved to a vacuum chamber for final whey removal. The molds are capped,
banded, and check weighed before moving to the cooler.
Special pressing and molding vats are available and can be used for prepressing
and final pressing of various cheese types. They are made of stainless steel with the
inside bottom of a pressing vat made of a plastic mat lying on a grooved bottom.
The pressing vat sides and ends are lined inside with perforated plates. The pressing
lid is fixed on shafts of hydraulic cylinders and it can be moved up and down through
mechanical control. Inside the pressing lid there is a pipeline for curd distribution
and washing. In front of the vat there is a stationary or transferable unloading device.
The wet or dry curd is distributed evenly in the vat by overhead nozzles. The whey
drains through the bottom and is removed through channels to the whey pipeline.
The curd is leveled and a surface mat is placed over the curd before pressing is
begun. After pressing the cheese is mechanically removed and cut into the desired
block size. The blocks are moved by conveyor to packaging.
One special type of pressing vat is a mold vat. In these the pressing and washing
lids are not stationary and the bottom consists of perforated plates and a removable
end plate. A pressing lid and set of transferable pressing bulk heads sized for the
cheese type are included. The curd is distributed into the vat through a pipeline by
gravity or using a vane pump. The pressing force applied by the lid can be regulated.
The cheese is mechanically unloaded and cut. Both types can be mechanically
cleaned.
The current trend for larger and larger cheese factories has brought a change to
faster and more automated mechanical methods of cheesemaking. This is especially
true for Cheddar cheese, and stirred curd types, Swiss and Mozzarella. The stirred
curd method eliminates the cheddaring step by using deep circular or oval shaped

vats with specially designed, reversible agitators and cutting knives. The curd is
pumped to draining and matting tables with sloped bottoms, milled, slated, and
hooped. Others make use of draining-matting conveyors with a woven or porous
plastic belt to permit whey drainage. A second belt is used for cheddaring and
moving to the mill. The milled curd is carried to a finishing table for salting and
then to hooping.
An Australian innovation uses a short set. After cutting and cooking, the curd is
moved to a series of perforated stainless steel troughs traveling on a conveyor where
draining and partial curd fusion occurs. The slabs are placed into buckets on a
forming conveyor and transferred to compression buckets for cheddaring. Mechanical milling, slating, hooping, and pressing follows.
Other mechanical innovations include mechanical block formers and block cutters. The milled and salted curd is pneumatically moved to a tall block forming tower
where the weight of the cheese causes curd fusion to form a continuous columnar
mass. The curd column is under a constant partial vacuum resulting in a consistent
column free of whey and voids. At the bottom the cheese is guillotined into the
desired block sizes.
Pasta filata type (plastic-curd type) cheeses such as provolone or Mozzarella require specialized machines for stretching and molding. After the curd is matted and
cut into slabs, the slabs are worked and stretched in hot water (150 to 1800F). The
curd is kneaded in the hot water until it reaches 135F (660C). This operation historically was done by hand. Today a sanitary dough mixing machine or custom
machinery that stretches the knit curd is used. Molding by hand is difficult to describe
but suffice to say it requires considerable dexterity. The maker takes the amount of
cheese necessary for one cheese and works it into shape by kneading and folding it
into a triangular shape. After the large voids and hot water are removed, the corners
are folded under to form a ball. The curd ball is further manipulated into the desired
shape and a smooth, closed surface. Molds can be used to achieve the desired shape.
Molding machines are available for large-scale operations. The warm curd is then
often placed in cold water to harden it into the desired shape. The hardened cheese
is removed from the mold and is then salt brined from one to several days.
In the 1970s cross-flow membrane filtration became a useful tool for the cheesemaker as an adjunct to conventional cheesemaking. Today cheesemaking for Camembert can be done with preconcentrating the milk by ultrafiltration (UF). The cheese
milk is heat treated much like that for the conventional process in a vat and then
concentrated by ultrafiltration to a precheese state. The permeate can be compared
to conventional whey. Unlike whey, the permeate contains neither fat nor protein
but is a mixture of water, peptides, and lactose. Most of the nutrient content of the
milk is recovered in the precheese concentrate which is about one-fifth the original
volume of the milk. After ultrafiltration the precheese is placed in molds and rennet
is added. Renneting is at about one-fifth that needed for traditional processes. After
the rapid coagulation and whey syneresis, the salting and ripening is the same as
that for the conventional Camembert procedure. The advantages are that these processes are highly automated and allow downstream equipment to be downsized at a
capital savings. There is however additional capital outlay for the UF equipment.

Next Page

4.3.3.4 Processed Cheese


Pasteurized processed cheese is a dairy product made by processing, with the aid of
heat and emulsifying salts, finished cheese, usually one or more natural cheeses, into
a homogeneous plastic mass. The standards of identity require legal fat and moisture
content, equivalent to the natural cheese from which it is made. Pasteurized process
cheese foods and spreads differ in that they have a soft consistency, lower acidity,
and higher moisture content and may contain certain optional ingredients. The manufacturing methods and equipment are similar. Cheese destined for processing generally will be of the same quality as that sold for direct consumption. Cheese with
defects in surface, texture, size, shape, or color as well as cheese nearing its normal
shelf life can be used for processing. Cheese with taste defects should be avoided
for use as the feedstock for processed cheese.
The manufacturing begins by cleaning and cutting the cheese. The cut cheese is
ground and then placed in a steam jacketed kettle or a horizontal cooker. In large
plants the cheese is milled and melted continuously whereas in smaller plants it is
transferred into a melting vat. The optional ingredients may be added during grinding
or while the cheese mass is being heated. The emulsifying salts or acidulants are
added when the mixture reaches 1700F (77C) and kept constantly agitated.
The process cheese grinder-extruders are designed for breaking up 40-lb (18 kg)
blocks and half-moon pieces or for 500-lb (225 kg) barrels and 640-lb (300 kg)
blocks. Optional ingredients may be added now or during cooking. The ground
cheese is pneumatically moved to one or more blenders. Blender capacities range
from 5000 Ib (2300 kg) to 10,000 Ib (4500 kg). The cheese is blended using two
sets of ribbon augers. Outer augers move ground cheese to tank ends, and the outside
augers move it toward the middle of the tank and the discharge opening. Auger
speeds are low and cause blending of the cheese to produce a uniform moisture and
fat content.
The blended cheese is transferred by auger to the cooker. Cooker capacities are
300 Ib (140 kg) to 1000 Ib (450 kg) and at 10 batches per hour have throughput
capacities of 3000 Ib (1400 kg) to 10,000 Ib (4500 kg) per hour. They are single- or
double-screw type cookers using direct steam injection to heat the product. The steam
must be of culinary quality and equipment for generating it must conform to the 3-A
Accepted Practices for Method of Producing Steam of a Culinary Quality, Number
609-00. If optional ingredients were not added during grinding they are now added.
Salt and coloring are added as the temperature reaches 1200F (49C). Emulsifier salts
are added and the processed cheese food is heated to 170 to 1800F (77 to 82C).
Acid is added to reduce the pH to 5.2. If the product is a process cheese spread, the
final temperature is 1900F (900C) and pH may be slightly lower. The hot product is
moved to an insulated or jacketed and stirred surge tank and then to the filler.

4.3.4 Concentration and Drying


Changing milk into evaporated milk, sweetened condensed, and powder with a low
moisture content requires that various amounts of water be removed from the prod-

Previous Page

4.3.3.4 Processed Cheese


Pasteurized processed cheese is a dairy product made by processing, with the aid of
heat and emulsifying salts, finished cheese, usually one or more natural cheeses, into
a homogeneous plastic mass. The standards of identity require legal fat and moisture
content, equivalent to the natural cheese from which it is made. Pasteurized process
cheese foods and spreads differ in that they have a soft consistency, lower acidity,
and higher moisture content and may contain certain optional ingredients. The manufacturing methods and equipment are similar. Cheese destined for processing generally will be of the same quality as that sold for direct consumption. Cheese with
defects in surface, texture, size, shape, or color as well as cheese nearing its normal
shelf life can be used for processing. Cheese with taste defects should be avoided
for use as the feedstock for processed cheese.
The manufacturing begins by cleaning and cutting the cheese. The cut cheese is
ground and then placed in a steam jacketed kettle or a horizontal cooker. In large
plants the cheese is milled and melted continuously whereas in smaller plants it is
transferred into a melting vat. The optional ingredients may be added during grinding
or while the cheese mass is being heated. The emulsifying salts or acidulants are
added when the mixture reaches 1700F (77C) and kept constantly agitated.
The process cheese grinder-extruders are designed for breaking up 40-lb (18 kg)
blocks and half-moon pieces or for 500-lb (225 kg) barrels and 640-lb (300 kg)
blocks. Optional ingredients may be added now or during cooking. The ground
cheese is pneumatically moved to one or more blenders. Blender capacities range
from 5000 Ib (2300 kg) to 10,000 Ib (4500 kg). The cheese is blended using two
sets of ribbon augers. Outer augers move ground cheese to tank ends, and the outside
augers move it toward the middle of the tank and the discharge opening. Auger
speeds are low and cause blending of the cheese to produce a uniform moisture and
fat content.
The blended cheese is transferred by auger to the cooker. Cooker capacities are
300 Ib (140 kg) to 1000 Ib (450 kg) and at 10 batches per hour have throughput
capacities of 3000 Ib (1400 kg) to 10,000 Ib (4500 kg) per hour. They are single- or
double-screw type cookers using direct steam injection to heat the product. The steam
must be of culinary quality and equipment for generating it must conform to the 3-A
Accepted Practices for Method of Producing Steam of a Culinary Quality, Number
609-00. If optional ingredients were not added during grinding they are now added.
Salt and coloring are added as the temperature reaches 1200F (49C). Emulsifier salts
are added and the processed cheese food is heated to 170 to 1800F (77 to 82C).
Acid is added to reduce the pH to 5.2. If the product is a process cheese spread, the
final temperature is 1900F (900C) and pH may be slightly lower. The hot product is
moved to an insulated or jacketed and stirred surge tank and then to the filler.

4.3.4 Concentration and Drying


Changing milk into evaporated milk, sweetened condensed, and powder with a low
moisture content requires that various amounts of water be removed from the prod-

uct. For example, the production of evaporated milk requires 57% of the water in
normal milk to be removed and skim milk powder on the other hand requires 99.6%
of the water to be removed.
During the water removal process the milk undergoes many physical changes
beginning with a low-viscosity waterlike fluid and ending with a medium viscosity
liquid in the case of high solids milk concentrate production. Of course these changes
are more drastic in the production of powder where the product changes from a
liquid to the solid state. Thus many methods are used to remove the water from milk
to obtain the finished product.
The production of evaporated milk, sweetened condensed, and milk concentrate
prior to drying requires an evaporator. The evaporator is usually operated under
vacuum conditions, thus allowing the water to be vaporized at a lower temperature,
therefore reducing damage to the product. The production of powder is then accomplished by taking the concentrated product and further removing the water via roller
dryers, spray dryers, and fluid beds depending on the characteristics desired in the
final product.
Whey and whey byproducts are concentrated in equipment similar to that used
for milk; however, there are some differences in the equipment used due to different
heat treatment conditioning required.
A simple evaporator would be a pan containing milk placed on the top of a stove.
As the boiling temperature is reached water evaporates from the surface of the liquid
and over time the milk concentrates. However, due to the delicate nature of milk
such an evaporation process would result in a product having caramelized or
scorched particles depending on how carefully the heating temperature was controlled. Of course on a larger scale this could be accomplished in a processing tank.
In either case the product is not satisfactory; therefore evaporation takes place in a
vessel under a vacuum. There are many kinds of evaporators; however, to shorten
the discussion we will review only those used in the industry which includes the
falling film (Fig. 4.54A) and rising film (Fig. 4.54B) or a combination rising/falling
film. Either evaporator system consists of the feed and control system, preheaters,
integrated pasteurization system, calandria inclusive of distribution system, product/
vapor separator, product transfer/removal, condenser, and vacuum system as shown
in Figure 4.55. Controls are integrated to allow all of the previously mentioned
components to create the total process.
The feed and control consists of a balance tank with controls (see Section 4.2.1)
the size being determined by the evaporator design capacity, a centrifugal feed pump,
flow meter/indicator, and flow control valve.
Preheaters (Fig. 4.56) are used to heat the product using waste heat from the
evaporation process. These heaters can be spiral tubes placed inside the calandria,
straight tubes placed outside the calandria, or standard plate heat exchangers such
as those discussed in Section 4.2.2. In all cases the heating media is vapor or condensate from the process to recover all possible heat.
The pasteurization system with heater, holding tube, and flow diversion valve is
integrated into the evaporator system. The type of heater used will be either spiral
tube, straight tube, or plate and frame.

Figure 4.54 Falling film evaporation. (Courtesy of C. E. Rogers, Mora, MN, U.S.A.)

Figure 4.54.B Rising film evaporator. (Courtesy of GEA Food & Process Systems, Inc.,
Columbia, MD, U.S.A.)

The calandria is a new term to the reader and can be either a vertical tube chest
consisting of tubes up to 46.5 feet in length and 3 inches in diameter or a series of
specially designed heat exchanger plates assembled in a frame similar to a standard
plate heat exchanger. Either type of calandria must have a distribution system (Fig.
4.57) because it is of great importance that the product evenly covers the heat exchange surface. In practice the two distribution systems are dynamic and static.
The dynamic system consists of orifices or nozzles. Therefore in such a system
the product is superheated in relation to the pressure inside the tubes and thus flash
vapor is instantaneously formed. The vapor/product mixture sprays over the heat
exchange surface. Such systems rely on pressure drop, product viscosity, and flash
for proper distribution of the product. A change of any one can cause improper
coverage of the surface and therefore less efficient evaporation plus scorched particles. With a static distribution system the incoming superheated product is separated
into flash vapor and product. Note this type of system is possible only with the tube
chest type calandria. The product then enters a distributor above the tube chest. Level
is controlled on the distributor plate. Each plate has holes that are above the area
between the tubes, therefore allowing the product to flow onto the tube plate and
then over the edge of the tube and to be distributed evenly over the surface. The
flash vapor which flows through small tubes aids in pushing the product against the
tube surface and in increasing the velocity of product. After the evaporation process

EFHCT PflOOOCI flOW 1 l-3-l-!-(


F3RODUCT FLOW SCHEMATIC
TVR SIX EFFECT FALLING
FILM EVAPORATOR
Figure 4.55 Productflowschematic TVR six effect fallingfilmevaporator. (Courtesy of C. E. Rogers, Mora, MN, U.S.A.)

S1

Figure 4.56 Preheaters and straight-tube preheaters. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

Figure 4.57 Calendria. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray
Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson,
WI, U.S.A.)

the product and vapor must be separated efficiently to recover product and to allow
for a condensate that is not a pollutant. Therefore the product/vapor mixture flows
through a separator which allows the product droplets to fall to the bottom of the
vessel and be recovered while the vapor goes on to the next stage or to the condenser.
A typical separator is snail shaped which uses centrifugal force to aid in the separation process. Also the separator is large to reduce the velocity of the liquid/vapor
mixture, thus again reducing the amount of product carried over with the vapor.
The product is transferred from calandria to calandria and from the final calandria
via centrifugal pumps with water-flushed seals. Because of the function, that is,
pumping from a vacuum to a positive pressure and many times operating with a
partially full pump head, the pump selected must be of heavy duty quality.
A condenser is used to condense the vapors coming from the evaporator and can
be of two varieties, direct or indirect. The direct condenser is essentially a large pipe
with the vapors flowing into it and mixing with water sprayed into the vapor stream.
The vapors then condense in the water. The mixing condenser is very simple; however, any solids carried over with the vapor are mixed in the cooling water; therefore
the use of a cooling tower is not recommended because the cooling water system
can and does become contaminated. The mixing condenser thus allows for only one
use of the water. The indirect surface condenser can be of either shell in tube or
plate design. As the name implies the cooling water and the vapor are on opposite
sides of the heat exchange surface; therefore, no cross-contamination occurs. Although more expensive initially a cooling tower can be used with an indirect condenser; thus long-term savings on water and sewage costs can be realized due to
reusing the water.
In order to operate under a vacuum a source for the vacuum must be available.
Common sources for evaporator vacuums are the steam ejector and mechanical vacuum pumps. The method used will depend on the amount of vacuum desired and
the costs of electricity and steam.
Evaporators can be from one stage to typically seven stages. This means the
evaporation is being done in one calandria at one temperature or in seven calandria
at seven different temperatures. The more stages used the more efficient the evaporator because the vapor from one stage is used to heat the next stage. However, there
is a limit to the number of stages due to the lowest possible temperature that can be
accomplished in the last stage and to the capacity of the evaporator. Evaporators
typically use steam or mechanical means to create the heat source for the evaporation
process. The method used is dictated by steam costs, electrical costs, flexibility in
capacity/products, and capital expenditure. Thermal compressors are used with the
steam-driven evaporators to make them more efficient.
Instrumentation for evaporators is of utmost importance to produce a good, consistent, quality product. All of the following parameters should be indicated and
controlled: (1) flow of raw product, (2) temperature of raw product, (3) preheat
temperature, (4) temperature of pasteurization, (5) heating/boiling temperature of
each stage, (6) incoming steam pressure, (7) steam pressure at the thermocompressor,
(8) condenser water temperature, in/out, (9) vacuum, (10) condensate quality (conductivity), and (11) final solids content.

Simply put, spray drying is accomplished by atomizing feed liquid into a drying
chamber where the small droplets are subjected to a stream of hot air and are converted to powder particles. The spray drying system (Fig. 4.58) consists of the product feed system, the hot air system, the drying chamber and atomization system,
product/hot air separation, product cooling equipment, and final product recovery.
Additional items to the spray dryer can be an agglomerator for producing instant
products and a lecithination system for making instant whole milk.
The feed system is the interface between the evaporator and the spray dryer and
consists of feed tanks, water tank, feed pump, preheating system, and filter. Two
feed tanks are usually used so that one tank can be cleaned while the other is used
to feed the dryer. These tanks are of the same design as the previously discussed
balance tanks and are fitted with similar controls. The water tank is a single-shell
vessel that holds emergency water in case the dryer runs out of product feed and is
also used for a mixing area for CIP solutions.
The feed pump can be centrifugal with a flow control valve, positive rotary type,
or a high-pressure piston pump. The type of pump is dictated by the product and the
type of atomization system the dryer uses. A plate heat exchanger or shell in tube
heat exchanger is used to preheat the concentrate to reduce the viscosity and to reduce
the amount of energy the dryer must put into the product. The exchanger must be
put close to the dryer's atomization system to prevent an increase in the product
viscosity and excessive heat treatment. A final filter should be used prior to the
atomization system to prevent scorched evaporator particles or other contaminants
from plugging the atomizer. A dual-screen arrangement works well for this purpose.

Figure 4.58 Conventional spray dryer. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO
A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

The spray dryer requires a hot air system that is used to evaporate and carry the
moisture out of the product. This consists of a coarse filter to remove the large
contaminants from the air. The major item in the system is the unit that heats the air
either by direct or indirect means. The air can be directly heated by a gas heater and
works on the same principle as the direct gas fired heater used for home heating
purposes. The direct gas heater is inexpensive, very efficient, and can reach high
temperatures. However, when using a direct gas heater it is necessary to calculate
the amount of water vapor resulting from the combustion of the gas as this increases
the humidity of the drying air and therefore reduces the amount of water it can carry
from the product to be dried. The air can also be heated directly by electricity;
however, due to energy costs this is not done unless electricity costs are extremely
low.
Indirect heating of the air can be accomplished by steam, oil, gas, or hot oil, liquid
phase type units. These units are more expensive, cause more pressure drop of the
air, and have limitations on the temperature that can be attained. Indirect heaters do
have the advantage of not requiring addition of water to the drying air and avoid
possible contamination of the drying air due to combustion of the gas. The hot air
is then dispersed around the atomized product cloud via the air disperser. The air
disperser can be a series of perforated holes, a combination of screens, or a snail
arrangement. The first two result in the air flowing somewhat in a plugflow down
over the atomized product cloud while the latter swirls the hot air around the atomized droplets.
The drying chamber is a large, vertical cylinder with typically a cone on the
bottom for removal of the major portion of powder. The ratio of the diameter to
height is extremely important and each manufacturer has what he feels is the optimum. The chamber is usually insulated and clad with stainless steel. In the roof of
the dryer is the atomization unit which can be a rotating disc (Fig. 4.59), a grouping
of nozzles operating under high pressures, or a single nozzle (Fig. 4.60). It is important for system efficiency and product quality that the atomizer and the air disperser be properly designed to eliminate scorched particles and to prevent wetting
of the chamber sidewall. The decision of whether to use pressure nozzles or a rotary
atomizer will be dictated by the final product quality desired. High-density powder
requires the use of nozzles whereas typical skim milk powder can be produced using
the rotary unit. If the plant is not sure which powders it wants to produce in the
future they may want to look at buying a dryer that is designed to accommodate
both kinds of atomization systems, thus ensuring flexibility. The pressure nozzle
system is designed so that the liquid feed is atomized when it is forced under relatively high pressure through a narrow orifice. The nozzle system offers the versatility
in the selection of the spray angle, direction of the spray, and position of the atomizer
in the chamber/box. Particle size can be controlled by the nozzle design and the
pressure of the feed to the nozzle. The centrifugal or rotary atomizer spins at high
velocities; thus the liquid feed is accelerated to the point where it forms fine droplets
that mix with the drying air. Particle size is controlled by the speed of the wheel,
feed rate, and atomizer design.

Figure 4.59 Atomizer wheel. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and
Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S
Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)
Some drying chambers are built in the form of boxes, thus their name, the box
dryer. The mxiing of the air and atomized product is equally important in this type
dryer. Nozzles are the atomization method of choice. Most of the powder is removed
from box dryers via drags which pull the products to the end of the dryer into either
augers or an air conveying system.
After the atomized product is introduced into the hot air stream and the water has
been evaporated the powder/air mixture must be separated to recover the valuable
product and to ensure the discharge air does not pollute the atmosphere. The powder
carried with the air stream is referred to as fines because the particle size is smaller
than the powder that drops out of the air in the chamber/box. Usually a vessel called
a cyclone (Figure 4.61) is used as the primary unit to remove the fines from the air
to an acceptable level. In the cyclone a vortex motion is created; thus the centrifugal
force spins the fine powder particle to the outside of the cyclone where it falls down
the side and can be collected. An air lock valve or vortex is at the bottom of the
cyclone to allow the powder to drop into the powder conveying system and the air
to be discharged at the top of the cyclone. In large systems multiple cyclones are
connected in parallel to reduce the size of the cyclone and the pressure drop through
the collection system. Due to the mechanical nature of the cyclone separation some
particles are carried over with the air from the cyclone and therefore depending on
the type of product and local environmental standards a secondary separation system
may be required such as a baghouse (Fig. 4.62A and B) or wet scrubber (Fig. 4.63A
and B). A typical baghouse/filter consists of numerous bag filters made of cloth
material surrounding a cage that keeps the bag from collapsing. The unit is designed
in a way to ensure equal air loading to all bags. The air flow is from the outside and
thus the collected powder forms on the outside of the bag and is removed via me-

Figure 4.60 High-pressure nozzle, spraying system. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy ofNIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

chanical shaking of the bag or using a reverse air pulse. The baghouse is usually
used for secondary separation; however, it can be used as both the primary and
secondary separation and therefore the cyclone can be eliminated. Another secondary
method of cleaning the discharge air is a wet scrubber. A typical venturi wet scrubber
system works in the following manner in that the outlet air from the spray dryer is
accelerated after the cyclones to a high velocity in the venturi inlet, where the scrubbing liquid is injected through a nozzle. The air/particles collide with the scrubber
liquid droplets and the powder dissolves into the liquid. As the air/liquid mixture
passes through the scrubber body, the two are separated with the air being discharged
through a center duct and the scrubbing liquid being collected in the bottom of the
scrubber. The scrubber liquid can be water or product depending on the product
feed, the end product, and the concentration (evaporator) system.
Product coming out of the spray dryer is too high in temperature to package and
therefore is cooled. The cooling can be accomplished in a duct using prechilled/
dehumidified air or in a vibro-fluid bed cooler. The powder conveying system usually
serves two purposes: that of conveying the powder to the storage silo or filler and

air
exhaust duct
, conveying air
fan

air duct

conveying
cyclone
powder
hopper
powder slide
rotary
valve

powder
conveying
duct

air filter

powder
sieve
rotary
valve

baggingoff

Figure 4.61 Pneumatic conveying system. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO
A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

as the cooling unit. The powder conveying system requires four to five times as
much air as powder to convey the powder properly and to cool it to a temperature
for storage or packaging. The conveying air is cleaned using the same methods used
for the drying air. The vibro-fluidizer will be discussed later.
Modern dryers are one stage, two stage, or multiple stage. In single-stage dryers
the product is dried to the final desired moisture content in a single unit as the drying
chamber. In two-stage dryers (Figure 4.64) the primary drying is accomplished in
the primary chamber and the secondary drying is accomplished in a vibro-fluid bed,
a stationary dryer within the chamber, or on a moving wire belt.
A typical multistage dryer (Figure 4.65) would have the primary drying in the
chamber with the powder falling onto a stationary dryer where further drying is
done. The powder is then transferred to a Vibro-fluidizer where final drying occurs.
Each drying system has advantages and disadvantages. The single-stage dryer is
simple in design and is the least expensive dryer system. The two-stage is more
energy efficient than the single-stage but not as efficient as the multistage units. The
cost differential of the latter two is little but the amount of difference depends on
the control system. The powder characteristics for each type dryer are different;
therefore the choice of dryer system is many times determined by the end product
properties desired.

Figure 4.62.A Bag filter. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray
Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson,
WI, U.S.A.)

Properties that are variable include the final moisture, bulk density, particle density, interstitial air, flowability, solubility, number of scorched particles, surface free
fat, wetability, and dispersibility. Tests are available so that all of the powders can
rated/scored as to the above properties.
Agglomerators are used to give certain properties to the end product that cannot
be obtained during standard drying procedures. Agglomeration of powder can be
accomplished in the two-stage and multistage dryer be spraying some of the fines
back into the atomization cloud; thus the dried fines collide with the wet droplet and
an agglomerate forms and then is further dried in the system. Another method of
forming agglomerates is to provide for special wetting methods of an already dried
product. In such a system powder is fed into an agglomerating tube where it is wetted
and allowed to bump into other particles, thus forming the agglomerates which can
then be dried in a chamber similar to the drying chamber or in a vibro-fluidizer.
The vibro-fluidizer is a horizontal unit that has a screen installed parallel to the
body of the fluidizer. Powder is fed unto the screen and at the same time conditioned
air in fed through the bottom of the screen so the powder is dried or cooled to the
desired end result. The unit is constantly vibrated to help keep the powder mixing
and moving along the fluid bed. As indicated the vibro-fluidizer can be used for

Figure 4.62.B Spray dryer with bag filter. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO
A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

drying, cooling, or conditioning. Due to separated sections in the fluidizer all three
functions can be accomplished in the same unit.
The drying of whey involves some special equipment, namely crystallizing tanks
and, for some processes, a crystallization belt. Due to the two kinds of lactose in
whey it is necessary to precondition the concentrate prior to drying in order to form
a powder that is nonsticking and free flowing, thus the need for crystallization tanks
(see Section 4.2.1). Crystallization tanks are designed with a heavy duty total sweep
agitator and dished or flat bottom. When designing the tanks knowing the lactose
crystallization process is required. Once a tank is designed to give the proper agitation and cooling to the product, the control system should be automated to ensure
consistency of crystallized feed to the spray dryer. The ideal crystallization tanks
produce very fine crystals in the whey concentrate.
In some processes, to further ensure that nonhygroscopic product is produced the
powder is dried in the primary dryer to 12 to 14% moisture and then spread onto a
crystallization belt which, in effect, is a long timing belt that further allows the

EXHAUST
AIR

POWDER /AIR
LIQUID OUTLET
LIQUID INLET
Figure 4.63.A Sanitary wet scrubber. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation
and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NERO A/S,
Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

lactose to crystallize prior to final drying in the vibro-fluidizer. All crystallization


belts are custom designed to fit a particular process.
Another type of dryer used in the dairy plant is the single- and double-drum dryer.
The drum is heated with steam to the temperature for drying. It is an efficient method
of drying and for certain products, such as popcorn whey used as animal feed, is a
very acceptable method of drying. The drum can also be chrome plated for sanitary
applications. Product is spread onto the roller in a thin layer. As the drum rotates
the product dries and then is scraped off with a knife and drops into an auger where
it is conveyed to the packaging machine. Drum dried milk is often used by the
confectionery industry.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. Milk Powder Technology, V. Westergaard, 1983, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson,
WI, U.S.A.
2. APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.
3. CE. Rogers, Mora, MN, U.S.A.
4. G.E.A. Wiegand, GmbH & Co., Sarstede, Germany.

Product*

Water

Figure 4.63.B Wet scrubber recycled with water. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology,
Evaporation and Spray Dryings V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy
of NIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

5. Damrow Company, Inc., Fond du Lac, WI, U.S.A.


6. Buflovak, Food & Chemical Equipment Company, Buffalo, NY, U.S.A.

4.3.5 Cottage Cheese and Other Cultured Products


Cottage, cream, and Neufchatel cheeses; cultured buttermilk; cultured sour cream;
and yogurt are the cultured products with notable consumption in the United States.
As much of the equipment that is common to all dairies is used in their manufacturer,
this discussion is limited to that which is different or unique.

4.3.5.1 Cottage Cheese


Cottage cheese is made from skim milk and is a soft unripened curd and usually has
a cream dressing added. The plant equipment consists of the normal receiving and
storage equipment and tanks, clarifier-separator, pasteurizers, cheese vats with mechanical agitation, curd pumps, blenders, fillers, and conveyors. The cheese vats are
much like those described in Section 4.3.3., but are equipped for external cooking,
internal cooking, or both. The external cooking is done by removing whey through
a strainer from the top of the vat with a centrifugal pump, injecting culinary steam

Figure 4.64 Spray dryer with Vibro-Fluidizer for two-stage drying. (Adapted from Milk
Powder Technology, Evaporation and Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc.,
Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S, Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

into the whey, and returning the heated whey to the vat. The advantages to external
cooking are a more uniform temperature vat at the top surface and the ability to
maintain positive circulating pressure.
Cream addition may be done in the cheese vat but is often done with specially
designed blenders. The blenders can be ordered with insulated jackets or be water
jacketed. Typical capacities are 3500 Ib (7700 kg) to 5000 Ib (11,000 kg). The
blenders are mounted so they are positioned at a 45 degree angle and are usually on
load cells. The load cells allow accurate proportioning of ingredients while the 45
degree mounting angle results in excellent unloading of product from the blender.
The agitator shaft is offset from the center line of the blender and the area of agitation
is concentrated along the lowest two sides of the blender's inner surface. The two
scraper blades are curvilinear in two planes along the major and minor axes. Addition
of a bottom linear scraper and angled fin-type blades ensures the entire contents are
gently mixed together. These blending tanks are fully integratable into an automated
cottage cheese system and are CIP-able.

Figure 4.65 Multistage dryer. (Adapted from Milk Powder Technology, Evaporation and
Spray Drying, V. Westergaard, Niro Hudson, Inc., Hudson, WI. Courtesy of NIRO A/S,
Hudson, WI, U.S.A.)

Another option to the cottage cheese maker is a high-speed drainer that separates
curd from its last wash water. These presses affect rapid water removal while controlling moisture by removing water through a fine mush belt moving around a
perforated drum. Tension on the press belt can be regulated to control moisture
retention.

4.3.5.2 Yogurt
Yogurt is a very popular cultured product in the United States, and, along with other
yogurtlike products, is popular in most of the world. Yogurt may be classified into
two types. Set yogurt is placed into its final package after it is inoculated with starter
culture and is incubated in its final package. If fruit or other bulky flavoring is added,
it is placed in the cup first, resulting in the so called sundae-style yogurt. Nonbulky

flavors may be added to the mix or added along with the culture. The other classification is stirred yogurt which is prepared by adding culture to the mix in the tank
and incubation occurs in the tank. After incubation, the product is cooled, and bulk
flavors may be stirred into the yogurt and then packaged. This is called Swiss-style
yogurt. Other added ingredients, such as milk solids, sweeteners, or stabilizers are
added to the mix prior to inoculation.
The milk and added ingredients, except flavors and the inoculum, are mixed and
pasteurized in the usual equipment. Homogenization is also usually done with twostage piston homogenizers. The solids content may be increased by adding milk
powder prior to pasteurization or water may be removed by a vacuum vessel after
pasteurization. The total solids level when using vacuum removal is controlled by
the milk temperature at the inlet of the vacuum vessel and the rate of milk flow
through it. Regeneration is employed from the vacuum vessel to preheat the incoming milk (or mix) to about 1400F (600C) and then heated to 185 to 194F (85 to
900C) in a second heating section. During evaporation the milk (or mix) temperature
is reduced to 158F (700C). The vacuum vessels are used in lines with capacities up
to 2000 gal/h (8000 L/H). For high capacities up to 10,000 gal/h (30,000 L/H) falling
film-type evaporators are used.
At this point there is a departure in make procedure for sundae-style and Swissstyle yogurt and hence in equipment. For sundae- or set-style yogurt, the mix is
adjusted to 112 to 114F (44 to 46C) to allow a decrease of 6F (3.3C) during
filling operations and movement to the incubator, and culture is added. These operations take place in jacketed, temperature-controlled tanks just prior to filling.
Positive displacement metering pumps are frequently used to continuously add the
culture and essences. After inoculation and flavoring, the mix is packaged into the
consumer container and incubated. The fillers are similar to those used for other
viscous dairy products. The individual containers are boxed and incubated at 108 to
113F (42 to 45C) for 3 to 4 h. Incubation is interrupted by cooling to 50 to 600F
(10 to 15C) in 1 to V/2 h by passing palletized yogurt through a cooling tunnel.
Smaller operations may use circulating air to cool the yogurt. Using either method,
gradual cooling is necessary to prevent syneresis and shrinkage of the curd. After
sufficient cooling, the product is removed to a 400F (4.4C) cold storage room for
final chilling and storage.
Swiss-style or stirred-style yogurt is made by inoculating the mix cooled to incubation temperature in large incubation tanks. These are insulated, stirred tanks
able to maintain proper incubation temperature. The culture is metered into the tanks
from external bulk starter tanks. The incubation and culture tanks are frequently
fitted with pH electrodes to monitor acidity development. After incubation, the temperature is reduced to 54 to 600F (12 to 16C) by a second plate heat exchanger.
The gel must be handled gently to ensure proper curd strength and the tank emptying
pump and het exchanges are sized so emptying the tank takes 20 to 30 min. The
cooled yogurt is moved to one or more buffer tanks for curd healing. The product
is now ready for packaging and flavor addition. Fruits and other bulky flavors are
added by inline blenders during the transfer of yogurt from the buffer tanks to filler.
This is done continuously by using variable speed metering pumps to feed ingredi-

ents and a static blending unit. The fruit metering pump and the yogurt feed pump
are synchronized. Packaging equipment is similar to that used for sundae-style
yogurt.

4.3.5.3 Fermented Milk Products


The equipment used to manufacture most fermented fluid milk products is that used
for noncultured market milk products. Fermented fluid milk products include cultured buttermilk, kefir, filmojolk (Scandinavian sour milk), laktofil, graddfil (Scandinavian sour cream), cultured sour cream, sour half-and-half, acidophilus milk,
Bulgarian buttermilk, koumis, and more.
The general processes include milk standardization, heat treatment (pasteurization
or sterilization), homogenization and vacuum removal of air, cooling, inoculation
and incubation, ripening, and packaging. Compositions, culture types, and heat treatment vary according to product and are described in detail in volume II. Aeration is
an important variable that requires special attention in equipment chosen for mixing
and transport of many of these products.

4.3.5.4 Green Cheese Products


Green cheese products include cottage, cream and baker's cheese, Neufchatel, and
quarg. The processing, although somewhat different for each, uses much of the
equipment already discussed. Low-shear pumps and mixing equipment are generally
desirable. Production of bakers cheese uses a curd concentrator, a specially designed
separator, for whey removal for the continuous production of cheese. Hot pack cream
cheese manufacturers also may use a centrifugal separator for continuous whey removal from the hot cream-cheese mix. Hot pack cream cheese has the advantage of
prolonged shelf life. Cold pack methods use muslin bags for whey removal in cottage, cream, and Neufchatel cheese manufacture, and although superior flavor and
body is claimed, shelf life suffers. Plants making cold pack cream and Neufchatel
cheese are limited to low volume.

4.3.6 High-Temperature Processes


High-temperature processes have been used in dairy plants for a number of years
and usually refer to products that are considered commercially sterile and thus have
a longer shelf life. The basic concept of producing such a product is divided into
two parts. First the product must be heat treated to inactivate enzymes, microbes,
and spores that could cause spoilage to the dairy product and, more importantly,
those organisms could cause illness in humans. Typically this is done by heating the
product to higher then normal pasteurization temperatures and holding it for an
extended period of time. The time and temperature will vary depending on the type
of process used and the product and its microbial makeup. After the heat treatment
has been completed, the product is cooled under aseptic conditions; thus it will not
be contaminated by microbes reentering the product. Second, the finished product

Heating Loading Time in S

is aseptically filled into sterilized containers that are hermetically sealed. This discussion will review only the first part of the process.
The quality of long-keeping milk can be expressed by the value C (Fig. 4.66).
The C represents a measure for the thermal, inevitable damage of the milk contents
during the high-temperature heating and can be determined from the temperature/
time combination of the heating process. Dr. Horak from the Institute for Dairy
Science and Food Technique of the Technical University Munich-Weihenstephan
determined, on the basis of his comprehensive tests, a dimensionless value C* = 1
as the limit value. Lower values of C ensure as careful a treatment of the product as
is possible. This is shown analytically as damage to thiamine (vitamin B1) of < 3 % ,
by a decomposition of Iysine of < 1 % , or by a damage of riboflavin (vitamin B2)
that lies below the sensitivity of the determination method. The lower the value of
C of the heating process the more carefully the product is treated and thus less offflavor results due to heat. The bacteriological security of a heating process is ex-

UHT

Temperature in F
Figure 4.66 Value C.

pressed by a value B, which has to be > 1 . The limit value of J5* = 1 characterizes
the heat treatment which causes a reduction by a factor of 10 to the 9th (109) of the
thermophile spores. At an average load of the raw milk with approximately 10
spores/ml a lethal value of 9 means that among 100,000 packages at most one package contains one single spore; all the other 99,999 packages are sterile.
For clarity the words "sterile," "aseptic," and "commercially sterile" will be
used interchangeably and for this discussion indicate the absence of any living microbe or active enzyme. There are certain requirements for successful operation of
a high-temperature processing system. First the equipment must be capable of heat
treating the product, that is, heating it to the desired temperature and holding it for
the required time. Second, the equipment must be designed to operate for long
periods of time at the high temperatures and pressures that result from the process
conditions and procedures. Third, the equipment must be capable of being rapidly
and effectively cleaned in place and then sterilized prior to introducing product.
Finally, the total process must be 100% repeatable from day to day and easily monitored. Of course the system should be energy efficient and have minimum maintenance costs.
The three common methods of producing milk and milk byproducts aseptically
are the direct steam injection/infusion method, the tubular type system, and the PHE
system. Each has unique advantages and of course some disadvantages. Another
method should also be mentioned because of its potential and that is the use of
membranes to cold sterilize the skim portion of milk and the use of one of the
previously mentioned methods to sterilize the fat portion. After each portion is
treated both are recombined. This method produces a product that has had less
exposure to high heat treatment and therefore has less cooked or other off-flavors
often associated with high-temperature processing.
The three systems described here are based on the technical specifications for
commercially available systems. It should be noted that using their more direct description rather than a general one would help the reader understand the process
better. Using these technical descriptions does not denote endorsement of that particular system.
The steam infusion/injection system (Fig. 4.67) uses the direct heating and cooling
principle. The product comes into contact with the steam in a chamber where the
mixture reaches the desired sterilization temperature. The product is held for a short
period of time prior to being introduced into the vacuum portion of the process for
cooling. In a typical system the sterilization process starts with water being pumped
from a supply tank through the system and is recirculated until the water reaches
the sterilization temperature. The sterilization process continues until the preset time/
temperature has been met. The cooling side of the system is then cooled while the
water recirculating through continues to be heat treated/sterilized.
The product is pumped from the balance tank through the regenerative section of
a PHE via a positive rotary pump that has either a mechanical or an electrical speed
control. From the regenerative section the product enters the main heating unit where
steam is infused or injected into the product, bringing it up to sterilization temperature. The time/temperature relationship of the product is automatically controlled

BACK
PRESSURE
VALVE

TUBULAR
CONDENSER
STERILE PRODUCT
RAW or NON STERILE PRODUCT
WATER
STEAM

FLOWKDIVERSION
VALVE
REGENERATIVE
WATER
RECIRCULATION

TO
ASEPTIC
FILLER

[ Et

" HSTB
STEAM
INFUSER

ASEPTtttf
FLASH^
CHAMBER

VACUUM
PUMP
COMDENSER

RAW
PRODUCT
IN

PRODUCT, WATER
SUPPLY
SUPPLY
TANK
1 TANK REGENERATION

P.KR

ROTARY HOLDER
TIMING TUBE
PUMP

ASEPTIC
HOMOGENIZER
ASEPTIC
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP

ROTARY
PUMP
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP
Figure 4.67 Typical steam infusion/injection system. (Courtesy of APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.)

to supply the proper heat treatment to ensure sterility and product flavor. The product
then travels through a holding tube and has a 2- to 4-s resident time. It then passes
through a back pressure valve to the aseptic flash chamber. In this chamber water is
removed under partial vacuum until the product temperature is reduced to the same
temperature it was upon entering the main heating unit. The product is then pumped
via a centrifugal pump through an aseptic homogenizer, either single-stage or twostage depending on the product being processed, the regenerative down section of
the PHE, and then through a cooler section that uses cooling water or glycol to cool
the product to storage temperature.
An aseptic flow diversion valve is used downstream from the cooler to route the
product to the sterile surge tank, directly to the filler, or back to the balance tank in
case the system does not meet sterile conditions.
As one can see the system is made up of pretty much standard components which
have already been discussed elsewhere. The special component is the infuser or
injection unit. There are many designs and variations to units available from several manufacturers. A description of the individual units may be obtained from the
manufacturer.
Tubular type sterilizing systems (Fig. 4.68) is an indirect method of heating/
cooling that uses spiral tubular, straight tube, or tube in shell type heat exchangers.
Tube diameters are kept small compared to typical tubular heaters relative to product
flow. This is done to keep product velocities high and thus reduce harmful effects
to the product due to long heating times. It is important in tubular systems to design

the system around peak product flow and also taking into consideration product
viscosities.
In a typical system water is pumped from a balance tank via a centrifugal pump
through the system and is recirculated until sterilization temperature is reached. The
system is then held in this state until the time/temperature for sterilization has been
met. The cooling sections are then cooled down while the system is operating in an
aseptic manner.
Raw product is pumped from the balance tank via the centrifugal pump through
a tubular regenerative system in which product is regenerated against product or in
some systems a closed loop sterile water system is recirculated and used to prewarm
cool raw product and precool sterile product. From the regenerator up side the product goes through a stabilizing heater where the product is heated to approximately
1900F (880C) and held up to 2 min to help stabilize the dairy product prior to heating
to the sterilization temperature of 280 to 292F (138 to 145C). The final sterilization
temperature is obtained in a separate heater with a closed loop recirculating pressurized hot water set. After reaching the sterilization temperature the product is held
2 to 4 s. From the holding tube the product flows through the first section of the
regenerator down side to cool the product to homogenization temperature. The product is then homogenized in an aseptic homogenizer which pumps the sterile homogenized through the final section of the regenerator down, then through a final
cooler which uses a glycol/chilled water as the medium. The product then is routed
through the aseptic flow diversion valve to the surge tank, directly to the filler, or
back to the balance tank, thus the aseptic tubular system is similar to the standard
tubular except for higher velocity of product through the heat exchangers, and the
use of aseptic valves, pumps, and homogenizer as required.

RETURN LINE RECORDN


G
FROM FILLER CONTROLILE
R
DEAERATN
IG
CHAMBER
ROTARY
PUMP

CENTRATE
CONCENTRATE COBN
LENDN
IG
!BLENDING
TANK
TANK
PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER PRESSURETUBE
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMP

DRUM OR BULK
CONCENTRATE

CENTRF
I UGAL
TO
PUMP
HOT WATER RECIRCULATION HOT FILL
STERILE PRODUCT
OPERATO
IN
RAW or NON STERILE PRODUCT
WATER
STEAM

Figure 4.69 Plate heat exchanger high temperature sterilization system. (Courtesy of APV
Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.)

The PHE high-temperature sterilization system (Fig. 4.69) is also an indirect


heating/cooling method. Such a system incorporates a series of plate heat exchangers
as discussed in Section 4.2.2. Special gaskets are used in the plates to accommodate
the higher temperatures they are subjected to during sterilization and processing
procedures. Narrow gap plates are used to ensure high velocity in the plate gap to
promote optimum heat transfer.
The typical flow through the plate high-temperature system is similar to the flow
through the tubular system and thus the description will not be repeated.
In the direct heat method a flash/vacuum chamber is required to bring the product
back to the original moisture content. It also serves to remove volatile off-flavors
imparted in the product during the high heating process. Therefore the flash/vacuum
chamber is also used often in the indirect heating systems to achieve the desired
flavor in the final product. Because the chamber is on the sterile side of the system
it must be designed to be capable of being sterilized and to be maintained in the
sterile condition. Controls must be used to control concentration or dilution of the
product.
A special tank (Fig. 4.70) is used to hold sterile product after processing and prior
to aseptic filling. An aseptic surge provides flexibility in the overall operation of

Figure 4.70 Tank for sterile products. (Courtesy of APV Crepaco, Inc., Lake Mills, WI,
U.S.A.)

processing and packaging; otherwise the processing equipment and packaging equipment must be matched. Without the surge tank if either side, process or packaging,
shuts down the other side is idle. This is not practical in the dairy to maintain a
profitable operation. Using the aseptic surge allows the product to be delivered to
storage and then removed as the filler requires.
Aseptic surge tanks are sterilized before processing usually as part of the process
system sterilization or with a self-contained sterilization system. Precautions are
taken to ensure all parts of the vessel in contact with the product are properly sterilized and that the air supply to the tank is sterile. The sterile air is required to maintain
a protective positive pressure and to displace the product. Antibacterial barriers must
be provided at agitator shafts if the tank has one.
Aseptic pumps are designed similar to standard pumps as described in Section
4.2.3. All shaft seals must have antibacterial barriers. Seals and gasket materials
must be capable of withstanding sterilization procedures.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1. APV Crepaco, Lake Mills, WI, U.S.A.
2. GEA-Ahlborn and GEA-Finnah, GmbH & Co., Sarstede, Germany.
3. Stork Food Machinery, Inc., Gainesville, GA, U.S.A.

4.3.7 Membrane Separation


The membrane process is a separation technique that fractionates particles on the
basis on their molecular size and shapes. The membrane will retain particles with
molecular weights from 50 to 500,000 daltons depending on its type. When a membrane is rated according to the minimum molecular weight particles it retains it is
classified as having a nominal molecular weight cutoff. This is a rough approximation of the retention capabilities of the membrane and can be used as a guideline
for determining the required membrane for a particular function.
The flow of liquid across the membrane or flow through the module is a concept
of filtration known as cross-flow filtration. The cross-flow method allows for a longer
processing time with little reduction in permeate flux during the course of the process
run. When using conventional filtration methods the retained particles on the filter
media accumulate to a point where liquid does not pass through the filter. Crossflow filtration creates a turbulent flow on the membrane surface that reduces accumulation of the retained particles. The high velocity on the membrane surface has a
cleaning effect that distributes the retained particles back into the main liquid stream.
In a typical membrane system the material that passes through the membrane is
called the permeate. The portion of feed that is retained by the membrane is known
as the retentate or concentrate.
There are four basic types of membranes used in the dairy industry: reverse
osmosis (RO), ultrafiltration (UF), microfiltration (MF) (Fig. 4.71), and ultraosmosis
(UO). RO is a high-pressure membrane process operating in the 600 to 1000 psi
range. The semipermeable anisotropic membrane retains dissolved salts but allows

MEMBRANE
mmftm

***

MEMBRANB

MM8RA

tacfd

ilWf

Figure 4.71 Ultrafiltration; (b) reverse osmosis; (c) microfiltration. (Courtesy of Koch Membrane Systems, Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)
for a practically pure water to pass through. The membrane material, usually cellulose acetate, is incorporated into tubular or spiral-wound modules. RO membranes
are used in the dairy industry to purify evaporator condensate and other water/waste
streams. They are also used to preconcentrate whey prior to UF processing or roller
drying and to preconcentrate milk prior to cheesemaking. The pores in RO membranes range from 3 to 15 angstroms. It should be noted that RO membranes are
manufactured with different pore sizes and thus different retention characteristics.
Therefore depending on the application the type of RO membrane chosen may
change.
Ultrafiltration is a low-pressure membrane process used for separating high molecular weight dissolved materials from liquids. Most UF membranes are anisotropic
in structure and thus they have a dense layer on top that determines the degree of
separation and a spongy support layer underneath. The UF membrane is usually
made of a relatively inert polysulfone polymer and consists of the same material
throughout the membrane structure. The low molecular weight materials such as
salts and lactose pass through the membrane and are removed as permeate. The

macromolecules, suspended solids, and colloids are rejected by the membrane and
therefore are concentrated. Ultrafiltration is used to separate proteins from cheese
whey, for preconcentration of milk for making cheese base used in process cheese,
and for preconcentration of milk for various types of cheese such as Cheddar. Pore
sizes in UF membranes range from 15 to 1000 angstroms. MF is also a low-pressure
membrane process used for separating suspended materials in the .05 to 5 /mm range.
MF membranes are usually isotropic in structure; however, some are being manufactured with an anisotropic pore. In either case the material throughout the membrane is homogeneous. MF is applied in the dairy plant in a process for making a
low-heat sterile milk and is being tested as a means of separating the fat from whole
milk. Some fractionation of whey is also accomplished using MF membranes.
UO is a relatively new process used in the dairy industry to remove the salts from
salt whey, thus reducing the BOD load and recovering valuable protein from the
whey. This type of membrane is also being used for cleaning caustic for reuse CIP
systems. This membrane system operates in the pressure range of 150 to 600 psi,
thus between RO and UF.
Membranes used in the dairy industry all must have certain characteristics such
as capability of withstanding the transmembrane pressure (difference between the
feed-side and permeate-side pressure). Typical transmembrane pressures for MF are
5 to 50 psi, for UF 10 to 200 psi, for RO 200 to 1000 psi, and for UO 150 to 400
psi. Thus modules of each membrane type as well as the membrane must be capable
of surpassing the pressures to which they are subjected. Components and membranes
of the modules must also be made of materials that will withstand processing and
CIP temperatures. Typical processes for dairy applications are operated at 100 to
180 of (38 to 92C). Some dairy processes require steam sterilization; therefore for
these cases the membrane and module components must be designed accordingly.
Membranes also need to be compatible with pH of the cleaning solutions or process
fluids.
Membranes are usually available in four configurations: plate and frame, spiral
wound, tubular, and hollow fiber. The plate and frame unit is composed of flat
membrane sheets bonded to porous support plates or layered alternately with woven
spacer fabrics. Individual plates can be stacked to form a cartridge module containing
numerous flow channels. The units can be disassembled for inspection and replacement of membranes. The spiral wound module, as shown in Figure 4.72, is manufactured by building a "sandwich" of consecutive layers of membrane and flow
spacer sheets all wound around a perforated tube. The feed travels through the spacer
channels and permeate passes through the membrane and flows spirally along the
membrane channel toward the center until finally reaching the perforated permeate
tube at the center. The design of the unit does not allow it to be disassembled and
put back together. The design does offer a high surface-to-volume ratio which yields
a reduction in pumping requirements and floor space required.
Tubular membranes are made up of single or multiple tubular bundles with support structures (Fig. 4.73). The membrane is on the inside of the tube. The feed flows
through the membrane core and as it does this the permeate passes through the
side walls of the membrane and is collected in the housing which is also tubular in

Permeate Collection Holes

Anti-telescoping Device

FEED SOLUTION
CONCENTRATE
PERMEATE OUT
CONCENTRATE

Feed Flow Across


Feed Channel Spacer
FEED SOLUTION
Membrane
Permeate _
Collection Material

Permeate Flow (After Passage


through Membrane into Permeate
Collection Material)

Membrane

Covering

Feed Channel Spacer


Figure 4.72 Spiral-wound module. (Courtesy of Koch Membrane Systems, Wilmington,
MA, U.S.A.)

Concentrate
Feed

Pressure
tube

Membrane
carrier
material

Membrane

Permeate

Figure 4.73 Cross-section of a stork-wafilin tubular membrane. (Courtesy of Stork Friesland,


B.V., The Netherlands.)

shape. The tubular design allows for a high-capacity throughput and the filtration of
high-viscosity products but has a low packing density.
A variation of the tubular design is the hollow fiber which is a bundle of hollow
fibers inside a tubular housing. The hollow fiber design provides for a high membrane surface-to-volume ratio. Similar to the tubular design the membrane is on the
inside of the hollow fiber. As the feed flows through the cores of the fibers the
permeate is collected in the open channels surrounding the fibers. The design of the
hollow fiber allows for operation of the system at low transmembrane pressures and
thus improves cleaning.
It is difficult to indicate which type of configuration is superior; however, each
system can be evaluated as to different characteristics. Some areas that are typically
looked at are the internal liquid volume, the method of membrane manufacture,
cleanability, permeate side construction, membrane exchange, membrane strength,
viscosity limits, construction materials, operating power consumption, and flexibility
of plant size.
Membrane systems in general are made up of a group of components that are
compatible with one of the four previously mentioned designs. Membrane systems
can be set up as batch where the feed of an initial volume is pumped to the filtration
unit and split into two separate streams, permeate and concentrate. The concentrate
stream returns to the process tank while the permeate is discarded or recycled for
additional processing. The process continues until the volume level of the process
stream drops to the desired level and the required concentration level is reached. The
other type system is the most common in the dairy industry and is called the multistage or stages in series system (Fig. 4.74). In the multistage system the feed rate is
equal to the permeate and concentrate rate. Feed is introduced to the first stage while
the concentrate generated serves as the feed to the succeeding stages, with the output
from the final stage being the final product concentration desired. One advantage is
the ability to produce the required concentrated product immediately and continuously without the need for excess tankage for storage.
When designing stages in series system the first question that must be answered
is how many stages to use. This is determined by the capacity of the feed, the
concentration desired in the end product, and the efficiency desired in the system.
The stages in series system is similar to a multiple effect evaporator in that the
product is concentrated progressively in each stage. Thus the liquid may be very
thin exiting the first stage and quite viscous leaving the final stage. The membrane
flux/capacity decreases with an increase in concentration. Thus reducing the number
of stages in the system reduces the average capacity per unit area of membrane.
Each membrane system manufacturer will optimize the number of stages per the
customer's requirements. Major components of the stages in series plants consist of
the balance tank and controls for the first stage, each stage consisting of the modules
and module rack, recirculation pump, flow control valves, and the final stage with
either a flow control valve for controlling the amount of concentrate bled off of the
system or in the case of extremely viscous products a variable-speed positive rotary
pump controlling the concentrate out. As all of these components have been discussed in other sections it would be redundant to review them again.

