New Developments and Emerging Trends in

Agricultural Mechanization Technologies to

Improve Agricultural Productivity and
Sustainability, Field Robots and to Address
Farm Labor Scarcity
Tofael Ahamed
Associate Professor, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences
University of Tsukuba, Japan

State-of-the-Art Technology to Drive Agriculture Productivity in the

Next Quarter of the Century
2830 June 2016, The Asian Productivity Organization (APO)
Tokyo, Japan

Agricultural Mechanization

Agricultural Mechanization is one the great

achievement in the 20 the Century (NAE 2000) by the
optimization of efficient use of labor, the timeliness of
operations, and more efficient input management
through the emerging technologies:
Precision Agriculture
Precision Guidance and Auto Steering
System Automation and Control Management
Sensing Systems and Perceptions
Plants Growth Modeling
Man and Machine Communications
2

Driving Factors for Mechanization

Food Processing
LogisticsTransportation
Consumer
Perception
Multi-criteria
Analysis

Data Mining
Genetic Algorithm
Simulation and Modeling

Decision on:
Quality control
Storage conditions
Marketing

ICT

Harvesting Season
(Post-Field Operation
Optimization)

Selection of:
Land
Crop (cultivar)
Cultivation contract

Yield
Monitoring
Harvesting

Growing Season
(In-Field Operation
Optimization)
Pre-harvest Sensing
Site-specific Management
Robotics and Automation
ICT

Cost- benefit
analysis

Soil Sampling
Planning Season
(Pre-field Operation
Optimization)

Data
Analysis

Crop
Scouting

ICT

Data Analysis

Variable Rate
Application

i. Map-based VRA
ii. Sensor-Based VRA

Decision on:
Soil preparation
Sowing rate and time
Fertilization
Water management
Weed control
Pest and disease control

Cost- benefit
analysis

Environmental
impact

Figure 1: Multi-criteria decision analysis at each stage of crop production.

3

Asian Agriculture

Asian Agriculture, the mechanization mostly rice

intensive

The trend moves to contracting basis according to the Kubota

market analysis
High efficiency and durability is the demand
Labor shortages and aging of famers are common in Asian
countries
Mechanized precision irrigation needs to focused, since 70% of
withdrawals of fresh water are used for agriculture (Postel et al.,
1996). By 2025, 1.8 billion people are expected to be living in
areas with absolute water scarcity (UN FAO, 2007), and twothirds of the world population will live in water-stressed areas.

Figure 2: irrigation after transplantation of rice

Figure 3: Irrigation system of rice field at Nigata

Prefecture, Japan.

LABOR SHORTAGES
Japan, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand,
India, Pakistan & Bangladesh

No. of Person (Ten thousand people)

Japan
15~24 yrs, 25~34 yrs,
2%
7%

300
250

242

234

224

217

[[VALUE]]

209

35~44 yrs,
9%

208

200
150

140
102

100

137

[[VALUE]]

97

[[VALUE]]

135

131

89

86

126
83

126

65 years
old and
over, 48%

45~54 yrs,
11%

82

50
0
2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Year

2015

55~64 yrs,
22%

Total workforce in agriculture

Male workforce in agriculture

Figure 6: Agricultural workforce status of Japan (Source: Japan

Statistical yearbook 2016).

Figure 7: Agricultural labor force engaged by age group of 2015

(Source: Japan Statistical yearbook 2016).

Number of Employed Persons (10000

persons)

30500

29976

30000

29418

29500
29000

28641
28364

28500

28065
27695

28000

27355

27500

27032

27000
26500
26000
25500

Percentage of Agricultural workforce

China
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Less than
30 years
old

30-40

25000
2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Year

Figure 8: Number of employed persons in agriculture, forestry,

animal husbandry and fishery (Source: National Bureau of
Statistics of China).

Northern Jiangsu

40-50

50-60

Age Group
Central Jiangsu

60-70

More than
70 years
old

Southern Jiangsu

Figure 9: Percentage of agricultural workforce at different age

groups (Guancheng et. al. (2015).

Indonesia & Malaysia

Indonesia
Number of Farmers (in
Million)

35
30

26.13

25

>64 yrs
13%

21.5

20

Number of
Farmer (Million)

15
10

<15 yrs
0%

31.17

12.2

15 ~ 24 yrs
1%
25 ~ 34 yrs
12%

55 ~ 64 yrs
20%

35 ~ 44 yrs
26%

0
1963

1993

Year

2003

2013

45 ~ 54 yrs
28%

Figure 10: Number of farmers in Indonesia from 1963 to 2013

(Source: The Central Statistics Agency (BPS), 2013)

Figure 11: Percentage of workforce of different age groups in

Indonesian agriculture (Source: The Central Statistics Agency, 2013).

