EDUARD TRIER

Form

Sculpture
of the

Twentieth

Century

Revised and

Enlarged Edition

PRAEG

rF
cfl?

3*

FORM AND SPACE

Form and Space

SCULPTURE OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
revised edition

with 245 illustrations

EDUARD TRIER

FREDERICK

A.

PRAEGER,

NEW YORK

'

Publishers

WASHINGTON

BOOKS THAT MATTER

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

PUBLISHED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN I962

BY FREDERICK A. PRAEGER, INC., PUBLISHERS
III FOURTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, N.Y., 10003
REVISED EDITION, 1968

GEBR. MANN VERLAG, BERLIN, i960 AND I968

ENGLISH TRANSLATION THAMES AND HUDSON, LONDON, I96I AND 196!
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 68-14737

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY C. LIGOTA AND FRANCISCA GARVIE

ILLUSTRATIONS PRINTED IN GERMANY. TEXT PRINTED IN ENGLAND

Contents

FOREWORD

FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION

THE PROBLEM OF FORM

Kernel Sculpture

12

Opening up of Volume

13

Sign in Space

14

Constructions

16

Mobile Sculpture

29

Relief

30

Excursus: Conglomerates and

II

'Recognized' Sculpture

32

THE PROBLEM OF MEANING

42

III

THE PROBLEM OF PURPOSE

IV

FORM AND SPACE: VARIATIONS

223

1967

V CLOSING REMARKS: FORM AND SPACE

BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF ARTISTS

250

314

321

<

Foreword

This book

is

not a history of

completeness from
features

to Z.

of 20th-century

Its

nor a lexicon whose main advantage would be

style,

purpose

is

rather to plot in

word and image

sculpture, bringing out connections

the typical

and oppositions. Chron-

ology, nationality and membership of this or that school play a subordinate role.

Attention

is

directed to the problems of

lend speech to

modern

sculpture and an attempt

is

made

Descriptions of individual pieces

from many

countries serve as so

The two terms

many

approaches

to the

theme of form and

and

including their usual synonyms. This applies in particular to 'form' which

as

space.

restricted in a classicizing spirit to the

pointed out that

it is

human

are to be taken in the widest sense

As

figure.

to 'space',

it

the following

may be observed

not

reject the

procedure

closest possible contact

sculpture,

is

also

answer;

or theorizing.

Its

sole

hope, none the

aim

is

to bring

The
less,

first

problem, which

he will

him into

the

is

concerned with typical manifestations

an exercise in method serving to elaborate the framework for the

treatment of the two other problems.

The second

one, that of meaning or theme, sug-

gesting a kind of iconography cannot, of course be divorced

,

from the

first

since in art

content cannot exist except as form hence the results obtained in treating the
;

often be

reader

with the works themselves.

The treatment of the

of

as rhetorical

Regarding

using the examples assembled

consider successively the problems of form, of meaning and of purpose.

may suspect collusion in this game of question and

not

is

need hardly be

to be understood in the artistic not the scientific sense.

method and arrangement

I

to

this silent art.

drawn upon.

Finally the third problem, that

first

will

of purpose, will be concerned

solely

with sculpture

as a public art. The reader

unity in spite of this threefold
division.

h Ve

anTr ^

1 "^l* *

is

requested to consider the

mdem

^^ ^ *"

book

as a

**"

*
div
d.vi!,ion
on and the resulting order in which
the works are considered
cannot poss.bly
mply
anyjndgtnent of value.

nelp that

many of them have

It is

by the inclusion of their works

that

pay ,ny tnbute

given me.
(i959)

Foreword to the second edition

me

This second edition of Form and Space gives

making
also

of enlarging

Form and

The

which

am

it. I

Space, for

above

with the problems of sculpture in 1959, but

indebted to the English readers for their interest in

all

without them

dealt

welcome opportunity not only of

this reappraisal

would not have been

revision does not affect the conception of the book, in

are integrated.
clearly.

which

corrections to the book,

the

On

the contrary,

Of course Form

have

and Space

text

and pictures

emphasize the main themes even more

tried to

not a historical treatment of 20th-century sculpture

is

requires merely the addition of recent material to bring

decided to add in the

which

possible so soon.

up

it

to date.

new edition a fifth chapter in which the main theme is

therefore

modified in

relation to 1967.

Chapters

to

IV have been corrected and brought into

illustration sections

have substituted 22

show

the illustrations and to

some of the

represent

artists

by

better or

more

book was

younger sculptors

typical

wanted

among the substituted

received much help in the
I

collectors

and

galleries, all

should like to thank

work, or to document the main

of

also

owe

emie, Diisseldorf,

graphy and the

participation

thanks to

who

would be

are

my

To

impossible.

Marcus and

artists

artists,

in the captions.

thank

But

discrimination, gave

me

the

and con-

museums,

Most of

all I

who, with

his

such valuable

Schuir, librarian of the Staatliche Kunstakad-

me

with the

list

of

illustrations, the biblio-

my friends and colleagues for their critical

should like to thank my wife, Edith, for her
all

ever-understanding and patient help by dedicating

children, Michael,

from many

gratitude to the

acknowledged

power of

Mrs Hedwig

work.

established artists are also

the late Jules Langsner of Los Angeles,

untiringly assisted

secretarial

formerly not represented;

works of seven newly

revision of Form and Space

whom

my friend,

who were

Of

plates.

extensive learning and his clear

I

artists

should therefore like to express

noisseurs.

to

who were not yet recognized when the first edition of

published, and in fact the

included

advice.

improve the quality of

reasons for the addition of new text and illustrations are given in Chapter V.

these are mostly

either to

alterations in the

artists.

the 32 additional plates, 21 are devoted to

the

with the

the sculptures in their present state, or because

theme of the book by the work of other

The

- made

plates

line

this

book

in

its

second edition to our

Alice.

Cologne and Diisseldorf

December 1967

In every

work of art we

conveys the

that

artist's

are confronted first

message and

formal aspect of a work of art

tation of its content.

I shall,

is

of all by the problem of form.

realizes his intention.

Thus

therefore, concern

The

myself in the

criteria for this

which take no account

as yet

of

first

areas

volume which

of shaped void annexed to

modes of appearance

by

formal analysis will extend to

artist's

manipulation of

relief

out of

They can be reduced

implies both the mass of a

as

modes of

stylistic differences arising

work of art and

with

his material

its
is

work of

art

On

the

whether

through movement. Finally

transitions to painting.

to

The

well as the relationship between the two.

either statically or

it,

the elucidation of the

instance with

include further the space surrounding a

delimited, touched or filled

the

it,

form

formal inquiry are supplied by

individual handwriting, technique, or time and place of origin.

the category of plastic

It is

knowledge or interpre-

the necessary preliminary to any

appearance in modern sculpture.

basic distinctions

The problem of form

the other

my

hand

excluded from the discussion. Whether he

carves in stone, solders and welds metals, or models for a bronze cast - these differences,

of great

moment

for the content

and significance of modern works of sculpture

with a few exceptions, be discussed

later.

These fundamental concepts of form do not, of course, apply solely

sculpture.

The problems they involve

are partly as old as the art

constructivist sculpture offers formal possibilities

itself.

past

do

not,

however, intend

to repeat the

to

modern

But mobile and

which the 20th century in

particular has

recognized and developed, though even here historical precedents could be

I

will,

cited.

well-worn comparisons between sculpture

and present or draw analogies from the world of nature.

themselves and confront them one with another

is

To

discuss the

works

in itself sufficiently exciting so that

no

other, extra-artistic stimuli are needed.

ii

KERNEL SCULPTURE
It

my

seems desirable to begin

which the

material

artist

shapes but does not attempt to open up this approach might be

;

described as kernel sculpture;

volume

made

(fig. i),

sculpture in

by shaping

it

its

making

is

it

of his, The New-Born

and single-minded concen-

of my formal examples.

as the first

an egg Brancusi

as

An early work

radical simplicity

embryonic form. This marble piece

its

art.

has concerned himself most intensively with the

with

serve,

on mass and volume,

tration

who

Constantin Brancusi.

is

may

in 191 5,

the simplest and perhaps the oldest variety of the

it is

In the 20th century the artist

shapes of compact

formal analysis with the compact, entirely solid mass of

What we

have here

an embryo also in what

is

emergent

signify

life.

it

is

conveys

But the problem of

meaning, though especially relevant in the case of Brancusi, whose sculpture has always

something to

'say', will

not be investigated here;

reserve

broader context. The New-Born, smooth and rounded,

the absolutely pure, universally valid, perfectly produced

left

add or

to

Of

formal maturity.

subtract. It

course the

artist

is

with

its

perfect in itself

inventions attest the

aim

artist's

body of the egg,

It

long years of

formal

this

would have been

lost

the oblique flattening at one end

grained stone of the base, rough-planed at the edges,

work.

after

and presents an optimum of

at the

bottom -

produce an individual, unique

to

He

favourite observations

could have equally well achieved

by the rounded swelling

privative effect mitigated

aim was

rigour and immaculateness of the ideal vision

perfection with a sphere or a simple egg but the specific reference

the tapering ridge rising out of the

as a

compact body of volume.

work with chisel and file has all the

simply

evokes. Brancusi's

of sculpture must have no holes and the form realized

that a piece

with nothing

it

One of his

sought the extreme in simplicity and completeness.

patient

for later treatment in a

artistically effective

is

three-dimensional object, quite apart from the associations

was

it

is

also

these formal

figure.

The

coarse-

an integral part of the

enhances by contrast the smoothness and high polish of the marble which not

only invites the hand to touch but

the richness of reflexion

on

own

Thus have Brancusi's hands wakened the dead

the surface.

- the

eye with the play of light and shadow and

feasts the

of forms.

stone to a

life

of its

As

not

my intention to discuss the influence of Brancusi's style on his contempor-

aries

it is

or younger

works by other
The Couple

sculptors as spring

(fig. 2)

the

likewise

in
a

on

all

reduction, while

more than

of the

artist

sides

the

Adam

from

Adam

a recognition

set it

his figured solids

same formal assumptions. The

is

the older one.

cut,

smooth

The

stability.

for a

solid,

latter

surfaces that clearly define

Only

the

opposing each other distinguishes the work

The growth of Brancusi's figures is

constructs with planes or spherical surfaces.

mark

plaster cast

off sharply against the surrounding space.

surfaces abruptly

only such

based on the same conception of a

- a block expressing weight and

tendency towards neatly

volume of the work and

of the younger

from

by Henri-Georges

shows

facet-like character

12

have selected for comparison with

artists, I

compact body shut

work

life

newly invented

object.

The

a process
title

is

of

no

OPENING UP OF VOLUME
In opposition to the type of compact

Brancusi and

on

clarity

volume

illustrated

Adam, and particularly congenial

and the objective

postulate, the disintegration

to the Latin spirit in art

be achieved,

result to

by examples from

we may

set,

the

work of

with its emphasis

in terms

of

formal

of mass and opening-up of solid volume. As against rep-

resentation in one - material - medium alone, appearing

whole,

as a self-contained

we

now have figures made up of solid and space, of mass and void, of outer and inner volume.
Sculpture becomes

more complicated,

no longer

it is

Adam's monoliths. The treatment of empty space

sculptors in fact treat
real

implies the use of

it,

one serves to make

two

'of a piece' as are Brancusi's

and

as 'sculptural material', as certain

different

media of which the allegedly

of its imagined companion. Concomit-

significant the otherness

antly there appears a hierarchy of forms; subordinate and superordinate elements

come

to the fore.

Jacob Epstein's sculpture The Rock Drill (fig.

the avant-garde group of

3),

executed in 191 3 while he belonged to

'The Vortex', provides a typical example of the

artists called

subordination of individual forms to the primacy of one large form. There

here to elaborate on

sculptural significance as the translation

its

figure into a robot

(see also

R.

Duchamp-Villon's

machine), or

its stylistic

on

The key position Rock Drill occupies

the other.

will

have discussed,

it is

worth remarking

tured and subdivided,

as well; in the

radically

on

the one

hand and modern

art

beginning of modern sculpture

at the

In the formal context

(fig. 5).

that although the solid

volume

is

we

strongly struc-

development of 20th-century sculpture Epstein's RockDrillis an

important step towards sculpture

Of course, we find

of a half-length human

yet a compact mass that determines the character of the

it is

sculpture. In the stylistic

no room

Horse, fig. 102, interpreted as a

references to exotic sculpture

emerge from a comparison with Henry Moore

is

as 'object'.

such piercing and opening-up of solid volume in older sculpture

fundamental forms of

art it

is

new, something that has never before

almost impossible to invent something

existed.

But

it is

in the 20th century that

the idea of combining positive and negative forms has been systematically exploited.

The name given

that
I

it

has struck

to this trend, hole sculpture, apposite if

home.

cannot consider here the misguided contention that

my

wards nihilism,
formal

my

approach

is

earliest

of secondary

interest.

There are

e.g. the

work of Alexander Archipenko.

example

Woman

Standing with Guitar

It is

parts,

than the space

is

than the ones to be mentioned,

Jacques Lipchitz.

of the various

kind of sculpture tends to-

not an historical one, the question of

original authorship as regards 'transparent sculpture'

My

this

purpose being neither exegesis nor apology but the elaboration of

criteria. Similarly, since

earlier instances

somewhat derogatory, shows

it

is

the gilded bronze

intended and executed

swaying

as a transparent piece.

The

(fig. 4)

by

bodily substance

delicately or else twisting into spirals, appears less in

volume

enmeshes.
13

The

whose

piece,

historical lineage

could be traced to Cubism and Surrealism, docu-

new artistic intention. The sculptor abandons

ments a

neglects the emphasis

circulate inside

on weight and loosens up

The forms within and

it.

their spatial relatedness, are just as

internal space.

at the

which can be grasped

and the

as the front

transparence frees the sculpture

Its

compact

solid,

the composition to allow light and air to

back,

important

the primacy of the

from

at a

glance in

allusively indicated

the static perspective

the single

impression yields to the experience of spatial simultaneity.

The formal postulate

the

title

discernible in Lipchitz' sculpture

one of his bronzes

for

(fig. 5)

symbolism involved will be

Here too the

specific

assumptions and the

out of account, and only the formal principle con-

left

While Lipchitz reduces

sidered.

it.

body

the mass of the

to a

few

thin,

almost

linear,

elements, Moore's figure, in spite of the side opening, remains block-like and heavy.
piece

is

as

Forms - an explicit

called Internal-External

it is

indication of the artistic purpose realized in

was taken by Henry Moore

The

not transparent and allows only glimpses into the interior whose partial exposure

does not break the overall cohesion of outline.

space the forms inside

these in turn are

The

outer shell encompasses in hollow

composed of

positive

solid)

and negative

(= spatial) elements. The reciprocal relationship between inner and outer, mass and
void, remains even.

The Spaniard Pablo

ative forms.
surfaces,

The

Gargallo, a contemporary of Picasso, also uses positive and neg-

skeleton of his bronze Prophet

curved contours and cut-out forms,

therefore, be seen

from

the front.

the spectator to establish

its

The

actual

(fig. 6),
is

made up of concave and convex

intended

as a silhouette

volume of the body

extension in space

is

slight

by imagining continuous

and should,

and

it is

surfaces

up

to

from

the outline indications that are supplied.

later

work, the cement Great Mask

formal intention.

Its

(fig. 7)

by

the Italian Mirko,

much

transparence suggests not so

a private sculptural space as

permeation by the free surrounding space. Mirko's composition

Gargallo's;

it

draws into

its

spatial existence the

shows the same

even more open than

is

whole environment.

SIGN IN SPACE

Mirko goes

so far in reducing bodily substance that his

to the next formal type in

a

new

there

taken

as a transition

which the opening-up and attenuation of solid volume

sculptural function, that

is

work can be

of a sign in

space. Here, if there

expansion in another. The figures of

this

is

create

shrinking in one sense

type are not confined to a space of

own which they either fill bodily or at least somehow annex their activity reaches
beyond their own limits, spills over into infinite space which it seeks to inform. In strong

their

contrast to the
at the

and

self-sufficiency

of the sculptured blocks considered

beginning of this chapter, their whole tendency

characteristic

14

stillness, isolation

of kernel sculpture

is

replaced

by

is

outwards. Formal concentration

eccentricity.

The

figure, as

it

were, parts

with

itself by

projecting itself into space.

found particular favour with expressionist

This tendency to disembodiment

Mannerists,

recalls the

nude whose members

is

not

and

still;

its

is

already beginning to operate in the early bronzes

is

What

dating

(fig. 8),

also a description

more

Matisse's figure,

solidly built

bruck's youth shows

on

1909.

The

of the form - a

of the work, which

title

thin, elongated, serpent-like

chest.

whose strenuous composure could be

by Wilhelm Lehmbruck

tightrope walker, the Attacking Figure

is

from

many directions so that the figure, though static,

is made even less secure by the complicated stance

and the pronounced inclination of the

1914-15,

has been said about the formal type

traverse space in

precarious balance

Compared with

that this formal vocabulary has

artists.

of the painter and sculptor Henri Matisse.

applies fully to his Serpentine

no accident

It is

from

dating

(fig. 9),

of a

that

even though the subject involves movement. But Lehm-

on the one hand

the characteristic diminution of solid volume,

and

the other the outward, expansive striking force of the individual parts of the body,

which

no longer

are here

upwards. The

charges the high stretched-out trunk and the arms crossed in open

artist

overcome the body's weight,

space with his will to

Yet more rigorous in the attenuation of his

to

figures

make
is

the figure issue like a cry.

Alberto Giacometti, though he

does not attempt Lehmbruck's expansive gestures. Venice VII (1957;

wife,

stiff as

the space

The

thin,

a pillar

round

it.

of salt. But

The rough

emaciated body

occupies so

is

apparently motionless figure has

this

surface

tense

is

in constant

communication with

formal analysis into interpretation of meaning

almost dangling skin

is

the surrounding space

The
though

it

may

more than merely an exposed

its

infinite space
if this

of which

it

departure from

be permitted. The scabby, torn,

surface offsetting the

body
it

against
to such

becomes an intermediate zone between the two.

small iron figure of the Dancer with Flowing Hair

earlier in date

historical

sequence

is

(fig. 11)

not relevant to

from volume, already reduced

strument for performing gestures in space, to the immaterial

give the dancer her shape are, from an

artistic

Gonzalez uses for marking space. The

result

problems of statics and gravity, displaying

it

Lot's

many contacts with

deep dents and craggy botches have dematerialized

represents the further transition

which

fig. 10), is like

with inner forces which seek to burst out.

almost an anthropomorphic signal tower -

little. It is

an extent that

vehemently

carefully balanced against each other but strive

its

as

The
by

of an in-

iron rods that

more than

a diagram, unaffected

lines

which

the sculptural

weightlessness in the free space round

can serve to measure. The figure projects

and downwards -

present purpose -

to the status

sign.

point of view, no

is

my

by Julio Gonzalez,

its

form

in every direction,

photographed, against a background of an

it

upwards

airy, weightless trellis

of

branches whose wild growth both harmonizes with and contradicts the rigid form
disciplined

by

Gonzalez'
artists

the

hand of man.

momentous invention of

working

after

World War

II

to

the 'sign in space' spurred

new

on many younger

discoveries in the language of space.

The
15

Bow

by

12; lead)

(fig.

of building

with bold,

in space

The bronze

elements.

tendency and the

many possibilities

the American, Herbert Ferber, shows one of the

airy,

seemingly self-supporting and loosely combined

by

Eclipse (fig. 13)

result

the Italian,

a theatrical flight

is

clouds in the sky, and not the earth, acting

Carmelo Cappello,

intensifies this

of sculptured form through space with the

as

backcloth.

CONSTRUCTIONS
The opening-up of solid volume or
are not the only possibilities to

the elaboration of expressive sign figures in space

have been tackled by modern sculptors in

their

formal

explorations. Artists with a constructional bent have also responded to the challenge.

As

Naum Gabo

of

and

early as 1920, Antoine Pevsner

Constructivism that
tals,

to be adequate to real

'(1)

space and time;

(2)

volume

must

Naum
is

(fig.

abolish
free,

new

function as a boundary

The

rhythm

by

spatial effect

letting

is

artificial

but - with the

rhythmical stages

through

circular steps

and the projecting platforms - spreads out on

taking

round

it

and releasing

in

it is

also

is still, it

volume,

way Gabo

all

but

obtains

Gabo

plates

dynamic element

is

lines

(fig.

are put together to

part'

figures in infinite space to

is

16)

which have no

words, an 'integral

in this respect

free space,

multiple relationships with the space

at in his

Lux

(fig. 15).

so that the rigid skeleton

also stylistic differences

concern us of prime relevance

and

communicating with

hoop

Here the movement

of iron beams and

taken up in a play of solid and projected forms in space.

is

mainly metal. There are

curved

The Column not only

base, the obliquely set

prefers translucid artificial materials while his brother,

Construction in Space

is

it.

what Nicolas Schoffer aims

light adds another

punched metal

is

of

by Pevsner, of which

his

an example. The piece consists of plane surfaces and

'body', or at least

it.

Antoine Pevsner, uses

between the two but these need not

the formal type elaborated

form an open

The

which it

do not function

artistically as

unit with the circumambient air

as,

volumes.

in Pevsner's

Construction in Space carves out distinct polygonal

declares itself to belong.

It

appears as entirely weight-

opposed even more radically than Gonzalez' iron figures to the

massive forms of Brancusi.

16

materials

slight

light. In this

of its

all sides,

A construction static in itself but entering into

less

sufficient;

flowing transitions between sculptural and external space, while the effect

rises in

They

not

kinetic

obtained by the transparence of

strengthened by actual openings and breaks in the structure.

of

is

(3)

forms.'

though they preserve some

the materials used which,

its

must be based on two fundamen-

made of wood, metal and

14)

true, entirely static in its structure.

some of

in the 'Realist Manifesto'

real time, static

and discover

cease to be imitative

Gabo's Column

life art

down

not the only means of expression in space;

is

and dynamic elements are needed to express

(4) art

laid

I.

Constantin Bbancusi The New-born,

191 5

Marble Height

6",

Length

"

Philadelphia

Museum

of Art

Photo:

Museum

^
/^

2.

Henri-Georges

Adam

The Couple, 1946

marble

Plaster for

Height 7S 3

"
4

Photo-Malec, Levallois-Perret

Jacob Epstein

3.

The Rock
Bronze

The Tate

Drill, 1923

Height 27V1"

Gallery,

London

Photo:

Museum

4.

JACQUES LlPCHTTZ

Woman

Standing with Guitar, 1926

Formerly Curt Valentin collection,

New

(Silt

bronze Height io'/j"

York Photo: Marc Vaux,

Paris

5-

Henry Moore

Internal-External Forms,

95i

Bronze

Height 24 s

"
8

Kunstniuseuni, Basle

6.

Pablo Gargallo

Prophet, 1933

Bronze

Height 93 3 / 4

"

Middelhcim Museum,

Antwerp
Photo: Author

7.

MlRKO

The Great Mask

Cement Height 59 s 8 "
Photo: Author

8.

Henri Matisse

Serpentine, 1909

Bronze

Height 22 1

Museum of Art,
Photo: Museum

*
/

Baltimore

9.

WlLHELM LEHMBRUCK

Attacking Figure, 1914/15

Bronze

Height l7 3 / 8

"

Dr Bernhard Sprengel
coOection,

Hanover

Photo Hans Wagner,

:

Hanover

io.

Alberto Giacomietti

Venice VII, 1957

Bronze

Height 46

Private collection

ii.

Julio Gonzales

Dancer with Flowing Hair, 1934

Iron

[eight 24 s

"
s

Pi ivate collection, Paris

Photo: Author

^_^^s, l^^L^A

^B

12.
T

HERBERT Ferber

The Bow, 1950

^^1

Lead

Height 48"

Photo: Author

The

dissolution

of mass has been taken to an extreme by the American, Richard

Lippold, in his Variations within a Sphere No. 10: The Sun

(fig. 17).

luminous, apparently weightless, transparent constellation of golden

is

made of fme

steel.

As

dynamism of Pevsner,

and according to simple proportions, remains

invades

its

indistinct outline

However,

and absorbs

his cubical

It

passively in space

It flutters

is

which

scintillations.

not the only resource of con-

= ax -bx +cx)

his Sculpture in Space (y

(fig. 18).

forms stand freely in space unaffected by the laws of statics. They create

an architectural space though

Space and architecture

is

their structure

also the

architecturally improbable.

is

formal theme of the enormous iron construction by

museum

Matthias Goeritz in the patio of the experimental

City.

points.

Georges Vantongerloo, at one time an adherent of the de Stijl move-

ment, adopts the opposite solution in

But

still.

the negation of mass in favour of space

structivist sculpture.

and

the piece, constructed symmetrically

disembodied

its

lines

is

on wires of stainless

threads of pure gold soldered together and spun out

against the spatial

Lippold's sun

But unlike Vantongerloo's

El

Eco

(fig.

19) in

Mexico

and horizontal forms, Goeritz spans the court-

vertical

yard with the powerful diagonals of solid volumes of sheet iron, whose expansive

movements

dissect the architecturally limited space.

loo's calculated forms, the El

rightly called

it

By comparison with Vantonger-

Eco construction seems highly

expressive,

and the

artist

'emotional architecture'.

MOBILE SCULPTURE
So

far

my

ment. But

My
first

first

subject has been static

volume

this aspect deserves separate

example

is

from

treatment and

work of

the

His Small Mobile of Seven Elements

moves

in

20; painted

But

it

rest.

As

for

its

relation to space,

Volume, extension and position vary according

entailing a succession

tenser

compressed

and more

steel) recalls

that disturbs

He was

the

Lippold's Sun

its

balance and

no one system of data

to the degree

defines

it.

and kind of movement,

of spatial patterns.

A somewhat different kind of mobile sculpture

uses

move-

sculpture in motion.

does not stand motionless like a taut

complex rhythm with every current of air

then slowly comes to

who

now pass to

at

not carried object', of 'freedom from the

(fig.

in the flimsiness of its material components.

sail; it

the American, Alexander Calder.

to think, in sculptural terms, of a 'floating,

earth'.

with only occasional hints

in space

steel

restricted:

bands and vibrating

it is

is

offered

aerials (fig. 21).

produced by the gradual

in fixed directions, the steel coils

by the

release

unwinding themselves

who

Walter Linck,

Movement

here

is

both

of pressure and operates

like clock springs.

swinging of Calder's Mobile and the nervous trembling of Linck's

both outdone by Jean Tinguely,

Swiss,

steel

The slow

constructions are

introduces clockwork and electric motors to

generate motive power. This he uses as the very principle of his art: his compositions -

29

the one illustrated here

parts -

first

come

(fig.

22) consists

into existence

when

of twenty-six mobile and two stationary

can vary from the dizzying to the imperceptibly

Rotating about their axes

at speeds that

slow, they create entities

whose permanence

resides in the constant

Tinguely, no doubt, approaches the limit of sculptural

Physical,

more

particularly magnetic, forces are

change of pattern.

possibilities.

brought into

artistic

sculptor interested in technical experiment. In his Telemagnetic Sculpture

Greek
pieces

and in

living in Paris

New

motion.

their solid (metal) elements are set in

York, shows the

result

play by another
Takis, a

(fig. 23),

of a movement produced in

of metal by a powerful magnet. The trajectory has not been completed: the spher-

oid and the cone are held back from actual contact with the magnet

by almost

invisible

wires or nylon threads, and remain suspended in mid-air. Their relationship to one

another in space has been carefully calculated.

magnetic force, collapsing

when

Both Tinguely's moving

again.

this is

patterns

of technical devices. With the former

while the

exists

by

virtue of the

withdrawn and re-forming when

it is

applied

and Takis' telemagnetic objects involve the use

it is

velocity that constitutes the

with comparable extremism,

latter,

The composition

by means of an equilibrium of force and

sets

up

temporary

work of

art,

'sculptural situation'

resistance.

RELIEF

The

two examples have brought

last

belongs relief

come

in the

possibility

towards

as the

first

us to the frontier zone of sculpture.

To

this

zone

accepted transition to painting. In the 20th century, initiative has

instance

from

the other side: painters have been attracted

by

the

of breaking away from the illusionism of the two-dimensional surface

effects in real space,

and

also

of introducing new

Numerous examples

materials.

could be cited here, especially from the period of Cubism, though even today there are

many
things.

who

painters

It suffices

paste colours

on the canvas

in thick relief, or 'paint' with other

mention Jean Dubuffet and Alberto Burri, Jean Fautrier and Rolf

to

Nesch, Antoni Tapies and Carl Buchheister, Emil Schumacher and Karlfred Dahmen,

Bernard Schultze, Claude Viseux and Robert Rauschenberg,

son

(fig. 27),

Victor Pasmore, Giinter Uecker and Otto Piene - to indicate

the interest and

how numerous

by

to modelling

However,
tural use

finally also

light

apart

and shadow.

from

who

how wide is

do from incrustation

are the variations, ranging as they

the application of relief in painting, the

of it seems to be bound by tradition much more than

Paul Gauguin,

Ben Nichol-

can be considered

as the father

is

more properly

sculpture in the round.

of the modern painter-sculptors,

consistently translated his style as a painter into three-dimensional terms in his

reliefs,

cut

but the effect

from

the

is

one of flatness. But whereas Gauguin's

woodblocks intended

dimensions, the 'painter-sculptors'

30

for his woodcuts,

who

followed

sculp-

reliefs,

remained

flat,

him were above

wood

which he sometimes
with reduced
all

plastic

interested in the

movement of solid
on

the

masses. In his relief The Back I

same theme, Matisse, whose

(fig. 25),

the earliest of three variations

we have already discussed (fig.

statuette

places the

8),

powerfully modelled forms of a female nude seen from the rear on the animated surface

of the

relief

ground, and organizes their weights and interacting

a vertical axis
in fact there

which

is little

is

shifts in

position along

underlined by the supporting leg and the backbone. Although

depth, the relief gives the effect of a statue in the round

ground no longer seems

the relief

support the figure but simply becomes an optical

to

background.

Very

different in this respect

forms burnt into the

flat

is

Pietro Consagra's

surface of wooden planks.

Human

Although the

to give the composition a certain spatial quality, the

of the forms which adhere to the surface

linearity

means of importing the

to use relief as a

Colloquium

for sculpture. In his celebrated

wool and

oilcloth,

Medrano

and mounted in

its

vary in depth

comes from the

effect

As

with

26)

against these attempts

third dimension into painting, Alexander

Archipenko's sculpture-painting - a combination of solid and

use of manufactured materials, with colour

incisions

dominant

like a frieze.

(fig.

- was intended

(fig.

to

flat

forms, involving the

open up new

possibilities

of 191 5, composed of painted

25)

full relief against a

to reproduce the basic geometrical forms of the

background, he

human

tin, glass,

out not only

sets

figure but also to bring out

its

three-dimensional character, which he does by using solid and hollow volumes to obtain
effects

new;

of light and shadow. 'My sculpture-painting', says Archipenko,

have learnt

it

from

While Archipenko

the Egyptians.

seeks to

make

Only

relief

more

aim of the Spaniard Manuel Rivera

type, the

the

is

new

'is

kind of forms

concrete, to 'realize'

is

really

nothing

mine.'
a sculptural

it as

dematerialization. His compositions of

iron wires and metal nets are intended not as sculpture but as painting realized with
sculptural materials. Consequently, the pinturas metalicas are not easy to define in spatial

The

terms even though the wires and nets appear in varying depths.
lations, disintegrating at the edges,

act as flat patches

do not range themselves in

transparent reticu-

spatial relationships

of colour. The absence of background to give them

relief

but

completes

the painterly effect.

The examples

discussed so far have

painting, can yet maintain

its

shown

autonomy

as

that relief,

though

of Greek

art.

to the flat surface out

The background

is

(fig.

28),

is

of which

it

is

gradually giving up this

emerged in the classical period

no longer the matrix of independent forms but merely

the carrier of hardly projecting patterns.

Parasols

A wood composition by

a typical example. Executed in 1938 after

Sophie Tauber-Arp,

an

drawing,

earlier

presents a rhythmic play of simple, melodiously shaped pieces of wood.

flat

very close to

a sculptural type. But, apart from Archi-

penko's high relief Medrano, a rare exception, relief today

autonomy and returning

at times

They move in a

foreground and even the recessed, 'negative' forms are drawn into

Nicholson's Tuscan Relief

sculptural

(fig. 27),

a later

example of

his fully

it

mature,

it.

In

Ben

classical art,

forms and colours are equally important, combining to open up to the

31

The

spectator the spatial expanse of an abstract landscape in strictly geometric forms.

numerous gradations of the

which has only two

levels,

relief,

by

contrast with Sophie Tauber-Arp's

borderline case. Are his metal

a Swiss

reliefs

of Hungarian origin, presents a more

paintings with a special emphasis

of the medium, or should the collection of miniature blocks and the

(fig.

(fig.

28)

emphasize the sculptural quality of Nicholson's composition.

The work of Zoltan Kemeny,

them

work

29) be considered as a sculptural composition?

a typical sculptor's choice.

The open cubes of

on

the materiality

interstices

Kemeny uses

difficult

between

copper and

brass,

various sizes with a fixed profile are

organized in a loose diagonal formation resembling a mosaic or an air-view of a city that

has

grown without

plan.

and projecting

sides

serial repetition

and

The varying depth of the

relief

could be interpreted in sculptural terms.

bestrewing of a surface are

'pointillist'

the scales are definitely weighted in favour of painting

deployed against a

and the alternation of cavities

flat

surface

and not

in depth, the third

On

more

by

the other hand, the

a painter's effects ;

and

the fact that the forms are

dimension being thus reduced

to insignificance.

The ground
Hajdu

(fig.

plays an important role in the copper and

He

30).

does not treat

challenge as a matrix of forms.

shapes are not 'arranged' but

He

relief

datum

uses the

to be accepted as

from

reliefs

it is,

of tienne

but meets

its

embossing technique and thus the forms he

grow out of the ground

terrupted transitions. Modelled

breathing, swelling

as a

it

aluminium

in continuous

volumes and unin-

inside out, the originally flat surface acquires a

movement which not only

presses against the contours

but advances and recedes in other directions. Yet

this

of the

commotion does

multiple

not break the surface anywhere nor does the gentle play of light and shadow impair the
firmness of sculptural form.

excursus: conglomerates and recognized

By way

sculpture

of conclusion to the typology of modern sculpture

may

be added examples of

conglomerates constructed with heterogeneous materials and of assemblages of

trouves.

The problems involved here

therefore, be fitted into the terms

Laurens'

still-life

early attempt to

of 1919,

Bottle

are not only formal but technical as well

of reference of this chapter only

and Newspaper (fig.

31), in painted

entity in space. Laurens dispenses

with background but props

play of mass and void, against a wall. His collage

its

and can,

an excursus. Henri

wood and

metal,

is

an

go beyond the Cubist conception of relief as painting with sculptural

means, and construct, with fragments of ready-made objects, a

ture;

as

objets

spatial possibilities

is

new

type of sculptural

his construction,

an inter-

thus a cross between relief and sculp-

were developed by the Constructivists

who

did

away with
13.

the aperspectivist overlapping.

Laurens uses

Jean Dubuffet,
32

artifacts

who

which he dismantles and re-composes

Carmelo Cappello
Eclipse, 1959

in different relationships.

has already been mentioned as a practitioner of relief in painting,

Bronze

Height 88f

Photo: Allegri, Brescia

14-

Naum Gado

Column, 1923
Plastic,

wood and

Height 41

metal

"
2

Solomon R. Guggenheim

Museum,
Photo:

New

York

Museum

(left)

15.

Nicolas Schoffei

Lux

8, sculpturi

spatiodynamique,

Copper-plated

195!
stee

Height 101

Photo Yves Hcrvochon, Pari

:

("ght;

.-

>

>

>

.'
'
'

..

w
f t

>W

*ft
\\

'

>_*fc

*..'**
V *.*!<

^.v> J*
k!

>

,\^

'

'

1
vj

1
>

V>
>
V

yv
\ A
'

i6.

Antoine Pevsner Construction

in Space,

1929 Brass sheet and

glass

Height 27

',,''

Kunstmuseum, Basle Emanuel Hoffmann Foundation

r.

b
Ik

17-

Richard Lippold

Variations within a Sphere

The Metropolitan Museum

of Art,

New

York

No.

10:

The Sun, 1953/56 Gold wire Length

Fletcher Fund, 1956

Photo: Author

i3i 7 / 8 ", Height 263 3

",

Depth 65 7/ 8

is.

Georges Vantongj

Sculpture
(y

ax*

Space

in

bx

Argentine

moo

ex), 1935

[eight is

Kunstmuseum, Bask
Emanuel

loffm.inii

Foundation

19-

Matthias Goeritz Iron

Photo:

Armando

Salas

sculpture in the patio of the experimental

museum

'El Eco',

Mexico City 1952/53 Height

c.

15',

Length

c. 3:

20.

--

Alexander Calder Small Mobile

of Seven Elements, 1958

Steel

Dr.

Bemhard Sprengel

collection,

Hanover

adopts the opposite procedure.

roots, pieces

over

Dubuffet's sculptures are

is

in fact

The

pieces

it

as

found objects

like

minimum of workingthe

artist

decrees that

such by putting together

;

this recognition.

of slag and the root growth

yet archetypal figure. There

no more than assemblages:

informed because he has recognized

components he expounds

the

takes insignificant, accidentally

of slag or sponge, and puts them together with

(fig. 32).

the formless

He

is

'explain'

one another

as parts

a distant resemblance to the 16th-

device whereby fragments of minerals as

objets trouves

of a

fantastic,

and 17th-century

were combined with decorative

goldsmith's work. But Dubuffet excludes artifacts and uses accidental shapes as he finds

them. This example of creating form by an act of recognition brings

first

part of

my inquiry.

me to the end of the

The problem

II

The

analysis

of meaning

of selected formal types attempted in the

than describing what

is

and

suppositions, theories

The

control.
analysis

of

chapter involved

no more

or occurs before our eyes. This objective and 'public' orientation

when interpretating meaning

will be a useful check

first

associations

interpretation

in

which systems of reference - pre-

- are necessarily more personal and

of meaning cannot, in any

of form; and by remaining close to that analysis

art itself. Its specific task will

it

case,

difficult to

be divorced from the

will remain close to the

be to consider the formal choices of the

artist

work

not in

themselves but as vehicles of a message.

The approach will,

again, not be historical but

with the consequent arrangement of the

It is

hoped

parent.

more in

illustrations

that the unity in multiplicity

by

the nature of an iconography,

subject

and not chronologically.

of modern sculpture will thereby become ap-

Within the various iconographic groups the same formal

applied as in the

first

categories will be

chapter.

In contrast to painting where non-objectivity has been in the ascendant, at least

during the

Fifties

and early

of our century, sculpture has preserved an

Sixties

the appearance of the outside world, in so-called reality.

to concern itself with the traditional but

may

and the inquiry into meaning

occupation with man.
motionless

The

by

turn

figure,

years before

sculpture

42

human

first

both

still

World War

I,

specifically, it continues

valid task of representing the

fittingly

begin with examples of

to the statue ; that

naturalistic

More

and

is,

interest in

human figure,

this artistic

to the representation

pre-

of the

abstract in varying degrees.

so important for

modern

a tendency towards heavy, block-like figures.

art,

are characterized in

The determining

influence

here

is

not only the newly discovered art of archaic and 'primitive' cultures but also a

movement

for reform designed to restore sculpture to

had surrendered to painting. This alienation from

public and in 1899 August

Schmarsow could

its

aesthetic

itself had led to

say that 'no art

is

autonomy winch

it

an alienation from the

modern man

so foreign to

as sculpture'.

Thus
Barlach

compact forms

the closed-in, angular and

(fig. 33),

Andre Derain

those of Constantin Brancusi

(figs. 1, 34),

influence of painting, as a meditation

we

find in the

works of Ernst

of the century and, not

35) at the beginning

(fig.

the rendering not of the transient,

that

least,

in

are to be understood as a reaction against the

on one of the age-old fundamentals of sculpture,

momentary

of enduring and

visual stimulation but

Man Alone (fig. 33), heavy, simplified forms carved in

wood, portrays solitude not as a passing mood but as the lot of man. The sturdy mass of
supra-personal values. Barlach's

the

body

leaning to one side, imprisoned in

terms of a statement concerning the nature of

clarity

Andre Derain who

to the so-called

Negro

intended

as

solid

existence.

as well,

The need

up

for formal

many of whom turn for a time

his attention

his Squatter (fig. 35) in the isolation

of a rough-

block not only constitutes a formal postulate;

it is

also

an expression of the primeval and the original. Adapting Gauguin's words,

one could say

that in those years the

'means of rejuvenation', the

compact hard volume was for many

way back

to

human

(fig. 34),

sculptors a

origins.

similar tendency towards a naive expression

Brancusi's almost contemporaneous Kiss

the

a translation into sculptural

is

under Gauguin's influence, turned

in 1906,

sculpture, shuts

hewn block of stone. The

human

and firmness begins to preoccupy painters

to sculpture.

cloak,

its

of human

intended

as a

life is

to be

found in

tombstone. The union of

man and the pregnant woman in the rectangular block is a union tense with contrary
of the stone and the tenderness of the

forces: the heaviness

death, the 'primitive'

these polarities

form and the

and yet

fuses

already concerned Oskar

polychrome

reliefs.

He

them

as a free-standing relief.

phenomenon

into a whole.

it

has only

Ewald Matare's Female Torso

attempt to conjure up a

far

human

to

figure

his painting

and

36) the sub-title 'Rundplastik'

angles and

the elementary

is

ahead of

more
his

accurately defined

time and an isolated

form

into a relation of

human form to an object,

a headless statue in smooth, polished

body, rigid under a taut surface,

is

it

is

an

into a

charged with a

becomes an emblem. The American Raoul Hague

of metamorphosis. His torso

a thing,

wood,

presence and, at the same time, to transmute

similar formal idiom, the magical aspect

woken

Bauhaus period, in

human

it.