Figure 4.74 Multistages in series membrane system. (Courtesy of Koch Membrane Systems, Inc., Wilmington, MA, U.S.A.)

Optimization of a membrane system is somewhat difficult; for example, the membranes flux at a higher capacity when the flow rate across them is high. However,
higher flow rate increases the pressure which increases power required to pump the
product and can also be detrimental to membrane/module life. Another area that
must be reviewed or considered for the above example is that a higher flow across
the membrane surface tends to aid in keeping the surface clean. Thus lowering the
flow which in turn lowers the power consumption could cause the membrane to foul
more rapidly and result in more CIP regimens per day and reduced capacity.
Cleaning of membrane systems is more challenging than cleaning most other
dairy processing equipment. Membrane fouling occurs in most separation processes.
The fouling which is a result of concentration polarization and a slowly increasing
gel layer thickness at the membrane surface reduces membrane performance. The
components of the fouling layer vary accordingly with the feed stream and have an
affinity for clinging to the membrane surface. CIP procedures must be optimized to
remove the fouling layer and sanitize the system at the same time minimizing the
degradation of the membrane. Each manufacturer recommends the proper cleaning
agents, sequence, times, flow rates, and temperatures for properly cleaning and sanitizing the system and maximizing membrane life.
Information in this section has been adapted from sales literature and brochures
from, and with the courtesy of, the following companies:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Koch Membrane Systems, Wilmongton, MA, U.S.A.


Romicon, Inc., Woburn, MA, U.S.A.
Niro Atomizer Food & Dairy, Inc., Hudson, WI, U.S.A.
Stork Friesland B.V., The Netherlands.

CHAPTER

5
Engineering: Plant Design,
Processing, and Packaging
Vance Caudill
5.1 Introduction, 296
5.2 Plant Construction and Arrangement, 296
5.2.1 Construction Considerations, 297
5.2.1.1 Type of Business, 297
5.2.1.2 Contour of Building Site, 297
5.2.1.3 Soil, Wind, and Seismic Conditions, 298
5.2.1.4 Utilities, 299
5.2.1.5 Social Concern, 300
5.2.1.6 Construction Materials, 300
5.2.1.7 Foundation Type, 301
5.2.1.8 Framing Concept, 301
5.2.1.9 Roof Design, 302
5.2.1.10 Floor, 302
5.2.1.11 Walls and Doors, 303
5.2.2 Plant Layout, 303
5.2.2.1 Process Flow Diagrams and General Arrangements, 304
5.2.2.2 Receiving Docks, 305
5.2.2.3 Storage Tanks, 305
5.2.2.4 Dry Storage Areas, 305
5.2.2.5 Milk Processing Room, 305
5.2.2.6 Finished Product Storage, 306
5.2.2.7 Discharge Dock, 306
5.2.2.8 Offices and Laboratories, 307
5.3 Processing Engineering, 307
5.3.1 Dimensions and Units, 307
5.3.2 Fluid Flow Characteristics, 309
5.3.3 Heat Transfer, 310
5.3.3.1 Heat Transfer for Fluid Products, 310
5.3.3.2 Pasteurization, 312
5.3.3.3 UHT Processing, 313
5.3.4 Principles of Homogenization, 316

5.4

5.5

5.6
5.7
5.8

5.3.5 Material Handling, 318


5.3.6 Preventative Maintenance Program, 319
Product Packaging, 320
5.4.1 Fluid Milk Packaging, 320
5.4.2 Aseptic Packaging, 321
5.4.2.1 Materials, 322
5.4.2.2 Paperboard Packaging, 323
5.4.2.3 Plastic Packaging, 325
5.4.2.4 Institutional Containers, 325
Regulations, 326
5.5.1 Plant and Equipment, 326
5.5.2 Product, 327
Summary, 327
Future Developments, 327
References, 328

5.1 Introduction
In order to achieve the desired dairy manufacturing facility, several engineering
disciplines are combined to form the proper plan. This chapter discusses the plant
development, plant layout, several processing considerations, and some packaging
requirements. The plant must be designed to produce an economical product that
satisfies regulatory guidelines and consumer demands. Engineering is involved in
designing the plant facilities, establishing the optimal plant layout, specifying the
desired processing systems, and selecting the packaging equipment based on consumer requirements. An understanding of these operations and engineering principles is required in order to achieve an effective plant.

5.2 Plant Construction and Arrangement


Planning is the foundation of any project; it is the most important step in developing
the desired plant, process, or package. It is necessary to have a thorough understanding of what must be accomplished to determine the correct procedure; thus, communication with various parties (client, engineering firm, construction firm, etc.) also
becomes important. The successful operation of the dairy plant depends on determining the layout of facilities (equipment), understanding governmental regulations,
and planning the construction program.

5.2.1 Construction Considerations


The major factors in the selection of most plant sites for construction are as follows:
(1) type of business; (2) building requirements; (3) soil, wind, and seismic conditions; (4) raw materials; (5) utilities; and (6) social concerns. For a preliminary
survey, the last four of these should be considered. Thus, on the basis of raw materials, utilities, and environmental conditions, acceptable location can usually be
reduced to one or two general geographical regions.
In the next step, the effects of the type of business and building requirements are
taken into account. This permits reduction of the possible plant location to several
general target areas. These areas can then be reduced further by considering all the
factors that have an effect on plant location.
As a final step, a detailed analysis of the remaining sites can be made. Exact data
on items such as freight rates, labor conditions, tax rates, price of land, and general
local conditions can be obtained.
5.2.1.1

Type of

Business

Management and marketing will be required to determine and target the type of dairy
products required for this new facility. A study of the feasibility of a project must
be made in the very early stages of planning. In some cases this would determine
whether to build or modify an existing facility. This study would also include surveying the existing milk production capabilities in the selected area and assessing
their future production capabilities. The objective must be to estimate the quantity
and composition of the milk which could be brought to the plant as soon as it is
ready for operation.
Once the type of dairy products and optimal location of the new facility is determined, the owner must select the building site and engineering firm to plan and
construct the new milk plant or to remodel an existing plant. An engineering firm
should be contracted to study possible building sites based on a developed business
objective. For example, if the plant is in business for contract-packaging, then cost
becomes a primary consideration versus a state-of-the-art facility to develop new
market shares.
A qualified representative of the organization should visit similar dairy facilities
to observe the latest developments in construction, equipment, room sizes, and consequent building size. The product capacities should be based on marketing projections. Management should also review the possible requirement for future plant
production and incorporate this information into building design.

5.2.1.2 Contour of Building Site


The plant location must be of adequate size to accommodate the immediate building
plan, including needs for additional buildings for specific plant activities. The site
size should also allow for the arrangement of buildings, access roads, loading and
unloading docks, parking lots, and utility lines to ensure ease of operations. Finally,

the site must be large enough to accommodate future expansion. All too often, the
parcel of land purchased for the best of building plans becomes too small. Once a
food manufacturing plant has outgrown itself, numerous types of product safety
problems can occur. Crowding limits the options for an efficient and sanitary plant
layout. Good planning up front will prevent this from happening.
A decision between a single-story or multiple-story building will be required.
Both have advantages and disadvantages which directly affect the manufacturing
process. A single-story building would simplify the shifting of personnel from operation to operation. Plant maintenance and operation will benefit because there is
improved communication and less time is required to move from job to job. Process
ingredients and other materials move more efficiently. Supervision of personnel and
of the manufacturing operation can also be enhanced. The major problems with
single-story buildings are associated with product flow. Gravity flow of secondary
ingredients to process is often not possible; as a result, the use of additional mechanical, pneumatic, and conveying equipment becomes necessary. Most singlestory structures require ceiling heights that are difficult to access. These same ceiling
areas become heavily congested with supporting service piping, duct work, and
miscellaneous equipment. It is often difficult to get at these areas to perform cleaning
and maintenance operations.
Multiple-story buildings have the opposite advantages and disadvantages. These
buildings allow for gravity-flow process techniques which eliminate a lot of mechanical and pneumatic elevating and conveying equipment. In addition, ceilings for
each floor are lower, less congested, and more accessible. At the same time, shifting
personnel from operation to operation and supervision become more difficult. Freight
elevators must be used to move process ingredients and other materials from floor
to floor.1
It might be appropriate to compromise by selecting a single-story building that
utilizes mezzanine floors. This type of plan allows for gravity flow where it is necessary, yet, it still offers the advantages of a single-story. This type of floor arrangement is most common in dairy plants.

5.2.1.3 SoU9 Wind, and Seismic Conditions


The topography of the tract of land and the soil structure must be considered, since
this will have a pronounced effect on construction cost. A soil test is required to
determine the basis for earthwork design. On studying the soil, characteristics such
as compressibility may be studied, since effects of settling are to be avoided. Vibration and bearing characteristics of the soil must be considered, as well as the loading.
Typical values2 are:
Soft clay:
Sand, hard clay:
Rock:

95.76 KN/M2
383.04 to 957.00 KN/M2
2872.80 KN/M2

The basic design wind velocity is 145 KMPH and is based on a recurrence
frequency of 100 years. Basic wind pressures are based on the following height
exposure:
Height

Pressure

Oto 4.57 M

1101.24 N/M2

4.57 to 9.14M

1292.76 N/M2

9.14 to 15.24 M

1436.40 N/M2

Design wind pressures are obtained by multiplying the basic wind pressures by the
Factory Mutual shape factors and are usually dictated by state or local building codes.
A seismic study should be conducted to determine the design requirement in the
building frame. A detailed study of ground activity may include analyses such as
response spectrum, timehistory analysis, and random vibration analysis.3
Other climatic conditions, such as temperature, can also affect the economic operation of the plant. The climate of the location may require protective buildings,
cooling towers, or air conditioning.

5.2.1.4 Utilities
Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants, and fuel is required
to supply these utilities. Consequently, power and fuel can be combined as one major
factor in the choice of a plant site. The local cost of power can help determine
whether power should be purchased or self-generated. An energy study by an engineering firm should be conducted to determine any economical savings for energyefficient design, motor selection, equipment design, building design, etc.
A good potable water supply and an adequate sewage disposal system are essential. Such things as municipal water supply additives that may be objectionable to
the product quality or process should be investigated. Because it may be less expensive to pump water from a private source than to buy from a municipality, many
dairy plants develop their own water supplies. Water table or artesian well water
may contain suspended matter dissolved gases, microorganisms, and dissolved organic and inorganic matter. Once again, a plan study to review available and future
potable water should be conducted before final site selection.
The problems associated with the plant's liquid waste or processing discharge
waters are areas that are often overlooked. If the municipal sewage handling facility
is inadequate, then the site that is selected should be large enough to accommodate
treatment facilities. Frequently, this waste water contains significant organic matter.
The presence of certain organic materials, such as milk, fats, sugar, starch, etc. makes
the liquid biodegradable, which increases the biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D.).
Many sewage plants object to an increase in B.O.D. and will add a compensating
surcharge to normal sewage bills. The water study should include information concerning sewage issues.
In recent years, many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods for
disposing of waste materials from the process industries. The site selected for a plant
should have adequate capacity and facilities for correct waste disposal. Even though

a given area has no restrictions on pollution, it should not be assumed that this
condition will continue to exist. Waste disposal can be accomplished by water, land,
or air dispersal. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for the
various methods of waste disposal should be considered, and attention should be
given to potential requirements for additional waste-treatment facilities.

5.2.1.5 Social Concern


The character and facilities of a community can have quite an effect on the location
of the plant. A certain minimum number of facilities for satisfactory living of plant
personnel and the associated cultural facilities should exist; however, it often becomes a burden for the plant to subsidize such facilities. The efficiency, character,
and history of both state and local government should be evaluated. The existence
of low taxes is not in itself a favorable situation, unless the community is already
well developed and relatively free of debt.
The type and supply of labor available in the vicinity of a proposed plant site
must be examined. Consideration should be given to prevailing pay rates, restrictions
on number of hours worked per week, competing industries that can cause dissatisfaction or high turnover rates among the workers, racial problems, and variations
in the skill and education of the workers.
State and local tax rates on property, income, unemployment insurance, and similar items vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning,
building codes, nuisance aspects, and transportation facilities can have a major effect
on the final choice of a plant site. In fact, zoning difficulties can often be much more
important in terms of cost and time delays than many of the factors discussed in the
preceding sections.

5.2.1.6 Construction Materials


A universally accepted objective of food plant design is to ensure economical production, sanitary operation, and easy maintenance. The ideal food processing facility
would be constructed completely of corrosion-resistant materials with a minimum
of cracks, edges, corners, and inaccessible areas. This plant does not exist because
it would be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to build. But many things
can be done with common materials of construction to design plants that are easy
and economical to maintain. There is only one time to achieve this condition: when
the plant is being designed. This requires extensive study and careful selection of
construction materials. These in turn must be woven into the design with regard to
corrosion control, sanitation, and plant maintenance.4
Black iron, mild steel, stainless steel, and plated metals can be used satisfactorily
to support equipment. The type of material chosen is determined by the manufacturing process and the selected cleaning methods. If the process is a wet process or
is a process requiring wet cleaning, then stainless steel is preferred. Avoid edges and
crevices and design for smooth, pinhole-free surfaces in all process areas. Support
applications should also be constructed of stainless steel or plated steel. Painted mild

steel supports are rarely satisfactory for a wet environment, as peeling paint and
corrosion are a recurring product safety problem. For dry process equipment, mild
steel supports are very satisfactory. Mild steel supports should be painted with a
food-grade epoxy-base paint.5
The basic materials that are commonly and successfully used for building structures (steel, concrete, and brick) are equally satisfactory for milk plants. However,
the materials used for fittings and finishes are subject to limitations arising from the
special conditions associated with milk processing operations, affecting mainly the
interior of the building.

5.2A.7 Foundation Type


Reinforced concrete is the most suitable material for column bases, footings for
walls, floor slabs, retaining walls, and other structures below ground level in soils
of all types. These foundations of reinforced concrete are usually extended below
the frost line. Concrete mixes, dimensions related to the concrete, types of reinforcement, and the disposal of ground water may be subject to strict local and federal
regulations. As the floor throughout the milk plant will be taken to a design height,
then the enclosed cavity will be filled to the required depth with well-consolidated
structural backfill.
The concrete floor slab will be laid on the structural backfill to a level that allows
for the subsequent screed and floor finishing. The area below the cold storage rooms
must be adjusted to include floor insulation. The floor slab is underlaid with a waterproof membrane consisting of asphalt felt, hot bitumen, or sealed heavy-duty polyethylene sheet. This membrane is carried up the inside of the walls to damp-course
level.

5.2.1.8 Framing Concept


Various materials and techniques are available for the external wall structure. If this
is to carry the roof load, cavity block walls would normally be used. In climates
where there are extremes of temperature, high or low, at certain times of the year it
is an advantage to fill the blocks with an insulating material such as foamed rigid
polyurethane or mineral wool.
If the roof load is carried on steel or reinforced concrete columns, wall panels
can be used. These are generally prefabricated to standard sizes. The alternative is
to in-fill with brickwork. Prefabricated wall panels may be made from concrete or
may be of metal such as aluminum with a lining of rigid polyurethane foam 60 to
100 mm thick. Such panels are fastened to the supporting steel or concrete framework
and the joints are filled with mastic or polyurethane foamed in place. Window and
door apertures are preformed.
The external walls should have a pleasing appearance; good brickwork usually
provides this automatically. Concrete wall panels often are made with exposed aggregate to relieve the monotony of the surface. Aluminum can be textured and weathers reasonably uniformly to achieve a gray metallic color.

In past years most buildings, including milk plants, have been designed to dimensions that were determined arbitrarily by the architect to suit the particular needs
of the purpose and site of the building. With the increasing use of prefabricated
building elements standardization of dimensions, or "modules," has become desirable, if not essential, to keep buildings costs to a minimum. Although this would
not necessarily be true in the case of a building constructed entirely from local
materials using traditional techniques, the special requirements of a milk plant may
necessitate the importation of steelwork, panels, or other elements. These may be
available only in standard sizes.

5.2.1.9 Roof Design


Although various types of pitched roof could be used for the dairy plant, a sloped
roof with uniform headroom (control ceiling height) is probably the most suitable.
The roof structure will consist of steel or reinforced concrete beams with intermediate
joists carrying steel troughing or a reinforced concrete roof slab. Where the outside
temperature may fall below the dew-point of the air inside the building, condensation
will form on the ceiling and will drop on to the eqiupment and operators below. In
such cases the roof should be thermally insulated. The troughing or roof slab is,
therefore, covered with a layer of thermal insulating material, the required thickness
of which can be calculated for the expected operating conditions.
The ceiling, or internal surface of the roof, must be finished with a moistureresistant anti-corrosion treatment. Steel troughing can be obtained with a galvanized
finish which can be decorated with a suitable paint. It can also be obtained with a
PVC coating which needs no further treatment. In noisy areas, such as milk reception and bottling, a suspended ceiling may be used to reduce reflected noise. This
requires careful design as most noise-absorbing materials are not suitable for humid
conditions.
In buildings that have concrete ceilings, the ceiling can be coated with a gloss
epoxy (a polyamide). This ceiling is economical to maintain and to sanitize.

5.2.1.10 Floor
Boors in the processing areas of a milk plant are commonly the most troublesome
aspect of building construction because of the severe operating conditions. The floors
must resist the mechanical stresses caused by hand trucks and must have a nonslip
surface. It is inevitable that during processing and equipment cleaning operations
the floor will be subjected to milk, acid, and alkali residues and to thermal stress
arising from the discharge of hot liquids. The floors in which dairy products are
processed, packaged, or stored should be constructed of tile in which all joints are
properly sealed with an impervious material. Typical dairy brick floors are illustrated
in Figures 5.3, 5.6 and 5.8.
No other areas in a food processing facility present more challenges to protective
coatings than do concrete floors. There are few areas in food processing plants where
concrete floors survive unprotected. Concrete is readily attacked by acids, strong

alkalis, nitrates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, sugars, and some fats and oils.
In these areas, floor topping such as epoxy with aggregate is applied as thick as
0.64 cm.
The floors of the receiving room, washrooms, and processing rooms should be
connected with the main drain line that leads to the sewer. One or more drains are
located in each room. In large rooms, there may be several. The bell and stand pipe
type traps shall not be used in the processing area.6 Drains should be arranged in
line and about 4.57 m apart, with provision for a slight rise in the floor level between
them. They should be connected with a cast-iron sewer pipe to carry liquid to a point
about 1.52 m outside the builiding line. At that point a grease trap should be installed
to collect fat transported in the drain water which, unless kept out of the system,
will clog sewer pipes. The grease trap is usually a concrete box constructed in the
drain, the bottom of the box being 0.61 m or more below the inlet pipe. The top of
the outlet pipe should be level with the bottom of the inlet pipe. The outlet pipe
should have elbows extending about 15 cm below the top of the liquid so that the
fat accumulating on the surface of the liquid will not pass into the sewer line. The
grease trap is required by certain city ordinances. A glazed terra-cotta pipe may
connect the grease trap with the main sewer line.1

5.2.1.11 Walls and Doors


Walls should be durable and finished smooth so that they can be kept clean. Reinforced concrete, brick, hollow tile, and cement blocks are satisfactory. Wood construction is not desirable because water and steam, in daily contact with the walls,
will rot the timbers.
Glazed ceramic tiles are a common and satisfactory finish for masonry walls in
process rooms. They should be carried up to a height of 1.5 m, above which hard
wall plaster can be used. There is increasing use of prefabricated panels, particularly
for internal partition walls. These may be polyester resin or fiberglass reinforced
plastic (FRP) which is completely resistant to acids and alkalis and needs no decoration. The panels are jointed with polyester resin paste and covered with a final
layer of resin.
The number of outside doors should be limited to as few as possible. In planning
the outside structure, the door areas should be protected from flies by air curtains or
buglights. In the processing and heavy traffic area, stainless steel doors and frames
are recommended.

5.2.2 Plant Layout


A plant layout affects the construction and manufacturing costs and thus must be
engineered to prevent future problems in production. The process flow diagrams
(PFDs) and general arrangements (GAs) of the dairy operation should be completed
before detail piping, structural, and electrical design are initiated. As no two plants
are exactly alike, there is no one ideal plant layout. However, some guidelines exist

for PFDs, GAs, docks, storage, processing areas, and packaging areas. Figure 5.1
illustrates a typical dairy processing facility.

5.2.2.1 Process How Diagrams and General Arrangements


Preliminary general arrangements and process flow diagrams are developed first.
The GAs illustrate the fundamental size and shapes of various equipment within a
defined operation. The PFDs are maps that identify the steps and quantities of a
process in proper sequence. These diagrams identify the operational sequences and
give a primary layout based on flow of materials, unit operations, storage, and future
expansion. Special design requirements of a particular manufacturing process will
establish the sanitation for both equipment and surrounding areas. By determining
the type of production equipment and analyzing the design factors that are involved
in plant layout, a detailed proposal involving project costs can be prepared for management. Detail drawing, elevations, and possible isometric drawings of the piping
systems can be developed during various stages of project implementation.
The final PFD should present an order flow of raw material or ingredient through
each manufacturing phase onto the storage of the finished products. Often, process instrumentation diagrams are required to illustrate electrical and control
requirements.7
The final GA should leave adequate space around the equipment to permit cleaning and maintenance. When equipment is placed adjacent to walls, a minimum of
46 cm should be kept clear between the equipment and the wall. More distance is
desirable and, in some cases, mandatory because of minimum aisle requirements.
Life safety codes based on occupancy levels will establish the requirements for many
main aisles.

PACKAGING
MATERIAL
STORAGE

ORY
STORAGE

CIP

RAW
INGREOIENT
RECEIVING

COLO
STORAGE
PACKAGINC

LAB Si Q.C.

MILK
PROCESSING

SPECIALIZED
PACKACING

CONTROL
ROOM

OFFICE

BREAK
ROOM

FACILITIES
BOILER

MAINTANCE

TANK
ROOM

Figure 5.1 Single-floor plant arrangement.

LOCKER

DISTRIBUTION
&
SHIPPING

5.2.2.2 Receiving Docks


Most raw milk is primarily delivered to the dairy receiving dock in tank trucks
varying in capacity from approximately 5680 to 18,930 L. The receiving area may
be either a back-in or drive-through arrangement and should be designed to accommodate more than one tank truck. A total enclosure is recommended for tank unloading and cleaning.
The floor should slope to the rear of the truck to facilitate complete and rapid
draining of milk or cleaning solutions from the truck. Floors are often constructed
from reinforced concrete pitched at 0.4 to 0.6 cm/m coated with an acid-resistant
material. Floor drains are suggested for each tank area. State health department
regulations dictate the design of receiving area, and should be contacted to review
preliminary drawings.

5.2.2.3 Storage Tanks


Milk is held in insulated or refrigerated storage tanks between receipt and processing.
Tank sizes vary in capacities from 7570 to 227,125 L. In large storage tanks, air
agitation is used more frequently than propeller agitation to blend the milk prior to
processing. Tanks in which the milk is held longer than eight (8) h must be equipped
with refrigeration or adequate insulation. These tanks, which may be of horizontal
or vertical configuration, must maintain the milk in a temperature range of 7.2 to
00C. Most plants store raw milk at 1.1 to 3.3C to minimize psychrophilic bacterial
growth and inhibit pathogen growth.
It is very important that on arrival at the plant the milk is rapidly tested for quality
and composition. Bulk tank operations are required to meet various requirements in
different areas of the country. The most common standards are those developed by
the 3A Standards Committee.8

5.2.2.4 Dry Storage Areas


Dry storage may account for as much as 25 to 35% of the total plant area. The areas
for supplies such as raw ingredients; cartons, plastic containers, and cases; and detergents, lubricants, and oil should be independently located. The receipt of products
into the plant and their distribution to the areas where they will be used should be
considered during plant design. Warehouse areas are constructed more economically
than are the processing areas. Requirements for construction depend on product
stored in that area with regard to local, state, and federal guidelines.

5.2.2.5 Milk Processing Room


The general arrangement of equipment in this room is most important from the
standpoint of flow of product, ease of operation, and cleaning and sanitizing of the
equipment. The process flow diagrams should identify that the raw milk should be
delivered from the storage areas to the standardizing storage tanks, then to the pas-

teurizers and finally to the fillers in a direct flow. The GA will indicate whether the
layout will be a straight line or in the form of an " L " or a " U , " depending on
location of the filling machines with respect to the cold room and the loading docks.
The pasteurizing equipment may consist of one or more HTST units (hightemperature-short time); a unit is illustrated in Figure 5.3. Tanks, homogenizers,
clarifiers, separators, etc. are to be included in this installation and thus must be
positioned in locations and in a manner that will facilitate the smooth operation of
the plant. Details on processing equipment specifications are established in the Federal Register Vol. 40, No. 198, Part 58. The facilities necessary for clean-in-place
(CIP) and plant automation should receive consideration when planning the processing areas. The General Arrangements are essential in developing the optimum
location for the processing equipment. Consequently, multiple reviews and modifications of the drawings will occur before final issue.

5.2.2.6 Finished Product Storage


Cold rooms should be located so that conveyors from the filling room can deliver
product for storage without sharp turns or differences in elevation (see Fig. 5.1). The
size of the cold room will depend on the marketing and distribution methods. If most
of the production is just in time delivered, then a smaller cold room will be required
for distribution. However, when a large proportion of the production is distributed
over extended periods of time then cold storage space is increased.
The rooms for storing pasteurized milk and other dairy products must be maintained at a temperature of about 4C and, therefore, need thermal insulation to reduce
heat gain through the structure. The thickness of the insulation is calculated from
the heat transmission coefficient of the material, product heat load, air exchange, and
the temperature difference between the maximum outdoor temperature and the desired room temperature. Walls, ceilings, and floors must be provided with thermal
insulation based on engineering calculations. Doors must also be insulated and provided with sealing gaskets. The ingress of air from the outside must be kept to a
minimum but is difficult to avoid during loading and unloading operations. An air
lock or air curtain can reduce heat exchange.

5.2.2.7 Discharge Dock


The long loading dock type structure used for loading trucks extends out from the
building with an in-floor conveyor to deliver stacks of milk to trucks. Products may
be obtained from the cold storage room or directly from the filling room. This GA
illustrates room for the traffic necessary to load and unload trucks. If palletizers are
used the dock must accommodate fork-lift trucks and supply sufficient room for
pallets to be deposited in the delivery trucks.

5.2.2.8 Offices and Laboratories


The plant office should be located in the same building as the processing areas and
laboratories. In this location, contact with the processing operation and laboratory
events aids in communication.
Lockers and breakrooms should be located along a southern exposure for improved solar heat collection during winter and building appearance. They should be
designed large enough to accommodate a shift of employees. This allows for on-site
breaks and reduced time away from the production line. Ample space also improves
the housekeeping chore by minimizing crowded conditions.

5.3 Processing Engineering


This section reviews the following engineering concepts: dimensions and units, fluid
flow, heat transfer, homogenization, material handling, and preventative maintenance.

5.3.1 Dimensions and Units


In order to better the understanding of engineering principles, it is necessary to briefly
discuss dimensions and units. These are the convenient, and necessary, means of
describing certain characteristics. Dimensions are the quantitative identifiers such as
length, force, velocity, etc., that tell what you are describing numerically. Units are
a standard to identify how a quantity was derived or measured. It is necessary to
identify a number with the unit for which it is measured as there are multiple systems
of units, as well as multiple units within each standard system that may describe a
single dimension. For example length, in SI units may be measured in km, m, cm,
mm, or many others. It is important to keep track of what unit your measurements
are in when performing calculations because they must be consistent for all dimensions that are alike in a calculation.
Although the English system of units is still widely used in the United States, the
SI, International System, is the preferred system of units and therefore emphasized
here. There are three classes of dimensions and units: basic, supplemental, and derived. The basic units are listed in Table 5.1.
Supplemental units are of plane and solid angles measured in radians and steradians, respectively. All other dimensions such as area, volume, stress, velocity, etc.,
are in derived units. Note that the Temperature unit is the kelvin (K) and has no
degree symbol. The kelvin is an absolute scale that is related to the Celsius scale
(C) by:
K = 0C + 273.15
Although the kelvin is an SI unit, and Celsius is not, temperature is often given in
degrees Celsius when using SI units.

Table 5.1 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM BASIC UNITS


Quantity

Base SI Unit

Symbol

Length
Mass
Time
Electric current
Thermodynamic temperature
Amount of substance
Luminous intensity

meter
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole
candles

m
kg
S

A
K
mol
cd

Now that dimensions and units have been defined, some of the most common
and important dimensions will be briefly discussed. In almost any application one
of the most important yet basic dimensions is mass. Mass is the measure of the
quantity of an object. The mass of an object is usually given in units of kilograms
(kg).
It is often necessary to study the kinematics of an object; therefore, understanding
velocity and acceleration is necessary. Velocity is a vector quantity expressed as the
distance traveled per unit time in a defined direction, given by the derivative dx/dt.
The SI units for velocity are meter per second (m/s). Acceleration is, in turn, the
rate of change in the velocity of an object. This relation is, therefore, given by doI
dt. Acceleration is given in SI units of meters per second squared (m/s2). One obvious
example of acceleration is the earth's gravitational attraction which is given a value
of about 9.807 m/s2. Velocity and acceleration are important factors to study in many
areas from mechanical to fluid applications.
From the definitions of mass and acceleration, the dimension of force can now
be found. Force, given by Newton's second law (F = ma) is the mass multiplied
by the acceleration and, therefore, takes on their units of kg/s which is called Newtons (N). An example of force is weight which is a force due to gravitational acceleration (W = mg).
Another dimension to consider is density. Density is the mass of an object or
substance per unit volume given in SI units of kg/m3.
Stress, or pressure, is a characteristic to describe force per unit area. An important
factor to consider is hydrostatic pressure, which is uniform in all directions at a point
within a fluid. Pressure is given as pascal (Pa) in the SI system, but commonly in
pounds per square inch (psi) in the English system.
Work is a quantity that is often misinterpreted. Work is achieved when a force
acts through a distance.
Work = F X X
A popular misconception is that work is a form of energy. It is the net transfer of
energy due to the motion of forces. However, it has the same units as energy which
is, in SI units, Joules (J) (equivalent to N-m). Work is a path function and dW is an
inexact differential, where energy is a point function. There are several types of work

such as displacement work, moving boundary work, shaft work, electric work, and
flow work.
Power, also a path function, is simply the time rate of work. The SI unit for power
is, therefore, Joules per second (J/s), which is called Watts (W).

5.3.2 Fluid Flow Characteristics


The primary requirement to dairy processing involves the characteristics of fluid
flow within circular pipes. Fluids include both liquids or gases.
The laminar flow of fluid moves in parallel elements, the direction of motion of
each element being parallel to that of any other element. The velocity of any element
is constant, but not necessarily the same as that of an adjacent element.
In turbulent flow, the fluid moves in elemental swirls or eddies, with the velocity
(speed and direction) of each element changing with time. A violent mixing results,
whereas there is no significant mixing in the case of laminar flow.
The distribution of velocity for laminar and turbulent flow is illustrated in Figure
5.2. Velocity is the highest at the center and decreases as it approaches the surface
until a velocity of zero is reached. This characteristic is true for both laminar and
turbulent flow. This flow can be characterized by four variables: viscosity (JJL), velocity (V), density (p), and diameter (D) of the pipe. Fluid viscosity, /i, refers to the
internal resistance of fluids to shear stress. Velocity is related to the flow rate or
pump speed whereas the density is a product characteristic. The Reynolds number
can be calculated from the above variable in this equation:
Re = Reynolds number = DV
When Re is <2000, the flow is considered laminar; when it is >4000, the flow
is considered turbulent; in between, it is transitional flow.9

LAMINAR
r

TURBULENT
ROUGH

SMOOTH

v/V
Figure 5.2 Velocity profiles of Newtonian flow in circular pipe where (v) is the center
velocity, (V) is the average velocity, and (e) is the pipe roughness coefficient.

The Reynold's number is defined as the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous
force on an element of fluid. A high Reynold's number implies a thinner layer
covering the pipe wall and, therefore, a lower resistance. The layer of resistance
increases as the viscosity increases. A fluid is considered to be a Newtonian fluid if
the relation of shearing stress to the rate of shearing strain is linear.
At the entrance of a pipe the velocity of a fluid is uniform and constant. However,
the velocity changes as it moves further into the pipe until it is fully developed. The
distance that is required for the fluid to become fully developed is the hydrodynamic
entrance length (Z0).

The velocity of a fully developed Newtonian fluid is given by:

Generally, a velocity of at least 1.52 m/s is desired for adequate cleaning in piping,
regardless of the diameter of the pipe.
As a fluid flows through a network of piping it experiences head loss (hL) given
by:

Where F is the friction coefficient, / is the length of the pipe section, V is the velocity,
D is the pipe diameter, and g is the force of gravity. Head loss is related to pressure
change by the equation:

and y is the specific weight of the fluid. Head loss within the straight portion of pipe
due to friction is called a major loss. Minor losses are those due to flow through
components such as valves, bends, and tees. In some cases the minor losses are
greater than the major losses.

5.3.3 Heat Transfer


Within the processing industry, the aspect of heat transfer is one of great importance.
This section will describe the fundamentals of heat transfer involving dairy processing such as fluid flow, pasteurization, and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) processing.

5.3.3.1 Heat Transfer for Fluid Products


Heat (Q) is defined as the net transfer of energy across a system boundary due to
temperature difference across the boundary. Heat is positive in a system when the

surroundings are at a higher temperature than the system. The SI unit for heat is the
Joule (J).
Heat transfer is, therefore, defined as the time rate of heat, dQ/dt, and has the SI
unit of Watts (W). Heat transfer occurs when convection of energy due to temperature difference is present and the system boundary is at a solid-fluid interface (by
the definition of heat). For convection of energy due to temperature difference to
occur the following criteria must be satisfied:
1.
2.
3.
4.

There must be a fluid carrier in which conduction occurs.


The fluid must be in contact with a solid carrier in which conduction is occurring.
There must be relative motion between the fluid and the solid surface.
A temperature difference must exist in the fluid. Convection heat transfer is given
by the equation:

where hc is the coefficient for convection, A is the area perpendicular to the transfer.
r E is the temperature of the surroundings (wall), Ts is the temperature of the system
(fluid).10
There are three categories of industrial process heating applications: Low-Temperature (below 2900C), Medium-Temperature (290 to 5900C), and High-Temperature (above 5900C). There are many and varied applications of low-temperature
heating processes, including dairy foods.11
Now, a brief description will be given of some variables, characteristics, and
equations that may be considered when thermodynamically analyzing a specific
process such as milk pasteurization. First, some of the flow characteristics may be
studied (see Section 5.3.2), such as Reynold's number, velocity, and length required
for the fluid to become hydrodynamically developed. Next, the heat required for a
certain section could be considered. This is given by the following equation:

Where; qi is the heat transfer per time per area (wall-heat flux); p is fluid density;
v is fluid velocity; D is the duct diameter; C p is the constant pressure specific heat;
L is the length of the section, T^ is the bulk fluid temperature at the outlet, and Thi
is the bulk fluid temperature at the inlet.
The power required is then:
The entrance length required for the flow to become fully developed, thermally, (Zt)
is found by:
Z1 = 0.05D R e /V
R e is the Reynold's number (see Section 5.3.2)
Pr is the PRANDTL number:

and //, is fluid viscosity, gc is a conversion factor, and kf is the thermal conductivity.
To determine the wall-temperature variation ( r w z ) , we must first consider the
equation:

Where hz is the local coefficient, Thz is the bulk-fluid density variation, which is:

Then the wall-temperature variation12 can be found by:

5.3.3.2 Pasteurization
High-temperature-short-time (HTST) pasteurization is the most important operation
in the processing of milk. The extent of microorganism inactivation by heat depends
on a time-temperature relationship. The minimum temperature and time relationships for pasteurization of milk are based on thermal death time studies with heatresistant microorganisms. The most heat-resistant pathogen found in milk is Corelliac burnettii. Some temperature-time treatments that are recognized by the U.S.
Public Health Service for the pasteurization of milk in indirect heat exchangers are
as follows:
62.8C for 30 min
71.7C for 15 s
88.3C for 1 s
90.00C for 0.5 s
93.9Cfor0.1 s
95.6C for 0.05 s
100.00C for 0.01 s
These temperatures and times are the minimum requirements for pasteurization.13
Any temperature or any holding time greater than one of these standards is satisfactory. Higher processing temperatures (HHST) are often used to increase shelf life.
For pasteurization of milk products with added sweeteners or butterfat more severe
heat treatments are required than for milk. A review of pasteurization and associated
processing equipment is presented in comprehensive publications by Harper14 or
Lambert.15
Virtually, all milk is pasteurized by HTST methods utilizing a plate heat exchanger. Figure 5.3 illustrates a typical unit mounted on a dairy brick floor. The homogenizer (see Section 5.3.4) may be located between the regenerative heating and
final heater sections of the heat exchanger or between the final heater and holding
tube.

Figure 5.3 Plate heat exchanger for HTST pasteurization. (Courtesy of Lockwood Greene.)

5.3.3.3

UHTProcessing

The UHT (ultra-high-temperature) treatment is a process that has developed during


the past 30 years. In the United States, no official definition exists regarding UHT
sterilization of milk. Hsu16 defined UHT as processing to 135 to 149C for 2 to 8 s.
To produce sterile milk, the heat treatment must be great enough that milk can be
stored at room temperature without spoiling.

There are two basic methods for UHT processing. The direct method involves
heating the milk by steam injection or infusion, which results in dilution of the milk.
This is followed by evaporative cooling under vacuum, which removes the added
water, restoring the milk to its original composition. The second method, indirect
heating, involves heat transfer across a heat exchange surface. Steam does not contact
product.
A flow diagram of the Cherry-Burrell, steam injection UHT system at North
Carolina State University is presented in Figure 5.4. The flow chart is typical of the
UHT steam injection systems available from several equipment manufacturers. The
product is pumped from a holding tank through a plate heat exchanger, where the
product is preheated. Hot water is used as the heating medium. After the product is
preheated, a variable speed, positive displacement timing pump regulates the flow
rate through the injector, and controls the liquid level in the vacuum chamber. In
the injector, the product is heated to the sterilization temperature by mixing with
culinary steam. The holding tube is located between the injector and back pressure
valve. The pressure required in the holding tube is maintained by the back pressure
valve located at the end of the tube. The product is flash cooled to near preheat
temperature in the vacuum chamber. From the vacuum chamber, the product is
pumped to an aseptic homogenizer, then cooled to room temperature by tubular heat
exchangers. After passing through the flow diversion valve, product can be stored
in the aseptic tank or pumped directly to the aseptic packager. An infusion system
STEAM
REGULATOR

STEAM

TO
HOMO PISTONS
TO
STEAM SEAL

H.E.
TAP WATER'

PRODUCT

PLATE
H.E.

BPV

VACUUM
CHAMBER

TIMING
PUMP
FOV
ASEPTIC
TANK

H.E.

INJECTOR

AIR
BLEED

TUBULAR
CIP PUMP
FILLER

H.E.
CONDENSATE
H0M0CENI7F.R

Figure 5.4 Direct UHT processing system for milk products.

in which product flows through a steam environment is rarely used, although it has
several of the same characteristics as the injection system.
High temperature plate heat exchangers, shell and tube, tube in tube units are
possible indirect systems. Several commercial vendors supply an array of heat exchangers for aseptic processing. These heat exchangers are similar in design regardless of the vendor. The plate unit is similar to a standard unit except designed for
high temperatures. The sterile product side of the exchanger must always operate at
a higher pressure than the regenerative or cooling portion of the exchanger. A secondary medium at lower pressures may be used during regeneration and cooling to
reduce concerns of product contamination, but the thermal efficiency of the system
is lower. A shell and tube unit consists of tubes mounted in a cylindrical heating
chamber. A centrifugal booster pump supplies flow through a plate heat exchanger
to a timing pump. Product reheating occurs in the plate heat exchanger when the
thermal regeneration section is used. The timing pump can be a one- to seven-piston,
positive displacement pump with variable speed drive. The product next passes
through two shell-and-tube heat exchanges. The first stage heater uses constant pressure steam at the shell side of the heat exchanger to heat product. Second-stage
heating can be regulated by a pneumatically operated steam control valve. Product
is then passed through a holding section where it can be held at the prescribed
temperature for the designed holding time.
Product cooling can be accomplished in three steps. Primary cooling occurs
in the regeneration system (a product-to water-to product heat recovery network).
The absorbed heat is transported to the plate heat exchange to heat incoming raw
milk. A throttling valve on the discharge side of the circulating pump can be
used to regulate the recirculating water flow which controls the extent of thermal
regeneration.
From the regeneration shell-and-tube units, the product passes through a onestage remote homogenization valve. Further cooling takes place in three cooling
tower water shell-and-tube coolers and one chill water shell-and-tube cooler. Product
passes through a flow diversion valve assembly and onto a filler. Product flow velocities of 2.4 to 6.7 m/s are used to give good heat transfer and reduce deposit
formation.17 These units are common in ultrahigh temperature processing of milk.
A tube in tube unit utilizes concentric stainless steel tube woven into each other.
Figure 5.5 represents a flow scheme for this type of unit. Two concentric tubes are
employed during preheating and regeneration. Three concentric tubes are utilized
for conducting system energy into increasing product temperature. Product flow
through the second tube or center tube of the triple tube system. The steam heating
medium flows in a counter-current direction in the outer and inner tubes. A differential pressure recorder must be installed to monitor and continuously record pressures. Because this system incorporates the use of product to product heat regeneration, triple tubes are used for cooling. The operating pressures and temperature are
an indication of product flow rate, product properties, and back pressure resistance.
A minimum back pressure of 10 psig over the operating steam pressure is required
in the holding tube. This would prevent any two-phase flow. Noncondensable gases
would displace product in the holding tubes, resulting in reduced resident time, as

F
LILER
H G

ms

COO
N
LIG

F
N
IA
L
H
E
A
T
E
R
H
O
M
O
G
E
Z
N
E
IR
REGENERA
O
TIN

PROGRESSV
IE
PREHEATER

Figure 5.5 Tube in tube indirect processing system for UHT milk.

well as reducing heat transfer in the heat exchangers. This requirement to back
pressure is similar to all UHT systems.

5.3.4 Principles of Homogenization


Milk fat must be in a liquid state at the time of homogenization. The normal melting
point of butterfat is 33C. When milk is homogenized with fat in the solid state, the
fat globules are not broken up and consequently tend to rise. Individual fat globules
behave according to Stake's Law, where the viscosity of the fluid, diameter of the
globules, and fat and serum densities determine the rate of separation.18 The density
of butterfat is lower than that of the other constituents of milk and this leads to a
natural separation of the larger globules. Homogenization is a process for reducing
the size of the fat globules in milk from an average diameter of 4 /xm to < 1 ^m. 19
Caudill20 illustrated that homogenization effectiveness increases from 43 to 72C
and levels off at 72 to 77C. The homogenizer is essentially a plunger pump capable
of producing very high pressures of up to more than 68.95 Mpa. Usually it has three
cylinders to minimize cyclical variation of flow, but one-, five-, six-, and sevencylinder models are available. Figure 5.6 represents a three-phase homogenizer.

Figure 5.6 Three-cylinder homogenizers mounted on dairy brick flooring. (Courtesy of


Lockwood Greene.)

Milk is drawn into each cylinder in turn, and the piston then forces the milk through
the homogenizing valve which is loaded hydraulically or by a powerful spring with
hand wheel control. A high velocity gradient in the milk between the homogenizing
valve and its seat creates a shearing action. This action causes the larger fat globules
to break up into smaller globules. A plunger pump used for homogenization produces
a pulsating flow and pulsating pressure at the homogenizing valve. The variation in
pressure has a pronounced effect on the quality of homogenization. The best results
are obtained from a homogenizer valve when the fluid is forced through it under
steady conditions. Increasing the number of plungers to three, five, or seven produces
a more uniform globule size. A three-plunger pump gives a reasonably uniform
pressure but still there is a variation of approximately 20%.
Homogenization effectiveness is a term used to indicate the tendency for globules
to remain uniformly distributed within the milk. The tests for determining the homogenization effectiveness include microscopic, fat separation, centrifugal, and turbidimetric methods. The microscopic test has been used effectively to substantiate
other tests in showing effectiveness of homogenization. Generally, the microscopic
method is subject to errors, especially in measuring the small number of large globules containing a large proportion of the fat in relation to their weight, and thousands
of globules must be measured to determine an accurate size distribution.21 Farrall
developed a technique that consists of preparing a standard dilution of milk examining under a high power microscope, counting the number of fat globules in five

fields, and then calculating an index. While the Farrall index is a more rapid test
than other microscopic tests, it is at best only an indirect measure, and from a practical point of view is difficult to interpret.
The USPHS fat separation test is based on the tendency of fat globules to rise
because of their lesser density as compared with the aqueous portion of milk. The
fat percentage of the top 100 ml of milk in a quart bottle must not differ by more
than 10% of itself from the fat percentage of the remaining milk as determined after
thorough mixing.19 In other words, F1 Fh/Ft X 100 should not be greater than
10% where Ft = fat percentage in the top 100 ml and Fh = fat percentage in the
remainder. Unfortunately, results of this test contain significant errors due to sampling and fat testing. Sampling errors are associated in withdrawing the top 100 ml
of milk. It is difficult to remove this quantity from the top of the container without
mixing at the interface, and a ring of fat adhering to the wall of the container often
remains. Any mixing of top and bottom portions or any fat not included in the sample
creates significant errors. A fat test normally has a single sample accuracy of
0.05%. Such an error could create errors in the USPHS fat separation test in excess
of 25% of the true value.
The centrifugal method for determining the homogenization effectiveness is a
modified fat separation test. Centrifugal tests, although slightly more accurate than
the fat separation method, still contain significant errors. Yet, the primary advantage
of the centrifugal method for determining effectiveness of homogenization is that
this test is rapid.22
Turbidimetric methods for determining effectiveness of homogenization have
been reviewed by DeackoffP The turbidity of an emulsion such as milk can be used
to determine the effectiveness of homogenization by the light scattering of milkfat
globules. The effect of case in micelles is overcome by dissolving the micelles with
chelating agents, ammonium hydroxide, or other alkali. The light scattered is a function of the average particle size of the suspended fat globules, the difference in
refractive index between the water and milkfat, and the concentration of the fat. In
this method, the portion of the incident beam transmitted through the sample is
measured; the remaining portion that has been scattered is not measured. Walstra24
used light transmission at seven wavelengths between 400 nm and 1000 nm to
determine the mean globule size and size distribution. Caudill20 used a wavelength
of 1020 nm to measure homogenization effectiveness. This wavelength nullified the
scattering effects of color; thus a high degree of resolution and duplicability was
obtained. Using a single-wavelength reading permits more rapid determination
of homogenization effectiveness, but does not provide globule size distribution
information.

5.3.5 Material Handing


A pneumatic conveying system is any materials handling system utilizing flow of
air or gas to generate the movement energy necessary to direct material in a pipeline;
the gas flow creates a pressure differential between the ends of the pipeline.

The first choice is whether the system is open or closed. Product properties largely
determine the outcome. The next step requires selecting the types of system pressurepositive or vacuum, or combinations of the two systems.
Open systems are suited when environmental control is unnecessary, as capital
costs are lower (a return line is not needed) and a wider range of devices can be
used. The majority of pneumatic conveying systems are open. The product nearly
always can be kept enclosed during conveying.
Closed systems are preferred when the material must be conveyed in a controlled
environment, the most simple form of a closed system, which consists of a closed
loop of piping, a blower, a supply hopper with a feed bin and solids feeder, and a
discharge bin with a baghouse filter on it. Continuous operation is easiest to achieve
using closed loops.
Positive-pressure systems are the most common, and are suited for the widest
range of solids-feeding devices, Venturis, screws, and blow tanks. By inserting diverter valves into the system lines, the product can easily be conveyed to a variety
of discharge hoppers.
Negative-pressure (vacuum) pneumatic conveyors are best suited for drawing up
solids from more than one source to a single point.

5.3.6 Preventative Maintenance Program


From an engineering and electrical standpoint, the absence of faults and freedom
from breakdowns that occur in any dairy plant is the yardstick by which plant maintenance can best be judged. A conscientious and well structured maintenance program saves dollars. The secret of its success lies in the development of a preventative
maintenance program with the support of management. This program is the systematic inspection of the plant at regular intervals, which includes a regular overhaul
program with provision for the replacement of components or parts in anticipation
of failure expectancy. The frequency of component replacement is based on carefully
logged records of performance. It is most important to keep an up-to-date inventory
of the whole of the plant, with full details relating to inspection, repairs, renewals,
etc. Coupled with such systems is the ability to maintain an adequate stock of those
materials or parts that may be needed.
Considerations for maintenance should be made when planning the original design. This could eliminate problems from occurring during maintenance or emergency shutdowns. It should also be noted when selecting equipment that cheaper
equipment could be more costly to maintain. Any plant maintenance program that
calls for annual inspection during a short maintenance shutdown is less than effective. The preventative maintenance program requires constant vigilance and ongoing
maintenance to ensure the lowest cost per square foot per year. Proper inspection
should be carried out during each step of maintenance. Inspection trials should, of
course, include testing at minimum and maximum conditions. A preventative maintenance program results in a cleaner, safer, more pleasant, and efficient processing
plant.

5.4 Product Packaging


A design criterion for dairy packaging start with the establishment of general statements about the objectives of the package. The package engineer translates the goals
and requirements from management and marketing into a feasible packaging
operations.
A process flow is defined and a General Arrangement developed. The next phase
is the selection of vendors and the development of technical specifications for pricing
and stated production performance.

5.4.1 Fluid Milk Packaging


Following pasteurization, milk is cooled to 4.4C or below and stored at this temperature until packaging. Normally, milk is packaged in plastic blow molded containers or gable top paperboard containers. Sizes range from 100 ml to 4000 ml.
A general process flow diagram for a packaging line is illustrated in Figure 5.7.
Containers for plastic bottles, preformed containers made outside the plant would
be received in bulk handling containers. Another option would be to have an inhouse blow molding operation. The containers pass through an unscrambler for load
onto a conveyor, then are oriented so that a label can be placed on a side of the
container. The filler and capper can be specified to package and handle different

UNSCRAM8LER

BOTTLE
FILLER

STARWHEEL
LABELER

TOTE
OUMPER

BULK
STORAGE

CAP
SURGE
HOPPER

STARWHEEL
CAP
DETECTOR

STARWHEEL

TIMING
SCREW

CONVEYOR

CAPPER
FLATS

LABELS
FROM
PROCESSING

MILK
STORAGE
TANK

SEALER
CRATES

COOER
TO
COLO
STORAGE
CHECK WEIGHER
CRATE LOADER

Figure 5.7 Flow diagram of fluid milk packaging system.

GABLE
FILLER

bottle sizes. The filler bowl that contains the milk is constructed from 304 or 316
stainless steel that has a highly polished outer finish to promote sanitary operations.
A CIP (clean-in-place) system is designed with the necessary connections for interior
sprayball cleaning of the bowl and high velocity cleaning of the pipes and valves.
Temperature probes are located in the bowl to indicate CIP solution temperatures
and for product temperature during packaging. The fillers can operate at speeds up
to 500 containers/minute and may have 8 to 56 filling stations.
There are two basic methods to fill a container. The first, and most common, is
to fill to a level. The second method is to fill a premeasured volume. Plastic bottles
are clear; thus, for consumer appeal are filled to a level. This is an accurate and the
simplest method. Flow is by gravity into a sealed container, with air in the container
escaping through a vent tube. When the rising liquid reaches the air vent port, flow
stops. There is no overflow of product as in a pressure or pure vacuum filler. Aeration
is at a minimum, fill level is extremely accurate, and the filler is relatively simple
and easy to maintain. The size of the blow molded bottle is critical to control because
this dictates the amount of product being sold. Some containers will have an aluminum foil membrane sealed by heat to the bottle opening before capping or by
induction after capping. Capping can be accomplished by utilizing either a press cap
or screw cap. Screw caps often have a tamper evident fitment.
For gable (paperboard composition) containers, the filler fills to a premeasured
volume, as the product level is not visible for comparison. The fill cycle consists of
an intake stroke and a discharge stroke. During the intake stroke, the piston rises
and draws products from the supply tank into the measured volume cylinder. When
the cylinder is full, the intake port closes and the discharge port opens. The fill takes
place as the piston moves downward and delivers the premeasured volume of product
into the container below. Most fillers are mechanically operated and quite simple.
These fillers can handle a wide range of product viscosities and a broad range of
speeds. A Pure Pak system is presented in Figure 5.8. Gable containers are flats often
loaded onto the filler manually. These flats are formed before filling. The sealing of
the gable top is the next step. Some gable containers contain a screw cap opening
located on the sides instead of opening the paper flaps. Full containers are placed
into a crate and conveyed to cold storage for later distribution. The decision to use
either plastic or paper milk containers is normally dependent upon public preference
for that area. Normally, a dairy plant has both types of fillers and packages.