Number of Foreign
Workers in Plantation (Ten
Thousand People)

Malaysia
50
45
40
35
30
25

>55 years
old
45%

<45
years old
30%

20
15
10
5
0

Year
Figure 12: Number of foreign workers in plantation
(Source: Review of labour migration policy in Malaysia,
(2016)

45-55
years old
25%

Figure 13: Percentage of agricultural workforce of different age groups

in Malaysia (Source: Ministry of Agriculture And Agro-based industry ,
(2009).

69
68

30%

67
25%

66

20%

65

15%

64
63

10%

62
5%

61

0%

70

60

Average age (Years old)

35%

Annual Population (Million)

Percentage of Agricultural Labor

Thailand
60
50

49 48

50 48

51 49

2010

2011

2012

54

56

58

51

52

2013

2014

55

40
30

20
10
0

Male

2014

Female

The percentage of agricultural labor population

Total population

Figure 14: Percentage of agricultural labor in Thailand from 2000 to

2014.

Figure 15: Average age of male and female farmers in Thailand

from 2010 to 2014.

India

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20

0
Uttar
Pradesh

Karnataka West Bengal

Bihar

Rajasthan

Pakistan

60

Employment in
Agriculture (Percentage
of Total Employment)

Agricultural workforce (in

Million)

India, Pakistan & Bangladesh

50
40
30
20
10
0

Others

1981

1988

Areas of India
2004-05

1995

Year

2002

2009

2011-12

Figure 17: Employment in Agriculture of Pakistan (Percentage

of total employment)

Workforce ratio by sector, %

Figure 16: State wise effect of agriculture labor availability

in India (Source: NSSO, FICCI, 2015).

Bangladesh

80
70

67

60

60

55
47.5

50
40
30
20

10

25

23
10

25
15

28
20

25

0
2001
Agriculture
Industry

2003

2006

Year

2010

Service
Linear (Agriculture)

Figure 18: Workforce ratios by three sectors of Bangladesh (Source: BBS, 2010)

10

Land Preparation

Land preparation considerably influence the total

productivity factor (TFP).
Agricultural output will have to double by 2050
(GHI, 2011), with simultaneous management of
sustainability. This will require increasing TFP from
the current level of 1.4 for agricultural production
systems to a consistent level of 1.75 or higher. (John
F. Reid 2011).

11

Land Preparation

Figure 19: Land preparation by tractor in Japan.

12

Land Preparation

Figure 20: Land preparation in USA.

13

Swampy Areas

Figure 21: Land preparation in Thailand.

14

Field Robots-Land Preparation

Figure 22: Laboratory of Vehicle Robotics, Hokkaido University.

Courtesy: Professor Noburo Noguchi

15

(a)

(b)
Figure 23: Laboratory of Vehicle Robotics, Hokkaido University.
Courtesy: Professor Noburo Noguchi
16

Tilling Robot

Video
National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO)

17

MECHANIZATION-

Transplanter

A manual rice transplanting needs 8hrs of work by 20 labors for 1ha of paddy field.
Whereas a transplanter needs 2 persons and 8hrs of work for 1ha paddy. (Joji Arihara,
2014) .
Two types of transplanter depending on seedlings usage
Washed-root seedlings: Plants are pulled from the nursery. Soil is washed from the
roots, and then the plants are placed in transplanters. The seedlings are the same
age as those for hand transplanting.

Soil-bearing seedlings: The seeds are sown and grown in a nursery box, then
transplanted with the soil in the root zone.
Transplanters based on prime mover (Bala and Wan, 2014)

Power tillers: Power tillers (KPP 315) series has two-lines a single wheel powered by
gasoline engine.
Tractor mounted: Has a capacity of 6-10 rows transplanting width. Powered by a
tractor engine of 25 h powers via power take-up shaft connected to arrangement of
linking mechanism of pulley/belts.
Self-propelled: Are of two categories, first called Walk behind type (Japanese model)
a two or four row paddy rice transplanter.
19

Transplanter

Japan developed the first rice transplanter with the patent obtained in 1898
(Han & Kim, 1971).

The prototype of worlds first long mat with

hydroponically grown rice seedling (6m long) rice
transplanter, with GPS, transplants rice on the preprogrammed route based on the shape of the rice field,
(National Agricultural Research Center (NRAC) in
Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan, 2004).

