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Analysis of the Curriculum

Introduction
A Big Idea is a statement of an idea that is central to the learning of mathematics, one that links
numerous mathematical understandings into a coherent whole (Charles, 2005). In this paper the
big idea of equivalence has been selected and explored. Included is an initial brainstorm, a concept
map, three suggested readings, three teacher key resources, and six diagnostic questions on
equivalence. It is intended that the content presented in this paper will assist pre-service
mathematics teachers in developing mathematical content knowledge (MCK) and therefore
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) needed to assist student learning in mathematics, the focus of
this paper being specifically on Year 7-10 classrooms. It is important to note that MCK includes three
dimensions, namely common content knowledge (CCK), horizontal content knowledge (HCK) and
specialised content knowledge (SCK) (Bass & Ball, 2009). All three are incorporated into this paper
relating to the big idea of equivalence.

Initial Brainstorm

Involves the notion of sameness, equality, fair share and balance.

Equivalence as representing two quantities with the same value, or the objects that are
identical. Two quantities with the same value may not always be simple to identify for
students, especially when algebra is introduced.

Students may find it beneficial to see equivalence represented using physical

manipulatives in order to gain a conceptual understanding (e.g. using counters of two
different colours to gain an understanding that -1 + + 1 = 0) A conceptual understanding will
help students to eliminate misconceptions and make it easier to recognise why an answer is
incorrect, when they make a mistake.

To gain an understanding of equivalence multiple representations are often needed. This

could be different units of measurement (cm, m, mm) or ways to represent a number (1/4 =
0.25 = 25%) looked at in the primary years, or multiple representations of functions
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(expanded, simplified, graphical, verbal) in Years 9-10.

Equivalence as a point of intersection on a graph. This underpins a conceptual

understanding of solving simultaneous equations, which is often taught using two
procedural methods elimination and substitution.

Geometric proofs, such as similar triangle proofs which students often find quite difficult
rely on an understanding of equivalence.

Concept Map
As can be noted from the concept map below, the idea of equivalence is one that ranges from primary
school onwards and is therefore necessary for successful interaction with secondary and postsecondary mathematical ideas. In this way the concept map involves horizontal content knowledge,
showing an awareness of how mathematical topics are related over the span of mathematics
included in the curriculum (Ball, Thames & Phelps, 2008, p. 403). With many connections in the
curriculum to the mathematical idea of equivalence, the importance of teaching this idea in a way
that facilitates learning throughout a students schooling is crucial.

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Equivalence concept map

Main Branches are categorised by The Victorian Curriculum F-10 Mathematics content strands & post year 10

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Suggested Readings
The suggested readings have been specifically selected to assist in improving pre-service mathematics
teachers MCK and PCK by making them aware of valuable SCK.

1. Alibali, M., Kunth, E., Hattikudur, S., McNeil, N., & Stephens. (2007). A Longitudinal Examination of
Middle School Students Understanding of the Equal Sign and Equivalent Equations.
Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 9(3), 221-247. doi: 10.1080/10986060701360902
This journal article presents data and insights gained from a longitudinal study on 81 middle school (Grades
6-8) students from a school in the United States of America. The study found that difficulties faced in
understanding and solving equivalent equations, and subsequently algebra often stem from
misinterpretation of the equal sign. More specifically students often only attribute an operational definition
to the equal sign, interpreting it as after the symbol it shows the answer or it means to add everything
up (p. 227). As equality is a key concept in understanding algebra, this article argues that the concept of the
equal sign as relational (both sides of the equation as balanced or equivalent) needs to be developed right
throughout K-12 curriculum. The study found that participants who held a relational understanding of the
equal sign had a better understanding of equivalent equations, and often used a sophisticated strategy to
recognise the equivalence.
The article presents recommendations that teachers can use within their classrooms to facilitate and
reinforce a relational understanding of equality. This includes explicit focus on equality, teaching of the
symmetric and transitive character of equality sometimes referred to as the left-right equivalence
(p.235), and presenting the material in a way that does not support an operational understanding e.g. 25 +
12 = 37.