(fig. 38),

spare, almost sexless

heraldic meaning,

trunk

abstraction of the

until forty years later, places the objectified bodily

While Derain and Brancusi equate

The

two

Schlemmer's invention,

tension with the free space around

'sign'.

his

The

his Abstract Figure (fig.

(sculpture in the round), but in fact

symbols of life and

graceful composition. Brancusi gives full value to

Schlemmer before

gave

subject,

(fig.

stresses,

37)

is

in a

a tree

life.

43

Marino Marini

seeks an archaic, not a 'primeval', effect in his lifesize Dancer

which might equally well be

as the

embodiment of

rounded,

warm

Pomona. The

called

the fullness of

body

shapes of the

artist

woman

sees

as

(fig. 59),

magna

mater,

and the mystery of generation. The well-

life

are maternal fertility

The

itself.

stable stance

is

challenged by the dynamic pattern of colour.

Marini's elemental force, the nudes of his fellow countryman

Compared with
Giacomo Manzu

of refined

Manzu's

girl,

very

reserved, displays a leisurely elegance in her arrested dance step. Quite different

from

(fig.

are products

39),

kind,

Toni

artificiality.

Eos

a figure almost

these statues, each masterly in

its

painterly in the fluidity of

forms, kneeling on both knees as though in the act of

its

is

Stadler's

becoming conscious of its limbs. Similarly relaxed,

soft shapes,

(fig. 40),

notwithstanding the clear

modelling and articulation of the body, are to be found in the nudes of Edwin Scharff

and Gustav

Seitz.

The human

likewise heavy, bulky masses

its

rank decomposition

tionally

by

bodies modelled formerly

but they are in decay. Flabby

to lead to

is

the English sculptor,

new

flesh

contacts with reality.

abnormal and obviously absurd, deserves our attention

Dada, Surrealism, abstract

art

and

art brut that

Anthony Caro,

is

ruthlessly

The

exposed

enterprise, inten-

the experiences of

it is

have brought Caro and

are

his

contemporaries

in the early Fifties to this anti-aesthetic extremism.

It

would, however, be a mistake to take

war generation of sculptors. For

this attitude

instance, the Italian

up of the body and all its implications, and

as typical

Mario Negri

gives his figures a

Two

formal idiom of Lynn Chadwick's

of protest

Watchers

(fig.

of the post-

rejects the softening-

more vigorous texture. The

42) expresses a comparable

toughness and resolution: the two figures, a tense, crystal-hard phalanx, challenge the

surrounding space and maintain themselves in

The

possibilities

modem sculptor,

weight of tradition
sculptor, in
task

it

seems to

whether

that,

with

his

approach be constructive or destructive, in

his historical sense,

he has to carry.

an arresting contrast to the modern painter,

of 'creating the

sculptural forms
(fig.

man of our time in sculpture are inexhaustible.

me, why the human figure continues to preoccupy

of portraying the

This must be the reason,

the

it.

first

man'.

Any

author

seems that the modern

each time confronted with the

and animated surfaces of Henry Moore's Reclining Figure (two

landscape, as

is

'Being in two pieces the

sentation of a reclining figure.

human body, with

of the forms. This figure

confirmed by the following words of the

work
The

of the

attempt to describe anatomically the primeval

41) leads to a dead end, because of the ambivalence

human body and

is

It

spite

separates itself

sculpture

is

from seeming

a mixture, an

rock-forms, giving to each element a

to

pieces)
is

both

artist to

the

be only a repre-

amalgamation of the

new aspect, and

perhaps a

new

meaning.'

That the architecture of the human body can be portrayed

illustrated

44

by

the

works of two

sculptors pursuing similar aims

as

an abstraction

though

their

may

be

methods are
!

21.

Walter Linck

Sculpture Mobile, 1959

Steel

Height

and iron

Length 1577s"
Photo Mario Tschabold,
59",
:

Steffisburg

22.

Jean TiNGUiiLY Yokohama,

Galerie Denise Rene, Paris

in

Metamorphosis, 1956 Oil paint on mechanisms Height 56 //, Length 49'

Photo: H. Stoecklin, Paris

"

S3-

Jm

Takis Tclcmagnctic Sculpture, 1959 Magnet and iron Height

19",

",

Length

I3 3 /,"

Galerie

Iris

Clert, Paris

^1

24.

Alexander Archipenko

Medrano, 191
Painted

tin, glass,

wood and

oilcloth

Height 50"

Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum,

New

York

Photo:

Museum

25.

Henri Matisse

The Back

I,

Bronze

Museum

of

Modem

Art,

c.

6' 2"

1909/10

x 3 '8"
York

New

Photo: Author

27.

Ben Nicholson Tuscan

26.

PlETRO CONSAGRA

Human

Colloquium, 195S

Wood

with burnt-in design

Height
(left)

52",

Length 4j 3

"
16

Relief, 1967

Relief and

oil

58

"

x 63 3 ;8 " Marlborough Fine Art

Ltd.,

London

28.

Sophie Tauber-Arp Parasols, 1938 Wood and white oil-paint Height

s
34 ,/", Length 24'
Rijksniuseum Kroller-Miillcr, Ottcrlo Photo: Museum

'tM4

29.

Zoltan Kemeny Banlicu

des Anges, 195S

Copper Height 26 3

,'

",

Length 37 3 / 8 " Galerie Paul Facchetti,

Paris

30.

Etienne Hajdu The Wolves, 1953

Chased copper Height 66'

",

Length S2 5

,*

Photo: Claude Michaelides, Paris

Htl;

SB

3i.

Bottle

Henri Laurens

and Newspaper, 1919

Wood

and metal, painted

Height 2o\ 8 ", Length i$ z U"

Depth
Stedelijk

8 5 /8

"

Museum

Amsterdam
Photo: Author

32.

Jean Dubuffet

The

Sorcerer, 1954

Lava

slag

Height 43

and wood-roots
>

Collection Daniel Cordier

33-

Ernst Barlach

Man

Wood

Alone, 191

Height 34 5

Kunsthallc

"
,'

Hamburg

Photo Dr Wolfgang Salchow

:

Cologne

34-

Constantin Brancusi The

Philadelphia

Museum

of Art,

Kiss, 1908

Limestone Height 23", Length 13", Depth

Arensburg Collection Photo: Author

10''

35-

Andre Derain

Squatter, 1907

Stone Height 13"

Museum

des 20. Jahrhundcrts, Vienna

Photo: Author

36.

Oskar Schlemmer

Abstract Figure, 1921

Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen,

Nickel-plated bronze Height 65'/**

Munich Photo: Museum

37-

Raoul Hague

Ohayo Wormy Butternut

1947/48

Wood

Height 66V2"

Museum

New

of

Modern Art

York

Photo:

Museum

38.

Ewald Matare

Female Torso,

Wood

c.

1926 28

Height 22 1 / l "

Lchmbruck Foundation
through the 'Kulturkreis'

Duisburg

Museum

Photo:

Hewickcr, Kaldcnkirchcn

F.

39-

Giacomo Manzu The Dance

Step, 1950

Bronze Height 63"

Middelheim Museum, Antwerp Photo: Jean do Maeyer, Antwerp

___

40.

Toni Stadler

Kneeling Figure EOS, 195S

Bronze

Height 59"

Lehmbruck Foundation, through

'Kulturkreis',

Photo:

J.

Duisburg

Museum

Schmitz-Fabri, Cologne

th

4i.

Henry Moore

Reclining Figure

(2 pieces),

1959 Bronze Length 46", Height 51"

Lehmbruck-Foundation, through the 'Kulturkreis', Duisburg

Museum Photo:

Artist

^_________^____

42.

Lynn Chad wick

Two Watchers,

1958

Iron and plaster with iron chips

Height 19 5

,"

Collection of the late

Dr Ferdinand

Ziersch,

Wuppertal
Photo: Abisag Tiillmann, Frankfurt Main

43-

Fritz

Wotruba

Figure, 1959

Limestone Height 39 s

Photo: Ehsabeth Speidel, Hamburg-Blankenese

",

Length 26 3 / 4 ", Depth i9 5 / 8

44-

Hans Aeschbacher

Figure

Red

I,

1958

stone

Height without base 57

Collection

Zollikon

Dr Walter

ZH

Photo: Artist

/'

Bcchtler

45-

JOANNIS AVRAMIDIS

Group

of Figures, 1959

Bronze

Height 33 7

"

'

46.

Etienne Hajdu

Small Figure, 1957

Pentelic marble

Width 7Va

Height 20 1

,
,

Photo: Rogi-Andre, Paris

(left)

47.

Wiliielm Loth
Relief

Bronze

V/ 1959

Height i7 3

Length 23
Collection

Dr H. J.

"
/

"

'

Imiela

Darmstadt
(right)

48.

Alberto Giacometti

The

Leg, 1959 Gilt bronze

Height (with base) 86 1

"
,

Lchmbruck Foundation, through

the

'Kulturkreis'

Museum
Dr Wolfgang

Duisburg
Photo:

Salchovv,

Cologne

49-

Aristide Maillol La Mediterranee, 1902 Marble Height 40V2" Tuileries, Paris Photo: Author

so.

Hans Mettel

Seated

Man, 1954

Photo: G. Hauck, Frankfurt Main

Plaster for

bronze Height 2s

,",

Length I0 6 / 8 ", Depth 16

51.

Karl Hartung
Thronoi, 1958/59
Plaster for

bronze

Height 94 V2"
Lehnibruck Foundation
through the 'Kulturkreis'

Duisburg

Museum

Photo: Gnilka, Berlin

53.

Kenneth Armitace

Diarchy, 1957 Bronze

Height 68V 2

"

Arnold H. Marcmont collection, Chicago

Photo: Author

52.

Henry Moore King and Queen,

1952/53

Bronze Height 64 s

"
8

Photo: Author

54-

Hermann Blumenthal

Meditating Youth, 1929

Bronze

Height

68','

"
2

Lehmbruck Foundation, through

'Kulturkreis'

Duisburg

Museum

the

55-

Emilio Greco

Large Female Bather No.

1957
Plaster for

bronze

Height 89

//'

56.

Henri Laurens

Great Amphion, 1952

Bronze

Height 86 5 / 8 "

Lehmbruck Foundation, through the

'Kulturkreis'
1

)uisburg

Museum

Photo: Galerie Louise

Leiris, Paris

57-

Ossip Zadkine

Small Orpheus, 1948

Bronze

Height 82 5 / 8

Lehmbruck Foundation, through

"

the

'Kulturkreis'

Duisburg

Museum

Photo: Marc Vaux, Paris

58.

Henry Moore Draped

Reclining

Woman,

''
1957 Height 53 Vs". Length 8iV 8 Baycrische Staatsgcmaldcsammlungcn, Munich Photo: Author

The

distinct.

Swiss Hans Aeschbacher constructs his Figure I

of ashlar masonry. Yet the figure

come without denying

its

sweet nudes.

The

look

an enduring

like: as

is

monolith whose

lends itself to the carving of

form and determines what

material imposes the

monument and not an

from

a stone figure

On

improvisation.

force of the sculptor's informing will can be gauged

as a piece

resistance the artist has to over-

Red sandstone hardly

strength.

of 1958,

(fig. 44),

is

to

hand the

the other

the bold diagonal across the

middle. Here the ashlars could have slipped. But they are firmly knit together and held

by

in position

a system

of counter-weights, so

that the figure stands

immovable, a tower

of rock fashioned by human hand.

Monumentahty and
figure

(fig.

of 1959, more

43)

Wotruba's limestone

architectural effects also characterize Fritz

various parts, ascending in a powerful rhythm, are carved as a single block.

yields as

the

the vertical

most

when

solid piece

its

The

nature.

form involves

the intended

of sculptured stone there

artist runs,

even when

as

a challenge to tectonics.

a point

is

not

is

Thus even in

where the tension between form

is

jeopardized by a risk

Wotruba and Aeschbacher he

eternity. This readiness to take a risk

as

stone must obey the sculptor, even swerve

and material comes to a head, where the stabihty of the whole

which the

Wotruba

Aeschbacher to the intractability of the material though, again

little as

Aeschbacher, he recognizes

from

The

abstract than the Austrian artist's earher works.

carves, as

were, for

it

endowing Wotruba's

least responsible for

stone figure with the quality of a living being.

Joannis Avramidis, a pupil of Wotruba, constructs his group of figures

symmetry

rigorous

of the

rigidities

multiple unity. There

as a baluster-like shaft, a

of Byzantine

may

(fig.

with

45)

be an echo here

perhaps also of the painted figures of Oskar Schlemmer,

art,

but the originality of plastic invention - a

human group

as a sheaf of columns

- remains

entire.

Etienne Hajdu's Small Figure

(fig.

46)

is

also

conceived

an anthropomorphic

as

column, though with a more strongly emphasized rhythm of recesses which

the shaft. There

is

thus

more openness than

articulate

in Avramidis' introverted group,

and the

well-proportioned figure, like a caryatid freed from architectonic service, though

it

owes nothing

anthropomorphic

to

has

on

the

Greece,

Relief VI 1959

theme of the

(fig. 47),

torso, has

no antiquarian or archaeological

no

of

their derivation

which anatomical

up with enchanting

criteria

vestigial

produced in

classical

own

Rome as

to

lightness

one of a

antecedents; nor

interests and, as

are not synecdochal but wholes in their

ories

plays

the

hints in the capital.

Wilhelm Loth's
ations

classical

is it

series

of vari-

a fragment.

Ulrich Gertz has noted, his torsos

right. Preserving at best distant

hands or breasts - they have become

no longer apply. Neither

Loth

fetish

nor

idol,

mem-

artefacts to

nor sign - each of

many metamorphoses that the human figure has undergone in our century - Relief VI 1959 interprets man in the widest, 'romantic' sense as
part of nature, identifying him with the earth and making him function as landscape.

these has been a stage in the

83

Alberto Giacometti's Leg

according to the

artist,

(fig.

48) in gilt bronze, planted

work of art

every authentic

which has long preoccupied Giacometti.

now

there are also arms and hands, and

on

should.

high

too

It

socle, surprises as,

is

a torso, a

theme

In his earlier work, besides heads and busts

(1959) this over-lifesizc, long, thin leg with the

What

already familiar active, tingling surface.

does the

artist

'mean'?

Is it

macabre

joke of the ex-Surrealist deriding monumental statuary?

We have Giacometti's own remarks on

As

Pierre Courthion

tells us,

himself to drawing models'

totality; the living

whose function
feet
I

whole

to

is

already as a student at the

feet.

is

problem of the autonomous fragment.

the

His contention

not a

sum of

evoke the whole.

academy

the artist had confined

that a figure cannot be grasped in

is

Hence

details.

the concentration

on

its

a part

cannot see simultaneously the eyes, hands and

'I

of a person standing two or three metres away from me, but the individual part that

look

at brings

home the existence of the whole.' And so too the spectator proceeds from

the initial astonishment to recreate the figure that the fragment suggests. Inviting others
to participate in his creativity Giacometti,

The examples

it

has been said,

more

is

discussed so far have been characterized

clearly set off against the surrounding space.

Those

a poet than a sculptor.

by compactness of volume

to follow will be considered

from the

standpoint of communication with space or of the participation of space in their existence.

The

first,

Aristide Maillol's early

work, La Mediterranee

(fig. 49),

can only be ad-

mitted on certain terms. Maillol's figures are solid and compact, a reaction,
the century, against the debilitating influence of painting. Yet the seated
strong,

rounded limbs can be described

weight and support

'plastic areas'.

The

recalls a

side

La

as

does the system of closed and open

classical

proportions and her self-assured calm

Mediterranee embodies an antique principle of order.

thought disturbs her; no passion

stirs

this-worldly and monumental, she

that

is

at

is

The symbolism
figurativeness

in these strong breasts.' Balanced

the perfect

is

cast for his large Seated

professed

Man

(fig.

minimum. As

50)

by Maillol does not apply

abstract to a degree. Mettel's

the limbs and intended to

is

a piece

and impersonal,

of architecture

in the order

said in

prime concern

body and

is

proportion, the rhyth-

the areas of void enclosed

man

not

as

an individual but

as a position in a

by

also a challenge to

Wallraf-Richartz

Museum

system of

anonymous cipher

it.

In the elaborately articulated structure of Prometheus Bound, a bronze

at the

whose

my Moderne Plastik, in connection with another work of the

of our world, perhaps

now

in space.

to this rigorous composition

co-ordinates - a metaphor for the reduction of the individual to an

84

'No

communicate with external space. Anatomical detail is reduced

Mettel seeks to portray

Marcks,

it,

woman adequately objectified in a form

mical structure of the whole, both the mass of the

artist,

As Andre Gide has put

once solid and open.

Hans Mettel's

to a

woman with her

out particularly well: the figure seems to be

this

contained in an imaginary cube. In her

turn of

an open composition. The clear articulation of

as

Greek temple,

view brings

at the

by Gerhard

in Cologne, an architectural conception

Arms,

also apparent.

is

characterized

by

legs

and the trunk bending forward make up a composition

rhythm and with numerous overlappings.

a lively

In contrast to

Mettel's figure, integrated in a static order, the Prometheus struggles to break out.

Rieth has accurately described

Karl Hartung's over-lifesize Thronoi

The gnarled beams and

buttresses

(fig.

analysed

by Carl

a throne.

The

Linfert in his

Baroque

trionji,

left

empty

itself

scrolls

in expectation

Henry Moore (fig.

artist's

would

at the

959I60)

52), a

intention, as

in

'It is

thrones in the biblical

highly developed

attest a

of

allegories

of the most varied kind, any triumphal arch; a central space

of a venerable or sacred presence which can
it

is

either manifest

remains hidden.'

monumental elements appear in

the seated King and Queen

by

work on the borderline between the figurative and the abstract.

he himself has

perhaps the head of the King which

one form and

elaborate this hint and cite the thrones

Early Byzantine mosaics which

stressed,

but to evoke the archaic idea of kingship

is

(in Junge Kiinstler

me) has hinted

or remain hidden. In Hartung's throne

Similar archetypal and

The

memories and premonitions of man. The

The idea can be illustrated by other examples - the Renaissance

angeology).
the

grotto-like structure, a kind of human

monograph on Hartung

hierarchy of angels as a possible source.

(in

both figure enthroned and throne.

of this monumental figure have been acutely

filiations

sculptor (in conversation with

with a book lying on them

is

51)

form an open,

tabernacle enshrining the hopes and fears,

ambiguity and the iconographic

image of distress'.

as a 'spatial

it

Adolf

is

not to portray a specific royal couple

is

as such.

Moore

adds: 'The "clue" to the group

a head and crown, face and beard

combined into

my mind has some slight Pan-like suggestion, almost animal, and yet, I

think, something Kingly.'

Anonymous, mythical beings confront

(fig. 53).

plate

with

arms and
at.

The two

As

figures

a
is

figures are fused into

illegible signs scratched in

legs protrude

with surprising

whole the composition

a facade

and

wrinkled skin grooved

it.

their

us in the large Diarchy

one body

Summary

or,

one upright

exactly, into

indications of breasts,

plasticity; the

takes almost

more

by Kenneth Armitage

and stumps of

high-held heads are merely hinted

no account of

space; the

body of

physiognomic expression has to be read from

like the die

of a stamp block. Primeval and

it,

hieratic,

from

the
its

Diarchy

monument of a primitive culture long since lost.

The conception of the human body as an architecture of limbs is represented in
German sculpture chiefly by Wilhelm Lehmbruck {Youth Ascending; Fallen Man).
Moving in Lehmbruck's wake, Hermann Blumenthal attempts to apply this abstract
formula to the portrayal of men as he sees them in his environment. If we compare
appears as a

Blumenthal's

work with Lehmbruck's

'constructive expressionism', there

on

the solid body.

Lehmbruck

is

bolder conception, which

in his Meditating Youth

(fig.

industrial

have described

as

54) a definite emphasis

strives to rise to the transcendental

ment; the creations of Blumenthal, a student of the

through disembodi-

worker

as a

human

type,

remain on the ground.

85

The

peculiarly Latin elements in the

plified in the

parts

bronzes of Emilio Greco

of the body are opposed the

modern

(fig. 55)-

To

are well

form

attitude to plastic

main

the soft, full modelling of the

tense, boldly stretched-out limbs, especially the

arms turned outwards, with an almost

exem-

linear sharpness

of outline. The tension

is

pointed
height-

ened by the twist of the trunk which propels the figure with centrifugal force into the
surrounding space. Like some of his Italian fellow countrymen, Greco invites comparison with Mannerism not only in regard to formal idiom but also to
His

statues, at

spiritual attitude.

once formalist and natural, diagnose a dichotomy in the existence of

modern man.
Henri Laurens, one of whose Cubist compositions has already been discussed
31),

turned in his later

(fig.

56)

work

to stable solid shapes.

whose beauty moved

ness

in the Great

Amphion

he boldly combines the powerful mass of the body with areas of shaped void.

Amphion, son of Zeus and Antiope,

built the walls

the stones into place.

born of music

tecture

However,

(fig.

or, as

Thus

Henri Focillon puts

the
it

of Thebes by the music of his lyre

theme of the composition

in his Fdoge de

la

is

archi-

main, the 'effortless-

of work performed according to musical rhythm'. The declamatory play of the

hands reaching out into space and the stable architecture of the body are the determining
'motifs'

once

they reappear, ambivalently combined, in the centre of the figure which

string instrument

and

fluted

column

Ossip Zadkine's Small Orpheus

(fig.

lation

and baroque overstatement. In a

up

instrument, opens

shaft.

comes from

57)

strained expression observable in the last

few examples

is

tioned in the

yields here to dramatic gesticu-

Surrealist conflation

Orpheus' body becomes

first

Internal and External

chapter.

own words: 'When the

The

and

its

Forms (compare

artist applies

fig. 5)

them not only

Draped Reclining

constructive build,

and section conceived in

Woman

in his abstract
(fig. 58).

it is

possible to keep within

full

its

the centre of gravity

base)

- yet having an

alert

Moore's statement makes

their air-surrounded entirety, stressing

a question of form.

clear to

Whether he

monumentality or shaping

'internal

is

S6

unesco

figure

(fig.

and yet turn

and

static, in

falling

straining,

the sense that

or

moving

off

work

for

its parts.'

what extent even

a representational

portraying a naturalist female figure of

and external forms', Moore's theme

There are no holes in the body of the Reclining Woman

the large

210), but the

possi-

form-existence, with masses of varied

dynamic tension between

it

in

quote Moore's

limitations

within the base (and does not seem to be

lies

To

works but

knowledge of its

thrusting and opposing each other in spatial relationship - being

him

The broken-up

have already been men-

sculptor understands his material, has a

an inert block into a composition which has a

its

his

into a lyre (Zadkine calls his piece personnage-instrument). Music,

his naturalist pieces as well, e.g. the

size

re-

thus not only formally significant but carries a representational, mimetic value.

Henry Moore's

bilities

But the

a kindred world.

song, plaint and the hero's tragic fate are simultaneously conveyed.
solid

at

is

is

is

classical

plastic

form.

as there are, for instance, in

theme of the shaped void

is

not absent. The

59.

Dancer, 1949-58

Museum

Polychromed bronze

Marino Marini

Height 67!" Lehmbruck Foundation, through the 'Kulturkreis' Duisburg

Photo:

Dr Wolfgang

Salchow, Cologne

function of the drapery is formal, not decorative.

pressing

from

inside', the

movement of

mass of the body upwards, and, where

protruding

epic quality about them.

60), the collapsing horse

(fig.

man

head of the

must succumb,

to hold himself

Along

to the muzzle of the animal

composition - the drama of both

Not only have

is

it

emphasizes the

downward line from

the

in the

doom. But

its

in his last despairing effort

doom.

modem

sculptors far afield.

they explored the archaic and prehistoric cultures of Europe and Asia

hitherto the exclusive

The 'Negro
of individual

and

caught in an

falling rider are

- the highest and the lowest point

of the origins of sculpture, they have

and the two Americas -

phenomenon, originating with the Cubists and the

How

What

is

(fig. 61),

monumental bronze totem, made up of

artist

relevant

and fructifying

liberating

Cubist work, Jacques Lipchitz' Figure

concave forms, the

Islands

of

domain of ethnographers.

style' as a historical

artists.

also discovered the primitive art

of Africa, the South Sea

need not be discussed here.

Expressionists,

his dancers (fig. 59)

by horses and horsemen.

the drawn-out

also perhaps defying that

'unhistorical' peoples, those

In this

sweeps the heavy

being played out. According to Marini the rider

is

symbol of humanity nearing

up he

and the

search for primeval idioms of expression has taken

in pursuit

the 'forces

calm flow of monumental form have an

their

Marino Marini on the other hand -

architectonic formula of tense concision.

late

adheres to the body,

it

apart - explores the dramatic possibilities offered

In the Miracolo

The

small,

calls

parts.

Moore's reclining female figures with

Pomonas

and

folds, large

its

Moore

enhances what

It

it

is its

influence

on

the

work

could be appears in a relatively

dating

from

positive

the years 1926 to 1930.

and negative, convex and

has attempted to preserve for our disenchanted and rationalist

world the 'solemn' quality

that Nietzsche discerned in African art,

its

magic and

incantatory power.

Archaism
the Austrian

as a

mode of expression,

Rudolf Hoflehner

(figs.

not

as

borrowed form,

characterizes the figures

of

62 and 66). In contrast to other sculptors working

medium as infinitely ductile and malleable, does not

respect its 'ironness'. He composes cyclopic figures by

in iron, Hoflehner does not treat his

forge and weld

it

but seeks to

piling massive blocks

and

it is

of raw iron on top of one another (they are secured by soldering),

the weight and thickness of the material, not an

imposed shape,

that he brings

into play. Recently Hoflehner has taken to splitting his blocks into pairs of slender

volumes with a
iron even

more

immovable

as

viewed from

recess or

opening between them

forcefully. Hoflehner's

ever
all

it

aim

is

this

the statue in the strict sense, as firm and

has been. His figures, colossal and stable, which are meant to be

angles, are designed to contradict the fleetingness

space, to attest the

permanence of the

spiritual act.

88

They

are

no longer based on

of appearances in

Whereas Hoflehner's

often seem active, even aggressive, his later sculptures,

a passive effect.

brings out the massiveness of the

still

earlier

made of solid steel,

works

often have

the virile active principle, but they present

the other side of human existence, the experience of pain and suffering. In formal terms
this

change of viewpoint

is

expressed in the change of directions. Hofleliner's figures

used to confront the viewer firmly with verticals or steeply rising diagonals

This

also tend to the horizontal.

and more

flattened

exclusive

made

flexible

is

evident in The Couple

66) with

(fig.

a spiritual attitude towards the

they

interlocking,

volumes. Hoflehner himself commented 'There

problem of form, but

now

is

no

pure,

world which must be

manifest in a form.'

To

may

Hoflehner's figures

(fig. 63),

be opposed the contemplative passivity of The Self

an iron piece by the American Isamu Noguchi.

Its

simple forms express spiritual

self-sufficiency, inner concentration

and calm - values for which,

mised, Far Eastern art could offer

many

The

can safely be sur-

That Noguchi's Self speaks in an

human figure in plastic form interests sculptors of all persuawho incline to figurative art. Hans Steinbrenner pursues the theme

portrayal of the

not only those

in his

parallels.

it

idiom needs no particular explanation.

abstract

sions,

its

wood

compositions

limbs, as does Etienne-Martin in his Large Couple

of heavy, massive shapes, partly

Danger

revealed

is

when

the veil of flesh

Her Don Quixote

world only the

himself

as a

beyond

his reach

untragical, self-assured

non-conformist.

and

recalling shields

away

falls

plate

vizors, the statue

of the

(fig.

Hammered and
is

by Wander Bertoni

position

(settled in

wood, an accumulation
vitality.

leaving a fragile, unstable

(fig.

67)

pedestal),

is

of solitude.

a hero

he wages

his hopeless

it is

a projection of himself. In a hard

68)

of Seymour Lipton can maintain

forged out of metal

composed of

'hero' can also

Vienna), Icarus

plates, its

scaly

seems to expend
evokes a

The

its

be seen in an aluminium com-

(fig. 69),

with its pointed

thrusts in

sideration in

its

in battle.

own

right.

artist's

Edgar Degas possessed

and misunderstood
Paying

little

70)

of an obviously Futurist descent,

of figure in motion has been incidentally touched upon;

demands on the

(fig.

energy inwards rather than outwards. The ebb and flow of the forms

movement

subject

this latter piece,

of

armour.

every direction, or in the sharp edges and projecting angles of the marble rider

by Umberto Mastroianni, though

forms

several dovetailing pairs

volumes sharply demarcated from the outside world by the

Something of the aggressivity of this

gesticulating

of Germaine Richier, exposed to every

because

Hero

in

convey human

with the Sail of a Windmill

Pushed to the edge of his world (here the

struggle against a ghost

(fig. 65), also

figurative, designed to

skeleton, as for instance in the visionary figures

external power.

by

64) with their paired voids enclosed

(fig.

attention to

the climax of a dance

greater

of mass and rhythm than the seated or standing

figure.

this sense to

as a

deserves con-

medium makes

The rendering of motion

sense

it

sculptor,

in a plastic

an eminent degree when, threatened with blindness

he was modelling

physiognomic and anatomical

movement;

the

moment,

that

is,

his

wax

detail,

when

statuettes

of dancers.

Degas strove

the figure

to capture

becomes

a con-

struction in space.

89

'*-

moment

This

The

(fig. 71).

it

in verticals

has been carved.

and within the

by

spatial limits

of the

tree

trunk out of

Not only

rises

the poised dancers

lead figure

along

the formal idiom, to be accounted for

the hardness of the material (oak) and the technique of carving, but the

conception suggest a primitive

The

Kirchner's Dancer with Raised Leg

A stiff rhythm, set by the firmly planted right foot,

the intersecting diagonals of the limbs.

partly

Ludwig

an early work of Kirchner's (1912), from the best years of Die

figure,

moves only

Briicke,

which

does not occur in Ernst

ritual dance, diametrically

opposed

in

its

whole

contraction to

by Degas.
by Germaine

The Top

Richier, called

(fig.

120)

from

its

small and

unimportant attribute which appears on the pedestal, advances with measured and

solemn

from

step

towards an undetermined goal. Emaciated, with cracks in

the relative protection of its spatial

by Hans Hartung) and

home, defmed by

work

space - solid

as

form and unformed void - appears

sculptor

who

has found in space a

Germaine Richier has been

seem

emerges

it

the backdrop (painted over

of the

which

region of storms, monsters and forest demons.

is

the tension

absorbing challenge.
terrible'

her

and her

home ground,

fantastical art

of

Max

of Alberto Giacometti. In her conception of

Germaine Richier conveys

does

than to some dark

The metamorphoses and hybrids

also, for instance, in the forest representations

recalling the figure style

between figure and

one of the basic experiences of the

new and

called 'sculptor

to belong less to the Mediterranean,

imagines occur

skin,

the pedestal, to expose itself to the perils of the infinite. In this

highly expressive and surrealistically disquieting

modern

its

that she

Ernst while

man and

space

a tragic outlook.

Detachment from the ground, apparent weightlessness achieved by converting mass

into energy - these problems, after having preoccupied the

those of the 20th century.

Lipchitz, for

whom the expressiveness of form is closely linked with symbolic meaning.

as

much

has repeatedly treated since 1933

in terms of the contemporary situation

of crisis, danger of war -

as in those

of the

Prometheus Overcoming the Vulture

artist's

(fig. 72),

and shaped voids in turbulent movement

as

is

dictatorship,

thus to be

atmosphere

formal and compositional postulates.

a study

Ministry of Health and Education in Rio de Janeiro,

- and

sculptors, fascinate

We encounter them particularly often in the work ofJacques

The theme of Prometheus which Lipchitz

understood

Baroque

by Lipchitz

is

on

for the facade

a composition

of the

of solid volumes

the point of flying, above

ground

such a very topical allusion in mythological language. Floating in the

air like

passing clouds are also the Genii

by

flying, or

the Swiss Arnold d'Altri

cement bodies, though unsymmetrically arranged, are so

skilfully

another that the slender support, planted in an undressed stone,

here, as in Lipchitz' composition, an attempt to translate a

(fig. 73).

is

Their heavy

balanced against one

hardly noticed. There

is

Baroque allegory into modern

terms.

Reg

Butler,

on

the other hand,

flying Figure in Space

90

(fig. 74).

makes no attempt

to conceal the rods supporting his

Indeed he gives them an aesthetic significance, in that they

6o.

Marino Marini

Miracolo, 1954 Bronze Height 51 Vs", Length 66 7

"

'

Photo: Author

6i.

Jacques Lipchitz

Figure, 1926/30 Bronze

Museum

of

Modern

Photo: Author

Art,

Height 84 5

New

York

62.

Rudolf Hoflehner

Doric Figure, 195S

Iron (solid)

Height 73 s

Zurich, Kunsthaus

''

63.

The
Iron

ISAMU NOGUCHI
Self,

1957

Height 34"

Stable Gallery,

New

York

Photo: Author

n*.

1*1

64.

Hans Steinbrenner Composition,

Photo: Author

1956

Elm wood Height

68 7

"
,

Middelheim Museum, Antwerp

6S.

filXBNNB-MARTIN

Large Couple, 1947

Elm wood

[eight 7 s

"

Private collection, Paris

1"

66.

Rudolf Hoflehner The Couple

(Figure 101), 1966 Solid

steel

Length So 3

",

Height 67V4", Width 15 3 /.," Photo: Artist

6~j.

Germaine Richier

Don

Quixote with the

Sail

of a "Windmill, 1949
Gilt

bronze

Height 22 7

Private collection

Photo: Author

"
,

6S.

Seymour Lipton

The Hero, 1957 Nickeled

silver

on

steel

Inland Steel Building, Chicago

Photo: Oliver Baker,

New

York

69.

Wander Bertoni

Icarus,

1953

Aluminium Height 47 ,"

Middelhcim Museum, Antwerp
1

Photo: Author

70.

Umberto Mastroianni The

Rider, 1953 White marble Height 53

"
8

Middelhcim Museum, Antwerp Photo: Author

72.

Jacques Lipchttz

Prometheus

)vercoming

the Vulture, 1943

Bronze study

Height

Photo: Adolpli Studly,

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner

Dancer with Raised Leg, 1912 Bog oak (painted) Height 26
Private collection

Photo: Author

By

"

permission of the Stuttgarter Kunstkabinett

c.

i;

:i

,"

New York

73-

Arnold d'Altri

Genii, 1949

Cement Height

S6 5 / 8 ", Length

no

,/'

Lcvcrkusen Municipal

Museum Photo: Author

74-

Reg Butler

Figure in Space, 1959 Bronze Height i3'/s

75.

Gerhard Marcks

Pair of Runners, 1923

Bronze Height 7 5 / 8 ", Length 77 2 " Dr .Walter Ncuerburg

collection,

Henncf Photo: Author

76.

Movement, 1944 Bronze Height 12", Length I3V 8 " Depth 10"
American Art, Philips Academy, Andover, Mass. Photo: Andovcr Art Studio

Peter Grippe Figure

Addison Gallery of

in

^^^i^^^nH^^i^H
77.

Drago Trsar The

Demonstrators

II.

T
1957 Bronze Height 53 / 8 ", Length 66'/g" Photo: Author

1811

78.

Alberto Giacometti Seven Figures

One Head,

1950 Painted bronze Height 22 7 /s", Length 22 V2", Depth 18 V 8

Fritz Koenig

Group

of Riders, 1956 Bronze

Height

3
/8

",

Length 2i 5 / 8 ", Depth n//

Brunswick Municipal Museum Photo: K. H. Steppe, Landshut

On

permanent loan from the 'Kulturkreis'

Alfred LOrcher Troy

Bochum

Municipal

in Ruins, 1958

Museum

Photo:

J.

Height

3
/4

",

Length

g"/ a "

Schmitz-Fabri, Cologne

On

permanent loan from the 'Kulturkreis'

8i.

Emil Cimiotti Group of Figures, 1958 Bronze Height 15 3 / 8 "

On

permanent loan from the 'Kulturkreis'

Brunswick Municipal Museum Photo: Dr.Wolfgang Salchow, Cologne

82.

Louise Bourgeois

One and

Others, 1955

Painted

wood Height 20 // Whitney Museum

1

of

American

Art,

New

York Photo: Oliver Baker,

New

York

83.

Mary Callery

Study for

a Ballet

Bronze M. Knoedler and Co.,

Inc.,

New

York

84.

Pa bio Picasso The Bathers, 1957 Bronze Height

53

V8 "

- 103

"8 "

Galerie Louise Leiris, Paris

Photo: Author

86.

Mldarho Rosso

Lady with

Wax

a Veil,

1896

[eight 29'

/'

Middelheim Museum, Antwerp

Photo: Jean dc Maeyer, Antwerp

85.

Ciaude Visfux

Petrified

Crowd, 1959 Bronze Height 27 5 / 8 ", Length 29

/./

Daniel Cordicr, Paris

_-

88.

Antoine Pevsner

Portrait of Marcel

Duchamp, 1926 Celluloid on

Yale University Art Gallery, Collection Societe Anonymc,

87.

Pablo Picasso

Female Head, 1910

Bronze

Height i67 2

Photo: Brassai, Paris

New

zinc

Height 37", Breadth 25 5 / 8

Haven Photo: Museum

89.

Bernhard Heiliger

Portrait of Ernst

Reuter

1954

Cement Height
Photo:

15

/.,"

Dr Wolfgang Salchow

Cologne

90.

Emy Roeder

Self-Portrait, 1958

Bronze

Life-size

Photo:

J.

Schmitz-Fabri, Cologne

9i.

Cornelia Runyon Head, 1953 Greenish-brown

Photo: Russ Halford

desert stone

Height 13" Private

collection,

Los Angeles

92.

Joannis Avramidis Head, 1959 Synthetic

Photo

resin

on aluminium

structure

Life-size

Herbert Hohl, Vienna

'*fc

mi

93-

Claire Faikensthn
Portrait of the painter Karel Appel, 1956

Iron wire Height 27 5

59

*
,'

Galerie Stadler, Paris

r _s

94.

Jean Dubuffet

Madame j'ordorme,

~'"

1954

Lava Height 36 1 //'

Collection Daniel Cordier, Paris

!St*

95-

Max

Ernst Anxious Friend, 1944/57 Bronze Height 26 3 / 8

Eduardo Paolozzi

96.

St Sebastian IV, 1957

Bronze

D.

Gommc

Height 90V2"

collection,

London

Photo: Author

97-

Lynn Chadwick The

Stranger

II,

1956 Iron and conglomerate Height 43 3 /s" Photo: Author

98.

Cesar

Homme

de Draguignan, 1957/58 Bronze Height 28", Width 41" Galerie Claude Bernard, Paris

99-

Jaap

Mooy

Icarus

Iron

Height 29V;,"

Stadtische

Kunsthalle

Recklinghausen

ioo.

Bronze

Roel D'Haese

The

Indifferent

(cire

perdue) Height 26 3 / 4

Man, 1959
"

Claude Bernard Haim

collection, Paris

Photo: Lucjoubert, Paris

102.

Raymond

>i

<

hamp-Villon

The Horse, 1914 Bronze Height

Museum

of

Modem

Art,

New

*
'

York

Photo: Author

101.

Man

David Hare
with Drum, 1948

Bronze

Height 23 5 / 8 "

Photo: Amerika-Dienst

Wessei Couzijn

104-

Flying Figure, 1958

Bronze 22
Stedclijk

,*

[2 ,*

Photo:

IO3.

CONSTANTIN BRANCUSI

Bird in Space, 1925

Polished bronze on base of marble

and oak

Height 49 2 / 3

Philadelphia

Museum

Arensberg Collection

Photo Author
:

1"

Museum, Amsterdam

"

of Art

Museum

105-

Stele

Horst Econ Kaiinowski

pour unc Antilopc, 1965

Leather over

wooden frame

6i 3 /a

35'

Photo Robert David

:

io6.

Ewald Mataee Lying Cow,

1946 Ebony Length

8 5/ 8 "

Photo: Dr Wolfgang Salchow, Cologne

io7-

Andrea Cascella

Lcda, i960 "White marble

12"

x 65" x

8"

Galleria dell'Ariete,

Milan

io8.

Jacques Charles Delahaye The Cat, 1952 Bronze i9 5 /s" x 6 3 " x

5
4 /"

Galerie Stadler, Paris

Photo: Augustin Dumage, Paris

109.

Bernard Meadows Crowing Cock,

1955

Bronze Height 29 7 / 8 " Photo:

British Council

no.

Otto Freundlich Ascent, 1929 Plaster original Height

Mme. Jeanne Kosnickloss-Freundlich, Paris

78

"

3
/

hi.

Hans Arp Growth,

1938

Marble Height 39 Vs*

Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum,

New

York Photo: Museum

ii2.

Hans Arp

Seuil,

1959 Plaster for bronze Height

c.

35

/2

",

Depth

c.

4"

Galerie Denise Rene, Paris

113.

'\*i

Alicia Penalba

Homage

to Vallejo, 1957

Galerie Claude Bernard, Paris

Bronze Height 118

Photo: Author

ii4-

Guido Jendritzko Composition

II,

5
3
1959 Plaster for bronze 25 / 8 " X i7 /s" Photo: Gnilka, Berlin

n.S.

Francesco Somaini Iron 5925, 1959 Iron Height 38 %" La Medusa,

Rome
116.

Theodore Roszak
Thorn Blossom, 1947

Steel with nickeled silver

Whitney Museum

Height 33 V 2 "

of American Art,

Photo: Oliver Baker,

New
New

York
York

ii7-

Otto Herbert Hajek

Space Knot 64, 1958

Photo: Galcrie Anne Abels, Cologne

Bronze

27V

x 15" x

/e

Ravensburg church

movement of the

repeat in an abstract version the gyrating

stretched-out figure.

open construction and the compact female body could be taken

form and

exposition of the general theme of this book,

The problem of the

an early work, the Pair of Runners

abstract composition, Figure in

His main concern

career.

and 'captured' in a
running

steps

two

that not

space.