An attempt was made to develop a fully automatic

vegetable transplanter (AVT) for individual paper pot
seedlings using walk- behind type hand tractor as the
source of power (Kumar & Raheman, 2011).

20

Seeders

Figure 24: Seeders tractor in USA.

21

Field Robots

Figure 25: Autonomous Rice Trasplanter

National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO)

22

Transplanter

Video
National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO)
23

ROAD NAVIGATION AND

MULTIPLE TASKS

Autonomous Trends

Control and Navigation System

Navigation Sensors

Vehicle Motion Models

Deadreckoing, Kinematic Model and Dynamic Model

Navigation Planer

Position, Heading and Posture Sensors

Track Position, Follow Up straight up and Map

Obstacle avoidance

Steering Controller

Open loop controller

PID controller, FPID controller
Adaptive controller
Reid et al. 2000
25

Operational Scenario
GPS

LRF:U
RG

Road running
LRF
GPS

DR

Field operations: monitoring

plants growth and fertilizer
application

Approaching to implement
DR

LRF:LMS211

Go out from yard

DR
Parking inside the yard

Figure 26: Operational scenario of the field tractor.

26

Instrumentation
Controller Unit
Relay

PLC

Rotary encoder

Computer
Serial
RS232C
Interface

GPS

Generator

Bus bridge

Steering controller

LMS 211

URG
04X

DO:PCI-2424

Linear encoder
DO:PCI-2503

LMS 551

FOG
AD/DA:PCI-3521

Rotary encoder
Timer:PCI-6103
Counter:PCI-6201E

Extension Box
Figure 27: Schematic diagram of basic instrumentation system.

27

Steering Angle and Trajectory Control

Steering actuator

AD/DA
Desired steering angle
PCI-3521

Signal current
Electro hydraulic valve

Hydraulic motor

Computer
Counter
Steering angle

PCI-6201E

Wheel angle
Steering cylinder

Linear encoder

Feedback of steering angle

Polar-based Trajectory
Cartesian-based trajectory
28

Figure 28: Steering angle and trajectory control system.

Approach to Implement, Hitching and Parking

Backward

Forward
Backward

Polar
Cartesian

Forward

(a) Approach to the implement

Yard

(b) Parking of the tractor inside the yard

Figure 29: (a) Approach to the implement, (b) parking of the tractor inside the yard.

29

Field Operations

(a) Autonomous tractor-trailer

(b) Automatic Coupling

Figure 30: (a) Trail running of autonomous tractor, (b) automatic Coupling.

30

Automatic Coupling

Video

31

Navigation Performance
1.5

MP

Forward

0.5

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0
-0.5

y [m]

SP

-1

Backward
-1.5
-2
-2.5

GP
-3

x [m]
Measured

Theoretical

Figure 31: Trajectories for forward and backward navigation.

32

Point-To-Go

Figure 32: Point to go

33

stop-pattern landmark

stop-pattern landmark

(a) Wide curve

(b) Tight curve

stop-pattern landmark

(c) Loop run

Figure 33:

34

On-the-Go and Stopping Over

Figure 40: On-the-go and stopping over.

35

Landmark-Navigation

Video

36

SENSING AND MONITORING

In the future, agricultural machines will become data-rich sensing

and monitoring systems. John F. Reid, John Deer

Sensors for Growth Monitoring

Sensors for Vegetation Mapping

Near-Infrared Sensors

Sensors for Vegetation Mapping

Thermal Imagers

Machine Vision
RADAR and
LIDAR

38

Plant Growth Monitoring

Figure 41: Plant growth monitoring concept using an autonomous tractor.

39

Seasonal Monitoring

hf

hg

hp

hp

September October

hp

hp

November December

Figure 42: Reflection height (hf) from plants are considered as a reference to develop surface map of plant growth.

40

Field Trails:URG04-LX

hg

hp

hp

Field Trail in Grass

Data Extraction Procedure Using URG-04LX

Figure 43: Field trails of URG04-LX.

URG- Data Acquisition

41

Relative Mean Distance

387

337

Figure 44: Mean Relative distance (l) of plants from URG laser range finder (Steps 337-387).

42

Ground-based Sensing

Figure 45: Ground based sensing system trail in the University of Illinois.

43

DCV- Sensors Orientation

Figure 46: DCV sensors.

44

Height Distribution of Miscanthus

Figure 47: DCV height distribution of Woody biomass crops, Miscanthus.