5.4.2 Aseptic Packaging


The variety of aseptic packaging systems which are now available is the result of
economical conditions, the approval to use hydrogen peroxide as a sterilant, and the
extended shelf life aseptic packaging offers the dairy industry. Whatever packaging
system is adopted for UHT milk and sterilized milk, capital investment and operational costs must be taken into account. Moreover, consideration should be given to
handling and transportation, and the overall question of packaging in relation to
environmental ecology. The foremost types of aseptic containers for the consumer

Figure 5.8 PurePak gable packaging machine. (Courtesy of PurePak.)

are paperboard containers and plastic containers. The institutional type container
consists primarily of a flexible bag supported by a rigid secondary container.

5.4.2.1 Materials
No aseptic machine system can be functional without a compatible packaging material that will deliver both good machine throughput and provide a sufficient packaging barrier. Any packaging material that is used for aseptic processing must have
a low initial microbial load (must be clean), and provide a barrier compatible with
dairy product. Container materials, by affecting oxygen and moisture transmission,
directly affect product shelf life and stability. The primary packaging materials that
are successfully being used include styrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride, saran, paper, aluminum foil, and combinations of these materials.
Two processes widely used in forming barriers are plastic coextrusion and lamination. Plastic coextrusion is the combining of two or more polymer layers during
a one-step process of film or sheet extrusion. In lamination, two or more materials are preformed and then brought together by adhesive or an extrusion-bonding
process.
Container cost will vary as much as fivefold with the material used, and is generally proportional to the barrier properties provided.25 Thus, it is important to determine the desired shelf life of the product and then select the material that will
provide it. For example, it may be preferable to package milk for institutional trade,

where the turnover is rapid, in a low-cost material, as the desired shelf life is only
4 to 6 weeks. The same milk product packaged in a high oxygen barrier material
would allow a retail shelf of 4 to 6 months. Therefore, although the same products
are processed in like manners, and the packaging systems are nearly the same, the
final products will have completely different characteristics based on the packaging
material used.
Another consideration is the product-container compatibility. For a milk product
intended for an extended shelf life, an appropriate choice would be polystyrene on
the outside, ethyl vinyl alcohol in the middle for oxygen barrier, and low-density
polyethylene on the inside. Polyethylene is a suitable plastic for contact with milk
and provides a moisture barrier. The combination of paper and plastic materials are
many and depend on the product requirement and packaging equipment. Normally,
the equipment vendor has experience in selecting the appropriate packaging material,
and the packaging barrier is developed between supplier and manufacturer.

5.4.2.2 Paperboard Packaging


Paperboard aseptic containers can be classified into two basic types of systems: the
system in which the container is continuously formed during production, as in the
International Paper system, and the system in which the containers are preformed,
as in the Combibloc system. Other manufacturers, primarily the Tetra Pak system
(who petitioned the FDA in 1976 for the approval of hydrogen peroxide as a container sterilant) are similar to the International Paper system.
The International Paper aseptic filling system is illustrated in Figure 5.9. The
packaging material is delivered in reels containing between 2500 and 4500 units
depending on volume. These reels are put into the filler where the packaging material
is unwound and travels through a peroxide bath. A film of hydrogen peroxide is
applied onto the food packaging material contact surface as it passes through the
sterile bath. A heated roller activates the hydrogen peroxide. The material is continuously moved upward; heated sterile air evaporates the peroxide and maintains the
sterile zone. As the packaging material starts its way downward it is formed step by
step into a tube. A vertical seal (the bottom of the final package) is made to the
material prior to product being admitted into the material tube. Product flows by
way of a filling pipe that extends down through the center. A pipe of sterile air or
nitrogen tube also extends partially down the material tube to maintain positive
pressure. The filling pipe extends below the level of the product, the flow of which
is regulated and controlled by an external sensor.
Transversal seams (the side of the final package) are done at regular intervals
below the level of the product. In order to seal transversely, the product has to be
squeezed away from the sealing zone. This is done by closing the sealing jaws,
applying pressure and then heat. Individual units are cut at a rate of about one pack
per second. The *'pouches" thus obtained are fed into the final folder, where they
receive their brik-like shape by sealing the flaps down onto the sides and the bottom
of the package.

Figure 5.9 International Paper System for aseptic packaging of milk products. (Courtesy of
N.C. State University.)

The second type of paperboard packaging system is represented by the Combibloc


system, in which the container is preformed. The similar Liqui-Pak system has also
become a popular form-fill-seal system. Combibloc uses premade sleeves rather than
rollstock. In the converting operation, each sleeve is die-cut and skewed to the inner
surface of the material back on itself. This provides a continuous ply of foil over the
container's interior and eliminates the need for taping the board edges. The packaging operation begins with the loading of sleeves, 300 at a time, into the machine's
magazine. The polyethylene sealing surface of the package bottom is softened by
two hot air blasts. Bottom creases are prefolded and sealed, then folded and sealed
against the water-cooled mandrel under 2000 pounds of pressure. Top creases are

prefolded and the package enters the aseptic zone. Sterility is maintained in the
enclosed area by a positive pressure of cold sterile air. The air is sterilized by filtration and the flow is laminar. The inside of the formed container receives a spray of
hydrogen peroxide. Sterile air heated to 178C is blown in seven consecutive stations
to drive off the hydrogen peroxide, which is exhausted into the atmosphere.
The now sterile container is ready to receive product, which is delivered by a
double-acting piston. Headspace of the filled container is flushed with steam before
its top fins are sealed ultrasonically. The finished package is ejected from the transport chain.

5.4.2.3 Plastic Packaging


Continental Can Company introduced the Conoffast system in November of 1981
at a Dairy Expo show in Atlanta. The system is unique in that no chemical sterilants
are required to achieve an aseptic package. Instead, sterility is obtained by peeling
away the outer layer of a multilayered, coextruded sheet. Thus, the product comes
in contact only with the inner layer which was sterilized during the plastic sheet's
manufacturing process. The typical construction is a coextruded sheet of polyethylene/polypropylene/polyethylene/saran/polyethylene. The plastic sheet is thermoformed into plastic cups and filled with product. Then, still within the sterile chamber, the cups are sealed with the lidding material. The formed, filled, labeled, and
sealed containers are cut into individual units or multipacks and proceed directly to
the packing station.
Other systems such as the Metal Box, Metal Box, P.L.C. or Bosch, Bosch Packaging Machinery, apply hydrogen peroxide to sterilize the containers. These systems
use either a thermoform/fill/seal or preformed container/fill/seal. Presently, several
machines are installed and operating in Europe26 and a few in the United States. The
containers can be made of many different materials in many sizes and shapes. Depths
can be formed from 2 cm to 11 cm; thus capacity can vary from 80 ml to 300 ml.
The type of material, chemical sterilant, and product all have various interactions.27
Those interactions must be considered before selecting a successful packaging
system.

5.4.2.4 Institutional Containers


Bulk systems using flexible packaging were developed several years ago. These
systems have primarily packaged acid products such as juices, but many packaging
vendors believe that successful packaging of nonacid foods in bulk containers will
be installed in several dairy plants in the near future.
Bags are presterilized using gamma radiation and are provided to the user with a
cup on a spout that protects the sterility of the bag. The presterilized bags are fitted
to the filler in an aseptic chamber which prevents contamination from entering the
bag when the cap is removed from the spout. Difficulty arises in assuring that the
aseptic chamber is free of microorganisms when the spouts are being exposed in the
chamber. Hydrogen peroxide is often used to sterilize the chamber and spout caps.

Following removal of the cap a fill valve moves into the spout, the bag is filed and
the cap replaced. The bags are then placed in a box, a fiber drum, or various other
containers. Bag size varies from 9.5 L to 1,127 L.
This concept could significantly reduce packaging costs as well as providing other
benefits, such as increased warehouse and transportation efficiencies, reduced refrigeration costs, and reduced disposal problems of the spent container.

5.5 Regulations
The dairy industry is regulated by the development of guidelines from several agencies. Some of the agencies and organizations responsible for a majority of the guidelines are as follows:
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)
Food Engineering Branch
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Milk Safety Branch
International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians (IAMFES)
United States Public Health Service (USPHS)
The Dairy Industry Committee (DIC)
3-A Accepted Practices (3A)
American Dairy Product Institute (ADPI)
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)
It is important to become thoroughly familiar with each step in the development
of the plant, process and package, before attempting to evaluate the system in terms
of compliance with the above organization.

5.5.1 Plant and Equipment


The Federal Register details many of the requirements for plant construction. A
review of the guidelines outlined in the Federal Register should occur at all phases
of construction, such as Title 7Agriculture, Volume 40, Parts 58 and Title 2 1
Food and Drugs, Volume 51, Parts 108, 110, 113, 114, and 131. The Federal Food,
Drug and Cosmetic Act Part 110, contains the regulations under the heading Current
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) in Manufacturing, Processing, Packing or
Holding Human Food. These are commonly referred to in all phases of a project
because they have the force and effect of law. The GMPs are detailed guidelines
that specify standards for all food manufacturing functions including processing,
packing, and storing of raw materials, processed ingredients, packaging materials,
and finished food products. Because the FDA customarily does not issue standards
or approve products or equipment, the GMP is the closest thing to regulatory
standards for building and operating a food manufacturing facility.

5.5.2 Product
On receipt of the milk at the processing plant several inspections and tests may be
run to control the quality of the incoming product. These tests commonly include
determination of fat and total solids by chemical or physical analyses; estimation of
sediment by forcing the milk through filter pads and noting the residue left on the
pad; determination of bacterial counts, especially total count, coliform count, and
yeast and mold count; determination of freezing point as an index to possible water
pickup; and evaluation of milk flavor. Under special circumstances tests for detection
of antibiotic residues from treated cows, and for pesticide residues that may get into
the milk from the cow's feed or from other farm use also may be made.
The Milk Ordinance and Code of the United States Public Health service provides
an excellent guide to the setting of microbiological and sanitary standards, and many
cities and states have adopted or patterned their milk regulations after this code.
Among various grades of milk and cream recognized by the U.S. Public Health
Service Milk Ordinance and Code26 are Grade A Raw Milk for Pasteurization, which
may not exceed a bacterial plate count or direct microscope clump count of 200,000/
ml; Grade A Pasteurized Milk, which may not exceed a total bacterial count of
30,000/ml or a coliform count of 10/ml; and Grade B Pasteurized Milk, which may
not have been made from raw milk exceeding a bacterial count of 1,000,000/ml prior
to pasteurization or exceed a bacterial count of 50,000/ml after pasteurization. These
bacterial counts are among many other requirements that have gone into establishing the grades. Not all states or cities conform to these grade requirements. Some
have more stringent regulations and do not permit the sale of market milk below
Grade A.

5.6 Summary
Planning is the foundation of any project; it is the most important step in developing
the optimal plant. Engineering should be initiated during the conceptual stages of
the project. A subsequent study of regulations/plant site, plant room arrangements,
material of construction, construction issues, process flow diagrams, general arrangements, equipment specifications, and vendor qualifications must be sufficiently developed prior to a successful production implementation. Processing and packaging
systems should be examined with regard to consumer requirements, new technologies, and energy utilization.

5.7 Future Developments


Energy issues will become increasingly important in plant design, processing, and
packaging. Plant site selection and material of construction will incorporate the advantages of energy conservation such as passive solar design. Other energy studies
will optimize material flow through the plant. On-line testing of milk for foreign

substances with greater sensitivity will also be a future trend. For dairy production
operation, aseptic processing and packaging will become increasingly important, as
this technology offers lower processing cost, no refrigeration, and lower containers
cost. Containers and other packaging materials will be designed for a secondary
usage, for example, incineration for energy or recycling into other usable plastic
products.

5.8 References
1. Immholle, T. J. 1984. Engineering for Food Safety and Sanitation. Technical Institute of Food
Safety. Crystal, MN.
2. Backhurst, J. R., and J. H. Harker. 1973. Process Plant Design. Heinemann Educational Books,
London.
3. Biggs, J. M., M. J. Holley, and R. J. Hansen. 1977. Structural and Geotechnical Mechanics. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
4. Lelieveld, H. L. M. 1985. Hygienic design and test methods. J. Soc. Dairy Technol. 38:
5. Keane, J. D. 1982. Good Painting Practice. Steel Structure Painting Council, Pittsburgh, PA.
6. Anonymous. 1990. General Specifications for Approved Dairy Plants and Standards for Grades of
Dairy Products. Federal Register. FDA. VoI 40, Part 58.
7. Peters, M. 1958. Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers. McGraw-Hill, New York.
8. 3-A Sanitary Standards Program. 1975. Materials Used as Product Contact Surfaces in Dairy Equipment. 3-A Sanitary Standards Administrative Council, Annes, IA.
9. Harper, J. L. 1979. Elements of Food Engineering. AVI, Westport, CT.
10. McMillan, H. K. 1990. Thermodynamics. Kinko's Publishing. University of South Carolina, Columbia.
11. Singh, J. 1985. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications. Marcel
Dekker, New York.
12. Janna, W. S. 1986. Engineering Heat Transfer. PWS Publishers, Boston.
13. Anonymous 1990. Milk and Cream. Federal Register. FDA. Vol. 21, Parts 131.
14. Harper, J. W., and J. A. Jones. 1976. Dairy Technology and Engineering. AVI, Westport, CT.
15. Lampert, L. M. 1975. Modern Dairy Products. Chemical Publishing Company, New York.
16. Hsu, D. S. 1970. UHT Processing and Aseptic Packaging of Dairy Products. Damana Technology,
New York.
17. Biziak, R. B., K. R. Swartzel, and J. A. Jones. 1982. Energy evaluation of an UHT shell and tube
processing system./. FoodSci. 47:1875-1878.
18. Heldman, D. R. 1975. Food Process Engineering. AVI, Westport, CT.
19. Trout, G. M. 1950. Homogenized Milk. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, MI.
20. Caudill, V. E. 1980. Homogenization of UHT Milk. MS Thesis, Department of Food Science, NC
State University, Raleigh, NC.
21. Farrall, A. W. 1963. Engineering for Dairy and Food Products. John Wiley & Son, New York.

22. Jones. V. A. 1962. Steam Injection for Globule Size Reduction in an Emulsion. PhD Thesis, Michigan State University.
23. Deackoff, L. P., and L. H. Rees. 1957. Testing homogenization efficiency by light transmission.
Milk Dealer 46:61, 62, 122.
24. Walstra, P. 1968. Estimating globule-size distribution of oil-in-the water emulsions by spectroturbidimetry. / . Coll. Inter/. Sci. 27:493.
25. Hlavacek, R. C. 1978. Aseptic processing/packaging overview. In Proceedings of the Conference
on Aseptic Processing and the Bulk Storage and Distribution of Food. Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN.
26. von Bockelmann, B. 1978. Technical and bacteriological aspects of aseptic packaging of milk and
other beverages. In Proceedings of the Conference on Aseptic Processing and the Bulk Storage and
Distribution of Food. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
27. Caudill, V. E. 1989. Effects of Aseptic Process Sterilization Treatments on Polypropylene Containers. PhD Thesis, Department of Food Science, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
28. United States Public Health Services. 1965. Grade "A" Pasteurized Milk Ordinance1965 Recommendations of the United States Public Health Service. Public Health Service Publication No.
229. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

APPENDIX

Company Listing
This appendix lists alphabetically those companies that provide products and services
most commonly used by the dairy and food industries. Under each company, two
types of information are provided: contact data; and products and services. An alphabetical listing of the products and services and the companies that provide them
is located in the Appendix of Volume I.
The data have been reproduced from the 1992/1993 Directory of Membership
Products and Services, copyrighted by the Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association, Inc. Reproduced with permission.

A & B Process Systems Corp.


Contact Data: 528 North Street, P.O. Box 86,
Stratford, WI 54484-0086; Phone: 715687-4332; Fax: 715-687-3225.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Complete Systems; Consultants Sanitation, Technical; Control/Control Systems
Automation, CIP, Pasteurization; Custom Fabrication; Electrical Enclosures; Fittings; Installation & Start-Up Services;
Mixers Batch, Liquid; Pasteurizers
Batch, Dairy, HTST/Continuous; Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing; Platforms, Walkways & Stairs; Processing Systems; Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch,
Processing, Storage.
ABB Kent-Taylor
Contact Data: 395 Summit Point Drive, Suite
6, Henrietta, NY 14467; Phone: 716-2355000; Fax: 716-783-2513.
Products and Services: Complete Systems;
Computer Software; Consultants Technical; Control/Control Systems CIP,
Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Instruments Analytical; PH Measurement & Control; Record-

ing Devices; Thermometers Recording;


Waste Treatment.
ACCU-TECH Machinery
Company, Inc.
Contact Data: 233 West Parkway, Pompton
Plains, NJ 07444; Phone: 201-831-6800;
Fax:201-831-7977.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Capping & Closing
Equipment, Supplies; Carton Form/
Load/Close/Seal; Case Packer, Stacker &
Unstacker; Cheese Cutters; Cheese Making; Complete Systems; ConveyorsBelt;
Cookers/Kettles Batch, Continuous,
Pressure, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication;
Equipment Remanufactured; Labeling
Equipment & Supplies; Pasteurizers
Batch; Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing; Sealers & Carton Closures; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo,
Storage; Valves Sanitary.
Accurate Metering Systems, Inc.
Contact Data: 1651 Wilkening Road,
Schaumburg, IL 60173; Phone: 708-8820690; Fax: 708-882-2695.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators;
Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,

Liquid/Powder; Control/Control Systems


Automation, CIP, Instrument/Monitoring, Panel, Pasteurization; Electrical Enclosures; Explosion Protection Equipment;
Flow Meters Flow Control; Meters
Fluid, Sanitary; Sampling Devices & Supplies; Standardization Systems.

Ace Chemical Products, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 83108, 8415 North
87th Street, Milwaukee, WI53223; Phone:
414-357-8515.
Products and Services: Ingredients Lubricants & Release Agents, Solvents & Vehicles.

3000; Telex: 200177 ALF; Fax: 617-4558468.


Products and Services: Instruments Analytical; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Advanced Insulation Concepts, Inc.


Contact Data: 8055 Production Avenue, Florence, KY 41042; Toll Free: 800-826-3100;
Phone: 606-342-8550; Fax: 606-342-5445.
Products and Services: Buildings Storage;
Construction Materials, Plant; Doors;
Freezers Ice Cream, Storage; Ice Making/Building Equipment; Panels Building, Structural; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated.

ACUair Air Systems


Contact Data: Division of Weather-Rite, Inc.,
616 North 5th Street, Minneapolis, MN
55401; Phone: 612-338-8906; Fax: 612338-6783.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Control/
Control Systems Temperature; Environmental Control Aseptic Air, HVAC,
Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Filters Air; Heat
Recovery Systems.

AEP Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 125 Phillips Avenue, South
Hackensack, NJ 07606; Toll Free: 800-999AEPI; Phone: 201-641-6600; Fax: 201807-2490.
Products and Services: Containers Plastic;
Wrapping Material Films.

Airco Gases
ADCO Manufacturing, Inc.
Contact Data: 2170 Academy Avenue, Sanger, CA 93657; Phone: 209-875-5563; Fax:
209-875-7665.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Box/
Carton Forming Equipment; Boxes; Carton
Form/Load/Close/Seal; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker, Conveyors Belt, Chain;
Custom Fabrication.

ADI Systems Inc.


Contact Data: 1133 Regent Street, Suite 300,
Fredericton, New Brunswick, E3B 3Z2
Canada; Phone: 506-452-7307; Fax: 506452-7308.
Products and Services: Construction
Turnkey Operations; Laboratory Analysis
& Testing Services; Waste Treatment.

Advance Instruments, Inc.


Contact Data: 1000 Highland Avenue, Needham Hts., MA 02194; Phone: 617-449-

Contact Data: Carbon Dioxide Division, 575


Mountain Avenue, Murray Hill, NJ 07974;
Phone: 908-771-1117; Fax: 908-771-1375.
Products and Services: Chillers; Freezers
Processing/Hardening; Ingredients PH
Control Agents; Refrigeration Storage;
Truck Refrigeration; Water Treatment
Chemicals, Equipment.

Airlite Plastics Co.


Contact Data: 914 N. 18th Street, Omaha, NE
68102; Phone: 402-341-7300.
Products and Services: Containers Plastic.

Alabama Power Company


Contact Data: P.O. Box 2641, Birmingham,
AL 35291-0015; Phone: 205-250-4392;
Fax: 205-250-2898.
Products and Services: Consultants Site
Location; Industrial Development; Utilities.

Albin Division
Contact Data: Johnson Pumps of America,
776 Emerald Forest Circle, Lawrenceville,
GA 30244; Phone: 404-985-5006; Fax:
404-985-5115.
Products and Services: Pumps Metering,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

Alconox, Inc.
Contact Data: 215 Park Avenue, South, New
York, NY 10003; Phone: 212-473-1300;
Telex: 955439; Fax: 212-353-1342.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Manual & COP.

Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;


Heat Exchangers Tubular; Tanks
Batch, Processing, Storage.

Allen Bradley Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 1201 South Second Street,
Milwaukee, WI 53204; Phone: 414-3823221; Fax: 414-382-3970.
Products and Services: Case Packer, Stacker
& Unstacker; Complete Systems; Computer Software; Control/Control Systems
Environmental, Panel; Electrical Enclosures; Inventory Control; Motors & Accessories; Turnkey Operations; Warehouse
Systems.

Alfa-Laval Food & Dairy Group


Contact Data: 8400 Lakeview Pkwy., Suite
500, P.O. Box 179, Pleasant Prairie, WI
53158; Phone: 414-947-7277; Fax: 414947-7252.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
EquipmentHigh Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Bag-In-Box; Blending & Batching Equipment Liquid/Powder; Centrifuges;
Cheese Making; Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP; Evaporators &
Vacuum Pans Falling Film, Rising Film,
Scraped Surface; Heat ExchangersPlate,
Scraped Surface, Tubular; Homogenizers;
Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous,
UHT; Processing Systems; Separators &
Clarifiers Liquid/Liquid, Liquid/Solid;
Standardization Systems; Whey Processing
Equipment & Services.

Alimentos Procesados Magazine


Contact Data: Delta Communications, 8750
W. Bryn Mawr, Chicago, IL 60631; Phone:
312-693-3200; Fax: 312-693-0568.
Products and Services: Advertising; Publications.

Allen Fruit Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 500 E. Illinois Street, P.O. Box
469, Newberg, OR 97132; Phone: 503-5383141; Telex: 360321; Fax: 503-538-8575.
Products and Services: Ingredients Fruits
& Fruit Products; Metal Detectors.

Alliance Food Equipment Corp.


Contact Data: 106 Stonehurst Court, P.O.
Box 236, Northvale, NJ 07647; Phone: 201 784-1101; Fax: 201-784-1116.
Products and Services: Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Molding; Wrapping Equipment.

Alloy Products Corp.


Contact Data: 1045 Perkins Avenue, P.O.
Box 529, Waukesha, WI 53187; Phone:
414-542-6603; Fax: 414-542-5421.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Containers Metal;
Cookers/Kettles Batch, Pressure, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Filters Milk;
Fittings; Pharmaceutical Equipment
Processing; Product Recovery Equipment;
Strainers; Tanks Batch, Processing;
Valves Sanitary.

Allegheny Bradford Corporation


Contact Data: P.O. Box 200, Route 219
South, Bradford, PA 16701; Phone: 814362-2590; Fax: 814-362-2573.

Aluma Shield Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 405 Fentress Boulevard, Daytona Beach, FL 32114-1299; Phone: 904-

255-5391; Telex: 808631; Fax: 904-2572523.


Products and Services: Construction Materials; Doors; Freezers Storage; Panels
Building, Structural; Storage Frozen,
Refrigerated; Warehouse Systems.

Ambrosia Chocolate*
Contact Data: A Grace Cocoa Company,
12500 West Carmen Avenue, Milwaukee,
WI 53225; Phone: 414-271-2089; Telex:
9102623337; Fax: 414-271-0242.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate,
Coatings Confection.

American Fruit Processors


Contact Data: 10725 Sutter Avenue, Pacoima, CA 91331-2596; Phone: 818-8999574; Telex: 662901; Fax: 818-899-6042.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor
Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl.
Drinks & Juices, Fruits & Fruit Products,
Juices & Concentrates Blends, Juices &
Concentrates Fruit, Nutrient Supplements, Sweeteners Nutritive.

Ampco Pumps Company L.P.


Contact Data: 4000 West Burnham Street,
Milwaukee, WI 53215; Phone: 414-6431852; Telex: 26623; Fax: 414-643-4452.
Products and Services: Pumps Centrifugal.

Anbroco, Inc.
Contact Data: Rt. 2, Box 261, Old Plank
Road, Stanley, NC 28164; Phone: 704-8271255; Fax: 704-822-6266.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control
Systems CIP; Custom Fabrication; Filters Air, Liquid; Fittings; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Heat ExchangersPlate,
Scraped Surface; Inspection Equipment; Installation & Startup Services; Membrane
Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Pharmaceutical EquipmentProcessing; Processing Systems; Product Recovery Equipment; Pumps Centrifugal, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Refrigeration
Mechanical; Tanks Processing, Storage;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Turnkey Operations; Ultraviolet Disinfection Equipment;
Valves Sanitary.

Anchor Glass Container Corp.


American Ingredients/Breddo
Likwifier
Contact Data: 18th & Kansas Avenue, Kansas City, KS 66105; Phone: 816-561-9050;
Fax: 913-621-2657.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Mixers Batch, Continuous.

American Maize-Products Co.


Contact Data: 141 W. Jackson Boulevard,
Suite 3900, Chicago, IL 60604; Phone: 312929-5000; Telex: 91069920; Fax: 312-9391948.
Products and Services: Ingredients Bulking Agents, Stabilizers & Thickeners,
Sweeteners Nutritive, Texturizers.

Contact Data: 4343 Anchor Plaza Parkway,


Tampa, FL 33634; Phone: 813-884-0000;
Fax: 800-237-3538.
Products and Services: Bottles Carriers/
Handles, Glass.

Anderson Instrument Co., Inc.


Contact Data: R.R. 1 Auriesville Road,
Fultonville, NY 12072; Phone: 518-9225315; Telex: 5102641475; Fax: 518-9228997.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Pasteurization, Pressure,
Temperature; Equipment Repair; Recording Devices; Thermometers NonRecording, Recording.

APEX Packing & Rubber Co. Inc.


Contact Data: 1855 New Highway, Farmingdale, NY 11735; Toll Free: 800-645-9110;
Phone: 516-420-8150; Fax: 516-756-9639.
Products and Services: FiltersAir; Gaskets
& Seals; Hoses/Hose Assemblies; Lubricating Systems & Supplies; Maintenance &
Repair Products; Refrigeration Mechanical; Thermometers Recording; Tubing/
Pipe Flexible.

APN, Inc.
Contact Data: 921 Industry Road, Caledonia,
MN 55921; Phone: 507-724-3392.
Products and Services: Fittings; Membrane
Processing Eqpt Reverse Osmosis, Ultrafiltration.

Applied Dynamics Corp.


Contact Data: 2212 South West Temple, Unit
17, Salt Lake City, UT 84115; Phone: 801486-1670; Fax: 801-486-8765.
Products and Services: Valves Automatic,
Mechanical, Powder, Sanitary.

APV Crepaco, Inc.


Contact Data: 100 South CP Avenue, Lake
Mills, WI 53551; Phone: 414-648-8311;
Fax: 414-648-1590.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid/
Powder; Cheese Making; Control/Control
Systems Computer Process; Drying
Equipment Fluid Bed, Spray; Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Falling Film, Plate;
FreezersIce Cream; Heat Exchangers
Infusion, Injection, Plate, Scraped Surface,
Tubular; Homogenizers; Ingredient Feeders; Membrane Processing Eqpt Ultrafiltration; Mixers Batch; Pasteurizers
HTST/Continuous; Processing Systems;
Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement; Tanks Processing; Valves Sanitary.

APV Gaulin, Inc.


Contact Data: Wilmington Technology Park,
500 Research Drive, Wilmington, MA

01887; Phone: 508-988-9300; Fax: 508988-9111.


Products and Services: Colloid Mills; Homogenizers; Mixers Batch, Continuous,
Liquid; Pumps Metering, Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

APV Rannie Inc.


Contact Data: 445 Etna, Suite 57, St. Paul,
MI55106; Phone: 612-772-1310; Fax:612772-1330.
Products and Services: Homogenizers;
Pumps Positive Displacement.

Aquionics, Inc.
Contact Data: 21 Kenton Lands Road, P.O.
Box 18395, Erlanger, KY 41018; Phone:
606-341-0710; Telex: 214-152; Fax: 606341-2302.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Aseptic
Pkg. Equipment/Components; Environmental Control Aseptic Air; Sterilizers;
UV Purifiers.

ARC Machines, Inc.


Contact Data: 10280 Glenoaks Blvd., Pacoima, CA 91331; Phone: 818-896-9556;
Telex: 182607; Fax: 818-890-3724.
Products and Services: Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Welding Equipment.

Aromas Y Sabores Tecnicos S.A.


Contact Data: Astek S.A., Apartado 6141,
1.000 San Jose, Costa Rica; Phone: (506)
54-64-79; Telex: 3568; Fax: (506) 54-4764.
Products and Services: Consultants Technical; Fillers & Sealers Aseptic Containers; Ingredients Colors & Coloring
Adjuncts, Flavor Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Nature
Identical, Flavor Agents Process/Rctn
Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl.
Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary,
Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl.

Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce


& Variegate, Preservatives, Solvents & Vehicles; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Art's Welding, Inc.


Contact Data: 3902 230th Street, Winsted,
MN 55395; Phone: 612-485-2471; Fax:
612-485-4466.
Products and Services: Custom; Electrical
Enclosures; Fittings; Floor Plates & Drains;
Hinges, Stainless Steel; Mixers Batch;
Platforms, Walkways & Stairs; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Storage;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless.

Astec
Contact Data: 4403 First Avenue, S.E., Suite
301, Cedar Rapids, IA 52402; Phone: 319395-7882; Fax: 319-395-7886.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Consultants Packaging; Environmental
Control Aseptic Air; Fillers & Sealers;
FiltersAir; Heat ExchangersTubular;
Pasteurizers UHT; Pumps Positive
Displacement; Rupture Discs; Sterilizers;
Turnkey Operations.

Atlas Minerals & Chemicals, Inc.


Contact Data: Farmington Road, Mertztown,
PA 19539; Phone: 215-682-7171; Telex:
847482; Fax: 215-682-9200.
Products and Services: Flooring & Supplies;
Ingredients - Coatings Protective.

Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Box/Carton Forming


Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Conveyors Accumulators; Custom Fabrication; Equipment Remanufactured, Repair; Packaging Systems;
Tamper EvidentEquipment; Tray Forming Equipment; Wrapping Equipment.

Autoprod Inc.
Contact Data: 5355 115th Avenue North,
Clearwater, FL 34620; Phone: 813-5727753; Fax: 813-573-0367.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid; Capping & Closing Equipment; Cheese Packaging; Control/Control Systems Computer Process;
Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty
Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube; Molds Ice
Cream/Frozen Dessert; Portion Control
Equipment & Supplies; Pumps Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Tamper Evident
Foil Lidding; Thermo Form Fill & Seal
Heat Strle Plast Pkg, Plastic, Rigid.

AWA Advanced Warehouse


Automation Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 8, Helsinki, Finland
SF-00331; Phone: 011 358 0 4751; Fax:
0 1135804754845.
Products and Services: Inventory Control;
Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Warehouse Systems.

Automatic Inspection Systems Ltd.


Contact Data: 3970 Linden S. E., Grand Rapids, MI49548; Phone: 616-243-8457; Fax:
616-243-4818.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Conveyors Accumulators, Air, Belt, Chain,
Roller, Vacuum; Inspection Equipment.

Automation Packaging, Inc.*


Contact Data: 6206 Benjamin Road, Suite
309, Tampa, FL 33634; Phone: 813-8888488; Fax: 813-888-8113.

Babson Bros. Co.


Contact Data: 1880 Country Farm Drive, Naperville, IL 60563; Phone: 708-369-8100;
Telex: 254561; Fax: 708-369-9875.
Products and Services: Computer Software;
Consultants Technical; Filters Milk;
Heat Exchangers Tubular; Heat Recovery Systems; Refrigeration Mechanical;
Tanks Farm; Thermometers Recording; Tubing/PipeMetal, Stainless; Water
Treatment.

Baldor Electric Company

Beck Flavors

Contact Data: 5711 South 7th Street, Ft.


Smith, AR 72902; Phone: 501-646-4711;
Telex: 537425; Fax: 501-648-5792.
Products and Services: Motors & Accessories.

Contact Data: 411 East Gano, P.O. Box


22509, St. Louis, MO 63147; Phone: 314436-3133; Fax: 314-436-1049.
Products and Services: Ingredients Colors
& Coloring Adjuncts, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents
Natural/Spices, Flavor AgentsNature
Identical, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers,
Vanilla & Vanillin.

Balston, Inc.
Contact Data: 260 Neck Road, Box 8223,
Haverhill, MA 01835-0723; Phone: 508374-7400; Telex: 92-3481; Fax: 508-3747070.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Filters
Air, Liquid; Instruments Analytical.

Barclay & Associates


Contact Data: P.O. Box 210931, Arlington,
TX 76006; Phone: 817-685-9389; Fax:
817-649-8148.
Products and Services: Consultants Education/Seminars .

S- H. Bates Company
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1879, Santa Monica,
CA 90406; Phone: 310-451-3500; Fax:
310-395-9727.
Products and Services: Frzn Desserts/Novelty EqptSlice/Sandwich; Ingredients
Baked Products Cookies, Baked Products Wafers, Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Confection, Fruits & Fruit Products,
Juices & Concentrates Blends, Juices &
Concentrates Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Bell Flavors & Fragrances, Inc.


Contact Data: 500 Academy Drive, Northbrook, IL 60062; Phone: 708-291-8300;
Telex: 9106860653; Fax: 708-291-1217.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Flavor Agents &
Adjuvants, Flavor AgentsArtificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor Agents
Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/
Spices, Flavor Agents Nature Identical,
Flavor Agents Process/Rctn Flvr, Flavor
Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl.
Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors
Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl.
Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Drinks &
Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings,
Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Juices
& Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates Citrus, Juices & Concentrates
Fruit, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Belleview, Inc.
Beaver Metals Inc.
Contact Data: 900 Green Valley Road, P.O.
Box 144B, Beaver Dam, WI53916; Phone:
414-887-3183; Fax: 414-887-3256.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid; Conveyors Belt,
Chain, Roller, Screw; Cookers/Kettles
Batch; Custom Fabrication; Electrical Enclosures; Floor Plates & Drains; Ingredient
Feeders; Mixers Batch; Platforms,
Walkways & Stairs; Tanks Balance/
Surge, Batch, Processing, Storage.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 599, 2 Main Street,


Hollis, NH 03049; Phone: 800-343-0553.
Products and Services: Cases; Containers
Plastic.

Bentley Instruments, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 150, Chaska, MN
55318; Phone: 612-448-7600; Fax: 612368-3355.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Instruments
Analytical; Standardization Systems.

Benz & Hilgers GmbH

Big-D Construction Corporation

Contact Data: Munsterstr. 246, D-4000 Dusseldorf 30, Germany; Phone: 49-0211
47302; Telex: 8586830; Fax: 49-0211
613178.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Butter Making & Packaging
Equipment; Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Fillers
& Sealers Paper Containers, Plastic PreFormed Contnrs; Homogenizers; Packaging Systems.

Contact Data: 389 West 2nd Street, Ogden,


UT 84404; Phone: 801-392-3200; Fax:
801-394-3635.
Products and Services: ConstructionPlant,
Turnkey Operations.

Bercon Packaging
Contact Data: 1800 N. Market Street, Berwick, PA 18603; Phone: 717-759-6200;
Fax: 717-759-6224.
Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Single Service; Containers Plastic.

Berger Polishing, Inc. (A)


Contact Data: 6450 W. River Parkway, Wauwatosa, WI 53213; Telephone: 414-4533712; Fax: 414-453-3714.
Products and Services: Polishing.

Bevco Conveying Systems


Contact Data: 9354 194th Street, Surrey,
British Columbia, V3T 4W2 Canada;
Phone: 1-800-663-0090; Fax: 604-8882887.
Products and Services: Conveyors Accumulators, Chain, Magnetic, Unscramblers;
Coolers & Proofers; Custom Fabrication;
Engineering Services Feasibility Studies; Equipment Leasing; Washers
Bottle.

Beverage Industry (A)*


Contact Data: Advanstar Communications,
Inc., 7500 Old Oak Blvd., Cleveland, OH
44130; Phone: 216-891-2663; Telex:
332313; Fax: 216-891-2651.
Products and Services: Publications.

Beverage World (A)


Contact Data: 150 Great Neck Rd., Great
Neck, NY 11021; Phone: 516-829-9210;
Telex: 221574 KEL; Fax: 516-829-5414.
Products and Services: Publications.

bioMerieux Vitek, Inc.


Contact Data: 595 Anglum Drive, Hazelwood, MO 63042; Phone: 800-638-4835;
Telex: 402560 VIT; Fax: 314-731-8700.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Instruments Analytical; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies.

Blackhawk Molding Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 120 Interstate Road, Addison,
IL 60101; Phone: 708-543-3900; Fax: 708543-3904.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment, Supplies; Tamper Evident.

Blommer Chocolate Company


Contact Data: 600 W. Kinzie Street, Chicago,
IL 60610; Phone: 312-226-7700; Telex:
253871.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate,
Coatings Confection.

Bonar Plastics, Inc.


Contact Data: 35 Andrews Street, Newnan,
GA 30263; Phone: 404-251-8264; Fax:
404-251-8275.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Buckets
And Pails Plastic; Containers Insulated, Plastic; Tanks Storage.

Edward A. Bonelli & Associates


Contact Data: 1000 Brannan Street, 5th
Floor, San Francisco, CA 94103-4872;
Phone: 415-864-6450; Fax: 415-864-6069.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Architectural, Related Services;
Buildings Storage; Construction
Plant, Turnkey Operations; Control/Control Systems Environmental; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant;

Environmental Control HVAC, Proc.


Cool/Heat Air; FreezersStorage; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold Rooms, Mechanical, Storage; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Turnkey Operations.

Robert Bosch Corp.


Contact Data: 121 Corporate Blvd., South
Plainfield, NJ 07080; Phone: 908-7533700; Telex: 833444; Fax: 908-668-7753.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Bag-In-Box; Bagging
Equipment & Supplies; Box/Carton Forming Equipment; Fillers & Sealers; Thermo
Form Fill & Seal Flexible.

Bowman Distribution
Contact Data: Barnes Group Inc., 850 East
72nd Street, Cleveland, OH 44103; Phone:
216-391-7200; Fax: 216-391-1121.
Products and Services: Fittings; Maintenance
& Repair Products; Valves Mechanical.

Bradford Castmetals, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 33, Elm Grove, WI
53122; Phone: 414-789-0101; Fax: 414782-0758.
Products and Services: Fittings.

eters Non-Recording, Recording; Truck


Refrigeration.

BS&B Safety Systems, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 470590, Tulsa, OK
74147-0590; Phone: 918-622-5950; Telex:
492479; Fax: 918-665-3904.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder,
Powder; Capping & ClosingEquipment;
Centrifuge Parts; Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control Systems CIP, Pressure; Explosion Protection Equipment; Rupture Discs.

Bunge Foods
Contact Data: Dairy Services Division,*
3582 McCaIl Place N.E., Atlanta, GA
30340; Phone: 404-455-3603; Fax: 404986-6282.
Products and Services: Ingredients Cocoa
Powder, Blended, Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Flavor Bases, FlavorsAppl. Dairy Products,
Flavors Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors
Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Stabilizers & Thickeners.

Bran & Luebbe, Inc.


Contact Data: 1025 Busch Parkway, Buffalo
Grove, IL 60089-4516; Phone: 708-5200700; Telex: 726427; Fax: 708-520-0855.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
EquipmentLiquid; Control/Control Systems CIP, Instrumnt/Monitoring; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies;
Homogenizers; Instruments Analytical;
Mixers Continuous; Processing Systems; Pumps Diaphragm, Metering,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

Brandstedt Controls Corp.


Contact Data: 8994 N.W. 105 Way, Medley,
FL 33178; Toll Free: 800-426-5488; Phone:
305-885-0099; Fax: 305-885-1499.
Products and Services: Recording Devices;
Temperature Alarms/Monitors; Thermom-

Burd & Fletcher Company


Contact Data: 321W. 7th Street, Kansas City,
MO 64105; Phone: 816-842-1122; Fax:
816-234-9139.
Products and Services: Containers Paperboard.

Burghof Engineering & Mfg. Co.


Contact Data: 16051 W. Busch Road, Prairie
View, IL 60069; Phone: 708-634-0737;
Fax: 708-634-3790.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; Fillers & Sealers; Packaging Systems; Portion Control Equipment & Supplies; Tamper EvidentFoil Lidding; Unscramblers.

Butcher Boy Corporation


Contact Data: 1000 Butcher Boy Dr., Harvard, IL 60033; Phone: 815-943-6401; Fax:
815-943-7404.
Products and Services: Doors.

C & R, Inc.
Contact Data: 2550 Creekway Drive, Columbus, OH 43207; Phone: 614-497-1130; Fax:
614-497-1585.
Products and Services: Cheese Cutters;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Conveyors Belt, Screw; Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch; Tubing/
Pipe Stainless; Valves Automatic,
Sanitary.

Cannon Equipment
Contact Data: 324 West Washington, Cannon
Falls, MN 55009; Phone: 507-263-4231;
Fax: 507-263-4010.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Dollies & Carts; Lifts, Gates &
Loaders; Packaging Systems; Sealers &
Carton Closures; Warehouse Systems;
Washers Equipment.

Caps/Closures; Tamper Evident Closures.

Cargill, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 9300, Minneapolis,
MN 55440; Phone: 612-475-6456; Telex:
290-625; Fax: 612-475-6233.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural/Spices, Flavors Appl.
Drinks & Juices, Juices & Concentrates
Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Carrier Vibrating Equipment Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 37070, Louisville,
KY, 40233-7070; Phone: 502-969-3171;
Fax: 502-969-3172.
Products and Services: Conveyors Accumulators, Spiral; Coolers & Proofers; Custom Fabrication; Drying Equipment
Conveyor/Convection, Fluid Bed; Heat
Transfer Fluid, Food Grade; Ingredient
Feeders; Installation & Start-Up Services;
Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing;
Processing Systems; Recycling Equipment
Product Recovery; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/Solid; Whey Processing
Equipment & Services.

Cashco, Inc.
Cap Snap Co.
Contact Data: 890 Faulstich Court, San Jose,
CA 95112; Phone: 408-295-9922; Fax:
408-295-9930.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment, Supplies; Fillers & Sealers;
Sealers & Carton Closures; Tamper Evident.

Cardinal Packaging
Contact Data: 1275 Ethan Avenue, Streetsboro, OH 44241; Phone: 800-544-9573;
Fax: 216-562-4875.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Coding Equipment; Containers
Cups & Lids, Plastic; Fillers & Sealers
Plastic Pre-Formed Contnrs; Frzn Desserts/
Novelty Eqpt Molding; Labeling Equipment & Supplies; Printing Containers/

Contact Data: P.O. Box 6, Highway 140


West, Ellsworth, KS 67439-0006; Phone:
913-472-4461; Fax: 913-472-3539.
Products and Services: Valves Automatic,
Mechanical, Powder, Sanitary.

Catta 27 S.R.L.
Contact Data: Via Vizzano 44, 40044 Pontecchio Marconi, Bologna, Italy; Phone:
051-84 57 93; Telex: 51 14 26; Fax: 05184 57 99.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Conveyors Belt; Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage;
Frozen desserts Pkg. Dairy; Frzn
Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cakes/Fancy
Molded, Cone, Cup, Tube, Molding; Heat
ExchangersPlate; Homogenizers; Ingre-

dient Feeders; Mixers Batch; Storage


Frozen, Refrigerated.

Caulkins Indiantown Citrus Co.

Phone: 203-358-2715; Telex: 965958; Fax:


203-358-2984.
Products and Services: Containers Cups
& Lids, Paperboard.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 458, Indiantown, FL


34956; Phone: 407-597-3511; Fax: 407597-2596.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Juices & Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates
Citrus.

Contact Data: 36 Franklin Street, Maiden,


MA 02148; Phone: 617-322-1523; Telex:
200049; Fax: 617-322-3141.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection;
Instruments Analytical.

CEM Corporation

The Cheese Reporter Pub. Co., Inc.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 200, Matthews, NC


28106; Phone: 704-821-7015; Telex:
802118; Fax: 704-821-7894.
Products and Services: Control/Control
Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Drying
Equipment Microwave; Instruments
Analytical.

Charm Sciences Inc.

Contact Data: 6401 Odana Road, Madison,


WI 53719-1157; Phone: 608-273-1300;
Fax:608-273-1302.
Products and Services: Advertising; Consultants Marketing, PR/Advertising; Publications.

Chem-Pruf Door Company, Inc.


Centrico, Inc.
ContactData: 100 Fairway Ct., P.O. Box 178,
Northvale, NJ 07647; Phone: 201-7673900; Telex: 64-2104; Fax: 201-767-3416.
Products and Services: Centrifuge Parts; Centrifuges; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/
Liquid, Liquid/Solid; Standardization Systems.

Cesco Magnetics/Q-Controls
ContactData: 93 Utility Court, Rohnert Park,
CA 94928; Phone: 707-585-2402; Fax:
707-585-3886.
Products and Services: Conveyors Magnetic; Inspection Equipment; Metal Detectors; Separators & Clarifiers Magnetic;
Valves Mechanical, Sanitary.

Chalon-Megard S.A.
Contact Data: Zone Industrielle, La Cluse,
France 01460; Telex: 330023.
Products and Services: Cheese Making.

Contact Data: Bldg. 1000, Brownsville


Comp., P.O. Box 4560, Brownsville, TX
78520; Phone: 512-544-1000; Fax: 512544-7943.
Products and Services: Construction Materials.

Chem-Trend Inc.
Contact Data: A Burmah Castrol Company,
1445 McPherson Park Drive, P.O. Box 860,
Howell, MI 48844-0860; Phone: 517-5464520; Fax: 517-546-6875.
Products and Services: Ingredients Lubricants & Release Agents.

Chemgrate Corp.
Contact Data: 19240 144th Avenue, NE,
Woodinville, WA 98072; Phone: 206-4839797; Fax: 206-481-3622.
Products and Services: Construction Materials; Floor Plates & Drains; Flooring &
Supplies; Platforms, Walkways & Stairs.

Chemicolloid Laboratories Inc.


Champion International Corp.*
Contact Data: Dairypak, One Champion
Plaza, 11th Floor, Stamford, CT 06921;

ContactData: 55 Herricks Road, Garden City


Park, NY 11040; Phone: 516-747-2669;
Fax:516-747-4888.

Products and Services: Blending & Batching


Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder; Colloid Mills; Homogenizers; Ingredients
Processing Aids; Mixers Batch, Continuous, Liquid.

Chemineer Kenics
Contact Data: 125 Flagship Drive, N. Andover, MA 01845; Phone: 508-687-0101;
Telex: 947159; Fax: 508-687-8500.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid; Heat Exchangers
Tubular; Mixers Batch, Continuous,
Liquid, Static; Waste Treatment; Water
Treatment.

Cherry-Burrell Packaging
Equipment*
Contact Data: International Paper, 2400 6th
Street, S. W., P.O. Box 3000, Cedar Rapids,
IA 52406; Phone: 319-399-3200; Telex:
298529; Fax: 319-399-3543.
Products and Services: Fillers & Sealers
Form-Fill-Seal, Paper Containers; Packaging Systems.

Cherry-Burrell Process Equipment


Division
Contact Data: A United Dominion Company, 10300 Bunsen Way, Louisville, KY
40299; Phone: 502-491-4310; Telex:
283620CBAV; Fax: 502-499-3234.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP;
Cookers/Kettles Batch; Evaporators &
Vacuum Pans Scraped Surface; Freezers
Ice Cream; Heat Exchangers Injection, Plate, Scraped Surface, Tubular;
Ingredient Feeders; Mixers Batch;
Pasteurizers Batch, Dairy, HTST/
Continuous, UHT; Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing; Processing Systems;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Processing, Silo,
Storage; Turnkey Operations.

Products and Services: Chillers; Cookers/


Kettles Batch, Vacuum; Heat Exchangers Plate, Tubular; Ice Making/Building
Equipment; Mixers Batch; Pasteurizers
Batch, HTST/Continuous; Processing
Systems; Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch,
Processing; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

CHR. Han sen's Laboratory, Inc.


Contact Data: 9015 W. Maple Street, Milwaukee, WI53214-4298; Phone: 414-4763630; Telex: 26865; Fax: 414-259-9399.
Products and Services: Ingredients Colors
& Coloring Adjuncts, Cultures, Enzymes,
Flavor Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Agents Nature Identical.

Cintex of America, Inc.


Contact Data: 6919 51st Street, Kenosha,
WI53144; Phone: 414-657-7848; Fax: 414657-3056.
Products and Services: Conveyors Belt;
Inspection Equipment; Metal Detectors;
Weighing.

Cipriani, Inc. Tassalini S.P.A.


Contact Data: 23195 La Cadena Drive, Suite
103, Laguna Hills, CA 92653; Phone: 714833-8331; Fax: 714-833-8543.
Products and Services: Sight Gauges; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

The Clark Reliance Corporation


Contact Data: 16633 Foltz Industrial Parkway, Strongsville, OH 44136; Phone: 216572-1500; Fax: 216-238-8828.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators; Heat
Exchangers Infusion, Injection; Mixers
Liquid; Pumps Vacuum; Separators
& Clarifiers Liquid/Liquid, Liquid/
Solid.

Chester-Jensen Company, Inc.

Clermont Inc.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 908, Chester, PA


19016; Phone: 215-876-6276; Fax: 215876-0485.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 604, Hillsboro, OR


97123; Phone: 503-648-8544; Fax: 503648-1224.

Products and Services: Ingredients Fruits


& Fruit Products, Juices & Concentrates
Blends, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Clofine Dairy Products, Inc.


Contact Data: 1407 New Road, RO. Box 335,
Linwood, NJ 08221; Phone: 609-653-1000;
Fax: 609-653-0127.
Products and Services: Ingredients Dough
Conditioners, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier
Salts, Fats & Oils, Modified Whey Products, Nutrient Supplements, Proteins
Animal, Proteins Vegetable.

Coca-Cola Foods
Contact Data: P.O. Box 2079, Houston, TX
77252; Phone: 713-888-5127; Telex:
9108817075; Fax: 713-621-2984.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Bases, Juices & Concentrates Blends,
Juices & Concentrates Citrus.

Codeck Manufacturing Inc.


Contact Data: 380 Swift #10, S. San Francisco, CA 94080; Phone: 415-589-2675;
Fax:415-589-6549.
Products and Services: Coding Equipment.

Combibloc, Inc.
Contact Data: 4800 Roberts Road, Columbus, OH 43228; Phone: 614-876-0661;
Telex: 755294; Fax: 614-876-8678.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; ContainersPaperboard; Fillers & Sealers Aseptic Containers; Packaging Systems.

Connell International Co.


Contact Data: 45 Cardinal Drive, Westfield,
NJ 07090-1099; Phone: 908-233-0700;
Telex: 219258; Fax: 908-233-1070.
Products and Services: Air Curtains; Clothing
& Uniforms; Control/Control Systems
Pasteurization; Conveyors Belt, Chain,
Roller; Drying Equipment Spray; Flow
Meters Flow Control; Freezers Storage; Heat Exchangers Plate; Ingredients

Beverage & Beverage Bases, Chocolate


& Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Colors &
Coloring Adjuncts, Cultures, Dough Conditioners, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor AgentsNatural, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers; Mixers Batch; Pasteurizers
Batch; Storage Frozen; Strainers;
Truck Chassis.

Consolidated Flavor Corp.


Contact Data: 231 Rock Industrial Dr., P.O.
Box 778, Bridgeton, MO 63044; Phone:
314-291-5444; Telex: 9107620621; Fax:
314-291-3289.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Chocolate & Cocoa, Cocoa Powder, Blended, Colors &
Coloring Adjuncts, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents
Natural/Extracts, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl.
Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce
& Variegate, Fruits & Fruit Products, Juices
& Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates Citrus, Juices & Concentrates
Fruit, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Vanilla
& Vanillin; Pumps Metering; Testing
Laboratories.

Consolidated Laboratories, Inc.


Contact Data: 117 South Valley, New UIm,
MN 56073; Phone: 507-359-1555; Fax:
507-354-7416.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Consultants Sanitation, Technical; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Continental Colloids, Inc.


Contact Data: 245 West Roosevelt Road,
West Chicago, IL 60185; Phone: 708-2318650; Fax: 708-231-8692.
Products and Services: Ingredients Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Stabilizers &
Thickeners.

Continental Disc Corporation


Contact Data: 4103 Riverside N.W., Kansas
City, MO 64150; Phone: 816-587-8300;
Telex: 422-73; Fax: 816-587-4065.
Products and Services: Rupture Discs.

Continental Equipment Corp.


Contact Data: 6103 North 76th Street, Milwaukee, WI 53218; Phone: 414-463-0500;
Fax:414-463-3199.
Products and Services: Refrigeration Mechanical; Washers Carton, Case, Equipment.

Controlled Food Systems, Inc.


Contact Data: 250 Alpha Drive, P.O. Box
11293, Pittsburgh, PA 15238; Phone: 412963-0650; Fax: 412-963-1272.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier
Salts, Firming Agents, PH Control Agents,
Proteins Animal, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Texturizers.

Cook Associates, Inc.


Contact Data: 212 W. Kinzie Street, Chicago,
IL 60610; Phone: 312-329-0900; Fax: 312329-2422.
Products and Services: Consultants Personnel.

Products and Services: Frozen Desserts Pkg.


Dairy; Ingredients Candies, Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Coatings Confection, Flavor Bases, Flavors
Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Modified Whey Products, Nuts,
Stabilizers & Thickeners; License Programs; Preformed Bags; Spoons & Sticks
Wooden; Wrapping Material Films,
Foils, Paper.