2. Prediger, S. (2009). How to develop mathematics-for-teaching and for understanding: the case of
meanings of the equal sign. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 13(1), 73-93. doi:
10.1007/s10857-009- 9119-y
This article highlights areas for improvement in pre-service teachers pedagogical knowledge relating to
equality. It outlines, and then analyses prospective teachers diagnostic competence in relation to four
elements; interest in student thinking, interpretative attitude of understanding from an inner
perspective, general knowledge on learning processes, and domain-specific mathematical knowledge
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for teaching and analysing; focusing on meanings (p. 77-78). Pre-service teachers will benefit from viewing
how those in a similar situation to themselves were analysed.
This article also focuses on the different meanings/sub meanings of equivalence and the importance of
algebra classrooms explicitly teaching them. This is because changes to the meaning of equality not only
change through switching from arithmetic to algebraic context through the primary to secondary school
transition, but also within one problem (p. 82). This section provides insight into mathematical knowledge
that the author suggests pre-service teachers are often not aware of.

3. Wong, M. (2010). Equivalent Fractions: Developing a Pathway of Students Acquisition of Knowledge and
Understanding. In L. Sparrow, B. Kissane, & C. Hurst (Eds.), Shaping the future of mathematics
education, Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group
of Australasia (MERGA) (Vol. 1, pp. 673 680). Fremantle: MERGA.
This article presents findings from an assessment of 649, Grade 3-6 students from 6 schools in NSW on
conceptual knowledge of equivalent fractions. The author suggests that although fraction equivalence is
often reduced to a procedural rule, students require a more integrated understanding.
By learning the predominant pathway of understanding taken by students as outlined in this article, teachers
can better understand student thinking in order to help improve their conceptual knowledge. Data from the
study presented shows that many grade 6 students lack a comprehensive understanding of fraction
equivalence, indicating that work in this area is needed beyond the primary school years. This article
therefore provides a valuable tool for teachers (p. 680).

Resources
All three of the resources presented below work on developing students conceptual understanding of
equivalence based on PCK gained through reading of the above articles, as well as related readings.
1. Algebra Balance Scales
During primary school many students do not hold a strong relational understanding of equivalence, and
this often extends into Secondary schooling (Mann, 2004). Through using the algebra balance scales
there is an explicit focus on left-right equalivalence which as Alibali, Kunth, Hattikudur, McNeil &
Stephens (2007) note, allows for the development and/or reinforcement of a relational understanding
of equality as an operational view is not supported. At a secondary school level this resource is also
valuable allowing students to see the meaning of the equals sign in the context of an algebric equation
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(Norton & Irvin, 2007, p. 554). As many researchers have found this is crucial in developing a conceptual
understanding of algebra (Alibali, Kunth, Hattikudur, McNeil & Stephen, 2007; Kieran, 1981; Prediger,
2009; Norton & Irvin, 2007). It should be noted that while a link to a virtual version of the balance scales
has been provided below, there are variations which allow the same idea to be carried out using physical
manipulatives.
Avaliable from: http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/frames_asid_201_g_4_t_2.html?open=instructions
2. Equivalent Expressions activities
Fonger, N. (2014). Equivalent Expressions Using CAS and Paper-and-Pencil Techniques.
The Mathematics Teacher, 107(9), 688-693. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5951/mathteacher.107.9.0688
This journal article is a useful resource that could be adapted and used as lessons in Year 7-10 classrooms
to assist student understanding of equaivalent expressions within and amoung differing representations
when introducing algebra. The article includes two activities: the first involves using graphs and tables
to verify equivalence of expressions(p. 689), and the second using reconciling techniques to verify
equivalence of an expression to its simplified form. Emphasis is placed upon the use of multiple
representations of expressions, attempting questions first by hand before use of the calculator, and
predicting and reflecting on any descrepancies between the by hand method and the calculator result.
Through the use of multiple respresentations and two approaches to completing questions, including the
reconciliation process, students theoretical understanding is enhanced eliminating misconceptions.
3. Fraction Game
TheGriffinTV. (2010, April 1). Fractions Game. Dv. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCwBxwfGgkQ
As Wong (2010) shows in her study of students understanding of equivalent fractions, many grade 6
students do not posess a fully developed understanding in this area. This indicates that work on
equivalent fractions still needs explicit attention in secondary school curriculum, and is in fact included
in the Victorian Curriculum at Level 7 (VCAA, 2015, VCMNA242). This video outlines a fractions game that
could be used in developing a conceptual understanding of equivalent frations, allowing students to use
manipulatives and visually see equivalence for themselves. The game incorporates all four levels of
understanding fraction equvalence that Wong (2010) proposes, and many variations of the game, and
uses of the manipulatives could be created and used. An example of this would be the introduction of
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strips representing negative fractions. Supporting this resource, especially for use beyond Year 7, Norton
& Irvin (2007) note that a Year 9 teacher used in there study would often revise the concept of
equivalence of fractions using paper fraction strips to display a visiual model of equality or inequality
(p. 555).