Marcks presents two men

(fig. 76).

who

moment. The

by

the

is left

to the imagination

gives in full the

first

anonymity of the runners'

of Marcks' work

If this interpretation

is

of the spectator, not without

- an impression

we may

trait

- temporal

what occurs

as

in succession

(fig.
is

76).

time, normally introduced in mobile constructions,

In
that

its

consistently
at is

member of

older sculpture, but

has claimed the

its

duration.

Thus the element of

here rendered by

is

static

rhythms.

sculpture can hardly ignore the fact

a mass society. Representations of crowds are not

it is

artist's

unknown

attention as a principal subject.

An example is The Demonstrators II

by the Yugoslav sculptor, Drago Trsar. Trsar, with whom the motif is

77)

has,

however, integrated

What

his

crowd

Trsar constructs as a

Koenig the

as a 'sign',

relief, Fritz

several figures are also

more

giving

it

a collective individuality.

Koenig arranges in depth

distinct.

recurrent,

(fig. 79).

The Demonstrators have one

will

With
which

they proclaim in unison by one gesture. Koenig's Group of Riders, on the other hand,
collection

of individuals who, though

Siamese twins,

by

still

in

only in the 20th century that the shapeless mass of human beings

(fig.

space

not

dealing not only with the unique individual but also with the anonymous,

it is

fungible

man contemporary

concern with modern

The

well in that the successiveness represented

both to the structure of the movement and to

relates

is

consider as parallel Peter

maintained fixes the consecutive stages of a movement. The simultaneity aimed

but - a Futurist

that

faces.

appearance in different positions of certain defined forms whose identity

spatial

in full

alternation. This could indeed suggest

accepted,

Grippe's attempt to render simultaneously

only

in

of the pattern - long

serial repetition

courses but successive stages of one are represented

strengthened

by Gerhard Marcks

tackled

with the rhythm of the moving limbs which are observed

is

characteristic

artist

is

compendious

as a

and by the American Peter Grippe in an

(fig. 75),

Movement

and steering arms -

guidance from the

of motion

sculptural rendering

The

all

alike and, in

one

instance,

grown

is

together as

preserve their autonomy, structurally articulated and defined in

the rhythmical echelon arrangement.

Alberto Giacometti's fantastic painted bronze Seven Figures - One Head

an even more individualized, indeed disparate assemblage. The

figures stand apart like trees in a thin

the others. Here if anywhere

is

tall

wood - each on its own and

(fig.

78)

is

and lanky human

without contact with

the sculptural simile for the existential situation of mod-

ern man, his isolation, his inability to communicate, his despair. Exposed to infinite
space, passive and, in the strict sense
solitary

head are an epitome of

individual

is

condemned

of the word, vegetating, the seven figures and the

human

society

to surfer alone the

- a

common

futile

lot

nightmare in which the

of solitude.
149

Groups of men engaged

and

tators

listeners,

in discussion or negotiation, bathers, revolutionaries, spec-

or simply scenes of

movement -this

repertory of the late Nestor of contemporary

liveliness

Ruins

and directness of Lorcher's

among

art are well

which the wooden horse

80) in

(fig.

German

has been, for

many

years, the

sculpture, Alfred Lorcher.

exemplified by his

tachiste relief

The

Troy

in

the centre of a tumultuous scene enacted

is

the collapsing city walls.

Group of Figures (fig. 81) in mind when he developed his open

composition from the centre outwards - a cluster of human forms with pairs of legs

Emil Cimiotti had

standing closely spaced in a circle while bodies and arms open out in agitated gesticulation and, in an astonishing metamorphosis, begin to breathe as one body.

It is

hardly

necessary to point out that in group compositions of this kind the inner logic of human

not binding. The

forms

is

freely

with what

it

artist's

purpose

not to imitate his

is

for,

or brings out, a certain ambivalence in the interpretation

of reality. Cimiotti's group of figures could equally well be seen

One and

Louise Bourgeois.

knows

Others

One

(fig. 82),

could take

composition in painted

a
it

for a colony of

as a plant,

wood by

mushrooms. The

and the same

the American,

artist,

however,

push the ambivalence in the direction of the excluded middle and

better than to

thus deprive the

but to operate

has to offer.

This approach makes

applies to

'subject'

work of the gay and

serious poetry

standing close together, large and small,

some

in

of strange and yet familiar objects

one colour, some striped or spotted,

all

- except the One. This puzzling and witty invention can hardly

similar to each other

have a sociological significance

it is

much more

like a fable

- perhaps the fable of the

white raven.
F. E.

the

McWilliam remains

human

American

closer to conventional reality,

even though he

translates

figure into spatial schemata with radically altered proportions, as does the

Mary

artist

Callery,

whose group of bozzetti

in the Study for a Ballet

(fig.

83)

and other group compositions embody various kinds of movement brought together in
a choreographic conception.
It is

a far cry

from

these scenes to the idyll

even farther one from that composition with

and drama to the

Petrified

of Pablo
its

Picasso's Bathers (fig. 84)

equivocations between

Crowd of Claude Viseux

(fig. 85).

continuous, line of development in technique can be traced

of Lorcher to

Picasso's lath figures stuck together in a

these again to Viseux' fantastic

Yet an

stability

from the sketchy modelling

rough-and-ready way, and from

group made of straw wisps and,

like the Bathers, cast in

The theme of the

150

However,

its

is

or

normal

near dissolution.

torso has already been touched upon.

and most frequent types

ture.

human mass

inevitably in a surrealist masquerade or in the antithesis of the

of sculpture, in

pastoral

intelligible, if dis-

bronze for preservation. These sculptural essays in the problem of the

crowd end

satire,

and an

the bust or head

that

is,

in a

One of the most

narrower

important

sense, portrait sculp-

the portrayal of a man's head or face alone has never been found as

n8.

Harry Bertoia

Steel

Cones on Stems Gilded bronze Height 23" Stacmpfli Gallery,

New

York Photo: John D.

Schiff,

New

York

of a limbless trunk or some other part of the body. The head

irritating as that

tionally accepted as a synecdoche, for in

reflected.

Thus

this particular

practised in the past,

conven-

is

soul and character are supposed to be

it spirit,

fragmentation of the

human

figure has been extensively

and the examples that follow do no more than

illustrate

new ways

of tackling an old problem.

Medardo Rosso

tackles

it

an Impressionist and elaborates a corresponding tech-

as

nique, modelling his Lady with a Veil

schematic, evoked rather than present.

87)

by Picasso, but otherwise

shadow

this

substance

Its plastic

of the

subtle are the painterly effects extracted out

Painterly effects of light and

wax. The face

86) in

(fig.

a transitory appearance,

is

slight

is

how

but

rich

and

Head

(fig.

soft material.

are also to be observed in the Female

Cubist piece with an objective, geometrical structure

Amedeo

the antithesis of the accidental, indistinct appearance of the Lady with a Veil.

Modigliani was even more radical in the reduction of

objective forms with a sharp emphasis
stylization

on

possibility

anonymity of Byzantine

to the

But if Picasso's and Modigliani's heads have

is

heads to elementary

certain parts, such as nose

he moved furthest away from the

was harking back

his stone

is

and

of the individual

eyes. In his
portrait.

He

art.

little

do with the individual

to

portrait,

it

not their Constructivist or Abstract tendencies that are responsible; for these are even

more
trait

consistent in a relief of Antoine Pevsner's

of Marcel

ideal portrait

Duchamp

(fig. 88),

though

with no claims to a striking

we

which he has

called,

none the

more than an

are not supposed to look for

likeness.

Pevsner offers, as

it

Por-

less,

were, a geometrical

equation for the image of the great ironist and prince of Dada.

Alberto Giacometti also produced in his Surrealist period an abstract head.

(now

rectangular marble plate

'absolute' profile

which,

at the Stedelijk

like Jawlensky's

Museum, Amsterdam)

heads en face, can be interpreted

Head

a sign of meditation. Joannis Avramidis'

(fig.

92)

is

Constructed of modern materials, aluminium and synthetic

harmonious proportions
Head,

like

in the structure

Giacometti's,

is

'absolute',

thin,

represents an
as a sign

also entirely

- here

anonymous.

resin, it presents regular

of the human figure

one which

is

The

and

(see fig. 45).

is

and

Avramidis'

subjected

to

rigid

rules.

Other sculptors have reverted to the orthodox portrait in search for

nominator between autonomous form and
Portrait ofErnst Renter (fig. 89), a solid
ality

119.

LUCIO FONTANA

Concrete Spaziale-Nature, 1965

Bronze 33^" diam.

Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller
Otterlo (Holland)

Photo: Author

is

characteristic

of the model but

of moving

surfaces. Heiliger, says

model into

a plastic reality.

likeness.

volume
it is

no

Kurt Martin,

common

Bernhard Heiliger finds

activated
less

it

de-

in his

from within. Three-dimension-

a plastic

phenomenon, a combination

translates the personal

energy of the

Emy Roeder's Self-Portrait (fig. 90) is tauter than the rises and

hollows softly flowing into one another of Heiliger's modelling. The skin adheres
closely to the skull revealing

not only

its

result in a particular

shape.

The

rigid construction

and the

incisive chiselling

formal type but convey something of the

of the model, here identical with the

human

quality

artist.

153

A careful balance of the 'will to form' and receptivity to the medium can be discerned
in the
as

an

Head (fig.

91),

carved in desert stone by the American Cornelia Runyon. Her

work

begins already with the choice of the stone. She picks the hardest specimens,

artist

even large half-precious stones

common

and observes them for a

in her native parts,

long time until they disclose their inner, exemplary form which she then, with patience

and sympathy, proceeds to disengage.

out with'.

By

What emerges is

(Jules Langsner.)

composition

contrast, Claire Falkenstein's open, nest-like wire

Appel in

cally identified as the Portrait of the Painter Karel

However,

model

the 'archetype of the idea she set

a painter

is

of this identification

to understand the nature

and that the portrait

is

intended

of

spite

it is

(fig.

93)

specifi-

is

abstract idiom.

its

know

necessary to

that the

three-dimensional correlative of

as a

his handwriting.

Before turning from the

worth glancing

at the

human

figure to other themes of

Dubuffet; witness his

Madame j 'or donne

master of these real-unreal creations

(fig.

94)

up at random. The same black humour appears

Max

Ernst

which shows

imagination by

its

buffoonery and

in the

its

is

Dubuffet's figure, appealing to our

his visions

of the

fantastic in

(fig. 97),

angular,

man, in whose compact

- an apposite reminder that the

fear

the primeval sources of artistic inspiration,

and

Read has read the 'geometry of fear'

of demons and

fear in general are

among

chimaeras

bird, half

shapes Herbert

is

Jean

is

unexpected correlations.

winged beings of iron and conglomerates, half

inhuman too

it is

made of blocks of lava picked

bronze Anxious Friend (fig. 95) by

which

as little artistic 'skill' as

Lynn Chadwick embodies

that the

sculpture,

marginal but relevant sector of fantastical figurations with their

and deeper meaning.

implicit irony

modern

human.

Cesar conjures up fabulous beings from the dark zone between nature and tech-

nology he has
;

also incarnated the

industrial refuse. Hostility

are the driving forces

figurines

Akin

which he

winged

figure

towards perfection and

of the

artist

casts in a vast

Homme

de Draguignan (fig. 98) out

of

dislike

'beautiful' materials

from southern France whose inventions

human

of

- these

are theatrical

tragi-comedy.

to Cesar's fantastic figures are the abstruse fetishes that the

Paolozzi fashioned formerly out of bronze clippings

(fig.

96)

Scotsman Eduardo

but they have a ruthless

outspokenness which Cesar, with a devil's courtesy and obviously enjoying the game,
avoids.

The Dutchman Jaap Mooy

many young

Why

sculptors today, for

(fig.

99)

which he

postulates

example Robert Stankiewicz

in the

shares

United

with

States.

should whole figures be welded out of clippings and shavings, out of refuse and

waste?

It

seems that the activity of free re-composition or re-integration

here, in the service

of a

new

declares the

need to 'break up

allusions to the

daemonic in

is

all-important

poetic of objects.

The American David Hare, whose Man

154

works from

reality

things,

with

Drum

(fig.

and recombine

it'.

101)

He

is

of Surrealist lineage,

achieves this without

showing humour and formal inventiveness in the

120.

Germaine Richier The Top, 1953 Colouring by Hans Hartung Lead Height 50I*
Lehmbruck Foundation, through the 'Kulturkreis' Duisburg Museum
Photo Dr Wolfgang Salchow, Cologne
:

'Sculptors should present reality not as

way he integrates solid volume with shaped void.

an object which might

and the observer' relationship

between

exist

by

itself in

the closet, but as the relations between the object

how Hare sums up

this is

subject

and

object,

conception of reality and of the

his

problems that today preoccupy sculptors

all

over the world.

of the sculptural exploration of the human figMan (fig. ioo), a bronze piece by Roel D'Haese.

Finally, the inexorable consequences

ure are to be seen in the Indifferent

Its

monstrous, puffed-up and shrivelled forms are plastic equivalents for the polarities of

human

existence.

Among
distant
its

the traditional themes of sculpture

memories have, however, remained of

apotropaic functions.

original comiection with

its

the popular

baby animals of Renee

both on account of their formal idiom and as animal portraits belong to

ism.

The

movement of individual

bearing or
the

human

ity in the

of the 20th century are not interested in the

sculptors

sphere,

it is

magic or

19th-century love of, and sentimentality over, animals

if one disregards

out of fashion,

also

The

Only

the representation of animals.

is

man as

animals; their object

is

is

Sintenis which,
late

Impression-

characteristic

form,

the animal as such, just

as,

in

such; they are concerned with creatureliness and animal-

scheme of Creation. The animal

not primarily a companion, a zoological

is

phenomenon or a parody of man. To generalize somewhat, it could be said that, besides

the traditional symbolism (lion = strength dove = peace) which is still accepted, the
;

animal embodies for the 20th-century

The

origins.

lions

artist in

the

first

place vitality and proximity to

of August Gaul, Franz Marc's horses, the birds of

Toni

exotic animal statuettes of Gerhard Marcks,

of Philipp Harth, Chadwick's Beasts and, not

reliefs

Marini's horses -

these indicate the prevailing trend

will be discussed here, without

its

Ernst, the

Dog, Picasso's celebrated

Stadler's

She-Goat, the animal

all

Max

least,

Marino

of which a few notable stages

being suggested that the

artists

involved are in any

sense specialized 'animal sculptors'.

The

first

radical transformation

hands of Raymond
ine-horse,

of the animal in modern sculpture occurs

Duchamp- Villon.

His Horse

combines in semi-abstract forms the

universal horse.

The

(fig. 102),

static

a horse-machine or a

at the

mach-

and the dynamic aspects of the

partly organic, partly mechanical elements find themselves in a

peculiar state of vibrant suspension

between

and headlong movement.

rest

Up

to the

19th century, and with extensions into the 20th, the horse was a symbol of sovereign

power

to be placed

on

pating the onset of technology, transfers

embodies,

as

it

Duchamp- Villon,

a pedestal, or else itself serving as one.

it

to the

were, the horse's horse-power or

Constantin Brancusi's Bird

in

Space

(fig.

103)

realm of mechanics. His piece

dynamic

its
is

a noble

potentiality.

and radiant symbol. The

highly polished bronze and the arrow-like shape shooting upwards declare the
intention to liberate

form from matter. This bird

antici-

in space

is

vital force

and

121.

Shinkichi Tajiri

artist's

spiritual

Bronze

Plant, 1959
Height 27!"

Photo: Paul

discipline,

156

movement and

rest,

action and contemplation, breath of

life

and abstraction

Huf

Amsterdam

122.

Harold

B. Cousins

Sculpture, 1959 Iron ssVs"

X z6 3 /a " X

io 5 / 8 " Photo: Authc

perfectly conceived

It is

and adequately executed and has been refined

than a gleaming surface and

Figure

(fig.

by

104)

away from

glides

it

Dutchman Wessel

the

the

world of

until

no more

it is

things. In the Flying

Couzijn, the emphasis

on

is

flight as such,

not a specifically animal phenomenon, and here more in the nature of a poetic baroque

image of a heavy and powerful wing-stroke.

Ewald Matare's Lying Cow

The

blem.

artist

(fig.

wood)

106,

has not copied any particular

is

em-

stylized into a three-dimensional

cow

resting

have seen in the countryside of the Lower Rhineland

on

the

ground

may

that he

he has composed a heraldic

cipher which, like mediaeval zoomorphic symbols, has a magical function.

Kalinowski's Stele pour une Antilope

thought.

The

and
of

was only natural

tactile

and the gentle

stele

objet'.

While Kalinowski

Leda

invents

up

107) takes

(fig.

'eye'

new

As

in

'caissons'

Formal indications - the horns on the head

symbolic meaning of

myths, Andrea Cascella, in

his

theme from ancient mythology. Here

in the definition of volumes.

title

wooden frame covered

and visual value of Kalinowski's

also point to the

determining factor in the choice of

Antilope nor the

he should affectionately commemorate the origin

that

his material, in this case the antelope.

of the

from

constructed the stele

artist

Leather also determines the

steles. It

artistic

material and the 'objectification' play the decisive role in evoking the

magic of the image. The

leather.

shows an opposite trend of

105)

(fig.

title

so often happens, neither the

Leda makes any claim

marble sculpture

too,

seems to have been formal

'poeme

this

however, the

interest, pefection
title Stele

pour une

to singular validity; both are there to

suggest plausible associative possibilities.

The

structure

of the animal body, its muscles and ligaments, interest the young Pari-

sian sculptor, Jacques

108)

Delahaye-but not from an anatomical point of view. His Cat

a study in the self-propulsion and speed of a

is

body which, apparently not

to the laws of gravity, maintains itself in an arrested spring.

is

also in the service

content

it

shrivels

Excited

of

this

'new naturalism'

up and develops

movement and sudden

tory, unsettling
professes, in

manner

common

realism which, with

in remarkable contrast to the

subject

material

dynamic

a fossil-like texture.
arrest are

in the Crowing Cock

with Delahaye and

him

The handling of the

(fig.

in particular, has

In the monsters of Agenore Fabbri, akin to

brought together in a

(fig.

109)

many

its

similar, contradic-

by Bernard Meadows. Meadows

other French sculptors, a symbolic

roots in the fears and horrors of our time.

Germaine Richier's

mantis, the obsession

with

fear acquires a theatrical quality.

Man
nature.

the

and animal do not exhaust the repertory that modern sculpture draws from

The two themes have been treated

human

considered

or the animal
is

no) or

remains to be

human, animal or

plant variety.

the slowly rising or gradually developing

generated from within,

(fig.

its

as

in the

we

movement of a body

see in the rolling, cloud-like masses

forms inspired by the

which

What

the starting point for free invention.

the portrayal of organic growth, in

Growth can mean

Ascent

is

in a wide sense so as to include forms in

human body

of Otto Freundlich's

characterizing

Hans Arp's
159

marble Growth

(fig.

mixed forms of

112), in the

(fig.

Or it can

in).

entitled Seuil (threshold). In

form of the gateway, but

is

also a

monumental

manifest

vegetation merge into an

forms

this

Even
its

artist

nature. Architecture and

Alicia Penalba's Homage

(fig.

114)

Vallejo (fig. 113)

to

and Francesco Somaini's

Iron

5923

allusions either explicitly in the title or in the artist's intention.

(fig.

115) carry

Yet

their structure, their articulation into leaf-like forms, and,

that kind. General notions

evoke

associations

work

in these as in other compositions

while in Space Knot 64

which the

cactiform structure conforms to nature's law.

Guido Jendritzko's Composition III1959

Roszak's Thorn Blossom

work of Arp's

one too can be ambivalent: the threshold

form of growth, of organic

appears as a product of organic energy;

of

recent

formal and verbal terms Arp here evokes the architectural

artistic unity.

no vegetal

more

to quote a

a two-sided relief executed a jour,

like all his

leaf,

itself,

(fig.

(fig. 1

not

least, their

of organic growth

of the two young

are,

at

Theodore

of an exotic splendour,

by Otto Herbert Hajek they inspire forms

17)

no doubt,

sculptors. In

116) they lead to baroque inventions

contours

that

make up

a thorny bush or a closely knit lattice work. These forms hark back to the Tree of

and Late Gothic

Jesse

altar tabernacles

priate place in a church.

By

the

title

with such echoes Hajek's work finds

of his work

Steel

Cones on Stems

(fig.

appro-

its

118)

Harry

Bertoia seems to deny any associative values and to emphasize instead the formal and

Yet the spectator cannot avoid seeing a golden

material qualities.

tree.

The interest in forms of organic growth for their own sake as distinguished from borrowings of fragments, usually for
stumps

a technical rather than

as disguised props), is peculiar to

modern sculpture.

an aesthetic purpose
It

(i.e.

leads to plastic invention

most varied kind, for instance one of the bronze spheres of Lucio Fontana(fig.

the

which, entitled Concetto Spaziale-Nature,

lies

tree

of

119),

in the grass like an overripe, burst fruit

of

enormous proportions or the imaginative, half animal, half vegetable forms devised by
Shinkichi Tajiri

(fig. 121).

can Harold B. Cousins

growing

as their

(fig.

The

delicately

membered metal compositions by

the

Ameri-

122) with their roots and branches have both blossoming

and

theme. As in Hajek's space knots, solid forms and space intertwine in

one indissoluble whole.

The

last

few examples have

led us

towards the creation of autonomous

away from

plastic objects.

of natural forms

the representation

From

here

it is

only a short step to

forms that are entirely independent of human, animal or plant models - to

more
and

precisely, to objects invented

set

To

the

human mind,

fashioned

by

the

human

hand,

over against the products of nature.

survey

this

type of sculpture, the scheme applied in the

service since in plastic obj ects

the question of meaning.

constructions
artist's

by

artefacts or,

but

intention

chapter can be of

with no external referents, the question of form must precede

I shall,

therefore, deal first

shall also consider

may have

first

been.

with compact

what any given work has

solids

then with open

to 'say'

The development from compact

and what the

solids to spatial

schemata, or from the realization of order to the expression of vitality, that can be

160

123.

Umberto Boccioni Development

of

Bottle in Space, 1912

Height 15"

Museum

of

Modern

Art,

New

York Photo: Museum

(Soichi

Sunami)

125-

Robert Adams

Iron Sculpture, 1956

Height l6 1 / 8

"

R. Jahrling, Wuppertal
Photo: M. Abel-Menne, Wuppertal

124.

Vojn Bakic

Developed Form, 1958

Plaster for

bronze

Height 27 5

Galcrie Denise Rene, Paris

Photo: Toso Dabac, Zagreb

127-

11

\n s

AP

Moon-like, hollowed OUt, ghostly, 1950

White marble
Di Bcrnhard Sprengel

Height

collection,

i6'/ 2

"

Hanover

Photo: Hans Wagner, Hanover

126.

Wiiiy ANTHOONS

Being,

)')>-

$6

Stone from Poullenay 17 3 //' X 35 3 /s" x

5*ft"

'

3
'-

.'

128.

Robert Muller

Sheba, 1958 Iron Breadth 30V4" Elie de Rothschild collection Photo: Author

129.

Francois Stahly

Medusa, 1959
Olive

wood Height

c.

Photo: Pe Willi, Zurich

23

"

5
/8

130.

Gio Pomodoeo Co-existence, 195S Bronze 59" X 63"

131.

LUCIO FONTANA

Conversation, 1934

Bronze

gilt

Height 27 5

"
/

132.

Maurice

Lipsi

Volvic Stone, 1958 Height 45 Vi" Galerie Denise Rene, Paris Photo: Author

133-

Shamai Haber Composition with

Stones, 1957/58

Breton granite

Height 35 3

"

'

O. Le Corneur

collection

134-

Eugene Dodeigne

Sculpture, 1958

Bluestone Height 74V4" Photo: Author

135.

Lorenzo Guerrini Sculturc

forte,

1958

Stone Height 25 5 /s" Photo: Alfredo

L. Ferrctti

136.

Peter H. Voulkos

Terracotta Sculpture

Height 29'

137.

"

Barbara Hepworth Figure

in

Landscape, 1952

Alabaster Length 10"

Smith College, Northampton, Mass.

[38.

Day Schnabei

In

Memoriam, 1952 Stone Height

31 V>

observed in the sequence of illustrations should not, however, be understood

lution in an historical or a qualitative sense.

whose scope and value have been

One of the

by the

With

phased occupation of space

the

less substantial solidity

volume with

free space,

the

is

Boccioni. The
:

the forms

layers. In a centrifugal

Vojn Bakic today

124)

(fig.

the spatial evolution of form, the fusion of solid

Both works bring

the basic motif.

is

1912,

effected.

is

of his Developed Form

With him too

pursues similar ends.

from

Umberto

Futurist,

develop outwards from a solid kernel in expanding, overlapping

movement

book.

tins

volume and surrounding space

again the relation between solid

is

of

plastic objects, dating

Bottle in Space (fig. 123)

an evo-

of the method employed,

solely out

discussed at the beginning

of these 'independent'

earliest

bronze Development of a

problem

It arises

as

to

mind

a sentence

from

the Futurist manifesto of 1912: 'A Futurist sculptural composition will possess the

wonderful mathematical elements of modern

The

by Robert Adams

intention realized

rectangular,

compact

objects.'

in the pattern

Iron Sculpture (fig. 125)

is

best explained

himself: 'As an abstract and non-objective sculptor,

sitions that

owe

influences.

My

problem

proportions

words the

up objective

modem
offers

relationships

produce

to

is

harmony with

are in

which he has

a dialectician

The

science.

'things'

My

whose

the material used. In other

between things

that are valid in

them-

erected, for the Theatre at Gelsenkirchen, a

and an

intellectual

who

Belgian, Willy Anthoons,

keeps abreast of developments in

whose stone

an interesting comparison with Adams' iron composition,

meditative

formal compo-

of concrete.

similarly articulated wall

is

at creating

accident that his compositions are instinct with the spirit of a rigorous

architecture in pursuit of

Adams

each work.' Adams' purpose

objectify

work and whose forms

no

aim

artist

models are not derived by a process of abstraction from nature.

artist sets

selves. It is

by the words of the

his

everything to themselves, that are completely independent of external

... to

is

of contraries offered by

artist

who

chisels stone

or carves

wood with

piece Being
is,

on

(fig.

126)

the other hand, a

patience and devotion to obtain

forms that embody a collected calm. The reclining block with long, drawn-out contours but with an energetic sign impressed into

contemplation and action, thus justifying

its

it

low

in

philosophical

relief,

expresses

title.

'Moon-like, hollowed out, ghostly' - these are the epithets that Hans Arp
his

composition in white marble

(fig. 127).

The

title refers

expressive aspect, to the latter twice over but in the

the essence of the

It

work in

will not be amiss,

fitness

is

on

the one

hand

of name to object; on the other, the magnificent

were, turns

and

stress

its

at rest,

multiplicity

inside out

and yet preserves

its

of meaning

lies

vein.

how

vitality

life,

The

artist

has captured

may seem inappropriate.

artistic in itself is this

kernel in a solid

which embodies breathing, sensuous

applies to

both to the formal and the

and other comment

this description,

however, to

same

both

and

of the work which,

shell,

very
as it

which both grows

spiritual being. In this

the great poetical force of the work.

177

Similar swelling forms, forged in iron, are to be seen in Shcba

Robert

Miiller.

cap-like forms overlap, so that

open narrow chinks where the

is

exposed to view but divines the shape of what

Gio Pomodoro attempts

Co-existence

(fig.

an interpretation

lies

one

130). Direct political reference

hidden

them but

it is

moving, breathing surface with

strokes.
stract

is

as a lively,

lambent

idiom. Maurice Lipsi's Volvic Stone

whose three-dimensionality can be

sharply cut contours

silhouette.

while the 'conversing' back side

it

Both Pomodoro and Fontana attempt

inside.

size

which

by

a series

what matters

(fig.

inferred

is

A calm,

convey a complex message

to

on

132),

the other hand,

the

is

is

restless

in an ab-

from one

is

bulwark in space

Shamai Haber's works

(fig.

133)

seem

setting

two

their formative years in different

Lipsi inclines to monoliths,

illustrated

artist's

sculptors,

builds

up

his

movement of advance

of flexible

resistance to

it.

akin to Lipsi's: sturdy, compact

architectural turn

of mind. But there

though both born in Lodz, have spent

environments - Lipsi in

Haber

out

it

and monumental character of

a system

at first closely

blocks with simple outlines which attest the

are important divergences: the

static

up

side

no perforations or hollows, only

articulated block has

and withdrawal which appears compatible with the

Stone

mass

a sturdy

- without an all-round view - from the

again by their changing configuration. This creates an over-all

example

of

long-drawn-

covered with rapid

are so devised as to lead the eye continuously

The rhythmically

The

of

but differing in

shallow caverns which draw external space into them but immediately thrust

the piece.

life

in Lucio Fontana's two-face relief Conv ersation (fig. 131) the surface does

engraved in

to the next.

leaves

delicate yet forceful modulations.

its

not bound a volume but functions

line

He

not only the

visibly interrupted

transversal seams. In this composition contours are secondary;

By contrast,

unknown

probably not intended, though such

is

not impossible: two areas roughly equal in

is

sees

the Swiss

to give plastic expression to a very abstract concept, that

configuration; a deep furrow separates

out

but

vitality, she lies like a ripe, full-bodied

Overflowing with

by

has linked-up the rounded blades in a system of incapsulations.

fruit. Miiller

of what

128)

(fig.

Paris,

Haber

in Israel.

While

compositions out of several stones.

The

comprises only three blocks of granite but others have six or seven

components, dressed in the same precise manner and balanced against each other without
recourse to symmetry. This strong art recalls Aeschbacher's stone figure (fig. 44), not in
the sense of direct filiation but in the context of contemporary trends.

bacher, however, the joints are only depressions in the surface whereas
a truly Cyclopean structure, a unity of distinct parts

Francois Stanly opens

up the compact

With Aesch-

Haber

piles

up

monumental and primeval.

solid to a greater

degree but he proceeds with

moderation and allows himself to be guided by the natural configuration of his material,
the

wood of

Medusa
he has
title

178

a thick root.

(fig. 129).

left his

He

reads

meaning into what he fmds and

calls his

piece

Eugene Dodeigne could have thought of similar correspondences but

powerful composition in Belgian blue stone

so as not to detract

(fig.

134) without a descriptive

from the immediacy of its monumental

character.

While Dodeigne's stone has only narrow

perforations,

Lorenzo Guerrini opens up

whose

massiveness, rugged outline

his Scultura forte (fig. 135) into a gate-like structure

and rough surface constitute an abstract variation on the theme of archaism. Peter H.
Voulkos, an American of Greek descent,

He

up

builds

is

his large terracottas (fig. 136)

similarly inspired

by

architectural notions.

with heavy blocks combining regular and

rock-like formations.

and external forms, which appeared

Internal

Chapter One, are the theme of Figure

in

Landscape

Hepworth. The double perforation of the stone

shell

while allowing the eye that

composition.
the

The

relations

artist's interest (she

They

sees

as

through

one of the main formal categories in

(fig.

137),

serves to

it

to

an alabaster piece by Barbara

open up the

interior like a nut-

annex the 'back and beyond' to the

between landscape and the human figure have for long been

works mainly

are interpreted in terms not

open

in the

air;

her materials are stone and wood).

of Romantic correspondences but of solid and

spatial

forms harmoniously balanced.

Day
to

Schnabel, an American of Austrian extraction living in Paris, seems at

work from

similar postulates. For instance, the idea

her In Memoriam

parts, as in

Henry Moore. The

Hepworth

(fig. 138), is

difference

seeks equivalents

familiar

between the

from

first

sight

of a composition in two separate

work of both Hepworth and

the

sculptresses

is

largely

one of theme while

:

of structure and rhythm for the subjective and emotional

experience of landscape, Schnabel works out, with free concave and convex forms, an
architectonic idea. In

Memoriam, which

monumental requiem

for

While

some destroyed

calls

city

to

mind

fantastical ruins,

of Europe.

- compact forms and open composition - the works of

similar in structure

Marta Pan carry no ostensive symbolic meaning. Marta Pan

Equilibrium

(fig. 139). It is

a beautiful object

and nothing more; a complete,

her piece simply

calls

- harmonious and made of noble material -

fully articulated

form

to be turned this

with a smooth, convex surface for the hand to explore. As the

sense

is

in

skilfully contrived balance, a favourite

its

could be a

way and

title

that,

suggests,

its

theme with Marta Pan whose work

includes sketches for ballet - one even called Equilibrium.

The

sculptures

of her fellow Hungarian, Etienne Beothy,

have a similar elegance. The

Nocturno
better:

(fig.

140)

and

'tall

may be

literary

also lives in Paris,

and atmospheric, but not very informative

safely ignored;

slim, light in

who

Eva

title,

Friedrich's periphrasis serves the purpose

make, projecting,

collected, sharply cut, profiled'. Par-

taking of mathematical abstraction and of the sensuous immediacy of objects, this three-

dimensional

An
(fig.

spiral

is,

like Pan's Equilibrium, a

product of unsurpassed

skill

and

artistry.

extreme tension seems to inhabit Karl Hartung's nameless mahogany piece

141). Carl Linfert, speaking

of similar works,

(Widerspruchsformen) which, partly

stance and,

compared with Beothy's

rigid,

refers to 'forms

partly expanding,

of contradiction'

maintain a

defiant

light elegance, are almost rude in their thrusting

gestures, clenched fists raised against the surrounding space the penetration

of which
179

is

reluctantly tolerated.

national character can be

do not want

drawn from

sometimes be helpful. Related to

informel',

of

is

Umberto

solidified lava, a

this situation

of conflict;

may

at best loose parallels

of examples, though tending towards

this series

Two

Milani's

to suggest that conclusions as to personal or

Front Sculpture No. 2

(fig.

143).

'art

looks like a piece

It

primeval shape whose capacity for poetic associations the

artist

'exposes to view'.

We have already discussed Cesar's imaginative figures (fig. 98). The title Petite
de Radiateur (fig. 144)

the scrap object

which

in fact

which he gave

to his iron sculpture evokes, ironically

final destruction

work of art by means of 'compression

as a

surprising aesthetic results: freed

from

its

on

One

could even compare

and

the automobile graveyard and revived

The

dirigee'.

process of transformation has

function and possible defects, compressed in

volume, the former technical object achieves a

connotations.

ruefully,

the help of a hydraulic press

whose meaning he transformed with

he saved from

and

Tete

it

new beauty of structure with ornamental

with the fauna of the

but perhaps the

sea,

metamorphosis from car component to deep-sea organism leads too

far into the

realm of

the subjective.

The sharp-toothed

spatial figures (fig. 145) that

movements out of

constructs in brisk, vertical

of

statics,

volume

balance and solid

figures are abstract but they

remain

pieces

the sculptor

figures,

Franco Garelli.who

how

of iron show

working

independent

in metal can be. Garelh's

corresponding with each other and with the

surrounding space by means of a dramatic, aggressive gesticulation. Terrosa

composition in forged iron by the Spaniard Eduardo Chillida, has in

movement certain stylistic analogies

Turin,

lives in

to Garelh's

work but it is less

its

(fig.

146), a

angular, abrupt

more

eloquent,

rigor-

ous, more earnest and resolute in expression - in a word, Spanish. The sturdy iron bars

bear clear traces of hammer, anvil and forge; they are the

work of a

peasant craftsman.

Horizontals prevail in the composition which remains close to the earth though

awkward
selves

up

limbs,

winch

in a tense,

are planted far apart in the stance

haughty gesture to challenge the surrounding

time Terrosa has the sober adequacy of a peasant tool

title

suggests - belonging to

The

from

of black sheet

steel

(see fig. 20),

to

sides.

The Whale

(fig.

com-

out into space

147), a

com-

monumental

title

and the invented

go well together.

forceful representatives

is

conditioned by space,' says Berto Lardera, one of the

of recent trends in iron sculpture and he adds 'Concep-

tion and technique are intimately linked with one another ...

180

static

thus appears as a silhouette but also as a powerful solid

'The problem of sculpture

most

produces

plates reach

developing in space with an imposing rhythm. The associative

form seem

At the same

a central shaft and, in overlapping, create spatial

partments bounded on two, at most on three

'stabile'

space.

prop them-

lying in the field and -as the

smooth contours of his metal

sinuous,

often a considerable distance

left

rider,

it.

Alexander Calder, the father of mobile sculpture

positions as well.

of a Spanish

its

use the materials of

my

time.' Lardera's Cathedral of Pain

(fig.

148)

is flat,

volume, a sculptural paradox mitigated by the

without any

fact that the

metal

artistically effective

plates, cut in

open on

patterns, are soldered at such angles as to delimit compositions in space that are

Lardera's compositions are both spatial constructions and signs in space, airy

all sides.

fabrics

of metal surfaces that carry and are

movements they

carried, intersect

communications with the environment whether natural or

little

and thrust out

are often perforated to allow a free flow

ever, as

various

non-objectivity here as in the

example

pointers; as in the

of space and to

architectural.

work of Gonzalez. The

they

illustrated,

endow what

in enveloping

titles

establish

There

is,

how-

themselves are

they describe with a high

emotional charge.
In conception

and

it is

on

149) derives

(fig.

from Gonzalez'

sign in space

shoots high into the air like a signalling beacon. Brigitte Meier-Denning-

the other hand, in a modified application of the technique of her teacher,

Antoine Pevsner, uses

151) as surfaces
sition

Franchina's Nike

executed with the technique of the American metal sculptors. Placed on an arch-

aistic socle, it

hoff,

Nino

and

straight brass rods soldered together to construct her

moving

hoists

it

in space.

in the air

is

The

which

shaft

carries the larger part

so slender that as a support

Wings

of the compo-

hardly perceptible.

it is

(fig.

The

wings thus appear almost weightless; spreading out in a powerful beat they carve out
portions in space while the undulation of their surfaces directs the eye to the central
shaft as the axis

of the

These formal
(fig.

150)

though

figure.

effects
its

of outspread

occur also in Luciano Minguzzi's Dragons

sails

multiform, weightlessly fluttering silhouette

and maintains a more dynamic relationship with it. Space

position

by Norbert Kricke, has

the

point in every direction and thus

controlled

set

piece
(fig.

clear centre. Neither

it.

to space

Sculpture (fig. 152), a steel

up a vehement, stormy yet

Walter Bodmer's calmer construction

ceptually to anything outside

more open

Static,

The American David Smith, on

is

carefully planned

is

at

it,

and

153) return towards each other without,

Bodmer nor Kricke

yet space-exploring,

it

relate their

work con-

exists for itself.

the other hand, intends his Australia

however vague and general

that

of

pronouncedly eccentric, the iron

(fig.

robust steel composition, to carry associations which, if accepted, entail a specific

looking

com-

same openness with bundles of intersecting rays

movement. While Kricke' s

however, forming a

is

154), a

way of

the terms of the definition. Basically, Australia

Why, then, should its forms do more than

rhythm and movement, why should they signify or re-present as well?

not different from Bodmer's abstract piece.

set

up

a certain

There are elements in

this

composition that can be considered

as figurative, allusions to

instruments perhaps, levers or springs. These technological allusions the spectator

to develop further,

though whether he will find guidance in the

title is

is

free

a different matter.

A parallel signifying intention might be discerned in the enveloping sweep of the work,
a hieroglyph for the

wide open spaces of the

univocal and the scope for interpretation

is

Fifth Continent.

But the forms

are not

limited.

181

Max

22

Bill's

cussed so

far.

But

pronounced

so

plate

155) does not, strictly speaking,

(fig.

would be just

it

'otherness'.

is its

much

as

out of place anywhere

else in

works

my

dis-

selection,

not merely that the relatively thin white marble

It is

with twenty-two perforations disposed in a meander

sets itself off in its

mathemati-

conception from the world of nature (which, incidentally, does not prevent

cal

having a more convincing presence than

its

into the series of

fit

many

a naturalist figure)

it is

it

from

different also in

execution, in the extreme simplicity of form and the complete absence of any individ-

The

ual 'handwriting'.

contrast

is

compares

particularly telling if one

Arp's Moon-like, hollowed out, ghostly

Both are

(fig. 127).

Bill's

22 with, say,

but Arp's composition

abstract,

'belongs' to nature; whereas Bill's square plate with the carefully plotted holes

body

foreign

in

it.

of

specific character

free play

This

is

way of

matical

thinking has, in spite of

made

colouring which cannot be

Bill's

derogatory, only to bring out the

which

calculating invention replaces the

of the imagination and in which formal order achieves

Max

indeed creates symbols for our time.

results,

composition

is

slight in

its

least

not meant to be in the

this artistic enterprise, in

is

Bill

aesthetically satisfying

himself points out that a mathe-

apparent rationality, a certain ideological

fully explicit.

volume,

its

twenty-two holes serving neither to reveal

an interior nor to communicate with external space. The perforations are points in

rhythmic pattern developed two-dimensionally on the surface and the over-all impression
is

one of flatness

also

in spite

of the

fact that the

work

clearly a plastic object.

is

The

constructivist sculptor can, like Bill, express himself in precisely calculated, perfectly

executed forms; he can also use what he finds ready formed to integrate
order. This

is

the case with Ettore Colla

of clippings. The

interest to Colla; his

finds.

their

He

aim

formal properties in order to

realize.

rusty iron plates remain

elicit

what they

new

are.

last

characteristic

Dada

on the

embody

Gabo,

it

of the works

forebears, are

of

less

he discerns in what he

objects he assembles but studies

the elements of a significant pattern

which he

tubes, winches, telephone insulators or simply

Only, by virtue of what the

of screws and screw nuts

artist

to that

attest.

the paradox of non-objective sculpture

few examples have taken

have entered

Naum

all

which removes them from the domain of technology

fined compositions

new

has discovered

function and meaning - usually without any figurative

structive form, as details like the use

The

surprising,

shapes

in a

constructs figures and reliefs out

conjuring up their

new

The cooling

to be, they acquire a

reference -

who

to bring out the formal harmonies that

is

does not, therefore, impose

then proceeds to

them

medium and

this

142),

and the

fantastical, the bizarre

of other sculptors in

(fig.

it

me into

of form - con-

Colla's simple re-

made of

objects.

the territory of constructivist sculpture.

without mentioning the fathers of the movement, Antoine Pevsner and

as

my

ahistorical

approach

entitles

me

to

do

the

works

selected for dis-

cussion are intended neither to illustrate a process of evolution nor to be representative

in

any way of the

art as

182

ceuvre

of any given

an entity that creates

its

artist.