Crellin, Inc.
Contact Data: 87 Center Street, Chatham, NY
12037; Phone: 518-392-2000; Fax: 518392-2022.
Products and Services: Cheese Making;
Molds Cheese Hoops/Molds.

Crest Foods Co., Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 371, Ashton, IL
61006; Phone: 815-453-7411; Telex:
9106422560; Fax: 815-453-7744.
Products and Services: Ingredients Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl
Oil, PH Control Agents, Processing Aids
Proteins Animal, Stabilizers & Thickeners.

COX Recorders
Contact Data: 2311 Orange Avenue, Long
Beach, CA 90806; Phone: 310-595-4993;
Telex: 6714171; Fax: 310-595-0978.
Products and Services: Thermometers
Non-Recording, Recording.

The Creative Factory, Inc.


Contact Data: 4440 PGA Boulevard, Suite
501, Palm Beach Gardens, FL 33410;
Phone: 407-624-9303; Fax: 407-624-9304.
Products and Services: Consultants Education/Seminars.

Creative Flavors, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 537, Chagrin Falls,
OH 44022; Phone: 216-543-9881; Fax:
216-543-8707.

H. S. Crocker Co.
Contact Data: 12100 Smith Drive, Huntley,
EL 60142; Phone: 708-669-3600; Fax: 708669-1170.
Products and Services: Fillers & Sealers
Form-Fill-Seal; Labels & Label Supplies;
Tamper Evident Closures, Foil Lidding.

Curwood, Inc.
Contact Data: 2200 Badger Avenue, P.O.
Box 2968, Oshkosh, WI 54904; Phone:
414-236-7300; Telex: 62916587; Fax: 414236-7309.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Preformed Bags; Thermo Form Fill & Seal
Flexible; Wrapping Material Films.

Custom Control Products, Inc.

Custom Quality Products, Inc.

Contact Data: 1300 N. Memorial Drive, Racine, WI 53404; Phone: 414-637-9225;


Fax:414-637-5728.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature.

Contact Data: 1645 Blue Rock Street, Cincinnati, OH 45223; Phone: 1-800-6351086; Fax: 513-541-1192.
Products and Services: Doors.

Custom Fabricating & Repair, Inc.


Contact Data: 1932 East 26th Street, P.O.
Box 296, Marshfield, WI 54449; Phone:
715-387-6598; Fax: 715-384-3768.
Products and Services: Cheese Cutters; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP,
Instrumnt/Monitoring, Microprocess, Pasteurization; Conveyors Belt, Screw;
Custom Fabrication; Fillers & Sealers;
Flow Meters Flow Control; Heat Exchangers Plate; Installation & Start-Up
Services; Meters Sanitary; Pasteurizers
HTST/Continuous; Platforms; Walkways & Stairs; Processing Systems; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves Automatic, Powder, Sanitary; Welding Equipment.

Custom-Made Packaging, Inc.


Contact Data: 7640 Wilbur Way, P.O. Box
292970, Sacramento, CA 95829-2970;
Phone: 916-682-2141; Fax: 916-689-7464.
Products and Services: Consultants Packaging; Frozen Dsserts Pkg. Dairy, NonDairy; Labels & Label Supplies; Packaging
Systems; Preformed Bags; Wrapping Material Films, Foils, Paper.

Custom Metal Designs, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 771034,17316 West
Highway 438, Winter Garden, FL 347771034; Phone: 407-656-7771; Fax: 407-6566230.
Products and Services: Conveyors Accumulators, Air, Belt, Unscramblers; Engineering Services Plant.

D & L Manufacturing Co., Inc.


Contact Data: W161 N9116 Hayes Avenue,
P.O. Box 630, Menomonee Falls, WI
53051; Phone: 414-251-2400; Fax: 414251-5832.
Products and Services: Bottled Water; Washers Bottle, Case.

Daido Corporation
Contact Data: 615 Pierce Street, Somerset,
NJ 08875; Phone: 908-805-1900; Fax: 908805-0122.
Products and Services: Conveyors Chain;
Power Transmission Equipment.

Dairy and Food Labs, Inc.


Contact Data: 3401 Crow Canyon Road,
Suite 110, San Ramon, CA 94583; Phone:
510-830-0350; Telex: 340179; Fax: 510830-0379.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection;
Bacterial Detection; Consultants Sanitation, Technical; Ingredients Preservtives; Laboratory Analysis & Testing
Services; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies; Testing Laboratories.

Dairy Conveyor Corp.


Contact Data: 18-30 132nd Street, College
Point, NY 11356; Phone: 718-461-2300;
Fax: 718-961-2566.
Products and Services: Case Packer, Stacker
& Unstacker; Conveyors Air, Belt,
Chain, Plate, Roller.

Dairy Foods Magazine (A)


Contact Data: Triangle Plaza, 14th Floor,
8750 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Chicago, IL
60631; Phone: 312-693-3200; Telex: 27
0088; Fax: 312-693-0568.
Products and Services: Publications.

Dairy Industry, Inc.

Start-Up Services; Inventory Control; Laboratory Analysis & Testing Services; Whey
Processing Equipment & Services.

Contact Data: 997 Enterprise Way, Napa, CA


94558; Phone: 707-252-1205.
Products and Services: Brushes; Fittings;
Homogenizers; Hoses/Hose Assemblies;
Maintenance & Repair Products; Pumps
Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Metering, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary, Vacuum; Recording Devices; Thermometers NonRecording, Recording; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

Contact Data: 2100 East Moffat Avenue,


Springfield, IL 62702; Phone: 217-7894990; Fax: 217-789-2757.
Products and Services: Consultants Education/Seminars, Technical; Instruments
Analytical; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies; Testing Laboratories.

Damrow Company, Inc.

Dayco Products, Inc.

Contact Data: 196 Western Avenue, Fond Du


Lac, WI54935; Phone: 414-922-1500; Fax:
414-922-1502.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Cheese Making; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process; Drying Equipment Fluid
Bed, Spray; Evaporators & Vacuum Pans
Falling Film; Fillers & Sealers Paper
Containers; Heat Exchangers Tubular;
Heat Recovery Systems; Installation &
Start-Up Services; Molds Cheese
Hoops/Molds; Pasteurizers Batch;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

DASI Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 8484 Georgia Avenue, Suite
300, Silver Spring, MD 20910-5604;
Phone: 301-589-9000; Fax: 301-589-5464.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid; Heat
Exchangers Infusion.

Data Specialists, Inc.


Contact Data: 1021 Proctor Drive, Elkhorn,
WI53121;Phone:414-723-5726;Fax:414723-5767.
Products and Services: Computer Software;
Consultants Eduction/Seminars, Technical; Control/Control Systems Automation, Computer Process; Installation &

Data Specifics Corporation

Contact Data: 1 Prestige Place, P.O. Box


1004, Dayton, OH 45401-1004; Phone:
513-226-7000; Telex: 288219; Fax: 513-.
226-4689.
Products and Services: Hoses/Hose Assemblies; Tubing/Pipe Flexible, NonMetallic.

DCA Food Industries, Inc.*


Contact Data: Ice Cream & Dairy Div., 919
3rd Avenue, New York, NY 10022; Phone:
212-207-2000; Telex: 7105814846; Fax:
212-980-6402.
Products and Services: Consultants Marketing; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy; Frzn
Desserts/Novelty EqptCone, Cup, Tube,
Molding; Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Flavor Bases,
Fruits & Fruit Products, Stabilizers &
Thickeners, Sweeteners Non-Nutritive,
Sweeteners Nutritive; License Programs; Promotional Devices & Premiums.

DCI, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1227, St. Cloud, MN
56302; Phone: 612-252-8200; Fax: 612252-0866.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Mixers Batch; Tanks Balance/Surge,
Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage.

Deco Coatings Corp.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 15072, Pittsburgh,
PA 15237; Phone: 412-776-2666; Fax: 412776-1644.

Products and Services: Inks, Printing; Printing Containers/Caps/Closures, Inks.

Appl. Dairy Products; Private Label/CoPack.

Defontaine, Inc.

Dimetrics, Inc/Talley Industries

Contact Data: 563 A. J. Allen Circle, Wales,


WI53183; Phone: 414-968-4055; Fax: 414968-3425.
Products and Services: Fittings; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

Contact Data: 404 Armour Street, P.O. Box


339, Davidson, NC 28036; Phone: 704892-8872; Fax: 704-892-4713.
Products and Services: Construction Materials; Custom Fabrication; Equipment
Leasing; Welding Equipment.

Delkor Systems, Inc.

Diversey Corp.

Contact Data: 2920 Talmage Avenue S.E.,


Minneapolis, MN 55414; Phone: 612-3317923; Fax: 612-331-1096.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cheese Packaging; Packaging Systems; Sealers & Carton Closures;
Tray Forming Equipment; Wrapping
Equipment.

Contact Data: Food Division, 12025 Tech


Center Drive, Livonia, MI 48150-2122;
Phone: 313-458-5000; Telex: 6877065 DI;
Fax:313-458-3800.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual &
COP, Mechanical & CIP; Consultants
Sanitation; Control/Control Systems
CIP,
Instrumnt/Monitoring;
Pressure
Cleaning Equipment; Water Treatment
Chemicals, Equipment.

DESCORP/Dairy Equip. & Service


Contact Data: 150-12 Guinzburg Road, Jamaica, NY 11433-1503; Phone: 718-6582000; Fax: 718-658-1949.
Products and Services: Blow Molding Equipment; Capping & Closing Equipment;
Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal; Conveyors
Belt; Fillers & Sealers Paper Containers, Plastic Pre-Formed Contnrs; Maintenance & Repair Products; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Contact Data: 14461 S. Waverly Avenue,


Midlothian, IL 60445; Phone: 708-3887700; Fax: 708-388-9344.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP;
Consultants Sanitation; Control/Control
Systems CIP; Waste Treatment; Water
Treatment.

Diamond Brands Inc.

Dole Refrigerating Company

Contact Data: 1660 South Highway 100,


Suite 340, Minneapolis, MN 55416; Phone:
612-541-1500; Fax: 612-541-1508.
Products and Services: Spoons & Sticks
Wooden.

Contact Data: 1420 Higgs Road, P.O. Box


1009, Lewisburg, TN 37091; Phone: 615359-6211; Fax: 615-359-8664.
Products and Services: Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Plate; Heat Exchangers
Plate; Truck Refrigeration.

Dober Chemical Corporation

Diehl Specialties International


Contact Data: 24 N. Clinton Street, Defiance,
OH 43512-1899; Phone: 419-782-8219;
Fax: 419-784-5924.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Chocolate & Cocoa, Flavors

Domino Amjet, Inc.


Contact Data: 1290 Lakeside Drive, Gurnee,
IL 60031; Phone: 708-244-2501; Fax: 708244-1421.
Products and Services: Coding Equipment;
Labeling Equipment & Supplies.

Doran Scales, Inc.


Contact Data: 1315 Paramount Parkway, Batavia, IL 60510; Phone: 708-879-1200;
Telex: 20-5979; Fax: 708-879-0073.
Products and Services: Portion Control
Equipment & Supplies; Weighing.

Double R Enterprises
Contact Data: 221 Grove Street, New Castle,
PA 16103; Phone: 412-658-4578; Fax: 412658-7427.
Products and Services :B\ov/ Molding Equipment; Bottles Plastic Returnable, Plastic
Single Service; Containers Plastic.

Douglas & Lomason Co.


Contact Data: Atlas Body Div.*, Intersection
Hwy. 45 & 278, P.O. Drawer 479, Amory,
MS 38821; Toll Free: 800-354-2192;
Phone: 601-256-5692; Fax: 601-256-2162.
Products and Services: Refrigeration Mechanical; Truck Bodies & Trailers, Refrigeration.

Dover Brook Associates


Contact Data: P.O. Box 177, 172 Murray
Drive, Chester, NY 10918; Phone: 914469-4809; Fax: 914-469-4809.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment Low Acid; Bacterial Detection; Consultants Packaging, Sanitation,
Technical; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; Fillers & Sealers
Aseptic Containers, Flexible Package,
Form-Fill-Seal, Paper Containers; Ultraviolet Disinfection Equipment.

DQCI Services, Inc.


Contact Data: 5205 Quincy Street, St. Paul,
MN 55112-1400; Phone: 612-785-0484;
Fax: 612-785-0584.
Products and Services: Laboratory Analysis
& Testing Services.

Products and Services: Construction Materials; Consultants Sanitation; Floor


Plates & Drains; Flooring & Supplies.

DSI Process Systems


Contact Data: 4630 West Florissant Avenue,
St. Louis, MO 63115; Phone: 314-3821525; Fax: 314-382-5234.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder,
Powder; ConveyorsBelt, Chain; Custom
Fabrication; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; Installation & Startu p Services; Processing Systems.

DuBois USA
Contact Data: 255 East Fifth Street, Cincinnati, OH 45202; Phone: 513-762-6804;
Fax: 513-762-6601.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual &
COP, Mechanical & CIP; Consultants Sanitation; Lubricating Systems & Supplies;
Waste Treatment; Water Treatment
Chemicals, Equipment.

Duensing Engineering Group, Inc.


Contact Data: 877 Tartan Trail, Bloomfield
Hills, MI 48304-3819; Phone: 313-2531754; Fax: 313-253-1754.
Products and Services: Consultants Technical; Engineering Services Feasibility
Studies, Plant; Installation & Start-Up
Services; Processing Systems; Whey Processing Equipment & Services.

Dunhill of Iowa City, Inc.


Contact Data: 1233 Gilbert Court, Suite A,
Iowa City, IA 52240; Phone: 319-3541407; Fax: 319-338-9559.
Products and Services: Consultants Personnel.

DuPont Canada Inc.


Drehmann Paving & Flooring Co.
Contact Data: 2101 Byberry Road, Philadelphia, PA 19116; Phone: 215-464-7700;
Fax: 215-673-9755.

Contact Data: Streetville Postal Station, P.O.


Box 2200, Mississauga, Ontario, L5M 2H3
Canada; Phone: 416-821-5276; Fax: 416821-5148.

Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Bagging Equipment &


Supplies; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Fillers & Sealers Flexible Package, Form-Fill-Seal; Flexible Packaging;
Packaging Systems; Tamper Evident;
Thermo Form Fill & Seal Flexible;
Wrapping Material Films.

Durable Packaging Corp.


Contact Data: 3139 W. Chicago Avenue,
Chicago, IL 60622; Phone: 312-638-4140;
Fax:312-638-2493.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Packaging Systems; Sealers &
Carton Closures.

DYCO
Contact Data: P.O. Box 66, Berwick, PA
18603; Phone: 717-752-2757; Fax: 717752-7366.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Blow Molding Equipment;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Complete Systems; Containers & Paperboard,
Plastic; Conveyors Belt, Chain, Plate;
Packaging Systems; Pallets; Turnkey Operations.

Dynamic Merchandising, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 770, Christiansted,
St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00821-0770;
Phone: 809-773-2554; Fax: 809-773-2554.
Products and Services: Wholesaler/Dstrbtr,
Ice Cream & Frzn Noveltie.

E D & F Man Cocoa Products


Contact Data: 600 Ellis Road, Glassboro, NJ
08028; Phone: 609-881-4000; Fax: 609881-0462.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Cocoa Powder, Blended.

Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Electrical


Enclosures; Motors & Accessories.

Economy Folding Box Corp.


Contact Data: 2601 S. LaSaIIe Street, Chicago, IL 60616; Phone: 312-225-2000; Fax:
312-225-3082.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Containers Paperboard;
Sealers & Carton Closures.

Eden Systems, Inc.


Contact Data: South Side Office Plaza, #6B,
1810 Crestview Drive, Hudson, WI54016;
Phone: 715-381-1012; Fax: 715-381-1022.
Products and Services: Consultants Packaging, Technical; Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies, Plant; Turnkey Operations.

Edmeyer, Inc.
Contact Data: 1760 Livingston Ave., West
St. Paul, MN 55118; Phone: 612-450-1210.
Products and Services: Boxes; Capping &
Closing Equipment; Case Packer,
Stacker & Unstacker; Coding Equipment;
Conveyors Air, Chain, Plate, Roller,
Screw; Environmental Control Proc.
Cool Heat Air; Equipment Remanufactured, Repair; Fillers & Sealers.

Edmund Manufacturing, Inc.


Contact Data: 9246 Telegraph Road, Winnebago, IL 61088; Phone: 815-968-1077;
Fax:815-968-1011.
Products and Services: Product Recovery
Equipment.

Elan Vanilla Farms


Contact Data: 268 Doremus Avenue, Newark, NJ 07105; Phone: 201-344-8014; Fax:
201-344-1948.
Products and Services: None listed.

Eaton Corp.

Electro! Specialties Co.

Contact Data: 4201 North 27th Street, Milwaukee, WI 53216; Phone: 414-449-6000;
Telex: 26716; Fax: 414-449-6221.

Contact Data: 441 Clark Street, P.O. Box 7,


South Beloit, IL 61080; Phone: 815-3892291; Fax: 815-389-2294.

Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing


Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control
Systems Automation, CIP, Computer
Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Custom Fabrication; Electrical
Enclosures; Processing Systems; Product
Recovery Equipment; Standardization Systems; Tanks Balance/Surge; Welding
Equipment.

Electromate Enclosures*
Contact Data: Div. of Robroy Industries,
River Road, Verona, PA 15147; Phone:
412-828-2100; Fax: 412-828-4046.
Products and Services: Boxes; Control/Control Systems Panel; Custom Fabrication;
Electrical Enclosures.

Enercon Industries Corporation


Contact Data: W140 N9572 Fountain Blvd.,
P.O. Box 773, Menomonee Falls, WI
53051; Phone: 414-255-6070; Fax: 414255-7784.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment, Supplies; Sealers & Carton
Closures; Tamper Evident Foil Lidding.

Ensopack Ltd.
Contact Data: Jackson, St. Michael, Barbados, West Indies; Phone: 809-425-2179;
Telex: 2510; Fax: 809-425-2816.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
EquipmentHigh Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Boxes; ContainersPaperboard; Fillers &
Sealers Paper Containers.

Enviro Division
Contact Data: ASI Technologies, Inc., 5848
North 95th Court, Milwaukee, WI 53225;
Phone: 414-464-6200; Fax: 414-464-9863.
Products and Services: Doors.

ERCA
Contact Data: B.P. 54, Z.I. de Courtabouef,
91942 Les Ulis Cedex, France; Phone: 331-69074408; Telex: 600531; Fax: 33-169078238.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Fillers & Sealers
Aseptic Containers; Form-Fill-Seal; Packaging Systems.

Erie Crate & Mfg. Co.


Contact Data: 780 Central Florida Parkway,
Orlando, FL 32824; Phone: 407-855-5934;
Fax: 407-855-7475.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Cases;
Containers Plastic.

Erie Foods International, Inc.


Contact Data: 401 7th Avenue, Erie, IL
61250; Phone: 309-659-2233; Telex: 6711864; Fax: 309-659-7270.
Products and Services: Private Label/CoPack.

Escort Instruments Of America, Inc.


Contact Data: 2095 Jerrold Ave., San Francisco, CA 94124; Phone: 415-826-2282;
Telex: 278708; Fax: 415-826-6429.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Environmental, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Temperature; Humidity Indicators
& Controllers; Inspection Equipment; Instruments Analytical; Recording Devices; Thermometers Recording.

Enterprise Steelfab, Inc.


Contact Data: 101 W. Snell Road, P.O. Box
2503, Oshkosh, WI 54903; Phone: 414235-1250; Fax: 414-235-1089.
Products and Services: Conveyors Screw;
Custom Fabrication; Platforms, Walkways
& Stairs; Processing Systems; Tanks
Processing.

ESE Inc.
Contact Data: 3600 Downwind Drive, P.O.
Box 1107, Marshfield, WI 54449; Phone:
715-387-4778; Fax: 715-387-0125.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder,
Powder; Computer Software; Control/Con-

trol Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Environmental, Instrumnt/


Monitoring, Level, Microprocess, Panel,
Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature.

Rouge, MI 48218; Phone: 313-841-8200;


Fax:313-841-4819.
Products and Services: Wrapping Material
Films, Foils, Paper.

Eskimo Pie Corp.

Falco Stainless Steel Equipment

Contact Data: 7204 Glen Forest Drive, Richmond, VA 23226; Phone: 804-287-5322;
Telex: 827460; Fax: 804-288-7149.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Box/Carton Forming Equipment; Consultants Packaging; Frozen
Desserts Pkg. Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube; Ingredients
Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Fruits & Fruit Products, Juices
& Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates Citrus, Stabilizers & Thickeners; Wrapping Material Films.

Contact Data: 125 B St. Joseph, Lachine


(Montreal), Quebec H8S 2L2 Canada;
Phone: 514-634-3541; Fax: 514-636-0350.
Products and Services: Cheese Cutters;
Cheese Making; Colloid Mills; Consultants
Technical; Control/Control Systems
Microprocess, Pasteurization; Cookers/
Kettles Vacuum; Heat Exchangers
Plate, Scraped Surface, Tubular; Membrane
Processing Eqpt Reverse Osmosis, Ultrafiltration; Mixers Batch, Continuous;
Pasteurizers Batch, HTST/Continuous;
Pumps Centrifugal; Tanks Balance/
Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage.

EXAC Corporation

Contact Data: A Universal Flavors Company,


P.O. Box 996, Wheaton, IL 60189-0996;
Phone: 708-462-5000; Fax: 708-462-5050.
Products and Services: Ingredients Baked
Products Cones, Baked Products
Cookies, Beverage & Beverage Bases, Candies, Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings
Chocolate, Coatings Confection, Cocoa
Powder, Blended, Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Fat
Substitutes, Flavor Agents Artificial,
Flavor AgentsNatural, Flavor Agents
Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Drinks &
Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings,
Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits
& Fruit Products, Juices & Concentrates
Blends.

Fantasy-BlankeBaer Corporation*
Contact Data: 6410 Via Del Oro, San Jose,
CA 95119; Phone: 408-365-3300; Fax:
408-365-3500.
Products and Services: Flow Meters Flow
Control

Excellence Commercial Products


Contact Data: Div. of Stajac Industries, Inc,
P.O. Box 187, Eastchester, NY 107090187; Toll Free: 800-441-4014; Phone:
914-779-4500; Fax: 914-779-4575.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated;
Vending Equipment, Retail.

F.E.I., Inc.
Contact Data: 934 South 5th Avenue, Mansfield, TX 76063; Phone: 800-346-5908;
Fax:817-473-3124.
Products and Services: None listed.

Fabricon Products
Contact Data: Div Of Eagle-Pitcher Industries, 1721 W. Pleasant Avenue, River

Fas-Co Coders Inc.


Contact Data: 5012 Forni Dr., Concord, CA
94520; Phone: 510-676-0517; Telex:
9104813016; Fax: 510-676-0158.
Products and Services: Coding Equipment.

Federal Mfg. Co.


Contact Data: 201 West Walker Street, P.O.
Box 04215, Milwaukee, WI53204; Phone:
414-384-3200; Fax: 414-384-8704.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment; Fillers & Sealers Bottle
Type.

Feldmeier Equipment, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 474, Syracuse, NY
13211-0474; Phone: 315-454-8608; Fax:
315-454-3701.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid;
Cheese Making; Control/Control Systems
CIP, Pasteurization; Cookers/Kettles
Vacuum; Heat Exchangers Tubular;
Heat Recovery Systems; Mixers Batch,
Liquid; Processing Systems; Refrigeration
Mechanical; Tanks Balance/Surge,
Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage; Valves
Sanitary; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

Alex C. Fergusson Inc.


Contact Data: Spring Mill Drive, Frazer, PA
19355; Phone: 215-647-3300; Fax: 215644-8240.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual &
COP, Mechanical & CIP; Consultants
Sanitation; Control/Control Systems
CIP; Lubricating Systems & Supplies; Pressure Cleaning Equipment; Water Treatment.

Ferro Corporation
Contact Data: 60 Green way Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15204; Phone: 412-331-3550;
Telex: 98-0165; Fax: 412-331-3553.
Products and Services: Labels & Label
Supplies; PrintingContainers/Caps/Closures.

Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming


Equipment; ContainersPaperboard; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy.

Filler Specialties, Inc.


Contact Data: 10014 Gordon St., Zeeland, MI
49464; Phone: 616-772-9235; Fax: 616772-4544.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment; Conveyors Chain; Fillers
& Sealers.

Filtration Engineering Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 491A Highway 169 North,
New Hope, MN 55428; Phone: 612-5360731; Fax: 612-536-0063.
Products and Services: Membrane Processing
Eqpt Microrlltration, Reverse Osmosis,
Ultra Osmosis, Ultrafiltration; Water Treatment Equipment; Whey Processing
Equipment & Services.

Fischer & Porter Company


Contact Data: East County Line Rd., Warminster, PA 18974; Phone: 215-674-6000;
Telex: 845-215 FI; Fax: 215-674-6394.
Products and Services: Computer Software;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
CIP, Computer Process, Environmental, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Microprocess,
Panel, Pressure, Temperature; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Instruments Analytical; Meters Fluid, Sanitary; Recording
Devices; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment.

Fiske Associates
Contact Data: 1000 Highland Avenue, Needham Heights, MA 02194; Phone: 617-4496000; Telex: 200177ALFA.
Products and Services: Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Field Container Corp.

Flavors From Florida, Inc.

Contact Data: 1500 Nicholas Boulevard, Elk


Grove Village, Il 60007; Phone: 708-4371700.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 632, Winter Haven,


FL 33880; Phone: 813-533-0408; Fax: 813533-9478.

Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor


Bases, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors
Appl. Confectionary, Flavors & Appl.
Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Drinks &
Juices, Fruits & Fruit Products, Juices &
Concentrates Blends.

19103; Phone: 215-299-6950; Fax: 215299-6821.


Products and Services: Ingredients Bulking Agents, Fat Substitutes, Stabilizers &
Thickeners, Texturizers.

Fleming Packaging Corp.

Contact Data: 6744 Ave. 304, P.O. Box 880,


Goshen, CA 93227; Phone: 209-651-2340;
Fax:209-651-2345.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Conveyors Accumulators.

FMS Manufacturing Company


Contact Data: 1028 S.W. Adams Street, Peoria, IL 61602; Phone: 309-676-2121; Fax:
309-637-5437.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Capping & Closing
Supplies; Containers Cups & Lids; Portion Control Equipment & Supplies;
Tamper Evident Foil Lidding.

Flockton Analytical Management


Inc.
Contact Data: 850 Boundary Road, Cornwall, Ontario, K6H 5R5 Canada; Phone:
613-936-2722; Fax: 613-936-2716.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection;
Bacterial Detection; Instrument Analytical; Laboratory Analysis & Testing
Services; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Flowdata, Inc.
Contact Data: 1784 Firman Drive, Richardson, TX 75081; Phone: 214-907-2787; Fax:
214-907-8016.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
EquipmentLiquid; Flow MetersFlow
Control; Meters Fluid, Sanitary.

Fluid Metering, Inc.


Contact Data: 29 Orchard St., P.O. Box 179;
Oyster Bay, NY 11771; Phone: 516-9226050; Fax: 516-624-8261.
Products and Services: Ingredient Feeders;
Laboratory Equipment & Supplies; Pumps
Metering, Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

FMC Corporation
Contact Data: Food Ingredients Division,
1735 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA

Fogg
Contact Data: 3455 John F. Donnelly Drive,
Holland, MI49424; Phone: 616-786-3644;
Fax: 616-786-0350.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment; Conveyor Systems; Conveyors Unscramblers; Fillers & Sealers.

Fold-Pak Corp.
Contact Data: 25 Smith Street, Nanuet,
10954; Phone: 914-624-4100; Fax: 914624-4105.
Products and Services: Boxes; Containers
Paperboard; Tamper Evident.

Food & Drug Packaging


Contact Data: Advanstar Communications,
7500 Old Oak Boulevard, Cleveland, OH
44130; Phone: 216-826-2824; Fax: 216891-2651.
Products and Services: Publications.

Food Engineering Magazine (A)


Contact Data: Chilton Company, Chilton
Way, Radnor, PA 19089; Phone: 215-9644453; Telex: 6851035; Fax: 215-964-4273.
Products and Services: Advertising; Publications.

Food In Canada Magazine


Contact Data: 111 Bay Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5W 1A7 Canada; Phone: 416-5965812; Telex: 06219547; Fax: 416-5933189.
Products and Services: Publications.

Food Producers International


Contact Data: Division of Hunt Wesson, Inc.,
P.O. Box 1344, Minneapolis, MN 55440;
Phone: 612-544-2761; Telex: 290524 FOO;
Fax:612-544-4186.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate,
Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor AgentsNatural, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor
Bases, FlavorsAppl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl.
Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce
& Variegate, Fruits & Fruit Products, Vanilla &Vanillin.

Food Products & Equipment Mag.


Contact Data: 301 Gibraltar Drive, Box 650,
Morris Plains, NJ 07950-0650; Phone: 201292-5100; Telex: 710-986-74; Fax: 201539-3476.
Products and Services: Advertising; Publications.

Food Tools, Inc.


Contact Data: 315 Laguna Street, Santa Barbara, CA 93101; Phone: 805-962-8383;
Fax: 805-966-3614.
Products and Services: Cheese Cutters; Cutting Machines, Slicers; Portion Control
Equipment & Supplies.

The Foote & Jenks Corporation


Contact Data: 1420 Crestmont Avenue, Camden, NJ 08103-3104; Phone: 609-9660700; Fax: 609-966-6137.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Colors & Coloring Adjuncts,
Dough Conditioners, Flavor Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/Spices,
Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavor
Agents Process/Rctn Flvr, Flavor Bases,
Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alco-

hol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors


Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl.
Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Drinks &
Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings,
Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Formulation Aids, Stabilizers & Thickeners,
Vanilla & Vanillin.

The Benjamin P. Forbes Co.


Contact Data: 15620 Industrial Parkway,
Cleveland, OH 44135-3300; Phone: 216433-1090; Fax: 216-433-1093.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa.

Fords-Holmatic, Inc.
Contact Data: 1750 Corporate Drive, Norcross, CA 30093; Phone: 404-925-2004;
Fax: 404-925-0939.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Cheese Packaging; Fillers
& SealersBottle Type, Paper Containers,
Plastic Pre-Formed Contnrs; Packaging
Systems; Pharmaceutical Equipment
Packaging; Portion Control Equipment &
Supplies; Sealers & Carton Closures;
Tamper Evident Equipment.

Forest Mechanical Products Corp.


Contact Data: 85-56 118th Street, Kew Gardens, NY 11415; Phone: 718-849-5611.
Products and Services: Blow Molding Equipment; Capping & Closing Equipment.

Forster Manufacturing Co., Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 657, Wilton, ME
04294-0657; Phone: 207-645-2574; Fax:
207-645-2541.
Products and Services: Spoons & Sticks
Plastic, Wooden.

Foss Food Technology Corp.


Contact Data: 10355 West 70th Street, Eden
Prairie, MN 55344; Phone: 612-941-8870;
Fax: 612-941-6533.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Control/Control Systems Automation,

Next Page
Instrumnt/Monitoring;
Analytical.

Instruments

Fowler Products Co.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 80268, Athens, GA
30608-0268; Phone: 706-549-3300; Fax:
706-548-1278.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Fillers & Sealers; Meters
Fluid, Sanitary; Mixers Batch, Continuous, Liquid; Pumps Metering, Positive
Displacement; UV Purifiers.

The Foxboro Company


Contact Data: Bristol Park 52 2L, Foxboro, MA 02035; Phone: 508-549-6781;
Telex: 92-7602; Fax: 508-549-4464.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder,
Powder; ConsultantsManagement; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP,
Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Inspection Equipment;
InstrumentsAnalytical; MetersFluid,
Sanitary; PH Measurement & Control; Recording Devices; Standardization Systems;
Thermometers Recording; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary; Weighing.

FR Manufacturing Corp. (FranRica)


Contact Data: 2807 So. Highway 99, Frontage, P.O. Box 30127, Stockton, CA 952130127; Phone: 209-948-2811; Telex:
359419; Fax: 209-948-5198.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Bag-In-Box; Blending & Batching Equipment Liquid; Complete Systems; Control/Control Systems Automation, Microprocess; Evaporators & Vacuum Pans
Falling Film, Scraped Surface; Fillers &
SealersAseptic Containers, Bag-In-Box,
Flexible Package, Form-Fill-Seal; Heat Exchangers Injection, Scraped Surface, Tu-

bular; Packaging Systems; Pasteurizers


HTST/Continuous; Processing Systems;
Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement; Tanks Storage; Turnkey Operations.

Fredricks Marking Products Co.


Contact Data: 3235 North Kedzie Avenue,
Chicago, IL 60818-5793; Toll Free: 800621-1001; Phone: 312-463-5275; Fax: 1800-344-1161.
Products and Services: Coding Equipment;
Printing Containers/Caps/Closures.

FreesTech International Ltd.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1657, Lancaster, PA
17603; Phone: 717-560-7560; Fax: 717560-7587.
Products and Services: Conveyors Belt,
Chain, Plate; Engineering ServicesFeasibility Studies, Plant; Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage; Inventory Control; Panels Building, Structural; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold
Rooms, Mechanical, Storage; Storage
Frozen, Refrigerated; Transportation
Services, Software; Turnkey Operations;
Warehouse Systems.

Frigidaire Commercial Products Co.


Contact Data: Kelvinator Commercial Div.,
707 Robins Street, Conway, AR 72032;
Phone: 501-327-8945; Telex: 0637448 UC
DC ONA; Fax: 501-327-0663.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Culture Cabinets; FreezersProcessing/Hardening, Storage.

FrigoTech
Contact Data: 6630 202nd Street, S.W.
#101, Lynnwood, WA 98036; Phone: 206672-8200; Fax: 206-771-1171.
Products and Services: Chillers; Conveyors
Chain, Plate; Coolers & Proofers;
Drying Equipment Conveyor/Convection; Freezers Continuous, Ice Cream,
Processing/Hardening; Refrigeration
Mechanical.

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Fristam Pumps, Inc.


Contact Data: 2410 Parview Road, Middleton, WI 53562; Phone: 608-831-5001;
Telex: 9102862723; Fax: 608-831-8467.
Products and Services: Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

Frontier Technology, Inc.


Contact Data: 609 Eastern Avenue, Allegan,
MI49010; Phone: 616-673-9464; Fax: 616673-9629.
Products and Services: Conveyors Belt,
Screw; Custom Fabrication; Equipment
Remanufactured, Repair; Filters Liquid;
Processing Systems; Product Recovery
Equipment; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/Solid; Strainers; Turnkey Operations;
Waste Treatment; Water Treatment; Whey
Processing Equipment & Services.
Frostline FoodsContact Data: 1600 Oregon Street, Muscatine, IA 52761; Phone:
319-264-4273; Fax: 319-264-4216.
Products and Services: Frozen Dessert
Mixes; Gravies & Sauces; Ingredients
Beverage & Beverage Bases.

Fruitcrown Products Corporation


Contact Data: 120 Florida Street, Farmingdale, NY 11735; Phone: 516-694-5800;
Fax:516-694-6467.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents
Nature Identical, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices,
Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Juices & ConcentratesBlends,
Juices & Concentrates Citrus, Juices &
Concentrates Fruit, Vanilla &Vanillin.

H. B. Fuller Company
Contact Data: Monarch Division*, 3900
Jackson Street, N.E., Minneapolis, MN

55421; Phone: 612-781-8071; Telex: 290984; Fax: 612-782-1755.


Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual &
COP, Mechanical & CIP; Consultants
Sanitation; Lubricating Systems & Supplies; Water Treatment Chemicals,
Equipment.

G. E. Plastics
Contact Data: One Plastics Avenue, Pittsfield, MA 01201; Phone: 413-448-7784;
Fax: 413-448-7736.
Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Returnable, Plastic Single Service; Containers
Plastic; Resins; Washers Bottle.

G/H Products Corp.


Contact Data: Alfa-Laval Group, 7600 57th
Avenue, P.O. Box 1199, Kenosha, WI
53142; Phone: 414-694-1010; Fax: 414694-2907.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
EquipmentLow Acid; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Fittings; Flow
Meters Flow Control; Gaskets & Seals;
Pumps Centrifugal, Metering, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Sampling Devices
& Supplies; Sight Gauges; Strainers; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

GASTI Verpackungsmaschinen
GmbH
Contact Data: Raiffeisenstr. 8, D-7170
Schwabisch-HI, Germany; Phone: 49-7914020; Fax: 49-791-402100.
Products and Services: Fillers & Sealers
Aseptic Containers, Bottle Type, Flexible
Package, Paper Containers, Plastic PreFormed Contnrs; Packaging Systems.

GEA Wiegand
Contact Data: 8940 Route 108, Columbia,
MD 21045; Phone: 410-997-9500; Telex:
87879; Fax: 410-997-4639.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Control/
Control Systems CIP; Evaporators &

Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan, Falling Film,


Plate; Heat Exchangers Infusion, Injection, Plate, Tubular; Heat Recovery Systems; ValvesAutomatic, Sanitary; Whey
Processing Equipment & Services.

Gelber Industries
Contact Data: 7600 Gross Point Road, Skokie, IL 60077; Phone: 708-965-1300;
Telex: 9102230157; Fax: 708-673-8929.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Pressure; Filters Liquid; Fittings; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Meters Fluid; Mixers
Batch, Continuous, Liquid; Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Metering, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Strainers; Tanks
Processing; UV Purifiers.

General Films, Inc.


Contact Data: 645 S. High Street, Covington,
OH 45318; Phone: 513-473-2051; Fax:
513-473-2403.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Fillers &
Sealers; Packaging Systems; Preformed
Bags; Wrapping Material Films.

Genpak Canada
Contact Data: Division of Hamelin Group
Inc., 260 Rexdale Blvd., Rexdale, Ontario,
M9W 1R2 Canada; Phone: 416-744-4220;
Telex: 06964505; Fax: 416-744-2464.
Products and Services: Containers Cups
& Lids, Plastic; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen
Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Packaging Systems; Printing Containers/
Caps/Closures; Tamper Evident.

Gerkens Cocoa
Contact Data: A Department of Cargill Inc.,
50 E. Shuman Boulevard, Suite 250, Naperville, IL 60563-1258; Phone: 708-3059200; Fax: 708-305-9279.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Fats & Oils, Flavor Bases.

Germantown Manufacturing Co.


Contact Data: 505 Parkway, P.O. Box 405,
Broomall, PA 19008; Phone: 215-5448400; Telex: 287804; Fax: 215-544-4490.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Protective, Emulsifiers &
Emulsifier Salts, Firming Agents, Processing Aids, Proteins Animal, Stabilizers &
Thickeners, Surface Active Agents, Sweeteners-Non-Nutritive, Synergists, Texturizers.

Girton Manufacturing Co.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 900, Millville, PA
17846; Phone: 717-458-5521; Fax: 717458-5589.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP;
Heat Exchangers Tubular; Heat Recovery Systems; Ice Making/Building Equipment; Pharmaceutical Equipment Packaging, Processing; Refrigeration Mechanical; Washers Bottle, Can, Carton,
Case, Equipment.

Gist-brocades Food Ingredients, Inc.


Contact Data: 2200 Renaissance Boulevard,
Suite 150, King of Prussia, PA 19406;
Phone: 215-272-4040; Fax: 215-272-5695.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection;
Cheese Making; IngredientsCoatings
Protective, Enzymes, Surface Active
Agents

Global Stainless Ltd.


Contact Data: Unit T14, Togher Indstrl. Est.,
P.O. Box 601, Cork, Ireland; Phone: 35321-968578; Fax: 353-21-312921.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems CIP; Custom Fabrication; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies,
Plant; Filters Milk; Fittings; Polishing
Equipment; Processing Systems; Sight
Gauges; Tanks Processing; Tubing/Pipe
Flexible, Stainless; Valves Sanitary;
Welding Equipment.

GMFanuc Robotics Corp.


Contact Data: 2000 South Adams Road, Auburn Hills, MI 48326-2800; Phone: 313377-7000; Fax: 313-377-7498.
Products and Services: Case Packer, Stacker
& Unstacker; Complete Systems; Packaging Systems.

GMI Products, Inc.


Contact Data: 19501 -C N.E. 10th Avenue, N.
Miami Beach, FL 33179; Phone: 305-6530575; Telex: 6974028; Fax: 305-653-4174.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Proteins Animal, Stabilizers & Thickeners.

GOAVEC
Contact Data: 32, rue Eiffel, BP 205, Alencon
Cedex, France 61006; Phone: 33 84 30 00;
Telex: 170818; Fax: 33 31 05 19.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cookers/Kettles Batch, Pressure, Vacuum; Coolers & Proofers; Heat Exchangers
Plate, Scraped Surface; MixersBatch,
Continuous, Liquid; Pasteurizers Batch,
Dairy, HTST/Continuous, Non-Dairy,
UHT; Tank Heating Systems; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo,
Storage; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

Golden Gem Growers, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O.Box 609503, Orlando, FL
32860-9503; Phone: 407-886-8000; Telex:
056-4348; Fax: 407-886-8994.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/
Spices, Flavor Bases, Juices & Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates
Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

coa, Coatings Chocolate, Coatings Confection, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors


Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors Appl.
Sauce & Variegate, Nuts.

Grain Processing Corp.


Contact Data: 1600 Oregon Street, Muscatine, IA 52761; Phone: 319-264-4273;
Telex: 46-8497; Fax: 319-264-4289.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy,
Non-Dairy; Ingredients Beverage &
Beverage Bases, Bulking Agents, Flavor
Bases, Formulation Aids, Sweeteners
Nutritive, Texturizers.

Gram Equipment of America, Inc.


Contact Data: 1212 N. 39th Street, Suite 438,
Tampa, FL 33605; Phone: 813-248-1978;
Fax:813-248-2314.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Capping & Closing Equipment;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Fillers
& Sealers; Freezers Ice Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage; Frozen Desserts
Pkg. Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt
Cone, Cup, Tube, Extrusion, Molding,
Slice/Sandwich; Ingredient Feeders; Molds
Ice Cream/Frozen Dessert; Packaging
Systems; Refrigeration Mechanical;
Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Valves
Mechanical; Wrapping Equipment.

Grand Rapids Cabinet Company

Golden Select Foods Company

Contact Data: P.O. Box 623, Bristol, PA


19007; Phone: 215-785-3561.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Cabinets Storage/Frozen; Custom
Fabrication; Dispensing Eqpt., Retail
Soft Serve Products; Freezers Storage;
Refrigeration Cold Rooms; Storage
Frozen, Refrigerated.

Contact Data: 2531 Sawtelle Boulevard,


#116, Los Angeles, CA 90064; Phone:
310-447-0652; Fax: 310-826-9746.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Chocolate & Co-

Contact Data: 2500 Irving Park Road, Chicago, IL 60618; Phone: 312-478-3625;
Telex: 9102215269; Fax: 312-478-7647.

Great Lakes Corp.

Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Packaging Systems;


Tamper Evident Shrink Sleeve; Thermo
Form Fill & Seal Flexible; Wrapping
Equipment.

Green Spot Company


Contact Data: 100 South Cambridge Avenue,
P.O. Box 1358, Claremont, CA 91711;
Phone: 714-625-8771; Telex: 9105881211;
Fax:714-621-4634.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Cocoa Powder,
Blended, Flavor Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl
Oil, Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavor
Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl.
Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary,
Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Drinks & Juices, Juices & Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates
Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit,
Vanilla and Vanillin.

Greerco Corp.
Contact Data: 2 Wentworth Drive, P.O. Box
187, Hudson, NH 03051; Phone: 603-8835517; Telex: 94-3565; Fax: 603-882-6025.
Products and Services: Colloid Mills; Freezers Ice Cream, Processing/Hardening,
Storage; Homogenizers; Mixers Liquid;
Refrigeration Mechanical; Storage
Frozen.

Grenco Process Technology B.V.


Contact Data: 1101 N. Governor Street, P.O.
Box 4799, Evansville, IN 47724-0799;
Phone: 812-465-6603; Fax: 812-465-6615.
Products and Services: Complete Systems;
Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; Freeze Concentration Equipment; Processing Systems; Separators &
Clarifiers Liquid/Solid.

Groen
Contact Data: A Dover Industries Co., 1900
Pratt Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, IL

60007; Phone: 708-364-3099; Fax: 708364-3097.


Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder,
Powder; Cookers/KettlesBatch, Continuous, Pressure, Tmnion, Vacuum; Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan, Rising Film, Scraped Surface; Heat
Exchangers Scraped Surface.

Guernsey DeIl9 Inc.


Contact Data: 4300 S. Morgan Street, Chicago, IL 60609; Toll Free: 800-621-0271;
Phone: 312-927-4000; Fax: 312-247-4945.
Products and Services: Ingredients Baked
Products Cookies, Candies, Chocolate
& Cocoa, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor Agents
Natural/Extracts, Flavor Bases, Flavors
Appl. Bakery, FlavorsAppl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Formulation
Aids, Fruits & Fruit Products, Nuts, Vanilla
& Vanillin.

G. W. Haab Company, Inc.


Contact Data: Rt. 14 & 605, P.O. Box 1340,
Gloucester, VA 23061-1340; Phone: 804262-0552; Fax: 804-693-7544.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Case Packer; Sealers & Carton
Closures.

Hackney Brothers, Inc.


Contact Data: 301 N. Pender St., P.O. Box
2728, Wilson, NC 27894-2728; Toll Free:
800-334-2296; Phone: 919-237-8171; Fax:
919-237-0305.
Products and Services: Truck Bodies &
Trailers; Refrigeration; Vending Equipment, Retail.

Hakala Engineering Services; Inc.


Contact Data: 6303 St. Croix Trail North,
Stillwater, MN 55082; Phone: 612-4399209; Fax: 612-439-9209.
Products and Services: None listed.

Hardwood Products Co.


Contact Data: School Street, P.O. Box 149,
Guilford, ME 04443; Phone: 800-3212313; Fax: 800-323-4153.
Products and Services: Spoons & Sticks
Wooden.

tems; Fillers & Sealers Aseptic Containers, Flexible Package; Form-Fill-Seal;


Flexible Packaging; Packaging Systems;
Pharmaceutical Equipment Packaging;
Portion Control Equipment & Supplies;
Thermo Form Fill & Seal Flexible, Heat
Strle Plast Pkg, Plastic.

Harnischfeger Engineers, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1512, Milwaukee,
WI53201; Phone: 414-797-6624; Fax: 414797-6533.
Products and Services: Buildings Storage;
Coding Equipment; Complete Systems;
Computer Software; Construction Materials, Plant; Conveyors Accumulators,
Air, Belt, Chain, Magnetic, Plate, Roller,
Screw, Spiral, Unscramblers; Freezers
Storage; Inventory Control; Refrigeration
Storage; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Warehouse Systems.

Hartel Corp.
Contact Data: 201 North Main Street, Box
41, Fort Atkinson, WI53538; Phone: 414563-8461; Telex: 9102603734; Fax: 414563-7417.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
CIP, Computer Process, Instrument/Monitoring, Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization; Engineering Services Plant; Processing Systems; Refrigeration Mechanical; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/
Solid; Standardization Systems; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Processing, Silo, Storage;
Turnkey Operations; Weighing.

Hassia U.S.A., Inc.


Contact Data: 39 Plymouth Street, Fairfleld,
NJ 07004; Phone: 201-575-7778; Fax: 201575-8668.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Bagging Equipment &
Supplies; Butter Making & Packaging
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cheese Packaging; Complete Sys-

Hayes Machine Company, Inc.


Contact Data: 801 West Hanover Street, Marshall, MI 49068; Phone: 616-781-9871;
Fax:616-781-5744.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Box/
Carton Forming Equipment; Carton Form/
Load/Close/Seal; Sealers & Carton Closures.

The Haynes Manufacturing Co.


Contact Data: 4180 Lorain Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44113; Phone: 216-631-2166;
Fax: 216-631-7133.
Products and Services: Dollies & Carts; Gaskets & Seals; Ingredients Lubricants &
Release Agents.

Heat and Control, Inc.


Contact Data: 225 Shaw Road, South San
Francisco, CA 94080; Phone: 415-8719234; Fax: 415-875-1857.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Cheese
Packaging; Consultants Packaging; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Inspection Equipment;
Packaging Systems; Processing Systems;
Weighing.

Heerema Company
Contact Data: 200 Sixth Avenue, P.O. Box
568, Hawthorne, NJ 07507-0568; Phone:
201-423-0505; Fax: 201-427-8672.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,
Liquid/Powder; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Centrifuges; Cheese Making;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Control/Control Systems Panel; Cook-

ers/Kettles Vacuum; Heat Exchangers


Plate; Homogenizers; Meters Sanitary; Mixers Batch, Liquid; Processing
Systems; Pumps Sanitary; Recording
Devices; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold
Rooms; Thermometers Recording; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Water Treatment.

Heinz Nutrition Products


Contact Data: P.O. Box 57, Pittsburgh, PA
15230; Phone: 412-237-5231.
Products and Services: Consultants Marketing, Technical; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy; License Programs.

Heliose Research Corp.


Contact Data: 38 Dakin Street, Mumford, NY
14511; Phone: 716-538-6825; Fax: 716538-2089.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP;
Pressure Cleaning Equipment.

Heritage Equipment Co.


Contact Data: 9000 Heritage Drive, Plain
City, OH 43064; Phone: 614-873-3941;
Fax: 814-873-3549.
Products and Services: Air Curtains; Blending & Batching Equipment Liquid/Powder; Cheese Making; Conveyors Chain;
Dollies & Carts; EquipmentRemanufactured, Repair; Heat Exchangers Plate,
Scraped Surface, Tubular; Homogenizers;
Ingredient Feeders; Pasteurizers Batch,
HTST Continuous; Pumps Centrifugal,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Refrigeration Mechanical; TanksBatch, Processing, Silo, Storage; Tubing/PipeStainless.

Hershey Chocolate USA


Contact Data: 19 East Chocolate Avenue,
Hershey, PA 17033; Phone: 717-534-4200;
Telex: 842335; Fax: 717-534-6550.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa; License Programs.

Hertel, Johnson, Eipper & Stopa


Contact Data: P.O. Box 2575, Glenview, IL
60025-6575; Phone: 708-824-0865.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
NCARB); Architectural, Related Services;
Buildings Storage; Construction
Plant; Consultants Sanitation; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant;
Panels Building, Structural; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold Rooms, Mechanical, Storage; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Warehouse Systems.

Hesco Inc.
Contact Data: 101 W. Kemp Avenue, Box
815, Watertown, SD 57201; Phone: 605882-4672; Fax: 605-882-4985.
Products and Services: Ingredients Baked
Products Cookies, Fat Substitutes, Fats
& Oils, Formulation Aids, Proteins
Animal.

Hess Machine Co.


Contact Data: 1140 South State Street,
Ephrata, PA 17522; Phone: 717-733-1264;
Fax:717-733-2255.
Products and Services: Bottled Water; Consultants Technical; Water Treatment
Equipment.

Hi-Speed Checkweigher Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 5 Barr Road, Ithaca, NY
14850; Phone: 607-257-6000; Fax: 607257-5232.
Products and Services: Conveyors Belt,
Magnetic; Labeling Equipment & Supplies;
Maintenance & Repair Products; Weighing.

Hixson Architects/Engineers
Contact Data: 25 Merchant Street, Suite 400,
Cincinnati, OH 45246; Phone: 513-7715700; Fax: 513-771-1949.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Buildings Storage; Computer
Software CAD Systems; Construction
Plant; Consultants Technical; Control/Control Systems Environmental;

Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; Environmental Control Aseptic Air, HVAC, Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Freezers Ice Cream, Storage; Processing
Systems; Refrigeration Mechanical;
Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Waste
Treatment.

Harry Holland & Son Inc.


Contact Data: 7630 Quincy Street, Willowbrook, IL 60521; Phone: 708-325-5130;
Fax:708-654-2518.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control
Systems CIP, Level, Presure, Temperature; Custom Fabrication; Engineering
Services Plant; Filters Liquid; Fittings; Flow Meters Flow Control; Heat
Exchangers Plate; Lubricating Systems
& Supplies; Membrane Processing Eqpt
Microflltration; Processing Systems;
Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; Tanks Batch,
Processing, Silo, Storage; Tubing/Pipe
Flexible; Valves Automatic, Sanitary.

Honeywell, Inc.
Contact Data: 1100 Virginia Drive, Fort
Washington, PA 19034; Phone: 215-6413000; Telex: 846-698; Fax: 215-641-3733.
Products and Services: Complete Systems;
Computer Software; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Environmental, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization; Flow
Meters Flow Control; Meters Fluid,
Sanitary; Packaging Systems; Recording
Devices; Turnkey Operations; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical.

Horton International, Inc.


Contact Data: 238 Main Street, Cambridge,
MA 02142; Phone: 617-491-6005; Telex:
949329 NSB; Fax: 617-491-5120.
Products and Services: Consultants Marketing, Technical; Electrodialysis; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies;
Membrane Processing Eqpt Microflltra-

tion, Reverse Osmosis, Ultra Osmosis, Ultrafiltration; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

Hovap International (Holland)


Contact Data: P.O. Box 163, AD Sneek, The
Netherlands 8600; Phone: 05150-18445;
Telex: 46212 HOVA; Fax: 05150-20441.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems;
Control/Control Systems CIP, Panel;
Pumps Centrifugal, Sanitary; Turnkey
Operations; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

O. G. Hoyer A/S
Contact Data: 13, Soren Nymarksvej, Aarhus-Hojbjerg, Denmark DK-8270; Phone:
011-4586-292911; Fax: 011-4586-292200.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Capping & Closing Equipment, Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Manual & COP;
Conveyors Belt, Unscramblers; Enrobers; Fillers & Sealers; Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube,
Extrusion, Molding, Slice/Sandwich; Ingredient Feeders; Mixers Batch; Molds
Ice Cream/Frozen Dessert; Packaging
Systems; Pumps Positive Displacement;
Wrapping Equipment.

HSI Company, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 4785, Lancaster, PA
17604; Phone: 717-393-9377.
Products and Services: Case Packer, Stacker
& Unstacker; Control/Control Systems
Microprocess; Conveyors Belt, Chain,
Roller; Freezers Processing/Hardening,
Storage; Warehouse Systems.

Hueck Foils, Inc.


Contact Data: Suite 9B, Bldg. 2, 615 Hope
Road, Eatontown, NJ 07724; Phone: 908389-5557; Fax: 908-389-5565.