Diagnostic Questions
Note: For all diagnostic questions the annotated teacher versions are included in the appendices.
Annotated teacher versions display SCK needed in order to identify methods and mathematical
reasons/misconceptions for gaining correct, as well as incorrect answers.
1. Sourced from:
Knuth, E. J., Stephens, A. C., McNeil, N. M., & Alibali, M. W. (2006). Does Understanding the
Equal Sign Matter? Evidence from Solving Equations. Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education, 37(4), 297312. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034852
Student Version
+=
(a) The arrow above points to a symbol. What is the name of the symbol?
(b) What does the symbol mean?

(c) Can the symbol mean anything else? If yes, please explain.

This question is suitable for use for use Year 7 and 8 classrooms.
See Appendix 1 for annotated teacher version.
2. Sourced from:
Norton, S., Irvin, J. (2007). A concrete Approach to Teaching Symbolic Algebra. In J. Watson, & K.
Beswick (Eds.), Mathematics: Essential Research, Essential Practice, Proceeding of the 30th
annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia (MERGA)
(Vol. 1, pp. 551-560). Hobart: MERGA.

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Student Version
Solve the equation below, showing your thinking:
+ =

This question is suitable for a Year 9 classroom (Norton & Irvin, 2007).
See Appendix 2 for annotated teacher version.
3. Sourced from:
Alibali, M., Knuth, E., Hattikudur, S., McNeil, N., & Stephens, A. (2007). A Longitudinal
Examination of Middle School Students Understanding of the Equal Sign and Equivalent
Equations. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 9(3), 221-247. doi:
10.1080/10986060701360902
Student Version
Is the value of n the same number in the following two equations? Explain
your reasoning.
+ =

+ =

This question is suitable for Year 7-8 classrooms.

See Appendix 3 for teacher annotated version.
4. Sourced from:
Wong, M. (2010). Equivalent Fractions: Developing a Pathway of Students Acquisition of Knowledge
and Understanding. In L. Sparrow, B. Kissane, & C. Hurst (Eds.), Shaping the future of
mathematics education, Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the Mathematics
Education Research Group of Australasia (MERGA) (Vol. 1, pp. 673 680). Fremantle:
MERGA.

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Student Version

Figure (b)

Figure (a)

Has the same fraction of each large square above been shaded?

How do you know?

This question is suitable for Year 7 and 8 classrooms with many Grade 6 students from a student
conducted by Wong (2010) not achieving this level of equivalent fraction knowledge by the beginning of
secondary school.
See Appendix 4 for annotated teacher version.
5. Sourced from:
Department of Education. (2006). Common Misunderstandings Resource Level 6. Retrieved
from http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/teachers/teachingresources/
discipline/maths/assessment/lvl6truefalse.pdf
Student Version
Without showing calculations, which of the following
cards on the left are true, and which are false?