My concern

own norms. Thus I

turn

is

first

with the individual work of

to a

younger Constructivist,

Dane Robert Jacobsen who

the

example

forges frame-like shapes out of massive iron plate

made

frames can be

illustrated (fig. 156) the

Andre Volten's

Composition ig$g

(fig.

second encompasses

Construction with Crystal

of which the

158),

a private space,

(fig.

in the

to rotate about their axis

assume various positions in relation to each other. Stability and

ize also

rhythm

static

and

character-

and Bernhard LuginbiihTs

157)

projects itself into general space while the

first

allowing only the intervals to communicate with

the exterior.

Ibram Lassaw, an American sculptor working

composing transparent architectonic

of the

thickness

by the composition

space enclosed and filled

and

patterns with variations in the concentration

which produce

solid parts

in metal, creates sculptural space

correlative variations in the depth

(fig. 159).

The

alloys used has a part to play in translating 'internal

Lassaw

Pevsner,

two of whose

rejects as passive static

He

ticals.

sion -

earlier

rhythms,

brass rods

it.

He
as

than those of his followers.

distinct

flat

surfaces

curved surfaces

is

together. His compositions,

They

society

speak of the tasks of sculpture

Hans Uhlmann's Rondo

(fig.

(figs.

16 and 88),

160)

which both

whose dynamic rhythm

present a varied play of light and

on the

take place

However, Pevsner's purpose

human

- of which

and the simple order of horizontals and ver-

is

surface

shall deal

not an exclusively

as a

(fig.

with

public

161)

is

this aspect

is

more complex

shadow which -

as

of the work but penetrates to

artistic

perfection of his technique might suggest. His ultimate concern

sculpture in

reality'

'emotional factor' or 'ideal substance', are far

from Rodin - does not

the interior.

and external

produces them by ranging linear elements in rapid succes-

which he welds

supposed to contain time

of the

natural colour of the metals

works have already been mentioned

postulates instead spatially active, that

annex space and shape

and

- into the language of sculpture.

a keen observer

is

by

is

one, as the refmed

with the function of

of the matter when

come

to

art.

conceived in a similar

theme and technique two dancing movements, one

:

effected

spirit,

by the

torsion of the bundle of brass rods in the centre, the other, wider and

though

it

differs in

close 'steps'

and the

more sweeping, by

curved brass bands.

Pevsner's brother,
active constructions.

Naum
He

Gabo, has pursued a

prefers transparent

parallel line

media

which

leads to spatially

to metal, so that his compositions

appear almost immaterial, surfaces and volumes carved out in space and consisting of it.
His Spiral Theme

movement
time.

But

is

for

(fig.

a variation

Gabo

V art pour Vart but

on

the general

skilfully contrived, multi-directional

an end in

itself as for

is

four-dimensional, because

of changes in science and society

being striven
it

for'.

spatial

forms active in

Pevsner. Neither wants

symbols of 'progress'. They look upon

realistic

of a world that

its

theme of constructivism:

this postulate is as little

tions as artistic equivalents

'essences

with

162), in plastic,

their spatial construc-

or, to use

Gabo's words,

Gabo's contention that constructivism

as
is

introduces the element of time into sculpture, should also

be understood in the light of these preoccupations. However, Gabo takes time to be

183

both

real

and

illusionist

sional sculpture

The

movement, as well

followers are

ambitious than the

less

on

Constructivist ideas have caught

art.

living in

Buenos

in transparent compositions

social

planning. Such a
to

order that

programme

man,

to find

is

constructivist

its

Brazilian

Mary

art

and envisages the integration of the

fullest

expression in architecture and town-

utilitarian technics

chromium-plated

is

the

by

the

(fig.

by

163)

harmony of movement

in space,

North American sculptor Jose de Rivera,

of the

experience

seems

(e.g. Brasilia).

through space in a simple rhythm. In

total

realization

the

non-

also characterizes Construction 8 (fig. 164) in

and perfect execution

steel

infinite lines glide

function

This

rest.

its

and spherical forms are held in a tense equi-

circular

movement and

librium between

America

aluminium piece Sphere-Tension

which

Vieira in

which Kosice belongs goes

to

has precedents, but in South

the

is

developed Gabo's teaching

166) the possibilities inherent

(fig.

Madi group

have been undertaken with the greatest vigour

Also

answer which he has recourse to

to

of plexiglass

of the work of

aesthetic function

new

arts in a

four-dimen-

South America where the rankness

Aires, has systematically

in his spatial structures. Ideologically too the

beyond the

calls

but use a similar vocabulary.

initiators,

particularly in

like a hubristic challenge to

Gyula Kosice,

and explores

rhythm, so that what he

not the exclusive domain of the constructivists.

is

of nature seems

as

his

production.

own

The

who makes

words: 'The prime

social

function,

the

communication of that experience.'*

The

integration of the

arts,

which

shall discuss further

on with examples, has been

taken up as a vocation by Andre Bloc who, apart from theoretical pronouncements and
his

work

own

as a publicist, elaborates his

preference was for solid, compact

artistic

solutions

volume he has abandoned

;

metal rods, transparent honeycombs built into space.

forms thus created Bloc regards

the

works

it

Bloc's original

for airy constructions

task

have just discussed

Martin, for instance, whose Screw Mobile

may have

is

involved the use of technical pro-

shown here

tion called 'Artist against Machine'. Equilibrium and

plasticien-technicien.

He

technical procedures in order to harness

symbols for our time but

his

Kenneth

167),

took part in an exhibi-

movement

in space are the chief

(fig.

experiments with contemporary materials and

them

to his purpose,

also to exercise a direct influence

work. Martin has expounded

of a

arts.

cedures, they are intended as protests against the domination of the machine.

concern of the

of

The systems of basic geometrical

programmatic statements for the larger

as

world-transforming synthesis of the

Though

(fig. 165).

this in his lectures

sculpture and scientific research he has also put

;

it

by

which is not only

to create

the use that can be

made of

on the connection between mobile

into practice

by making mobiles

for a

139.

Makta Pan

children's hospital.
Sculpture 53

After discussing spatial construction in sculpture

relation

between sculpture and

* Twelve Americans,

184

ed.

Dorothy C.

architecture.

Miller,

New

York

it

would seem

However,

1956.

am

logical to turn to the

reserving this

problem for

Equilibrium, 1958

Ebony Height 13
H. Wise collection,
Cleveland, Ohio,

Photo:

USA
Ifert

140.

Etienne Beothy

Nocturno, 1956

Avodivc wood
Photo: Author

Height 47'

141.

Karl Hartung

Sculpture, 1947

Mahogany Height

14

"

s
;

Photo: Gnilka, Berlin

142.

Magic
Iron

Ettore Coll a
Circle, 1958

Height 55"

Collection: Topazia Alliata

Photo: La Medusa,

Rome

143-

Umberto Milani Two-Front Sculpture No.

2,

1958

Bronze 24'

"
s

.-;

26 3

"

'

Galleria del Milione,

Milan Photo Paolo Monti, Milan

:

144-

Cesar

Petite

Tete de Radiateur, i960

Iron

Height

"

14''
s

Width

"

Galcric Claude Bernard, Paris

145-

Franco Garllli
Figure Ema, 1958
Iron

Height 61"

__-

Al

147-

XAND1

1(

CAI mi)

The Whale, 1937

Stabile of sheet steel

Museum

of

Modern
1

Photo:

[46.

I.1.1

Aiii.o

CimiiDA

Terrosa, 1957

Iron

Breadth 22 Vi" Dr Bernhard Sprengel collection, Hanover

Photo Hans Wagner, Hanover

:

Art,

[eight N7"

New

>onated by the

Museum

(Soielii

York
artist

Sunami)

148.

Berto Lardera Cathedral

of Fain V, 1956

Iron and mosaic 52"

53

"
',

Photo: Author

149-

Nino Franchina
Nike, 1958

Iron and brass

Height io6 1 / 4

Photo: Oscar Savio,

"

Rome

i.SO.

Luciano Minguzzi The Dragons, 1958 Iron and bronze Height 157V2" Photo: Author

I5i.

Brigitte Meier-Denninghoff Wings, 1958 Height 70

Levcrkusen Municipal

Museum

"
8

Photo: Martin Matschinsky

On

permanent loan from the 'Kulturkreis'

152.

NOKBERT KRICKE

Space Sculpture, 1958

Stainless steel

III 1 /,"

78V

x 70

"

Leverkusen Municipality

Photo: Author

153.

Walter Bodmer

Sculpture, 1957/58

Iron 24 s

"
4

>:

58'

"
4

Photo: Author

IS4-

David Smith

Australia, 1951

Steel

Breadth io8 3 / 8 " Photo: Author

155.

Max

Bill

22,1953/57 Marble Height 58 V/ Photo: Author

156.

Robert Jacobsen

Construction, 1950/54

Iron

iS 1; 8 "

x 20

"

l
,

x 20

,/'

Stcdelijk

Museum, Amsterdam Photo: Author

157.

Andre Voiten

Construction with Crystal, 1956 Steel Height 63" Photo: Peter Marcuse

I58.

BERNHAED LUGINBIJHL

Composition, 1959
Iron

i7 3

"
/

l3 3 / 8 "

13V

Kunstmuseum, Berne
Photo: Leonardo Bczzola, Berne

159-

Ibram Lassaw Counterpoint

Castle, 1957

Bronze and copper Height 39" Kootz Gallery,

New

York Photo: Auth

i6o.

Antoine Pevsner Oval

Stcdclijk

Fresco, 1945

Brass

51

Museum, Amsterdam Photo: Author

"
'

34

,"

13'

i6i.

Brass

59"

Hans Uhlmann

Rondo, 1958/59
3
"
35 / 8 X 31V2"

Photo: Gnilka, Berlin

i62.

Naum Gabo

Spiral

Theme, 1941

Plastic

Height 7

.,"

Museum

of

Modern

Art,

New York

Photo:

Museum

163.

Mary

Vieira

Sphere-Tension, 1956/5S

Photo: Galerie d'Art Modernc, Basle

Aluminium

i2 5 / 8 "

x 25V4" Floersheim

collection,

Chicago

>

Andre Bloc

Brass Sculpture, 1959

Height 27'
Photo:

Ciillcs

"
B

Ehrmann,

Bois-Colombes Seine

104.

Jose de Rivera

Constructions, 1954

by Mi^ Heinz Schulz

Photo:

Museum

Wrought chrome-nickel
(Soichi

Sunami)

steel

Height 9 1 /*"

Museum

of

Modern

Art,

New York,

donated

66.

Gyula Kosice
Sculpture, 1959

Plexiglass

Height 23

Galeric Denise Rene, Paris

167.

Kenneth Martin
Screw Mobile, 1959
Phosphor-bronze

Height 24 7 / 8

"

Photo: Adrian Flowers

i6S.

Hans Vehhulst Natural

Disaster, 1959

Bronze 9'

"
s

x 23 s

"

Photo:

BramWisman, Amsterdam

169.

Raoul Ubac

Slate Relief, 1954

170.

Emil Cimiotti Rocks and Clouds, 1959 Bronze I7 3 Ai" X I9 5 / S " X

Photo:

Dr Wolfgang Salchow, Cologne

"
/4

Private collection

171.

Jochen Hiltmann Crazy Vegetation, 1959

Stainless steel

Diameter SS 1 U" Schniewind

collection,

Neviges

xi

.J!

172.

Isamu Noguchi Night

Voy age,

1 948

York marble Length 45 V/'

Stable Gallery,

New

York Photo: Author

*73.

Josef Beuys Fettplastik, 1952

Photo: Eva Bcuys-Wurmbach

174-

Hans Arp To be

lost in the

woods, 1952 Bronze Three forms: large

Photo Etienne Bertrand Weill

:

83

"
,

long,

medium

3
/4

",

small

"

/8

the

chapter where

last

somewhat unusual

will be treated in a larger context,

it

and turn

subject in the history of the art: landscape in sculpture

misapprehension that a parallel to naturalist landscape painting

landscape.

terms

While

of the earth

face

to

or -

to avoid the

is

intended - sculpture as

is

the converse, the articulation of a landscape or a garden in sculptural

known from

is

what

first

the past, the introduction into sculpture of landscape and the sur-

own

in a general sense as motifs in their

right

is

new and

recent

phenomenon.

Not

that analogies

Henry Moore's and Barbara Hepworth's

treated (e.g.
tions

'landscape figures', the composi-

of Giacometti, or the early works of Brigitte Meier-Denninghoff ). Hans Arp's

sculpture
title

with landscape could not be found in some of the works already

To

shows,

be lost in the

it is

Verhulst, a

The landscape theme

ments.

(fig. 170).

symbol of the struggle of man

is

Low

it

like a piece

brought out
(fig.

168)

of

if it is

by

the

against the unleashed ele-

even more explicit in Emil Cimiotti's Rocks and Clouds

Rocks and clouds occur

pulpits in the

effectively

clear-cut cases such as the bronze Natural Disaster

Dutchman Hans

As the

174) has a different relationship to nature.

of the theme will be more

significance

from

illustrated

(fig.

intended to become part of a landscape, to merge into

But the

nature.

woods

as properties in

Baroque sculpture -

e.g. in

church

Countries or in Bernini's Ecstasy of St Teresa - but here for the

first

time they are made the chief and only subject of a sculptural composition. Cimiotti's

idiom

is

worked

Baroque, which explains perhaps

in

Rome

for a

group of figures (compare

emerged from

piece has definitely

mass of rock are

few months. While some of

from

process of changing

set

why he was

attracted

this

theme when he

wax models

his

fig. 81) to a

metamorphosis. The

this

by

light,

are

in the

still

landscape, the bronze

broken clouds and the

out in effective contrasts of the compact and the open, of stability

and motion.

While Cimiotti
up

discovers extraordinary landscapes in

in the forests of the Ardennes, remains

nature. His reliefs carved in slate

Rome, Raoul Ubac, who grew

wholly attached

as

169) transform, as K.

(fig.

an

artist

to the spectacle of

H. Goerres puts

it,

tree

and

from

the

rock, the archetypal experiences of his childhood, into heraldic signs.

Jochen Hiltmann's Crazy Vegetation

first

(fig.

171; steel) appears like a landscape

days of Creation. Against the uniform pattern of the millstone, ready-made and thus

providing a welcome contrast, the mass of steel,

burner,

is

beginning to

theme of the
cess

piece, in

still

liquid

Voyage

(fig.

which 'dry' land

is

toured Playground

valleys

one

as a piece

infinite

expanse of waving

way

the

spirals.

by Hiltmann, Isamu Noguchi's Night

of cultivated nature. Ever since

his

Model for Con-

of 1940, Noguchi, modelling eminences and depressions, gentle

and precipitous conical mountains, has striven to unite

space in the

is

born out of primeval chaos by the double pro-

the cosmic event portrayed

172) strikes

the heat of the welding

formations. Evolution of the earth - that

set into hilly

of solidifying into shape and emerging from an

Compared with

from

that in nature the earth unites

solid

volume with open

with the sky to form a landscape. For

221

Noguchi, who

of Japanese extraction and familiar with Far Eastern art, nature is always

is

ordered nature, with a complex system of relationships,

garden of which the marble composition

is

as

appears in the Japanese

it

an epitome. Yet

if

one proceeds from the

assumption that nature and landscape, subject to constant transformation, by their very
nature forbid the stiffening and solidifying of their form into stone, Josef Beuys'

more appropriate

Fettplastik (grease sculpture; fig. 173) appears a

alter its consistency

under changing temperature. External

undergrowth, could justify us

if

factors,

with Beuys and kindred

such

it

can

as the thick

in discussing this unusual sculpture in the present context,

much

only because of the contrasts with Noguchi. But however

role

material, for

artists (as in

Happenings),

it is

the content plays a

important to remember the

doubtfulness of unequivocal statement.

Apart from 'geological' preoccupations

K.F.Dahmen, Emil Schumacher and

Dubuffet,

modern

'landscape sculpture'

and Romantic landscape

Ernst.

Another aspect

Louise Nevelson

who

is

art

is

predominant tendency in

others, the

There

a Surrealist one.

which can be observed,

illustrated in

of Jean

also present in the relief painting

The Voyage

is

an

affinity

between Surrealism
of Max

for instance, in the Forests

(fig.

wood

176), a

composition by

has devised plastic symbols for expressing the irrational emotion

aroused by the experience of what in her case seems to be a townscape. She evokes far

more than
search in

the conventional landscape, however, for she declares

life

has been for a

new seeing, a new image, a new insight.

The dawns and

includes the object, but the in-between place.

world, the heavenly spheres, the places between land and sea

'My

total conscious

This search not only

the dusks.

The

On the other hand Arnaldo Pomodoro's metal relief The Land Surveyor's
177) presents an analysis

of

soil structure, calling to

mind

Table

as optional

for the

evoked by the nocturnal scene of Nevelson the richness of the

:

invention, though expressed in objects

is

(fig.

geological cross-sections,

mineral deposits and landmarks. But these associations are just

spectator as those

objective

.'

artist's

not confined to them and can suggest other,

non-objective correspondences as well. This applies also to Bernard Rosenthal's Riverrun

(fig.

175)

with their

These
Lardera's

garden,
artifact

at

once a bird's-eye view of fertile or parched earth and invented objects

own reality; not representations of earth but metaphorical equivalents for it.
sculptural paraphrases of landscape may be followed, in conclusion, by Berto

ground composition The Hours and

its flat

and nature. Lardera's piece shows

at the

Days

(fig. 178). It is

part of a landscape

layers fitting into the pattern but maintaining the contrast

same time the

fact

of

its

between

that sculpture can not only represent landscape

but enter into landscape to become, through

while

the

its

being

otherness, an

set in

organon of interpretation,

landscape adds to

its

own

strength. 'The composition', says Lardera, 'can be arranged in various ways,

and thus

belongs to the seasons, in the best sense to the "moods" of the seasons and their

222

artistic
it

effects.'

The problem

Ill

One more problem

pose

it is

- after

category.

all

its

place in the

the majority of the examples discussed in this

But sculpture

is

by

of alienation, the

first

the

either as a

monument

monument

or

here of course,

can provide only a small selection of examples. Moreover, the discussion must

clearly

the

to that

relevant.

Sculpture appears in the public realm in one of two ways

in combination with architecture. Let us consider

museum or the

book belong

tradition a public art and, after a period

problem of its function in society has again become

we

To

remains to be tackled, that of the purpose of modern sculpture.

not necessarily a reflection on sculpture that finds

private house

of purpose

be limited to works either commissioned

artist,

tion.

excluding, that

There

is

is,

works which owe

their

monuments or intended
monumental

status to

as

such by

an improvisa-

nothing in the 20th century to compare with the vogue for monuments

that characterized the 19th.

Nor

blind us to the merits of such

Calais (both,

as

it is

works

true, erected as

Meunier's Monument

can the tendency of that century to eclectic

as

Auguste Rodin's Balzac and The Burghers of

monuments only

after the artist's death),

Labour, H.Lederer's Bismarck, in

to

'revivals'

Constantin

Hamburg, and Adolf von

Hildebrand's Wittelsbach Fountain - or, conversely, to the monstrosities of our

time.

Both centuries have

here,

any more than

we

obelisk to the Atomium.

would repay
It

aberrations to

show in this domain. They cannot be chronicled

can attempt to sketch the history of the

The

own

monument from

subject, especially the 19th-century 'national

the

monument',

detailed investigation.

has been said that our century, having tired of the type of symbolism traditionally

associated with public

monuments, has turned

its

back on the genre altogether. But the

223

of the old

rejection

like the project for

Van Doesburg
bolic

gone hand

lias

in

hand with the emergence of the new

monument by H. Obrist, the models and

an abstract

or Picasso's projets pour mi monument are enough to

idiom has been

in process

ideas

show

examples

of Tatlm or

that a

new sym-

of elaboration. However, the public monument of our

time can no longer imitate Renaissance fountains and Baroque apotheoses or serve to
tendglorify deserving individuals. Its sense must be wider and more spiritual. This new
ency, already apparent in compositions like Parents
Barlach's Giistrow

in

Mourning by Kathc Kollwitz,

Memorial (second cast in Cologne), and Rodin's Balzac, becomes

fully

of the younger generation of sculptors to express through

explicit in the attempts

meaning and destiny of our time - witness Le Corbusier's Monument

Open Hand for Chandigarh or the international competitions for a monument of

abstract signs the

of the
the

unknown

political prisoner

The most

celebrated public

Zadkine's Destroyed City

Rotterdam.

cry

rounded by the

made

its

monument of

palpable in bronze,

Auschwitz.

the post-war years

it rises

is,

no doubt, Ossip

memorial of the bombing of

in the midst

of a wide square sur-

buildings of the resurrected city. In a powerful

new

and

at

erected as a warning

(fig. 179),

sluices, basins

gesture, at once prayer

and for a memorial

and defence, the

figure, pierced

through in the middle, stretches

arms towards the sky from which in 1940 came death and destruction, and which

it

now entreats for a better future. The profoundly moving message of this monument can
leave

no one

indifferent

appeal to humanity,
thus

all

the thrust into space, fully in

the

more

telling because free

view from every

angle,

is

an

of resentment. Destroyed City has

become an adequate symbol of the new Rotterdam.

Henry Moore's
created as

Upright Motives

(fig.

180)

which include the Glenkiln Cross were

uncommissioned monuments. They were photographed

in their

temporary

surroundings during an open-air exhibition. Since then, singly and in groups, they have

found a place in European and American museums. One of them, in Hanover,

fulfils its

rightful function as a

They have been

monument

interpreted as

the Glenkiln Cross has been

modern

compared

Middle Ages. Analogies of this kind

in

mind of the

cogency

as

three Crosses

primeval

in a public place.

are

variations

to the

of ancient symbols

Anglo-Saxon high

undoubtedly present

crosses

As with

all

great

in particular

of the early

they could even put one

on Golgotha. But Upright Motives can be

plastic forms.

seen with equal

works of art no one

interpretation

exhausts the variety of possible meanings.

Marino Marini has

erected as a
at

monument on

The Hague

central

so far

theme

(fig.

had only one commission for an

a specified

The work

expression with a particular emphasis

sum of his

a synthesis

is

on

in other compositions

exploration of what

of abstract architecture and

so as to provide a clear

is

figural

the structural and tectonic element -

tionship with the surrounding space and buildings.

224

be

His creation for the Bouwgelust settlement

181) can be considered as the

in his art.

pronounced than

site.

over-life-size rider to

and convincing

more
rela-

Many modern monuments,

Utopias. Vladimir Tatlin's design for a

model

the

artist's

to invent

is

the Constructivists, remain

to the Revolution, Pevsner's sketches

centres, as well as the

more

recent Projected

by Constant, have not or not yet progressed beyond

182)

and have had no direct

stage

task

(fig.

memorial

town

for large sculptural complexes such as

Monument for Amsterdam

by

especially those designed

Constant said in 1958

social impact.

new techniques, and to use light,

tone,

movement and,

'The

in general,

every device that will influence the environment' and he added in i960, in connection
;

with an exhibition of his work

art

related to

is

longer

in

life

Town

exist.

mean

planning will

respect.'

While Constant's work,

of social

life

he

as

is

town

himself aware ('our

life as
all

we know it will no

forms of

game

Reg

Butler's

be erected in Berlin, seems

projected final version. Admitting of

a naturalist

of

'A universal work of

is

in every

life

the science fiction

embodies no more than a preliminary outline of

architecture'),

Political Prisoner (fig. 183), to

combined with

at Essen:

interrelatedness

another bold venture in the same direction,

his ideas,

known

de Loo Gallery

aspects. In a unitary society,

all its

and urban

Van

at the

many

levels

of meaning,

Monument of an Un-

much

nearer to the

this abstract structure

group of figures has become a symbol of the overcoming

of persecution and the fear of it.

The models of Constant and

Butler postulate that the dimensions of the actual con-

struction shall be huge. In other words, sculpture

thing one can step into and walk through.

young Berlin

the

calls

sculptor,

itself become architecture,

A similarly monumental scale

Helmut Wolff,

for the

memorial

at

some-

envisaged by

is

Auschwitz

(fig. 184). It

for a composition of heavy, partly overhanging cubes of concrete with entrances

between them which are reduced,

size

must

they penetrate into the 'architectural' mass, to the

as

of the human body -a reconstruction, arresting in

its

immediacy, of what

befell the

millions of victims.

Also architectural in design are the five coloured towers in reinforced concrete

by Matthias Goeritz

185), erected

Mexico

City.

function

to

However, they do not

up

The

a system

last

of axes

any inner space between them and

Eiffel

but the

no

practical purpose, they can

Tower, the

It

town

outside
their

be entirely de-

new town. They thrust boldly into the countryside

two examples of sculpture

not only the

it,

create

that relates settlement

verse: architecture as sculpture.

called

the entrance of the satellite

a purely plastic one. Serving

is

voted to signalizing the presence of a

setting

mark

(fig.

is

and landscape.

as architecture

prompt one

a relatively widespread

earliest piece

to consider the con-

modern development:

of constructivist sculpture,

work of Frank Lloyd Wright,

Charles R. Mackintosh,

as

Pevsner has

Henry Van den

Velde, Bernhard Hoetger, Joseph Olbrich, Antonio Gaudi and Erich Mendelsohn as
well as the very recent buildings of

Wachsmann,
architecture
here, a

is

all

belong to

this

not an entirely

few examples must

Hugh H. Stubbins,

category.

new

It is

Pier Luigi Nervi and

worth noting, though,

invention. Since the subject

suffice.

One of

the

most

is

Konrad

that plasticity in

too vast to be tackled

significant, to

my

mind,

is

the

225

Goetheanum at Dornach (fig.

86),

designed by Rudolf Steiner, an amateur and outsider'

by the

in architecture steadily ignored

historians

Steiner, the

of the art.

founder of anthro-

posophy, advocated 'organic architecture' for which he developed a formal idiom

modern

evidently akin to the so-called organic abstraction in

wooden Goetheanum was burned down,

concrete (1925-28). This second edifice
it

was not

made by

built like a house,

from

is

Steiner

in effect a gigantic piece

What is

model

more, the visually sturdy walls offer

by

this

technique.

being replaced by concrete for entirely practical reasons.

most impressive seen from the

from

inside out, so to speak, but enlarged

Steiner and cast in concrete.

in reinforced

of abstract sculpture:

outside; the magnificent

little

The Goetheanum

wood,

clearly conceived as an organic sculptural solid to be carved in

medium

When the first,

had another one erected

hint of the lightness of structure that can be achieved

was

sculpture.

The

the original

structure

is

at

its

setting, in the

midst of

respects akin to the

Goethe-

mountain

the Jura, enhancing the effect.

Le Corbusier's church

anum. Certain

at

Ronchamp

(fig.

features in other buildings

187)

is

in

many

by Le Corbusier, such

functional parts (e.g. chimneys), also recall Steiner's work.

is

on the body of the

The emphasis

and an organic

structure both in a geometrical

organic form of

as the

sense,

at

Ronchamp

and sculptural

values are in evidence in the articulation of individual parts as well as in the over-all

conception which includes, no doubt, the integration of the edifice in the mountain
scenery of the Jura.
Finally,

one

may

classify as sculpture the

metres high, standing in an

artificial

lake

water tower

188) in stainless steel, 40

(fig.

which belongs

to the Technical Center built

One

expects water towers to be

by Eero

for General

Motors

at Detroit

aesthetically

among

the least satisfactory features of an industrial plant. Against this

expectation the effect of Saarinen' s piece

design, sensitiveness to plastic
resulted in a remarkable

Saarinen.

is all

form and

the

more

striking: a

a high standard

memorial to our technological

stands out against the flat facades

of glass,

steel

of
age.

forms that are

rounded shape

its

stability offers

opposite end of the

at the

aesthetically valid.

In quite a different border territory of sculpture

designed by Isamu Noguchi for the

stones, together
plants,

form an

artistic

ments

artificial

172).

The

lightness

strikes a contrast to the strict pattern

into the

work of

art,

Noguchi's Garden

is

experiences

the Japanese

it

both

Its

Garden

(fig.

189)

natural and carved

escarpments and depressions, paths and

whole, a model of which

(fig.

lies

unesco headquarters in Paris.

with watercourses,

marble piece Night Voyage

226

Its full,

When the wind blows through this wall of water, space and movement combine to

create plastic

man.

excellence have

artistic

and earthenware, while

another contrast to the foaming water spray devised by Calder

lake.

combination of bold

we

have already seen in Noguchi's

and variety of the forms and move-

of the architecture. The spectator

as sculptural

form and

as

is

drawn

organized space.

sculpture in the widest sense, conceived as the environment

of

The

instances

of contemporary public monuments, of sculpture

of the sculptural articulation of landscape

therefore, ideal cases

ship

we

have so

architecture.

The

call for a synthesis

voiced with growing vigour over the years but, in

stage

extreme and,

fact, little

of the two

arts has

progress has been

been

made

of makeshift solutions and mutual misunderstandings. Modern

architecture tends to be self-sufficient

while modern sculpture seems

the senior

far discussed are

and

without any direct bearing on the practical problem of the relation-

between sculpture and

beyond the

as architecture

- a heritage of its impassioned and

at times totally oblivious

of the

tasks

purist youth,

and requirements of

Thus, apart from a few early essays ojugendstil inspiration, the rigorous

art.

functional surfaces devised

by modern

have been innocent of

architects

ment, sculptural or otherwise. Attempts to reverse

of the

date: the integration

arts has

instances, sculpture originally

been tackled

this

all

embellish-

trend are of very recent

at a practical level and, in certain

autonomous has been incorporated

an architectural

in

setting.

When dealing with

ture,

we

member

the encounter between

modern

can establish certain general categories. In defining these

that the

two

partners are

modern

sculpture and

autonomous and meet

it is

important to re-

- a

as equals

architec-

radically

new

departure in the history of their relationship for which the term 'architectural sculpture',

implying

The

as it

does the subordination of sculpture to architecture, is no longer adequate.

categories

shall use in discussing the instances to

poration), application (or addition)

combination). This

follow are integration (or incor-

and confrontation (whether by separation or by

only a very rudimentary system and

is

it

could easily be amplified. In

the case of integration, for example, one could distinguish between the question of

purely material or physical aspect and that of form and general conception; application

could be either decorative or 'signifying'; and confrontation either antithetical or

harmonizing.

One of the most

Henry Moore's
architect,

important achievements in integrated sculpture

relief for the

while keeping his

Bouwcentrum Wall

work

and ruined

Ins chisel.

cities, is

potentialities

Moore could work

The tense composition, evoking

more than mere ornament

it

can be realized in a simple brick wall

Relief in Concrete

(fig.

Rotterdam

191),

is

190).

mind,

Here the

shows what

when

start.

though he had a

artistic

and symbolic

a great sculptor intervenes.

made by Gunter-Ferdinand

co-ordinated from the

as

the walls of burnt-out houses

Ris for a school in Cologne,

likewise shows that the integration of sculpture and architecture

the joint undertaking

(fig.

my

to

severely functional, thought of the sculptor and pro-

vided bulges in the fabric of the wall which

monolith under

in

is,

is

For Ris the wall

possible only
is

when

not a background

or a passive support carrying the relief but the very fabric of it. Exploiting the technique

of concrete
consists in

solid

casting,

he has produced wall and

relief in

one operation the sculptural part

an 'unfolding' of the wall surface which thus becomes a

spatial structure

of

volumes and shaped voids. The sturdy, rigorously geometrical projections and
227

seem

recessions

waken

to

tectural function.

the wall to

The same

makes from welded

life

their

it is

rhythm

that

makes

explicit

archi-

its

interplay of surfaces can be observed in the reliefs that Ris

sectional steel.

Function and ornament are also combined in the buttressing wall designed by Karl

Bad

Ehlers for a clinic in

garden

laid

Salzuflen

(fig. 192).

The purpose of the

wall

to shore

is

up

out on a higher level and to provide a transition to the terrain below.

plain structure

would have served

functional purpose equally well.

this

posed a free variation on

of a few basic shapes,

using concrete blocks with a red ground. His wall,

thus in

is

main

transposes the

it,

harmony with the

architectural

But Ehlers

discerned a sculptural clement in the clear, plastic articulation of the building and

It

the

com-

made up

building both formally and materially.

motif from the

vertical into the horizontal

and

inserts it in the landscape.

By

contrast, Spatial

Office at ViUingen,

Though

it

Wall

(fig.

by Otto Herbert Hajek

193), designed

for the

Revenue

both unfunctional and in formal opposition to the architecture.

is

fences in an area behind

the artist intends

it,

to be taken primarily as

it

an

autonomous piece of sculpture.

Hans Uhlmann's suspended construction of steel and

brass (fig. 194) in the

Library at Freiburg has a complex spatial articulation.

sity

surfaces

formed by the widely spaced rods has

same time,

it

enhances the spiral

rhythm of the architecture into

somewhat

movement of

a highly refined

the

The

Univer-

transparence of the

constricting effect but, at the

The work

stairs.

transposes the

idiom of its own.

The integration of disparate forms into one artistic whole is convincingly exemplified
in the non-denominational chapel built

of Technology, with a

turret

by Eero Saarinen

and belfry by Theodore Roszak

above the eccentric lantern which illuminates the

both

a 'signifying'

structure as a

and a functional

House of God while

integrated in the architecture,

role

it

at the

preserves

it

altar,

have

the Constructivists

laid

down

sculptural

art (Gesamtkunstwerk)
lines,

as a belfry.

autonomy,

its

artistic

group in

Though

fully

transparence and
edifice.

this

century

who

This was also the aim, though pursued

of Kurt Schwitters in

a fantastic interior filling the artist's entire house.

composition it

almost nondescript round

compact mass of the

more than any other

along entirely different, irrational

tained in

Roszak' s spatial composition has

same time serving

its

202). Standing directly

for themselves as a cardinal postulate the unification of the arts in a

comprehensive work of

this

(fig.

identifies the sober,

differentiated articulation standing out against the

It is

for the Massachussetts Institute

at

his

The remarkable and unique

once sculpture, painting and architecture -

'puts out' sculptural

MERzbau

is

(fig.

200),

feature

that the space con-

forms which develop from outside in and reduce the

usual spatial schema of verticals and horizontals to a wild congeries of shapes set at

kinds of angles. Schwitters continued on his composition over a

more

scrap

of various

sorts.

His

constructions of Louise Nevelson

228

of

spirit

seems to

(see fig. 176).

live

on

all

number of years adding

175.

Bernard Rosenthal

in the fantastic architectural

Riverrun, 1959
Black aluminium 87" x 57^"

176.

Louise Nevelson The Voyage, 1952

(detail)

Wood,

painted white Photo: Author

!-

Zini

V"
(

177.

TT

Arnaldo Pomodoro

The Land Surveyor's Table

1958
Zinc, brass, copper and tin

94V2" x 53

Photo: Fcrruzzi, Venice

^MM

7 K.

Hi

Rio LarDBRA The Hours and the Days No.

i,

1958/59

Stainless steel

and iron

i'

6"

ll' 6"

Private collection

179-

Ossip Zadkine

The Destroyed

City, 195

153 Monument of Rotterdam Bronze Height

21' 4"

Photo: Author

i8o.

Henry Moore Upright Motives No.

I,

2 and

7,

1955/56 Bronze Height

c.

10'

11'

Photo: Author

181.

Equestrian

Marino Marini

Monument, 1958/59

The Hague, Bouwgelust

settlement

Bronze Height (without base)

16' 5"

Photo: Dienst voor Schone Kunsten

der

Gcmeente s'Gravcnhage

J
^V>

^|

Lk

H
ip

'

-^^r

laTi

V~

if
K

,:

^B

v'~'

'!

tlK

II

HHI

'

;-

...

i
1

It

'

"K

i82.

Constant

Projected

Monument

Photo: Jan Versnel, Amsterdam

for

Amsterdam, 1955 Iron wire Height 28 3 /s" Scale of model

25

183.

Monument

of an

Political Pris6ner,

1952

Design for a

Unknown

Reg Butler

Bronze wire, sheet metal and

Height
Photo:

F. L.

Kenett,

plaster

i7'/ 8

"

London

184.

Helmut Wolff Design

(60 '

85' 4"

for an

Auschwitz Monument, 1958

Wood

Height 35 3 / 8 ", Length 51 Vs"> Depth 22" Intended for concrete

36' 1")

1S5.

The Square

Matthias Goeritz

of the Five Towers, 1957

Entrance to the

satellite

town,

Mexico City
Reinforced concrete

Height

121',

Length 164'

Photo Marianne Goeritz

:

l86.

Rudolf

Steiner Gocthcanum, Dornach near Basle, 1925/28 Reinforced concrete Height 121', Length 295', Breadth 276'

Photo: Author

187.

Le Corbusier The Pilgrim Church of Notrc-Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, 1950/55 North front with
Photo: Author

side

towers Height 49'

iSS.

Eero Saarinen
General Motors Co. Technical Center, Detroit, 1951/56

Water tower

of stainless steel

Height

c.

131'

Photo: Ezra Stoller

189.

Isamu Noguchi Japanese Garden, 1958

UNESCO

Building, Paris Photo: Author

sa^n^H

igo.

Henry Moore Wall

Photo: Author

Relief at the

Bouwccntrum, Rotterdam, 1955 (Arch. C.

W.

Boks) Brick Height

c.

28' 3",

Length

63'

One

any design organically linked with architecture must

201). Albers maintains that

itself

than Josef

Harvard University by Gropius

Albers' composition in the Graduate Center built for

(fig.

work

could hardly imagine a stronger contrast to Schwitter's

be architectural in structure, and he has used here the same materials and methods
His wall

as the builder.

bonding

is

is

of headers and

a simple alternation

effect consists in a pattern

and without any additional colouring. The

in brick, flat

stretchers

the specifically sculptural

of defined voids obtained by omitting a number of bricks in

the facing courses. Against the horizontal emphasis of the brickwork the composition

up

sets

me

a vertical accent. 'For

'perhaps structural growth.

the composition represents growth,' says the

have called

it

"America".'

Two large reliefs in Brazil wood have been produced

Hans Arp

(fig.

199). Instead

of organic forms which the

artist

patiently varied until he obtained perfect compositional

rhythm communicate themselves

reliefs,

and

their balanced, as

Harry Bertoia took into account various

The

ranged in

The

a steel framework.

natural,

six tiers

New York bank (fig.

possibilities offered

wall, also called space-divider,

oration with the architects, Skidmore,

steel plates

were

it

to the space in front.

In designing a screen wall to stand behind the counter of a

angular

same establishment by

for the

of Albers' architectural structure we have here a constellation

harmony. The perfection of the two

linked with architecture.

artist,

Owings and

Merrill.

by

sculpture

was put up
It

consists

198),

when

it is

in close collab-

of roughly

rect-

above and behind each other, the whole carried by

regular pattern so obtained

is

interrupted

projecting solids. Alloys have been soldered to the plates to give

gold and darker bronze tones contribute to the overall

by

discoid shapes

them

spatial effect

colour.

The

the wall

and

light

becomes

itself sculptural space.

The function of the wall is to

special purpose,

clearly visible

two

it

implies the whole. Moreover,

from the

practical tasks

screening wall

is

street, it acts as

its

But while it
colour makes

an

essential

component of

work of sculpture

more numerous than attempts

in

its

Elvira in

Munich (fig.

low facade.

August

It

has

Endell's stucco relief,

196).

own

at least

and architecture, whether

works being applied on

no longer

buildings, not

dominant one.

good

extant, for the photographic studio

A huge, overpowering Jugendstil arabesque sweeps across the

the building,

proclaims arbitrarily the primacy of ornament.

by

it fulfils

that,

right.

to unite sculpture

no organic connection with

architects, repelled

conspicuous so

artistic integrity. Bertoia's

necessarily in a subordinate role, indeed as often as not in a

is

it

one part for a

the interior architectural composition

its

materially or formally, are instances of carved

example

separates

an instrument of publicity. Thus

without surrendering anything of

and, at the same time, a

Far

divide the interior.

It is

makes no concession

understandable, then, that

to

it

and

modern

the Jugendstil, turned against the ornamental and finally against

any collaboration with painters or sculptors, unmindful of what they had learnt from
either discipline.

245

mma

It is still

specific building.

Way

Two

in

from the

exceptional today for a piece of sculpture to be intended

An

example

the large steel relief Flachenbahn

is

Planes) (fig. 197) designed

senkirchen (architects

by Norbert Kricke

zweiEbenen

in

new

for the

Though added

to the building as an

in the general conception

by

autonomous work of art, the

double movement to the

its

to the decora-

also contributed.

relief serves a

right,

{Surface

theatre at Gel-

W.Ruhnau, Ortwin Rave and Max von Hausen),

which R.Adams, P.Dierkes, Y.Klein and J.Tinguely have

tion of

start for a

purpose

stresses the link

it

between the projecting studio and the main structure while counteracting the weight of
the large, dark wall to

winch it

is

attached. In spite of its vast dimensions the composition

has an effect of lightness and gentle

free-standing pieces
aggressiveness. Seen

genuine

offer a

prets

and

enrich

it

(fig.

152),

from a

movement. As

Kricke has restrained his dynamism here to avoid an

distance, the rails are a distinctive sign

Conceived

plastic experience.

articulates the various parts

further in the near future

Herbert Ferber's

relief for the

by providing

Synagogue

as

static

one

But

it is

whole. Kricke

to

is

effects.

New

Jersey

195) also

(fig.

primarily a symbol and

of the building. With the architecture

to the religious significance

they

the relief inter-

spirit,

artistic

fountain

in Millburn,

at close quarters

an architectural

in

of the structure

takes into account the architectural setting.

is

of his

against the restless thrustings

its

reference

enough

it is

for

it

to achieve a modus vivendi.