Products and Services: Flexible Packaging;


Thermo Form Fill & Seal Flexible;
Wrapping Material Foils, Laminates.

IDETEK9 Inc.
Contact Data: 1245 Reamwood Avenue,
Sunnyvale, CA 94089; Phone: 408-7450544; Telex: 314129; Fax: 408-745-0243.
Products and Services: None listed.

Hydrite Chemical Co.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 948, Brookfield, WI
53008-0948; Phone: 414-792-1450; Fax:
414-792-8721.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual &
COP, Mechanical & CIP; Ingredients
Antioxidents, Curing & Pickling Agents,
Dough Conditioners, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Leavening Agents, PH Control
Agents, Preservatives, Processing Aids, Sequestrants, Solvents & Vehicles, Surface
Finishing Agents; Lubricating Systems &
Supplies; Water Treatment Chemicals,
Equipment.

HydroCal, Inc.
Contact Data: 22732 Granite Way, Suite A,
Laguna Hills, CA 92653; Phone: 714-4550765; Fax: 714-455-0764.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing Hand Cleansers; Construction
Turnkey Operations; Conveyors Screw;
Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Metering, Positive Displacement, Sanitary, Vacuum; Tanks Balance/Surge; Waste
Treatment; Water TreatmentEquipment.

IDEXX Laboratories
Contact Data: One IDEXX Drive, Westbrook, ME 04092; Phone: 207-856-0300;
Fax: 207-856-0345.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection.

Ilapak, Inc. Verpaco AG


Contact Data: 105 Pheasant Run, Newtown,
PA 18901; Phone: 215-579-2900; Fax: 215579-9959.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Fillers & Sealers Flexible Package,
Form-Fill-Seal; Packaging Systems; Portion Control Equipment & Supplies;
Tamper Evident Foil Lidding; Thermo
Form Fill & Seal Flexible, Heat Strle
Plast Pkg, Rigid; Wrapping Equipment.

IMEX
Contact Data: Sani-Fit Division*, 4040 Del
Rey Avenue, Unit 9, Marina Del Rey, CA
90292; Phone: 800-367-4639; Telex:
181971; Fax: 310-305-7307.
Products and Services: Fittings; Gaskets &
Seals; Valves Sanitary.

INDEECO/HYNES
Ideas In Motion, Inc.
Contact Data: 3470 Raleigh, S.E., Grand
Rapids, MI 49512; Toll Free: 800-4443327; Phone: 616-942-5488; Fax: 616-9422009.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Blow Molding Equipment;
Conveyors Accumulators, Air, Belt,
Chain, Plate, Roller, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Fillers & Sealers; Inspection
Equipment; Recycling Equipment Container Recovery; Tanks Silo, Storage;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Turnkey Operations.

Contact Data: 425 Hanley Industrial Court,


St. Louis, MO 63143; Phone: 314-6444300; Fax: 314-644-5332.
Products and Services: Boilers; Heat Exchangers Tubular; Heat Transfer Fluid, Flood
Grade; HeatersCirculation, Electric, Immersion; Tank Heating Systems.

Indian River Foods, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1749, Fort Pierce, FL
34954; Phone: 407-464-8400; Fax: 407466-3205.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Flavor Agents

Natural/Esntl Oil, Fruits & Fruit Products,


Juices & Concentrates Citrus.

Industrial Accessories
Contact Data: 5018 Hadley, Overland Park,
KS 66203; Phone: 800-334-7431; Fax: 913384-6577.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Environmental; Conveyors Air,
Screw, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication;
Drying Equipment Continuous Vacuum,
Conveyor/Convection; Electrical Enclosures; Filters Air; Gaskets & Seals; Installation & Start-Up Services; Pumps
Positive Displacement; Tanks Silo, Storage; Tubing/Pipe Metal, Stainless;
Valves Automatic, Mechanical.

Ingold Electrodes, Inc.


Contact Data: 261 Ballardvale Street, Wilmington, MA 01887; Phone: 508-6587615; Fax: 508-658-6973.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Inspection
Equipment; Instruments Analytical;
Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Richmond, VA 23230-2519; Phone: 804359-8719; Fax: 804-359-8825.


Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt
Slice/Sandwich; Ingredients Baked
Products Cones, Baked Products
Cookies, Baked Products Wafers; License Programs.

International Dairy Equipment


Contact Data: Associates, Inc., 44 South
Broad Street, Nazareth, PA 18064; Phone:
215-759-1228; Telex: 84-7321; Fax: 215759-3195.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Boilers;
Centrifuges; Cheese Cutters; Cheese Making; Cookers/Kettles Vacuum; Fillers &
Sealers; Fittings; Freezers Ice Cream,
Storage; Heat Exchangers Plate; Homogenizers; Ingredient Feeders; Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Emulsifiers &
Emulsifier Salts, Fats & Oils; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies; Pasteurizers
Batch, HTST/Continuous; Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement; Refrigeration Mechanical; Separators & CIarifiers
Liquid/Solid; Spoons & Sticks
Wooden.

Intec, Inc.
Contact Data: 6631-J Commerce Parkway,
Dublin, OH 43017; Phone: 614-792-5833;
Fax: 614-792-7989.
Products and Services: Chillers; Coolers &
Proofers; Freezers Ice Cream, Processing/Hardening.

Integrated Ingredients
Contact Data: 1420 Harbor Bay Parkway,
Suite 210, Alameda, CA 94501; Phone:
415-748-6300; Fax: 415-748-6880.
Products and Services: Custom Development
Food; IngredientsCultures, Enzymes,
Fat Substitutes, Flavor Agents Natural,
Flavor Enhancers, Preservatives.

Interbake Foods
Contact Data: Dairy Ingredients Division*,
2220 Edward Holland Drive, Suite 301,

International Flavors &


Fragrances, Inc.
Contact Data: 150 Docks Corner Road, Dayton, NJ 08810; Phone: 908-329-4600;
Telex: 134359; Fax: 908-329-5483.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents
Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents
Natural/Spices, Flavor Agents Nature
Identical, Flavor Agents Process/Rctn
Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl.
Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary,
Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl.
Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce
& Variegate, Fruits & Fruit Products, Juices

& Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Ivalco

Contact Data: Blumenstrasse 15, Nurenberg,


West Germany 8500; Phone: 0911-20-3658; Telex: 179118103; Fax: 0911-20-4579.
Products and Services: Publications.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 1183, Hutchinson,


KS 67504; Phone: 316-665-6612; Fax: 316669-2242.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
EquipmentLiquid; Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Flow Meters Flow Control; Meters Fluid, Sanitary.

International Fruit, Inc.

Ionics, Inc.

Int'l. Food Marketing & Technology

Contact Data: 1201 South Orlando Avenue,


Suite 340, Winter Park, FL 32789; Phone:
407-628-1121; Telex: 887330 INT; Fax:
407-628-1829.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Flavors Appl.
Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/
Toppings, Juices & Concentrates
Blends, Juices & Concentrates Citrus,
Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Contact Data: 65 Grove Street, Watertown,


MA 02172; Phone: 617-926-2500; Telex:
922473; Fax: 617-926-4304.
Products and Services: Electrodialysis; Instruments Analytical; Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Water
Treatment; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

International Machinery
Exchange, Inc.

Contact Data: R.R. # 1 , P.O. Box 336, Decorah, IA 52101; Toll Free: 800-553-0050;
Phone: 319-382-9636; Fax: 319-382-3016.
Products and Services: ContainersPlastic;
Promotional Devices & Premiums; Sampling Devices & Supplies.

Contact Data: 214 North Main Street, Deerfield, WI 53531; Phone: 608-764-5481;
Fax: 608-764-8240.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Boilers; Centrifuges; Cheese Cutters;
Cheese Making; Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems; Consultants Sanitation,
Technical; Control/Control SystemsAutomation, CIP, Computer Process; Custom
Fabrication; Drying Equipment Spray;
Engineering Services Feasibility Studies; EquipmentRemanufactured, Repair;
Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan,
Rising Film; PasteurizersHTST/Continuous; Turnkey Operations; Welding Equipment.

International Software Systems Inc.


Contact Data: #650,202 6th Avenue, S. W.,
Calgary, Alberta, T2P 2R9 Canada; Phone:
403-233-2520; Fax: 403-234-8583.
Products and Services: Computer Software
CAD Systems.

Iowa Rotocast Plastics, Inc.

Irving Polishing & Mfg. Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 5704 46th Street, Kenosha, WI
53144-1899; Toll Free: 800-637-8290;
Phone: 414-657-6968; Fax: 414-657-6970.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Sanitary Finishing.

Len E. Ivarson, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 23290, Milwaukee,
WI53223; Phone: 414-351-0700; Fax: 414351-4551.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Butter Making & Packaging
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cheese Cutters; Cheese Packaging;
Cookers/Kettles Continous; Equipment
Leasing, Remanufactured, Repair; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Heat Exchangers

Scraped Surface; Homogenizers; Packaging Systems; Portion Control Equipment &


Supplies; Pumps Centrifugal, Positive
Displacement; Transportation Services;
Tray Forming Equipment; Turnkey Operations; Weighing; Wrapping Equipment.

Iwai Kikai Kogyo Co., Ltd.


Contact Data: 3-17-10 Higashi-Kojiya, OhtaKu, Tokyo, Japan; Phone: 037441111;
Telex: 2466306IW.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Heat Exchangers
Plate, Scraped Surface; Pasteurizers
Batch; Pumps Centrifugal; Sterilizers.

J A I Engineers
Contact Data: 455 Cleveland Drive, Sarasota,
FL 34236; Phone: 813-388-2421.
Products and Services: Architectural, Related
Services; Consultants Sanitation, Technical; Engineering Services Feasibility
Studies, Plant.

James River Corporation*


Contact Data: Packaging Business, 8044
Montgomery Road, Suite 650, Cincinnati,
OH 45236-2925; Phone: 513-792-6800;
Fax: 513-792-6800.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; ContainersPaperboard; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy; Packaging Systems; Printing Containers/Caps/Closures.

dent Foil Lidding; Thermo Form Fill &


Seal Flexible, Heat Strle Plast Pkg, Plastic; Wrapping Material Films, Foils, Paper.

Jensen Fittings Corporation


Contact Data: 107-111 Goundry St., North
Tonawanda, NY 14120-5998; Phone: 716692-6665; Fax: 716-692-8967.
Products and Services: Fittings; Gaskets &
Seals; Sight Gauges; Strainers; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

Jimbo's Jumbos, Inc.


Contact Data: 185 Peanut Drive, P.O. Box
465, Edenton, NC 27932; Phone: 800-3344771; Fax: 919-482-7857.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.

Johnson Controls, Inc.


Contact Data: Uniloy Blowmolding Systems,
10501 Highway M52, Manchester, MI
48158; Phone: 313-428-8371; Telex:
8102237020; Fax: 313-428-9237.
Products and Services: Blow Molding Equipment.

Johnson Truck Bodies*


Contact Data: Div. Of Johnson Welding &
Mfg., 215 E. Allen Street, P.O. Box 480,
Rice Lake, WI 54868; Phone: 715-2347071; Fax: 715-234-4628.
Products and Services: Truck Bodies &
Trailers, Refrigeration.

Jamison Door Company

Jones Environmental, Inc.

ContactData:?.O. Box 70, Hagerstown, MD


21741-0070; Phone: 301-733-3100; Fax:
301-791-7339.
Products and Services: Doors.

Contact Data: 14205 Bumet Road, P.O. Box


9010, Austin, TX 78766; Phone: 512-2183280; Fax: 512-218-3299.
Products and Services: Construction Materials, Plant; Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies, Plant; Turnkey Operations; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment.

Jefferson Smurfit Corporation


Contact Data: Laminating & Coating Company, 1228 E. Tower Road, Schaumburg,
IL 60173-4386; Phone: 708-884-1200;
Fax: 708-884-7206.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Cheese
Packaging; Preformed Bags; Tamper Evi-

Juice Farms, Inc.


Contact Data: 1000 Ferry Road, Wilmington,
DE 19801; Phone: 302-652-7352; Fax:
302-652-7762.

Products and Services: Ingredients Juices


& Concentrates Citrus.

K-Patents
Contact Data: C/O Raeco, 253 W Joe Orr
Road, Chicago Heights, IL 60411-1744;
Phone: 708-754-4800; Fax: 708-755-7199.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Computer Process,
Environmental,
Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Panel, Pressure, Temperature; Flow Meters Flow Control; Instruments Analytical; Meters Fluid,
Sanitary; Recording Devices; Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording.

Katrina, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 418, 91 Western
Maryland Parkway, Hagerstown, MD
21740; Phone: 301-733-9397; Fax: 301739-3428.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Instruments
Analytical; Laboratory Analysis & Testing Services.

KDV Label Company, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1006, Waukesha, WI
53187; Phone: 414-544-5891; Fax: 414544-4375.
Products and Services: Labeling Equipment
& Supplies.

Stan Keck Company


Contact Data: 166 South Lemon Street, Orange, CA 92666; Phone: 714-633-6098;
Fax: 714-633-6799.
Products and Services: Centrifuges; Equipment Remanufactured, Repair; Instruments Analytical; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies; Separators & Clarifiers
Liquid/Liquid; Standardization Systems.

Kelco Division
Contact Data: Merck & Co., Inc., 8355 Aero
Drive, P.O. Box 23076, San Diego, CA

92123; Phone: 619-292-4900; Telex:


695228.
Products and Services: Ingredients Stabilizers & Thickeners.

Kerry Food Ingredients


Contact Data: 352 East Grand Avenue, Beloit, WI 53511; Phone: 608-365-5561;
Telex: 229829; Fax: 608-365-2978.
Products and Services: Ingredients Colors
& Coloring Adjuncts Emulsifiers &
Emulsifier Salts, Flavor Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices,
Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Juices & Concentrates Fruit,
Proteins Animal, Proteins Vegetable,
Stabilizers & Thickeners.

Keyes Fibre Co.


Contact Data: 301 Merritt 7, P.O. Box 5317,
Norwalk, CT 06856; Phone: 203-846-1499;
Fax: 203-849-4133.
Products and Services: Containers Paperboard; Portion Control & Supplies.

Kidron, Inc.
Contact Data: 13442 Emerson Road, P.O.
Box 17, Kidron, OH 44636; Phone: 216857-3011; Fax: 216-857-8451.
Products and Services: Truck Bodies &
Trailers.

The King Company


Contact Data: 1001 21st Avenue, N.W., P.O.
Box 287, Owatonna, MN 55060; Phone:
507-451-3770; Telex: 29-0944; Fax: 507455-7400.
Products and Services: Air Curtains; Air Systems; Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Environmental Control Aseptic
Air, HVAC, Plate Fin Coils, Proc. Cool/
Heat Air; FreezersStorage; Heat Recov-

ery Systems; RefrigerationCold Rooms,


Mechanical, Storage.

King Engineering Corp.


Contact Data: 3201 South State Street, P.O.
Box 1228, Ann Arbor, MI 48106; Phone:
313-662-5691; Fax: 313-662-6652.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level; Filters Air.

Koch Membrane Systems, Inc.


Contact Data: 850 Main Street, Wilmington,
MA 01887; Phone: 508-657-4250; Telex:
7103476537; Fax: 508-657-5208.
Products and Services: Cheese Making; Control/Control Systems Automation;
Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration; Product Recovery
Equipment; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

KoId-HoId Div. of Tranter, Inc.


Kistler-Morse Corp.
Contact Data: 10201 Willows Road N.E.,
P.O. Box 3009, Redmond, WA 980733009; Phone: 206-881-8000; Fax: 206-8834893.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder,
Powder; Control/Control Systems
Level; Inventory Control; Mixers Batch;
Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing;
Weighing.

Klenzade, A Service of Ecolab Inc.


Contact Data: Ecolab Center North/13, St.
Paul, MN 55102; Phone: 612-293-2525;
Telex: 297427; Fax: 612-293-2260.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP;
Consultants Sanitation; Control/Control
Systems CIP; Lubricating Systems &
Supplies.

Knight/P.M.D. Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 187, Banington, IL
60011; Phone: 708-381-6793; Fax: 708381-6849.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Architectural, Related Services;
Computer SoftwareCAD Systems; Consultants Finance, Management, Marketing, Sanitation, Site Location, Technical;
Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; Inventory Control; Maintenance
& Repair Products; Transportation
Services, Software.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 570, Edgefield, SC


29824; Phone: 803-637-3166; Fax: 803637-3046.
Products and Services: Heat Exchangers
Plate; Truck Refrigeration.

Kosempel Mfg. Company


Contact Data: " M " Street Below Erie Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19124; Phone: 215533-7110; Fax: 215-744-5220.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Powder; Cabinets Display/Refrigerated; Centrifuge Parts; Containers Metal; Cookers/Kettles
Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Drying
Equipment Drum/Rotary; Mixers
Batch; Rupture Discs; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/Solid; Tanks Storage.

Kraus & Company, Inc.


Contact Data: 21070 Coolidge Hwy., Oak
Park, MI 48237; Phone: 313-542-4737;
Fax:313-542-0412.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Coatings
Chocolate, Colors & Coloring Adjuncts,
Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl
Oil, Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural Spices, Flavor
Agents Nature Identical, Flavor Agents
Process/Rctn Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices,

Flavors Appl. Purees/ Toppings, Flavors


Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Paul Krohnert Manuf. Ltd.


Contact Data: 811 Steeles Ave., P.O. Box
126, Milton, Ontario, L9T 2Y3 Canada;
Phone: 416-878-4188; Fax: 416-878-3624.
Products and Services: Cookers/Kettles
Batch, Pressure, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Pharmaceutical EquipmentProcessing; Tanks Batch, Processing, Silo,
Storage.

Kusel Equipment Company


Contact Data: P.O. Box 87, Watertown, WI
53094; Phone: 414-261-4112; Fax: 414261-3151.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid/Powder; Case
Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cheese Making; Control/Control Systems Automation, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Microprocess, Pasteurization; Conveyors Accumulators, Unscramblers;
Custom Fabrication; Floor Plates & Drains;
Heat Exchangers Injection, Plate, Tubular; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies;
Molds Cheese Hoops/Molds; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous; Platforms,
Walkways & Stairs; Processing Systems;
Tank Heating Systems; Tanks Balance/
Surge; Washers Carton, Case; Weighing.

KVP Systems, Inc.


Contact Data: 11300 Trade Center Drive,
Rancho Cordova, CA 95742; Toll Free:
800-445-7898; Phone: 916-635-5151; Fax:
916-635-9682.
Products and Services: Belting; Conveyors
Accumulators, Belt, Chain, Roller,
Screw, Spiral.

KWW GmbH
Contact Data: Post Box 111240, Heerdter
Lohweg 63-71, Dusseldorf 11, D4000, Germany; Phone: 0211-5956187; Telex:
8587371; Fax: 0211-500345.

Products and Services: PumpsDiaphragm,


Sanitary.

Label Makers Inc.


Contact Data: 9151 W. Fullerton Avenue,
Franklin Park, 60131; Phone: 708-4511421; Fax: 708-451-1498.
Products and Services: Containers Cups
& Lids; Portion Control Equipment & Supplies; Printing Containers/Caps/Closures; Tamper Evident Foil Lidding.

Lake Process Systems, Inc.


Contact Data: 27W930 Commercial Ave.,
Barrington, IL 60010; Phone: 708-3817663; Fax: 708-381-7688.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid/Powder; Cleaning/
Sanitizing Manual & COP, Mechanical
& CIP; Consultants Sanitation; Control/
Control Systems Automation, CIP,
Computer Process, Environmental, Panel;
Custom Fabrication; Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies; Equipment Remanufactured; Floor Plates & Drains; Heat
Exchangers Scraped Surface; Ingredient
Feeders; Mixers Liquid, Static; Pumps
Centrifugal, Sanitary; TanksBalance/
Surge, Batch, Processing; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless; Valves Automatic, Sanitary.

Langer Manufacturing Company


Contact Data: 1025 7th Street, S.W., Cedar
Rapids, IA 52404; Phone: 319-362-1481;
Fax:319-364-7131.
Products and Services: Cases; Containers
Metal.

Lanmar Associates, Inc.


Contact Data: 1916 Raymond Drive, Northbrook, IL 60062; Phone: 708-564-5520;
Fax: 708-564-4682.
Products and Services: Conveyors Belt;
Tapes, Fabrics Industrial.

Lapeyre Stair, Inc.


Contact Data: 201 Laitram Lane, P.O. Box
50699, New Orleans, LA 70150; Toll Free:

800-535-7631; Phone: 504-733-6009; Fax:


504-733-4393.
Products and Services: Platforms, Walkways
& Stairs; Water Treatment Equipment.

Lauderdale Economic Development


Authority
Contact Data: P.O. Box 5493, Meridian, MS
39302; Phone: 601-693-1421; Fax: 601693-5638.
Products and Services: Industrial Development.

LCS Data Services, Inc.


Contact Data: 3211 Scott Blvd., Suite 104,
Santa Clara, CA 95054; Phone: 408-4920492; Fax: 408-492-0707.
Products and Services: None listed.

Leaf, Inc.
Contact Data: 2355 Waukegan Road, Bannockbum, IL 60015; Phone: 708-940-7500;
Fax: 708-940-0270.
Products and Services: Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Ingredients Baked
Products Cones, Baked Products
Cookies, Candies, Chocolate & Cocoa,
Coatings Chocolate, Coatings Confection, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors
Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl.
Dairy Products.

Lee Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 688, Philipsburg, PA
16866; Phone: 814-342-0461; Telex:
812386; Fax: 814-342-5660.
Products and Services: None listed.

Letica Corp.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 5005, Rochester, MI
48308-5005; Phone: 313-652-0557; Fax:
313-652-0577.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Containers Cups & Lids, Paperboard, Plastic; Packaging Systems; Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures; Recycling
EquipmentContainer Recovery; Tamper

Evident Foil Lidding; Thermo Form Fill


& Seal Plastic, Rigid.

John Lewis Industries, Ltd.


Contact Data: 10300 Ray Lawson Boulevard,
Anjou, Quebec, HlJ IMl Canada; Phone:
514-352-2950; Fax: 514-355-7616.
Products and Services: Spoons & Sticks
Wooden.

Limpert Brothers, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 520, Vineland, NJ
08360; Phone: 609-691-1353.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Chocolate & Cocoa, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Flavor
Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl
Oil, Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/Spices, Flavor
Agents Nature Identical, Flavor Agents
Process/Rctn Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products, Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate,
Fruits & Fruit Products, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Liqui-Box Corporation
Contact Data: 6950 Worthington-Galena
Road, Worthington, OH 43085; Phone:
614-888-9280; Telex: 245430; Fax: 614888-0982.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Bag-In-Box; Bottles Plastic Returnable,
Plastic Single Service; Capping & Closing
Supplies; Containers Plastic; Fillers
& Sealers Aseptic Containers, Bag-InBox, Flexible Package, Form-Fill-Seal;
Flexible Packaging; Packaging Systems;
Preformed Bags; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Liquid Sampling Systems


Contact Data: P.O. Box 165, Cedar Rapids,
IA 52406; Phone: 319-365-2259.

Products and Services: Inspection Equipment; Sampling Devices & Supplies.

Products and Services: Labeling Equipment


& Supplies; Labels & Label Supplies; Packaging Systems.

Liquid Scale, Inc.


Contact Data: 2033 Old Highway 8, New
Brighton, MN 55112; Phone: 612-6332969.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level; Inventory Control; Laboratory Equipment &
Supplies.

Liquid Solids Control, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 259, Upton, MA
01568; Phone: 508-529-3377; Telex:
948602; Fax: 508-529-6591.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Instruments
Analytical.

Arthur D. Little, Inc.


Contact Data: 15 Acorn Park, Cambridge,
MA 02140-2390; Phone: 617-864-5770;
Telex: 921436; Fax: 617-497-6852.
Products and Services: Consultants Management, Marketing, Packaging, Sanitation, Technical.

Lizardos Engineering Associates, PC


Contact Data: 1125 Willis Avenue, Albertson, NY11507; Phone: 516-484-1020; Fax:
516-484-0926.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Architects (Licensed/AIA); ConsultantsTechnical; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Environmental, Instrumnt/
Monitoring, Level; Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies, Plant; Environmental Control Aseptic Air, HVAC, Plate
Fin Coils, Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Heat Recovery Systems; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold Rooms, Mechanical, Storage.

Lord Label & Manufacturing Co.


Contact Data: 3435 West Madison Street,
Skokie, IL 60076; Toll Free: 800-5234736; Phone: 708-673-0039; Fax: 708-6735720.

Louisiana Plastics, Inc.


Contact Data: 11812 Borman Drive, St.
Louis, MO 63146-0837; Phone: 314-9972555; Fax: 314-997-7401.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Capping & Closing Supplies;
Cheese Packaging; Containers Cups &
Lids, Plastic; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Printing Containers/
Caps/Closures.

Lowe Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 180 Glenwood Mill Road,
Cadiz, KY 42211; Phone: 502-522-6696;
Fax: 502-522-7616.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid/Powder, Powder;
Mixers Batch, Solid.

Lumaco
Contact Data: 9-11 East Broadway, Hackensack, NJ 07601-6821; Toll Free: 800735-VALV; Phone: 201-342-5119; Fax:
201-342-8898.
Products and Services: Valves Automatic,
Sanitary.

Lumenite Electronic
Contact Data: 2331 North 17th Avenue,
Franklin Park, IL 60131; Phone: 708-4551450; Telex: 8003238510; Fax: 708-4550127.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrument/Monitoring, Pasteurization; Waste Treatment.

Lyons-Magnus
Contact Data: 1636 South Second Street,
Fresno, CA 93702; Phone: 209-268-5966;
Telex: 910-549-05; Fax: 209-233-8249.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents

Natural/Spices, Flavor Bases, Flavors


Appl. Bakery, FlavorsAppl. Dairy Products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Juices & ConcentratesBlends,
Juices & Concentrates Citrus, Juices &
Concentrates Fruit.

Exchangers Injection; Portion Control


Equipment & Supplies; Pumps Metering, Positive Displacement.

Marriott Walker Corp.

Contact Data: 3269 Bloor St. West, Suite


205, Toronto, Ontario, M8X 1E2 Canada;
Phone: 416-239-8423.
Products and Services: Publications.

Contact Data: 925 East Maple Road, Birmingham, MI 48009; Phone: 313-6446868; Fax: 313-642-1213.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Conveyors Air,
Screw; Drying Equipment Spray;
Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan,
Falling Film; Heat Exchangers Tubular;
Heat Recovery Systems.

Mammoth Containers*

Marwood Sales, Inc.

Contact Data: Div. Of Innopac, Box 727,


68 Warren Street, Glens Falls, NY
12801; Phone: 518-798-9511; Telex:
7104555114; Fax: 518-798-0260.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment; Containers Plastic; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Printing Containers/
Caps/Closures; Tamper Evident.

Contact Data: 310 Kansas Avenue, Kansas


City, KS 66105; Phone: 913-281-2882;
Fax:913-281-4311.
Products and Services: None listed.

Maccan Publishing Company Ltd.

Maran Groves Corp.


Contact Data: 10 Sarasota Center Boulevard,
Sarasota, FL 34240; Phone: 813-378-1794;
Fax: 813-377-4791.
Products and Services: Fruit.

Maselli Measurements, Inc.


Contact Data: 7746 Lorraine Avenue, Suite
201, Stockton, CA 95210; Phone: 209-4749178; Fax: 209-474-9241.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
EquipmentLiquid; Control/Control Systems Automation, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring; Instruments Analytical; Mixers Static.

Master-Bilt Products*
Marbo Inc.
Contact Data: 2425 W. Barry Avenue, Chicago, IL 60618; Phone: 312-296-0190; Fax:
312-296-0191.
Products and Services: Ingredients Juices
& Concentrates Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Marlen Research Corporation


Contact Data: 9202 Barton, Overland Park,
KS 66214-1721; Phone: 913-888-3333;
Telex: 42-6394; Fax: 913-888-6440.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators;
Aseptic Processing Equipment High
Acid, Low Acid; Butter Making & Packaging Equipment; Cheese Making; Heat

Contact Data: Div. Of Standex International,


Highway 15 North, Box 59, New Albany,
MS 38652; Phone: 601-534-9061; Telex:
53-3140; Fax: 601-534-6049.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Coolers & Proofers; Freezers Ice
Cream, Storage; Panels Structural; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold Rooms, Mechanical, Storage; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated.

Masterleo, Inc.
Contact Data: 6631 Commerce Parkway,
Suite M, Dublin, OH 43017; Phone: 614793.1444; Fax: 614-793-1807.

Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Level, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Installation & Start-Up
Services; Recording Devices; Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording.

The Masterson Company, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 691, Milwaukee, WI
53201-0691; Phone: 414-647-1132; Telex:
9102623114; Fax: X303.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate,
Coatings Confection, Coatings Protective, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Bases, Fruits & Fruit
Products.

McCormick Flavor Group


Contact Data: 3300 Century Circle, Irving,
TX 75062; Phone: 214-445-0344; Fax:
214-445-1039.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl
Oil, Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural Spices, Flavor
Agents Nature Identical, Flavor Agents
Process/Rctn Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices,
Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Vanilla & Vanillin.

McNeil Specialty Products Co.


Contact Data: 501 George Street, P.O. Box
2400, New Brunswick, NJ 08903-2400;
Phone: 908-524-6704; Fax: 908-524-6735.
Products and Services: Ingredients Sweeteners Non-Nutritive.

Mead & Hunt


Contact Data: 6501 Watts Road, Suite 101,
Madison, WI 53719-6391; Phone: 608273-6380; Fax: 608-372-6391.

Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/


AJA); Architectural, Related Services;
Construction Materials, Plant; Consultants Site Location, Technical; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies,
Plant; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold
Rooms, Mechanical, Storage; Turnkey Operations; Utilities; Waste Treatment; Water
Treatment.

Mead Packaging
Contact Data: A Div. Of The Mead Corporation
1040 West Marietta Street, Atlanta, GA
30318; Phone: 404-875-2711; Telex:
8107513383; Fax: 404-897-6383.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Packaging Systems.

Membrane System Specialists


Contact Data: P.O. Box 998, Wisconsin Rapids, WI54495-0998; Phone: 715-421-2333;
Fax:715-423-6181.
Products and Services: Complete Systems;
ConsultantsTechnical; Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration, Reverse Osmosis, Ultra Osmosis, Ultrafiltration; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/Liquid,
Liquid/Solid; Waste Treatent; Water Treatment; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

Meritech, Inc.
Contact Data: 8250 South Akron Street, Suite
202, Englewood, CO 80112; Phone: 303790-4670; Fax: 303-790-4859.
Products and Services: Standardization Systems.

Lucas Meyer, Inc.


Contact Data: 765 E. Pythian Avenue, Decatur, IL 62526; Phone: 217-875-3660;
Fax: 217-877-5046.
Products and Services: Ingredients Antioxidents, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts;
Instantizers/Agglomerators.

MGI Pumps Incorporated

MicroLog

Contact Data: P.O. Box 1426, Kenosha, WI


53141-1426; Phone: 414-942-0166; Fax:
414-942-0177.
Products and Services: Pumps Positive
Displacement, Sanitary.

Contact Data: 11994 Highway 49, Sonora,


CA 95370; Phone: 209-533-3561; Fax:
209-533-0200.
Products and Services: Computer Software;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
Computer Process, Environmental, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Microprocess,
Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Environmental Control HVAC; Humidity
Indicators & Controllers; Inspection Equipment; Instruments Analytical; PH Measurement & Control; Storage Frozen,
Refrigerated; Testing Laboratories; Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording;
Transportation Software; Truck Refrigeration.

David Michael & Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 10801 Decatur Road, Philadelphia, PA 19154; Phone: 215-632-3100;
Telex: 7106701014; Fax: 215-637-3920.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier
Salts, Fat Substitutes, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents
Natural Extracts, Flavor AgentsNatural Spices, Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavor Agents Process/Rctn Flvr,
Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors
Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery,
Flavors Appl. Confectionary, Flavors
Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors Appl.
Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/
Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit Products, Stabilizers
& Thickeners, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Contact Data: 2323 Sixth Street, P.O. Box


7007, Rockford, IL 61125; Phone: 815962-7020; Fax: 815-962-7360.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Filters Air, Liquid, Milk;
Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration.

Michael Fox Auctioneers, Inc.

Midwest Dairy Supply

Contact Data: 3835 Naylors Lane, Baltimore,


MD 21208; Phone: 410-253-4000; Fax:
410-653-4069.
Products and Services: Auctioneer.

Contact Data: 2217 River Front Road, Kansas City, MO 64120-1430; Phone: 800-3319335; Fax: 816-472-0088.
Products and Services: Brushes; Capping &
Closing Equipment; Cleaning/Sanitizing Chemicals, Hand Cleansers, Manual
& COP, Mechanical & CIP; Colloid Mills;
Filters Liquid, Milk; Fittings; Flow Meters Flow Control; Gaskets & Seals; Homogenizers; Hoses/Hose Assemblies;
Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Recording Devices; Strainers; Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording; Tubing/Pipe Flexible, NonMetallic, Stainless; Valves Sanitary.

Michigan Milk Producers Assn.


Contact Data: 41310 Bridge Street, Novi, MI
48375-1302; Phone: 313-474-6672; Fax:
313-442-5695.
Products and Services: Ingredients Fats &
Oils, Firming Agents, Proteins Animal.

Micro Motion, Inc.


Contact Data: 7070 Winchester Circle, Boulder, CO 80301; Phone: 303-530-8533;
Telex: 450034; Fax: 303-530-8188.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
EquipmentLiquid; Flow MetersFlow
Control; Meters Fluid, Sanitary; Weighing.

MicroPure Filtration

Millerbernd Design & Fabrication


Contact Data: 330 6th Street, South, P.O. Box
37, Winsted, MN 55395; Phone: 612-4852685; Fax: 612-485-3900.

Products and Services: Cheese Cutters;


Cleaning/Sanitizing Manual & COP,
Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems;
Containers Metal; Conveyors Air,
Belt, Roller; Cookers/Kettles Batch;
Custom Fabrication; Dollies & Carts;
Drying Equipment Drum/Rotary; Electrical Enclosures; Mixers Batch; Molds
Cheese Hoops/Molds; Platforms, Walkways & Stairs; Recording Devices; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Batch, Farm, Processing, Storage; Washers Equipment;
Welding Equipment.

Milliken Packaging
Contact Data: P.O. Box 736, White Stone,
SC 29386; Phone: 803-474-2224; Fax: 803474-2228.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy;
Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup,
Tube; Portion Control Equipment & Supplies; Wrapping Material Foils, Paper.

Minigrip/Zip-Pak Inc.
Contact Data: 1955 Raymond Drive, Suite
107, Northbrook, IL 60062; Phone: 708480-5770; Fax: 708-480-5774.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Cheese Packaging; Flexible
Packaging; Packaging Systems; Preformed
Bags; Tamper Evident Closures; Wrapping Material Films, Laminates.

Minnesota Valley Testing Labs.


Contact Data: 1126 N. Front Street, New
UIm, MN 56073; Phone: 507-354-8517;
Fax: 507-359-2890.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection;
Bacterial Detection; Laboratory Analysis &
Testing Services.

Miura Boiler Co., Ltd.


Contact Data: 8 Copernicus Boulevard,
Brantford, Ontario, N3P 1Y4 Canada;
Phone: 519-758-8111; Fax: 519-758-5294.
Products and Services: Boilers; Water Treatment Equipment.

Milltronics, Inc.
Contact Data: 709 Stadium Drive, Arlington,
TX 76011; Phone: 817-277-3543; Fax:
817-277-3894.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level; Flow Meters Flow Control;
Inventory Control; Processing Systems;
Weighing.

Milne Fruit Products


Contact Data: 804 Bennett Avenue, Prosser,
WA 99350; Phone: 509-786-2611; Fax:
509-786-1724.
Products and Services: Ingredients Fruits
& Fruit Products, Juices & Concentrates
Blends, Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Milprint Inc.
Contact Data: 9045 N. Deerwood Drive, Milwaukee, WI53223; Phone: 414-354-9010;
Fax: 414-354-9066.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Preformed Bags.

Modern Packaging, Inc.


Contact Data: 45 Jefryn Boulevard West,
Deer Park, NY 11729; Phone: 516-5952437; Fax: 516-595-2742.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Equipment; Cheese Packaging; Fillers
& Sealers; Packaging Systems; Tamper Evident Foil Lidding, Shrink Sleeve.

Moen Industries
Contact Data: 12333 East Los Nietos Rd.,
Santa Fe Spring, CA 90670; Phone: 310946-6381; Fax: 310-946-3200.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal;
Packaging Systems; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Moisture Systems Corp.


Contact Data: 117 South Street, Hopkinton,
MA 01748; Phone: 508-435-6881. Telex:
951599; Fax: 508-435-6677.

Products and Services: Instruments Analytical.

Mollers North America, Inc.


Contact Data: 5215 52nd Street, S. E., Grand
Rapids, MI 49512; Phone: 616-942-6504;
Fax: 616-942-8825.
Products and Services: None listed.

Mondomix Holland B. V.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 98, 1394 ZH Nederhorst, Nederhorst den Berg, The Netherlands; Phone: (31)29454444*; Telex:
12454 MOND; Fax: (31)2945-3099.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Aseptic
Processing Equipment High Acid, Low
Acid; Blending & Batching Equipment
Liquid, Liquid/Powder; Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Cheese Making;
Cookers/Kettles Continuous; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube;
Heat Exchangers Scraped Surface; Ingredient Feeders; Laboratory Equipment &
Supplies; Mixers Batch, Continuous,
Liquid, Static.

Monitor Manufacturing
Contact Data: 44W320 Keslinger Road, P.O.
Drawer AL, Elburn, IL 60119; Phone: 708365-9403; Telex: 72-0437.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level; Weighing.

Raymond Morin USA9 Inc.


Contact Data: 191 Post Road West, Westport,
CT 06880; Phone: 203-221-2662; Telex:
249168; Fax: 203-221-1254.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Containers Lids; Printing Containers/
Caps/Closures.

Paul Mueller Company


Contact Data: P.O. Box 828, Springfield, MO
65801; Phone: 417-831-3000; Telex: 436427; Fax: 417-863-1726.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;

Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,


Liquid/Powder, Powder; Chillers; Cookers/
Kettles Batch, Pressure; Custom Fabrication; Dollies & Carts; Equipment Repair; Evaporators & Vacuum Pans Plate;
Heat Exchangers Plate, Tubular; Heat
Recovery Systems; Mixers Batch; Pasteurizers Batch, HTST/Continuous; Refrigeration Storage; Tanks Batch,
Farm, Processing, Silo, Storage; Whey
Processing Equipment & Services.

Murphy Manufacturing Co.


Contact Data: 2000 Airport Road, P.O. Box
2009, Wilson, NC 27894-2009; Toll Free:
800-334-2298; Phone: 919-291-2191; Fax:
919-291-9183.
Products and Services: Refrigeration Mechanical; Truck Bodies & Trailers, Refrigeration.

Murzan, Inc.
Contact Data: 2909 Langford Road, 1-700,
Norcross, GA 30071; Phone: 404-4480583; Fax: 404-448-0967.
Products and Services: PumpsDiaphragm,
Sanitary.

NASCO International, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 901, 901 Janesville
Avenue, Fort Atkinson, WI 53538-0901;
Phone: 414-563-2446; Telex: 26-5476;
Fax: 414-563-0234.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Containers Plastic; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies; Sampling Devices & Supplies; Spoons & Sticks Plastic.

National Dipper Magazine


Contact Data: 1850 Oak Street, Northfield,
IL 60093; Phone: 708-446-8434; Fax: 708446-3523.
Products and Services: Publications.

The National Food Laboratory, Inc.


Contact Data: 6363 Clark Avenue, P.O. Box
2277, Dublin, CA 94568; Phone: 510-8281440; Fax: 510-833-8795.

Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;


Consultants Packaging, Sanitation,
Technical; Custom Development Food;
Laboratory Analysis & Testing Services;
Sensory Evaluation; Testing Laboratories.

National Stabilizers, Inc.


Contact Data: 1846 Business Center Drive,
Duarte, CA 91010; Phone: 818-359-4584.
Products and Services: Ingredients Bulking Agents, Dough Conditioners, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts, Processing Aids,
Proteins Vegetable, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Sweeteners Non-Nutritive, Texturizers.

Valves Sanitary; Wrapping Material


Films.

Neos, Inc.
Contact Data: 12797 Meadowvale Road,
Suite B, Elk River, MN 55330; Phone: 612441-0705; Fax: 612-441-0798.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Supplies; Cheese Packaging; Conveyors Belt, Chain; Custom
Fabrication; Frozen Desserts Pkg.Dairy,
Non-Dairy; Packaging Systems; Vending
Equipment, Retail.

Nestle Dairy Systems


natra US, Inc.
Contact Data: 1390 S. Dixie Hwy., Suite
2210, Coral Gables, FL 33146; Phone: 305663-3527; Telex: 4976506; Fax: 305-6621361.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Cocoa Powder, Blended, Fats & Oils.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 1819, Columbus,


OH 43216; Phone: 614-294-4931; Telex:
4333080; Fax: 614-299-0538.
Products and Services: Containers Plastic;
Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; License Programs; Portion Control Equipment & Supplies.

Netzsch Inc.
Navarro Pecan Co., Inc.
Contact Data: 2131 Hwy. 31 East, P.O. Box
147, Corsicana, TX 75110; Phone: 903872-2546; Fax: 903-874-7143.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.

Contact Data: 119 Pickering Way, Exton, PA


19341-1393; Phone: 215-363-8010; Fax:
215-363-0971.
Products and Services: Pumps Metering,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

Nelson-Jameson, Inc.

M. G. Newell Company, Inc.

Contact Data: 2400 E. 5th Street, P.O. Box


647, Marshfield, WI 54449; Phone: 715387-1151; Fax: 715-387-8746.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection;
Bacterial Detection; Brushes; Cheese Cutters; Cleaning/Sanitizing Chemicals;
Clothing & Uniforms; Filters Milk; Fittings; Flexible Packaging; Gaskets & Seals;
Hoses/Hose Assemblies; Ingredients
Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Enzymes, Lubricants & Release Agents, Preservatives;
Instruments Analytical; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies; PH Measurement
& Control; Pallets; Preformed Bags; Pumps
Sanitary; Thermometers NonRecording; Tubing/Pipe Stainless;

Contact Data: P.O. Box 20508, Greensboro,


NC 27420-0508; Phone: 919-272-0154;
Fax: 919-272-3656.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid/Powder; Centrifuges;
Chillers; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control SystemsAutomation, Level; Conveyors Chain;
Cookers/Kettles Batch; Engineering
Services Plant; Filters Liquid; Heat
Exchangers Plate, Scraped Surface; Homogenizers; Ice Making/Building Equipment; Installation & Start-Up Services;
Meters Sanitary; Mixers Batch; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous; Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing; Pumps

Sanitary; Standardization Systems;


Tanks Processing, Storage; Thermometers Recording; Valves Sanitary.

tems; Valves Powder; Whey Processing


Equipment & Services.

Nog Incorporated
Newman Sanitary Gasket Company
Contact Data: 964 West Main Street, Lebanon, OH 45036; Phone: 513-932-7379;
Fax:513-932-4493.
Products and Services: Gaskets & Seals.

Nielsen-Massey Vanillas, Inc.


Contact Data: 1550 Shields Drive, Waukeegan, IL 60085; Phone: 708-578-1550; Fax:
708-578-1570.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary, Flavors
Appl. Dairy Products, Vanilla & Vanillin.

NIMCO Corp.
Contact Data: 4012A Route 14, P.O. Box J,
Crystal Lake, IL 60014; Phone: 815-4594200; Telex: 722425; Fax: 815-459-8119.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Consultants Packaging;
ContainersPaperboard; Fillers & Sealers
Form-Fill-Seal, Paper Containers; Packaging Systems; Portion Control Equipment
& Supplies; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Niro Hudson, Inc.


Contact Data: 1600 County Road F, Hudson,
WI54016; Phone: 715-386-9371; Fax: 715386-9376.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems; Consultants Technical; Conveyors Air,
Screw, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication;
Drying Equipment Fluid Bed, Spray;
Freezers Continuous; Heat Exchangers
Scraped Surface, Tubular; Heat Recovery Systems; Homogenizers; Instantizers/
Agglomerates; Membrane Processing
Eqpt Microfiltration, Reverse Osmosis,
Ultra Osmosis, Ultrafiitration; Mixers
Solid; Packaging Systems; Processing Sys-

Contact Data: 99 West Fourth Street, P.O.


Box 162, Dunkirk, NY 14048; Toll Free:
800-332-2664; Phone: 716-366-3322; Fax:
716-366-8487.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Coatings
Confection, Cocoa Powder, Blended,
Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural,
Flavor Agents Natural/Spices, Flavor
Agents Nature Identical, Flavor Agents
Process/Rctn Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices,
Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Juices & Concentrates Fruit,
Vanilla & Vanillin.

Norand Corporation
Contact Data: 550 2nd Street, S. E., Cedar
Rapids, IA 52401; Phone: 319-369-3100;
Telex: 9105251359; Fax: 319-369-3453.
Products and Services: Computer Hardware;
Computer Software; Inventory Control;
Warehouse Systems.

North Atlantic Equipment Sales


Contact Data: P.O. Box 619, Route 376,
Wappinger Falls, NY 12590; Phone: 914221-2201; Fax: 914-227-7795.
Products and Services: EquipmentRepair;
Instruments Analytical; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies; Sampling Devices
& Supplies; Standardization Systems.

Northern Eng. & Plastics Corp.


Contact Data: (NEPCO), 1902 New Butler
Road, P.O. Box 7259, New Castle, PA
16107; Phone: 412-658-9019; Fax: 412658-0212.

Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Single Service; Capping & Closing Equipment, Supplies; Containers Plastic;
Tamper Evident.

Products and Services: Complete Systems;


Computer Software; Control/Control Systems Automation, Computer Process;
Inventory Control.

Northfield Freezing Systems, Inc.

NuTemp, Inc.

Contact Data: 1325 Armstrong Road, P.O.


Box 98, Northfield, MN 55057; Phone:
507-645-9546; Fax: 507-645-6148.
Products and Services: Chillers; Conveyors
Spiral; Coolers & Proofers; Freezers
Continuous, Ice Cream, Processing/Hardening; Refrigeration Mechanical.

Northland Process Piping


Contact Data: Route 1, Box 164 D, Isle, MN
56342; Phone: 612-679-2119; Fax: 612679-2785.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Fittings; Heat Exchangers Tubular; Installation & Start-Up Services; Pasteurizers
HTST/Continuous; Platforms, Walkways & Stairs; Pumps Sanitary; Tanks
Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Utilities; Valves
Sanitary; Welding Equipment.

Nu-Con Equipment

Contact Data: 3348 S. Pulaski Road, Chicago, IL 60623; Phone: 312-847-2220; Fax:
312-847-7330.
Products and Services: Chillers; Environmental Control HVAC, Plate Fin Coils,
Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Equipment Leasing, Remanufactured; Ice Making/Building
Equipment; Refrigeration Buildings,
Cold Rooms, Mechanical.

The NutraSweet Company


Contact Data: 1751 Lake Cook Road, Box
730, Deerfield, IL 60015; Phone: 708-9409800; Telex: 240330; Fax: 708-405-7812.
Products and Services: Cheese Cutters;
Cheese Making; Cheese Packaging; Consultants Marketing, PR/Advertising;
Freezers Ice Cream; Frozen Desserts
Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Ingredients
Baked Products Cookies, Beverage &
Beverage Bases, Bulking Agents, Fat Substitutes, Fats & Oils, Proteins Animal,
Proteins Vegetable, Sweeteners NonNutritive, Sweeteners Nutritive; Pasteurizers Dairy; Whey Processing
Equipment & Services; Wholesaler/
Dstrbtr, Ice Cream & Frzn Novelties.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 5010,619 14th Avenue South, Hopkins, MN 55343; Phone:
612-939-0510; Fax: 612-933-4208.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Blending & Batching Equipment Powder;
Complete Systems; Conveyors Air,
Screw, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Filters Air; Ingredient Feeders; Installation
& Start-Up Services; Pharmaceutical
Equipment Processing; Processing Systems; Pumps Positive Displacement;
Screens, Cylindrical/Screen Plate Products;
Tanks Silo; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Powder, Sanitary; Whey Processing Equipment & Services.

Contact Data: 121 South Street, Elmwood,


CT 06110; Phone: 203-953-6015; Fax: 203953-4294.
Products and Services: Ingredients Colors
& Coloring Adjuncts, Flavor AgentsArtificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Extracts, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Numeric Computer Systems

Oakes & Burger of Ohio, Inc.

Contact Data: 1025 Atlantic Avenue, Baldwin, NY 11510; Phone: 516-223-6644;


Fax:516-223-6092.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 665, 704 Warren


Avenue, Niles, OH 44446; Phone: 216-6526876; Fax: 216-652-2617.

O.S.F. Corporation

Products and Services: Centrifuges; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Colloid Mills; Complete Systems; Control/
Control Systems Automation, CIP,
Level, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Flow Meters Flow Control; Heat
Exchangers Plate; Homogenizers; Hose/
Hose Assemblies; Installation & Start-Up
Services; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous; Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Recording Devices; Tanks Processing, Silo;
Tubing/PipeStainless; WashersCase.

Odenberg Engineering Inc.


Contact Data: 6890 Luther Drive, Suite E,
Sacramento, CA 95323; Phone: 916-4228396; Fax: 916-422-8401.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cheese Making; Cheese Packaging; Chillers; Consultants Technical;
Ingredients Antoxidents; Packaging
Systems; Refrigeration Storage; Weighing.

Products and Services: Cholesterol Reduction & Fat Modification Tech; Custom Development Food; Ingredients Fats &
Oils, Formulation Aids, Nutrient Supplements; License Programs.

On-Line Instrumentation Inc.


Contact Data: Route 376, P.O. Box 541,
Hopewell Junction, NY12533; Phone: 914226-4453; Telex: 263697; Fax: 914-2212271.
Products and Services: Centrifuge Parts; Centrifuges; Heat Exchangers Plate; Homogenizers; Separators & ClarifiersLiquid/Liquid; Standardization Systems;
Valves Automatic.

Oracle Packaging, Inc.


Contact Data: 4949 Stickney Avenue, Toledo, OH 43612, Phone: 419-729-9771,
Fax: 419-729-9773.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Containers Paperboard.

Orange-co of Florida, Inc.


The Omega Company
Contact Data: 1520 Creston Park Drive,
Janesville, WI 53545; Phone: 608-7548354; Fax: 608-754-8693.
Products and Services: Consultants: Air Systems, Control Systems, Conveyors, Equipment Purchasing, Feasibility Studies, Process Design, Project Management, Sanitation, Site Location, Standardizing Systems,
Wastewater Abatement.

Omega Design Corp.


Contact Data: 211 Philips Road, Lionville,
PA 19353; Phone: 215-363-6555; Fax: 215524-7398.
Products and Services: Conveyors Unscramblers; Packaging Systems; Wrapping
Equipment.

The OmegaSource Corporation


Contact Data: 12235 Nicollet Avenue South,
Bumsville, MN 55337; Phone: 612-8906366; Fax: 612-890-5748.

Contact Data:?.O. Box 2158,2020 Highway


17 South, Bartow, FL 33830; Phone: 813533-0551; Fax: 813-533-0833.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents
Natural/Extracts, Juices & Concentrates
Blends, Juices & ConcentratesCitrus,
Juices & Concentrates Fruit.

Osgood Industries Inc.


Contact Data: 601 Burbank Road, Oldsmar,
FL 34677; Phone: 813-855-7337; Fax: 813855-3068.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Capping & Closing
Equipment; ConsulantsPackaging; Custom Fabrication; Equipment Remanufactured, Repair, Fillers & Sealers Flexible Package, Paper Containers, Plastic preFormed Contnrs; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty
Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube, Extrusion; Packaging Systems; Portion Control Equipment

& Supplies; Pumps Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Sealers & Carton Closures;
Tamper Evident Equipment; Turnkey
Operations.

Osmonics, Inc.
Contact Data: 5951 Clearwater Drive, Minnetonka, MN 55343-8990; Phone: 800848-1750; Telex: 29-0847; Fax: 612-9330141.
Products and Services: Filters Air, Liquid;
Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Product Recovery Equipment; Pumps
Centrifugal; Separators & Clarifiers
Liquid/Liquid, Liquid/Solid; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment; Whey Processing
Equipment & Services.

Owens-Illinois, Inc.
Contact Data: Label & Foam Product, Operation, One Seagate21 OSG, Toledo, OH
43666; Phone: 800-537-3488; Fax: 419247-1551.
Products and Services: BottlesGlass; Capping & Closing Supplies; Labels & Label Supplies; Tamper Evident Shrink
Sleeve.

P.I. Dynaseal
Contact Data: P.O. Box 669, Athens, TN
37303; Phone: 615-745-2652; Fax: 615745-7039.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Supplies; Tamper Evident.

Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Pressure, Temperature; Humidity Indicators & Controllers; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies; Recording Devices;
Thermometers Non-Recording, Recording.

Paratherm Corporation
Contact Data: 1050 Col well Road, Conshohocken, PA 19428; Toll Free: 800-2223611; Phone: 215-941-4900; Fax: 215-9419191.
Products and Services: Heat Transfer Fluid,
Food Grade.

Parish Manufacturing, Inc.


Contact Data: 7430 New Augusta Road, P.O.
Box 68105, Indianapolis, IN 46268; Phone:
317-872-0172; Fax: 317-872-1242.
Products and Services: Bag-In-Box; Containers Plastic; Fillers & Sealers BagIn-Box; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy,
Non-Dairy; Labeling Equipment & Supplies; Preformed Bags.

Parker Products, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 9335, Fort Worth,
TX 76147; Phone: 817-336-7441; Fax:
817-877-1261.
Products and Services: None listed.

The Partlow Corp.

Contact Data: 2200 Northern Boulevard, East


Hills, NY 11548; Phone: 516-484-5400;
Telex: 968855; Fax: 516-484-5228.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Filters Air, Liquid,
Milk; Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration; Water Treatment.

Contact Data: 2 Campion Road, New Hartford, NY 13413; Phone: 315-797-2222;


Telex: 937428; Fax: 315-797-0403.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control
Systems CIP, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Microprocess, Pasteurization, Pressure,
Temperature; Flow Meters Flow Control; Recording Devices; Tanks Farm,
Storage; ThermometersNon-Recording,
Recording.