How can you tell?

This question is suitable for Year 7 classrooms (VCAA, 2015, VCMNA240).

See Appendix 5 for annotated teacher version.
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6. Adapted from:
Fonger, N. (2014). Equivalent Expressions Using CAS and Paper-and-Pencil Techniques.
The Mathematics Teacher, 107(9), 688-693. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5951/mathteacher.107.9.0688
Student Version
Are the following expressions all equivalent? Explain your answer.
+ + + +
++++ +
+

This question is suitable for Year 8 and 9 classrooms. In the article referenced above that this question was
taken from, it is used in a Year 9 classroom in the United States.
See Appendix 6 for annotated teacher version.

Conclusion
Within this paper, ideas surrounding equivalence been explored, leading to the development of MCK and
PCK on the big idea of equivalence. Through the material presented in this paper it was found that student
understanding of the equal sign has important implications for mathematical proficiency, especially algebra
at a Year 7-10 level. This reinforces the significance of pre-service mathematics teachers and teachers alike
in developing their MCK and PCK.

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References
Alibali, M., Kunth, E., Hattikudur, S., McNeil, N., & Stephens. (2007). A Longitudinal Examination of
Middle School Students Understanding of the Equal Sign and Equivalent Equations.
Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 9(3), 221-247. doi: 10.1080/10986060701360902
Ball, D.L., & Cass, H. (2009). With an Eye on the Mathematical Horizon: Knowing Mathematics for Teaching
to Learners Mathematical Futures. Paper prepared based on keynote address at the 43rd
Jahrestagung fr Didaktik der Mathematik held in Oldenburg, Germany, March 1 4, 2009.
Retrieved from http://www.fachportal-paedagogik.de/fis_bildung/suche/fis_set.html?FId=889839
Ball, D. L., Thomas, M. H., & Phelps, G.(2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What makes it special?
Journal of Teacher Education, 59(5), 389-407. doi:10.1177/0022487108324554
Charles, R. (2005). Big ideas and Understandings as the Foundations for Elementary and Middle
School Mathematics. Journal of Mathematics Education Leadership, 7(3), 9-24.
Department of Education. (2006). Common Misunderstandings Resource Level 6. Retrieve
from http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/teachers/teachingresources/
discipline/maths/assessment/lvl6truefalse.pdf
Fonger, N. (2014). Equivalent Expressions Using CAS and Paper-and-Pencil Techniques. The
Mathematics Teacher, 107(9), 688-693. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5951/mathteacher.107.9.0688
Kieran, C. (1981). Concepts associated with the equality symbol. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 12(3),
317-326.
Knuth, E. J., Stephens, A. C., McNeil, N. M., & Alibali, M. W. (2006). Does Understanding the Equal Sign
Matter? Evidence from Solving Equations. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 37(4),
297312. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034852
McNeil, N.M., Grandau, L., Knuth, E.J., Alibali, M.W., Stephens, A.C., Hattikudur, S., & Krill, D.E. (2006).
Middle-School Students Understanding of the Equal Sign: The Books They Read Cant Help.
Cognition and Instruction, 24(3), 367-385. doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci2403_3
Norton, S., Irvin, J. (2007). A concrete Approach to Teaching Symbolic Algebra. In J. Watson, & K.
Beswick (Eds.), Mathematics: Essential Research, Essential Practice, Proceeding of the 30th
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annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia (MERGA)
(Vol. 1, pp. 551-560). Hobart: MERGA.
Prediger, S. (2009). How to develop mathematics-for-teaching and for understanding: the case of meanings
of the equal sign. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 13(1), 73-93. doi: 10.1007/s10857-0099119-y
TheGriffinTV. (2010, April 1). Fractions Game. Dv. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCwBxwfGgkQ
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2015). Victorian Curriculum F-10: Mathematics.
Melbourne, Vic: VCAA. Avaliable victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au.
Wong, M. (2010). Equivalent Fractions: Developing a Pathway of Students Acquisition of Knowledge and
Understanding. In L. Sparrow, B. Kissane, & C. Hurst (Eds.), Shaping the future of mathematics
education, Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group
of Australasia (MERGA) (Vol. 1, pp. 673 680). Fremantle: MERGA.