45

Monitoring of Plants Growth

Video

46

MECHANIZATION-HARVESTING

Yield Map

Combine Harvester
Combine owners undertake harvest of crops for
farmers at a reasonable price
One is a head-feeder type and the other is a
conventional type. Head-feeder type used in East Asia
is suitable for harvesting japonica rice. In South and
Southeast Asia, the conventional type of combine
harvester is popular and suitable for Indica rice.

48

(c)
(b)

(a)

Figure 48: A John Deer Combine Harvester with Ag Leader RTK-GPS system: a) Combine Cab; b) RTK-GPS Antenna;
c) Display Console, USA.

49

Field Robots

Figure 49: Laboratory of Vehicle Robotics, Hokkaido University, Japan,

Courtesy: Professor Noburo Noguchi.

50

Leader-Follower Formation

Autonomous Tracking Algorithm

Leader Follower Tracking

(a)

(b)

Figure 50: Relationship of leader, follower and virtual follower: (a) Required formation; (b) Position of virtual follower.

52

Leader-Follower Tracking

Figure 51: Leader-follower formation tracking model.

53

Low Cost and Safety Tracking System

LRF
For road edge detection

Camera
For formation tracking

Figure 52: Low cost and safety tracking system.

54

Leader-follower Relative Position Error

RMS error:
With sensor noise: 0.181 m
After adding EKF: 0.173 m

0.3

Lateral error, x[m]

Lateral error, x[m]

0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4

10

15

20

25

30

35

X[m]
RMS error:
With sensor noise: 0.166 m
After adding EKF: 0.053 m

0.2

Longitudinal error, y[m]

Longitudinal error, y[m]

0.3

0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

RMS error:
With sensor noise: 4.373
After adding EKF: 1.807

6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
0

10

15

20

25

30

10

25

30

15
X[m]

20

25

10
With sensor noise

15
X[m]

20

25

(a) Lateral error; (b) Longitudinal error; and (c) Bearing error.

30

After adding EKF

Fig. Leader-follower relative position error on large sinusoidal curved path

(a) Lateral error; (b) Longitudinal error; and (c) Bearing error.

Fig.10. Leader-follower relative position error on small

sinusoidal
path
Figure
53:curved
Leader-follower

30

RMS error:
With sensor noise: 4.672
After adding EKF: 1.718

35

After adding EKF

20

12
9
6
3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12

X[m]
With sensor noise

15
X[m]

RMS error:
With sensor noise: 0.175 m
After adding EKF: 0.045 m

-12

10

Bearing error,[]

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4

X[m]

Bearing error,[]

RMS error:
With sensor noise: 0.191 m
After adding EKF: 0.126 m

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6

relative position error.

55

Road Edge Detection and Tracking

300

300

Raw Data

250
Distance, [cm]

200

200

150

150

100

100
50

50
0
0

0
200

400

600

Filted

30

250

20

200

Steering angle,[]

300
250
200
100
0

-20
0

200

400

600

100

-10

50

Filted Data

150

10

150

1000

800

Distance, [cm]

500

200

400

600

800

50
0
0

500

1000

1500
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40

Steering angle, []

Distance, [cm]

250

Distance , [cm]

Raw Data

500

1000

1500

1500

800

Figure 54: Road edge detection and tracking.

56

Leader-follower formation

Video
57

Field Robots

Figure 55: Laboratory of Vehicle Robotics, Hokkaido University.

58

SPRAYING AND INTERCULTURAL

OPERATIONS

59

Variable Sensor

Variable Rate Technologies

Map-based variable application

Sensor-based variable application
Sensor

Data processor/controller

Position (GPS), soil/plant condition, ground speed,

system pressure/flow.
On-board computer

Actuator

Pressure regulator, variable-speed motor, hydraulic

cylinder, etc.

60

Computer

CCD Camera

Nozzle Controller
Solenoid valves
and Nozzles

Ground Speed Radar

Weeds

Crop

Figure 56: Schematic diagram of sensor based VRA for smart sprayer at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
61

Smart Sprayer

Figure 58: Smart sprayer (Courtesy L.F Tian, University of Illinois.

62

Figure 59: Image processing algorithm used to identify weeds.

63

Figure 60: A prototype-manipulator and robotic application to identify weeds and apply chemicals, University of Illinois at Urbana64
Champaign.