Palmer Instruments, Inc.

Patterson Fan Co.

Contact Data: 234 Weaverville Hwy., AsheviUe, NC 28804; Phone: 704-658-3131;


Fax: 704-658-0728.

Contact Data: 408 N. Springs Road, Columbia, SC 29223; Phone: 803-699-0784; Fax:
803-736-3341.

Pall Corporation

Products and Services: Environmental Control HVAC, Proc. Cool/Heat Air.

Phone: 800-231-1212; Telex: 492303; Fax:


713-244-3130.
Products and Services: Resins.

Paxon Polymer Company


Contact Data: 12875 Scenic Hwy., P.O. Box
53006; Baton Rouge, LA 70892-3006;
Phone: 504-775-4330; Telex: 5109933155;
Fax:X461.
Products and Services: Resins.

Pecan Deluxe Candy Company Inc.


Contact Data: 306 W. Davis Street, Dallas,
TX 75208; Phone: 214-942-3669; Fax:
214-942-6748.
Products and Services: Ingredients Candies, Coatings Protective, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor AgentsNatural, Flavor Bases, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl.
Sauce & Variegate, Nuts.

Penberthy
Contact Data: 320 Locust Street, Prophetstown, IL 61277; Phone: 815-537-2311;
Telex: 257339; Fax: 815-537-5764.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Manual & COP,
Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control Systems Level; Heat Exchangers Injection; Mixers Liquid; Pumps Sanitary,
Vacuum; Sight Gauges; WashersEquipment.

Perten Instruments N. America, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 7398, Reno, NV
89510; Phone: 702-829-8199; Fax: 702829-8196.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Instrumnt/Monitoring; Inspection
Equipment; Instruments Analytical;
Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Phillips 66 Company
Contact Data: A Div of Phillips Petroleum
Co., P.O. Box 792, Pasadena, TX 77501;

Pick Heaters, Inc.


Contact Data: 730 Indiana Avenue, P.O. Box
516, West Bend, WI 53095; Phone: 414338-1191; Fax: 414-338-8489.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Cookers/Kettles
Continuous; Heat Exchangers Injection.

Plastican Inc.
Contact Data: 196 Industrial Road, P.O. Box
868, Leominster, MA 01453; Phone: 508537-4911; Fax: 508-537-6376.
Products and Services: None listed.

Plastics USA Corporation


Contact Data: 1500 West Grand River, P.O.
Box 330, Williamston, MI 48895; Phone:
517-655-4651; Fax: 517-655-1343.
Products and Services: Blow Molding Equipment.

Polar Container Corporation


Contact Data: 5259 Rose Street, Rosemont,
IL 60018; Phone: 708-671-6080; Fax: 708671-7321.
Products and Services: EquipmentRepair.

Polar Industries
Contact Data: 5626 Southwestern Boulevard,
Baltimore, MD 21227; Phone: 410-5660852; Fax: 410-247-3248.
Products and Services: Cabinets Storage/
Frozen; Containers Insulated, Plastic.

Polar Tech Industries


Contact Data: 210 Corporate Drive, Elgin, IL
60123; Phone: 708-697-1400; Fax: 708697-0004.
Products and Services: Boxes; Cabinets
Storage/Frozen; Consultants Packaging;
Containers Insulated; Custom Fabrication; Freezers Storage; Labeling Equipment & Supplies; Labels & Label Supplies;

Packaging Systems; Refrigeration Storage; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Polypack Inc.
Contact Data: 10650 72nd Street, North,
Bldg. 402, Largo, FL 34647; Phone: 813546-5761; Fax: 813-544-4165.
Products and Services: Packaging Systems;
Wrapping Equipment.

Polytainers, Inc.
Contact Data: 1400 N. Douglas, Lee's Summit, MO 64063; Phone: 816-246-6100;
Fax: 816-246-4897.
Products and Services: Containers Cups
& Lids, Plastic.

Popsicle Industries Ltd.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 610, 5305 Fairview
Street, Burlington, Ontario, L7R 3Y5 Canada; Phone: 416-681-1103; Fax: 416-6810133.
Products and Services: Equipment Leasing; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Slice/
Sandwich; Ingredients Baked Products
Cookies, Baked Products Wafers,
Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, CoatingsConfection, Flavor Agents
& Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial,
Flavor AgentsNatural, Flavor Agents
Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Bases, Flavors
Appl. Dairy Products, Stabilizers & Thickeners.

Duane D. Poulterer Corporation


Contact Data: 21 Toft Woods Way, Media,
PA 19063; Phone: 215-565-9066.
Products and Services: Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Molding.

Precision Stainless, Inc.


Contact Data:?.O. Box 668, Springfield, MO
65801; Phone: 417-865-2990; Fax: 417865-0906.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cookers/Kettles Batch, Pressure, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication; Mixers
Batch, Liquid; Pasteurizers Batch; Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing;
Tanks Processing, Silo, Storage.

Premier Juices, Inc.


Contact Data: 13902 North Dale Mabry,
Tampa, FL 33618; Phone: 813-960-0671;
Fax: 813-968-1797.
Products and Services: Ingredients Juices
& Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates Citrus, Juices & Concentrates
Fruit.

Prepared Foods Magazine


Contact Data: Delta Communications, 8750
West Bryn Mawr Ave., Chicago, IL 60631;
Phone: 312-693-3200; Fax: 312-693-0568.
Products and Services: Publications.

Process Automation Engineering, Inc


Portion Packaging, Inc.
Contact Data: 2558 Pearl Buck Road, Bristol,
PA 19007; Phone: 800-841-2600; Telex:
270091; Fax: 215-785-1965.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Containers Cups
& Lids, Plastic; Fillers & Sealers Plastic
Pre-Formed Contnrs; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube; Packaging
Systems; Portion Control Equipment &
Supplies; PrintingContainers/Caps/Closures; Pumps Positive Displacement;
Thermo Form Fill & Seal Plastic;
Turnkey Operations.

Contact Data: 837 E. Walnut, P.O. Box 848,


Grapevine, TX 76051-0848; Phone: 817488-9546; Fax: 817-488-3042.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid/Powder; Control/
Control Systems Computer Process.

Process Dynamics, Inc.


Contact Data: 7615 Rupp Road, P.O. Box
19388, Charlotte, NC 28219; Phone: 704394-9466; Fax: 704-394-9476.
Products and Services: Buildings Storage;
Complete Systems; Consultants Technical; Control/Control SystemsEnviron-

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mental; Flow Meters Flow Control;
Pumps Centrifugal, Diaphragm, Metering, Positive Displacement; Recording Devices; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/
Solid; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment.

Processing Machinery & Supply


Contact Data: 1108 Frankford Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19125; Phone: 215-425-4320;
Fax: 215-426-2034.
Products and Services: Freezers Ice
Cream; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt
Cone, Cup, Tube, Extrusion, Molding,
Slice/Sandwich; Homogenizers; Ingredient
Feeders.

Promega Corp.
Contact Data: 2800 Woods Hollow Road,
Madison, WI 53711-5399; Phone: 608274-4330; Telex: 62057092; Fax: 608-2736967.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Instruments Analytical.

PSI, Process Systems Inc.


Contact Data: 1790 Kirby Parkway, Suite
300, Memphis, TN 38138; Phone: 901-7568250; Fax: 901-756-8253.
Products and Services: ConstructionPlant,
Turnkey Operations; Consultants Technical; Control/Control Systems Automation, Computer Process; Custom Fabrication; Engineering Services Feasibility
Studies, Plant; Installation & Start-Up
Services; Processing Systems; Tanks
Processing, Storage; Turnkey Operations.

Phone: 705-743-4733; Telex: 06962814;


Fax: 705-743-4798.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Bagging Equipment &
Supplies; Box/Carton Forming Equipment;
Butter Making & Packaging Equipment;
Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Complete Systems; Containers Cups & Lids,
Plastic; Conveyors Belt, Chain; Fillers
& Sealers; Packaging Systems; Portion
Control Equipment & Supplies; Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures; Sealers & Carton Closures; Tamper Evident Foil Lidding.

The Putman Food Group


Contact Data: Putman Publishing Co., 301 E.
Erie Street, Chicago, IL 60611; Phone: 312644-2020; Fax: 312-644-7870.
Products and Services: Advertising; Consultants Marketing, PR/Advertising; Publications.

Quality Closures & Packaging Div.


Contact Data: Quality Plastic Co., Inc., 411
South Jefferson, Mexico, MO 65265;
Phone: 314-581-7780; Fax: 314-581-1230.
Products and Services: Capping & Closing
Supplies; Containers Cups & Lids.

Quantum Chemical Corp.


Contact Data: USI Division, 11500 Northlake Drive, P.O. Box 429550, Cincinnati,
OH 45249; Phone: 513-530-6573; Telex:
275222.
Products and Services: Resins.

Pure-Pak, Inc.
Contact Data: 30000 South Hill Road, P.O.
Box S, New Hudson, MI 48165; Phone:
313-486-4600; Fax: 313-486-4601.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; ContainersPaperboard; Fillers & Sealers Paper Containers; Packaging Systems; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Purity Packaging, Ltd.


Contact Data: 25 Aylmer Street, Box 209,
Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 6Y8 Canada;

Quest International,
Byproducts Group
Contact Data: P.O. Box 3917, 1833 57th
Street, Sarasota, FL 34230; Phone: 813355-8561; Fax: 813-355-3387.
Products and Services: Ingredients Colors
& Coloring Adjuncts, Cultures, Emulsifiers
& Emulsifier Salts, Enzymes, Fat Substitutes, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Stabilizers & Thickeners.

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Quest International Flavors, Inc.

Rehrig Pacific Company

Contact Data: 10 Painters Mill Road, Owings


Mills, MD 21117; Phone: 410-363-2550;
Fax:410-363-0281.
Products and Services: Ingredients Colors
& Coloring Adjuncts, Cultures, Fat Substitutes, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/Spices,
Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavors
Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products,
Flavors Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors
Appl. Purees/Toppings, Fruits & Fruit
Products.

Contact Data: 4010 East 26th Street, Los Angeles, CA 90023; Toll Free: 800-421-6244;
Phone: 213-262-5145; Telex: 69-1240;
Fax:213-269-8506.
Products and Services: Cases.

Radiometer America, Inc.


Contact Data: 811 Sharon Drive, Westlake,
OH 44145; Phone: 216-871-8900; Fax:
216-835-8118.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Laboratory Analysis & Testing Services;
Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Ramsey Laboratories, Inc.


Contact Data: 2742 Grand Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44104; Phone: 216-791-9200;
Telex: 985636.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Flavor Agents Artificial,
Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor Bases,
Flavor Enhancers, Fruits & Fruit Products,
Stabilizers & Thickeners.

Rath Manufacturing Co., Inc.

Relco Unisystems Corporation


Contact Data: 517 East Benson Avenue,
Willmar, MN 56201; Phone: 612-2312210; Fax: 612-231-2282.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
CIP, Computer Process, Panel, Pasteurization; Custom Fabrication; Doors; Drying
Equipment Fluid Bed, Spray; Electrial
Enclosures; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies; Equipment Repair; Heat
Exchangers Tubular; Installation &
Start-Up Services; Processing Systems;
Standardization Systems; Tanks Balance/Surge, Processing, Storage; Turnkey
Operations; Utilities; Welding Equipment;
Whey Processing Equipment & Services.

Reliance Electric Company


Contact Data: 24701 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44117; Phone: 216-266-7000;
Fax: 216-266-7095.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, Microprocess; Motors
& Accessories; Power Transmission Equipment.

Remco Products Corporation

Contact Data: P.O. Box 389, Janesville, WI


53547; Phone: 608-754-2222; Fax: 608754-0889.
Products and Services: Tubing/PipeStainless; Welding Equipment.

Contact Data: 4735 West 106 Street, P.O.


Box 698, Zionsville, IN 46077; Phone: 317876-9856; Fax: 317-876-9858.
Products and Services: Brushes; Containers
Plastic; Dollies & Carts; Hand Tools;
Retorts.

Refrigiwear, Inc.

Remy L.C.

Contact Data: 71 Inip Drive, Inwood, NY


11696-9892; Toll Free: 800-645-3744;
Phone: 516-239-7022; Telex: 4974419;
Fax:516-239-7235.
Products and Services: Clothing & Uniforms.

Contact Data: 966 Hungerford Drive, Suite


32-B, Rockville, MD 20850; Phone: 301762-9741; Fax: 301-762-9744.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing

Equipment Low Acid; Box/Carton


Forming Equipment; Capping & Closing
Equipment; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cases; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen
Desserts Pkg. Dairy; Portion Control
Equipment & Supplies; Sealers & Carton
Closures.

Repete Corp.
Contact Data: W226 N6283 Village Drive,
Sussex, WI 53089; Phone: 414-246-4541;
Fax:414-246-7166.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Powder; Computer Software; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Panel; Weighing.

Resource Optimization, Inc.


Contact Data: 531 S. Gay Street, Suite 1212,
Knoxville, TN 37902-1520; Phone: 615522-2211; Fax: 615-522-7907.
Products and Services: Computer Software.

Rhawn Enterprises, Inc.


Contact Data: 418 Knightsbridge Road,
Louisville, KY 40206; Phone: 502-8935654; Fax: 502-893-5798.
Products and Services: Consultants Finance.

Rhone Poulenc/Marschall Products


Contact Data: P.O. Box 592, Madison, WI
53701; Phone: 608-231-1888; Fax: 608231-2443.
Products and Services: Cheese Making; Ingredients Colors & Coloring Adjuncts,
Culture Media, Cultures, Enzymes, Flavor
Enhancers, Stabilizers & Thickeners.

Rich Products Corp.


Contact Data: 1150 Niagara Street, Buffalo,
NY 14240; Phone: 716-878-8000; Telex:
7105221840; Fax: 716-878-8238.
Products and Services: Ingredients Dough
Conditioners, Flavor Agents Natural,

Flavor Bases, Fruits & Fruit Products, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Rio Linda Chemical


Contact Data: 410 North 10th Street, Sacramento, CA 95814; Phone: 916-443-4939;
Telex: 171388GREO; Fax: 916-443-5145.
Products and Services: Consultants Sanitation; Lubricating Systems & Supplies;
Material HandlingCase Paker/Stckr/Unstackr; Waste Treatment; Water Treatment.

Rite Coil, Inc.


Contact Data: 3711 Rupp Drive, Suite 208,
Fort Wayne, IN 46815; Phone: 219-4827595; Fax: 219-484-9995.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Environmental Control HVAC, Plate Fin Coils,
Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage;
Refrigeration Mechanical.

Riverside Manufacturing Co.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 460, Moultrie, GA
31776; Phone: 912-985-5210; Fax: 800462-3657.
Products and Services: Clothing & Uniforms.

Robbins & Myers, Inc.


Contact Data: Fluids Handling Group, 1895
W. Jefferson Street, P.O. Box 960, Springfield, OH 45501; Phone: 513-327-3013;
Telex: 205417 RMP, Fax: 513-327-3082.
Products and Services: Pumps Metering,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

E.S. Robbins Corporation


Contact Data: Packaging Division, 2802
Avalon Avenue, Muscle Shoals, AL 35661;
Phone: 205-383-0124; Telex: 8107318718;
Fax: 205-383-4987.
Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Single Service; Containers Plastic; Doors.

Robert-James Sales, Inc.


Contact Data: 699 Hertel Avenue, Suite 260,
Buffalo, NY 14207; Phone: 716-871-0001;
Fax: 716-871-0923.

Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;


FiltersLiquid; Fittings; Gaskets & Seals;
Pumps Sanitary; Strainers; Tubing/Pipe
Metal, Stainless; Valves Automatic,
Mechanical, Sanitary.

Robertet Flavors, Inc.


Contact Data: 640 Montrose Avenue, South
Plainfield, NJ 07080; Phone: 908-5612181; Fax: 908-561-7396.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents
Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents
Natural/Spices, Flavor Agents Nature
Identical, Flavor Agents Process/Rctn
Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl.
Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary,
Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl.
Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauces
& Variegate, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Rocket Products, Inc.


Contact Data: 1740-42 Chase Drive, P.O.
Box E, St. Louis Co, Fenton, MO 63026;
Phone: 314-343-9110; Fax: 314-343-9115.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Flavor Bases,
Juices & Concentrates Citrus.

C. E. Rogers Company
Contact Data: 1200 South Highway 65, P.O.
Box 118, Mora, MN 55051; Phone: 612679-2172; Fax: 612-679-2180.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Drying Equipment Conveyor/Convection, Fluid Bed, Roller, Spray; Equipment
Remanufactured, Repair; Evaporators &
Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan, Falling Film;
Heat Exchangers Tubular; Installation
& Start-Up Services; Tanks Balance/
Surge, Batch; Whey Processing Equipment
& Services.

Ropak Corporation
Contact Data: 660 S. State College Boulevard, Fullerton, CA 92631; Phone: 714870-9757; Fax: 714-447-3871.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Containers Plastic; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Ingredients
Candies; Packaging Systems; Pallets;
Printing Containers/Caps/Closures.

Rosemount Incorporated
Contact Data: 12001 Technology Drive,
Eden Prairie, MN 55344; Phone: 612-9415560; Fax: 612-828-3088.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Microprocess, Pressure, Temperature; Flow
Meters Flow Control; Instruments
Analytical; Laboratory Analysis & Testing
Services; Meters Fluid, Sanitary; PH
Measurement & Control.

Ross Computer Systems Inc.


Contact Data: 212 Peters Road South, Building 2, Suite 208, Knoxville, TN 37923;
Phone: 615-690-1089.
Products and Services: Complete Systems;
Computer Software; Inventory Control; Recording Devices; Warehouse Systems.

Rossi & Catelli SPA


Contact Data: Via Traversetolo, 2/A, Parma,
Italy 43100; Telex: 530251 CAT.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment Low Acid; Cheese Making;
Comminution Equipment; Cookers/Kettles
Vacuum; Evaporators & Vacuum Pans
Batch/Pan; Heat Exchangers Scraped
Surface, Tubular; Sterilizers.

Rostra Industrial Couplings


Contact Data: 545 Middle Street, P.O. Box
449, Bristol, CT 06010; Phone: 203-5855455; Fax: 203-589-5989.
Products and Services: Fittings.

Ryder Truck Rental, Inc.

Sanchelima International Inc.

Contact Data: 3600 NW 82nd Avenue, P.O.


Box 020816, Miami, FL 33166; Phone:
305-593-4507; Fax: 305-593-3181.
Products and Services: Transportation
Services; Truck Leasing.

Contact Data: 1783 N.W. 93rd Avenue,


Miami, FL 33172; Phone: 305-591-4343;
Fax: 305-591-3203.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid; Bagging Equipment & Supplies; Butter Making
& Packaging Equipment; Cheese Making;
Fillers & Sealers; Heat Exchangers
Plate; Pumps Centrifugal.

S. J. Controls, Inc.
Contact Data: 2248 Obispo Avenue, Suite
203, Long Beach, CA 90806; Phone: 310494-1400; Fax: 310-494-1066.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Control/Control Systems Automation,
CIP, Computer Process, Insrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Pressure; Meters Fluid, Sanitary.

John B. Sanfilippo & Son, Inc.


Contact Data: 2299 Busse Rd., Elk Grove
Village, IL 60007; Phone: 708-593-2300;
Telex: 9102330150.
Products and Services: Ingredients Coatings Chocolate, Coatings Confection,
Nuts.

S.N.A. Nut Company


Contact Data: 900 Morse Avenue, Elk Grove
Village, IL 60007; Phone: 312-421-2800 or
708-439-8419; Fax: 708-439-8581.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.

Safeline Metal Detection Inc.


Contact Data: 5454 W. Crenshaw, Tampa,
FL 33634; Phone: 813-889-9500; Fax: 813881-0840.
Products and Services: Inspection Equipment; Metal Detectors.

Salem-Republic Rubber Company


Contact Data: Al5 W. California Avenue,
P.O. Box 389, Sebring, OH 44672; Phone:
216-938-9801; Fax: 216-938-9809.
Products and Services: Hoses/Hose Assemblies; Tubing/PipeFlexible, Non-Metallic.

Samco Sportswear Company


Contact Data: 2363 University Avenue, St.
Paul, MN 55114; Phone: 612-646-4886;
Fax: 612-646-7327.
Products and Services: Clothing & Uniforms;
Recording Devices; ThermometersNonRecording, Recording.

Sani-Matic Systems
Contact Data: Division of DEC Int'l, Inc.,
1915 S. Stoughton Rd., P.O. Box 8662, Madison, WI53708; Toll Free: 800-356-3300;
Phone: 608-222-2399; Telex: 265489; Fax:
608-222-5348.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators;
Cheese Cutters; Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP; Dollies
& Carts; Filters Liquid, Milk; Heat Exchangers Injection, Tubular; Product Recovery Equipment; Pumps Centrifugal;
Strainers; Tanks Batch, Farm, Storage;
UV Purifiers; Washers Can, Carton,
Case, Equipment.

Sani-Tech Incorporated
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1010, Andover, NJ
07821; Phone: 201-579-1313; Fax: 201579-3908.
Products and Services: Brushes; Fittings;
Flow Meters Flow Control; Gaskets &
Seals; Hoses/Hose Assemblies; Metal Detectors; Processing Systems; Sight Gauges;
Tanks Processing, Storage; Tubing/Pipe
Flexible, Non-Metallic, Stainless;
Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary; Water Treatment.

SaniServ

Sasib Corporation of America

Contact Data: 2020 Production Drive, P.O.


Box 41240, Indianapolis, IN 46241-4325;
Phone: 317-247-0460; Telex: 27-6064;
Fax:317-247-5130.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen; Dispensing Eqpt., Retail Soft
Serve Products; Freezers Batch, Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening.

Contact Data: 6301 Midlothian Turnpike,


Richmond, VA 23225; Phone: 804-2761900; Fax: 804-276-0563.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Carton Form/ Load/
Close/Seal; Case Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Fillers & Sealers Plastic PreFormed Contnrs; Thermo Form Fill & Seal
Flexible, Rigid.

Sanofi Bio-Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1609, Waukesha, WI
53187-1609; Phone: 414-547-5531; Telex:
26889; Fax: 414-547-0587.
Products and Services: Ingredients Culture Media, Cultures, Enzymes, Flavor
Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, navor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/Spices,
Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavor
Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl.
Alcohol, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors
Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl.
Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Drinks &
Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings,
Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits
& Fruit Products, Juices & Concentrates
Blends, Juices & Concentrates Citrus,
Juices & Concentrates Fruit, Stabiizers
& Thickeners, Texturizers.

Santa Cruz Valley Pecan Co.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 7, Sahuarita, AZ
85629; Phone: 602-791-2852; Fax: 602791-2853.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.

Sartorius Instruments
Contact Data: 1430 Waukegan Road,
McGaw Park, IL 60085; Phone: 708-5784286; Fax: 708-689-2038.
Products and Services: Instruments Analytical; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies;
Weighing.

Sauereisen Cements Company


Contact Data: 160 Gamma Drive, Pittsburgh,
PA 15238; Phone: 412-963-0303; Fax: 412963-7620.
Products and Services: Construction Materials; Flooring & Supplies; Ingredients
Coatings Protective.

T. D. Sawvel Company
Contact Data: 5775 Hwy. 12 W., Maple
Plain, MN 55359; Phone: 612-479-4322;
Fax:612-479-3517.
Products and Services: Cheese Packaging;
Custom Fabrication; Fillers & Sealers
Bag-In-Box, Plastic Pre-Formed Contnrs;
Ingredient Feeders; Packaging Systems;
Sealers & Carton Closures.

Scherping Systems
Contact Data: 801 Kingsley Street, Winsted,
MN 55395; Phone: 612-485-4401; Fax:
612-485-2666.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,
Liquid/Powder; Cheese Making; Control/
Control Systems Automation, Computer
Process, Insrumnt/Monitoring, Microprocess, Pasteurization; Cookers/Kettles
Vacuum; Flow Meters Flow Control;
Heat Exchangers Tubular; Ingredient
Feeders; Membrane Processing Eqpt Ultrafiltration; Mixers Batch, Continuous,
Liquid; Pasteurizers Batch, HTST/Continuous; Processing Systems; TanksBalance/Surge, Batch, Processing; Weighing;
Whey Processing Equipment & Services.

Schipke Engineers, Inc.


Contact Data: 5100 Thimsen Avenue, Minnetonka, MN 55345-4143; Phone: 612474-3295; Fax: 612-474-3298.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Architectural, Related Services;
Consultants Technical; Engineering
Services Feasibility Studies, Plant.

The Schlueter Company


Contact Data: 112 E. Centerway, P.O. Box
548, Janesville, WI 53547; Phone: 608755-0740; Telex: 9102882934; Fax: 608755-0332.
Products and Services: Air Eliminators;
Buckets And Pails Metal, Plastic;
Cheese Cutters; Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control Systems CIP; Custom Fabrication; Electrical Enclosures; Filters
Milk; Fittings; Heat Exchangers Tubular; Platforms, Walkways & Stairs; Pumps
Centrifugal; Screens, Cylindrical/Screen
Plate Products; Tanks Balance/Surge;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless; UV Purifiers; Ultraviolet Disinfection Equipment; Valves
Automatic; Washers Case, Equipment; Waste Treatment.

Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Bag-In-Box; Fillers &


Sealers.

Schreiber Foods, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 19010, 425 Pine
Street, Green Bay, WI54307-9010; Phone:
414-437-7601; Fax: 414-432-4184.
Products and Services: Cheese Making;
Cheese Packaging; Ingredients Flavor
Enhancers.

Scott Turbon Mixer, Inc.


Contact Data: 9045 Glenoake Boulevard,
Sun Valley, CA 91352; Phone: 800-2858512; Fax: 800-285-8513.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,
Liquid/Powder, Powder; Colloid Mills;
Cookers/Kettles Batch, Continuous,
Pressure, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication;
Drying Equipment Spray; Mixers
Batch, Continuous, Liquid; Platforms,
Walkways & Stairs; Tanks Balance/
Surge, Batch, Processing; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless.

Sealright Co., Inc.


Schlumberger Industries*
Contact Data: Measurement Division, 1310
Emerald Road, Greenwood, SC 29646;
Phone: 803-223-1212; Fax: 803-223-0341.
Products and Services: Flow Meters Flow
Control; Meters Fluid, Sanitary.

Schoemaker USA, Inc.


Contact Data: 125 Pheasant Run, Newtown,
PA 18940; Phone: 215-579-2120; Fax: 215579-2129.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Fruits & Fruit Products.

Scholle Corp.
Contact Data: Container Division, 200 West
North Avenue, Northlake, IL 60164;
Phone: 708-562-7290; Fax: 708-562-6569.

ContactData.1101 College Boulevard, Suite


1400, Overland Park, KS 66210-1891;
Phone: 913-344-9000; Fax: 913-344-9005.
Products and Services: Consultants Marketing, Packaging; Containers Composite, Cups & Lids, Paperboard, Plastic; Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy; Tamper Evident; Thermo Form Fill
& Seal Flexible, Rigid; Wrapping Material Films, Foils, Paper.

Seco Dairies of Florida, Inc.


Contact Data: d/b/a Golden **100' ',P.O. Box
323, Deland, FL 32721-0323; Phone: 904734-3906; Fax: 904-738-1378.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Bases. Fruit &
Fruit Products, Juices & Concentrates
Citrus.

Seepex US, Inc.

Serac Inc.

Contact Data: 1834 Valley Street, Dayton,


OH 45404; Phone: 513-233-9904; Fax:
513-233-9024.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid; Cheese Making;
Cleaning/Sanitizing Manual & COP,
Mechanical & CIP; Comminution Equipment; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies;
Pumps Metering, Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Waste Treatment; Whey
Processing Equipment & Services.

Contact Data: 300 Westgate Drive, Carol


Stream IL 60188; Phone: 708-510-9343;
Fax:708-510-9357.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
EquipmentHigh Acid; Fillers & Sealers.

Sermia International Inc.


Contact Data: 26 Emilien Frenette, SteTherese, Quebec, J7E 5K6 Canada; Phone:
514-433-7483; Fax: 514-433-7484.
Products and Services: None listed.

Seiberling Associates, Inc.

SEW Eurodrive, Inc.

Contact Data: 11415 Main Street, Roscoe, IL


61073; Phone: 815-623-7311; Fax: 815367-8682.
Products and Services: Computer Software;
Consultants Sanitation, Technical; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies,
Plant; Installation & Start-Up Services.

Contact Data: 1275 Old Spartanburg Highway, P.O. Box 518, Lyman, SC 29365;
Phone: 803-439-7537; Fax: 803-949-3039.
Products and Services: Motors & Accessories; Power Transmission Equipment.

Seoil Industrial Co., Ltd.


Contact Data: Seoil B/D, 696-35, YeoksamDong, Kangam-Ku, Seoul, Korea; Phone:
02-567-3546; Telex: K26513SEOI; Fax:
02-555-9964.
Products and Services: None listed.

Separation Technology, Inc.


Contact Data: 1983 Sloan Place # 1 , St. Paul,
MN 55117; Phone: 612-771-9525; Fax:
612-771-9536.
Products and Services: Membrane Processing
Eqpt Microfiltration, Reverse Osmosis,
Ultrafiltration.

Separators, Inc.
Contact Data: IM E. Sumner Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Phone: 317-786-7832;
Fax: 317-782-3384.
Products and Services: Centrifuge Parts; Centrifuges; Equipment Remanufactured,
Repair; Separators & Clarifiers Liquid/
Liquid, Liquid/Solid; Standardization Systems.

Shade Foods, Inc.


Contact Data: 33063 Western Avenue, Union
City, CA 94587; Phone: 510-489-2800;
Fax:510-489-0105.
Products and Services: Ingredients Coatings Chocolate, CoatingsConfection,
Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Bases, Flavors Appl.
Dairy Products, Nuts.

Shambaugh and Son, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1287, Fort Wayne,
IN 46801; Phone: 219-487-7777; Fax: 219487-7701.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Complete Systems; Construction
Plant; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/
Monitoring, Level, Microprocess, Panel,
Pasteurization, Pressure; Custom Fabrication; Engineering Services Feasibility
Studies, Plant; Environmental Control
HVAC, Proc. Cool/Heat Air; Freezers
Ice Cream; Refrigeration Buildings,
Cold Rooms, Mechanical; Turnkey Operations; Waste Treatment; Welding Equipment.

Shamrock Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 834 North 7th Street, Minneapolis, MN 55411; Phone: 612-332-2100.
Products and Services: Containers Plastic;
Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Sharon Manufacturing Co., Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 2757, N. Babylon,
NY 11703-0757; Phone: 516-242-8870;
Fax:516-586-6822.
Products and Services: Equipment Remanufactured, Repair; Fillers & Sealers
Paper Containers; Gaskets & Seals.

Shepard Bros.
Contact Data: 509 W. Lambert, Brea, CA
92621; Phone: 714-990-4501.
Products and Services: Ingredients Lubricants & Release Agents, Solvents & Vehicles.

SIG Swiss Industrial Company


Contact Data: 8212 Neuhausen Rhine Falls,
Switzerland; Phone: (053) 86111; Telex:
896022; Fax: (053) 216604.
Products and Services: Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment.

Products and Services: Cabinets Display/


Frozen, Display /Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Dispensing Eqpt., Retail Milk Dispensers; Freezers Storage; Refrigeration
Storage.

Silver Springs Citrus


Contact Data: P.O. Box 155, Howey-in-theHills, FL 34737-0155; Phone: 904-3242101; Telex: 757117; Fax: 904-324-2033.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Juices & Concentrates Blends, Juices & Concentrates
Citrus, Juices & Concentrates Fruit;
Transportation Services.

Simons-Conkey
Contact Data: Towle Building, Suite 545,
330 Second Avenue South, Minneapolis,
MN 55401; Phone: 612-332-8326; Fax:
612-332-2423.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Consultants Packaging, Sanitation, Technical; Control/Control Systems
Automation; Engineering Services
Plant; Refrigeration Buildings, Mechanical, Storage; Turnkey Operations; Waste
Treatment.

Signet Marketing, Inc.


Contact Data: 1211 Gorham Street, Unit # 5 ,
Newmarket, Ontario, L3Y 7Vl Canada;
Phone: 416-836-0277; Fax: 416-853-6665.
Products and Services: None listed.

Signet Marking, Devices


Contact Data: 3121 Red Hill Avenue, Costa
Mesa, CA 92626; Toll Free: 800-421-5150;
Phone: 714-549-0341; Fax: 714-549-0972.
Products and Services: Coding Equipment;
Dies; Engraving Equipment And Services;
Printing Equipment.

Silver King Division*


Contact Data: Stevens-Lee Company, 1600
Xenium Lane North, Minn. Ind. Park, MN
55441; Phone: 612-553-1881; Fax: 612553-1209.

Sine Pump Div.*


Contact Data: The Kontro Company, Inc.,
450 West River Street, P.O. Box 30, Orange, MA 01364; Phone: 508-544-8011;
Telex: 92-8431; Fax: 508-544-8000.
Products and Services: Cookers/Kettles
Continuous, Vacuum; Heat Exchangers
Scraped Surface; Pumps Cenrifugal,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

Tom Sloan & Associates, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 50, Watertown, WI
53094; Phone: 414-261-8890; Fax: 414261-6357.
Products and Services: Consultants Management, Marketing, Personnel, Technical;
Engineering Services Plant.

R. D. Smith Company, Inc.


Contact Data: 2703 Bauer Street, Box 186,
Eau Claire, WI 54702-0186; Phone: 715832-3479; Fax: 715-832-7456.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Powder; Case
Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cenrifuges;
Control/Control Systems CIP, Pasteurization; Gaskets & Seals; Heat Exchangers
Plate; Homogenizers; IngredientsLubricants & Release Agents; Meters Sanitary; Processing Systems; Pumps Centrifugal, Metering, Positive Displacement;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Silo, Storage,
Thermometers Recording; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless; Valves Automatic, Sanitary.

SmithKline Beecham Animal Health


Contact Data: 812 Springdale Drive, Exton,
PA19341;Phone:215-363-3138;Fax:215363-3285.
Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection.

The U. M. Smucker Company


Contact Data: Strawberry Lane, Orrville, OH
44667; Phone: 216-682-3000; Telex:
986341; Fax: 216-684-3064.
Products and Services: Ingredients Fruits
& Fruit Products.

Solo Cup Company


Contact Data: Packaging Products Division,
1700 Old Deerfield Road, Highland Park,
BL 60035; Phone: 708-831-4800; Fax: 708831-4358.
Products and Services: Containers Cups
& Lids, Insulated, Paperboard, Plastic.

Solon Manufacturing Company, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 285, Ferry Street,
Solon, ME 04979; Phone: 800-341-6640;
Fax: 207-643-2738.
Products and Services: Spoons & Sticks
Wooden.

Solvay Polymers, Inc.


Contact Data: 3333 Richmond Avenue, P.O.
Box 27328, Houston, TX 77227; Phone:

713-522-1781; Telex: 792792; Fax: 713522-2435.


Products and Services: Bottles Plastic Single Service; Capping & Closing Supplies; Resins.

Somerville Packaging
Contact Data: Rendoll Operations, 439 Central Avenue, Rochester, NY 14605; Phone:
716-232-4284; Fax: 716-232-5919.
Products and Services: Containers Paperboard; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy;
Packaging Systems; Tamper Evident.

Sonoco Product Company


Contact Data: One North Second Street,
Hartsville, SC 29550; Phone: 803-3837015; Fax: 803-383-7048.
Products and Services: None listed.

Span Instruments, Inc.


Contact Data: 1947 Avenue K, Piano, TX
75074; Phone: 214-423-5320; Fax: 214423-8965.
Products and Services: Computer Software;
Control/Control Systems Computer
Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Microprocess, Pressure; Instruments Analytical.

Sparta Brush Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 402 South Black River Street,
Sparta, WI 54656; Phone: 608-269-2151;
Telex: 759901; Fax: 608-269-3293.
Products and Services: Brushes; Cleaning/
Sanitizing Manual & COP.

Spartanburg Steel Products, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 6428,1290 New Cut
Road, Spartanburg, SC 29304; Phone: 803585-5211; Fax: 803-583-5641.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Containers Metal; Fillers & Sealers
Aseptic Containers; Packaging Systems;
Pharmaceutical Equipment Packaging,
Processing; Tanks Balance/Surge, Processing, Storage.

Special Products, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1837, Springfield,
MO 65801; Toll Free: 800-641-4800;
Phone: 417-862-1319; Telex: 9107754746;
Fax: 417-865-1723.
Products and Services: Brushes; Centrifuge
Parts; Centrifuges; Fittings; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Heat Exchangers Plate,
Scraped Surface; Homogenizers; Pumps
Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Recording Devices; Separators &
Clarifiers Liquid/Liquid; Thermometers
Non-Recording, Recording; Tubing/
Pipe Non-Metallic, Stainless; Valves
Sanitary.

nizers; Meters Sanitary; Pasteurizers


HTST/ Continuous; Processing Systems;
Pumps Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Standardization Systems;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage; Warehouse Systems.

ST International, Inc.
Contact Data: 11040 Condor Avenue, Fountain Valley, CA 92708; Phone: 714-5464282; Fax: 714-546-1342.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves Sanitary; Welding Equipment.

Spray Master Technologies

Stabiized Products, Inc.

Contact Data: 115 East Linden Street,


Rogers, AR 72756; Phone: 501-636-5776;
Fax: 501-636-3245.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Pressure Cleaning
Equipment; Pumps Metering, Positive
Displacement, Sanitary; WashersEquipment.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 22002, St. Louis, MO


63126; Phone: 314-677-5764; Fax: 314376-5811.
Products and Services: Ingredients Emulsifiers & Emulsifler Salts, Enzymes, Flavor
Enhancers, PH Control Agents, Stabilizers
& Thickeners.

Spraying Systems Co.


Contact Data: North Avenue & Schmale
Road, Wheaton, IL 60189-7900; Phone:
708-665-5000; Telex: 72-8409; Fax: 708260-0842.
Products and Services: Air Curtains; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP;
Drying EquipmentSpray; FiltersLiquid; Washers Bottle, Can.

W. M. Sprinkman Corp.
Contact Data: 1325 Washington Road, P.O.
Box218,Kenosha,WI53141-0218;Phone:
414-656-0771; Telex: 53217; Fax: 414656-0348.
Products and Services: Case Packer, Stacker
& Unstacker; Centrifuges; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Coding Equipment; Control/Control Systems Automation, Microprocess; Conveyors
Chain, Roller; Fillers & Sealers; Filters
Milk; Heat Exchangers Plate; Homoge-

Stagnito Publishing Company


Contact Data: 1935 ShermerRoad, Suite 100,
Northbrook, IL 60062; Phone: 708-2055660; Fax: 708-205-5680.
Products and Services: Publications.

Stahlman Engineering Corp.


Contact Data: Main Street, P.O. Box 245,
New London, NH 03257; Phone: 603-5262585; Fax: 603-526-9468.
Products and Services: Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies, Plant.

Stainless Fabrication, Inc.


Contact Data: 633 N. Prince Lane, Springfield, MO 65802; Phone: 417-865-5696.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Mixers Batch; Pasteurizers Batch;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage; Weighing, Welding
Equipment.

Stainless Products, Inc.


Contact Data: 1649 72nd Avenue, Box 169,
Somers, WI 53171; Phone: 414-859-2826;
Fax:414-859-2871.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Fittings; Gaskets & Seals; Pumps Centrifugal, Sanitary; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves Automatic, Sanitary; Welding Equipment.

Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc.


Contact Data: 202 Industrial Drive, P.O. Box
500, Columbus, WI 53925; Phone: 414623-3003; Fax: 414-623-4508.
Products and Services: Cheese Cutters;
Cheese Making; Conveyors Accumulators, Belt, Chain, Roller, Screw; Cookers/
Kettles Continuous; Custom Development Food; Custom Fabrication; Dollies
& Carts; Electrical Enclosures; Equipment
Remanufactured, Repair; Mixers
Continuous; Molds Cheese Hoops/
Molds; Processing Systems; Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch; Welding Equipment.

A. E. Stalev Mfg. Company


Contact Data: 2200 East Eldorado Street, Decatur, IL 62525; Phone: 217-423-4411;
Fax:217-421-2881.
Products and Services: Ingredients Bulking Agents, Fat Substitutes, Fats & Oils,
Humectants, Proteins Vegetable, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Sweeteners Nutritive.

Star Blends Division


Contact Data: Grindsted Products, Inc., P.O.
Box 26, Industrial Airport, KS 66031;
Phone: 913-764-8100; Fax: 913-764-5407.
Products and Services: Ingredients Dough
Conditioners, Drying Agents, Emulsifiers
& Emulsifier Salts, Enzymes, Flavor
Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary, Flavors
Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors Appl.
Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl. Purees/

Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Surface
Active Agents; Instantizers/Agglomerators.

Star Kay White, Inc.


Contact Data: 85 Brenner Drive, Congers,
NY 10920; Phone: 914-268-2600; Fax:
914-268-3572.
Products and Services: Ingredients Candies, Chocolate & Cocoa, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents
Nature Identical, Flavor Agents Process/Rctn Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors
Appl. Bakery, FlavorsAppl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors
Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl.
Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit Products,
Vanilla & Vanillin.

Stephan Machinery Corp.


Contact Data: 1775 Westbelt Drive, Columbus, OH 43228; Phone: 614-771-0266; Fax:
614-771-0269.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Juice, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,
Liquid/Powder, Powder; Colloid Mills;
Cookers/Kettles Batch, Vacuum; Homogenizers; Mixers Batch, Liquid; Pasteurizers Batch, UHT.

Sterling Process Engineering


Contact Data: 333 McCormick Boulevard,
Columbus, OH 43213-1526; Phone: 614868-5151; Fax: 614-868-5152.
Products and Services: None listed.

Walter Stocklin AG
Contact Data: Domacherstrasse 197, Dornach, Switzerland CH-4143; Phone: 061
075 81 11; Telex: 962 920; Fax: 061 701
30 32.
Products and Services: Containers Metal.

Stoelting, Inc.
Contact Data: 502 Highway 67, Kiel, WI
53042-1600; Phone: 800-558-5807; Telex:
5103889511; Fax: 414-894-7029.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Cheese
Making; Conveyors Air, Belt, Chain,
Roller, Vacuum; Custom Fabrication;
Freezers Ice Cream; Installation & Startup Services; Molds Cheese Hoops/
Molds; Turnkey Operations.

Stogsdill Tile Company


Contact Data: P.O. Box 897, Huntley, IL
60142; Phone: 708-669-1278.
Products and Services: Construction Materials; Floor Plates & Drains; Flooring &
Supplies.

Stonhard, Inc.
Contact Data: One Park Avenue, P.O. Box
308, Maple Shade, NJ 08052; Phone: 609779-7500; Telex: 7108920769; Fax: 609779-0128.
Products and Services: None listed.

Stork Food Machinery, Inc.


Contact Data: 3525 West Peterson Avenue,
Chicago, 60659; Phone: 312-583-1455;
Fax:312-583-8155.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid; Blow
Molding Equipment; Box/Carton Forming
Equipment; Drying Equipment Fluid
Bed, Spray; Evaporators & Vacuum Pans
Falling Film; Fillers & Sealers Aseptic Containers; Heat Exchangers Tubular; Heat Recovery Systems; Homogenizers; Instantizers/Agglomerators; Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration,
Reverse Osmosis, Ultrafiltration; Packaging Systems; Pasteurizers Batch, HTST/
Continuous; Processing Systems; Sterilizers; Turnkey Operations; Waste Treatment;
Whey Processing Equipment & Services.

54501; Phone: 715-369-3330; Fax: 715369-9070.


Products and Services: Fillers & Sealers; Frozen Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy;
Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Cone, Cup,
Tube.

Strahman Valves, Inc.


Contact Data: 3 Vreeland Road, Florham
Park, NJ 07932; Phone: 201-377-4900;
Telex: 136497; Fax: 201-822-1819.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Manual & COP, Mechanical & CIP;
Sampling Devices & Supplies; Sight
Gauges; Valves Automatic, Mechanical;
Washers Equipment.

Straigt-O-Matic
Contact Data: P.O. Box 2104, Suite, Sweden
S 44502; Phone: 031-980500; Fax: 031982792.
Products and Services: Consultants Technical; Conveyors Belt, Plate; Dispensing
Eqpt., Retail; Enrobers; Equipment Repair; Frzn Desserts/Novelty Eqpt Extrusion, Molding, Slice/Sandwich; Ice Making/Building Equipment; Lifts, Gates &
Loaders; Printing Containers/Caps/Closures; Sealers & Carton Closures.

Carl Strutz & Co., Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 509, Mars, PA
16046-0509; Phone: 412-625-1501; Telex:
902861; Fax: 412-625-3570.
Products and Services: Labeling Equipment
& Supplies; Printing Containers/Caps/
Closures.

Sullair Refrigeration, Inc.


Contact Data: 3700 East Michigan, Boulevard, Michigan City, IN 46360; Phone:
800-348-2722; Telex: 703395; Fax: 219874-1502.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Pumps
Vacuum; Refrigeration Mechanical.

Stormax International, Inc.

Sun Industries, Inc.

Contact Data: Air Industrial Pk., PO Box 715,


2389 Air Park Road, Rhinelander, WI

Contact Data: 20325 Center Ridge Road,


#740, P.O. Box 16039, Cleveland, OH

44116; Phone: 216-331-3600; Fax: 216331-6878.


Products and Services: Brokerage Services;
Cabinets Display/Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen; Capping &
Closing Supplies; Dispensing Eqpt., Retail Milk Dispensers; Ingredients
Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate, Flavor Bases; Labeling Equipment &
Supplies; Labels & Label Supplies.

Products and Services: Conveyors Belt,


Chain; Labeling Equipment & Supplies;
Labels & Label Supplies.

Superior Nut Company, Inc.


Contact Data: 225 Monsignor O'Brien Hwy.,
P.O. Box 86, Cambridge, MA 02141;
Phone: 617-876-3808; Fax: 617-876-8225.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.

Supreme Corporation
Sunkist Growers, Inc.
Contact Data: 702 E. Sunkist Street, P.O. Box
3720, Ontario, CA 91761; Phone: 714-9839811; Telex: 3727053SUNKIST ONTO;
Fax: 714-983-5672.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Juices & Contrates Citrus.

Contact Data: 16500 C. R. 38, P.O. Box 463,


Goshen, IN 46526; Phone: 219-642-4888;
Fax: 219-642-4540.
Products and Services: Cargo Restraint Systems; Freezers Storage; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Truck Bodies & Trailers, Refrigeration.

Sverdrup Corporation
Sunshine Biscuits, Inc.
Contact Data: 100 Woodbridge Center Drive,
Woodbridge, NJ 07095-1196; Phone: 908855-4015; Fax: 908-855-2944.
Products and Services: Ingredients Baked
Products Cookies, Baked Products
Wafers.

Superior Industries of Nebraska

Contact Data: 801 North 11th Street, St.


Louis, MO 63101; Phone: 314-436-7600;
Fax:314-436-7734.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Computer Software; Construction
Plant, Turnkey Operations; Consultants
Management, Packaging, Sanitation, Site
Location, Technical; Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Environmental, Microprocess, Panel,
Pasteurization; Engineering Services
Feasibility Studies, Plant; Installation &
Start-Up Services.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 37447, 5217 South


132nd Street, Omaha, NE 68137; Phone:
402-895-2292; Fax: 402-895-5539.
Products and Services: Air Curtains; Architects (Licensed/AIA); Buildings Storage; Cabinets Storage/Frozen; Construction Materials; Doors; Engineering
Services Feasibility Studies, Plant;
Freezers Ice Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage; Panels Building, Structural; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold
Rooms, Mechanical, Storage; Storage
Frozen, Refrigerated; Warehouse Systems.

Contact Data: 31400 Aurora Road, Solon,


OH 44139; Phone: 216-248-4600; Telex:
4995926; Fax: 216-349-5843.
Products and Services: Filters Air, Liquid;
Fittings; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies; Pumps Metering; Tubing/Pipe
Flexible, Non-Metallic, Stainless; Valves
Mechanical.

Superior Label Systems, Inc.

J.M. Swank Company, Inc.

Contact Data: 11405 Grooms Road, P.O. Box


42415, Cincinnati, OH 45242; Phone: 513489-3800; Fax: 513-489-2416.

Contact Data: P.O. Box 365, North Liberty,


IA 52317; Toll Free: 800-593-6375; Phone:
319-626-3683; Fax: 319-626-3662.

Swagelok Company

Products and Services: Ingredients Bulking Agents, Chocolate & Cocoa, Curing &
Pickling Agents, Dough Conditioners, Fat
Substitutes, Fats & Oils, Flavor Agents
Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Natural/
Spices, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers,
Flavors Appl. Bakery, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Leavening Agents, Lubricants &
Release Agents, Modified Whey Products,
Nuts, Preservatives, Proteins Animal,
Proteins Vegetable, Stabilizers & Thickeners, Surface Finishing Agents, Sweeteners Non - Nutritive, Sweeteners
Nutritive.

Sweetheart Packaging, Inc.


Contact Data: 10100 Reisterstown Road,
Owings Mills, MD 21117; Toll Free: 800DIAL-CUP; Phone: 410-363-1111; Fax:
EXTENSION 1832.
Products and Services: Advertising; Cheese
Packaging; Complete Systems; Consultants
Marketing, Packaging, Technical; Containers Cups & Lids, Paperboard, Plastic; Equipment Leasing; Fillers & Sealers Paper Containers, Plastic PreFormed Contnrs; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Frzn Desserts/Novelty
Eqpt Cone, Cup, Tube; Ingredients
Baked Products Cones, Baked Products
Cookies, Baked ProductsWafers; Labeling Equipment & Supplies; Labels & Label Supplies; Packaging Systems; Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures; Tamper Evident Closures, Equipment; Thermo
Form Fill & Seal Plastic.

T & S Brass And Bronze Works, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1088, 2 Saddleback
Cove, Travelers Rest, SC 29690-1088;
Phone: 803-834-4102; Telex: 570311; Fax:
803-834-3518.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Heat Exchangers
Injection; Valves Automatic.

TamaNet (USA), Inc.


Contact Data: 1818 West Avenue, Suite 104,
Fullerton, CA 92633; Phone: 714-4410884; Fax: 714-441-0887.
Products and Services: Wrapping Equipment; Wrapping Material Films, Netting.

H.B. Taylor Company


Contact Data: 4830 South Christiana Avenue, Chicago IL 60632; Phone: 312-2544805; Fax: 312-254-4563.
Products and Services: Drying Equipment
Spray; Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa,
Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural,
Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor
Agents Natural/Spices, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors
Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products,
Flavors Appl. Drinks & Juices, Vanilla
& Vanillin.

TCI-BRETCO, Inc.
Contact Data: 1137 Derry Road East, Mississauga, Ontario, L5T 1P3 Canada; Phone:
416-670-1163; Fax: 416-670-1387.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching Equipment Liquid; Heat Exchangers Infusion, Plate,
Tubular, Heat Recovery Systems; Homogenizers; Standardization Systems; Sterilizers; Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch, Processing, Silo, Storage; Tubing/Pipe
Stainless.

Tebel-M.K.T. b.v.
Contact Data: Zwettestraat 30, Leeuwarden,
The Netherlands 8912 AV; Phone: 058131312; Telex: 46131; Fax: 058-122048.
Products and Services: Cheese Making.

Tech-Con, Inc.
Contact Data: 835 Innovation Drive, Suite
100, Knoxville, TN 37932; Phone: 615675-0141; Telex: 62900827; Fax: 615-6754666.

Products and Services: Computer Software;


Consultants Technical; Control/Control
Systems Automation, CIP, Computer
Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level,
Micro-process, Panel, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Processing Systems;
Standardization Systems.

Techniserv, Inc.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 282, 1319 Market
Street, Berwick, PA 18603; Phone: 717759-2315; Fax: 717-759-2785.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Consultants
Technical; Control/Control Systems
Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring, Level, Microprocess,
Panel, Pasteurization, Pressure, Temperature; Custom Fabrication; Electrical Enclosures; Engineering Services Feasibility
Studies, Plant; Instruments Analytical;
Inventory Control; Panels Building;
Processing Systems.

Tecton Contracting Corp.


Contact Data: 10547 Bondesson Circle,
Omaha, NE 68122; Phone: 402-571-5115;
Fax:402-571-1742.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Buildings Storage; Construction
Materials, Plant; Engineering Services
Plant; Freezers Storage; Ice Making/
Building Equipment; Panels Building,
Structural; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Warehouse Systems.

Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing


Mechanical & CIP; Control/Control
Systems CIP; Processing Systems.

Terlet N.V.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 62, Zutphen 7200
AB, The Netherlands; Phone: 31-575041634; Telex: 49180 T; Fax: 31-575018083.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid;
Cookers/Kettles Vacuum; Evaporators
& Vacuum Pans Batch/Pan, Scraped
Surface; Heat Exchangers Scraped Surface; Mixers Batch, Liquid; Tanks
Processing; Whey Processing Equipment &
Services.

Tetra Pak Inc.


Contact Data: 333 West Wacker Drive, 15th
Floor, Chicago, IL 60606; Phone: 312-5539200; Fax: 312-553-5151.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Containers Composite, Paperboard; Engineering Services
Plant; Fillers & Sealers Paper Containers; Packaging Systems.

Tetra Pak Materials Inc.


Contact Data: 8000 Centerview Parkway
Suite 503, Cordova, TN 38018; Phone: 901 757-0176; Fax: 901-757-0179.
Products and Services: Containers Paperboard.

Templar Food Products


Texas Rubber Supply, Inc.

Contact Data: 571 Central Avenue, New


Providence, NJ 07974; Phone: 908-6659511; Fax: 908-665-9122.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor Bases.

Contact Data: 2436 Irving Blvd., Dallas, TX


75207; Toll Free: 800-366-2904; Phone:
214-631-3143; Fax: 214-631-3651.
Products and Services: Belting; Hoses/Hose
Assemblies; Tubing/Pipe Flexible.

Tenor Company, Inc.

Thermo King Corp.

Contact Data: 17020 West Rogers Drive,


New Berlin, WI 53151; Phone: 414-7823800; Fax: 414-782-0005.