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Appendices
Appendix 1 Annotated Teacher Version Question 1.

Annotated Teacher Version

+=
(a) The arrow above points to a symbol. What is the name of the symbol?
Equal sign.
(b) What does the symbol mean?
That everything on the left hand side of the equation is equivalent to what is on the right hand side.
(c) Can the symbol mean anything else? If yes, please explain.
Yes, after the sign the answer is displayed.

It is expected that students would have no trouble with part (a). In part (b) and (c) this question is
determining students understanding of the equal sign. As the authors suggest, student responses for part
(b) and (c) can be coded as relational, operational, other, or no response/dont know (p. 301). A response
should be determined relational if the student has a general idea of the equal sign as meaning balance or
the same as. A response should be determined operational if the student response suggests the answer
or adding up. Identification in part (b) and/or (c) of a relational definition is favourable, with research
suggesting that a relational understanding assists and is necessary for students conceptual understanding of
algebra.
Likely responses for (b) and (c) are provided in a table below, sourced from Alibali, Knuth, Hattikudur,
McNeil & Stephens (2007, p. 227).

Relational
It means that both sides
of the equation are
equal.
The numbers on either
side are balanced.

Operational
After the symbol it
shows the answer.
It means to add
everything up.

Other
It is equal to.
It could mean smiley. =)
A mother has to treat
her kids equal.

It should be noted that while responses coded as other can be seen as incorrect, this question is to determine
if students hold a relational understanding of the equal sign. For this reason an operational answer although
not ideal, is not to be labelled as incorrect.

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Appendix 2 Annotated Teacher Version Question 2.

Annotated teacher Version

Solve the equation below, showing your thinking:
Correct response:
Maintenance of equivalence.
+ =
+ =

=

=
Possible incorrect responses:
Incorrect responses usually stem from students not treating the equal sign as an indication that equivalence
must be maintained (p. 555), or making numerical mistakes associated with number fact knowledge.
Equivalence not maintained

+ =
+ =

Equivalence not maintained

in the first procedural step.
+ =
+ =

=

Equivalence not maintained

in the second procedural step
+ =
+ =

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Appendix 3 Annotated Teacher Version Question 3
Annotated Teacher Version
Is the value of n the same number in the following two equations? Explain your reasoning.
+ =

+ =

Correct responses
1. Directly recognising equivalence. In this case, there is no need to find the value of n as it is not asked for.
The value of n is equal in both of the equations. This is because the second equation only differs from the first by
including a 9 on both sides of the equation, thus preserving the equality.
2. Solving both equations, before comparing the answer. (Note that equivalence is maintained)
Solve the 1st equation
+ =
+ =

=

Solve the 2nd equation

+ =
+ + = +
+ =

=

The value of n is equal in both of the equations. This is because when both equations are solved n equals 8.
3. Solving either equation, before substituting the answer into the second equation.
Solve the 1st equation
+ =
+ =

=

Substitute n=8 into the 2nd equation

+ =
+ =
=
=

The value of n is equal in both equations. This is because when the first equation is solved, and that value of n is
substituted into the second equation it equates.
Possible incorrect responses:
If the recognition of equivalence is not directly noted, then similar problems to those stated in question 2 arise.
Students may fail to recognise that equivalence needs to be maintained (i.e. subtracting 15 from the LHS of the 1st
equation but not the second) or make mistakes associated with incorrect operations or number fact knowledge.