65

Mechanization and Automation Level

LEVEL 3
Conditional
Automation
LEVEL 2
Partial
Automation

Automation

Driver

LEVEL 1
Assisted
LEVEL 0
No Automation
Diver has to do
the longitudinal
and lateral control
constantly
Vehicle do not have
any intervening
system

Diver has to do
the longitudinal
or lateral control
constantly

The rest
operations done
by the system

Diver has to do
observer the
system
continuously

The system has the

longitudinal and
lateral control for
specific application

Diver does not

always have to
observe the
system. However
need to be stand
by to takeover
the control
The system has both
longitudinal and
lateral control for
specific application.
However, it is
capable to identify
its performance
limits and ask the
driver to take the
control allowing
sufficient time to
takeover.

LEVEL 4
High
Automation

The system do
not need driver
for defined job.

LEVEL 5
Full
Automation

No driver required.
The system is capable
to deal with all
situations
automatically during
the whole process.

System is capable to
manage all situations
automatically for a
defined job.

Figure 61: Level of automation (Source SAE draft J3016).

66

Research Direction

Development of Autonomous Guidance with UAVSynergy of Agricultural Robotics & Precision Agronomics
and Safety Systems

UAV-based Ground Navigation

To develop an UAVbased low altitude

artificial landmark to
navigate ground
vehicles
Tractor-Laser Range
Finder
UAV-Artificial Land
Mark
Figure 62: UAV-based ground navigation.
68

Big Data Analytics

To develop synthesize data analytics and
optimization system for agronomic decision at the
field level using low cost quad copters.
BIGDATA

Gateway

Figure 63: Big data analysis.

69

Decision Support Systems

Remote Sensing Data
Panchromatic images
Multispectral images
Surface temperature
Land use/ cover
NDVI

RS

GIS

Input

GEODATABASE
Model

GIS Dataset
- Population
- Road, land use parcels
- Soil types
- GPS points (Field survey data)
Centralized Geodatabase
- Store
- Retrieve
- Edit/update
- Manage spatial data
Spatial Modeling
- Site suitability analysis
- Land use change model
- Deforestation process
- Land degradation process

Output
End Users
Agricultural unions
Urban planners
Policy makers

Decision Support System

- Site selection
- Land use planning
- Policy making
- Precision farming
- Natural resources management

70

Figure 64: Remote Sensing and GIS for decision support systems (Courtesy of Ko Ko Lwin, University of Tsukuba).

Operators Safety
Driver action dataset (7 classes):
One subjects, each action was repeated by one
subject 5 times.
The total number of the action sequences was 35.

blinking

Look right or left

Look back

Rubbing eye

Phone

Figure 65: Operators safety.

nodding

Yawning with hand

11

Dynamic Driver Action Dataset

Figure 66: Dynamic driver action dataset.

72

Precision Agronomics
Remote Access to
On-Beard and
Optimization of
Machinery
Operation (ROM)
Variable rate
planting
Variable rate
irrigation
Variable rate
fertilizer

Genetic
Potentials of
Crops for MicroClimatic
Adaptability

High
resolution
Quality of data
mapping and
sensing

Agronomic
Decision with
Weather
Adaptation

Synergy
Remove and
reduce

Management

Variable rate
pesticides
Machine
Optimization

Site and time-specific

at field level
(Agronomy is Local)

Targeting
Agronomy

Data
Management

Data office
computer

Tablet

Cloud

Data sharing

Data security

Data primary
user right

Figure 67: The big picture of cloud applications in the precision agronomics with machine optimization, targeting
agronomy and data management.

73

Conclusions

Agricultural mechanization and consolidated farm approach or

contract hiring of machinery would be a good solution in the
Asian Countries.
Field robots are still required more research to adopt in the
consolidated farms for Asian countries, where labor shortage
exist considerably .
Sensing and monitoring using NIR would be potential measures
connecting with the analytical platforms of mechanization.
Machine optimization, targeting agronomy and data
management would be the core of precision agronomics.
Mechanized Post Harvest Processing (Transportation, Drying, and
Milling ) units are required to prevent post harvest losses.
74

Thanks and Acknowledgements

Professor Noburo Noguchi

Laboratory of Vehicle Robotics, Hokkaido University
Dr. Kasuhiro Tamaki National Agricultural Organization (NARO), Tsukuba
Members of Bio-production Machinery Lab, University of Tsukuba
Nazia Mushin, Yan Zhang, Gao Pengbo, Monjurul Islam, Riska Ayu Purnamasai,
Ghaibulna Abdol Aziz
Pawin Thanpattranon and Linhuan Zhang, Former Member of BPM, UT
Yuttana Khaenanchanpong ( Thailand Agricultural Engineering Research
Center)
Dr. Lei F. Tian, Associate Professor and Director of ILRAS University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, USA

75

References

76

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