In the examples discussed so far sculpture applied

on buildings was

either to their architectural character or to their purpose. Costantino

thing different

the

whole point of his monochrome

showroom

a wall in the Olivetti

also

in

New

York

(fig.

purpose to 'persuade' people to buy. This

its

the exaltedness of

art.

But

surely there need be

well as beautiful provided that

Nivola has the

Italian's

its

is

no

positively related

Nivola does some-

relief covering the entire surface

203)

is

to provide a contrast.

offence if a

work of art

usefulness does not impair the truth

unerring sense for good decoration. Here

and varied but compact and

due not

is

useful as

of its beauty.
consists

it

of re-

make up a

demarcated composition. The compactness

is

least to the fact that Nivola forgoes strong plastic effects and gives his relief little

depth.

The composition with

tone.

must not

It

clearly

It is

unusual and seems to offend against

curring patterns, technological symbols and free vegetal forms which together
rich

of

distract

and the hand-made,

its

'intimate'

forms and discreet allusions

is

reserved in

the coarse grain of its texture, and suggestions of the primeval

refer the

onlooker to the opposite - the neat, precise forms of

industrial products.

The

confrontation of sculpture and architecture, which

main category

for considering the relationship

most frequently exemplified. In

this

have suggested

between the two

arts, is

type of relationship, sculpture

is

architecture either materially or structurally but merely accompanies

identification or as ornament.

or

it

246

A piece

of sculpture can

also

as the third

the one to be

not linked to
it

as a sign

of

be a measure of comparison

can mediate in establishing contact with space and with man.

Its relative

position

may, but need

advantage but

not, be subordinate
it

may

may

it

serve to set off

main

equally well find itself in the

its

architectural partner to

role, particularly if it itself

combines sculptural with architectural forms - witness the well-known screening wall
carved by Henry

Moore

for the

Time and

In the case of Wotruba's marble figure

ner's

(fig.

Municipal Hall in Vienna, the balance

compact column

vis-a-vis

shaft

by

Stele (fig. 205)

it

Life building in

is

204) standing over against Roland Rai-

even.

it:

The

open

bold,

structure

and the

complete and define one another by their opposition. Granite

Hamburg

the

Hans Kock, has likewise an

sculptor,

whose horizontal ordinance

it

by

counterpoints

opposes a free plastic variability to the uniform

facing

London.

series

architectural

Moreover

a vertical accent.

of gridded surfaces in the wall

the manifold alternation of projections and depressions, inclinations and breaks,

which makes manifest the

gives full scope to the operation of light

negative forms.

The same

principle, applied to the interpenetration

shaped voids, can be observed in

park theatre

at

Henri-Georges
the architecture

Grenchen.

On

Max Bill's

granite Construction

and

positive

of solid forms and

206) in front of the

(fig.

the other hand, the composition

stele's

(fig.

207) designed

by

Adam for the square in front of the new museum in Le Havre challenges
by

vast dimensions.

its

lines the light, pavilion-like character

Its

massive, even though perforated, bulk under-

of the building while

and the dynamism of its front wedge thrusting forward

contrast to the calm,

flat

its

determined orientation

like a ship's

prow, mark a sharp

ordinance of the museum.

Apart from the university town of Caracas, the most comprehensive, and the most
interesting,

example of an attempted

the one to be seen at the

ble has already

badly placed

as

has carved for the

Reclining Figure

Silhouette, a reference

on

art

the

and architecture

is

undoubtedly

Noguchi's garden in

this

ensem-

As regards sculpture stricto sensu, apart from the

in composition those at the

Harvard Uni-

by Henry Moore and Alexander

199), the contributions

(fig.

Calder must be singled out

monumental

(fig. 189).

by Hans Arp resembling

versity Graduate Center

Moore

of

unesco headquarters in Paris.

been mentioned

reliefs

synthesis

being especially noteworthy.

wide square
(fig.

in front

of the facade in the avenue Suffren a

210) in travertine.

one hand to

its

should be seen. For the figure, in spite of

sometimes called Reclining

way it

formal motif and on the other to the

its

transparence and hence as negating gravity.

It is

It

enormous mass,
has a

view

is

conceived in terms of

to offer

from every

side.

The

spectator looks through the perforations and catches a glimpse of the lively filigree of the

unesco

facade

whose horizontal

sees the trees in the

lines

accord with the main emphasis of the figure, or

park with the bizarre contours of the old houses behind them

explores the interior and observes the

two-fold penetrability

is

life

of forms within the sculptured

a constituent element in the

meaning of the

edifice.

figure.

or he

This

Moore

has

here again tackled Ins theme of mass and void, internal and external forms, and

com-

posed a magnificent variation. Relaxed calm and powerful movement, rhythm and

static

balance are brought into play in a masterly fashion - truly an uninterrupted sequence of

247

^m

what Henri Laurens

architecture behind

calls

'plastic

the

relating

autonomous work

hall. It requires this

conference

calm background
'stabile'

as it

is

itself

perpetually in

- the black rods and

out far into space forming delightful intersections and overlappings

changing angles with the steeply

a kindred contemporary
in

the

the
209) stands in front of a travertine-faced wall of

(fig.

motion. Carried on a tripod - a typical Calder

fits

to

it.

Alexander Calder's Mobile

unesco

events'

spirit.

with the architecture

rising skyline

at

sails strike

constantly

of Nervi's concrete structure conceived in

Hans Arp's Colonne

as a spiritually related

a elements interchangeables (fig. 208)

partner of equal status

it is

formally

and yet in harmony with the building. The sculptor replies to the horiof the architecture with the many gradations of his rising column. The

self-sufficient,

zontal lines

of the building, industrially produced and functional,

structure

functional, interchangeable elements

and architecture

programme
as

as

in point

- has for long been a part of Antoine Pevsner's

for the integration of the arts. Pevsner does not

Laurens and Lipchitz did

free

of the sculpture. The confrontation of sculpture

the basis of the relationship between sculpture and architecture - the

few examples have been cases

last

at the Paris

World

only once and only

his role
as

must be an

an afterthought

active one. This

in 1956

under the

(fig.

211) in front of the Technical Center of General

with the

site it

But the need

(1946), erected

No

is

impressive

by

relieves the flat facade

agreeably from the

as a

while the

static quality

and in

Naum

But

itself.

as solid

movement of its

much by

the pres-

made of

their unremitting flatness calls

volume and

of its partner. In the immediacy and

environment, Pevsner's

enterprise.

The

boldest and

was there

to

articulated space,

free reciprocity

spatial construction

of

holds

most forward-looking of

between sculpture and architecture occurred in Europe a few

(fig.

Bijenkorf in Rotterdam, built by Marcel Breuer.

It is

in Constructivism the ultima ratio

often fruitless preparatory

work

nearest to fulfilling the task.

248

as

surfaces developing in space differs

Gabo's Rotterdam Construction

in Detroit thus providing

a rare chance, Pevsner's composition

this particular

symbol of human

these free encounters

years ago

Motors

oBird Soaring

complements and enhances rather than contradicts the

vertical ascent

call. Its

by

determined horizontals of the building. Similarly,

own

been realized

doubt, the abstract beauty of the transparent walls

for a plastic counterpart and,

its

new name

mutual and the architecture stands to gain just

is

frames, glass and ceramic

this relationship,

has, so far,

deserves.

ence of Pevsner's piece.

answer the

dream

Eero Saarinen had an enlarged bronze

of Pevsner's Column of Victory

it

to decorate buildings,

Exhibition of 1937, but to bring about a

cast

steel

want

encounter in which the task of the sculptor would be to mediate between built-up

space and free space

it

answered by the non-

heightened to an imaginative play of interrelations.

is

Independence

is

of 20th-century

212) for the department store

De

my last example - not because I see

art

but because, after long years of

for the integration of the arts, Gabo's piece

comes

To

devise an adequate sculptural counterpart to the department store

if farsighted,

was a

difficult,

commission. Apart from the basic problem of harmony and of accommoda-

were

ting the piece in the street, there

method of erection. The work,

weather-proof.

The

vegetable kingdom.

took a tree

ture and artistic expression.

The

concrete faced with black marble

which shoot up

full-height

to

be light yet stable and

he found the answer to

all

these

as his

house

(fig.

model and

213),

this

roots of his 'tree' are

of the building

crete foundation

and the

had

as tall as the

artist said later that

He

technical ones connected with materials

from them
the stem

problems in the

choice determined both struc-

embedded

in the reinforced con-

springs the double stem in pre-stressed

splits

up

into four double branches in steel

and come together to form the

crest

the thin transversal

bars reinforcing the structure are to be understood as smaller branches or twigs

piece inside repeats the

theme on

the

a smaller scale.

Transparent, open to space and predominantly vertical, the composition stands out
against the
is

compact horizontal mass of the building. The

thus an antithetical one.

Whether Gabo's construction

relationship

is

taken as a campanile, a

for publicity, a tree or a simile for the bridges and cranes of

analysis, a

matter of individual

interpretations

is

taste

is

would be

rash to suggest

in the fifteen years since the last

one another.

by itself would have been incomplete

the presence

it is

this

wholeness in duality which

on

the strength of these

few

successful instances that the

arts is

war

already

upon

us.

But

there can be

the architect and the sculptor have

If they are to fulfil their task

time, they cannot dispense with one another

autonomy of the

in the last

disciplines possible.

golden age of the reunion of the

for

is,

and judgment. But, transcending these personal

necessary to the identity of the other, and

makes union of the two

It

Rotterdam

pillar

the fact that here the confrontation of sculpture and architecture has

resulted in a genuine synthesis. Either

of one

between the two

no doubt

begun

that

to be ripe

of giving monumental expression to our

nor can either dispense with respect for the

other's art.

249

IV

Form and

The previous

space: variations 1967

chapters

were written while Tachism and

Europe and Abstract Expressionism

determined

my

in the

United

main choice of subject and

informel' flourished in

These trends, now past history,

States.

illustration.

'art

The

principal art forms of that

time have since been driven back by the powerful onslaught of new movements
tendencies have gained a

new lease of life and found

of sculptors supersede one another

at a

more

their place again.

effected a significant
'Reality',

reflect

it is

New generations
new

sculpture of

discussed throughout the world. Sculpture has

kind of relationship with the reality of our environment.

senses.

Pop

sculpture and, in particular, environ-

banal or disturbing events from everyday reality; the introduc-

reality.

exclusive product

by

now

modern technology, formerly scorned

another kind of

side

new

is

of course, has a variety of

mental sculpture,
tion of

States

old

rapid pace than ever, further increasing the

variety of art forms. Geographically, too, the accent has shifted; the

England and the United

Art

is

in art, also constitutes a recourse to

offering the spectator

taking into account the

and potential consumer a

of contemporary

realities

life.

Side

less

by

with the unique work, or the work available only in the limited edition dictated
the bronze cast,

we now

multiplied in unprecedented

find the object that can be industrially produced and

numbers and,

as a result,

is

on

sale in

department

stores.

Synthetic materials are in part responsible for this development; since they can be
treated in a variety of ways they
stone, iron

compete with the

sculptor's traditional materials, such as

and bronze. They not only extend the formal

possibilities,

but also

reproduction and contribute towards reintroducing colour into sculpture.

or polychrome sculpture, the

250

latter a recent

facilitate

Monochrome

innovation, has lifted the ancient taboo of

appropriate to

'art

which
and

in turn

its

material'

abandoning the traditional

is

of two-dimensional representation

rules

by the frame. Never before have painting and sculpture

pictorial space dictated

come

coloured volume, sculpture can vie with painting,

as a

which

so close. In sculpture, colour,

assumes a

number of

affects the

apparent form and

functions

usually intensive

is

and non-associative,

can structure the work, divide or unite

it

well as the solidity of the volume; not

size, as

it.

Colour

least, it

helps

determine the reality or unreality of the object. Since the colour can be altered, the
sculptor can use

it

to adapt his

work

to

its

environment or

tt/isolate

Indeed,

it.

by

change of colour, he can entirely change the form.

In the formal context, the revival of geometry

forms. This in

itself

evident in the reduction to simple

would not be an overwhelming novelty but

dimensions of 'minimal'

art

or

'ABC'

they no longer serve

art

as

at the

same time the

Man is no
their own standard:

have been enormously increased.

new primary structures

longer the measure of all things. The

self-sufficient,

is

mere

dictate

vehicles for symbolic or associative

mean-

ings.

The

constant 20th-century

phenomenon of

the antithesis between these reduced

or minimal forms, and expressionistic, Constructivist or free space-sculpture

larly

conspicuous in the immediate present.

Surrealist abstraction evidently

formal hygiene of Op
realistic figures
artifice.

a particularly

and objects of Pop and post-Pop

Machines make

art

and

particu-

or shocking objects of post-

provoked the purism of the minimalists and the cool

Hard edge,

art.

The absurd

is

are art.

which

art,

Movement

'artificial'

form, contrasts with the

in turn translates reality into

can equally well be an expression of

change and represent continuity. Indeed, the situation in sculpture has never been
controversial as

it is

in the 1960s.

Many of these trends

claims that

it

have appeared in succession, and each respective trend in turn

has rendered the others superfluous, or at least superseded them, so that in

comparison they are no longer unique. The innovators consider each

a distinct phase

who

as

of an evolutionary development. The ordinary

can scarcely register the different phases

as intervals

porary forms, whose unity, paradoxically, consists of the

cies are divergent.

new

spectator,

of time,

sees

trend as

however,

only contem-

fact that the individual

tenden-

So instead of concerning ourselves with the question of chronological

developments since 1959,

we

will try to relate the criteria established in the preceding

chapters to the situation in 1967.

With

respect to the

problem of form,

basic forms, such as the sphere, the cylinder

latest

developments. In

tally related

would be

fact,

'kernel sculpture', since

it

and the cube, has not been superseded by the

the term 'primary structure' implies something

forms of an original kind, although in a more limited

difficult to find

can be reduced to

an avant-garde sculptor

simple marble forms as those of Brancusi

and polyester. However, looking

at

who

(see fig. 1).

still

Modern

chisels

sense.

fundamen-

However,

it

and polishes such

sculptors prefer fibreglass

William Tucker's Four Part

Sculpture

No. 4

(fig.

251

23

1),

why

becomes understandable

it

homage

to Brancusi, the

young

the

sculptors of today

grand master of 20th-century sculpture.

Column or The Beginning of the World encourage them

is

much

time the base. Brancusi considered

:

of the sculpture and

a part

The

'actual' sculpture.

that proportions

The weight of
231) or

also

Donald Judd's

on

(fig.

239)

works

void

is

an

(fig.

Forms of 195 1

214),

one of

(fig. 5)

new

greater.

by

the

this

base, sculpture

Although

now

it is

not always

would be more

it

The compact volumes of Tucker's

do not appear massive and heavy;

proves that

Edward Higgins

it is

impene-

dimension, although the sculptor's task of relating the

Comparison of Henry Moore's Atom

on

this

an inexhaustible motif. In Atom

it is

architectural

(fig.

Piece

of

theme, with the Internal-External

forms into an

also

Both

216), in different ways.

Lee Bontecou spans canvas over welded

Piece,

Moore

has

artistic unity.

steel

concern Lee Bontecou

artists

combine

dispar-

frames to form relief con-

of tense corporeality whose gaping holes have a peculiar

in Higgins'

the

contemporary sculpture often

air,

The problems of opening up volume and of inner form

ate materials

from

on every other level. This presupposes

certainly

his last variations

merged anthropomorphic and

225) and

the base

of their formal existence. The problem of inner and

essential part

has not yet been finally solved.

structions

its

also

the other hand, the visual forms alone create this impression.

outer form thus takes on a

(fig.

distinct

geometric forms introduce hollowness, implying that although

trable, the

1964-67

Freed from

much

sculpture has also changed.

work

an example) have solved

One could accuse it of megalomania;

that man is no longer its measure.

in Brancusi's sculptures,

The new

component,

space.

accurate to say, again,

two

own level - but

is

base.

have changed, and become

immense

indispensable. In his

it

indeed ever - intended to stand in the open

requires

(fig.

own efforts. They have, in

in their

a functional

it is

sculptors of today (Tucker

confronts the spectator at his

if

yet, since

of dispensing altogether with the

drastic step

such as Endless

found the solution to an age-old sculptural problem to which Brancusi

addition,

devoted

Works

pay particular

effect

of suction;

work, quasi-technical forms in simple arrangements determine the external

appearance, but he carries over the play of form-in-form to the material level

hard pincer-like

steel

Berrocal's Samson

forms grip
(fig.

softer

by

letting

rounded forms made of epoxy.

215) also deals, in a general sense, with the

and outer form; the inner forms appear only

if the figure

is

problem of inner

taken apart. Like a kind of

three-dimensional puzzle, Samson can be dismantled into ten building bricks and
reassembled. Each piece has

its

own

sculptor's perfect technical control

formal value and

and an articulated

analytical 'sculptural thought'. Berrocal adds the

inner and outer

form

since

everyone

who

'sign in space', because

252

both evidence of the Spanish

plastic

invention demonstrating his

dimension of time to the concept of

understands the sculpture can himself repeat

the process of dismantling and reassembling

Although one could include Higgin's

is

191.

Gunter-Ferdinand

Relief in Concrete

(detail), ig

Hildegardis Gymnasii

Colog
it.

(Arch. Berner and Jaco'j

untitled sculpture in the formal category

of its reduction of solid volume,

this still

of the

does not really agree

27' 3"x37'|

Dr Wolfgang

Salcki

Colog

^-

I9J.

I
192.

Karl Ehlers

Buttressing Wall, 1957

LVA

Clinic,

Bad

Salzuflen (Arch. Deilmann)

Concrete Length 98' 6" Photo: Author

193-

Otto Herbert Hajek

6' io 5 / "
8

17' 1"

Spatial Wall, 1959

2' ii

Revenue

Office, Villingcn (Arch. Carlfred Mutschler,

Mannheim) Moulded concrete

"

3
/8

1.

I 1
1

NB

194-

Hans Uhimann Suspended

Brass and

chrome

steel

c. 5'

Sculpture, 1957
3"

9' 10"

4'

Staircase in the University Library, Freiburg (Arch.

11" Photo: Author

Horst Linde and Hornschuh)

195.

Herbert Ferber Relief on

the B'nai Israel Synagogue, 1952

Millburn,

New

York

(Arch. P.

Goodman) Lead on copper

12'

8'

196.

August Endeix
Photo Marburg

Relief in the photographic studio Elvira, Munich, 1898 (executed

by Joseph Hartwig) Stucco

23'

42' 8"

197-

Norbert Kricke Surface

Steel

Way

in

Two

Planes, 1957/59

Theatre

Length ill' 7* Photo: Alfred Nagcl, Gelsenkirchen

at

Gelsenkirchen (Arch.

W.

Ruhnau, O. Rave, M.

v.

Hansen)

198.

Harry Bertoia
Steel

and

alloys

Screen Wall

Height

i6',

Manufacturers Trust Company,

Length 70' Photo: Ezra Stoller

New

York

(Arch. Skidmore,

Owings and

Merrill)

199-

Hans Akp Wall

Relief, 1950

(Arch. Walter Gropius and

Harvard University Graduate Center

The

Architects Collaborative), Cambridge, Mass.

Redwood

Photo: Fred Stone

:;:.

200.

Kurt Schwitters

MERZbau, begun

1920 Hanover

(destroyed 1943)

Photo: Landesgalerie Hanover

201.

Josef Albers

Partition Wall, 1950

Brick

Harvard University Graduate Center

(Arch. Walter Gropius and

The

Architects Collaborative)

Cambridge, Mass.
Photo: Walter R. Fleischer

202.

Theodore Roszak Turret and

(Arch. Eero Saarinen)

belfry, 1955

Chapel of the Massachusetts

Aluminium Photo: Author

Institute of

Technology, Boston

203.

Costantino Nivola
Photo: Hans Nauuith,

Relief Wall, 1953

Olivetti

showroom,

New

York (Arch.

Peressutti,

Rogers and Belgiojoso)

New York

tf

Figun

Mitbl

"

204-

Fritz

Wotruba

Figure, 1959

Marble

Height

In front of the Municipal Hall, Vienna

(Arch.

Roland Rainer)

205.

Hans Kock

Granite

stele,

1957 58

Primary School

at

Hamburg-Niendorf Height 128" Photo: Kay, Hamburg

^sEGaam

hen. Switzerland

Carved from Baveno

granite, 1957 58

Diameter 71"

, H e ,- Ge o, A,
5

s, P , re

ta ol Le ,mv Mu

D is

, 9i4to]

comp|oKd

is6]

CoiKreK Hc

]|t

^^

^ ^
^

208.

Hans Arp

Coloiine a elements
interchangeables, 1961

Concrete
Allgemeine

Gewerbeschule Basle
(Architect H. Baur)

Photo Maria Netter

:

:o9-

Alexandeb Calder Mobile, 1959 By

the

UNESCO

Conference Building, Paris

^^i

(Arch. Pier Luigi Nervi)

210.

**<

Henry Moore

Reclining Figure, 1957/58

Roman

travertine

In front of the

Length

16' 5"

UNESCO

Genera] Secretariat building

Paris (Arch.

Marcel Brcucr, Pier Luigi Nervi

Bernard Zehrfuss)

2ii.

Antoine Pevsner Bird Soaring, 1956 General Motors Co. Technical Center, Detroit (Arch. Eero Saarinen)
c. 16' 5" (Enlarged version of the 'Column of Victory' of 1946)

Bronze Height

"'fan
212.

Naum Gabo
Concrete,

Rotterdam Construction, I954'57

steel

and bronze wire Height

85'

In front of the

Photo: Author

'De Bijenkorf store in Rotterdam (Arch. Marcel Breuer)

with the concepts described and

illustrated in

Chapter One, for

Among

sive gesture, the dramatic declamation.

other

seek a comparable shrinking of bodily substance to

where substance

fact,

ment

no more than hinted

is

bert Kricke, in his

new

too,

is

would be vain

it

itself.

to

extreme form, to the point, in

Among

European

'flowing sculptures', has taken this idea to

But the general tendency

Interest in

its

lacks the freely expres-

serving as a gesture or trace of

at,

beyond

in space that suggests something

artists,

it

its

move-

sculptors,

Nor-

logical conclusion.

to increase the bodily substance again.

mobile sculpture has increased. Apart from George Rickey, other, younger

inventors of mobile sculpture should be mentioned, although, particularly in their case,

reproduction can give only a vague idea of their actual appearance. Classical mobiles

were
pass

set in

from

motion by draughts of

or mechanical tremors the tendency

;

deliberately incomplete kinetics,

and even beyond to the

anical

air

motion per

artistic

which mock the machine,

examination of kinematics, that

it is

tempting to stop classifying the

Dada, Pop

art

to

to exact kinetics,

the beauty of mech-

'relief ' as

become more and more

a separate category.

the found or chosen object, whether isolated as a 'ready-made' or as the

assemblage, has

is

se.

Since the frontiers between painting and sculpture have

indistinct,

is,

now

become an unusually popular

and similar

styles, as

shown by

organized by William C. Seitz in the

art

form through

the

However,

component of an

medium of neo-

the exhibition 'The Art of Assemblage',

Museum

of Modern Art in 1961, and numerous

other demonstrations by the 'objecteurs'.

After this brief recapitulation of a typology of modern sculpture,

problem of meaning.

Two

aspects described earlier

let

us turn to the

much

have become

clearer: the

multiple relationship to reality, expressed in anthropomorphic forms or in the forms of

the trivial everyday world; and the rigorous renunciation of
representational function. In

Henry Moore's Atom

Piece (fig. 214)

structure can be seen in the skull-like shape. In spite

abstraction, the

human

Moore's sculpture.
ever get far

and human

the thing that

Marlborough

whose

Gallery,

all

'I

even

an anthropomorphic

still

fundamentals of Henry

don't think that

sculpture

London

associative or

of his recent tendency to return to

relationships are

A few years ago he declared

away from

(catalogue of the

Berrocal,

scale

any

we

shall,

based on: the

is

or should,

human body'

1965).

career began only after the highpoint of abstract informalism, takes

He shows the human figure as archaic torso (fig. 215) or as a

its abstract components. He combines the various techniques

an even more decisive stand.

bust, in strange contrast to

of abstraction, assemblage and construction into a synthesis which

ancient aims of sculpture - to recreate the

Edward Higgins, whose

213.

fulfils

one of the

image of man.

constructions with their effect of alienation

were discussed

Naum Gabo
earlier,

Detail of the

Rotterdam Construction
Photo: Author

leave
it

it

gave no

title

to his sculpture

(fig.

216) of welded steel and epoxy, perhaps to

equivocal, perhaps to avoid any unnecessary explanations of the obvious.

seems clear that the construction of flat and curved

steel plates,

Yet

which can be opened or

277

by

closed

human

hinges, represents a

robot, or at least an animated object with sexual

connotations, like the solid steel figures

by the Austrian

Rudolf Hoflehner (fig.

artist

66).

Hoflehner emphasizes erotic impulse and Higgins the sexual apparatus; Ernest Trova's

human

figures

(fig.

217),

aggregates instead of arms. These 'mechanomorphic' forms

Study: Falling

Man

from without and then

can be interpreted

as

(L.

Alloway) suggest astro-

of voluntary movement,

nautical puppets, firmly fixed in a spatial system, incapable

receive their orders

furnished with technical

faceless, sexless beings,

however, are

who

act according to a prescribed plan. Trova's

showing man

as function, as a chess piece, part

of a superimposed mechanism, and certainly incapable of free

The sameness of the

will.

figures reveals their industrial provenance; only the medical instruments attached to

them

distinguish the

anonymous

figurines according to their individual functions.

The field of action of Marisol's Pop

is

sculpture ironically entitled The Dealers

equally restricted. Eleven figures are each boxed

of furniture they can be

breasts articulated, other features only indicated. Like pieces

moved

together, stacked

objects; but at the

up or

same time,

as

box-figures can be manipulated like

The

shifted about.

218)

hands and

their faces, legs,

in,

(fig.

implied by the perhaps autobiographical

title,

the figures

themselves can manipulate, and their different organs determine their orientation in

witty fashion. This Surrealist joke-sculpture represents a whole armoury of proverbial

wisdom.
Realistic

and

Porte (fig. 219).

surrealistic

elements also inform Jean Ipousteguy's

The anatomy of the nude male

from

figure seen

Homme

the rear

pcussant

is

la

accurately

observed and reproduced; the torn, scarcely stitched-up epidermis and the robot-like
stride

appear unreal. Another

the dog's head.

turvy the
:

But

man is

despite these appearances

striding

why the man

should push open the door

the evident gathering of strength,

muscular. Perhaps Ipousteguy

achieve a

new

was almost

He

of comforting

through the closed door

dog's head emerges from the door as though

der

the setting the swing door with

realistic feature is

is

why

the

trying to

as

though

were not

it

when he

man

show

reality,
it

solid.

everything

but gradually he recovered

recovered his tracks. Western

man

The

spectator

can step through

it

word had been able to

enter.

topsy-

may won-

like air,

why

should be so energetic, so athletic and

that

man overcomes

space and time to

'One day

his

memory. He checked

man

equipment.

Ins

reached the point at which he represented the

source of all his myths since antiquity: the organization of a space and a time
the

is

and

were not there and the

poetic dimension, as he implies in the following words:

extinct,

slats

Today action is

recapturing the word.

.'
.

which only

(catalogue of

Museum Leverkusen, 1965-66).

George Segal's Woman in Doorway of 1965 (fig. 220) portrays a comparable situation:
a woman is opening the door; she is hiding, expectantly or patiently, behind the wing of

the Stadtisches

the door, peering at the person entering, with

first

sight there seems nothing

occurrence, as

when

the

odd about

whom

the spectator

this situation, it

postman or milkman

rings the bell.

must

identify.

At

seems a normal everyday

The

setting

- shabby doors

278

with peeling paintwork, the

familiar;

peian

and yet the

bronze

is

The

plaster, usually the

man suddenly

stiffens in

the middle of his ordin-

preparatory step in sculpture before the definitive

here becomes the necessary material for rendering the

caste,

remote from

life

'What

again.

is

W. A.L. Beeren spoke of a 'Pom-

mysterious and strange.

presumably meaning that

effect',

ary doings.

effect

the dark background, the cheap doormats -

stairs in

me

interests

a series

is

life-like female figure

of shocks and encounters that a

person can have moving through space around several objects placed in careful relationship', said Segal, referring to the artistic

aims of his environmental sculpture, in which he

confronts the real and the unreal.

Segal's environmental sculpture belongs to
still

in plaster

form and not bronze,

carries

Pop

TheHead (or Die Lust an Adam)

The

artist

large garden decoration

with

221), but the links

(fig.

his painting are closer.

Dada

somewhat reminiscent of an

it is

by Hans Arp

(fig.

with no

embellishment. This relief proves in

later
its

222), the

first

relief,

which

preserved in

is still

many ways

method of construction by means of visible

art.

of painted sheet

has in fact hugely magnified one of his pictorial motifs and transposed

solid three-dimensional object. Stylistically

trends, in

Ipousteguy's sculpture, although

Europeanized echoes of American Pop

One could perhaps say the same of Horst Antes'

steel,

art.

to be a

its

into a

it

early relief

original

form

key to present-day

screws, as well as the 'crudity'

of its contours and painting.

Hans Arp
have become

is

one of the Old Masters of modern

'actual' for the

and the objects of the

coming

younger

sculptors.

Surrealist painters,

Porte-bouteilles (fig. 223).

The

early

and the 1964 edition of eight signed and numbered

object

which Duchamp chose and

since today

it

as irrelevant, are

'chosen' for an art exhibition, the bottle

dryer was an object found by the thousands. Fifty years later

if there is

replicas

it

had

was out of circulation

to be specially

established as an objet d'art,

at will

from

it is

a mass

nevertheless misleading

of identical

time has intervened in the original purpose, not by covering the thing

by

made,

nothing wrong with the reproduction of an

can no longer be selected

patina of history, but

his ceuvre

Marcel Duchamp's ready-made of 1914,

is

At the time when it was

or rather reproduced. Even

of

work of Alberto Giacometti

which were often dismissed

A typical example

to the fore again.

art; individual aspects

restricting the idea,

which points

objects.
itself

Here

with the

to the thing, to an historical

dimension.
All

Duchamp's works question

the fundamental concept of art; yet this does not

exclude them from being works of

ironical relationship to the

art.

Claes Oldenburg does not have this critico-

work of art and

the creative idea.

tion that his enlarged, soft objects like Raisin Bread: 5

are art,
cal

and explains 'My

approach to

form

in space.'

art

and

art

is

a play

between actual and

reality itself, as a

And he

adds

slices

He starts from the assumpand end, 42

artificial,

raisins (fig. 224),

therefore an analyti-

by-product of the investigation and discovery of

this description

of the creative process:

'I

wish to be

like

nature - creative but unphilosophical, mindless, machine-like.' This comparison

is

279

misleading, for Oldenburg

of the younger American

one of the most thoughtful and philosophic

certainly

is

graphy of our consumer world in

his

he models by

is

of

his objects to give

of

alters the relations

man

of Gulliver on

In recent years

American

much of the

determines

was

arbitrary, as

common
artistic

preclude using a miniature

its

fascination

technology
the steel

on

we undergo

experiences

and meaning of a work of art. The enlargement

in earlier sculpture, in the stages

These

scale.

from

artists

is

size

not

the bozetto to the

plan the proportions

and expressive value. Certain techniques would, of course,

Lee Bontecou's

scale.

a smaller scale,

and would

openings of jet motors)

[vide the

more or

and sculptors have given ample proof that

working model and then to the monumental

beforehand for their

his travels.

painters

effect

them

to his environment, and

confronted by his Raisin Bread or his enormous light switches,

similar to those

of the sculptural pro-

a curious reversal

stuffing the tailored shells

firm consistency. Thus, he

less

he has compiled an icono-

art,

works, winch are the more hard-hitting the softer

Oldenburg has fashioned them. His method

cess:

from Pop

sculptors. Starting

framework would, on a smaller

relief construction (fig. 225)

lose
;

its

reference to the

would

lose

modes of modern

the brutality of the canvas stretched over

merely look

scale,

like a dainty piece

of

handiwork.

David Smith's Cubi

(fig.

226) are also

their geometrical character, the cubic

on an enormous

and

scale,

forms

cylindrical

but in

of this and

spite

convey the idea of

still

sculpture as the measure of man. Smith's Cubi usually have built-in pedestals supporting

the juggling act of the brightly polished elements.

Constructivism and thede

show

tions

Stijl

movement (w figs.

a greater freedom of

stay in the

encounter which

obvious
space.

is

links, for

form and a gain

been discussed

States in

European

in self-assurance, expressed in the

scale.

1959 Anthony Caro met David Smith - an

often cited as the origin of Caro's

new

style.

The two

artists

have

both are concerned with making objects into form-structures in

Even Smith's

space; in the case

United

early

14 and 18) these solid spatial construc-

choice and treatment of the material as well as in the

During a

Compared with

early linear

works

(see fig.

154) portray the emphatic gesture in

of Caro, whose expressive modelled works of the 1950s have already

(see p. 44), this

development was abrupt, but immediately led to a per-

sonal style. Caro's sculptures are

no longer

related to architecture

since they are conceived in loose disparate combinations

of support and load, they need no volume. His

corporeal, but their effect

is

light

steel

and they need no base

of form and not on the principle

beams, plates and bands are solid and

and incorporeal. They evoke something of the rapid

play of ideas, of loose word-combinations, relations and correlations. In David Smith's

human action is not entirely absent; Caro, however, sternly

any association. His work is abstract in the strict sense of the term. Not even

sculpture the relation to

renounces
the colour
(fig.

280

228)

it

is

associative;

it

assembles and subdivides, and above

serves to sharpen the distinction

between

art

all,

and nature.

as in

Prima Luce

Eduardo Paolozzi, on the other hand, whose earher conglomerate sculpture

we have

already discussed, remains within the realm of the figurative in his

aluminium

sculptures

associations.

tures

The

(fig.

227). His technological

(fig.

more

96)

recent

forms combine organic and inorganic

nature of the material plays an important part in the non-static struc-

which Paolozzi

likes to use in his

Pop

paradoxical

aluminium and the high shine of chromium-plated

The matt glow of

sculpture.

concretize his dreams of

steel serve to

the objects of man's environment.

Paolozzi
like

an isolated figure

is

who

Anthony Caro. However, even

teachings developed independently.

common aim
by

can stimulate others but does not form a school

the

young English

It is less

style that links teacher

assimilated Caro's

and pupils than the

to let sculpture begin again at 'zero hour'. Phillip King, for example,

contrast with Caro, does not exclude corporeal

His sculpture Through

object that

who

artists

(fig.

229),

made of plastics,

would dominate any

is

volume from

more than life-size and

King cut

interior.

his artistic

programme.
expansive, an

the cone in regular sections; the

whose

parabolas of the lines of intersection encounter a system of steps at the base,

rectangular arrangement contrasts with the taut curves of the conical

them. The chromatic scheme of Through

also relies

green, the intersected surfaces a dull red.

Form and

there are

no

Among
quoted

the

many major

pupils of Caro

of sculpture

we may
is

material, fibreglass, in his Four Part Sculpture

at will.

it

idea are in a direct relationship;

for intellectual speculation,

fact.

as saying that the 'idea'

value, since

contrast: outer surface a dark

no room

distractions such as associations,

simply a sculptural

on

form above

alone makes

it

single out

more important than the

No. 4

(fig.

23

1)

who

William Tucker,
material.

is

But the

has considerable expressive

possible to arrange gigantic, relatively hght-weight bodies

Tucker's sculptures consists of four equal cylinders arranged cross- wise; but

although they are in the form of huge columns, they evoke no architectural or Cyclopean
associations.

Their theme

is

the ordering of identical sculptural bodies,

rearranged, so that a totally different effect

trated version
It is

is

also

be

the spatio-dynamic order of our illus-

achieved.

interesting to

steel sculpture

from

which can

by

the

compare the works of the two English

German

artist

Erich Hauser

basically geometrical, a cylinder such as those

(fig.

230).

sculptors with a similar

Here again the shape

Tucker takes from the

arsenal

is

of basic

forms. Hauser's sculpture also has an incision, like King's Through. Yet Hauser

is

not

concerned with the regular articulation of a volume, but with the expressive value

of the

incisions which, so to speak,

'wound' the cylinder. In Hauser's early

sculptures there are similar formal motifs, as

in 'dangerous' situations.
related works,

To

one could say

when he

distinguish these

steel

poises crystalline-shaped

volumes

contemporary and in some

respects

that Hauser's sculpture has

more of an emotional

than that of King or Tucker. Tucker's sculpture could be described

effect

as 'conceptual'

King's objects are also presented as basic shapes without modification but Hauser, in the
;

281

makes use of technical and handicraft methods, which

process of creation,

part in the final realization of the

work,

in a sense, as counterpoints to the steel.

'making', the process of creation,

The

very important to Hauser; but in the

is

of the American sculptor and theoretician Robert Morris

232).

Unlike

many of the

effects: it

light

is

is

from within.

It

certain intellectual

Olymp
such

as this

233), also started

its

own

pure geometric form. Morris aims

this

American concept of 'primary

who on

it

'non-

with the

Haese's poetic invention

art,

in the old-fashioned

sculpture and one of

its

balls

of the

After his early lanceolate mobiles, Rickey

whose

But the most ingenious

weave

his

own thoughts

aspect of

around

it.

and theoretician George Rickey.

artist

now

is

concerned with 'kinetic planes'

rolling see-saw

motion

reflects the light

and

new relations. Rickey does not exclude associations,

do not imitate nature

like plants

title itself

to the slightest breath, leads us to kinetic

main exponents, the

brings the geometric forms into ever

The

within spheres, vibrating in a framework of hair-

which responds

234) of polished refined steel

way.

associations are not forbidden here.

that each spectator can

is

Haese's construction,

sometimes look

as in the case

contrast with the

by hand

thin wires, can be interpreted as a heavenly hierarchy.

sculpture

By

of minimal

'Though

of craftsmen and

rows of sliining

indicates that the

principle exploit the higher technical standards

has to be built-up

puritanical school

writing

at a

structures'

with mass-produced, basic geometric forms.

cannot just be conceived and then executed by others,

'fabricators'

(fig.

by

a European contemporary of Morris. Giinter Haese, in his construction

(fig.

factories;

the centre, the cuts emphasized

demands.

compare

interesting to

work of

down

specific

- something which everyone can understand but which yet

intimate, public quality'

It is

(fig.

evokes no associations. Minimal sculpture does not try to express

anything beyond the value of

makes

part

little

with no

fibreglass, a material

made of grey

a large ring, bisected vertically

plays very

it

work

English sculpture, he even renounces

new

exponents of the

colour. His untitled sculpture

play their

still

am

aware of resemblances.

or clouds or waves,

it is

If

my sculptures

because they respond to the same

laws of motion and follow the same mechanical principles.' (Rickey, 16 years of Kinetic
Sculpture,

The

Corcoran Gallery, Washington D.C.,

spread of kinetic sculpture, with

recollections
as Laszlo

of those

isolated forebears

its

1966.)

manifold light

who were

recognized only posthumously, such

Moholy-Nagy, whose Light-Space-Modulator

1922 and 1930,

is

preserved in the Busch-Reisinger

a prototype of kinetic art. In the fluctuating light

effects, necessarily leads to

(fig.

235), constructed

Museum

of Harvard University

of over one hundred

instrument projects moving pictures on to the surrounding walls.

justified

and

logical to include

trends, particularly since

Schoffer

(see fig.

15),

Moholy-Nagy's

many

artists

last

work in

two

have been directly influenced by

cussed in connection with a previous

282

of the

kinetic

work

(fig. 22),

between
as

electric bulbs, the

It

therefore seems

this discussion

of today's

generations, such as Nicolas

it.

Jean Tinguely, already

dis-

often turns to contradiction and

paradox, witness his phrase, 'Le dcfinitif

mockery
as

New

of pure

after periods

mechanized Happenings (auto-destructive machines such

(machines a dessincr),

Hommage

Yet

c'est le provisoire'.

York) and

immense sound-producing machines

(Eureka), his artistic

production has recently become more firm in execution and functioning. Instead of
being a kind of junk

which

art',

playful and playing art-machines, such as

greater mechanical precision.

The

Le Rotozaza No.

basic principles

to

from

the drudgery of 'usefulness'

by planned

(fig.

his

now

236),

artist,

on

display

one

the

irregularity or unaccountability, continues

of kinetic

mouvement

partout et tou-

art.

Invention and precision also characterize the kinetic sculptures of Pol Bury,

works mainly with wood, concealing the motor impulse. In

illusion

new

the other hand to free the machine

to be valid. His declaration 'L'unique chose stable c'est le

jours' can be taken as the leitmotive

of this imaginative

develop form by means of motion, and on

hand

of perfectionism,

ironically questions the idea

of the movement of balls on inclined planes

is

who

his sculpture (fig. 237) the

heightened by the actual move-

ment of the motor.

Tinguely and Pol Bury are experienced technicians
hand. But some

who

produce only the idea leaving the execution to others. This

artists

by

believe in doing things

is

not

a recent innovation, since few sculptors in the past cast their bronzes themselves and

many

'praticiens'

An

early

trially

factor

have

artists

that the

is

example

produced
is

their 'praticiens'.

is

former intend

plexiglass columns.

pressed

is

opening on top and then

its

trickle

point of depature.

between the

difference

their designs for

Norbert Kricke's Wasserwald

the water that

return to

The

'fabricators'

mass production from the outset.

(fig.

Yet the cylinder

is

238), constructed

down

from indus-

secondary here; the

up through the transparent columns

back

and the

essential

to overflow at the

the outside wall, like a sparkling veil, to

The columns of water

in their architectural setting. Kricke's Wasserwald

is

stand 'dry-footed', so to speak,

composed of

identical geometric

forms, but the disposition of the columns follows a free, irregular rhythm. Donald

Judd even omits

these contingencies: his predictably untitled metal boxes

manufactured by metal-workers and are absolutely

hang beside one another

in a simple

row as

identical.