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Appendix 4 Annotated Teacher Version Question 4
Annotated Teacher Version

Figure (a)

Figure (b)

Correct Response:
1. Has the same fraction of each large square above been shaded?
Yes
How do you know?
In figure (a) the large square has been divided into 16 smaller squares and 4 are shaded, giving

4
16

44

= 164 = 4

In figure (b) the large square has been divided into 4 smaller squares and 1 is shaded, giving 4
4

As 16 can be reduced to 4 both fractions shaded are equivalent.

2. Students may also visually determine that the two figures are equivalent representations, that is
there are three equal sized portions in each figure that are unshaded, coming to the conclusion that
1

each figure has 4 th shaded.

Possible incorrect responses
1. Has the same fraction of each large square above been shaded?
No
How do you know?
Figure (a) has 4 squares shaded, whereas figure (b) only has one.
In the above response is focusing on the number of squares shaded and not on the fraction shaded. The likely
reason for this is that they have read the question incorrectly, or they are a very limited understanding of
fractions.
2. Has the same fraction of each large square above been shaded?
No
How do you know?
4

Figure (a) has 16 shaded, whereas Figure (b) has 4 shaded. These fractions are not the same.
In the above response the student has correctly stated the fractions displayed by each of the shaded areas,
however has a limited knowledge of fraction equivalence.
A student who displays a response like the two above cannot successfully repartition a fraction quantity,
using alternate equi-sized parts to derive a different fraction name (Wong, 2010, p. 679). This is what is 16
required to successfully complete this question.

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Appendix 5 Annotated Teacher Version Question 5
Annotated Teacher Version
Correct Response
Without showing calculations, which of the following cards on the left
are true, and which are false?
True: A, B
False: C, D
How can you tell?
In the cards that display equations that are true, both sides of the
equation are equal, whereas in the cards that are false both sides are not
equivalent.
Possible incorrect responses
1. Without showing calculations, which of the following cards on the left are true, and which are false?
True: B, C, D
False: A
How can you tell?
Card B, C and D contains the same numbers on both sides of the equation whereas A does not.
This response shows an awareness that both sides of the equation must be equivalent, however has extended
this to the numbers on either side having to be the same. This response has disregarded the number
operations required to ensure equivalency of both sides.
2. Without showing calculations, which of the following cards on the left are true, and which are false?
True:
False: A, B, C, D
How can you tell?
None of the cards equal the number immediately after the equal sign.
This response shows an operational understanding of the equal sign. Students with this as their only
understanding do not see the equal sign as a symbol for balancing out the two sides. Instead they view the
equal sign as meaning what it adds up to or showing the answer, and have therefore only looked at the first
number to the right of the equal sign as being important or necessary to look at.
Students may also have difficulty with this question as the equal sign is presented in a way that is rarely seen
by many students, or in many textbooks (McNei, Grandau, Knuth, Alibali, Stephens, Hattikudur & Krill, 2006).

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Appendix 6 Annotated Teacher Version Question
Annotated Teacher Version
Are the following expressions all equivalent? Explain your answer.
+ + + +
++++ +
+
Correct Response
1. Are the following expressions all equivalent? Explain your answer.
Yes, because if you collect like terms in the first two expressions they simplify down to the
third expression signifying that all three expressions are equivalent.
2. Are the following expressions all equivalent? Explain your answer.
Yes, because if you make n equal to any integer, each of the expressions equates to the same
number.
Possible incorrect responses
Are the following expressions all equivalent? Explain your answer.
1. Are the following expressions all equivalent? Explain your answer.
The second and the third expressions are equivalent because there are 5n + 1 in both. The
first is not the same because 2n + 3n + 1 is different to the others.
In a response like this, the person answering has attempted to collect like terms but as failed to
see n and 2n are like terms. By using a different strategy, such as substituting a number in for n,
it could them be noted that the expressions are the equivalent. This would challenge this
responder to reconcile their knowledge to view n and 2n as like terms.

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