Contact Data: 314 West 90th Street, Minneapolis, MN 55420; Phone: 612-887-2532;
Telex: 29-0450.

Products and Services: Refrigeration Mechanical; Truck Refrigeration.

Thielmann Container Systeme


GmbH
Contact Data: Astenbergstrasse 21, Bad
Berleburg, Germany D-5920; Phone: 01149-2751-860; Fax: 49-2771-395364.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Containers - Metal.

Thieman Tailgates
Contact Data: 600 E. Wayne Street, Celina,
OH 45822; Phone: 419-586-7727; Fax:
419-586-9724.
Products and Services: Lifts, Gates & Loaders.

Emery Thompson Machine


& Supply Co.
Contact Data: 1349 Inwood Avenue, Bronx,
NY 10452; Phone: 212-588-7300; Fax:
212-588-7911.
Products and Services: FreezersBatch, Ice
Cream.

L. C. Thomsen, Inc.
Contact Data: 1303 43rd Street, Kenosha, WI
53140; Phone: 414-652-8755; Fax: 414652-3526.
Products and Services: Filters Liquid,
Milk; Fittings; Gaskets & Seals; Pumps
Centrifugal, Sanitary; Sight Gauges; Strainers; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves
Automatic, Mechnical, Sanitary.

3M Microbiology Products*
Contact Data: A Division Of 3M Company,
3M Center, Bldg. 275-5W-05, St. Paul, MN
55144-1000; Phone: 612-733-4758; Fax:
612-733-9596.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection.

Tindall Packaging, Inc.


Contact Data: 1150 East U Avenue, Vicksburg, MI 49097; Phone: 616-649-1163;
Fax:616-649-1163.

Products and Services: Consultants Packaging; Equipment Leasing, Remanufactured, Repair; Fillers & Sealers; Labeling
Equipment & Supplies; Packaging Systems; Veriegating Equipment.

Titan Industries
Contact Data: 9151 Normandy Lane South,
Centerville, OH 45458; Phone: 513-8859554; Fax: 513-885-9623.
Products and Services: Fittings; Hoses/Hose
Assemblies; Tubing/Pipe Flexible, NonMetallic.

TMCI Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 200 Sullivan Avenue, P.O.
Box 672, South Windsor, CT 06074;
Phone: 203-282-1671; Fax: 203-291-8705.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment Juice; Butter Making &
Packaging Equipment; Fillers & Sealers
Aseptic Containers, Form-Fill-Seal; Packaging Systems; Pharmaceutical Equipment
Packaging; Portion Control Equipment
& Supplies; Thermo Form Fill & Seal
Heat Strle Plast Pkg, Plastic, Rigid;
Turnkey Operations.

Top Line Process Equipment Corp.


Contact Data: Box 264, Bradford, PA 16701;
Phone: 814-362-4626; Telex: 5106955220;
Fax: 814-362-4453.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Fittings; Gaskets & Seals; Heat Exchangers
Tubular; Pumps Centrifugal, Sanitary; Tubing/Pipe Flexible, Stainless;
Valves Automatic, Sanitary; Welding
Equipment.

Total Quality Corp.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 1075, Branford, CT
06405; Phone: 203-483-7447; Fax: 203488-7449.
Products and Services: Inspection Equipment; X-Ray Inspection.

Tracy-Luckey Co., Inc.

Troy Biologicals, Inc.

Contact Data: 110-140 North Hicks Street,


P.O. Box 188, Harlem, GA 30814; Phone:
404-556-6216; Telex: 545459; Fax: 404556-6210.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.

Contact Data: 1238 Rankin, Troy, MI48093;


Toll Free: 800-521-0445; Phone: 313-5859720; Fax: 313-585-2490.
Products and Services: IngredientsCulture
Media; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Trebor Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 130 Western Maryland, Parkway, Hagerstown, MD 21740; Phone: 301791-7080; Fax: 301-733-9398.
Products and Services: Instruments Analytical; Laboratory Equipment & Supplies.

Tubesales
Contact Data: 235 Tubeway Drive, Carol
Stream, IL 60188; Phone: 708-690-0110;
Telex: 283469; Fax: 708-665-8490.
Products and Services: Fittings; Tubing/Pipe
Metal, Stainless; Valves Automatic,
Mechanical.

Tremcar, Inc.
Contact Data: 1 Rue Tougas, Iberville, Quebec, J2X 2P7 Canada; Phone: 514-3477822; Fax: 514-347-8372.
Products and Services: Fittings; Pumps
Centrifugal; Sampling Devices & Supplies;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Silo, Storage;
Truck Bodies & Trailers; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

Tri-Clover, Inc.
Contact Data: 9201 Wilmot Road, Kenosha,
WI53141;Phone:414-694-5511;Fax:414694-7104.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid/Powder; Cleaning/
Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP, Control/
Control Systems Automation, CIP, Microprocess, Panel; Filters Air, Liquid,
Milk; Fittings; Gaskets & Seals; Membrane
Processing Eqpt Microfiltration; Processing Systems; Pumps Centrifugal,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Strainers;
Tubing/Pipe - Stainless; Valves Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary; Weighing;
Whey Processing Equipment & Services.

Tuchenhagen North America, Inc.


Contact Data: 8949 Deerbrook Trail, Milwaukee, WI 53223; Phone: 414-362-4343;
Fax: 414-362-4359.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid; Blending &
Batching Equipment Liquid; Cleaning/
Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Complete
Systems; Computer Software; Consultants
Technical; Control/Control Systems
Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Instrumnt/Monitoring; Instruments Analytical; Processing Systems; Sampling Devices & Supplies; Sight Gauges; Strainers;
Turnkey Operations; Valves Automatic,
Sanitary; Washers Carton, Case.

Tufco International, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 456 Pioneer Lane,
Gentry, AR 72734; Phone: 501-736-2201;
Fax: 501-736-2947.
Products and Services: Construction Materials, Turnkey Operations; Flooring &
Supplies; Panels Building.

Trojan, Inc.
Contact Data: 198 Trojan Street, P.O. Box
850, Mt. Sterling, KY 40353; Phone: 606498-0526; Fax: 606-498-0528.
Products and Services: Lighting Non-Protective, Protective.

Tulip Corporation
Contact Data: 714E Keefe Avenue, Milwaukee, WI53212; Phone: 414-963-3120; Fax:
414-962-1825.
Products and Services: Crates.

U.S. Filter; Membrane Products


Grp.
Contact Data: 181 Thorn Hill Road, Warrendale, PA 15086-7527; Phone: 412-7720044; Fax: 412-772-1360.
Products and Services: Filters Liquid;
Membrane Processing Eqpt Microfiltration, Reverse Osmosis, Ultrafiltration;
Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing;
Processing Systems; Product Recovery
Equipment.

neering Services Feasibility Studies,


Plant; Installation & Start-Up Services;
Packaging Systems; Processing Systems;
Turnkey Operations; Utilities; Warehouse
Systems; Waste Treatment.

United Indian River Transport Co.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 2199, Winter Haven,
FL 33883; Phone: 813-324-2430; Fax: 813324-4009.
Products and Services: Transportation
Services.

Union Carbide Corporation


Contact Data: 39 Old Ridgebury Road, Danbury, CT 06817; Phone: 203-794-2000;
Fax:203-794-2151.
Products and Services: Resins.

United Dairy Machinery Corp.


Contact Data: 301 Meyer Road, P.O. Box
257, Buffalo, NY 14224; Phone: 716-6740500; Fax: 716-674-0511.
Products and Services: Brushes; Case Packer,
Stacker & Unstacker; Centrifuges; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Complete Systems; Control/Control Systems
CIP, Pasteurization; Fittings; Flow Meters
Flow Control; Heat ExchangersPlate;
Homogenizers; MixersContinuous; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous; Processing
Systems; Pumps Centrifugal, Sanitary;
Standardization Systems; Tanks Processing, Storage; Thermometers Recording; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves
Sanitary; Welding Equipment.

United Engineers & Constructors


Contact Data: 1430 Branding Lane, Downers
Grove, IL 60515; Phone: 708-829-2667;
Fax: 708-829-3573.
Products and Services: Architects (Licensed/
AIA); Complete Systems; Computer Software CAD Systems; Construction
Materials, Plant, Turnkey Operations; Consultants Packaging, Sanitation, Site Location, Technical; Control/Control Systems
Automation, CIP, Computer Process,
Environmental; Custom Fabrication; Engi-

United Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: 1546 Henry avenue, P.O. Box
118, Beloit, WI 53511; Phone: 608-3658891; Fax: 608-365-1259.
Products and Services: Heat Exchangers
Tubular; Tubing/Pipe Stainless.

Universal Flavors Int'l. Inc.


Contact Data: 5600 W. Raymond Street, Indianapolis, IN 46241; Phone: 317-2433521; Telex: 6876049 UH UW; Fax: 317248-1753.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents
Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavor Agents Process/
Rctn Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers,
Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices,
Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Universal Marketing, Inc.


Contact Data: 2514 East Tremont Avenue,
New York, NY 10461-2804; Phone: 212822-1773; Telex: 425751 UNI; Fax: 212792-7834.
Products and Services: Cabinets Display/
Frozen, Display/Refrigerated, Storage/Frozen.

USP Industries Inc.


Contact Data: 72, Queen, Lennoxville, Quebec, JlM 2C3 Canada; Phone: 819-5624754; Fax: 819-562-6064.
Products and Services: Screens, Cylindrical/
Screen Plate Products.

Products and Services: Ingredients Candies, Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings


Chocolate, Coatings Confection, Coatings Protective, Cocoa Powder, Blended,
Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products.

Vac-U-Max
Contact Data: 37 Rutgers Street, Belleville,
NJ 07109; Phone: 201-759-4600; Telex:
138981; Fax: 201-759-6449.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Powder; Conveyors Air,
Vacuum; Ingredient Feeders; Processing
Systems; Product Recovery Equipment;
Separators & Clarifiers Magnetic;
Valves Powder; Weighing.

Valvinox, Inc.*
Contact Data: A Division of S.G.R.M., 654
lue Rue, Iberville, Quebec, J2X 3B8 Canada; Phone: 514-346-1981; Fax: 514-3461067.
Products and Services: Fittings; Pumps
Centrifugal, Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

The Van Tone Company


Contact Data: 2730 Southwell Road, Dallas,
TX 75229; Phone: 214-241-0802; Fax:
214-241-0928.
Products and Services: Blending & Batching
Equipment Liquid, Liquid/Powder;
Cases; Cheese Making; Cleaning/Sanitizing Mechanical CIP; Colloid Mills;
Control/Control Systems Computer
Process; Conveyors Belt; Cookers/Kettles Vacuum; Filters Milk; Homogenizers; Ingredients Colors & Coloring
Adjuncts, Emulsifiers & Emulsifier Salts,
Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Stabilizers & Thickeners; Mixers Liquid; Pasteurizers Batch,
HTST/Continuous; Processing Systems;
Pumps Sanitary; Thermometers Recording; Valves Sanitary.

Van Dam Intersleeve


Contact Data: 20 Andrews Drive, West Paterson, NJ 07424; Phone: 201-785-4444;
Telex: 130476; Fax: 201-785-1167.
Products and Services: Labeling Equipment
& Supplies; Printing Containers/Caps/
Closures; Tamper Evident.

C. J. Van Houten & Zoon, Inc.


Contact Data: St. Albans Town Industrial Pk,
RD #2, Box 7, St. Albans, VT 05478-9126;
Toll Free: 800-556-8845; Phone: 802-5249711; Fax: 802-524-5148.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate,
Coatings Confection.

Van Leer Chocolate Corp.


Contact Data: 110 Hoboken Avenue, Jersey
City, NJ 07302; Phone: 201-798-8080; Fax:
201-798-0138.

Vanlab Corporation
Contact Data: P.O. Box 207, Rochester, NY
14601; Phone: 716-232-6647; Fax: 716232-6168.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents
Natural, Flavor AgentsNatural/Extracts,
Flavor Agents Nature Identical, Flavors
Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products,
Vanilla & Vanillin.

Venco Manufacturing, Inc.


Contact Data: 11799 Enterprise Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45241; Phone: 513-772-8448;
Fax:513-772-5115.
Products and Services: Lifts, Gates & Loaders.

Venjex Corp.

Virginia Dare Extract Co., Inc.

Contact Data: 319 Universal Street, P.O. Box


231; Wales, WI 53183; Phone: 414-9683181; Fax: 414-968-2478.
Products and Services: Custom Fabrication;
Equipment Remanufactured; Heat Exchangers Scraped Surface, Tubular.

Contact Data: 882 3rd Avenue, Brooklyn,


NY 11232; Phone: 718-788-1776; Telex:
425707; Fax: 718-768-3978.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents & Adjuvants, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavor
Agents Natural/Esntl Oil, Flavor Agents
Natural/Extracts, Flavor Agents
Natural/Spices, Flavor Agents Nature
Identical, Flavor Agents Process/Rctn
Flvr, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors Appl.
Bakery, Flavors Appl. Confectionary,
Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors
Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors Appl.
Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl. Sauce
& Variegate, Fruits & Fruit Products, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Venture Packaging, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 246, Monroeville,
OH 44847; Phone: 419-465-2534.
Products and Services: Buckets and Pails
Plastic; Cheese Packaging; Containers
Plastic; Fillers & Sealers Plastic PreFormed Contnrs; Frozen Desserts Pkg.
Dairy, Non-Dairy; Printing Containers/
Caps/Closures.

Viatec Process Storage Systems


Contact Data: 500 Reed Street, Belding, MI
48809; Phone: 616-794-1230; Fax: 616794-2487.
Products and Services: Cookers/Kettles
Vacuum; Tanks Balance/Surge, Processing, Storage; Valves Sanitary.

Viatran Corp.
Contact Data: 300 Industrial Drive, Grand
Island, NY 14072; Phone: 716-773-1700;
Telex: 7102601353; Fax: 716-773-2488.
Products and Services: Control/Control Systems Automation, CIP, Computer Process, Environmental, Instrumnt/Monitoring,
Level, Microprocess, Panel, Pasteurization,
Pressure, Temperature.

VICAM SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY


Contact Data: 29 Mystic Avenue, Somerville, MA 02145; Phone: 617-623-0030;
Fax: 617-623-1917.
Products and Services: Bacterial Detection;
Instruments Analytical; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies.

Virginia Design Packaging Corp.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 3050,1401 Progress
Road, Suffolk, VA 23434; Phone: 804-9252000; Fax: 804-925-2007.
Products and Services: Buckets and Pails
Plastic; Capping & Closing Equipment;
Containers Cups & Lids, Plastic; Packaging Systems.

Viskase Corporation
Contact Data: 6855 West 65th Street, Chicago, IL 60638; Toll Free: 800-323-8562;
Phone: 708-496-4200; Telex: 6714599;
Fax: 708-496-4412.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Cheese Packaging; Containers
Plastic; Preformed Bags; Printing
Containers/Caps/Closures; Thermo Form
Fill & Seal Rigid; Wrapping Material
Films.

Vivolac Cultures Corp.


Videojet Systems Int'I, Inc.
Contact Data: 1500 Mittel Boulevard, Wood
Dale, IL 60191; Phone: 708-860-7300; Fax:
708-616-3623.
Products and Services: Coding Equipment.

Contact Data: 3862 East Washington, Indianapolis, IN 46201; Phone: 317-359-9528;


Fax:317-356-8450.
Products and Services: Ingredients Cultures, Flavor Enhancers.

VNE Corporation
Contact Data: P.O. Box 1698, Janesville, WI
53547; Toll Free: 800-356-1111; Phone:
608-756-4930; Telex: 9102882923; Fax:
608-756-3643.
Products and Services: Fittings; Heat
Exchangers Tubular; Pharmaceutical
Equipment Processing: Sampling Devices & Supplies; Tubing/PipeStainless;
Valves Automatic, Sanitary.

Vrymeer Cocoa & Chocolates,


Div. of
Contact Data: R. J. Ronstadt Company, Inc.,
P.O. Box 545, St. Charles, IL 60174-0545;
Phone: 708-377-2584; Fax: 708-377-5521.
Products and Services: Consultants Marketing, Technical; Custom Development
Food; Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa,
Coatings Chocolate, Coatings Confection, Colors & Coloring Adjuncts, Fat
Substitutes, Fats & Oils, Flavor Agents
Artificial, Flavor Agents Natural, Flavors Appl. Bakery, Flavors Appl.
Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy
Products, FlavorsAppl. Drinks & Juices,
Flavors Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors
Appl. Sauce & Variegate, Fruits & Fruit
Products, Juices & Concentrates Fruit,
Nuts; Private Label/Co-Pack.

W R H Industries, Ltd.
Contact Data: 5 Industrial Way, Box 4535,
Riverside, RI 02915; Phone: 401-4346272; Telex: 955329; Fax: 401-434-1781.
Products and Services: Buckets And Pails
Plastic; Cases; Pallets; Pharmaceutical
Equipment Processing.

W.L.M. Bensdorp Co.

Products and Services: Pipe & Tube Cutting/


Weld Preparing Machines.

Walker Stainless Equipment Co.


Contact Data: Holding Tank Division*, P.O.
Box B, Elroy, WI 53929; Phone: 608-4628461; Fax: 608-462-8960.
Products and Services: Tanks Processing,
Silo, Storage.

Walker Stainless Equip. Co. Inc.


Contact Data: 625 State Street, New Lisbon,
WI 53950; Phone: 608-562-3151; Telex:
9102802341; Fax: 608-562-3142.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid;
Blending & Batching EquipmentLiquid,
Liquid/Powder; Cookers/Kettles Batch,
Vacuum; Custom Development Food;
Custom Fabrication; Drying Equipment
Spray; Equipment Repair; Heat Exchangers Scraped Surface, Tubular; Pasteurizers Dairy: Pharmaceutical Equipment Processing; Processing Systems;
Tanks Balance/Surge, Batch, Farm,
Processing, Silo, Storage; Truck Bodies
& Trailers.

Waukesha Fluid Handling


Contact Data: 611 Sugar Creek Road, DeIavan, WI 53115; Phone: 414-728-1900;
Telex: 269552AKFN; Fax: 414-728-4646.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid; Colloid Mills; Fittings; Pumps Metering,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary; Valves
Automatic, Mechanical, Sanitary.

Waukesha Specialty Company

Contact Data: 1800 West Park Drive, Westborough, MA 01581; Phone: 508-3669910; Fax: 508-366-4841.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa.

Contact Data: Box 160, Highways 14 & 1-43,


Darien, WI 53114; Phone: 414-724-3700;
Fax:414-724-5120.
Products and Services: Fittings; Valves
Sanitary.

E. H. Wachs Company

Wawona Frozen Foods

Contact Data: 100 Shepard Street, Wheeling,


IL 60090; Phone: 1-800-323-8185; Telex:
283483; Fax: 708-520-1147.

Contact Data: 100 West Alluvial, Clovis, CA


93612; Phone: 209-299-2901; Fax: 209299-1921.

Products and Services: Ingredients Fruits


& Fruit Products.

WCR Incorporated
Contact Data: 221 Crane Street, Dayton, OH
45403; Phone: 513-223-0703; Fax: 513223-2818.
Products and Services: Cleaning/Sanitizing
Mechanical & CIP; Consultants Personnel; Equipment Repair; Evaporators
& Vacuum Pans Falling Film, Plate, Rising Film; Gaskets & Seals; Heat Exchangers Plate; Pasteurizers HTST/Continuous.

Webber/Smith Associates, Inc.


Contact Data: 951 West Pipeline Road, Suite
470; Hurst, TX 76053; Phone: 817-2841706; Fax: 817-595-4406.
Products and Services: Buildings Storage;
Construction Plant; Consultants
Technical; Control/Control SystemsAutomation; Engineering Services Feasibility Studies, Plant; FreezersIce Cream,
Processing/Hardening, Storage; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold Rooms, Mechanical, Storage; Storage Frozen, Refrigerated; Turnkey Operations; Warehouse
Systems.

Edgar A. Weber & Company


Contact Data: P.O. Box 546, Wheeling, IL
60090; Phone: 800-558-9078; Fax: 708215-2073.
Products and Services: Ingredients Beverage & Beverage Bases, Chocolate & Cocoa, Flavor Agents Artificial, Flavor
Agents Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Extracts, Flavor Bases, Flavor Enhancers, Flavors Appl. Alcohol, Flavors
Appl. Bakery, FlavorsAppl. Confectionary, Flavors Appl. Dairy Products, Flavors Appl. Drinks & Juices, Flavors
Appl. Purees/Toppings, Flavors Appl.
Sauce & Variegate, Vanilla & Vanillin.

Products and Services: Antibiotic Detection;


Bacterial Detection; Brushes; Centrifuge
Parts; Centrifuges; Inspection Equipment;
Instruments Analytical; Laboratory
Equipment & Supplies; PH Measurement
& Control; Sampling Devices & Supplies;
Sterilizers; Thermometers Non-Recording.

Westcoast Engineering Co.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 251, 386 South
Lemon Street, Walnut, CA 91789; Phone:
714-598-2055; Fax: 714-598-8088.
Products and Services: Air Curtains; Pest
Control Devices.

Westvaco Corporation
Contact Data: Liquid Packaging Division,
P.O. Box 24039, Richmond, VA 23224;
Phone: 804-232-6746; Fax: 804-232-3975.
Products and Services: Containers Paperboard.

White Knight Pkg. Corp.


Contact Data: 5252 Clay Avenue, S.W.,
Wyoming, MI 49548; Phone: 616-5383822; Fax: 616-538-3844.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment Juice, Low Acid; Blending
& Batching Equipment Powder; Fillers
& Sealers Aseptic Containers; Pasteurizers UHT.

Wilbur Chocolate Co.


Contact Data: 48 North Broad Street, Lititz,
PA 17543; Phone: 717-626-1131; Fax: 717626-4227.
Products and Services: Ingredients Chocolate & Cocoa, Coatings Chocolate,
Coatings Confection, Coatings Protective, Cocoa Powder, Blended.

Weber Scientific

Wilco Precision Testers

Contact Data: 658 Etra Road, East Windsor,


NJ 08520; Phone: 609-426-0443; Fax: 609426-1279.

Contact Data: 145 Main Street, Tuckahoe,


NY 10707; Phone: 914-337-2005; Fax:
914-337-8519.

Products and Services: Inspection Equipment.

Wilden Pump & Engineering Co.


Contact Data: 22069 Van Buren Street, P.O.
Box 845, Colton, CA 92324; Phone: 714422-1700; Telex: 676452; Fax: 714-7832432.
Products and Services: PumpsDiaphragm,
Positive Displacement, Sanitary.

Wisner Manufacturing Corp.


Contact Data: 1165 Globe Avenue, P.O. Box
1009, Mountainside, NJ 07092-0009;
Phone: 201-233-4200; Fax: 201-233-7331.
Products and Services: Aseptic Pkg. Equipment/Components; Aseptic Processing
Equipment High Acid, Low Acid; Case
Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Cleaning/
Sanitizing Mechanical & CIP; Conveyors Belt, Chain, Roller; Equipment
Remanufactured; Fillers & Seaters; Freezers Ice Cream; Heat Exchangers
Plate; Homogenizers; Ingredient Feeders;
Meters Sanitary; Processing Systems;
Pumps Positive Displacement, Sanitary;
Sealers & Carton Closures; Standardization
Systems; Tanks Processing; Tubing/
Pipe Stainless; Valves Sanitary.

Products and Services: Electrical Enclosures;


Lighting Non-Protective; Maintenance
& Repair Products.

Wright Rubber & Gasket Co.


Contact Data: 2296 Brodhead Road, Bethelehem, PA 18017; Phone: 215-758-9991;
Fax: 215-758-9555.
Products and Services: Belting; Conveyors
Belt; Fittings; Gaskets & Seals; Hoses/
Hose Assemblies; Maintenance & Repair
Products; Tubing/Pipe Flexible, Metal,
Non-Metallic, Stainless; Welding Equipment.

Young Pecan Shelling Co., Inc.


Contact Data: 1200 Pecan Street, P.O. Box
5779, Florence, SC 29502; Toll Free: 800829-6864; Phone: 803-664-2330; Fax: 803664-2344.
Products and Services: Ingredients Nuts.

Your Favorite Producers, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 11325, Marina Del
Rey, CA 90295; Phone: 213-776-3431;
Fax: 213-410-4YFP.
Products and Services: Advertising; Promotional Devices & Premiums.

Zajac Equipment Supply


Wolf Packaging Ltd.
Contact Data: P.O. Box 307, Rutland, VT
05702-0307; Toll Free: 800-992-3431;
Phone: 802-422-3137; Fax: 802-422-3137.
Products and Services: Box/Carton Forming
Equip.; Carton Form/Load/Close/Seal;
Consultant Packaging; Equipment
Leasing, Remanufactured, Repair; Maintenance & Repair Products; Packaging Systems; Sealers & Carton Closures; Wrapping
Equipment.

Daniel Woodhead Company


Contact Data: 3411 Woodhead Drive, Northbrook, IL 60062-1812; Toll Free: 800-2257724; Phone: 708-272-7990; Fax: 708-2728133.

Contact Data: 270 Roosevelt Trail, South


Windham, ME 04082; Phone: 207-8927501; Fax: 207-892-8464.
Products and Services: Aseptic Processing
Equipment Juice; Blending & Batching Equipment Liquid/Powder; Case
Packer, Stacker & Unstacker; Control/Control Systems Automation; Conveyors
Chain; Custom Fabrication; Engineering
Services Plant; Flow Meters Flow
Control; Freezers Ice Cream; Gaskets &
Seals; Heat Exchangers Plate; Homogenizers; Hoses/Hose Assemblies; Ingredient
Feeders; Installation & Start-Up Services;
Meters Sanitary; Mixers Batch; Pasteurizers Batch; Platforms, Walkways &
Stairs; Pumps Sanitary; Sight Gauges;
TanksProcessing; ThermometersRe-

cording; Tubing/Pipe Stainless; Valves


Sanitary.

Natural, Flavor Agents Natural/Esntl


Oil, Flavor Bases, Fruits & Fruit Products,
Juices & Concentrates Blends.

Zander Filter Systems, Inc.


Contact Data: 520ID Indian Trail Indstrl
Pky, Norcross, GA 30071; Phone: 404-4463614; Fax: 404-263-0856.
Products and Services: Air Systems; Aseptic
Pkg. Equipment/Components; Environmental Control Aseptic Air; Filters
Air.

Zer-O-Loc, Inc.
Contact Data: 4740 Vanguard Road, Richmond, British Columbia, V6X 2P8 Canada;
Phone: 604-273-8306; Fax: 604-276-8293.
Products and Services: Doors; FreezersIce
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage;
Panels Building, Structural; Storage
Frozen, Refrigerated.

Zero-Temp, Inc.
Contact Data: 1500-A East Chestnut Avenue,
Santa Ana, CA 92701; Phone: 714-5479728; Fax: 714-542-6529.
Products and Services: Freezers Ice
Cream, Processing/Hardening, Storage;
Panels Building, Structural; Refrigeration Buildings, Cold Rooms, Mechanical, Storage.

Zimmer Paper Products Inc.


Contact Data: 1450 East 20th Street, Indianapolis, IN 46218-3498; Toll Free: 800-6317845; Phone: 317-636-3333; Telex: 27489;
Fax: 317-263-3427.
Products and Services: Consultants Packaging; Flexible Packaging; Frozen Desserts
Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Tamper Evident
Closures; Wrapping Material Films,
Foils, Paper.

The Zipp Manufacturing Company


Contact Data: 27357 W. Oviatt Road, Bay
Village, OH 44140; Phone: 216-871-0161;
Fax: 216-871-0165.
Products and Services: Ingredients Flavor
Agents Artificial, Flavor Agents

Zorn Packaging, Inc.


Contact Data: P.O. Box 358, Farmingdale,
NJ 07727; Phone: 908-938-5031; Fax: 908938-2076.
Products and Services: Bagging Equipment
& Supplies; Flexible Packaging; Frozen
Desserts Pkg. Dairy, Non-Dairy; Inks,
Printing; Preformed Bags; Wrapping Material Films, Foils, Laminates, Paper.

Zurn Industries, Inc.


Contact Data: Centric Clutch Division, P.O.
Box 668, Main Street @ U.S. Route # 9 ,
Woodbridge, NJ 07095-0668; Phone: 908634-1761; Telex: 13-8821; Fax: 908-6340798.
Products and Services: Power Transmission
Equipment.

Index

Index terms

Links

A
A. flavus

2:334

A. fumigatus

2:341

A. hydrophila

2:311

A. ochraceus

2:358

A. parasitcus

2:349

A. pyogenes

2:317

A. versicolor

2:354

A. viscolactis

2:307

Abnormal milk
calibration of IR instruments

1:96

sediment

1:107

tests for mastitis

1:115

Accelerated cheese ripening

2:229

Acetaldehyde
cottage cheese

1:192

yogurt

1:254

Acid
butter

1:199

casein

2:292

coagulation

2:292

degree value

1:112

ice cream

1:215

in acid casein production

2:293

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3:409

3:410

Index terms

Links

Acid (Continued)
injection

2:292

lactic

2:293

milk

1:179

Acid base equilibria


Acid-cut, Cheddar cheese

2:296

1:57
1:241

Acidity
pH

1:103

titratable acidity

1:102

Acinetobacter

2:308

2:324

Actinomyces

2:316

2:317

Action levels

3:33

Activity test

2:11

Adsorption

1:43

Aerococcus

2:327

Affective testing

1:168

hedonic scales

1:165

ideality, just about right scales

1:169

naive consumer

1:170

Aflatoxin M1
Aflatoxins

2:355
3:7

measurement

1:113

milk quality

1:147

Age gelation

1:41

Age thickening of milk

2:269

Agglutination and starter bacteria

2:185

Aggregation
Aging of ice cream mix

1:44

1:38

2:270
1:48

2:127

Air
flow during spray drying

2:276

temperature during spray drying

2:276

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:411

Index terms

Links

Alcaligenes

2:307

Alfa-Laval

3:69

Algebraic method of mix standardization


Alkaline phosphatase

2:324

2:100
1:15

1:18

All-natural designation formulation

2:113

Alternariam

2:322

Alteromonas

2:307

2:308

American Butter Institute (ABI)

3:34

3:42

American Dairy Products Institute

3:42

Amino acids

1:12

transformations and cheese ripening


Analyses

2:213
1:83

purpose

1:85

sources of information

1:86

types

1:86

Analytical methods

3:37

B. stearothermophilus plate disc test

3:11

Charm Test II

3:27

coliform test

3:20

disk filtration method

3:27

3:8

3:12

infrared analysis

3:21

3:30

phosphatase test

3:14

3:19

See also Nutritional labeling, analytical methods, raw


Anion-cation equilibrium in milk
Antibiotics

2:260
3:7

competitive binding methods

1:109

determined by HPLC

1:111

disc assay methods

1:107

immunological methods

1:111

mold enumeration

1:133

penicillin

3:38

1:112

3:7

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:39

3:412

Index terms

Links

Antibiotics (Continued)
PMO tests
starter bacteria
test for
tetracycline
Antimicrobial systems
Applications in biotechnology

3:13
2:186
3:11
3:7
2:326
3:78

accelerated cheese maturation

3:84

bacteriocins as food preservatives

3:80

bacteriophage resistance

3:83

low-fat dairy products

3:79

Arthrobacter

2:316

Artificial intelligence

3:106

Aseptic packaging

3:27

2:317

2:324

3:13

3:18

3:48

3:50
3:131

3:63

3:66

institutional containers

3:325

materials

3:322

paperboard packaging

3:323

plastic packaging

3:325

techniques and bulk starter propagation

2:192

Ash
measurement

1:101

See Minerals
Aspergillus

2:322

Aspergillus flavus

2:349

Aspergillus fumigatus

2:332

Aspergillus nidulans

2:334

Aspergillus niger

2:383

Astringent
cultured products

1:244

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:413

Index terms

Links

Astringent (Continued)
milk

1:179

Atomization
effect on milk droplet size and surface

2:276

nozzle pressure

2:276

of milk, centrifugal

2:276

steam swept wheel

2:277

Attrition drying

2:294

Atypical color specks, cheddar cheese

1:241

Aureobacterium

2:316

2:317

1:24

1:56

Autoxidation

B
B. abortus

2:308

B. cereus

2:314

B. circulans

2:322

B. coagulans

2:314

B. licheniformis

2:314

B. melitensis

2:308

B. mycoides

2:324

B. stearothermophilus

2:314

B. suis

2:308

B. thuringiensis

2:348

Babcock, S. M.

3:30

2:324

Bacillus

2:314

2:322

2:324

Bacillus cereus

2:324

2:329

2:348

Bacillus circulans

2:324

2:53

2:389

Bacillus licheniformis

3:92

Bacillus megaterium

2:388

Bacillus stearothermophilus
Bacillus subtilis

2:10
2:332

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:414

Index terms
Bacteria
brick cheese

Links
2:305
2:227

surface-ripened cheese microbiological and


biochemical changes

2:227

Bacteriocins
and starter bacteria

2:182

as food preservatives, biotechnology and

3:80

Bacteriophage resistance, biotechnology and

3:83

Baeteriocin

2:50

Batch pasteurization

2:123

Betacoccus

2:312

Biochemical changes and cheddar cheese

2:215

Biosynthesis of milk
Biotechnology

1:2

1:41

3:68

3:77

regulatory aspects of dairy

3:92

Biotechnology, future tools

3:85

conjugation and cell fusion


rotoplast fusion

3:85
3:87

manufacture of heterologous proteins

3:91

transformation and gene delivery systems

3:88

electroporation

3:88

gene delivery systems

3:89

Bitter
blind

1:162

butter

1:199

cheddar cheese

1:232

cottage cheese

1:186

cultured products

1:244

milk

1:180

yogurt

1:258

Block milk

2:271

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:415

Index terms

Links

Blue cheese

2:206

Borden, Gail

3:61

Bovine somatotropin (BST)


Breast milk

1:8
2:282

simulated

2:281

Brevibacterium

2:316

Brevibacterium linens

2:317

Brick cheese

2:205

Brie cheese

2:226

Briny, butter

1:205

Brochothrix

2:316

Brucella

2:307

Brucella abortus

2:308

Brucella melitensis

2:308

Bulky flavors

3:68

2:281

immunological factors in

Buffering, groups in milk

2:224

2:317
2:227

2:308

1:58
2:8

2:9

Business management
automatic storage and retrieval

3:129

computer-aided manufacturing

3:129

3:133

3:134

databases

3:107

3:108

3:127

3:131

3:132

3:137

inventory

3:113

3:128

3:135

planning

3:130
3:148

3:131

3:140

sales

3:129

3:134

Butter

1:199
3:34
3:64

3:14
3:53

acid

1:200

bitter

1:201

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:31
3:60

3:416

Index terms

Links

Butter (Continued)
briny

1:205

cheesy

1:201

coarse

1:202

color specks

1:213

crumbly

1:211

feed

1:201

foreign material

1:213

garlic/Onion

1:203

grades

1:199

grading body and texture

1:167

grading flavor

1:199

grainy

1:212

gummy

1:211

high salt

1:205

leaky

1:211

light butter

3:34

manufacture equipment

3:254

continuous churning

3:255

cream preparation

3:254

packaging

3:256

traditional churning

3:254

mealy

1:212

metallic

1:207

and microbiology

2:385

mold

1:213

mottled, streaky, or wavy

1:213

musty

1:207

neutralize

1:207

old cream

1:208

oxidized

1:208

ragged boring

1:212

1:201

3:54

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:417

Index terms

Links

Butter (Continued)
rancid

1:208

sampling

1:198

scorched

1:209

score card

1:206

score guide for flavor

1:201

score guide for body and texture and color

1:202

scoring

1:199

short

1:212

sticky

1:212

storage

1:209

surface color faded

1:214

tallowy

1:210

unclean/utensil

1:210

unnatural color

1:214

weak

1:213

whey

1:210

yeasty

1:211

Butter and milk processes


Byssochlamys nivea

3:27
2:324

C
C. butyricum

2:319

C. macrocarpum

2:383

C. sporogenes

2:314

C. tyrobutyricum

2:314

2:331

Caked
dry milk

1:273

Caking
of whey powder
Calandria

2:289
2:264

2:265

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:418

Index terms
Calcium
in coprecipitates

Links
1:29
2:296

phosphate

1:35

in whey

2:290

salts

2:262

Calculations for ice cream

2:7
1:36

1:39

2:266

2:92

MSNF in skim milk and cream

2:92

density and degrees Bume (Be)

2:109

California Department of Food and Agriculture

3:19

California's Proposition

3:65

3:54

Camembert cheese

2:207

2:226

Campylobacter

2:305

2:307

Campylobacter jejuni

2:305

2:329

2:346

Candida

2:318

2:322

2:341

Caramelization in milk

2:271

Carbon dioxide

2:336

and supercritical carbon dioxide for reduction of


microbial populations

2:392

Casein

1:9

acid

2:291

and chedar cheese

2:216

micelle

1:30

composition of

1:30

stability of

1:35

pressing of

2:293

products

2:290

casein

2:291

composition of

2:294

coprecipitates

2:295

genetic variants
nonmicellar

2:291

1:9
1:33

1:35

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:419

Index terms

Links

Casein (Continued)
primary structure

1:12

1:13

secondary structure

1:10

1:36

sodium caseinate

2:294

Casein (sodium caseinate)

3:58

3:60

Caseobacter

2:316

2:317

Cedecea

2:308

Centri whey

2:298

Centrifugal pumps

3:181

Centrifuges

3:203

Chalky, dry milk

1:269

Cheddar cheese

1:230

acid-cut

1:241

atypical color specks

1:241

bitter

1:231

color too high

1:242

corky

1:239

crumbly

1:240

curdy

1:240

dark seams

1:242

fermented/fruity

1:231

flat/lacks flavor

1:235

garlic/onion

1:235

gassy

1:240

grades

1:236

heated

1:235

high acid

1:235

high or uneven edges

1:243

judging

1:230

light seams

1:242

lopsided 1:misshapen

2:200

1:24

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:420

Index terms

Links

Cheddar cheese (Continued)


making

1:230

mealy

1:240

microbiological changes

2:215

fate of casein

2:216

fate of fat

2:218

fate of lactose

2:215

flavor of cheddar cheese

2:219

moldy

1:237

mottled

1:242

pasty

1:241

rancid

1:237

score card

1:233

scoring

1:232

scoring guide

1:232

short

1:241

sulfide

1:238

tempering

1:230

unclean

1:238

uneven sizes

1:243

weak

1:241

whey taint

1:238

white specks

1:242

yeasty

1:239

Cheese

1:229
3:6
3:14
3:48
3:69

blue cheeses

3:6

Brie

3:7

2:217

2:163
3:7
3:31
3:61

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:3
3:8
3:32
3:64

3:421

Index terms

Links

Cheese (Continued)
Cheddar cheese

3:14
3:52

classification

2:164

ripened

2:164

fresh

2:164

colby cheeses

3:35

composition

2:165

cottage

3:20

3:35

3:7

3:19

3:43

cream cheese

3:7

grated cheeses

3:33

Limburger

3:35

Mozzarella

3:35

pasteurized process cheese

3:22

production

2:165

Roquefort

3:6

soft cheese

3:6
3:62

solid cheese (hard cheese)

3:7

Cheese composition

2:165

Cheese flavor development

2:210

Cheese from ultrafiltered retentate

2:207

Cheese manufacture

2:197

brick cheese

2:205

Cheddar cheese

2:200

colby cheese

2:200

manufacture equipment

3:256

accessory equipment/mechanical innovations

3:258

cheese vats

3:257

cheesemaking systems

3:256

general processes

3:256

processed cheese

3:261

3:62

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:422

Index terms

Links

Cheese manufacture (Continued)


mold-ripened cheese

2:203

blue cheese

2:206

camembert cheese

2:207

mozzarella and provolone cheese

2:205

parmesan cheese

2:201

stirred curd or granular cheddar cheese

2:200

swiss cheese

2:201

Cheese maturation, biotechnology and

3:84

Cheese processes

3:14

Cheese ripening and flavor development

2:210

amino acid transformations

2:213

flavor development

2:213

proteolysis in cheese

2:212

proteolysis of caseins

2:211

Cheese salting

2:210

Cheese starter cultures

2:173

lactobacilli

2:179

lactobacilli found during cheese ripening

2:179

Leuconostoc

2:178

molds

2:181

Penicillium camemberti

2:181

Penicillium roqueforti

2:181

pediococci

2:180

propionibacteria

2:180

Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus

2:178

types of cultures

2:174

Cheesemaking and heat treatment of milk

3:20

2:169

Cheesy
butter

1:201

cultured products

1:245

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:68

3:423

Index terms

Links

Chemical changes
in sulfhydryl compounds

2:266

inhibition of in milk

2:266

Chemical senses, taste and smell

1:159

Chemical use control, elements of

3:240

Cherry-Burrell Corporation

3:41

Chinese-Swedish Dairy Training Center

3:49

Chocolate flavor and ice cream

2:135

Chocolate ice cream mix formulation

2:114

Cholesterol
Chromobacterium

3:3

2:268

3:53

3:54

2:311

Chymosin

1:13

1:38

Citrobacter

2:309

2:324

Cladosporium

2:322

Clarification
of milk

2:259

of whey

2:290

Clean-in-place (CIP)

2:273

3:30

3:45

3:65

3:218

Cleaners, types of

3:236

Cleaning and pH

3:234

Cleaning and sanitizing

3:218

Cleaning dairy processing systems

3:217

clean-in-place

3:218

cleaning and sanitizing

3:218

elements of chemical use control

3:240

manual cleaning and clean-out-of-place

3:241

mechanical cleaning systems

3:219

relation of ph to cleaning

3:234

safe chemical handling check list

3:238

sanitary criteria for processing equipment

3:226

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:46

3:424

Index terms

Links

Cleaning dairy processing systems (Continued)


types of cleaners

3:236

types of sanitizers

3:237

Clostridium

2:314

Clostridium botulinum

2:314

Clostridium perfringens

2:314

CO2 production and Swiss cheese

2:220

2:326

Coagulation
by acid

2:292

capability

2:266

enzymatic

2:293

Coarse
butter

1:202

cultured products

1:246

Coarse/icy
ice cream
Code of Federal Regulations

1:225
2:8

Codex Alimentarius

3:39

3:53

3:69

Coffee creamers

3:32

3:58

3:60

2:23

2:35

Colby cheese
Collaborative growth

2:200
2:16

Collegiate contest

1:166

Color

2:266

atypical, yogurt

1:265

leaching, yogurt

1:265

specks, butter

1:213

too high, cheddar cheese

1:242

unnatural, browned, darkened, dry milk

1:273

unnatural, cultured products

1:253

Components in milk of protein

1:280

Composition

2:21

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:425

Index terms
Composition, gross

Links
1:5

Composition of protein

1:280

Concentrated cultures

2:191

Concentrated dairy products

2:259

advantages of

2:259

nontraditional

2:271

Concentrated milk products

2:67

Concentration and drying equipment

3:261

Concentration of milk

2:262

Condensation degree

2:269

quality criteria for milk

2:259

Condensed milk
caramelized

2:271

flavored

2:271

packaging of

2:266

second standardization

2:267

skim milk

2:271

storage of

2:266

sweetened

2:267

unsweetened

2:259

Conductivity
electrical

1:54

thermal

1:60

Conjugation and cell fusion

3:85

conjugation

3:85

protoplast fusion

3:87

Construction considerations and dairy plants

3:297

construction materials

3:300

contour of building site

3:297

floor

3:302

foundation type

3:301

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:426

Index terms

Links

Construction considerations and dairy plants (Continued)


framing concept

3:301

roof design

3:302

social concern

3:300

soil, wind, and seismic conditions

3:298

type of business

3:297

utilities water quality, sewage requirements

3:299

walls and doors

3:303

Consumer preference
Consumption

2:269
2:3

Continuous pasteurization

2:123

Control system configuration

3:124

Cooked
cottage cheese

1:186

ice cream

1:216

milk

1:180

yogurt

1:258

Cooling
in evaporated milk production

2:270

in powdered casein production

2:294

in whey powder production

2:289

in whey protein concentrate production

2:290

Coprecipitates

2:295

advantages of

2:296

calcium in

2:296

Corky
Cheddar cheese
Corn syrups

1:239
2:81

Corynebacterium

2:316
2:326

Corynebacterium spp.

2:316

2:317

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:324

3:427

Index terms
Cottage cheese

Links
1:185

bitter

1:186

cooked

1:186

diacetyl flavor

1:190

feed flavor

1:190

fermented/fruity

1:190

firm/rubbery

1:195

flat

1:191

foreign

1:191

free cream

1:196

free whey

1:196

gelatinous

1:195

high acid (sour)

1:191

ideal

1:186

lacks cream

1:197

lacks fine flavor

1:192

lacks freshness

1:192

malty

1:192

manufacture equipment

3:277

matted

1:197

mealy/grainy

1:195

metallic (oxidized)

1:19

and microbiology

2:382

musty

1:193

overstabilized

1:195

pasty

1:196

rancid

1:193

salty

1:191

score card

1:188

scoring guide

1:187

shattered curd

1:197

unclean

1:194

1:202

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:428

Index terms

Links

Cottage cheese (Continued)


weak/soft

1:196

yeasty

1:194

Cowy, milk

1:181

Coxiella

2:311

Coxiella burnetii

2:311

Cream

2:265
3:34

defects

1:49

heavy cream

3:27

judging tips

1:176
3:35

products

1:176

scoring guide

1:176

Critical control points

3:8

blended products

3:9

pasteurization
specification for

3:27

1:175

effect of whipping on

lite sour cream

3:23
3:61

3:37

3:12
3:4

Crumbly
butter

1:211

Cheddar cheese

1:240

ice cream

1:225

Cryoglobulin

1:47

Cryptococcus

2:322

Crystallization
of lactose

2:270

of milkfat

1:20

1:22

1:48
Cultured products
astringent

1:243
1:244

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

1:23

3:429

Index terms

Links

Cultured products (Continued)


bitter

1:244

buttermilk

1:243

cheesy

1:245

coarse

1:246

cultured skim milk

1:243

curdy

1:250

dull appearance

1:252

fermented

1:246

foreign

1:247

gassy

1:250

grainy/gritty

1:251

green

1:247

high acid

1:247

ideal description

1:243

judging

1:243

lacks acid (flat)

1:247

lacks culture flavor

1:248

lumpy

1:251

metallic/oxidized

1:249

rancid

1:249

ropy

1:251

salty

1:250

score card

1:245

scoring

1:244

scoring guide

1:248

sour cream

1:243

starter cultures

1:243

surface growth

1:253

too firm

1:252

too thin

1:252

unclean

1:250

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:430

Index terms

Links

Cultured products (Continued)


unnatural color

1:253

wheyed-off

1:253

yeasty (cultured)

1:250

yogurt

1:243

Cultures

3:51

cheese cultures

3:21

frozen desserts, use in

3:23

yogurt cultures

3:26

3:27

Curdy
cultured products

1:250

ice cream

1:228

Cyclone separators

2:277

D
Dairy and Food Industries Supply Association

3:3

Dairy equipment and supplies

3:156

Dairy microbiology

2:304

microorganisms associated with milk

3:42

2:305

bacteria

2:305

viruses

2:318

yeasts and molds

2:318

morphological features

2:305

Dairy products
judging, philosophy

1:175

sources for ice cream

2:62

Dairy safety

2:303

Dairy Safety Initiative Program

3:20

Dalum Dairy Training Center

3:49

Debaryomyces

2:318

Defective container and ice cream

2:146

2:322

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:431

Index terms

Links

Defects
dairy ingredients, and ice cream

2:148

due to flavoring materials

2:149

due to mix processing and storage

2:149

due to storage of ice cream

2:149

due to sweetening agents

2:149

flavoring materials, ice cream and

2:149

identified by sight, ice cream and

2:146

in body, ice cream and

2:147

meltdown characteristics of ice cream

2:146

mix processing and storage, and ice cream

2:149

of dairy products, milk and cream

1:175

of flavor

2:147

of frozen dessert novelties

2:150

of ice cream

2:145

defective container

2:146

defects contributed by the dairy ingredients

2:148

of texture

2:147

product appearance

2:146

Dehydrated
concentrated milk products

2:69

sweetening agents, and ice cream

2:149

texture, and ice cream

2:147

Demineralization
Density

2:289
1:49

Density and degrees Baume (Be)

2:109

Descriptive analysis

1:168

Desulfotomaculum

2:314

Dextrose
addition to milk
Diacetyl flavor, cottage cheese

1:51
1:171

2:80
2:269
1:190

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:432

Index terms

Links

Diafiltration

2:290

Dimensions and units

3:307

Dioxin

3:62

Direct-draw shakes formulation

2:118

Discharge dock

3:306

Discrimination testing

1:168

Dispersed systems of protein

1:309

Dispersions of protein

1:292

1:170

Diversification

2:5

DLVO theory

1:37

1:48

3:113
3:143

3:118

Domain
Dried buttermilk
Dried dairy ingredients

2:74
2:286

casein

2:291

definitions

2:271

lactose

2:296

powder

2:271

whey

2:286

2:289

Dry matter content


of condensed milk

2:270

of lactose syrup

2:298

Dry milk

1:267

advantages of

2:259

caked

1:273

chalky

1:269

grades

1:268

judging criteria

1:268

lumpy

1:273

neutralizer

1:272

powder and microbiology

2:381

1:269

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:119

3:433

Index terms

Links

Dry milk (Continued)


processes

1:267

scorched

1:268

score card

1:270

scoring guide

1:272

stale

1:269

unnatural color browned or


darkened
visible dark particles
Dry storage areas
Dry whey

1:273
1:273
3:305
2:73

Drying
attrition

2:294

fluid bed dryer

2:280

foam mat drying

2:274

history of

2:258

industrial applications of

2:259

of whey protein concentrate

2:290

preparing raw milk for

2:259

roller drying

2:273

2:274

spray drying

2:274

2:275

vacuum chamber drying

2:274

vibrating dryer

2:294

Dulce de leche

2:271

Dull appearance, cultured products

1:252

Dull color, ice cream

1:227

2:294

E
E. aerogenes

2:309

E. agglomerans

2:309

E. cloacae

2:309

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:434

Index terms
E. coli

Links
2:309

2:328

3:85
E. faecalis

2:381

E. faecium

2:333

Ear

1:165

Edges (high or uneven), cheddar cheese

1:243

Eggnog

3:31

light

3:35

Electrodialysis

2:289

Electroporation

3:88

Employee training
Emulsifiers

3:4

3:49

2:90

processed cheese

2:231

Emulsion stability

1:46

Emulsions and foams of protein

3:86

1:309

Energy
consumption in evaporation of milk

2:265

thermal

2:264

Engineering

3:296

Enterobacter

2:309

Enterobacter aerogenes

2:332

Enterobacteriaceae

2:308

Enterococcus

2:312

Environmental concerns

3:20

Environmental Protection Agency

3:33

2:324
2:324
3:47

Enzymes
inactivation of

2:268

2:273

lipase

2:268

in milk

1:15

lipase

1:18

1:22

phosphatase

1:15

1:18

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:332

3:435

Index terms

Links

Enzymes (Continued)
protease
proteolytic

1:18
2:268

Equilibrium, anion-cation equilibrium in milk

2:260

Equipment common to dairies

3:160

centrifuges

3:203

cleaning dairy processing systems

3:217

clean-in-place

3:218

cleaning and sanitizing

3:218

elements of chemical use control

3:240

manual cleaning and clean-out-of-place

3:241

mechanical cleaning systems

3:219

relation of ph to cleaning

3:234

safe chemical handling check list

3:238

sanitary criteria for processing equipment

3:226

types of cleaners

3:236

types of sanitizers

3:23

heat exchangers

3:171

homogenizers

3:213

pipe, valves, and fittings

3:195

installation

3:196

sanitary fittings and valves

3:199

sanitary piping and tubing

3:195

pumps

3:179

centrifugal pumps

3:181

positive displacement pumps

3:181

pump selection factors

3:187

tanks

2:291

3:160

Erysipelothrix

2:316

Escherichia

2:309

Escherichia coli

2:347

Evaporated milk and microbiology

2:381

2:324

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:436

Index terms

Links

Evaporation

2:260

assembly

2:265

condenser

2:265

during spray drying

2:276

energy consumption

2:273

falling film

2:262

heating by steam

2:264

in calandria

2:264

in condensed milk production

2:269

mechanical vapor recompression

2:273

2:26

multiple effect

2:264

multiple evaporators

2:264

of milk

2:262

of whey

2:289

of whey protein concentrate

2:290

plate evaporators

2:264

pressure effect

2:265

single effect

2:265

temperature difference

2:265

thermal vapor recompression

2:265

Excess fruit, yogurt

2:267

2:273

1:266

Expert system applications


bacterial diagnosis

3:107

biscuits

3:142

cheese

3:142

consistency

3:128

dairy Production

3:139

mass spectroscopy

3:107

olive oil

3:141

packaging

3:130

process control

3:127

3:135

sugar

3:128

3:126

3:143

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:136

3:437

Index terms
Expert system evaluation

Links
3:119

advantages

3:117

3:131

disadvantages

3:118

3:126

Eye

1:164

formation and Swiss cheese

2:221

F
Facts

3:110

Fair Packaging and Labeling Act


Falling film tubular evaporator

2:10

3:50

2:262

Fat
Babcock method

1:91

and cheddar cheese

2:218

effect on instantization

2:280

Gerber method

1:93

globules

2:265

and Gouda cheese

2:224

in condensed milk

2:267

infrared method

1:94

Mojonnier method

1:89

Roese-Gottlieb method

1:89

turbidimetric method

1:94

vegetable fat in milk powder


Fat (milkfat)

2:286
3:3

3:21

3:23

3:26
3:30
3:53

3:27
3:34
3:57

3:29
3:39
3:69

fat descriptors

3:54

health claims for lipids

3:54

labeling requirements

3:53

low milkfat products

3:35

Fat globule membrane. See Milkfat globule membrane


This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:438

Index terms

Links

Fat globule. See Milkfat globule


Fatty acids
Fault analyzers
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

1:18

1:23

3:124
3:30

3:50

3:57

3:62

3:67

3:68

Feed, butter

1:201

Feed flavor, cottage cheese

1:190

Feed flavored, milk

1:181

Fermentation, susceptibility to

2:269

Fermented, cultured products

1:246

Fermented/fruity
cheddar cheese

1:231

cottage cheese

1:190

milk

1:181

Fermented milk products, manufacture equipment


Filled Milk Act

3:281
3:51

Finished product storage

3:306

Firm/rubbery, cottage cheese

1:195

Flat
butter

1:203

cottage cheese

1:191

milk

1:182

Flat/lacks flavor, cheddar cheese

1:235

Flavobacterium

2:307

2:324

Flavor
and aroma and alcohol production

2:362

binding of protein

1:324

character and intensity and ice cream

2:132

compounds

2:43

defects and ice cream

2:147

development and cheese ripening

2:213

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:439

Index terms

Links

Flavor (Continued)
of cheddar cheese

2:219

of frozen desserts

2:129

chocolate flavor

2:135

flavor character and intensity

2:132

propriety flavorings

2:134

quantity of flavoring

2:133

vanilla flavor

2:134

of Gouda cheese

2:224

of Swiss cheese

2:222

unnatural, yogurt

1:263

Floor of processing plant

3:302

Fluffy, ice cream

1:225

Fluid flow characteristics

3:309

Fluid milk packaging

3:320

Foamy, ice cream

1:229

Food Additives Amendment of 1958

3:30

Food additives and GRAS substances

3:30

3:37

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

3:39

3:49

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

2:8
3:7
3:44
3:57
3:64

2:11
3:13
3:52
3:59
3:67

2:12
3:20
3:55
3:62

Food ingredients

3:31

colors

3:23
3:60

3:31

3:51

emulsifiers and stabilizers

3:23

3:25

3:26

3:32

3:60

3:23

3:27

3:51

3:52

flavors
indirect additives

3:33

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:32

3:440

Index terms

Links

Food ingredients (Continued)


preservatives

3:7
3:51

processing aids

3:32

3:32
3:60

3:40

3:120

3:126

See also Vitamins


Foreign
cottage cheese

1:191

cultured products

1:247

milk

1:182

yogurt

1:258

Foreign material
butter

1:213

Formulation for ice cream

2:110

all-natural designation

2:113

chocolate ice cream mix

2:114

direct-draw shakes

2:118

frozen yogurt

2:119

fruit ice cream

2:115

nonstandardized products

2:120

other frozen desserts

2:119

plain (white) ice cream mix

2:114

premium and superpremium products

2:112

products containing 0 to 2% fat

2:117

products containing 2 to 7% fat

2:116

sherbets and ices

2:117

Foundation type of processing plant

3:301

Frames

3:110

Framing concept of processing plant

3:301

Free cream, cottage cheese

1:196

Free whey
cottage cheese

1:196

yogurt

1:266

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:441

Index terms
Freezing of the mix for ice cream
amount of water frozen
Freezing point of milk
Fresh cheese

Links
2:136
2:138
1:52
2:164

Frozen concentrated milk products

2:75

Frozen desserts

3:14

3:23

3:34

3:53

3:59

3:64

calculation of overrun

1:145

fat measurement

1:93

types of

2:61

1:94

See also Ice Cream.