The four

(fig.

239), are

industrial units

'quantitative structures' (L. Alio way), free

of

association or aesthetic embellishment. Judd

is

concerned with the coherent realization

of the idea of a preconceived sculpture which

is

mass-produced.

all

Louise Nevelson,

from

who

prefabricated parts,

the difference that she

materials to

form

precision; the

technological
visation,

it

has

from the

start

works on the same

now

effects.

principle in her recent ensembles, but with

assembles newly-manufactured synthetics instead of used

a transparent architecture

charm of

assembled her environmental sculpture

the old-fashioned

(fig.

240).

Her

inventions thus have a cool

metamorphosed bric-a-brac

gives

way

to

Although the mechanical process precludes hand-work and impro-

does not entail an absence of thematic references; the dream world of the

imagination

is

preserved in the material.

283

Mass-produced forms figured

Kcmeny's

repertoire for

proportions in one of the

They assumed monumental

fig. 29).

who

in Zoltan

last

241), a building providing

(fig.

collaboration between architects and sculptors.

profiles

of varying

omous but
artist,

points

who

declared:

'I

which

the elements

itself. Its

do not

other examples of successful

Kemeny's

relief consists

of rectangular

setting

also time, space, light.'

is

of the location. The

formal vocabulary, adapting

harmony between

of the
all

grasp visually - with or without an electronic microscope -

Kemeny's
and

part of the architecture, not just a decoration but also as an interpretation

his

not auton-

between technical elements and nature;

represent the reality of nature for me. Nature

of the architectonic

is

associative character reflects the philosophy

differentiate

artist,

und Sozialwissen-

geometric structure which, however,

size; thus it has a

beyond

many

years (see

works by the

died in 1965, the mural relief in the Hochschule fur Wirtschafts-

schaften at St Gallen

many

it

artist deliberately restricted

to the language

relief is

reflection

the variety of

of the architecture in order to achieve

the sculpture and the architecture.

This work, together with Norbert Kricke's Wasserwald, reintroduces the problem

of purpose which was discussed

at

length in Chapter Three and which need not be elab-

new developments in the relationship between

The additional examples we have given of the collaboration

orated on here, since there have been few

sculpture and architecture.

between the two

have not, therefore, been

arts

classified in a particular

category but are

discussed in the context of their formal qualities and intrinsic significance. This applies
also to a

remarkable monument, Eduardo Chillida's powerful pink granite sculpture,

Ahesti Gogora I7 (fig. 242), in the garden

other genuinely

monumental work,

of the

it

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. Like every

combines architectural and sculptural values;

as a spatially

conceived and executed work, Ahesti Gogora

The mighty

granite blocks,

suspended by a giant

fist,

some of them poised

belongs to both

in hazardous balance as

correspond with the cut-out hollows and give the

arts.

though

effect

of the

dialogue between negatif-vide and positif-plein which Chillida considers the ideal of
sculpture in space.
Chillida's

forms have precise contours, independent of the material or

scale,

and a

geometric clarity - formal qualities which link Chillida with more recent sculptors. Yet
it

would be

far-fetched to describe his angular definitions

'hard-edge' sculpture.
(fig.

The term could then also be

243), Giinter-Ferdinand Ris (fig. 244)

hard-edge

is

certainly a

form of artistic

or secondary one. In Chillida's

forms in space and in the same

;

work

way

of

surfaces

applied to the

(fig.

245).

Although

we cannot say whether it is a primary

the prime element

the spatial

as

works of Edgar Negret

and Alexander Calder

expression,

and volumes

is

the dialogue between the

dynamism and

the tension between

open

curved surfaces determine the expressive values of the black, riveted, aluminium
sculptures

(fig.

243) of the

refers to a spatial

concept;

Columbian
it is

The

title

Navigator also

an allusion that can be understood metaphysically or

symbol of modern technology.

284

sculptor Edgar Negret.

as a

;i4-

Henry Moore Atom

Fine Art Ltd.,

London

Piece, 1967

Bronze Memorial

to

Nuclear Energy, University of Chicago Height 108* Photo: Marlborough

V.

*
*

lit

:..''

[criel

215-

Miguel Berrocal

Samson, 1963

Bronze

8 5/g"

Galcrie

Thomas, Municli

216.

/8

"

X 43

Edward Higgins
Untitled, 1967

Welded

and epoxy
X 35" x 12"

steel

35"

(closed)

Leo

Castelli Gallery

New

York

Ernest Trova Study: Falling

The Pace

Gallery.

New York

Man

(Venice Landscape), .965,66 Satin

Photo: Ferdinand Boesch,

New

finish, silicone

bronze 90" X 168" X 72"

York

2iS.

Escobar Marisol The Dealers (u Figures), 1965/66 Mixed media 74" X 74" x 47" Courtesy Sidney
Photo: Geoffrey Clements,

New

Janis Gallery,

New

York

York

2i9-

Jean Ipousteguy

Homme

poussant

la

porte

1966
Plasler for

bronze

Height 78 3 /i", Width 50 3

Depth 49V4"
Galerie Claude Bernard
Paris

220.

George Segal

Woman

in

doorway
1965

Plaster

65" x

tedclij k

and

19V

wood

x 18V2"

Door 94 Vj" X 47V4"

Museum, Amsterdam
Photo:

Museum

ii.

Horst Antes The Head

(or

Die Lust an Adam), 1967 Painted sheet

steel

82 5 / 8 " X 98 3 / 8 " X 19 5 .'"

Photo: Author

222.

Hans Arp

First

DADA-Relief 1916

(formerly collection Jollos)

Painted

wood

.,"

7'/ 8 "

Collection Marguerite Arp-Hagenbach

223.

Marcel Duchamp

Porte-bouteillcs

1914/1964

Ready-Made Height
Galleria Schwarz,

Photo: Bacci

25 1 / l

Milan

Attilio,

Milan

"

24.

Claes Oldenburg Raisin Bread:

Courtesy Sidney Janis Gallery,

5 Slices

New

and End, 42 Raisins, 1966 Canvas,

York Photo: Geoffrey Clements,

glue, Liquitex

New York

46" x 40"

X 96"

225.

Lhe Bontecou Untitled,

Photo Leo
:

1 9 62

Castelli Gallery,

Welded

New

York

Steel

and canvas 65" x in" x 20" Collection

Mr

and Mrs Seymout Schweber

226.

David Smith Cubi

XX 2 29 64

Stainless steel

Height

no 3 //'

Photo: Marlborough Fine Art

Ltd.,

London

K^zr

227.

Eduardo Paolozzi Medea,

1964 Aluminium Si

"

X 72" x 44

"

/8

Photo: Author

228.

Anthony Caro Prima

Luce, i960 Steel painted yellow 78 s /!* X ij 3 // X 3i ! ,V' Collection

Photo: Kasmin Ltd, London

Max Wassermarm USA

229.

Phillip

King Through, 1965

Plastic

84 1 //

x 132V4" X 108V4"

Gallcria dell' Arietc,

Milan Photo: Author

230.

Erich Hauser
Steel 3/67, 1967
Stainless steel

Height 78" Width 15" Depth 11%*

Photo Bruno Krupp, Freiburg

:

i.

Br.

^*^^-

231.

William Tucker Four

Photo: Author

part sculpture

No.

4,

1
1966 Fibreglass Four parts each 90

"
a

i8\' 8 "

Galcrie

Rudolf Zwirncr, Cologne

232.

Robert Morris
New York

Untitled, 1965

Grey

fibrcglass

with light 24" x 96" diameter Collection

Dwan

Gallery Photo: Leo Castelli Gallery,

<

233-

Gunter Haese Olymp, 1967

Brass wire and screen

33

W'

X -7'

s"

23 s/s*

The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum,

New

York

234-

George Rickey

Six Squares,

One

Rectangle, 1967 Stainless

steel

32" x 16"

x 23" Photo: John D.

Schiff,

New

York

236.

235.

Jean Ting uely Lc Rotozaza No.

Laszlo

Moholy-Nagy

Light-Space Modulator (Lichtrequisit)

1922/30
Metal, glass and motor

Height 59 1 //, Width 27

Busch-Reisinger

,"

Museum

Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Photo:

Museum

1,

1967

Iron,

wood, motor

Galerie Jolas, Paris Photo:

Andre Morain,

Paris

237-

Poi Bury

iS balls

on

12 planes

forming

zigzag, 1966

4S 1

,"

X 21 5

"
8

.'"

Galcrie Francoise Mayer, Brussels

238.

Norbert Kricke Water

forest Design, 1956

Executed

1954.

Rheinischc Girozentrale Diisseldorf (Architect H. Thoma)

13 Plexiglass

columns Height n8Vs", Diameter 15 3 / 4

Photo: Inge Goctz-Bauer, Diisseldorf

"

139-

Donald Judd
Photo: Leo

Untitled, 1965

Castelli Gallery,

Galvanized iron and aluminium 33"

141'

30"

Collection Philip Johnson

New York

240.

Model

for

Louise Nevelson

Atmosphere and Environment,

Ice Palace,

1967

X 12*
New York

Clear weatherproof plastic 24" x 26"

Pace Gallery,

Photo: Ferdinand Bocsch,

New

York

mm^m*mmm^

-J " J

In Ris' Bonner Relief (fig. 244) the hard-edge

as earlier

works

(see fig.

191) show, this also

form. But even in his case

incisions

More

movements

in space

and indentations, and

We have

emphasized by the absence of depth;

conforms to

Ris' personal

vocabulary of

tend to consider the sharp intersecting lines of the animated

surfaces a secondary feature.

interlocking of

is

an expression of

decisive as

and the sweeping rhythm which

unifies all the details into a sculptural

repeatedly returned to the fact that the

new

value are the

artistic

flashes across the

whole.

sculpture

is

conceived on a

considerably larger scale than before, a development which certainly derives in part

from

the

work of Alexander

monumental
urban

scale

which

tive architecture

relates

them

(fig.

245).

do not lose touch with man; by

whose extensive

arcades

their

Du

Festival dei

qualities.

in spite

The

a tendency to the

of their monumentality

dimensions they become a figura-

man can walk or,

Perhaps the biomorphic character of his gigantic

do not assume super-human

But

shown

whether a landscape or an

to their environment,

the Gates of Spoleto

district, as in

Calder's stabiles

Calder. His stabiles have long

as in Spoleto, drive

through.

stabiles contributes to the fact that

they

Gates of Spoleto was exhibited in 1962 in the

Mondi, when the whole town was transformed

into a fascinating

ensemble of modern sculpture and architecture of very different eras (Etruscan to the
present). Calder's stabile served a dual function:

urban

axis;

became an

and

as 'free architecture' it

aesthetic

critically, to

it.

do not want

sculptures' challenge to us to

problem of purpose,

this

it

a conspicuous 'sign'

summoned man

to generalize

change our

life

anew and

scale.

forming an

The 'monument'

to observe his environment

from the Spoleto

and environment

would appear an important

generation of sculptors poses

241.

was

served as an architectural

and moral authority;

improve

it

is

solution to the

success; but if

new answer
problem

to the

that each

has to answer anew.

ZOLTAN KEMENY

Brass 9'ioJ" x 13 'i|"

relief
1963
Hochschule fur Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften

Mural

St Gallen, Switzerland

(Architect: Forderer,

Otto

Photo: Gross, St Gallen

&

Zwiinpfer)

3*3

Closing remarks: form and space

Books on

art

have the unfortunate tendency to sum up and draw conclusions. They

however

treat their subject matter,

longing to the

This attempt to draw a line across what

past.

and daily renewal

recent in date - and in this

is

a kind

what

the

works

and
is

most

cases

it is

discussed in the

stands out

ideas,

anyhow be eschewed

of constant flux

wrong. All

that can

because like most drugs

be done

is

it

to recapitulate briefly

book have revealed about modern

is

sculpture under the

the fertility of formal invention, the abundance of artistic forces

and the appearance of new materials and techniques. This richness - which

not to be taken quantitatively

the examples

tion - seems to refute the despairing assertion

Arturo Martini, that sculpture

painting.

in a state

recent - as be-

of form, meaning and purpose.

three headings

What

in

it is

of vivisection that even an 'outlook on the future' cannot

render painless. Such an anaesthetic must

has a side effect

is

book

is

have assembled are only a small

made by

a 'dead language'

selec-

the sculptor turned apostate,

and that the future belongs only to

The means of sculptural expression are today more varied, more comprehensive

and more communicative than ever before. Indeed the flourishing condition of modern
sculpture has vivified the sculpture of the past,

works teach us
For

this

whose various

aspects

and periods modern

to appreciate.

manifold growth there can be no

common

denominator, though a few

general definitions have been attempted of which the one formulated

strikes

often

me

as the

enough

most adequate.

'Sculpture

with hollows and

314

is

It

has often been quoted but

essentially

solid parts,

it

by Henri Laurens

can never be quoted

occupation of space, construction of an object

mass and void,

their variations

and reciprocal tensions

and

finally their equilibrium.'

aspects

of modern sculpture

Yet even

after

the fruit of his experience alone.

dualities

all

the

one artist and

is

has to be considered besides are the antithetical

of rest and motion, weight and weightlessness, the statuesque and the mobile,

The

used to be thought of as character-

qualities that

of all sculpture - permanence, compact mass, exclusion of space, sculpture

tially statuary

the

of accounting for

represents the standpoint of only

What

the permanent and the transitory.

istic

all, it

this definition falls short

- have today

lost their absolute validity

and coexist with

as essen-

their opposites

on

same footing of partial justification.

It

seems, therefore,

in the variety

of

more

plastic

In

it

idiom and in the oppositions between compact materiality

and disembodied space - to

Western

to the point to look for unity in multiplicity, to discern

see

it,

in a

word,

as dialectical

unity which, in the best

tradition, ensures continuity in change.

modern

sculpture there has been

no

'return' to the object or to naturalistic repre-

sentation for the simple reason that sculptors have never ceased to shape objects and
figures

and because sculpture has never entirely

are there rules forbidding sculptors unusual

or floating forms. That

Space

living tradition

is

why

lost its coefficient

of reality. But neither

and exciting inventions of spatial or moving

have given

my

inquiry the double

and bold renewal are the two forces

title

of Form and

that inspire the sculpture

our time.

^^^mmmmrn

**>

of

242.

Eduardo Chillida
Photo:

Abcsti

Gogora V, 1966 Granite

Museum

mmmm

14'

11V2" X 18' 5" X

14' 'A,"

The Museum

of Fine Arts,

Houston

243-

Edgar Negret Navigator, 1964 Black

paint on aluminium

22V2" *

2 6"

X 16V2" Photo: Bruce

Scott,

London

244-

Gunter Ferdinand Ris Bonner

Relief, 1966

Photo: Schafgans, Bonn

''

Chromium-plated bronze 11" X 37 3 / 4 " X

2"

Rheinisches Landesmuseum,

Bonn

245-

Alexander Calder The Gates

of Spoleto, 1962

Steel

Height 65' 7 ", >Width 45' n",

Depth 45' 11" Photo: Author

Biographical index of artists

The

biographical notes are confined to the most important dates. For

further information the reader

no claim

is

referred to the literature cited; this lays

to completeness; preference has been given to

monographs.

ALBERS, JOSEF
Born 1888, Bottrop, Westphalia. 1920-1923 studied at the Bauhaus in
Weimar. 193 3-1939 taught at the Blackmountain College in North
Carolina,

ADAM, HENRI-GEORGES
Born

1904, Paris.

At

first

painter and designer, since 1940 also sculptor.

1967 died in Lannion, Bretagne.

Lit.:

Museum,

Stedelijk

no. 132.

Better
Lit.:

Amsterdam.

Catalogus

der

Adam.

New

as painter

Haven, Connecticut. Lives in

and graphic

New

Haven.

artist.

Galerie Denise Rene, Paris. Exhibition Catalogue

with

texts

by

Grohmann and Franz Roh. Oct.-

Nov. 1957
G.C.Argan. Albers. Milan, Toninelli, 1962
New Haven, Yale University

11, 1961

Jean Cassou.

known

Since 1950 Director of the Department of Design at

Josef Albers, Hans Arp, Will

tentoonstelling

May-June 1950

Quadrum

USA.

Yale University,

Brussels, Palais des Beaux-Arts, 1962

Josef Albers. Interaction of Colour.

Figs. 2, 207; pp. 12, 13,

247

Press, 1963
Fig. 201

p.

245

ADAMS, ROBERT
Born 1917, Northampton. Teaches at the Central School of Arts and
Crafts in London. Lives in Hampstead.
Lit.

Gakrie Parnass, Wuppertal. Folio for the exhibition with foreword

by John A. Thwaites and

XXXI Biennale Venice

text

by

the

ANTES, HORST
Born

April 1957

ig62. British Pavilion. Exhibition Catalogue

Robertson/ Russell/ Snowdon. Private

pp. 98

artist.

View. London, Nelson, 1965,

f.

177.246

ceramic sculpture. 1966 exhibition in the

1906, Zurich.

Began

as self-taught sculptor in

1936. Lives in

Charles Lienhard, Zurich. Exhibition Catalogue Aesch-

steel.

Lives

Schauberg, 1963

Herbert Pee. Ausstellungskatalog des

Eduard

Hans Aeschbacher. Einleitung von Hans Fischli, Vorwort von

Michel Seuphor. Neuchatel, Editions du Griffon, 1959

artist, also

pavilion of the Venice

Carl Linfert. 'Horst Antes' in Junge Kiinstler 63/64. Cologne,

DuMont

Russikon near Zurich.

Galerie

German

Biennale 33 unesco prize. 1967 painted sculptures in sheet

in Karlsruhe.
Lit.:

AESCHBACHER, HANS

Lit.:

the Bergstrasse. 1957-1960 studied at the

Fig. 125; pp.

Born

Heppenheim on

1936,

Karlsruhe Kunstakademie. Principally a painter and graphic

pavilion.

Trier.

Horst

Antes.

Museums Ulm,

Exhibition

1963

Catalogue.

German

XXXIII. Venice, Biennale, 1966

Klaus Gallwitz. Lustgarten mit 7

Monumenten

der Liiste oder

Garten des Malers. Karlsruhe anlasslich der Bundesgartenschau,

Badischer Kunstverein, 1967

bacher. Sept.-Oct. 1963

Fig. 44; P- 83,

Fig. 221

p.

279

323

ANTHOONS, WILLY

BAKIC, VOJN

Bom

Born

1911, Malines, Belgium. Studied architecture and sculpture in

Has been

Brussels.

(Monographies de
Gakrie Appel

De

Willy Anthoons. Antwerp,

Michel Seuplwr.

Lit.:

1915, Bjelovar, Croatia. Studied in Zagreb. 1956 took part in the

Venice Bicnnale. Lives in Zagreb.

living in Paris since 1948.

Sikkel,

1954

Gradska Galerija Suvrcmene Umjetnosti, Zagreb. Exhibition Cata-

Lit.:

& Fertsch,

May

logues.

l'Art Beige)

1958 and May-June 1964

Fig. 124; p. 177

Frankfurt-ou-Main. Exhibition Catalogue

Anthoons, 1966
Fig. 126; p. 177

BARLACH, ERNST

ARCHIPENKO, ALEXANDER
1887, Kiev. 1902-1905 studied painting and sculpture in Kiev,

Born

1906-1908 in Moscow. 1908

tion in

Germany. 1912

paintings'.

taught

at

settled in Paris.

1910

first

one-man exhibi-

started an art school in Paris. 1914 first 'sculpture-

1921-1931 in Berlin then emigrated to USA. 1935-1936

State University. 1937 founded an art school in

Washington

New

Chicago. 1939 in

York. Lived in Woodstock. 1964 died

in

New

York.
Erich

Lit.:

Wicsc. Alexander Archipenko. Leipzig, Klinkhardt

und

Biermann, 1923 (Junge Kunst Bd. 40)

Landesmuseum Darmstadt u. a. Ausstellungskatalog mit Einfiihrung

von Erich Wiese und Texten

1870, Wedel, Holstein. 1888-1891 studied in

Born

des Kiinstlers. 1955

New York

Alexander Archipenko. Fifty Creative Years.

at the

Dresden Academy,

Hamburg, 1891-1895

895-1 896 at the Academie Julian in Paris.

1897-1901 sojourns in Paris, Hamburg and Berlin. 1901-1904 in Wedel.

1904-1905 taught pottery-making in Hohr, Westerwald then, till 1906,
in Berlin. 1906 trip to Russia. 1907 in Berlin. 1909 at the Villa Romana,
Florence. 1910 settled in Gustrow, Mecklenburg. 1919 elected to the

Akademie der Kiinste, Berlin. 1924 Kleist Prize. 1925 honorary member
of the Munich Akademie der Kiinste. 1933 decorated with the Order
Pour le merite. 1936 honorary member of the Vienna Secession. 1938
381 works by Barlach, classified as 'decadent

art',

Lit.:

WolfStubbe, Ernst Barlach: Plastik. Munich, Piper, 1959

i960
Friedrich

Fig. 24; pp. 13, 31

Das plastische Werk, WerkHamburg, Hauswedell, i960

Ernst Barlach:

Schult,

verzeichnis Bd.

I,

ARMITAGE, KENNETH
1946-1955 taught

Modern

Bath Academy of Art. Lives

at the

New

Peter Selz,

Fig. 33, pp. 43. 224

1916, Leeds. 1937-1939 studied at the Slade School in London.

Born

Lit.

Images of Man,

New

in

London.

York, The

BEOTHY, FLTIENNE

Museum of

Art, 1959

i960

New London Gallery.

travel across Europe.

Exhibition Catalogue, April 1965

Lit.:

Fig. 53

ARP,

HANS

in Berlin. 1914 meets

Max Ernst

Zurich. 1916

Dada period

marries Sophie Tauber. 1926

Meudon and

Carola Giedion-Welcker.

From

settles in

Meudon

BERROCAL, MIGUEL
Born 1933

Algaidas (Malaga),

in

Open

courses at the San Fernando art school and the

near Paris. 1940-1941

Ferrant.

school of graphic

living since

art.

pieres (Seine-et-Oise)
Lit.:

Stuttgart, Hatje, 1958

Studied mathematics and

Spain.

chemistry in Madrid and architecture and sculpture under Angel

Had been

Solduno. 1966 died in Basle.

Hans Arp.

f-

191 1 con-

begins. 1919-1920 in Cologne. 1922

Museum of Modern

Denys

by

From

1952 spent five years in

Italy.

Madrid

Lives in Cres-

and Verona.

Chevalier. Berrocal.

With Catalogue

1955-1965. Published

the author, 1965

Galerie

Thomas,

Munich.

Ausstellungskatalog

Berrocal

mit

Texten von R. Thomas und A. Schulze Vellinghausen, Oct.-Nov.

Art, 1958

1965

Giuseppe Marchiori. Arp. Milan, Alfieri, 1964

Fig. 215; p. 252

Jean Arp, Sculptures 1957-66. London, Thames and

Trier.

Friedrich. Paris,

Weimar.

James Tlirall Soby (ed.). Arp. With texts by Jean Arp, Richard
Huelsenbeck, Robert Melville, Carola Giedion-Welcker. New

Eduard

by Eva

text

Collection Prisme, 1956

in Cologne. 1914-1915 in Paris. 1915

in Southern France. 1942 flees to Switzerland.

York, The

German

Michel Seuphor, Beothy.

nouvelles (1946). Lives at

realites

Fig. 140; pp. 179

1908 brief stay in Paris, 1909 in Weggis, Switzerland.

Lit.:

settled in Paris after extensive

founders of the Abstraction-Creation

p. 85

nected with the Blaue Reiter group, from 191 3 with the Sturm gallery

1946 mainly in

One of the

(JEAN)

1887, Strasbourg. 1905-1907 studied at the Kunstschule in

settles in

1906, Heves, Hungary. 191 8 began to study art in Budapest.

group (1932) and of the Salon des

Montrouge, Seine.

N.Lynton. Kenneth Armitage. London, Methuen, 1962

Marlborough

Born

1920-1924 studied architecture. 1925

Roland Penrose. Kenneth Armitage. Amriswil, Bodensee-Verlag,

Born

are confiscated or

destroyed. 1938 died in Rostock.

Hudson, 1968
Figs,

in,

112, 127, 174, 199, 208, 222; pp. 159 f, 177, 182,

221, 245, 247, 248, 279

AVRAMIDIS, JOANNIS
Born

1922,

Batum USSR.

193 7-1939 studied in

guest professor at
Lit.:

Wotruba. 1965 teacher

Hamburg Academy.

Fritz

Kestner-Gesellschaft,

Batum. 1939-1943

in

at

Vienna Academy. 1966

Knoll Associates

as

Lit.:

USA.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Exhibition Catalogue: Recent

Eduard

Trier,

1957

Angewandte

Plastik:

Bertoia und Costantino Nivola.

Figs. 45, 92; pp. 83, 153

Cranbrook Academy near

for the furniture firm of

Works

designer of chairs and other 'applied sculpture'. Lives

in Barto, Pennsylvania,

Work by Harry Bertoia,

Hanover. Exhibition Catalogue Avramidis.

Feb.-April 1967

324

1915, San Lorenzo, Italy. Studied at the

Detroit then taught metalwork there.

Athens. Since 1943 has been living in Vienna, where he has studied

mainly under

BERTOIA, HARRY
Born

Zu den

form

1,

Arbeiten von Harry

1957

Figs. 118, 198; pp. 160,

245

f.

BERTONI,
Born

BOCCIONI, UMBERTO

WANDER

1925, Codisotto, Emilia, Italy. 1943 deported to Vienna. After the

war, studied under Fritz Wotruba. Co-founder of the Art Club. Lives
in Vienna.
Lit.:

Wander

Bcrtoni: Plastiken 1945-1959. Einleitung

von Ulrich

Baumgartner. Ed. Kulturreferat der Stadtgemeindc Kapfenberg,

Born 1882, Reggio, Calabria.

in Rome. 1902-1904 in Paris;

898-1902 worked under Giacomo Balla

and launched into Futurism. 191 1 met the Cubists in Paris. 1912 published the Technical Manifesto of Futurist Sculpture. Active as painter
and sculptor. 1915 enrolled

as volunteer.

1916 died in Verona after an

accident.

1959

XXXIII. Biainalc

Venice

Austrian

1966.

pavilion.

Exhibition

Lit.:

Marco

Valsecchi,

Boccioni. Venice, Cavallino, 1950

Giuseppe Marchiori.

Catalogue.

Umberto

Boccioni. Milan, 1966

Fig. 123

Fig. 69; p. 89

in Krefeld,

brought up

in

Kleve on the lower Rhine. Studied

and sciences. From 1947 studied

1949-1952 under Ewald Matare. Since 1961 Professor of Sculpture at the
Kunstakadeniie in Diisseldorf. September 1962 first 'Fluxus' (Happenat the

arts

Kunstakadeniie in Diisseldorf,

Born 1903, Basle; studied painting there. 1933 turned to abstract art.
Has been teaching since 1939 at the Allgemeine Gewerbeschule in Basle.
Lives in Basle.
Lit.:

Museum Haus Koekkoek

Stadtisches

Walter J. Moeschlin, Walter Bodmer. Basle, 1952

Marcel Joray, Schweizer Plastik der Gegenwart

ing). Lives in Diisseldorf.

Lit.:

van der Grinten. Mit Texten des

Kleve. Josef Beuys. Zeich-

Kiinstlers u.a.

Sammlung van

Josef Beuys Fluxus. Aus der

Hamburg, Rowohlt, 1965

Fig. 173; p.

222

BONTECOU, LEE
Born

193

in Providence,

Students'

Hovannes. Lives in
Lit.:

William C. Seitz.

Museum

1908, Winterthur, Switzerland. 1924-1927 studied at the Kunst-

Island.

Berlin,

1952-1955 studied

at the

Art

under William Zorach and John

The Art of Assemblage.

New

York, The

of Modern Art, 1961

Gesellschaft fur

Bildende

Kunst (Kunstverein

'Amerikanische

Plastik

Berlin)

Jahrhundert'

20.

Nov. 1965-Jan. 1966

Art International X/10, Dec. 1966

1930

and
Co-founder of the Hochschule fur Gestaltung in Ulm; Rector
there 1951-1956. 195 1 First Prize for Sculpture at the Sao Paolo Biennale.

Rhode

New York
New York.

League in

Ausstellungskatalog

in Dessau.

Bodmer,

Fig. 153; p. 187

Deutsche

Bauhaus

Neuchatel,

Galerie Charles Lienhard, Zurich. Exhibition Catalogue

MAX
at the

II.

June-July 1962

Oct.-Nov. 1961

im Hause van der Grinten, Kranenburs, Niederrhein,

Oct.-Nov. 1963
Happenings. Fluxus-Pop Art-Nouveau Realisme. Eine Dokumentation hg. von Jiirgen Becker und Wolf Vostell. Reinbek bei

gewerbeschule in Zurich. 1927-1929

and

der Grinten. Stallaus-

stelluns

Born

Editions du Griffon, 1955 and 1959

nungen, Aquarelle, Olbilder, plastische Bilder aus der Sammlung

BILL,

p. 177

BODMER, WALTER

BEUYS, JOSEF
Born 1921

met Marinetti

visited St Petersburg. 1909

settled in Zurich. Active as painter, sculptor, designer, publicist

Fig. 225; pp. 252,

280

teacher.

1967 Professor
Lit.:

at

Hamburg Academy.

Eugen Gomritige
Margit Staber.
Galerie

W.

Im

Max

(Ed.),

Max

Bill.

Bill.

Born
Teufen, Niggli, 1958

Lit.:

Max

Bense,

Max

Bill.

with

texts

by

Quadrum

13

living in

and 16

VDI/8, 1964
Fig. 82; p. 150

247

BRANCUSI, CONSTANTIN

BLOC, ANDRE
1896, Algiers. Architect. 1930 founded the periodical L'archi-

tecture d'aujourd'hui. 1940 turned to sculpture. 1949 founded the periodical

Art d'aujourd'hui, followed in 1955 by Aujourd'hui. Lived in Boulogne-

Billancourt, Seine.

Has been

since 1938.

Daniel Robbins. Sculpture by Louise Bourgeois. Art International

April-May 1967

Figs. 155, 206; pp. 182,

Born

191 1, Paris. Studied with Bissiere and Leger.

New York

London, Methuen, 1964

Erker, St Gallen. Exhibition Catalogue

Grohmann,

BOURGEOIS, LOUISE

Died 1966

Born
1

1876, Pestisani Gorji near Tirgujiu, Rumania. Trained as carpenter.

from Bucharest

to

1913 took part in

in India.

at the Academy in Bucharest. 1902-1904 on foot

Munich and Paris. 1904 at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
the Armory Show in New York. 1937 in India. 1957

898-1902 studied

died in Paris.
Lit.:

Pierre Gueguen,

Charles Delloye,

Andre Bloc. Boulogne, Seine, Coll. Espace, 1954

Andre Bloc. Paris, Coll. Prisme, 1959

Lit.:

Carola Giedion-Welcker,

Constantin

Brancusi. Basle,

Schwab,

1958

Fig. 165; p. 184

Ionel Jianou. Constantin Brancusi. Paris, Arted, 1963

Figs. 1, 34, 103; pp. 12

BLUMENTHAL, HERMANN
Born

1905, Essen. 1920-1924 studied stone sculpture in Essen, then

193 1 at the Vereinigten Staatsschulen in Berlin. Pupil of

1931-1932 in Rome, then

till

1936 in Berlin. 1937 in

Edwin

till

Scharff.

Rome and Florence.

1942 killed in Russia.

Lit.:

Christoph-Adolph Isermeyer:
Berlin, Gebr.

Mann, 1947

Born 1922

in Haine-St Pierre,

member of the cobra

252

Belgium. 1939-1953 painter; since 1948

first 'plans mobiles', 1957 beginning

group. 1953

in Saulx-les-Chartreux (Seine-

et-Oise), France.
Lit.:

Fig. 54; p. 85

43, 156, 251,

BURY, POL

of the mobile objects run by motor. Lives

Der Bildhauer Hermann Blumenthal.

f.,

Andre Balthazar. Pol Bury. Milan, Tosi, 1967

Fig. 237; p. 283

325

CSAR (BALDACCHINI)

BUTLER, REG
1913, Buntingford. Studied architecture. 1950 took

Born

1953 First Prize in the international competition for a

Unknown
Lit.

Political Prisoner. Lives in

up

sculpture.

Monument

to the

Born

1921, Marseilles. Studied in Marseilles and Paris. Lives in Paris.

Lit.:

Peter Selz,

Bcrkhamstcad, Herts.

Modern

Modem

Images of Man.

New

York, The

Museum of

Douglas Cooper. Cesar. Amriswil, Bodensee-Verlag, i960

The Hanover Gallery. Exhibition Catalogue with an introduction

by Robert Melville. London, May-June 1957
Peter Selz, New Images of Man. New York, The Museum of

New

Art, 1959

XXbne

Siecle 16,

May

1961

Musewn Amsterdam. Exhibition Catalogue No.

Stedelijk

396, 1966

Figs. 98, 144; pp. 154,

Art, 1959

Pierre Matisse Gallery,

New

York. Exhibition Catalogue

Reg Butler,

1962
Figs. 74, 183; pp. 90,

225

180

CHADWICK, LYNN
Born

1914,

London. Studied

architecture. 1945 first

mobile composition.

1956 International Prize for Sculpture at the 28th Venice Biennale. Lives
in Stroud, Glos.

CALDER, ALEXANDER
Born

1896, Philadelphia,

studied in

mittently in France.

James J. Sweeney, Alexander Calder.

Modern

New York,

The Museum of

Art, 195

Galerie Maeght, Paris. Derriere le miroir

No.

An

Figs. 42, 97; pp. 44, 154, 156

CHILLIDA,

Lit.:

Autobiography with

Pictures.

New

Galerie Maeght. Derriere le miroir no. 90-91, Paris 1956

XXeme

York, Pantheon

Siecle 20,

1966

Carola Giedion-Welcker. Chilhda.

Books, 1966

Akademie der

EDUARDO

1924, San Sebastian, Spain. Studied architecture until 1947, then

turned to sculpture. Numerous international prizes. Lives in Hernani.

Born

31 (1950), 69-70

(1954), JJj(i959)

Calder ~

Lynn Chadwick. Amriswil, Bodensee-Verlag, i960

J.P.Hodin. Chadwick. Munich, 1964 (2nd ed.)

Marlborough New London Gallery. Exhibition Catalogue, 1966

New York. Till

1926 engineer and press designer. 1926-1927 and 193 1 in Paris. 1932 first
'mobiles'. Has been living since 1933 in Roxbury, Conn., and inter-

Lit.:

Herbert Read.

Lit.:

Pa. USA. 1915-1919

Kiinste, Berlin.

Quadrum

20,

1966

Wilhelm-Lehmbruck- Museum Duisburg. Exhibition Catalogue with

Exhibition Catalogue, 1967

text

Figs. 20, 147, 209, 245; pp. 29, 180, 226, 247, 248, 284, 313

by G. Handler, May-June 1966

Figs. 146, 242; pp. 180,

CALLERY, MARY
Born 1903, New York.

284

CIMIOTTI, EMIL

New York and Paris. Numerous

exhibitions at Curt Valentin's. Lives in New York and Paris.
Lit.: Mary Gallery. Sculpture. Bibliography by Bernard Karpel. New
Studied in

Born

1927, Gottingen. Studied with Otto

Ossip Zadkine. 1959

Lit.:

Kdlnischer Kunstverein. Ausstellungskatalog mit Einfiihrung

Eduard
;

p.

Baum, Karl Hartung and

Massimo, Rome. Lives in Brunswick.

von

Albert Schulze Vellinghausen. Cologne, Jan.-Feb. i960

York, 1959
Fig. 83

at the Villa

150

Trier,

DuMont

'Emil Cimiotti' in Junge Kiinstler 61/62. Cologne,

Schauberg, 1961

Galerie Schmucking Braunschweig. Exhibition Catalogue, Jan.-Feb.

1967

CAPPELLO, CARMELO
Born

191 1 in Ragusa, Sicily. Educated in

1937 took up sculpture. Lives in Milan.

Lit.:

Figs. 81, 170; pp. 150, 221

Rome, Milan and Monza.

COLLA, ETTORE

Herta Wescher, Carmelo Cappello. Milan, Schwarz, 1958

Fig. 13; p. 16

Born 1889, Parma. Studied in Parma, Paris, Brussels and Munich. 1949
founded the Gruppo Origine with Burri, Capogrossi and others. 1953
teaching post (sculpture) at the Istituto statale d'arte in

Rome.

Lives in

Rome.

CARO,
Born

ANTHONY

1924, London. 1951-1953

St Martin's School
Lit.:

Lit.:

worked with Henry Moore. Teaches

at

of Art in London. Lives in London.

Alberto Boato, Maurillo Mendes, Cesare Vivaldi. Ettore Colla.

Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo (Holland). Exhibition Cata-

Editalia,

logue with text by Clement Greenberg. May-July 1967

Rosalind Krauss.

Anthony Caro's

latest

Hatton Gallery, Durham University. Folio with texts by Laurence

Alloway and Charles Delloye. Newcastle, Dec. 1959

Rome,

1966

Art International XI/5, 1967

work. Art International

Fig. 142; p. 182

XI/i, 1967
Fig. 228; pp. 44, 280, 281

CONSAGRA, PIETRO
Born

1920,

Mazaro

CASCELLA, ANDREA
Born 1920
Spent
Lit.:

ceramic works for architecture. Lives in Milan.

Scultori della Scuola di Milano.

duction

by

Quadrum

Exhibition Catalogue with intro-

Gillo Dorfles. Milan, Dec. 1963-Jan. 1964

14, 1963, pp. 138

Lit.:

Umbro Apollonio. Pietro Consagra.

Rome

1957

Giulio Carlo Argan. Consagra. Brussels, Connaissance, 1958

G.C.Argan. Pietro Consagra. Neuchatel, Editions du Griffon, 1962

Marlborough-Roma. Consagra - Ferri Trasparenti. Rome, Dec.
1966

f.

Fig. 107; p. 159

326

della scultura.

1944.

in Pescara, Italy. Studied at the Istituto d'Arte di Faenza.

many years on

founded the group Forma.

Has been living in Rome since

di Trapani, Italy. 1947

1952 pubhshed Necessita

Fig. 26; p. 31

CONSTANT (NIEUWENHUYS)

DERAIN, ANDRE

Amsterdam. Began as painter. 1949 co-founder of COBRA.

1950 in Paris. 1951 in London; experiments with spatial constructions.
1958 programme of Urbanisme unitaire (with G.E.Debord). Lives in
Amsterdam.

Born

Born

Lit.

1920,

Galerie van de Loo. Constant

Konstruktionen und Modelle. Essen,

Jan.-Feb. i960

first

ture, first sculptures.

Died
Lit.:

From

1909-1911 pottery.

1912 so-called 'Gothic

with Braque and Picasso in Montlavet. 1920 in Cahors.

period'. 1914

1921 in

Constant. Paris, Bibliotheque d'Alexandrie, 1959

Chatou. 1899 met Vlaminck. 1901 met Matisse. 1905

Fauve painting in the Salon. 1906 studied Negro sculp-

1880,

exhibited

Rome

and Castelgandolfo. 1935

settled

down

in

Chambourcy.

in 1954.

Musee

national d'art moderne, Paris.

Catalogue de l'exposition.

Introduction par Jean Cassou. Paris, Editions des musees nationaux,

H.vanHaaren. Constant. Amsterdam, MeulenhofF, 1966

Dec. 1954-Jan. 1955.

Fig. 182; p. 225

Georges Hilaire, Andre Derain. Geneva, Cailler, 1959

Pierre Cailler.

COUSINS, HAROLD

B.
Born 1916, Washington, D.C. Studied in Washington,
Paris. Has been living in Paris since 1949.
Lit.

Museum Haus Lange, Krefeld. 3 Bildhauer

Vorwort von Paul Wember,

katalog mit

New York

and

Fig- 35; p- 43

Krefeld,

Nov.

to Dec.

DE RIVERA, JOSE

Georges Boudaille.

H. B. Cousins. Cimaise

Born

55, 1961

Fig. 122; p. 160

COUZIJN, WESSEL
Amsterdam. Studied in Amsterdam,
Lives in Amsterdam.

191 2 in

Museum, Amsterdam.

Stedelijk

Lit.:

Catalogus

1904,

West Baton Rouge,

Louisiana.

1920-1930 worked in

industry. 1928-193 1 studied art in Chicago. Lives in

Lit.:

Paris.

d' Andre"

aus Paris. Ausstellungs-

1959

Born

Catalogue Raisonne de l'Oeuvre sculpte

Derain. Lausanne 1965

Fig. 164; p. 184

New York, Rome and

der

New York.

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 12 Americans. Ed. by

Dorothy C. Miller. May 1956

tentoonstelling

Beelden in het Heden. Inleiding van H.C.L.Jaffe. Amsterdam,

Dec. 1959-Jan. i960

Werner Hofmann. Wessel Couzijn. Art International VII/9, 1963

D'HAESE, ROEL
Born

1921,

Grammont, Belgium. 1938-1942

studied with Oscar Jespers.

Lives in Rhode-St Genese.

Fig. 104; p. 159

Lit.

D'ALTRI,
Born
and

ARNOLD

1904, Cesena. Studied in Zurich, Munich, Paris, Florence,

F. C.Legrand, 'Roel d'Haese' in Quadrum 2, Nov. 1956

Jan Walravens, 'Dessins de Roel d'Haese' in Quadrum 8, i960
Jacques Meuris. Roel d'Haese. Brussels, Editions Medden, 1964

Rome

Fig. 100; p. 156

Pisa. Lives in Zurich.

Lit.:

Stadtisches

introduction

Museum
by Fritz

Leverkusen.

Laufer.

Kunsthalle Mannheim. Exhibition

by Heinz
Stadtisches

Fuchs.

May

Museum

Exhibition

Catalogue

with

April-May 1957
Catalogue with introduction

Trier.

DODEIGNE, EUGENE
Born

1958
Exhibition Catalogue, May-July 1965
Fig- 73

p-

90

at St

Marga-

rethen, Austria. Lives in Les Bois Blancs near Lille.

Lit.:

Kunsthalle Basel. Exhibition Catalogue

Eugene Dodeigne, Asgar

Jorn. Oct.-Nov. 1964

DEGAS, EDGAR
Born

1923, Rouvreux, Belgium. 1943 and 1946 in Paris. 1948 in Vezelay.

1959 took part in the symposium of European sculptors held

Fig- 134; Pp. 178, 179

1834, Paris. Impressionist painter. 1866

1893 onwards, mainly sculptural

first

wax

work on account of

models.

From

failing eyesight.

1917 died in Paris.

Lit.:

John Rewald, Degas:

Works

in Sculpture.

New

York, Pantheon,

DUBUFFET, JEAN
Le Havre. 1918 in Paris to study painting. Abandoned the
few months and turned to literature, music and languages. 1924 abandoned work as artist and went into business. 1930-193
started in the wholesale wine trade. 1934-1937 went back to painting,
then resumed as wine merchant. 1942 third beginning as painter. Also
sculpture in waste materials. 1947 sold wine business. Lives in Vence and

Born

1944
Pierre Borel, Les sculptures inedites de

Degas. Geneva, Cailler, 1949

Leonard Matt, John Rewald. Degas: Das Plastische Werk. Kritischer

Katalog. Zurich, Manesse, 1957
pp. 89-90

1901,

Academy

after a

Paris.

DELAHAYE, JACQUES CHARLES

Born

Lit.:

1928, Paris. Short course at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts ; otherwise

Georges Limbour, L'art brut de Jean Dubuffet. Paris, Drouin, 1953

James Fitzsimmons, Jean Dubuffet breve introduction a son ceuvre.

:

self-taught. Lives in Paris.

Lit.: Julien Alvard,

'J.C.Delahaye' in

Brussels, Connaissance, 1958

Quadrum

Metro. International Directory of

2, Nov. 1956
Contemporary Art. Milan 1964

Fig. 108; p. 159

Peter Selz. Jean Dubuffet.

New

York, The

Museum of Modern

Art, 1962
Figs. 32, 94; pp. 30, 32, 154,

222

327


DUCHAMP, MARCEL

ERNST,

Born 1887 in Blainville near Rouen. Brother of the sculptor Raymond

Duchamp-Villon (q.v.). 1904 studied painting at the Acadeniie Julian
Paris. At first influenced by post-Impressionist and Fauvist painting, in
191 1 he turned to Cubism. 191 1 first version of the painting Nude

Born

Descending a Staircase; concern with the problem of

movement

in paint-

ing and simultaneity. 1912 abandons painting and begins the search for

new

first ready-made. 1915 moves to

York. Invents ready-mades, constructs optical machines; makes
exhibitions, publishes, plays chess. 1964 replicas of his early ready-

techniques and materials. 191 3

New
films,

mades brought out by A. Schwarz

in Milan. Lives in

Cologne. 1922 took up

With

Was

settled in Paris.

1938-1939 sculpture and

own

Patrick Waldberg,

Lit.:

Eduard

Trier,

Le Point

text

and

period. Large stone composi-

house in St Martin d'Ardcche. 1941-1945 in USA. Since

in Paris or Huismcs, Indre-et-Loirc, or Scillans (Var).
resides
again
1954,

murals for

New York.

{1913-1964).

etc.

Dada

tions in A.Giacomctti's garden in Maloja.

Max

Max

Ernst. Paris, Pauvert, 1958

Ernst. Recklinghausen, Bongers, 1959

Max

Cardinal, Paris.

Ernst,

CEuvre sculpte 1913-1961.

Exhibition Catalogue, Nov.-Dcc. 1961.

Marcel Duchamp. Mit Tcxtcn von A. Breton,

H. P. Roche und M. Duchamp. Cologne, DuMont Schaubcrg, 1962
Marcel Duchamp, Ready-Mades,

Surrealist painting

already doing sculpture during the

Robert Lebel.

Lit.:

MAX

89 1, Briihl near Cologne. 191 3 took part in the Erstc Deutsche

Hcrbstsalon in Berlin. 1914 met Hans Arp. 1919-1921 Dada period in
1

John

Russell.

Max

Ernst.

by

London, Thames and Hudson, 1967

Fig. 95; PP- 154, 156,222

W.Hopps, A. Schwarz, U.Lindc. Milan, Schwarz, 1964

Fig. 223

p.

279

ETIENNE-MARTIN
Born

DUCHAMP-VILLON, RAYMOND
Born

1876, Damville, Eure. First studied medicine. 1898 turned to

sculpture (self-taught). 1910

in

Cannes of war

Lit.:

Jacques Villon,

Centro internazionale

Guggenheim Museum. Exhibition Catalogue:

Galerie Louis Carre, Paris.

Lyons and

delle arti e del costume.

Paris. Lives in Paris.

Catalogo della mostra.

Aug.-Oct. 1959

Fig. 65

1957

Fig. 102; pp. 13, 156

FABBRI,
Born
-

Lit..

EHLERS, KARL

Lit.:

Numerous works of

1958 teaching post in Minister

89

AGENORE

XXeme

Steele 25,

1965
p.

159

sculpture in an architectural

W.

i.

Lives near Detmold.

FALKENSTEIN, CLAIRE

Kunstgalerie Bochum. Exhibition Catalogue, Jan.-Feb.

Stadtische

p.

1911, Barba (Pistoia). Studied in Pistoia. Lives in Milan.

Bom 1904, Hollenbeck near Ratzeburg. Studied in Essen and Diisseldorf.

1929 in Istanbul.

Sculptures de Duchamp-Villon. Exhibi-

tion Catalogue 1963

setting.

350,

Dec. 1963-Jan. 1964

Art International X/6, 1966

Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Marcel Duchamp.

New York, Jan.-Feb.

in

Museum Amsterdam. Exhibition Catalogue No.

Stedelijk

Foreword by James J. Sweeney.

Drome. Studied

Vitalita nell'arte. Venice,

exhibition with the Cubists. 1918 died

injuries.

The Solomon R.

Lit.:

first

1913, Loriol,

1964

Born

1909,

Coos Bay, Oregon, USA. University in

in San Francisco
Fig. 192; p.

228

Lit.:

and

at Mills

California.

Taught

College in Oakland. 1950 settled in Paris.

Michel Tapie, Claire Falkenstein. Paris 1959

Michel Tapie. Claire Falkenstein. Turin, Pozzo, 1962

ENDELL, AUGUST

Fig. 93; p. 154

Born 1871, Berlin. Practised architecture and the applied arts. Studied in
Tubingen and Munich. Friend of Obrist, with whom he took part in the
Jugendstil. 1918 director
Lit.:

of the Academy

Friedrich Ahlers-Hestermann,

(2nd

in Breslau. 1925 died in Breslau.

Stilwende Berlin, Gebr. Mann, 1956

ed.).

August Endell, 'Formenschonheit und dekorative Kunst' in Dekorative

Kunst

Ibid.,

ii,

1899

'Moglichkeiten

FERBER, HERBERT
Born 1906, New York. Studied dentistry and acquired an artistic education in New York. 1937 first exhibition of sculpture. Has also painted.
Lives in New York.
Lit.:

und

Ziele

Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration

einer

i,

neuen Architektur' in

E.C.Goossen, 'Herbert Ferber' in Three American Sculptors.

Book no. 2. New York, Grove Press, 1959

Wayne V. Andersen. The Sculpture of Herbert Ferber. Minneapolis,
Walker Art Centre, 1962
Evergreen Gallery

897-1 898
Fig. 196; p. 245

Figs. 12, 195; pp. 16,

246

EPSTEIN, SIR JACOB

New York. His parents were Jewish emigrants from Russia.

New York and Paris. In London since 1905. Applies for

Born 1880 in
Studied in

British citizenship. 1912 meets Picasso, Modigliani

and Brancusi. 191 3-

The Vortex.

one-man
show and co-founder of the London Group. After World War One,
created many monumental works, and a number of important portraits.
1954 knighted. Died in London 1959.
1915 takes part in the avant-garde group

Lit.

1913

first

Richard Buckle. Jacob Epstein, sculptor. London, Faber

&

Faber,

Fig- 3 ;p- 13

-*

Born

1899, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina, of Italian parentage.

in Italy. 1930

took up abstract

art

Grew up

both in painting and in sculpture.

1939-1946 in Argentina. 1946 manifesto proclaiming Spacialismo. Lives

in Milan.
Lit.:

G.P.Giani. Fontana. Venice, Cavallino, 1958

Michel Tapie. Fontana.

New York,

Abrams, 1961

Fontana. Concetto Spaziale. Venice, Cavallino, 1966

1963

328

FONTANA, LUCIO

Figs. 119, 131; pp. 160, 178

GIACOMETTI, ALBERTO

FRANCHINA, NINO
Born

1912, Palermo. 1936

in Paris

and

Rome

moved

to Milan.

Has been

since 1939. 1947 took part in the

living alternately

Born

1901, Stampa, Switzerland. 1919-1920 in Geneva, then

exhibition of

Italy.

1922-1925 worked with A.Bourdellc in

first

the 'Fronte nuovo'.

Lit.:

lished contact

Nino Franchina. Rome, de Luca, 1954

Nino Franchina. Civilta dclle Machine. Rome 1967

Giuseppe Marchiori,
Cesare Vivaldi.

with the Paris

Surrealists.

Paris.

Took up

About

1922 in

till

1930, estab-

painting after the war.

1966 died in Chur (Switzerland).

Lit.

Fig. 149; p. 181

Galerie Maeght, Paris. Derriere le miroir 39-40 (195 1), 65 (1954), 98

(i957)

Alberto Giacometti Schriften, Fotos, Zeichnungen. Hrsg. vonErnst

:

FREUNDLICH, OTTO
Born

1878, Stolp, Pomerania. 1909 settled in Paris; contact with Cubists.

Active

as painter

and sculptor. After World

time. 1924 returned to Paris.

in Paris. 1943 deported to
Lit.:

Scheidegger. Zurich, Die Arche, 1958

Took

War One,

in

Germany

Palma

part in the early phases of abstract art

Poland and

killed in a concentration

GiinterAust, Otto Freundlich. Cologne,

DuMont

no;

p.

Giacometti.

Rome,

Editalia,

1962

1962

New York, Doublcday, 1965

The Tate Gallery, London. Alberto Giacometti - Sculpture, Paint-

camp.

Peter Selz. Alberto Giacometti.

Schauberg, i960
Fig.

Bucarclli.

Jacques Dupin, Ernst Scheidegger. Alberto Giacometti, Paris, Maeght,

for a

ings,

159

Drawings. 1965
Figs. 10, 48, 78; pp. 15, 84, 90, 149, 153, 221,

Born

1890, Briansk, Russia. Brother of Antoine Pevsner. 1909-1914

studied natural science and art in Munich. 1914-1917 in Oslo. 1917-1921

in Russia.

1921 published the Realist Manifesto with A.Pevsner in

Moscow. 1921 moved

London. 1939-1945
Conn., USA.
Lit.:

Born 1915

to

Spanish Morocco. 1945-1947 in Granada. 1947-1949 in Madrid. 1948

founded the School of Altamira first sculptural works. In Mexico since

moved

New York,

The Museum of Modern Art, 1948

Gabo. London, Lund Humphries, 1957

Herbert Read, Leslie Martin. Gabo. Neuchatel, Editions

du

1949, practising sculpture and architecture and teaching at the National

University in Mexico City.

Lit.:

Mauricio

Figs. 14, 162, 212, 213; pp. 16, 182

248

f.

Born 1909, Diana d'Alba, Piedmont. Physician and surgeon. Teaches

the Accademia Albertina di Belle Arti, Turin.

at

GARELLI,

f.,

'Sobre

la libertad

de

la

creacion* in

Figs. 19, 185; pp. 29,

Galleria Blu. Sculture di Garelli. Introduzione di

Michel Tapie.

Fig. 145; p. 180

GONZALEZ, JULIO
Born

1881, Mae'lla, Aragon. Studied at the Barcelona

began engraving metal figures but,

until 1927,

who was

remained primarily a painter. 1930-1932 worked with Picasso

an important influence. 1942 died in Arceuil, Seine.
Lit.:

Academy. 1906

scholarship for Paris. 1907 teaching post in Barcelona. 1924 return to

Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam. Catalogus der tentoonstelling 131,

April-May 1955
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Julio Gonzalez. Exhibition
Catalogue. Introduction by Andrew C.Ritchie. 1956

1934 died in Reus (Tarragona).

Leon Degand, Julio Gonzalez. Cologne, Kiepenheuer

Pablo Gargallo, Paris 1937

Wilhelm-Lehmbruck-Museum Duisburg. Exhibition Catalogue with

1956

Pierre Courthion,

Moved

1876, Barcelona. Trained there as goldsmith and painter.

to Paris about 1900. 1910

GARGALLO, PABLO

Vicente Aguilera Cerin. Julio Gonzalez.

&

Witsch,

Madrid 1962
Fig.

by G. Handler, Nov.-Dec. 1966

text

225

FRANCO

Milan, April May, 1959

Lit.:

Gomez Mayorga,

Arquitcctura (Mexico 1954)

Kunsthalle Mannheim. Exhibition Catalogue, June-Aug. 1965

Paris.

Eduardo Westerdahl, Mathias Goeritz. Barcelona, Edic. Cobalto,

1949

Griffon,

1961

Born

in Danzig. 1937-193 8 at the Kunstgewerbeschule in Berlin-

Middlebury,

Ruth OhJsen and Abraham Chanin, Gabo-Pevsner. Introduction by

Herbert Read.

GOERITZ, MATTHIAS
Charlottenburg. 1940 studied philosophy and art history. 1941-1945 in

to Berlin. 1932-1935 in Paris. 1936

in St Ives, Cornwall. Since 1946 in

Herbert Read.

Lit.:

279

NAUM

GABO,

n;

pp. 15 , 181

Fig. 6; p. 14

GRECO, EMILIO

GAUGUIN, PAUL
Born 1848
1

in Paris. 1851-1855 in Lima, Peru, then at school in Orleans.

865 joined the Navy, went to Rio de Janeiro,

871

went

into banking

and stockbroking. 1874 befriended the Impressionist painters. 1883 gave

up business career and took to painting. Stayed in Rouen, Paris and
Bretagne

till

Born

1913, Catania. Trained in marble cutting. 1943

Teaches
Lit.

at the

went

to

Rome.

Naples Academy. Lives in Rome.

Bernhard Degenhart. Der Bildhauer Emilio Greco. Mainz, Kupferberg, i960

Fig. 55; p. 86

1887, then visited Martinique. 1887 return to Paris. 1888 at

Pont Aven in Bretagne, with Van Gogh in Aries, and in Paris. 1 891-1893
first visited Tahiti. 1 893-1 895 in Paris and in Bretagne. 1 895-1901 second

on the
on Atuana.

stay in Tahiti. 1901-1903

quesas. 1903 died

Lit.

island

of La Dominique in the Mar-

Christopher Gray. Sculpture and Ceramics of Paul Gauguin. Balti-

more, Hopkins, 1963

PP- 30, 43

GRIPPE, PETER

New York. Since 1939 has been living in New York.

Born

1912, Buffalo,

Lit.:

Andrew C.Ritchie, Abstract Painting and Sculpture

New York, The Museum of Modern Art, 1951

in

America.

Fig. 76; p. 149

329

HARTUNG, KARL

GUERRINI, LORENZO
Born 1914, Milan. Studied
Rome.
Lit.

in

Rome, Milan,

Berlin and Paris. Lives in

Rome,

in

Berlin since

1936.

first

in Paris.

Lit.:

13

Numerous works combining

Schauberg, 1959
Figs. 51, 141; PP- 85,90, 179

HABER, SHAMAl
1922, Lodz.

Grew up

in Israel.

Has been

living in Paris since 1949.

Luce Hoctin, 'Trois jcunes sculpteurs: Penalba, Muller, Haber' in

L'Oeil 63,

HAUSER, ERICH
Born

i960 Prix Bourdelle.

Lit.:

1930, Rietheim near Tuttlingen. 1945-1948 trained as a steel

engraver, and attended art courses; as a sculptor he was essentially selftaught.

March i960
Fig. 133; p. 178

HAESE, GUNTER
Bom 1924, Kiel. 1945-1948

Lit.:

self-taught

sculpture at the Kunstakademie Diisseldorf, under

exhibition in the

Museum of Modern

1950-1958 studied

painter.

Art,

New

Numerous steel sculptures for

Hamburg Hochschule

professor at the
lives in

bildende Kiinste. Since 1959

Dunningen near Rottweil.

Eduard

Trier. 'Erich

DuMont

Ewald Matare. 1964

York; 1965 at the

architecture. 1964-1965 visiting

fiir

Hauser' in Junge Kiinstler 63/64, Cologne,

Schauberg, 1963

Galerie Dieter Brusberg,

von Peter

Hanover. Ausstellungskatalog mit Text

Iden. April 1966

Marlborough Fine Art in London; 1966 exhibition in the German

pavilion of the Venice Biennale; first prize of the David E. Bright
Foundation, Los Angeles. Lives in Diisseldorf.
Lit.

Fig. 230; pp. 281

Born

DuMont

Berlin since 1945.

pavilion.

Schauberg, 1965

Trier.

Giinter

XXXIH.

Haese.

Exhibition

Catalogue.

German

Lit.:

Venice Biennale, 1966

the

1905, Constantinople, of

USA.

stock,
Lit.:

1925 in

New

Armenian

Bernhard Heiliger: Skulpturen, Zeichnungen

and teaching in

seit

Aus-

1945.

von Kurt Martin und Umbro ApolBerlin,

Rembrandt,

Fig. 89; p. 153

Wood-

HEPWORTH, BARBARA

N.Y.
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 12 Americans, ed.
Dorothy C.Miller, New York, May 1956.

by-

Born

moved

Born

1907, Turda, Rumania, of Hungarian parents. 1927

Paris.

1930 French subject; met F.Leger. Has been living in Bagneux

to

near Paris since 1951.

Roberto Ganzo, Hajdu. Paris,

Musee de Poche, 1957

May

A.M.Hamtnacher, Barbara Hepworth. Cologne, Kiepenheuer &

Witsch 1958
A.M.Hammacher. Barbara Hepworth. London, Zwemmer, 1958
M. Shepherd. Barbara Hepworth. London, Methuen, 1963
J.P.Hodin. Barbara Hepworth. Neuchatel, Editions du Griffon,
1961

1958

Galerie Knoedler, Paris. Exhibition Catalogue Hajdu,

London. Since then,

tion-Creation group.
Lit.:

HAJDU, ETIENNE

Michel Conil Lacoste, 'Hajdu' in L'Oeil 41,

1903, Wakefield, Yorkshire. 1927-1959 in

has been living in St Ives, Cornwall. 193 3-193 5 belonged to the Abstrac-

Fig- 37; P- 43

Lit.:

living

1962

parents. 1921 emigrated to

York. 1950-195 1 in London. Lives in

Has been

lonio, hrsg. von der Stadt Wolfsburg, 1959

Hanns Theodor Flemming. Bernhard Heiliger.

HAGUE, RAOUL
Born

1915, Stettin. 1938-1939 in Paris.

stellungskatalog mit Texten

Fig. 233; p. 282

f.

BERNHARD

HEILIGER,

Herbert Pee. 'Giinter Haese' in Junge Kiinstler 65/66, Cologne,

Eduard

sculpture with

Carl Linfcrt, 'Karl Hartung' in Junge Kiinstler 59-60. Cologne,

DuMont

Fig. 135; p. 179

Born

1932-1933 in Florence.
Had been living

abstract sculptures.

architecture. 1967 died in Berlin.

Dec. 1958

Quadrum

Hamburg. 1929-1931

1908,

1933-1936 in Hamburg. 1935

'Incontro con Lorenzo Guerrini' in Illustrazionc Nazionalc,

Born

Marlborough-Gcrson Gallery,

Oct.-Nov.

text

New

York. Exhibition Catalogue

with

by Herbert Read. April-May 1966

1965

Fig. 137; pp. 179, 221

Figs. 30, 46; pp. 32, 83

HAJEK,
Born

Born 1930

1927, Kaltenbach, Czechoslovakia.

scholarship
Lit.:

HIGGINS,

OTTO HERBERT
from the Kulturkreis. Lives

Studied in Stuttgart. 1958

in Stuttgart.

Galerie 22. Ausstellungskatalog 3/1958. Texts

i960

first

EDWARD

in Gaffhey,

South Carolina. Since 1956

lives in

New York.

exhibition at the Leo Castelli Gallery. 1961 Lewis

Comfort

Tiffany Prize.

by Albert Schulze

Lit.:

Vellinghausen and Eduard Trier. Diisseldorf, April 1958

G.Oen. Edward Higgins.

In Metro

1,

Milan, 1961

Metro. International Directory of Contemporary Art, Milan, 1964

Franz Mon, Otto Herbert Hajek. Cologne, Anne Abels, i960

Fig. 216; pp. 227, 252

Art International X/3, 1966

Figs. 117, 193; pp. 160,

228

HILTMANN, JOCHEN
Born

HARE, DAVID
Born 1917, New York. Began as a photographer.
ture. Lives in New York.
Lit.:

1942 turned to sculp-

Hamburg. Trained

as

farmer. Studied painting in

Hamburg

1958 scholarship from the Kulturkreis. i960 at the Villa Romana,

Florence. Self-taught sculptor. Lives in Todenfeld near

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 14 Americans, ed. Dorothy

C.Miller, New York, 1946
Fig.

330

1935,

and Diisseldorf. Assisted Joseph Fassbender in the execution of murals.

ioi;p. 154

Lit.:

Volker Kahmen. 'Jochen

Cologne,

DuMont

Hiltmann'

in

Junge

Bonn.
Kiinstler

64/65.

Schauberg, 1964
Fig. 171

p.

221

KALINOWSKI, HORST EGON

HOFLEHNER, RUDOLF
Born

1916, Linz an der

gewerbeschule, Linz. 1945 took up abstract

on

to iron and steel;

figurative

Professor at Stuttgart

wood sculpture.

work from

Vienna since 1951. 1959 exhibition

1954.

at the 5th

195 1 turned

Has been

living in

Biennale in Sao Paolo.

Academy.

Born 1924

Stuttgart, Hatje, 1965

f.,

the Kunstakademie

at

Academie de la
Grande Chaumiere in Paris. Lives in Paris since 1950. Since 1956 'picture1958 'picture-cabinets', i960

objects', since

from wood and iron covered with

Lit.:

Figs. 62, 66; pp. 88

1945-1948 studied

in Diisseldorf.

Dusseldorf. 1949-1950 studied in Italy; 1950-1952 at the

'steles'.

Werner Hofmann. Hoflehner.

Lit.:

taught at the Kunst-

the Vienna Kunstakademie. 1945-1951

at

art

Donau. Studied mechanical engineering, and

DuMont

From

(constructions

these developed the

USA.

1964 and 1966 in the

Egon Kalinowski'

Horst Richter. 'Horst

Cologne,

278

first 'caissons'

leather).

in

Junge

Kiinstler 67/68,

Schauberg, 1967
Fig. 105; p. 159

IPOUSTEGUY, JEAN
Born 1920

in Dun-sur-Meuse, France.

At

first

a painter; since 1949

sculpture only. 1964 exhibition in the French pavilion of the Venice

won

Biennale;

at the Galerie

Hanover

the

David

Claude Bernard, Paris Albert

;

Gallery,

One-man shows
Loeb Gallery, New York

E. Bright Foundation Prize.

London. Lives in

Paris.

KEMENY, ZOLTAN
Born

Lit.:

Museum

Had been

Kemeny. Neuchatel,

Michel Ragon. Zoltan

Musee National

a"Art

became

du

Editions

Griffon,

Moderne, Paris. Exhibition Catalogue with

Figs. 29, 241

Claus. Dec. 1965-Jan. 1966

Fig. 219; pp. 278,

Budapest.

in

by Bernard Dorival. Oct.-Dec. 1966

text

Leverkusen. Ausstellungskatalog mit Texten

von Rolf Wedewer und Jiirgen

Rumania. Studied

living in Switzerland since 1942;

i960

Ashbery. July-Aug. 1964

Stadtisches

Paris.

a Swiss subject in 1957. 1965 died in Zurich.

Hanover Gallery, London. Exhibition Catalogue with text by John

Lit.:

Transylvania,

Banica,

1907,

1930-1940 in

pp. 32, 284

279

KING, PHILLIP

JACOBSEN, ROBERT
Born

1912, Copenhagen. 1930

first

wood

Has done mainly

sculptures.

work with constructivist forms since 1949, also figurative pieces in

Has been living in Paris since 1947. Since 1962 Professor at Munich
Academy.

metal
iron.

Born 1934 in Tunis, North Africa. 1945 moved to England. 1954-1957

studied at Cambridge University. 1957-1958 St Martin's School of Art,
London, as a pupil of Anthony Caro. 195 8-1959 assistant to Henry
Moore. Since 1959, teacher at St Martin's. Lives in London.
Lit.:

Kunstverein fur die

Venice

Rheinlande und

Westfalen,

Dusseldorf.

Aus-

stellungskatalog 'Acht junge britische Bildhauer'. June-July 1967

March i960

XXXIII. Biennale

The new Generation: 1965

Peter Stuyvesant Foundation. London, March-April 1965

J.Coplans. 'P hilli p King' in Studio International, Dec. 1965

Catalogus der tentoonstelling 228 met inleiding van Eugene

Ibid.,

Jonescu.

Whitechapel Gallery, London.

The

Museum, Amsterdam. Catalogus der tentoonstelling 140

met inleiding van Leon Degand. Nov.-Dec. 1955
Stedelijk

Lit.:

ig66.

Danish

pavilion.

Fig. 229; p. 281

Exhibition

Catalogue
Fig. 156; p. 183

KIRCHNER, ERNST LUDWIG

Born

JENDRITZKO, GUIDO
Born

1925, Kirchhain, Niederlausitz. 1950-1956 studied at the

Hoch-

schule fur bildende Kiinste in Berlin. Karl Hartung's star pupil. Scholarship

from

the Kulturkreis. i960 at the Villa

Romana,

Florence. Lives in

1938, he
Lit.:

Wuppertal.
Lit.:

1907, Aschaffenburg. 1901-1905 studied architecture in Dresden.

1903-1904 painting in Munich. Co-founder of the Kunstlergemeinschaft Briicke. 1911-1916 in Berlin. 1917 moved to Davos where, in

committed

Max

suicide.

Sauerlandt,

Schmidt-Rottluff

Gewerbe' in

Will Grohmann, 'Guido Jendritzko' in Junge Kiinstler 58/59,

DuMont Schauberg, 1958

Cologne,

'Holzbildwerke von Kirchner, Heckel und

im Hamburgischen Museum fur Kunst und

Museum

Will Grohmann, Ernst

Fig. 114; p. 160

der Gegenwart

i,

3,

Ludwig Kirchner.

1930.
Stuttgart,

Kohlhammer,

1958
Fig. 71; p.

JUDD,

DONALD

Born 1928

at Excelsior Springs, Missouri.

1947-1953 studied

at the

Art

New York. Lives in New York.

Rose. ABC art. In 'Art in America', Oct. 1965

B.

Stedelijk

kleur,

Museum Amsterdam.

Ausstellungskatalog

KOCK, HANS
Born

Students' League,
Lit.

90

in

'Vormen van de

New Shapes of Color', Nov. 1966-Jan. 1967

New Aesthetic. The Washington Gallery of Modern Art,

B. Rose.

1920, Kiel,

Fig. 239; pp. 252, 283

in

Hamburg. 1945-1947

at the

studied architecture

Landeskunstschule in

Hamburg under

Gerhard Marcks. 1955 scholarship from the Kulturkreis. Lives in

Ham-

burg.
Lit.:

Martin Urban, 'Hans Kock' in Junge Kiinstler 60/61, Cologne,

DuMont

May-June 1967

grew up

Brunswick. 1948-1952

Schauberg, i960
Fig. 205

p.

247

331

KOENIG, FRITZ

Galerie Louise Leiris.

Born 1924, Wiirzburg. 1946-1952 studied at the

professor at Technical University, Munich. Lives near Landshut, Bavaria.

DuMont

May

Hiittingcr, Alberto Giacometti

Born 1924 on

literary

and publicist activity

in

Argentina since 1939.

1946 founded the Modi group. 1964 exhibited in the

of Venice Biennale. Professor of sculpture

Diisseldorf. Lives in Buenos Aires.

German

pavilion

the Kunstakademie

at

Lit.:

CORBUSIER

Trained

from working

Lit.

first spatial

ship

compositions. 1955 in England. 1958 in

from the Graham Foundation. Lives

Eduard

Lit.:

Trier.

USA

on

a scholar-

in Diisseldorf.

artistic activity in

Paul Westheim, Wilhelm Lehmbruck (2nd

August

284

in

ed.).

Potsdam, Kiepen-

Hoff,

Wilhelm Lehmbruck.

und

Klinkhardt

Berlin,

Biermann, 1933 (Junge Kunst Bd. 61-62)

Ibid., Wilhelm Lehmbruck. Berlin, Rembrandt, 1961
Eduard

Trier,

Wilhelm Lehmbruck: Zeichnungen und Radie-

rungen. Munich, Piper-Biicherei, 1955

Ibid., Wilhelm Lehmbruck: Die Kniende. Stuttgart, Reclam-

Hamburg.

Hochschule fur bildende Kunst

Michel Seuphor, Lardera. Milan, La Bibliofilia, 1953

to Paris

heuer, 1922

living in Paris since 1948. 1958-1961 teaching post

at the

1910

Italy.

where he came into contact with avant-garde artists

(Brancusi, Modigliani, Matisse and others). 1914 returned to Germany,
in Berlin till 1917, then temporary stay in Zurich. 19 19 died in Berlin.

191 1, La Spezia. Studied at Florence University; taught himself

Lit.:

1881, Meiderich near Duisburg. 1895-1899 studied at the Kunst-

moved

LARDERA, BERTO
Has been

Wide

Martin, France.

gewerbeschule in Diisseldorf. 1906 and 1912 travelled to

Lit.:

Figs. 152, 197, 238; pp. 181, 246, 277, 283,

sculpture.

Cap

LEHMBRUCK, WILHELM

Norbert Kricke. Recklinghausen, Bongers, 1963

John Anthony Thwaites. Kricke. Stuttgart, Hatje, 1964

Eduard Trier. Norbert Kricke. Quadrum 16, 1964

Born

Germany. 1917 settled in Paris. Apart

townplanner and publicist, also paints and

GZuvres de Le Corbusier et P. Jcanneret. 8 vols. Paris, Morance"

Anton Hcnze, Ronchamp. Recklinghausen, Paulus-Verlag, 1956
Fig. 187; pp. 224, 226

Born

NORBERT

1922, Diisseldorf. 1946-1947 pupil of R. Scheibe in Berlin. 1952

Born

as architect,

Nov. 1962

95,

Fig. 116; p. 184

KRICKE,

1908 in Paris, worked in the office of the architect

various parts of the world. 1965 died near

par Michel Scuphor, April i960

No.

as engraver.

Perret. 1910-1911 study travel in

Galerie Denise Rene, Paris. Catalogue de l'exposition, introduction

L'Oeil

314

Charles Edouardjeanncret, born 1887, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland.

carves. 1920 edited the periodical Esprit nouveau.

Avant-

d'aujourd'hui.

Gyula Kosice. Geoculture de

propos de Herbert Read. Buenos Aires, Ediciones Losange, 1959
1'Europe

July-Aug. 1961
Figs. 31, 56; pp. 32, 86,

LE

the Czechoslovak-Hungarian border. 1928 emigrated to

Wide

Argentina.

et al.

H9

GYULA

KOSICE,

i960
Kunsthaus Zurich. Exhibition Catalogue with texts by Eduard

1965

Fig. 79; p.

Oct.-Nov. 1958

Galerie Claude Bernard. Laurens. Introduction par A.Giacometti.

Schauberg, 195S

Kunstuerciti Braunschweig. Exhibition Catalogue,

Paris,

Paris,

Kocnig' in Jungc Kiinstler 58/59, Cologne,

Roll, 'Fritz

Lit.: Julimie

Henri Laurens: sculptures en picrrc de 1919

1943. Tcxte d'Y. Taillandier.

Munich Academy;

Werkmonographien, 1958
Werner Hofmann. Wilhelm Lehmbruck.
Knorr & Hirth, 1964 (2nd ed.)

Michel Conil-Lacoste, 'Lardera, decoupeur d'espace' in L'Oeil 37,

January 1958

Munich,

Ahrbeck,

Fig. 9; pp. 15. 85

Michel Seuphor. Berto Lardera. Neuchatel, Editions du Griffon,

i960
Figs. 148, 178; pp.

180

f.,

222

LINCK,
Born

WALTER

1903, Berne. 1916-1920 studied in Berne

LASSAW, IBRAM

in Berlin.

1930-1932 in

Born

and

1956-1957 taught

1913, Alexandria, Egypt, of Russian extraction. 1921 emigrated to

USA.

New

York, 1950 teaching post at the American

University, Washington D.C. Lives in New York and East Hampton,
Studied in

Tlie Museum of Modern Art, New

Dorothy C.Miller, May 1956

York. 12 Americans, ed.

and Zurich. 1921-1926

1932-1939 alternated between Berne

at the

Wcrkakademie

in Kassel. Lives in

Reichenbach-Zollikofen near Berne.

Lit.:

N.Y.
Lit.:

Paris.

Paris.

Kestner-Gescllschaft, Hanover.

Ausstellungskatalog

Theo Eble -

Walter Linck. Einleitung von Albert Schulze Vellinghausen.

Feb.-March 1958

by

Marcel Joray, Schweizer Plastik der Gegenwart

Fig. 159; p. 183

Editions du Griffon, 1955

&

&

II.

Fig. 21

LAURENS, HENRI
Born

by Braque.

Practised

Cubism

till

then turned to organic forms. 1937 commissions combining

sculpture with architecture for the Paris

sculpture also

book

illustration, artistic

World

Exhibition. Apart

from

typography and gouaches. 1954

Le Point

xxxiii.

Numero

special consacre a

Henri Laurens. Lanzac,

July 1946
Cecile

1956

332

p.

29

LIPCHITZ, JACQUES
Born

Paris.

1912 briefly in Russia. 1913 returned to Paris. 1914 trip to Madrid.

891, Druskieniki, Lithuania, at that time Russian. 1909-1912 in

down in Boulogne-sur-Seine. 1940 fled to Toulouse. 1941

USA. 1945 returned for a time to Paris. Has been living in
Hastings-on-Hudson, N.Y., USA. since 1947.
1925 settled

emigrated to

died in Paris.
Lit.:

1885, Paris. Trained in sculptural decoration and stone masonry.

191 1 introduced to Cubist painting

1925,

Neuchatel,

1959

Goldscheider, Laurens.

Lit.

Cologne, Kiepenheuer

&

Witsch,

Maurice Raynal, Jacques Lipchitz. Paris, Jeanne Bucher, 1947

Henry R.Hope, The Sculpture of Jacques Lipchitz.

The Museum of Modern Art, 1954

New

York,

Cologne, Kiepenheuer

Robert Goldwater, Jacques Lipchitz.

&

LUGINBUHL, BERNHARD
Born

Witsch, 1954
Fine Arts Associates.

Catalogue: Jacques Lipchitz,

Exhibition

Thirty Three Semi-Automatics. Text by the

New

artist.

York,

in

1929, Berne. Educated at the Kunstgewerbeschule in Berne. Lives

Motschwil near Berne.

Du, August 1959

Lit.:

March 1957

Marcel Joray, Schweizer Plastik der Gegenwart

Fine Arts Associates. Exhibition Catalogue of recent work, 1958-

Editions

1959, with text 'A la limite du possible' by the artist, New York,
Nov.-Dec. 1959
A.M.Hammacher. Jacques Lipchitz. Amsterdam, Contact, and

du

The Life ofJacques Lipchitz. New York, Funk

Figs. 4, 61, 72; pp. 13, 14, 88,

90

Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo (Holland). Exhibition Cata-

Born

1915, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 1933-1937 studied industrial design

in Chicago. 1942 took

Lit.:

up

sculpture. Lives in

Trier,

Rosamonde

New

Art,

New York.

York. 15 Americans, ed.

form

'Lippolds plastische Sonne' in

II,

from own

Quadrum

1942-1943 in South of France, then

till

Fig. 49; p. 84

29

MANZU, GIACOMO
naturalization.

1945 in Switzerland.

Now

lives

Born

1908,

Bergamo,

at the

Brera

Academy and

Lit.:

Studied dentistry. 1932 took up sculpture

(self-

national IX/i, 1965

1875, Stuttgart. 1892-1898 studied at schools

Karlsruhe and Kaiserslautern.

Rome. 1904-1908

in Verona. Teaches

Giacomo Manzu. Milan, Edizioni

Carlo Ragghianti,

del Milione,

1965

1967
Fig. 39; p-

44

MARCKS, GERHARD
Born

1889, Berlin. 1919 appointment at the Bauhaus, in charge of the

Halle-Giebichenstein.

1946-1950

LORCHER, ALFRED

in

Academy

pottery kilns in Dornburg. 1925-193 3 at the Kunstgewerbeschule in

Fig. 68; p. 89

Academy. 1903

at the

Milan.

John Rewald. Giacomo Manzu. London, Thames and Hudson,

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 12 Americans, ed. by

Dorothy C. Miller, 1956
Andrew C. Ritchie, 'Seymour Lipton' in Art in America. Winter

Stuttgart,

Studied

lives in

Bemhard Degenhart, Giacomo Manzu: Madchen und Frauen.

Munich, Piper-Bucherei, 1958
Robert d'Hooghe. Giacomo Manzu. Salzburg i960
Eduard Hiittinger. Giacomo Manzu. Amriswil, Bodensee-Verlag,

New York.

1956-1957
A. Elsen. The sculptural world of Seymour Lipton. Art Inter-

Born

Italy.

1957

SEYMOUR

taught). Since 1943 various teaching posts. Lives in

Lit.:

exhibition. 1906 trip to Greece. 1944 died in

Waldemar George. Aristide Maillol. Berlin, Rembrandt, 1964

Fig. 132; p. 178

New York.

first

Bruckmann, i960

R. V. Gindertael, Lipsi. Paris, Coll. Prisme, 1959

Ibid., Maurice Lipsi. Neuchatel, Editions du Griffon, 1965

1903,

carpets
pursuit.

John Rewald, Maillol. London, etc., Hyperion, 1939

RolfLinnenkamp, Aristide Maillol. Die grossen Plastiken. Munich,

i960

in Chevilly-Larue near Paris.

Born

made

becomes main

by

14, 1963

LIPSI, MAURICE
Born 1898, Lodz, Poland. In Paris since 1912. 1933 French

LIPTON,

designs, also sculpture. 1901 sculpture

1902 Vollard organizes

1958

Bernier, 'Richard Lippold' in L'Oeil 64, April

Fig. 17; p.

1861, Banyuls, Roussillon. 1882-1886 studied painting and sculp-

Lit.:

Leon Kochnitzky. Richard Lippold.

Lit.

MAILLOL, ARISTIDE
Born

Banyuls.

The Museum of Modern

Dorothy C.Miller, 1952
Eduard

Fig. 158; p. 183

ture at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. 1887-1889 in Banyuls

LIPPOLD, RICHARD

Neuchatel,

logue Luginbiihl-Tinguely, 1967

& Wagnalls,

1961

II.

Galerie Rene'c Ziegler, Zurich. Exhibition Catalogue, Dec. 1966

Cologne, DuMont, i960

J.Patai.

&

Griffon, 1955 and 1959

898-1902

in Stuttgart.

of applied
at

the

art in

Munich

Cologne
Lit.:

at the

From

1933

onwards

in

Ahrenshoop/Ostsee.

Landeskunstschule in Hamburg. Has been living in

since 1950.

Adolf Rieth, Gerhard Marcks, Recklinghausen, Bongers, 1959

Fig. 75

1908-1915 in Berlin.

pp. 84, 149, 156

1919-1945 teaching post in Stuttgart. Awarded the Grosser Kunstpreis

by Nordrhein-Westfalen. 1962 died

Lit.:

in Stuttgart.

von

Festschrift Alfred Lorcher, hrsg.

MARINI,

E. Petermann. Stuttgart,

Kohlhammer, 1955
Fig. 80; p. 150

MARINO

Born 1901, Pistoia. Studied

Academy. 1929-1940 taught
Since 1940, at the Brera

painting and sculpture at the Florence

at the art

Academy

Lives alternately in Milan and Forte dei

LOTH, WILHELM
Born

1920, Darmstadt. 1938 encouraged

sculpture.

1959
Lit.

Lit.:

by Kathe Kollwitz

to take

up

Has been teaching since 1948 in Darmstadt and Karlsruhe.

Massimo, Rome. Lives in Karlsruhe.

at the Villa

Ulrich Gertz,

'Wilhelm Loth' in Junge

Kiinstler 59/60,

Cologne,

DuMont

Schauberg, 1959
Galerie Springer, Berlin. Exhibition Catalogue, Oct. 1966
Fig. 47; p. 83

Umbro

Apollonio,

school Villa Reale in

Monza.

in Milan. 1942-1946 in Switzerland.

Marmi.

Marino Marini (3rd

ed.).

Milan, Edizioni del

Milione, 1958

Entile Langui,

Marino Marini. Cologne, Der Spiegel, 1954

Marino Marini. Cologne, Kiepenheuer & Witsch,

1954
Eduard

The

Eduard

Trier,

Trier,

Sculpture of Marino Marini. London,

Thames

and Hudson, 1961

Figs. 59, 60, 181; pp. 44, 88, 156,

224

333

MEADOWS, BERNARD

MARISOL, ESCOBAR
Born 1930

in Paris

Beaux-Arts,

Paris.

of Venezuelan parents. Studied at the Ecole des

1950 moved to New York; studied at the Hans

Hoffman-School and the Art Students' League. 1953 turned to sculpture.