Frozen yogurt

2:35

formulation

2:119

manufacture

2:36

technology

2:36

Fruit ice cream formulation

2:115

Fruit preparation

2:5

composition

2:30

Functional properties of protein

1:278

Furasium

2:322

2:383

G
G. candidum

2:383

Garlic
milk

1:182

Garlic/onion
butter

1:203

cheddar cheese

1:235

Gassy
cheddar cheese

1:240

cultured products

1:250

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:442

Index terms

Links

Gelatinous
cottage cheese

1:195

Gellike
yogurt
Gelling properties of protein

1:264
1:297

Gene delivery systems

3:89

Generic name and ice cream

2:60

Genetic engineering for improving starter cultures

2:366

Geotrichum

2:322

Geotrichum candidum

2:383

Globular proteins of protein

1:297

Glucose, addition to milk

2:269

Good manufacturing practices (GMPs)

3:36

3:49

grading and inspection

3:34

3:40

regulatory requirements

3:40

Gouda cheese microbiological and biochemical changes

2:222

fate of fat

2:224

fate of lactose

2:223

fate of proteins

2:223

flavor

2:224

microbiological changes

2:224

Government regulations and ice cream


Grains

2:60
2:5

Grainy
butter

1:212

yogurt

1:264

Grainy/gritty
cultured products

1:251

Green, cultured products

1:247

Green apple

1:192

See acetaldehyde
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:443

Index terms

Links

Green cheese products, manufacture equipment

3:281

Grinding, of dried casein

2:294

Growth and propagation and starter cultures

2:363

Growth of dairy microbes in milk and dairy products

2:321

relative growth rates of psychrotrophs

2:321

sources of psyhrotrophs in milk

2:323

significance of the presence and growth of


psychrotrophs

2:324

Gummy
butter

1:211

ice cream

1:226

H
HACCP

2:394

Hafnia

2:311

Hansenula

2:382

Hard cheese and microbiology

2:383

Hazard analysis and critical control points (HAACP)


basic concepts
Hazards, food
chemical contamination

3:23

3:70

3:4
3:5
3:78

extraneous matter

3:8

functional hazards

3:8

3:21

See also Microbiological hazards


Health properties
antibiosis

2:39
2:47

and diarrhea

2:49

anticarcinogenic

2:50

cholesterol reduction

2:49

gastrointestinal tract

2:52

hypolactasia

2:51

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:444

Index terms

Links

Health properties (Continued)


immune modulation

2:53

lactase deficiency

2:51

lactose intolerance

2:51

Heat capacity

1:60

Heat exchangers

2:264

Heat transfer for fluid products

3:310

heat transfer for fluid products

3:310

pasteurization

3:312

UHT processing

3:313

3:171

Heat treatment
and caseins

1:325

and processed cheese

2:234

and starter bacteria

2:185

and whey proteins

1:328

of milk for cheesemaking

2:169

of protein

1:325

Heated, cheddar cheese

1:235

Heating
in milk powder production

2:273

in sweetened condensed milk production

2:268

preheating of milk

2:260

thermal stability of milk

2:260

2:266

3:8

3:38

3:6

3:62

1:168

1:169

Heavy metals
lead
Hedonic rating
Heterologous proteins manufacture

3:91

High acid
cheddar cheese

1:235

cultured products

1:247

yogurt

1:259

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:445

Index terms

Links

High acid (sour)


cottage cheese
High melting glycerides

1:191
1:42

High salt
butter

1:205

High-temperature processing equipment

3:281

History of starter culture production

2:191

Homogenization

1:25

1:44

1:47

2:125
3:29

2:265

3:26

chemical changes in milk

2:266

condition of the homogenizer

2:127

homogenization temperature

2:125

homogenizing pressure

2:126

location of the homogenize!

2:125

principles

3:316

temperature

2:125

Homogenizers

3:213

Honey

2:82

HTST

2:25

Human milk

2:281

Hydration/rehydration properties of protein

1:284

Hydrogen peroxide and starter bacteria

2:183

Hydrolysis, of lactose

2:267

Hydrolytic rancidity
lipolytic bacteria

1:132

measurement

1:112

psychrotrophic bacteria

1:131

sensory evaluation

1:147

Hygroscopicity
of whey powder

2:289

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:446

Index terms
Hypochlorites, measurement

Links
1:113

I
Ice cream

1:49
2:7
3:14
3:35
3:52
3:61

acid

1:215

active areas of research in ice cream

2:153

calculations and mix standardization

2:92

coarse/Icy

1:225

cooked

1:216

crumbly

1:225

curdy

1:228

defects of ice cream

2:145

does not melt

1:228

dull color

1:227

flavoring of frozen desserts

2:129

fluffy

1:225

foamy

1:229

formulation

2:110

freezing of the mix

2:136

frozen dairy desserts and microbiology

2:385

generic name

2:60

government regulations

2:60

gummy

1:226

hardening

2:142

ice cream hardening

2:142

judging

1:214

lacks fine flavor

1:217

1:50
2:59
3:31
3:48
3:53

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

1:214
3:3
3:32
3:51
3:60

3:447

Index terms

Links

Ice cream (Continued)


lacks flavoring

1:219

lacks freshness

1:219

lacks sweetness

1:221

light

3:35

melting quality

1:228

metallic

1:221

mix processing

2:121

nonuniform color

1:227

old Ingredient

1:221

oxidized

1:222

plant management

2:151

processes

3:23

products
with 0 to 2% fat formulation

2:117

with 2 to 7% fat formulation

2:116

rancid

1:222

salty

1:222

sandy

1:226

score card

1:216

scoring

1:216

scoring guide

1:218

selection of Ingredients
soggy

1:220

2:61
1:226

steps in manufacture

2:59

storage

1:223

syrup flavor

1:223

too high flavor

1:223

too pale color

1:229

too sweet

1:224

types of frozen desserts


unnatural color

2:61
1:228

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:448

Index terms

Links

Ice cream (Continued)


unnatural flavoring

1:224

watery

1:229

weak

1:226

whey

1:224

wheyed-off

1:229

Ice cream and frozen desert


equipment

3:241

batch freezers

3:247

bulky flavor addition

3:250

continuous freezers

3:249

mix freezing

3:246

mix preparation

3:242

novelty equipment

3:250

Ideality

1:158

Imitation milk powder


advantages of
Immune stimulation
Immunological factors
Indicator organism

2:286
2:286
2:5
2:282
3:6

3:20

2:281
3:62

3:40
3:66

3:57

backward Chaining

3:114

3:115

3:120

decision tree

3:114

forward chaining

3:114

3:115

3:120

inference engine

3:113

3:125

Infant formula
Inference Strategies

Ingredients

2:8

dairy

2:8

optional

2:8

other

2:8

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:449

Index terms

Links

Ingredients selection, ice cream

2:61

concentrated milk products

2:67

corn syrups

2:81

dehydrated concentrated milk products

2:69

dextrose

2:80

dried buttermilk
dry whey

2:73

emulsifiers

2:90

frozen concentrated milk products

2:75

honey

2:82

miscellaneous ingredients

2:92

mode of stabilizer action

2:87

nonconcentrated milk products

2:63

other dry ingredients

2:74

perishable concentrated milk products

2:67

preserved fluid concentrated milk products

2:74

sources of dairy products

2:62

stabilizers

2:82

substitutes for dairy products

2:75

sucrose

2:79

sweetening agents

2:76

Inhibition and control of microorganisms in milk and


dairy products

2:326

carbon dioxide

2:336

lactic acid bacteria and bacteriocins

2:332

lactofenin

2:330

lactoperoxidase

2:327

lysozyme

2:331

natural antimicrobial systems

2:326

potassium sorbate

2:335

removal of microorganisms by physical methods

2:336

xanthine oxidase

2:331

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:450

Index terms
Inhibition of starter cultures
Inhibitors

Links
2:365
2:18

antibiotics

2:19

bacteriophage

2:20

sweeteners

2:19

Inhibitors and growth of starter bacteria

2:182

agglutination

2:185

antibiotic

2:186

bacteriocins

2:182

heat treatment

2:185

hydrogen peroxide

2:183

lactoperoxidase/thiocyanate/H2O2 system

2:183

lipolysis

2:182

pH

2:186

Instant milk powder

2:278

patent

2:258

reconstitution of

2:279

Instantization
rewet process

2:280

straight-through process

2:280

by agglomeration

2:280

effect of fat on

2:280

Institute of Food Technologists

3:3

Institutional containers

3:325

Integration

3:125

Interfacial behavior of milk proteins of protein

1:303

Interfacial tension
International Association of Milk, Food and
Environmental Sanitarians
International Ice Cream Association
Internationalization of the dairy industry

1:44

3:126
1:56

3:2
3:20

3:42

3:6

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:451

Index terms
Interstate Milk Shippers

Links
2:10

Iodine (iodophors), measurement

1:113

Ion exchange

2:289

J
Jalisco Mexican Products, Inc.

3:19

Jewel Companies, Inc.

3:19

K
Klebsiella

2:309

Kloeckera

2:384

Kluyveromyces

2:318

Kluyveromyces fragilis

2:388

Kluyveromyces marxianus

2:383

Knowledge base

3:108

2:324
2:322

metaknowledge

3:127

objects

3:109
3:148

3:112

3:120

rules

3:108

3:110

3:111

3:127

3:141

scripts

3:112

Knowledge engineer

3:118
3:142

Kosher certification

3:59

Kurthia

3:119

2:316

L
L. acidophilus

2:315

2:332

L. brevis

2:315

2:332

L. bulgaricus

2:315

2:332

L. casei

2:315

2:332

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:126

3:452

Index terms

Links

L. cremoris

2:313

L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgariciis

2:315

L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis

2:315

L. dextranicum

2:313

L. helveticus

2:315

L. innocua

2:329

L. lactis

2:315

L. lactis subsp.

3:83

L. lactis subsp. cremoris

2:332

L. lactis subsp. lactis

2:332

L. mesenteroides

2:315

L. mesenteroides subsp. ceremoris

3:88

L. mesenteroides subsp. dextranicum

3:88

L. monocytogenes

2:315

L. plantarum

2:332

Labeling, product

3:86

2:332

2:330

3:21

3:50

fortification

3:29

3:55

imitation and substitute foods

3:53

3:54

3:69
ingredient labeling

3:50

misbranding errors

3:8

open date labeling

3:57

PMOrules

3:13

3:54
3:70

See also Kosher certification, nutritional labeling


Laboratory

3:137

analysis

3:140

laboratory information management system

3:140

Lacks acid (flat), cultured products

1:247

Lacks cream, cottage cheese

1:197

Lacks culture flavor, cultured products

1:248

3:141

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:69
3:57

3:453

Index terms

Links

Lacks fine flavor


cottage cheese

1:192

ice cream

1:217

yogurt

1:259

Lacks flavoring
ice cream

1:219

yogurt

1:259

Lacks freshness
cottage cheese

1:192

ice cream

1:219

milk

1:183

yogurt

1:260

Lacks fruit, yogurt

1:266

Lacks sweetness
ice cream

1:221

yogurt

1:260

Lactase

1:26

Lactic acid

1:102

2:41

2:293

2:315

2:316

2:321

2:332

3:78

2:7
2:14
2:18

2:11
2:16
2:19

2:354

3:88

and starter cultures

2:362

bacteria and bacteriocins

2:332

Lactis subsp. lactis

3:81

Lactobacilli
cheese starter cultures

2:179

during cheese ripening

2:179

Lactobacillus
Lactobacillus bulgaricus

Lactobacillus casei
Lactobacillus plantarum

3:87

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:12
2:17
2:20

3:454

Index terms
Lactobacillus spp.

Links
3:85

Lactococcus

2:313

Lactoferrin

2:330

Lactoperoxidase

2:327

Lactoperoxidase/thiocyanate/H/2O/2 system and starter


bacteria

2:183

Lactose

1:26
3:34

and cheddar cheese

2:215

and Gouda cheese

2:224

and Swiss cheese

2:220

composition of commercial forms of

2:298

crystallization nuclei

2:289

crystallization of

1:27
2:296

hydrolysis of

2:267

hydrolyzed in sweetened condensed milk

2:267

intolerance
measurement
polarimetric determination of

1:4

2:332

3:78

2:7
3:38

2:296
3:39

2:270

2:289

2:51

1:99
1:5

prevention of crystallization

2:267

production of

2:289

refining of

2:298

replacement with sucrose

2:286

supersaturated solutions

2:270

transformation from beta- to alpha-form

2:289

Leaky, butter

1:211

Lecithin, addition to milk powder

2:280

Leuconostoc

2:178

Leuconostoc mesenteroides

2:313

Leuconostoc spp.

2:361

2:298

3:78

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:455

Index terms

Links

Light-induced oxidation

1:26

1:56

Lipase enzymes

3:18

3:29

Lipids. See Milkfat


Lipolysis
and starter bacteria
Lipoprotein lipase

1:22
2:182
1:18

1:22

Listeria, monocytogenes

2:304
2:332

2:315
2:344

Lopsided, cheddar cheese

1:243

Low acid, yogurt

1:261

Low-dose irradiation of milk

2:391

Low-fat dairy products

3:79

Lumpy
cultured products

1:251

dry milk

1:273

yogurt

1:267

Lysozyme

2:331

M
Maillard's reactions
effects on milk powder quality

2:274

in sodium casemate production

2:295

Malty
cottage cheese

1:192

milk

1:183

Mammary gland
Manual cleaning and clean-out-of-place
Manufacture, yogurt

1:2
3:241
2:22

CIP

2:25

fermentation

2:27

general principles

2:22

2:27

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:329

3:456

Index terms

Links

Manufacture, yogurt (Continued)


heat treatment

2:25

homogenization

2:27

mix preparation

2:25

packaging

2:27

Margarine

Mastitis

3:31

3:33

3:34

3:53
3:60

3:57

3:58

1:8
3:8
3:68

2:338
3:11

3:7
3:12

common mastitis pathogens

2:339

detection and diagnosis

1:115

economic losses

2:338

effect on milk composition

2:338

factors affecting the incidence of mastitis

2:341

uncommon mastitis pathogens

2:341

Material handling

3:318

Materials

3:322

Matted, cottage cheese

1:197

2:341

Mealy
butter

1:212

cheddar cheese

1:240

Mealy/grainy, cottage cheese

1:195

Mechanical cleaning systems

3:219

Mellorine

3:58

Melt (slow), ice cream

1:228

Meltdown characteristics of ice cream

2:146

Melting quality, ice cream

1:228

Membrane separation processes of protein

1:329

Membrane separation equipment

3:288

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:457

Index terms
Metallic, ice cream

Links
1:221

Metallic/oxidized
cottage cheese

1:193

cultured products

1:249

Micelia sterilia

2:334

Microbacterium

2:316

Microbiological analysis of milk and dairy products

2:367

conventional methods

2:367

rapid methods and automation in dairy microbiology

2:370

shelf-life test

2:378

2:324

tests for assessing sanitation and air quality in dairy


plant
Microbiological considerations of new processing
technologies

2:377
2:386

low-dose irradiation of milk

2:391

microwave processing

2:392

ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis

2:386

ultrahigh temperature sterilization

2:389

use of carbon dioxide

2:392

Microbiological hazards

3:5

3:9

3:21

Campylobacter jejuni

3:6

Clostridium botulinum

3:5

3:62

3:67

Clostridium perfringens

3:5

Escherichia coli

3:6

3:11

3:68

3:6
3:47

3:19

3:21

3:6

3:27

3:32

3:44

3:48

Salmonella

3:6

3:9

somatic cells

3:7

3:11

Staphyiococcus aureus

3:5

viruses

3:7

Listeria monocytogenes
molds

3:48

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:19

3:458

Index terms

Links

Microbiological hazards (Continued)


Yersinia enterocolitica

3:6

See also yeasts, lipase enzymes


Microbiological safety and HACCP

2:394

Microbiological tests for sanitation and air quality

2:377

Microbiology

2:304

growth in milk and dairy products

2:321

relative growth rates of psychrotrophs

2:321

sources of psyhrotrophs in milk

2:323

significance of the presence and growth of


psychrotrophs
microorganisms associated with milk

2:324
2:305

bacteria

2:305

yeasts and molds

2:318

viruses

2:318

morphological features
Microbiology of milk and dairy products

2:305
2:378

aerobic plate count

1:121

butter

2:385

coliform determination

1:126

cottage cheese

2:382

dried milk powder

2:381

evaporated milk

2:381

hard cheese

2:383

ice cream and frozen dairy desserts

2:385

lipolytic bacteria enumeration

1:132

Listeria detection

1:135

methods of enumeration

1:120

mold-ripened cheeses

2:382

pasteurized milk and cream

2:379

pathogenic bacteria determination

1:135

proteolytic bacteria enumeration

1:132

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:459

Index terms

Links

Microbiology of milk and dairy products (Continued)


psychrotrophic bacteria enumeration

1:131

Salmonella detection

1:137

spore-forming bacteria enumeration

1:134

Staphyiococcus aureus enterotoxin measurement

1:137

Staphyiococcus aureus enumeration

1:136

yeast and mold enumeration

1:133

yogurt and cultured milks

2:384

Microbiology of starter cultures


function of starter cultures
flavor 2:aroma and alcohol production
growth and propagation

2:359
2:362
2:362
2:363

inhibition of undesirable organisms

2:363

pH control systems

2:364

phage inhibitory and phage-resistant medium


(PIM/PRM)

2:365

production of lactic acid

2:362

proteolytic and lipolytic activities

2:362

genetic engineering

2:366

inhibition of starter cultures

2:365

terminology

2:359

Micrococcus
Micrococcus sp.

2:322

2:324

3:85

Microorganisms
destruction of

2:268

Saccharomyces fragilis

2:267

Streptococcus cremoris

2:293

Streptococcus lactis

2:293

suppression of staphylococci in milk

2:262

thermoresistance of

2:270

Microorganisms, removal by physical methods

2:273

2:336

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:460

Index terms
Microorganisms associated with milk

Links
2:305

bacteria

2:305

viruses

2:318

yeasts and molds

2:318

Microwave processing of milk and dairy products

2:392

Milk
acid or sour
added water in

1:179
1:52

aftertaste

1:179

astringent

1:179

bitter

1:180

buffering capacity
composition

1:58
1:5

cow

2:23

goat

2:23

mare

2:23

sheep

2:23

water buffalo

2:23

cooked

1:180

cowy

1:181

defects

1:175

definition of
density of
effect of feed on composition

1:42

1:2

1:4

1:49

1:51

2:23

1:6

fat content

1:176

feed

1:181

flat

1:182

foreign

1:182

garlic/onion (weedy)

1:182

judging tips

1:176

lacks freshness

1:183

malty

1:183

2:8

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:11

3:461

Index terms

Links

Milk (Continued)
nutrient composition of

1:5

oxidized (light-induced)

1:184

oxidized (metal-induced)

1:183

plasma, definition of
rancid

1:4
1:184

recombination of

1:44

salt content

1:29

salty

1:185

score card

1:177

scoring guide

1:176

seasonal variation

1:7

serum, definition of

1:4

solids

2:8

2:9

2:23

solids-not-fat

2:8

2:9

2:12

3:5

3:6

3:8

3:33
3:51
3:60
3:64

3:34
3:57
3:61
3:65

3:43
3:59
3:62

3:14

3:23

3:27

3:6

3:32

unclean
viscosity of
Milk

buttermilk
chocolate milk

1:185
1:50

concentrated milk

3:51

cultured milk

3:26

3:51

3:6

3:8

3:14

3:44
3:57

3:51

3:52

3:29

3:57

3:61

3:62

3:69

dry milk (milkpowder)

evaporated milk
goat milk

3:50

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:462

Index terms

Links

Milk (Continued)
Grade A milk

3:13

low fat milk

3:19

3:27

3:32

3:54

3:55

3:57

3:14

3:23

3:27

3:29

3:57

nonfat dry milk


Milk droplet size and surface
Milk fat

2:276
1:18

analysis

1:5

autoxidation of

1:24

chemical properties of

1:18

composition of

1:18

crystallization of

1:20

1:56

1:22

1:23

1:48
density of

1:49

lipolysis of

1:22

physical properties of

1:19

rancidity of

1:22

Milk fat globule

1:41

aggregation

1:48

destabilization of

1:48

size

1:46

stability of

1:46

Milk fat globule membrane


recombined
Milk Industry Foundation

1:3

1:51

1:22

1:44
3:20

Milk powder

2:271

high-heat

2:272

low-heat

2:272

bulk density

2:277

effect of Maillard's reactions on

2:274

history of production

2:258

3:42

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

1:41

3:463

Index terms

Links

Milk powder (Continued)


imitation

2:286

instant

2:258

modified

2:286

packaging and storage

2:278

particle structure

2:276

recovery

2:277

Milk processing rooms

3:305

Milk products, concentrated and dried

2:257

2:278

Milk proteins
classification

1:9

composition of

1:9

Milk replacer
Minerals, measurement

3:9
1:102

Minerals

1:2

Minerals

3:53

calcium
Miscellaneous ingredients for ice cream

3:53

1:29

3:54

3:57

2:92

Misshapen, cheddar cheese

1:243

Mix cooling and storage

2:127

aging of the mix

2:127

mix packaging

2:129

Mix made in a vacuum pan for ice cream

2:108

Mix processing for ice cream

2:121

pasteurization

1:8

2:121

assembly of ingredients

2:121

batch pasteurization

2:123

continuous pasteurization

2:123

effect of heat treatment

2:124

pasteurization

2:122

homogenization

2:125

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:464

Index terms

Links

Mix processing for ice cream (Continued)


condition of the homogenizer

2:127

homogenization temperature

2:125

homogenizing pressure

2:126

location of the homogenizer

2:125

mix cooling and storage

2:127

aging of the mix

2:127

mix packaging

2:129

Mix standardization for ice cream

2:92

algebraic method

2:100

mix made in a vacuum pan

2:108

restandardizing a mix of erroneous composition

2:104

serum point method

2:94

simplest case

2:93

Modified milk powder

2:286

Mold, butter

1:213

Mold-ripened cheese microbiological and biochemical


changes

2:224

blue cheese

2:224

brie cheese

2:226

camembert cheese

2:226

and microbiology

2:382

Molds and cheese starter cultures

2:226

2:181

Penicillium camemberti

2:181

Penicillium roqueforti

2:181

Moldy, cheddar cheese

1:237

Monilia

2:384

Moraxella

2:308

2:324

Mottled
butter

1:213

cheddar cheese

1:242

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:465

Index terms

Links

Mozzarella and provolone cheese

2:205

Mozzarella cheese microbiological and biochemical


changes

2:227

MSNF in skim milk and cream


Mucor

2:92
2:322

Musty
butter

1:207

cottage cheese

1:193

Mycobacterium

2:318

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

2:318

Mycotoxins and amines

2:349

Mycotoxins in milk and dairy products

2:350

fate of aflatoxin 1

2:355

elimination

2:356

regulation

2:358

N
Nanofiltration of protein processing

1:330

National Academy of Sciences (NAS)

3:52

National Cheese Institute

3:42

National Conference on Interstate Milk Shipments


(NCIMS)

3:13

National Dairy Board

3:49

National Food Processors Association

3:40

National Institute of Standards and Technology

3:64

National Mastitis Council

3:12

National Yogurt Association

2:10

Natural cheese versus processed cheese


Nestle

3:55

3:25

2:231
3:69

Neutralizer
butter

1:207
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:466

Index terms

Links

Neutralizer (Continued)
dry milk

1:272

Nonconcentrated milk products

2:63

Nonfat dry milk

2:11

Nonstandardized products formulation

2:120

Nonuniform color, ice cream

1:227

Nose

1:162

Nutrition
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990

2:21

3:3

3:52

3:34

3:52

2:24

Nutritional changes
carbohydrates

2:41

lipids

2:43

postfermentation

2:51

prefermentation

2:39

proteins

2:43

Nutritional labeling

3:34

analytical methods

3:54

Daily Reference Values (DRVs)

3:53

descriptors

3:54

federal preemption

3:54

food categories

3:53

health claims

3:54

label format

3:55

nutrient content

3:53

Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs)

3:53

serving sizes

3:53

Nutritional properties
Nuts

3:52

3:68

3:57

3:58

2:39
2:5

O
Obesumbacterium

2:308

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:467

Index terms

Links

Office/laboratories/toilets/lockers, etc.

3:307

Old cream, butter

1:208

Old ingredient
ice cream

1:221

yogurt

1:261

Olfactory tissue
Optical properties
Organ of corti

1:158
1:60
1:158

Organization and management

3:4

Organoleptic attributes

3:3

destruction of flavor

3:15

flavor of raw milk


flavor of UHT milk products
hazard of poor taste
retention of flavor and body

1:162

3:36

3:9
3:18

3:66

3:8
3:14

Osmoanabiosis

2:267

Osmosis, reverse

2:265

Overstabilized, cottage cheese

1:195

2:271

Oxidation. See Autoxidation


Oxidation-reduction potential

1:55

Oxidized
butter

1:208

ice cream

1:222

yogurt

1:261

Oxidized
light-induced, milk

1:184

metal-induced, milk

1:183

metallic, cottage cheese

1:193

P
P. brevicompactum

2:355

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:289

3:468

Index terms

Links

P. camemberti

2:355

P. crustosum

2:383

P. cyclopium

2:354

P. expansum

2:335

P. fluorescens

2:322

P. fragi

2:322

P. frequentans

2:384

P. maltophilia

2:307

P. putida

2:382

P. roqueforti

2:355

P. verrucosum var. cyclopium

2:354

P. verrucosum var. overrucosium

2:355

P. viridicatum

2:358

Packaged weight control

3:21
3:64

slack filled container

3:8

weights of containers, control point

3:9

Packaging
functional needs

3:60
2:278

in cans

2:270

in inert atmosphere

2:278

in metal barrels and drums

2:270

materials testing

3:62

of casein powder

2:294

of milk powder

2:278

of sweetened condensed milk

2:270

of unsweetened condensed milk

2:266

planning of wrapping materials for milk powder


tamper-evident closures

3:22

3:296

3:60

in bags

packaging materials

2:325

3:33

2:294

2:278

3:52

2:278
3:13

3:52

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:58

3:469

Index terms

Links

Packaging (Continued)
See also aseptic packaging, packaged weight control
Paperboard packaging

3:323

Parmesan cheese

2:201

microbiological and biochemical changes

2:228

Particles (dark)
assembly of ingredients

2:12

assurance of adequacy

1:139

batch pasteurization

2:123

continuous pasteurization

2:123

dry milk

1:273

effect of heat treatment

2:124

in condensed milk production

2:269

in whey protein concentrate production

2:290

pasteurization
Pasteur, Louis

3:12

Pasteurization

2:121

2:122

3:4

3:5
3:11
3:22
3:26
3:67

3:6
3:12
3:23
3:29

3:7
3:19
3:25
3:57

3:50

conditions

3:14

batch pasteurization

3:15

blanching

3:14

high-temperature, short-time (HTST)

3:15

higher-heat, shorter-time (HHST)

3:15

ultra-high temperature (UHT)

3:13

3:18

3:63

3:66

definition of

3:13

labeling requirements

3:50

Pasteurized milk and cream and microbiology

2:379

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:470

Index terms
Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO)

Links
2:10

3:24

3:37

3:40

3:50

3:63

Pasty
cheddar cheese

1:241

cottage cheese

1:196

Pathogenic bacteria in milk and dairy products

2:342

Bacillus cereus

2:348

Campylobacter jejuni

2:346

economic significance of pathogens

2:348

Escherichia coli

2:347

Listeria monocytogenes

2:344

mycotoxins and amines

2:349

Yersinia enterocolitica

2:346

Pediococci and cheese starter cultures

2:180

Penicillium

2:322

Penicilliwn camemberti

2:181

Penicillium roqueforti

2:181

Per capita consumption


Perishable concentrated milk products
Permeate
Pest control

2:3

2:47

2:67
2:289
3:48

Pesticides
milk quality

1:147

measurement

1:114

pH

2:186

and cleaning

3:234

bulk starter propagation

2:192

casein production

2:293

coprecipitates

2:296

microbiological stability in processed cheese

2:234

propagation of cultures

2:194

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:471

Index terms

Links

pH (Continued)
starter cultures

2:364

Phage-free starters

2:196

Phage inhibitory and phage-resistant medium


(PIM/PRM)

2:365

Phosphatase
detection
test

1:139
2:10

Phosphates in milk

2:262

Physical senses: sight hearing, and touch

1:159

Physicochemical properties

1:280

Pichia

2:322

Pipe, valves, and fittings

3:195

installation

3:196

sanitary fittings and valves

3:199

sanitary piping and tubing

3:195

Plain (white) ice cream mix formulation

2:114

Plant and equipment

3:326

Plant and grounds


Plant construction and arrangement

2:39

3:47
3:296

construction considerations

3:297

construction materials

3:300

contour of building site

3:297

floor

3:302

foundation type

3:301

framing concept

3:301

roof design

3:302

social concern

3:300

soil, wind, and seismic conditions

3:298

type of business

3:297

utilitieswater quality, sewage requirements

3:299

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:472

Index terms

Links

Plant construction and arrangement (Continued)


walls and doors

3:303

design

3:296

layout

3:303

discharge dock

3:306

dry storage areas

3:305

finished product storage

3:306

milk processing rooms

3:305

office/laboratories/toilets/lockers, etc.

3:307

process flow diagrams and general arrangements

3:304

receiving docks (fluid milk, raw ingredient)

3:305

storage tanks

3:305

management and ice cream


Plasmin

2:151
1:18

Plasmolysis

2:259

Plastic packaging

3:325

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

3:33

Polysaccharides

2:43

Positive displacement pumps

3:181

Postculturing heat treatment

2:32

Potassium sorbate

1:41

2:335

Powder
agglomerated lactose

2:298

dried casein

2:294

instant milk powder

2:278

Preheating of milk

2:262

Premium and superpremium products

2:112

Preservatives

2:10

Preserved fluid concentrated milk products

2:74

Preventative maintenance program

3:319

Process control

3:121

3:136

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:473

Index terms

Links

Process flow diagrams and general arrangements

3:304

Processed cheese products

2:229

advantages of process cheeses over natural cheese

2:231

emulsifiers

2:231

heat treatment

2:234

pH and microbiological stability

2:234

Processing engineering

3:307

dimensions and units

3:307

fluid flow characteristics

3:309

heat transfer for fluid products

3:310

heat transfer for fluid products

3:310

pasteurization

3:312

UHT processing

3:313

material handling

3:318

preventative maintenance program

3:319

principles of homogenization

3:316

Processing of protein

1:325

Product

3:327

Product appearance and ice cream

2:146

Product packaging

3:320

aseptic packaging

3:321

institutional containers

3:325

materials

3:322

paperboard packaging

3:323

plastic packaging

3:325

fluid milk packaging

3:320

regulations

3:326

plant and equipment

3:326

product

3:327

Product recall
Programmable logic controllers

3:66
3:121
3:127

3:123
3:121

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:125

3:474

Index terms
Proliferation of new products

Links
3:69

Properties and environment of protein

1:282

Propionibacteria and cheese starter cultures

2:180

Propionibacterium

2:316

Proportional-integral-derivative

3:124

Propriety flavorings and ice cream

2:134

Protein

1:277

2:21

2:23

2:43
3:22
3:57

3:9
3:38
3:69

3:2
3:53

analysis of

1:5

components in milk

1:280

composition

1:280

dispersed systems

1:309

dispersions

1:292

effects of heat treatments

1:325

effects on caseins

1:325

effects on whey proteins

1:328

emulsions and foams

1:309

flavor binding

1:324

functional properties

1:278

gelling properties

1:297

globular proteins

1:297

hydration/rehydration properties

1:284

in condensed milk

2:271

interfacial behavior of milk proteins

1:303

measurement

2:317

1:98

membrane separation processes

1:329

nanofiltration

1:330

physicochemical properties

1:280

processing

1:325

properties and environment

1:282

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:475

Index terms

Links

Protein (Continued)
protein-protein interactions

1:292

protein-surface interactions

1:302

reverse osmosis

1:330

rheological behavior

1:292

single cell

2:289

solubility

1:289

stability of

2:266

water-protein interactions

1:282

ultrafiltration

1:331

vegetable protein in milk powder

2:286

See also milk protein


Protein-protein interactions

1:292

Protein-surface interactions

1:302

Proteins
and Gouda cheese

2:224

and Swiss cheese

2:222

Proteolysis
in cheese

2:212

of caseins

2:211

Proteolytic and lipolytic activities and starter cultures

2:362

Proteus vulgaris

2:332

Protoplast fusion

3:87

Pseudomonas

2:303

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

2:332

Pseudomonas fluorescens

2:307

Pseudomonas fragi

2:307

Pseudomonas sp.

2:324

Psychrotrophs

2:321

Pumps

3:179

centrifugal pumps

2:322

3:181

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:325

3:476

Index terms

Links

Pumps (Continued)
efficiency

3:188

positive displacement pumps

3:181

pump selection factors

3:187

selection factors

3:187

Q
Quality
assurance
control

3:3

3:68

2:36

3:3

3:37
3:144

defect analysis

3:142

energy

3:113

3:127

3:13

3:7

environment
fouling
frozen yogurt

3:145
2:39

hazard analysis and critical control points

3:138

pathogen

3:144

product assurance and safety system

3:138

refrigerated yogurt

2:36

sensory evaluation

3:112

3:147

statistical process/quality control

3:133

3:134

definition of
standards

3:3
2:259

condensed milk

2:267

in milk powder production

2:273

unsweetened condensed milk

2:259

Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA)


analysis

1:174

scales

1:173

spider diagram

1:174

terms

1:172

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:148

3:477

Index terms

Links

R
Ragged boring, butter

1:212

Rancid
butter

1:208

cheddar cheese

1:237

cottage cheese

1:193

cultured products

1:249

ice cream

1:222

milk

1:184

yogurt

1:262

Rancidity, lipolytic

2:266

Ranking

1:168

Rapid methods and automation in dairy microbiology

2:370

Rapid methods for detection and identification of


pathogens and toxins

2:376

Raw milk

3:6

3:20

3:27

3:67

antibiotics

3:11

3:27

coliform plate count

3:11

direct microscopic count (DMC)

3:11

flavor

3:9

freezing point determination

3:11

laboratory pasteurization count (LPC)

3:11

preliminary incubation (PI) count

3:11

quality

3:9

sediment

3:12

somatic cell count (SCC)

3:11

standard plate count (SPC)

3:27

3:9

temperature

3:12

3:27

titratable acidity (T.A.)

3:11

3:27

Receiving docks (fluid milk, raw ingredient)

3:305

Reconstituted milk powder, advantages of

2:285

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:21

3:478

Index terms

Links

Redox potential. See Oxidation-reduction potential


Refractive index
Regulations

1:61
3:326

plant and equipment

3:326

product

3:327

Regulatory limits

3:33

Rennet (rennin)

3:21
3:51

3:22
3:60

3:32
3:68

Rennet. See Chymosin


Research and computer
competitive intelligence

3:148

experimental design

3:147

intelligent database

3:146

product development

3:147

Research in ice cream

2:153

ice cream mix

2:153

ice cream structure

2:155

processing and freezing

2:156

Restandardizing a mix of erroneous composition

2:104

Retentate

2:289

Retina

1:158

rods and cones

1:158

Reverse osmosis

2:265

of protein processing

1:164
2:271

1:330

Rhanella

2:308

Rheological behavior of protein

1:292

Rhizopus

2:322

Rhodotorula

2:318

Ricketsiaceae

2:311

Ripened cheese

2:164

2:322

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:289

3:479

Index terms

Links

Romano cheese, microbiological and biochemical


changes
Roof design and processing plant

2:228
3:302

Ropy
cultured products

1:251

yogurt

1:264

Rowland fractionation

1:9

S
S. agalactiae

2:312

2:313

S. aureus

2:312

2:330

S. cremoris

2:312

2:313

S. diacetylactis

2:313

S. dysgalactiae

2:312

S. enteritidis

2:309

S. faecium

2:350

S. lactis

2:313

S. paratyphi

2:334

S. pyogenes

2:313

S. salivarius subsp.

2:313

S. seftenberg

2:310

S. thermophilus

2:313

2:333

S. thyphimurium

2:329

2:332

S. zooepidemicus

2:313

Saccharomyces

2:318

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

2:383

Saccharomyces spp.

2:341

Safe and suitable

2:313

2:322

3:35

Safe chemical handling check list

3:238

Salmonella

2:305

enteritidis

2:309

2:332

2:307

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2:334

3:480

Index terms

Links

Salmonella (Continued)
typhi

2:309

Salt
and cheese

3:3

3:21

3:30

3:32

3:38

3:60

3:40

3:42

3:11
3:41

3:13
3:65

2:210

DRV for sodium

3:54

health claims for sodium

3:54

low sodium products

3:35

sodium descriptors

3:54

sodium labeling

3:53

stabilization of milk with calcium

2:266

stabilizing milk during heating

2:266

See sodium chloride


Salty
cottage cheese

1:191

cultured products

1:250

ice cream

1:222

milk

1:185

Sampling

1:86

butter

1:88

cheese

1:88

dry products

1:88

factors affecting

1:86

liquid products

1:87

Sandy, ice cream

1:226

Sanitary Standards
criteria for processing equipment
Sanitation

application of cleaning/sanitizing solutions

3:3
3:43
3:226
3:3
3:20
3:68
3:45

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:481

Index terms

Links

Sanitation (Continued)
cleaning of equipment

3:43

equipment design and standards

3:20

maintenance of equipment

3:46

materials of construction

3:41

3:36

3:42

See also Sanitizing compounds


Sanitizers, types of
Sanitizing compounds

3:237
3:44

acid-anionic surfacants

3:45

chlorine compounds

3:45

hypochlorites
iodophors
quaternary ammonium compounds

3:8

3:45

3:8

3:43

3:45

Scorched
butter

1:209

dry milk

1:268

Seams, cheddar cheese


dark

1:242

light

1:242

Sediment, measurement

1:106

Self-tuning controllers

3:124

Senses, the

1:158

further subclassified

1:158

hearing

1:158

modality

1:158

sight

1:158

smell

1:158

taste

1:158

threshold

1:158

1:163

touch

1:158

1:167

Sensory analysis, compared to chemical and


microbiological methods

1:146

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3:45

3:482

Index terms
Sensory evaluation

Links
3:9

Sensory evaluation development

1:168

Sensory evaluation technique

1:166

Serratia

2:324

Serratia marcescens

2:311

Serum point method of mix standardization


Shattered curd, cottage cheese

2:94
1:197

Shelf life

3:18
3:62
3:66

test

2:378

Sherbert

3:3

Sherbets and ices formulation

2:117

Shigella

2:334

Shigella dysenteriae

2:334

3:22
3:63

3:29
3:65

3:32

Short
butter

1:212

cheddar cheese

1:241

Shrunken, yogurt

1:267

Sight

1:163

color vision

1:164

Simulation

3:125
3:145

modeling

3:143

optimization

3:131

Skim milk, in acid casein production

2:292

Smell

1:162

sniffing

1:163

olfactory

1:162

olfactory epithelium

1:162

trigeminal

1:162

3:127
3:146

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3:143

3:483

Index terms

Links

Social concern and plant construction

3:300

Sodium caseinate

2:294

in imitation milk

2:286

industrial use of

2:295

Sodium chloride
butter

1:142

cheese

1:143

cryoscope

1:106

mastitis

1:116

Sodium hydroxide, in casein solubilization

2:295

Soggy, ice cream

1:226

Soil, wind, and seismic conditions and processing


plants

3:298

Solubility of protein

1:289

Somatic cells

1:8

freezing point

1:106

measurement

1:115

Sorbic acid, determination, cheese

1:144

Sour, milk

1:179

Specialty equipment

3:241

butter manufacture

3:254

continuous churning

3:255

cream preparation

3:254

packaging

3:256

traditional churning

3:254

cheese

3:256

accessory equipment/mechanical innovations

3:258

cheese vats

3:257

cheesemaking systems

3:256

general processes

3:256

processed cheese

3:261

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3:484

Index terms

Links

Specialty equipment (Continued)


concentration and drying

3:261

cottage cheese and other cultured products

3:277

cottage cheese

3:277

fermented milk products

3:281

green cheese products

3:281

yogurt

3:279

high-temperature processing

3:281

ice cream and frozen desert equipment

3:241

batch freezers

3:247

bulky flavor addition

3:250

continuous freezers

3:249

mix freezing

3:246

mix preparation

3:242

novelty equipment

3:250

membrane separation

3:288

Specks (white), cheddar cheese

1:242

Sporobolomyces

2:382

Sporolactobacillus

2:314

Spray drying

2:275

advantages of

2:278

atomization of milk

2:276

cyclone separators

2:277

flow of air

2:276

fluid bed

2:279

industrial applications of

2:278

nitrosamines in

2:276

of infant formulas

2:282

of sodium casemate

2:295

scrubbers

2:276

temperature regimen

2:276

three-stage procedure

2:279

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3:485

Index terms
Stability of milk, thermal

Links
2:260

Stabilizer action

2:87

Stabilizers

2:29

2:31

2:82

Stale, dry milk

1:269

Standardization of milk

2:265
2:271

2:267
2:273

2:270

3:14
3:54

3:33
3:58

3:37

Standards of identity
Staphylococcus aureus

2:312

Starter bacteria in milk, growth of, inhibitors and

2:182

agglutination

2:185

antibiotic

2:186

bacteriocins

2:182

heat treatment

2:185

hydrogen peroxide

2:183

lactoperoxidase/thiocyanate/H/2O/2 system

2:183

lipolysis

2:182

pH

2:186

Starter culture production

2:191

bulk starter propagation

2:192

aseptic techniques

2:192

phage inhibitory media

2:193

specifically designed starter tanks

2:192

concentrated cultures

2:191

external pH control

2:195

general comments

2:196

helpful points to phage-free starters

2:196

history

2:191

internal pH control

2:195

temperature effect
pH-controlled propagation of cultures
Starter culture systems

2:195
2:194
2:187

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:486

Index terms

Links

Starter cultures, microbiology

2:359

function of starter cultures

2:362

flavor, aroma, and alcohol production


growth and propagation

2:362
2:363

inhibition of undesirable organisms

2:363

pH control systems

2:364

phage inhibitory and phage-resistant medium


(PIM/PRM)

2:365

production of lactic acid

2:362

proteolytic and lipolytic activities

2:362

genetic engineering

2:366

inhibition of starter cultures

2:365

terminology

2:359

Starter cultures and cheese making, type

2:174

Starter propagation, bulk

2:192

aseptic techniques

2:192

phage inhibitory media

2:193

specifically designed starter tanks

2:192

Starter tanks and bulk starter propagation


Starters

2:192
2:13

production
Statistics

2:20
3:64

Sterilization
of cans

2:266

of concentrated milk

2:266

Sticky, butter

1:212

Stirred curd or granular cheddar cheese

2:200

Stokes Equation

1:47

Storage
butter

1:209

ice cream

1:223

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3:487

Index terms

Links

Storage
of milk powder

2:278

of unsweetened condensed milk

2:266

Storage tanks

3:305

Streaky, butter

1:213

Streptococcus

2:312

Streptococcus lactis

2:362

Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus

2:178

Streptococcus thermophilus
Streptomyces natalaensis

2:7
2:14

2:324

2:11
2:16

2:12
2:20

2:334

Substitutes for dairy products

2:75

Successes in biotechnology

3:78

accelerated cheese maturation

3:84

bacteriocins as food preservatives

3:80

bacteriophage resistance

3:83

low-fat dairy products

3:79

Sucrose

2:313

2:79

Sugar
addition to milk

2:267

sugar index

2:269

sugar number

2:269

Sugar

3:3

2:269

3:25

3:53
Sulfamethazine

3:7

Sulfhydryl compounds
antioxidative properties of

2:266

inactivation of

2:273

Sulfide, Cheddar cheese

1:238

Surface color faded, butter

1:214

Surface excess

1:44

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3:30

3:488

Index terms

Links

Surface tension

1:56

Surface tension

2:266

Swallowing

1:179

Sweet casein

2:292

Sweeteners

2:5
2:20

2:8
2:25

2:19
2:28

Sweeteners

3:23
3:32

3:25
3:60

3:26
3:69

See also Sugar


Sweetening agents

2:76

Sweetness, of condensed milk

2:267

Swiss cheese

2:201

Swiss cheese, microbiological and biochemical changes

2:219

CO2 production

2:220

eye formation

2:221

fate of lactose

2:220

fate of proteins

2:222

flavor of swiss cheese

2:222

Syrup flavor, ice cream

1:223

T
Tallowy, butter
Tanford transition

1:210
1:14

Tanks

3:160

Taste

1:159

bitter

1:158

basic taste responses

1:161

filiform papillae

1:160

foliate papillae

1:160

fungiform papillae

1:160

papillae

1:160

1:160

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:489

Index terms

Links

Taste (Continued)
qualities

1:160

receptors multiple qualities

1:162

salt

1:160

salty

1:158

sour

1:158

1:160

sweet

1:158

1:160

taste buds

1:159

tongue

1:160

vallate papillae

1:160

Taste buds

1:158

Tatumella

2:308

Taxonomy

2:15

Tempering, of casein

2:294

Terminology and starter cultures

2:359

Texture nomenclature

1:173

Thermal conductivity

1:60

Thermally processed low-acid foods

3:40

Thickening, of milk

2:269

Titratable acidity

1:58

Titratable acidity

2:8

1:160

2:270
2:10

Titratable acidity. See acidity


Tolerances

3:33

Too firm
cultured products

1:252

yogurt

1:265

Too high color, ice cream

1:227

Too high flavor, ice cream

1:223

Too pale color, ice cream

1:228

Too sweet, ice cream

1:224

Too thin, cultured products

1:252

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2:11

3:490

Index terms

Links

Tools

3:119

3:121

Torulopsis species

2:318

2:322

Total solids
content of sodium casemate

2:295

drying methods

1:96

infra-red method

1:97

lactometer method, milk

1:96

measurement, butter

1:141

measurement, cheese

1:141

Touch

1:166

kinesthesis

1:166

somesthesis

1:166

Training

Transformation and gene delivery systems

3:117
3:132
3:150

3:127
3:149

3:88

electroporation

3:88

gene delivery systems

3:89

Trends in consumption

2:4

Trichoderma

2:358

Trichosporon

2:322

Trigeminal nerves

1:162

Tuberculosis

3:119
3:135

3:5

3:14

1:40

2:25

U
UHT
processing

3:313

Ultrafiltered retentate and cheese

2:207

Ultrafiltration

2:271
3:69

and reverse osmosis

3:35

2:386

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:43

3:491

Index terms

Links

Ultrafiltration (Continued)
asymmetric membranes

2:289

fouling of membranes

2:290

in condensed milk production

2:267

of protein processing

1:331

of whey protein concentrate

2:290

Ultrahigh temperature sterilization of milk and dairy


products
Unavoidable contaminants
Uncertainty

2:389
3:33
3:109
3:120

3:116
3:127

3:117

3:144

Unclean
cheddar cheese

1:238

cottage cheese

1:194

cultured products

1:250

milk

1:185

yogurt

1:263

Unclean/utensil, butter

1:210

Uneven sizes, cheddar cheese

1:243

Unit operations

3:121

clean-in-place

3:122

evaporator

3:122

3:136

thermal processing

3:122

3:144

3:21

3:35

U.S. Department of Agriculture


(USDA)
Unnatural color
butter

1:214

ice cream

1:228

Unnatural flavoring
ice cream

1:224

yogurt

1:263

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3:54

3:492

Index terms
USDA grades
Utilities and processing plant

Links
3:14

3:35

3:299

V
Vanilla flavor and ice cream

2:134

Vapor
recompression

2:265

secondary

2:264

Vibrio cholerae

2:308

Viruses

2:318

Viscosity

1:50
2:273

low-viscosity casein

2:310
2:266

2:268

1:26
2:9
3:16

1:28
2:21
3:32

2:292

Vitamins

1:4
1:101
2:44
3:53

niacin

3:16

riboflavin

3:16

3:57

vitamin A

3:16

3:29

3:53

3:57

3:32

vitamin B-12

3:16

vitamin C

3:16

3:53

3:57

vitamin D

3:29

3:32

3:57

3:40

3:65

W
Walls and doors of processing plant
Warehousing and shipping

3:303
3:22

Water, addition to milk, measurement

1:105

Water-protein interactions of protein

1:282

Watery, ice cream

1:229

Wavy, butter

1:213

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3:493

Index terms

Links

Weak
butter

1:213

cheddar cheese

1:241

ice cream

1:226

yogurt

1:265

Weak/soft, cottage cheese

1:196

Whey
butter

1:210

ice cream

1:224

Whey

2:8

2:286

3:23

3:34
3:43

3:37

3:40

Centri

2:298

in lactose production

2:298

modified
powder

2:8
2:286

hygroscopicity of

2:289

particles

2:289

protein concentrate

2:30

demineralized

2:289

proteins

2:289

2:289

1:14

primary structure

1:14

secondary structure

1:14

sweet

2:290

taint, cheddar cheese

1:238

Wheyed-off
cultured products

1:253

ice cream

1:229

Whipped toppings

3:58

Whipping

1:49

World Health Organization (WHO)

3:39

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3:494

Index terms

Links

X
Xanthine oxidase

2:331

Y
Yarrowia lipolytica
Yeasts

2:383
3:27

3:32

3:44

3:31

3:32

3:51

Yersinia enterocolitica

2:310

2:334

2:346

Yersinia pestis

2:310

Yield, of casein

2:293

Yogurt

1:254

2:1

3:32

3:48
and molds

2:318

Yeasty
butter

1:211

cheddar cheese

1:239

cottage cheese

1:194

cultured products

1:250

yogurt

1:263

Yellow No. 5

3:65
acetaldehyde

1:254

atypical color

1:265

bitter

1:258

cardboard

1:261

color leaching

1:265

composition

2:7

cooked

1:258

cultured milks and microbiology

2:384

definition

1:254

descnption

2:8

excess fruit

1:266

foreign

1:258

2:7

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:495

Index terms

Links

Yogurt (Continued)
free whey
frozen

1:266
2:7

fruit flavored

2:32

fruit-on-the-bottom

2:31

gellike

1:264

grainy

1:264

high acid

1:259

lacks fine flavor

1:259

lacks flavoring

1:259

lacks freshness

1:260

lacks fruit

1:266

lacks sweetness

1:260

light

2:29

live and active

2:10

low acid

2:11

1:261

low-fat

2:6

lumpy

1:267

making

1:254

manufacture equipment

3:279

metallic

1:261

2:9

2:13

nomenclature

2:9

2:12

2:13

nonfat

2:6

2:10

2:13

nutrient profile

2:7

old ingredient

1:261

oxidized

1:261

plain

2:32

plant design

2:24

processes

3:25

rancid

1:262

regulatory aspects

2:8

refrigerated

2:4

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

3:496

Index terms

Links

Yogurt (Continued)
ropy

1:264

score card

1:255

scoring

1:254

scoring guide

1:256

shrunken

1:267

soft serve

2:5

standard of identity

2:8

stirred type

2:31

starters

2:13

texture and flavor

2:31

too firm

1:265

too high flavoring

1:262

too sweet

1:262

unclean

1:263

unnatural flavoring

1:263

weak

1:265

yeasty

1:263

1:257

2:12

Z
Zeta potential

1:38

1:40

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