1958-1960 in Rome. Lives in New York. Took part among others in
the exhibition 'Pop Art - Nouvcau Realisme' in Brussels, Berlin, etc.
Lit.:

New

D.Judd. 'Lee Bontccou' Arts,

Quadrum

The Tate

Gallery,

London,

Fig. 218; p. 278

Lit.:

in

J.P.Hodin, 'Bernard Meadows' in

Quadrum

1959

6,

Fig. 109; p. 159

MEIER-DENNINGHOFF, BRIGITTE
Born 1923, Berlin. Trained under Henry Moore and A.Pevsner. 1959
awarded the Prix Bourdcllc. Lives in Paris.
Lit.:

MARTIN, KENNETH
at

at the Slade

Udo Kultermann,
60/61. Cologne,

1905, Sheffield. 1929-1932 studied at the Royal College of Art

London. 1948 taught

1955 lectures

Norwich. 1936-1940 worked with Henry Moore. Lives

York, 1962

1964

Born

1915,

London.

1964

16,

Painting and Sculpture of a Decade.

in

Born

London

University. 1953

School in London,

castle-on-Tyne, and at the Institute of

at

first

'Brigitte

DuMont

Mcier-Denninghoff

Contemporary Arts

in

in

Junge

Kiinstler

Kestncr-Gesellschaft, Hanover. Exhibition Catalogue, 1965/66

screw mobiles.

Fig. 151; pp. 181, 221

New-

King's College,

'

Schauberg, i960

London.

Lives in Hampstead, London.

Lit.:

Andrew

on

Forge, 'Notes

Quadrum

the Mobiles of

Kenneth Martin'

in

METTEL, HANS

1957
Kenneth Martin. Construction and Movement. Art International

Born

1903, Salzwedel. 1921-1923 studied stone sculpture in Dresden.

1924

at

XI/6, 1967

Scharff).

3,

Fig. 167; p. 184

Born

1910, Fontana Liri, Italy.

Lit.

Giulio Carlo Argan,

Umberto

living since 1926 in Turin.

Fig. 70; p. 89

MATARE",
Born

EWALD

1932-193 3

1945).

at

the Diisseldorf

Had been living since

Academy

1932 in Biiderich bei

a scholarship at the Villa

Massimo

in

bildende Kiinste in Frankfurt. 1958 settled

1966 died in Frankfurt.

Lit.:

1887, Aachen. 1907-1914 studied painting in Berlin. 1920 took

sculpture.

on

down in Berlin. 1936 forbidden to exhibit, works

moved to Frankfurt-on-Main to teach sculpture at the

1950-1956 director of the Staatliche Hochschule fur

down in Falkenstein, Taunus.

Stadekchule.

Mastroianni. Venice, Cavallino, 1958

(under

193 1 settled

confiscated. 1947

Has been

Berlin-Charlottenburg

1925-1929 prize scholar of the Preussische Akademie der

Kiinste (under Lederer). 1930

Rome.

MASTROIANNI, UMBERTO

Staatsschule

Vereinigte

the

Eduard

Trier,

DuMont

up

'Hans Mettel' in Junge Kiinstler 60/61. Cologne,

Schauberg, i960
Fig. 50; pp. 84

(re-appointed in

f.

Neuss where he died in

1965.
Lit.:

Hanns Th. Flemming, Ewald Matare. Munich, Prestel, 1955

Trier, Ewald Matare. Recklinghausen, Bongers, 1958
Heinz Peters, Ewald Matare: Das graphische Werk III. Cologne,
Czwiklitzer, 1957 and 1958

Eduard

MILANI,
Born

UMBERTO

1912, Milan.

Began

as painter.

Studied at the Accademia di Brera.

Lives in Milan.
Lit.:

Kunsthalle Diisseldorf. Exhibition Catalogue. June-July 1967

Franco Russoli,

'Umberto Milani'

in

II

Milione 44 nuova

serie,

Milan, April-May 1959

Figs. 38, 106; pp. 43, 159

Fig. 143; p. 180

MATISSE, HENRI
Born
ture.

1869,

Le Cateau. 1892 began

1900 worked for

studies in Paris. 1899

second pursuit throughout his career

Nice. 1939

moved

as a painter.

1917 settled

down

Museum of Modern

MINGUZZI, LUCIANO
Born

His Art and His Public.

New

York, The

Lit.

Art, 195

The Sculpture of Henri

by Alfred H.Barr. New York, Feb. 1953

The Museum of Modem Art, New York. The

Andrew C.Ritchie, New York, 1955

New Decade,

Giuseppe Marchiori. Luciano Minguzzi, scultore dal 1951

Matisse. Introduc-

ed.

al

by

1961.

Milan 1962

Fine Arts Associates. Henri Matisse: Sculpture. Introduction

New York,

191 1, Bologna. Teaches at the Accademia di Brera and lives in

Milan.

Curt Valentin Gallery.

Jean Cassou.

in

to Vence. 1954 died in Nice.

Lit.: Alfred H.Barr, Matisse:

tion

took up sculp-

time with A.Bourdelle. Sculpture remained his

by

Fig. 150; p. 181

Nov.-Dec. 1958

Gaston Diehl, Henri Matisse. Paris, Tisne, 1958

Figs. 8, 25; pp. 15, 31

McWILLIAM,
Born

1909, Banbridge. 1928-193 1 studied at the Slade School in

1931-1932 in
Lit.:

Paris. Lives in

The Hanover
London, 1956

London.

Gallery.

In

1910, Udine, Italy. Studied in Venice,

Rome from

1934.

At present

in

USA

Rome,

Florence and Monza.

as director

of the Harvard

University Workshop.

London.

F.E.McWilliam Exhibition Catalogue.

Lit.

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. The

C.Ritchie, New York, 1955

New

Decade, ed. by

Andrew
p. 150

334

MIRKO (BALSADELLA)
Born

F.E.

Fig. 7; p. 14

MODIGLIANI, AMEDEO
moved

Born

1884, Leghorn. Studied in Venice and Florence. 1906

Paris.

1909 met Brancusi and took up sculpture under his influence. 1915

to

MORRIS, ROBERT
Bom 193 1 in Kansas City,

International X/10, Dec. 1966

New

James T.Soby, Modigliani Paintings, Drawings, Sculpture.

York, The Museum of Modern Art, 195
:

Amedeo

G.Scheiwiller,

Fig. 232; p. 282

Modigliani. Zurich, Die Arche, 1958

C.Roy, Modigliani. Geneva,

Skira, 1958

Geneva,

Alfred Werner, Peter Dietschi. Modigliani, der Bildhauer.

MULLER, ROBERT
Bom 1920, Zurich. 1939-1944
Richier).

Nagel, 1962
A.Ceroni.

Amedeo

New York.

Martin Friedman. Robert Morris: Polemics and Cubes. In Art

Lit.:

switched over to painting. 1920 died in Paris.

Lit.:

Missouri. Lives in

Modigliani: Dessins et Sculptures. Milan 1965

1947-1950 in

Italy.

studied in Switzerland (with

Has been

Maria Netter, 'Der Eisenschmied Robert Miiller' in

Lit.:

P- 153

7.

Germaine

living in Paris since 1950.

Quadrum

1959

MOHOLY-NAGY, LASZLO

Luce Hoctin, 'Trois jeunes sculpteurs: Penalba, Miiller, Haber' in

Born 1895

L'Oeil 63,

in Barsebarsod,

Borsod, Hungary. Studied law; began

painting in 191 8 influenced

by Russian Constructivism and German

Berlin. 1923 met Walter Gropius, who put

Expressionism. 1921-1923 in

him in charge of the metal-work studio

in the

Weimar Bauhaus.

March i960

Museum, Amsterdam. Exhibition Catalogue, Nov. 1964-

Stedelijk

Jan. 1965
Fig. 128; p. 178

1924 to

Dessau with the Bauhaus. Leaves the Bauhaus in 1928, moves to Berlin.
1925 publishes the Bauhaus-book No. 8, 'Malerei, Fotografie, Film'
Photography, Film); 1929 Bauhaus-book No. 14 "Vom

(Painting,

(From Material to Architecture). 1933-1934

stays in Paris and Amsterdam. 1935 moves to London; 1937 to Chicago
where he founded the 'New Bauhaus'. Died 1946 in Chicago.
Material zur Architektur'

Lit.:

Sibyl Moholy-Nagy.

Moholy-Nagy. Experiment

in Totality.

NEGRET, EDGAR
Born 1920

in Popayan,

moved

New

Columbia. Studied

York, studied

at the

1951-1955 travelling in Europe. 1958

Indian

New

York, 1950
Kunstmuseum Dusseldorf Ausstellungskatalog mit Text von Heinz

to

art.

1965 distinction

at the

at the Cali

New York

unesco

Academy. 1949

Sculpture Center.

grant to study American

Sao Paulo Biennale. Lives in Bogota.

Graham Gallery, New York. Exhibition leaflet, April-May 1966

Axiom Gallery, London. Exhibition leaflet, May 1967

Lit.:

Fig. 243

Peters. Feb.-April 1961

p.

284

Ludvik Soacek. Laszlo Moholy-Nagy. Prague 1965

Van Abbe-Museum Eindhoven. Ausstellungskatalog Moholy-Nagy,

NEGRI, MARIO

1967

Born
282

Fig. 235; p.

MOORE, HENRY
1898, Castleford, Yorks. 1919-1921 Leeds School of Art, then

1925

at the

Taught

till

Much Hadham,

Herts.

Mario Negri, Milan, Milione, 1962

p.

Herbert Read.

Henry Moore. Munich, Zurich, Droemer,

Born

1900, Kiev, Russia. 1905 emigrated to

New York.
in

224, 227, 247, 252, 277

MOOY, JAAP
self sculpture.

1939-1956 painter. 1956

naval mechanic, taught him-

first

sculpture in iron. Lives in

Bergen-op-Zoom.
Lit.:

Munich. Studied archaeology

Mexico and Central America. Lives

in

New York.

Lit.:

The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Sixteen Americans,

Dorothy C.Miller, New York, 1959

ed.

by

Hilton Kramer, 'The Sculpture of Louise Nevelson' in Arts, June

1958

John Gordon. Louise Nevelson.

New York, The Whitney Museum

of American Art, 1967

Figs. 176, 240; pp. 222, 228, 283

NICHOLSON, BEN
Born 1894

in

Art,

1958 lives in the Ticino, Switzerland.

Herbert Read.

Ben Nicholson. London, Lund Humphries, 1955

Ben Nicholson. Works since 1947, vol. 2. London,

Herbert Read.

Mooy-Jaap Wagemaker. Texte von Lucebert und Grochowiak.

Lund Humphries, 1956

Aug.-Sept. 1959

Marlborough

Bochum. Exhibition Catalogue with text by

H.L.C.Jaffe, April-May 1965

paintings

of
London. 193 3-193 5 member of the group 'Abstraction-Creation',

Paris. Since
Lit.:

Denham, Buckinghamshire, England. Mainly

since 1933 also reliefs. 191 1 studied at the Slade School

Kunsthalle Recklinghausen. Ausstellungskatalog: Monteure: Jaap

Stadtische Kunstgalerie

studied in

in

and drawings,
as a

USA. 1929-1930

Hans Hofmann

193 1 with

1967.

Figs. 5, 41, 52, 58, 180, 190, 210, 214; pp. 13, 14, 44, 85 f, 88, 179, 221,

Bergen-op-Zoom. Trained

44

NEVELSON, LOUISE

Henry Moore Sculpture and Drawings (4th ed.).

London, Lund Humphries, 1957
Ibid., Henry Moore, vol. ii: Sculpture and Drawings since 1948.
London, Lund Humphries, 1955
Henry Moore, Schriften und Skulpturen, hrsg. von Werner
Hofmann. Frankfurt-on-Main, Fischer, 1959
Will Grohmann, Henry Moore. London, Thames and Hudson, i960
Henry Moore, vol. iii Sculpture 1955-1964. Ed. by Alan Bowness.
London, Lund Humphries, 1965
Henry Moore on sculpture. Ed. by P hilli p James. London, MacHerbert Read,

1905,

sculpture (self-

till

Donald, 1966

Born

up

Royal College of Art in London. 1925 in Italy and Paris.

1939 at the Chelsea Art School. Numerous public works and

distinctions. Lives in
Lit.

Cesare Gnudi,

Lit.:

Born

1906, Tirano. Studied in Milan. 1946 took

taught). Lives in Milan.

New

London Gallery. Exhibition Catalogue 'Ben

Nicholson, Twelve

new

works'.

Text by Geoffrey Grigson.

June 1967
Fig. 99; p. 154

Fig. 27; p. 30

335

."'

"-!

r-

'

.-'
.

,~

NIVOLA, COSTANTINO

PENALBA, ALICIA

Marino Marini. Since

1939 in USA. Teaches at the Graduate School of Design, Harvard
University. Lives in East Hampton, Long Island, New York.

Born

Born

Lit.:

191 1, Orani, Sardinia. Studied in Italy with

'Angewandte

Zu den

Eduard

Trier,

Bertoia

und Costantino Nivola' in form

Metro

8,

Plastik.

i,

191 8,

Buenos

Aires. 1948

moved

where she took up sculp-

to Paris

ture and studied under Zadkinc. Lives in Paris.

Patrick Waldberg, Penalba. Paris, Galcric Editions, 1957

Lit.:

Luce Hoctin, 'Trois jcuncs sculpteurs

Arbcitcn von Harry

L'Oeil 63,

1957

Penalba, Miillcr, Habcr' in

March i960

Michel Seuphor. Alicia Penalba. Amriswil, Bodcnsee-Verlag, i960

1963
Fig. 203

p.

Eduard

246

Trier. Alicia

Penalba.

XXcmc

Siecle 25,

June 1965
Fig. 113; p. 160

PEVSNER, ANTOINE

NOGUCHI, ISAMU
Born

1904, Los Angeles, California, of Japanese father and

mother.

Grew up

in Japan. 1918 in

USA.

1924 trained

American

as sculptor in

New York. 1927-1929 Brancusi's assistant in Paris. 1929 returned to

USA then, until 1931, in China and Japan. 1949-1950 the Mediterranean
and the Far East. Now living in New York and Japan.
Lit.

Museum of Modern Art, New York. Fourteen Americans, ed. by

Dorothy C. Miller, New York, 1946
Noguchi. Text by Shuzo Takiguchi, Saburo Hasegawa, Isamu
Tire

Born 1886, Orel, Russia. 1902-1909 studied painting at the Kiev

Academy. From 1909, at the Academy in St Petersburg. 191 1 and 19131914 in Paris. 1914-1917 in Norway, then, till 1921, in Russia. 1920
pubhshed with his brother, Naum Gabo, the Realist Manifesto in
Moscow. 1922 in Berlin. Had been living in Paris since 1923. 1962 died
in Paris.

Ruth Olsen and Abraham Chanin, Gabo-Pevsner. Introduction by

Lit.:

Herbert Read.

New

York, The

Museum of Modern

Rene Massat, 'Antoine Pevsner' in Cahiers

Noguchi. Tokio, Bijutsu Shuppan-Sha, 1953

Bucktuinster Fuller. Isamu Noguchi A Sculptor's World. London,

Antoine Pevsner, 'Propos d'un sculpteur' interview with

Thames and Hudson, 1967

Bernier in L'Oeil 23, Nov. 1956

Figs. 63, 172, 189; pp. 22i, 222, 226,

Rene Massat, Antoine Pevsner

247

d'art

ii,

Art, 1948

1950

Rosamonde

et le constructivisme. Paris, Editions

Caracteres, 1956

Musee

OLDENBURG, CLAES
Born 1929

in

Stockholm, Sweden.

Chicago. 1959
Lit.:

XXXII.

Grew up in Chicago.

Yale University. 1953-1954 studied

his studies at

first

USA.

Art

New York.

New

York.

Figs. 16, 88, 160, 211; pp. 16, 153, 181, 183, 225,

Art

Exhibition Catalogue, April-

Born

1881, Malaga, Spain. Educated in Barcelona. 1901

Paris.

1904

moved

f.

Born

since

1923, Budapest. Studied in Budapest. 1947 emigrated to Paris.

Lit.:

1952 French subject. Lives in Paris.

Lit.:

Michel Ragon, 'Marta Pan' in

A. M. Hammacher. Marta Pan.

stay in

Rome. 1919

in

London and

St Raphael. 1928 in Dinard.

From

1929, again interested in sculpture

Daniel Henry Kahnweiler,

The

Sculptures of Picasso. London,

Phillips,

1949
Giulio Carlo Argan, Scultura di Picasso. Venice,

Quadrum

2, Nov. 1956
Arnaud, 1961

which has

been the constant companion of his painting.

Rodney
Paris,

first

met Matisse and Derain. 1907 met

1934 in Spain. 1940-1945 in Antibes and Royan. 1945 returned to Paris.

Has been living since 1947 in the South of France. 1 899-1914 first
sculptural works.

MARTA

to Paris. 1906

Braque. 1909 in Horta de Ebro. 1910 in Cadaques. 1911 and 1913 in

Ceret. 1917 in

1967
Fig. 224; pp. 279

PAN,

248

PICASSO, PABLO
this world'. In

Nov. 1966

Sidney Janis Gallery,

du

Griffon, 1961

Institute,

Exhibition Catalogue

with text by Alan R. Solomon. 1964

Gene Baro. 'Claes Oldenburg or the things of

May

Catalogue de l'exposition Antoine

Carola Giedion-Welcker. Antoine Pevsner. Neuchatel, Editions

1950 completed

at the

exhibition in the Judson Gallery. Lives in

Biennale di Venezic. Pavilion

International X/9,

national d'art moderne.

Pevsner. Paris, Editions des Musses nationaux, 1956-1957

Alfieri,

1953

Wilhelm Boeck, Pablo Picasso. Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 1955

Anton Henze, 'Neue Plastiken von Picasso' in Das Kunstwerk

Fig. 139; p. 179

9/XHI, March i960

Roland Penrose. Picasso. Munich, Knorr

PAOLOZZI, EDUARDO
Born

Hommage

1924, Edinburgh, of Italian parents. Studied in

Has been living in London since 1955. 1949-1955 teaching post

Central School of Arts and Crafts, 1955-1958 at St Martin's School.

1960-1962 guest professor

Lit.:

at

Quadrum

1,

May

1956

POMODORO, ARNALDO

1958

Born

New

New York,

Images of Man. The

Museum of Modern

Art,

1959

May

i960

1926, Orciano di

Romagna,

Paris

Gillo Dorfles. 'A. e

Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo (Holland). Exhibition Cata-

Marlborough-Roma.
1965

May-July 1967

Italy.

Studied architecture. Lives in

G.Pomodoro'

in

La Biennale

34.

Venice,

Jan.-March 1959

logue with text by the

Figs. 96, 227; pp. 154, 281

336

Spadem,

Milan.
Lit.:

Robert Melville, 'Eduardo Paolozzi' in L'Oeil 65,

artist.

224
and Cosmopress,

Figs. 84, 87; pp. 150, 153, 156,

given by

(Permission to reprint

The Hanover Gallery. Exhibition Catalogue. London, Nov.-Dec.

Peter Selz,

Nov. 1966-Feb.

Geneva.)

Hamburg Academy.

J.P.Hodin, 'Eduardo Paolozzi' in

Hirth, 1964

1967

London. 1947-1950

in Paris.
at

&

a Picasso. Exhibition Catalogue. Paris,

Exhibition

Catalogue.

Rome, Feb.-March

Fig. 177; pp. 178,

222

POMODORO, GIO
Born

RODIN, AUGUSTE

1930, Orciano di Pesaro, Italy.

Studied architecture. Lives in

1840, Paris. 1854 at the Ecole des arts decoratifs. Pupil of Barye

and Carrier-Belleuse.

Milan.
Lit.:

Born

Dorfies. 'A. e

Gillo

G.Pomodoro'

La Biennale

in

34. Venice,

1 870-1 877 in Brussels, where he met C.Meunier.

Travelled in Italy and Germany. 1877 first important work, The Bronze

Age. 1889 joint exhibition with Monet. 1900

Jan.-March 1959
Marlborough-Roma. Exhibition Catalogue. Rome, Jan.-Feb. 1964
Fig. 130; p. 168

sculpture at the Paris

World

special pavilion for his

Exhibition. 1894 settled in

Meudon; died

there in 1917.
Lit.

Franz Roh, Rodin. Bern, Scherz, 1949

Met inleiding van Sommerville Story, Utrecht,

Rodin.

GERMAINE

RICHIER,

W.de

Haan, 195
Bernard Champigneulle. Rodin. London,

Thames and Hudson, 1967

worked with A.BourParis. 1959 died in Mont-

Born

1904, Grasse (Alpes-Maritimes). 192 5-1929

delle.

1939-1949 in Switzerland, then again in

pp. 183, 223, 224

pellier.
Lit.

Jean Grenier, 'Germaine Richier, sculpteur du

terrible' in

L'Oeil 9,

Sept. 1955

Born

The Museum of Modern Art,

Andrew
Musee

ROEDER, EMY

C.Ritchie.

national a" art

New

New

York.

The

New

Decade, ed. by

York 1955

modeme. Catalogue de l'exposition Germaine

Richier. Avant-propos de Jean Cassou. Paris, Editions des

1890, Wiirzburg. 1912-1914 pupil of B.Hoetger in Darmstadt.

1915-1930 in Berlin. 1933-1935 in Rome, then, till 1944, in Florence.
1937 forbidden to exhibit and proscribed. 1945-1949 in Rome. 1950
returned to Germany to teach in Mainz. Lives in Mainz.

Musees
Lit.:

nationaux, 1956
Peter Selz,

Modem

New

Images of Man.

New

York, The

Alfred Kuhn,

Emy Roeder.

Leipzig, Klinkhardt

& Biermann,

1921

(Junge Kunst, Bd. 18)

Museum of

H. Siebenhuner, Emy Roeder: Bildwerke und Zeichnungen aus

den Jahren 1919-1949. Bonn, 1950

Art, 1959

Germaine Richier, sculpteur 1904-1959. Texts by J. Cassou, Dor de

Souchere, Limbour, Pieyre de Mandriargues. Paris, Creuze-.

Friedrich Gerke,

Emy

Roeder. Wiesbaden, Steiner, 1963

la

vault,

Fig. 90; p. 153

1966
Figs. 67, 120; pp. 90,

159

ROSENTHAL, BERNARD
Born

RICKEY, GEORGE
Born 1907

in

South Bend, Indiana. 1913 the family moves to Scotland.

at the Ruskin School of Drawing, Oxford; 1929-1930

Lit.

1928-1929 studied
at the

Academie Lhote,

Paris. Since

Chatham,

New

Catherine Viviano,

by

1930 has taught in various American

colleges. 1945 first mobile. Lives in East

Lit.:

1914, Highland Park, Illinois. Studied at the University of Michi-

gan. Lives in Malibu, California.

The Kootz

The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. George Rickey,

Gallery,

1963
Fig. 175; p.

Sixteen Years of Kinetic Sculpture. Sept.-Nov. 1966

Staempjli Gallery, New York. Exhibition Catalogue,

with foreword

New York. Exhibition Catalogue, Feb. i960

New York. Exhibition Catalogue, Jan.-Feb.

Catherine Viviano,

New York.

York. Exhibition Catalogue

Frederick S.Wight. Jan.-Feb. 1958

222

George Rickey

Recent Kinetic Sculpture. May-June 1967

Fig. 234; pp. 277,

282

ROSSO,
Born

MEDARDO

1858, Turin. First active as painter. 1881-1883 at the

Brera in Milan. 1884-1885 in

RIS, GUNTER-FERDINAND
Born 1928, Manfort. Studied painting

sculpture.

in Karlsruhe, Diisseldorf

and

Lit.:

DuMont

pavilion.

ROSZAK, THEODORE
Born

Figs. 191, 244; pp. 227, 284, 313

1907, Poznan, Poland. 1909

moved to Chicago, USA.

1922 to 1928

New York. 1929-1930 in Europe. Began painting. 193 1 took up sculpture in New York. 1940-1945 worked in aircraft
industry. 1945 first steel sculptures. Lives in New York.
studied in Chicago and

Lit.:

MANUEL

H.H.Arnason, Theodor Roszak. Minneapolis, The Walker Art

Center, 1956

1927, Granada. Studied at Seville. Since 1951 has been living in

Madrid.
Lit.:

Fig. 86; p. 153

Exhibition

Galerie Thomas, Munich. Exhibition Catalogue. 1967

Born

Giovanni Papini, Medardo Rosso. Milan, Hoepli, 1945

Medardo Rosso. Milan, 1966

Schauberg, 1961

XXXIII. Biennale Venice 1966. German

Catalogue with text by Eduard Trier

RIVERA,

di

Impressionist

1889 lived mainly in Paris. 1928 died in Milan.

Carl Linfert. 'Giinter Ferdinand Ris' in Junge Kiinstler 61/62.

Cologne,

Accademia

met A.Rodin; took up

Giuseppe Marchiori.

Freiburg. Self-taught sculptor. Lives in Oberpleis.

Lit.:

From

Paris,

Theodore Roszak, 'The pursuit of an image' in

Quadrum

2,

Nov.

1956

C.L.Popovici, Las pinturas metalicas de Rivera. Madrid, Collec-

Peter Selz,

cion del art de hoy, 1958

Modern
pp. 31, 184

New

Images of Man.

New

York, The

Museum of

Art, 1959
Figs. 116, 202; pp. 160,

228

337

RUNYON, CORNELIA
Born 1887, USA. 1910 studied at the Art Students League,
Has been living since 1940 in Malibu, California.
Lit.:

New York.

SEGAL,

GEORGE

Born 1924

in

by Jules
Langsner, Pegot Waring and Rico Lebrun. Pasadena, March-

turned to sculpture. 1956

exhibition in

April 1956

Lit.:

Pasadena Art Museum. Exhibition Catalogue with texts

Brunswick,

1910,

USA.

Michigan,

Lit.:

Allan Temko. Eero Saarinen.

1961 died in

Ann Arbor,

New York,

Museum Amsterdam. Exhibition Catalogue 'American

by Alan R. Solomon. June-July 1964.
Alan Kaprow. Segal's vital mummies. In Art News, Feb. 1964

Born

SCHARFF, EDWIN
studied painting in Munich. 1911-

Edwin

Scharff.

Hamburg,

Stuttgart.

44

first

of the 'Triadisches

of the stage

class.

1905 Kunstgewerbeschule, Stuttgart;

1906

Meyerexperiments with the dance. 1916 production of part

Stuttgart.

Amden. 1912

Lit.:

Hanns Th. Flemming. Der Bildhauer Gustav

friend of Willi Baumeister and Otto

Ballett'.

1919

first

Oskar Schlemmer. Munich,

Prestel,

at the

Lit.

New

York.

sculpture.

Had

New York. David Smith Exhibition

by Sam Hunter, 1957
number on David Smith. February i960

Arts. Special

New

Gallery,

York.

Exhibition Catalogue,

Oct. 1964

43,83

Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo (Holland). Exhibition Cataet al.

SCHNABEL, DAY

May-July 1966
280

Figs. 154, 226; pp. 181,

1905, Vienna. Studied in Vienna and Holland. Emigrated to the

USA during the Second World War.

New York and Paris.
XXeme

Steele 9,

1947

moved

to France. Lives in

SOMAINI, FRANCESCO
Born

1957
Fig. 138; p. 179

Lit.:

Paris.

1950 turned to abstract sculpture. Lives in Paris.

Lit.:

Guy

Habasque, Jean

du

Comazzo, Como. Studied

at the

Accademia

di Brera, Milan.

Umbro Apollonio, Michel

du Griffon, i960

Tapie. Francesco Somaini. Neuchatel,

Editions

1912, Kalocsa, Hungary. Studied in Budapest. 1937

Editions

1926,

1948-1949 turned to abstract sculpture. Lives in Comazzo.

SCHOFFER, NICOLAS
Born

Ohio and

first steel

The Museum of Modern Art,

logue with text by Frank O'Hara

Lit.:

in

Catalogue. Introduction

1952

Fig. 36; pp.

Born

44

been living since 1941 in Bolton Landing, N.Y. Died in 1965 near
Bennington, Vt.

sculptures. 1923 Bauhaus, director

1925 to Dessau with the Bauhaus. 1929 Professor

Hildebrandt.

am

Frankfurt

SMITH, DAVID
Born 1906, Decatur, Indiana, USA. Educated
Employed for a time as metal worker. 1933

Marlborough-Gerson

Hans

Seitz.

Main, Societatsverlag, 1963

Akademie, Breslau; from 1932 at the Vereinigten Staatsschulen, Berlin;

dismissed in 1933. Died in Baden-Baden in 1943.
Lit.:

Karlsruhe.

in

p.

p.

Akademie,

Mannhcim-Neckarau. 1924-1925 studied

Claassen, 1956

SCHLEMMER, OSKAR
in

f.

GUSTAV

1906,

1946 and died there in 1955.

Gottfried Sello,

Born 1888

278

1925-1932 in Berlin. 193 3-193 8 ran a Meisteratelier at the Preussische

Akademie der Kiinste. 1946-1958 taught in Berlin. Lives and teaches in

1913 in France. 1922-1932 in Berlin. 1932-1934 in Diisseldorf. Taught

1966

Hamburg.

Neu-Ulm. 1904-1907

Hamburg from

19,

Fig. 220; pp.

SEITZ,

1962

Fig. 188; pp. 226, 228, 248

in

Art' with text

Michigan.

Braziller,

Eero Saarinen on his works. Ed. by Aline Saarinen. 1962

Lit.

New York

painter, then

York. Lives in North

Helsinki. Architect. Lived in Bloomfield

Hills,

1887,

New

first a

New Jersey.

Quadrum

Kirkkonummi,

first

Brunswick. At

Stedelijk

Pop

SAARINEN, EERO

Born

City. Studied at the University of

New

Fig. 91; p. 154

Born

New York

and the Rutgers University in

Cassou.

Nicholas

Schoffer.

moved

Fig. 115; p. 160

to

Neuchatel,

Griffon, 1963

STADLER, TONI
Born

Fig. 15; pp. 16,

282

1888,

Munich. 1925-1927 in

Paris.

1928-1938 in Munich. 1939-

1945 in Frankfurt-on-Main. Since 1946 has been living and teaching in

Munich.

SCHWITTERS, KURT
Born

1897, Hanover.

Berlin. 191 5 settled in

Lit.:

1908-1914 studied in Hanover, Dresden and

Hanover. 191 8

first

abstract compositions

Werner Haftmann, Der Bildhauer Toni Stadler. Munich, Piper

Biicherei, 1961

and

MERZbau. From 1934 onwards, prolonged stays in Norway. 1937 settled down in Lysaker near Oslo. 1940
fled to England. 1941 after internment, settled in London. 1945 moved to

Fig. 40; pp. 44, 156

beginning of MERZ-art. 1920

Little

Langdale, near Ambleside, Westmorland; died there in 1948.

Lit.

Kestner-Gesellschaft, Hanover.

Katalog Kurt Schwitters. Einfiihrung

von Werner Schmalenbach. Feb.-March 1956

Werner Schmalenbach. Kurt Schwitters, Leben und Werk. Cologne,

DuMont

Schauberg, 1967

Grew up

191 1 in Constance.

Paris.

1939 French subject. Lives in Meudon-Bellevue (Seine-et-Oise).

Lit.:

in Switzerland. 193 1

Francois Stahly. Presente par Jean

Paris, Collection

Art

Arp

began

studies in

et Henri-Pierre

Rocher.

naissant, Facchetti, 1953

Carola Giedion-Welcker. Francois Stahly. Paris, Paralleles, 1962

Fig. 200; pp. 228, 245

338

STAHLY, FRANgOIS
Born

Fig. 129; p. 178

STEINBRENNER, HANS
Born

and Munich (T.Stadler). 1954 scholarship from the

furt (H.Mettel),

DRAGO

TRSAR,

1928, Frankfurt-on-Main. 1946-1954 studied in Offenbach, Frank-

Born

1927, Planina, Yugoslavia. Lives in Ljubljana.

Lit.

Quadrum

Kulturkreis. Lives in Frankfurt.

Fig. 77; p. 149

Karlheinz Gabler. 'Hans Steinbrenner' in Junge Kiinstler 62/63.

Lit.:

DuMont

Cologne,

Schauberg, 1962
Fig. 64; p. 89

STEINER,
Born

RUDOLF

Born 1935 in Cairo, Egypt. 1937 moved to England. 1955-1958 studied

at Oxford University; 1958-1960 studied sculpture at St Martin's
School of Art, London, where he has been teaching since 1962. Lives in
London.

861, Kraljevic, Croatia. Studied at the Technische

Hochschule in

Weimar edition of Goethe. 1898-1900

Vienna. 1889-1896 worked on the

tausht

TUCKER, WILLIAM

Lit.:

Arbeiter-Bildunasschule in Berlin. Founder of anthro-

at the

Lit.

Rudolf Steiner,

Wege

first

Ibid.

lungskatalog 'Acht junge britische Bildhauer'. June-July 1967

Fig. 231; pp. 251 f, 281

UBAC, RAOUL

zu einem neuen Baustil, 1914

Mein Lebensgang, 1924

Der Baugedanke des Goetheanum.

Ibid.,

Born

Lit.:

TAUBER-ARP, SOPHIE
Born 1889, Davos, Switzerland. 1908-1913 studied in St Gallen, Munich
and Hamburg. 1916-1926 taught at the Kunstgewerbeschule in Zurich.
1916-1920 Dada period in Zurich. 1921 married Hans Arp. 1928-1940

Meudon

Lit.:

Sophie Tauber-Arp. Hrsg.

von Georg Schmidt.

Basle, Holbein,

Fig. 28; pp. 31

SHINKICHI

Born 1923

in Los Angeles, California. Studied in

f.

UHLMANN, HANS
Born 1900, Berlin. Began as engineer. 1925 turned to sculpture.
Numerous commissions for modern buildings. Lives in Berlin.
:

Chicago and

Museum Amsterdam. Exhibition Catalogue No.

Stedelijk

The Museum of Modem Art,

Andrew C.

moved

at Iris Clert's.

Signals, vol. 1,

No.

3/4.

(n. d.)

1886, Antwerp. Studied at the Brussels and

the de Stijl

movement and

the

K.G.Hulten. Tinguely

et le

mouvement. Metro

6,

Antwerp Academies.

Georges

Vantongerloo,

Paintings,

Sculptures,

Jan. 1965

Fig. 18; p.

29

Born 1921, Steenbergen, Noord Brabant, Netherlands. Studied

Antwerp and Brussels. Lives in Amsterdam.

in

Lit.:

Rijksmuseum Krb'ller-Muller, Otterlo (Holland). Exhibition Cata-

Stedelijk

Museum, Amsterdam. Exhibition Catalogue No. 316,

Sept.-Oct. 1962

logue Luginbiihl-Tinguely, 1967

Fig. 168; p. 221

Figs. 22, 236; pp. 29, 246,

282

f.

VIANI,

TROVA, ERNEST

Lit.:

Born

in St Louis, Missouri. Self-taught

first

artist.

1959

exhibition in the Pace Gallery,

Lawrence Alloway. Trova. Selected

The Pace

New

VERHULST, HANS

1962

Galerie Alexandre Jolas, Paris. Exhibition Catalogue, Dec. 1964-

in St Louis. 1963

Reflections.

York, Wittenborn, Schultz, 1948

Max Bill. Georges Vantongerloo. London, Marlborough, 1962
Margit Staber. Georges Vantongerloo. Art International X/2, 1966

to Paris.

Alain Jouffroy. Tinguely. L'Oeil 136, 1966

Born 1927

228

group Abstraction-Creation.

Lives in Soisy-sur-Ecole (Seine-et-Oise).

Lit.:

i960

1965 died in Paris.

Lit.:

TINGUELY, JEAN
moved

Seiler,

1965

1966

Fig. 23; p. 30

1925, Freiburg. First active as a painter. 1952

19,

VANTONGERLOO, GEORGES
Took part in

London, 1964

May

Quadrum

Figs. 161, 194; pp. 183,

Born

Galerie Alexandre Jolas, Paris. Exhibition Catalogue,

Decade, ed. by

nungen der Jahre 193 5-1960. Einleitung von Harald

of

New York.

The Hanover Gallery. Exhibition Catalogue, London

New

Kunst und Museumsverein Wuppertal. Katalog Plastik und Zeich-

to Paris. After a period

Lives in Paris and

The

415, 1967

archaizing figure sculpture, turned to iron mobiles. 1959 telemagnetic

compositions

York.

Galerie Der Spiegel. Geh durch den Spiegel Nr. 6. Texte von Will
Grohmann und E.W.Nay. Cologne, July-August 1956

Will Grohmann.

1925, Athens. Self-taught. 1954

New

Ritchie, 1955

Paris.

TAKIS

Born

Wuppertal. Ausstellungskatalog mit Einfiihrung-

Fig. 169; p. 221

Fig. 121; p. 160

up painting and

Galerie Maeght, Paris. Derriere le miroir 34 (1950), 74/76 (1955)*

105/106 (1958)
Georges Limbour, 'Raoul Ubac' in L'Oeil 29, May 1957

Galerie Parnass,

Lives in Baarlo (Limburg).

Lit.

in Paris. 1942 took

von Karlheinz Gorres. Oct.- Nov. 1959

Lit.

TAJIRI,

Born

Malmedy. From 1929

near Paris. 1941-1943 in Grasse. 1943 died in Zurich.

1948

Lit.:

1910,

slate reliefs.

Stuttgart, 1958

Fig, 186; p. 226

in

Generation: 1965

Peter Stuyvesant Foundation. London, March-April 1965

Kunstverein fur die Rheinlande und Westfalen, Diisseldorf. Ausstel-

Goetheanum in Dornach as a Hochschule der Geisteswissenschaften. 1922 Goetheanum burnt down. 1925
rebuilding began from designs by Steiner. 1925 died in Dornach.
posophy. 1913 erection of the

The new

Whitechapel Gallery, London.

The

Works

first

exhibition

New York.
New York,

1953-1966.

Gallery, 1966

ALBERTO

1906, Quistello, Prov. Mantua. Studied in Venice.

assistant

with Arturo Marini. 1948 teaching post

at the

Worked

as

Liceo Artistico in

Venice. Lives in Venice.

Lit.:

Umbro

Apollonio, 'Lavoro di Viani' in

La Biennale

31. Venice,

April-June 1958
Fig. 217; p.

278

p. 89

339

WOLFF, HELMUT

MARY

VIEIRA,
Born

1927, Sao Paolo, Brazil. 1952 in Ziirich, pupil of Max Bill. Lives

in Basle.
Lit.:

Modulo No.

16. Esculturas

de

Mary

Vicira.

Rio de Janeiro, Dec.

Born 1932, Laubenheim near Mainz. 1951-1957 studied in Berlin with

H.Uhlmann. 1959 scholarship from the Kulturkrcis; at the Villa
Massimo in Rome. Lives in Berlin.
Bauwelt 25. Berlin, June 1958

Lit.:

1959

Fig. 184; p.

225

1907, Vienna. 1925-1927 studied in Vienna with Hanak. 1928

first

Fig. 163; p. 184

WOTRUBA, FRITZ
VISEUX,
Born

CLAUDE

1927, Champagne-sur-Oisc. 1944

non-figurative.
Lit.:

Born

he

Both

paints

first

and carves. Lives

compositions. 1950 turned

in Paris.

Point Cardinal, Paris. Claude Viseux: Sculptures 1964-1965.

Exhibition Catalogue, Nov. 1965

1938-1945 in Switzerland. Since 1945 has been

living in Vienna and teaching in the sculpture department of the
stone composition.

Academy.
Lit.:

Cimaise 78, 1966

Elias Canctti, Fritz

Peter Selz,

Modern

Fig. 85; pp. 30, 150

New

Wotruba. Vienna, Rosenbaum, 1955

Images of Man.

New

York, The

Museum of

Art, 1959

Marcel Joray. Fritz Wotruba. Neuchatel, Editions du

Friedrich Heer,

Griffon, 1961

VOLTEN, ANDRE

Eduard

Born

1920, Andijk, Holland. Self-taught. Lives in

Lit.:

A.M.Hatmnacher, 'Andre Volten' in Quadrum 1, May 1956

Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam. Exhibition Catalogue No. 397,
May-June 1966

Amsterdam.

Trier.

Skulptur-Architektur. Marburger Universitatsbund,

Jahrbuch 1965

Fig. 157; p. 188

Figs. 43, 204; pp.

83,247

ZADKINE, OSSIP
Born

1890, Smolensk. 1906 at school in England. 1909

191 1 set up as independent sculptor. 1940-1945

in

moved to Paris.
USA. 1945

the

returned to France. 1950 awarded the Grand Prix at the Venice Biennale.

VOULKOS, PETER
Born

1924,

a potter.

H.

1967 died in Paris.

Bozeman, Montana, USA.

1946-1952

studied

in

Of Greek extraction.

Montana and

Trained

as

California. Lives in

Berkeley, California.
Lit.:

University Art

Raymond

Cogniat, Zadkine. Paris, Editions Hautefeuille, 1958

Jean Cassou. Ossip Zadkine. Amriswil, Bodensee-Verlag, 1962

A.M.Hamtnacher. Zadkine. Munich, Ahrbeck, Knorr

Museum,

'Funk' with text

Lit.:

Berkeley, California. Exhibition Catalogue

by Peter

Selz.

April-May 1967

&

Hirth,

1964
Ionel Jianou. Zadkine. Paris, Arted, 1964

Fig. 136; p. 179

Figs. 57, 179; pp. 86,

224

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

3 9999 01812

100 2

Boston Public Library

BRIGHTON
BRANCH LIBRARY
3ad

RR IGHTGN
.ER4NCH

9999042 71

The Da
cates the

date

on

book should be returned

Please

pocket.

9 ocket indi-

or before

which

this

to the Library.

do not remove cards from

this

ME