AET-2006 Reading 8A

My Pre-Exam Reading on
Acoustic Emission Testing

Literature Reading 8
2016-05: For my ASNT Level III Examination

on coming 2016 August.
22th July 2016
Fion Zhang/ Charlie Chong
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
Fion Zhang at Copenhagen Harbor

22st July 2016
SME- Subject Matter Expert

http://cn.bing.com/videos/search?q=Walter+Lewin&FORM=HDRSC3
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiEHVhv0SBMpP75JbzJShqw
http://www.yumpu.com/zh/browse/user/charliechong
http://issuu.com/charlieccchong
http://independent.academia.edu/CharlieChong1
http://greekhouseoffonts.com/
The Magical Book of Tank Inspection ICP
ASNT Certification Guide

NDT Level III / PdM Level III
AE - Acoustic Emission Testing
Length: 4 hours Questions: 135
1 Principles and Theory
Characteristics of acoustic emission testing
Materials and deformation
Sources of acoustic emission
Wave propagation
Attenuation
Kaiser and Felicity effects, and Felicity ratio
Terminology (refer to acoustic emission glossary, ASTM 1316)
2 Equipment and Materials

Transducing processes
Sensors
Sensor attachments
Sensor utilization
Simulated acoustic emission sources
Cables
Signal conditioning
Signal detection
Signal processing
Source location
Advanced signal processing
Acoustic emission test systems
Accessory materials
Factors affecting test equipment
selection
3 Techniques
Equipment calibration and set up for
test
Establishing loading procedures
Precautions against noise
Special test procedures
Data displays
4 Interpretation and Evaluation

Data interpretation
Data evaluation
Reports
5 Procedures
6 Safety and Health
7 Applications
Laboratory studies (materialcharacterization)
Structural applications
References & Catalog Numbers

NDT Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 5, Acoustic Emission Testing
Catalog Number 130
Acoustic Emission: Techniques and Applications Catalog Number 752
Fion
Zhang
DNcn=Fion
Zhang,
o=Technical,
ou=Academic,
email=fion_zhang
@qq.com, c=CN
2016.07.24
00:27:39 +08'00'
Designation: E 1316 05
Standard Terminology for
Nondestructive Testing
Section B: Acoustic Emission (E 750, E 1067, and E 1118)

The boldface designations in parentheses indicate the standards from which
the terms in that section were derived. The terms defined in Section B are the
direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.04 on Acoustic Emission Method.
acoustic emission (AE)

the class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are generated by
the rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material, or the
transient waves so generated. Acoustic emission is the recommended term
for general use. Other terms that have been used in AE literature include:
(1) stress wave emission,
(2) microseismic activity, and
(3) emission or acoustic emission with other qualifying modifiers.
acousticemission channelsee channel, acoustic emission. Acoustic
emission count (emission count) (N)see count, acoustic emission.
acoustic emission count ratesee count rate, acoustic emission
(emission rate or count rate) (). acoustic emission eventsee event,
acoustic emission. acoustic emission event energysee energy, acoustic
event. acoustic emission sensorsee sensor, acoustic emission. Acoustic
emission signal amplitudesee signal amplitude, acoustic emission.
acoustic emission signal (emission signal)see signal, acoustic emission.
acoustic emission signature (signature)see signature, acoustic emission.
acoustic emission transducersee sensor, acoustic emission. Acoustic
emission waveguidesee waveguide, acoustic emission.
acousto-ultrasonics (AU)a nondestructive examination method that uses

induced stress waves to detect and assess diffuse defect states, damage
conditions, and variations of mechanical properties of a test structure. The AU
method combines aspects of acoustic emission (AE) signal analysis with
ultrasonic materials characterization techniques.
adaptive locationsource location by iterative use of simulated sources in
combination with computed location.
AE activity, nthe presence of acoustic emission during a test.
AE amplitudesee dBAE.
AE rms, nthe rectified, time averaged AE signal, measured on a linear

scale and reported in volts.
AE signal durationthe time between AE signal start and AE signal end.
AE signal endthe recognized termination of an AE signal, usually defined
as the last crossing of the threshold by that signal.
AE signal generatora device which can repeatedly induce a specified
transient signal into an AE instrument.
AE signal rise timethe time between AE signal start and the peak
amplitude of that AE signal.
AE signal startthe beginning of an AE signal as recognized by the system
processor, usually defined by an amplitude excursion exceeding threshold.
array, na group of two or more AE sensors positioned on a structure for the
purposes of detecting and locating sources. The sources would normally be
within the array. arrival time interval (tij)see interval, arrival time.
attenuation, nthe decrease in AE amplitude per unit distance, normally

expressed in dB per unit length.
average signal level, nthe rectified, time averaged AE logarithmic signal,
measured on the AE amplitude logarithmic scale and reported in dBae units
(where 0 dBae refers to 1 V at the preamplifier input).
burst emissionsee emission, burst.
channel, acoustic emissionan assembly of a sensor, preamplifier or
impedance matching transformer, filters secondary amplifier or other
instrumentation as needed, connecting cables, and detector or processor.
NOTE 2 - A channel for examining fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) may
utilize more than one sensor with associated electronics. Channels may be
processed independently or in predetermined groups having similar sensitivity
and frequency characteristics.
continuous emissionsee emission, continuous.

count, acoustic emission (emission count) (N)the number of times the
acoustic emission signal exceeds a preset threshold during any selected
portion of a test.
count, event (Ne)the number obtained by counting each discerned
acoustic emission event (count or hit?) once.
count rate, acoustic emission (emission rate or count rate) ()the time
rate at which emission counts occur. (count/second?)
count, ring-downsee count, acoustic emission, the preferred term. (ringdown, the word down could be confusing to indicate the counts of subsiding
amplitude after maxima)
couplanta material used at the structure-to-sensor interface to improve the
transmission of acoustic energy across the interface during acoustic emission
monitoring.
cumulative (acoustic emission) amplitude distribution F(V) see distribution,
amplitude, cumulative.
cumulative (acoustic emission) threshold crossing distribution Ft (V)see
distribution, threshold crossing, cumulative.
dBAEa logarithmic measure of acoustic emission signal amplitude,

referenced to 1 V at the sensor, before amplification.
Signal peak amplitude dBAE = dB 1V at sensor = 20 log10(A1/A0)
(1)
where:
A0 = 1 V at the sensor (before amplification), and
A1 = peak voltage of the measured acoustic emission signal (also before
amplification).
Acoustic Emission Reference Scale:
dBAE Value
0
20
40
60
80
100
Voltage at Sensor
1V
10 V
100 V
1 mV
10 mV
100 mV
DISCUSSIONIn the case of sensors with integral preamplifiers, the AO

reference is before internal amplification.
dead timeany interval during data acquisition when the instrument or

system is unable to accept new data for anyreason. (E 750)3
differential (acoustic emission) amplitude distribution F(V)- see distribution,
differential (acoustic emission) amplitude f(V).
differential (acoustic emission) threshold crossing distribution ft (V) - see
distribution, differential (acoustic emission) threshold crossing.
distribution, amplitude, cumulative (acoustic emission) F(V)
the number of acoustic emission events with signals that exceed an arbitrary
amplitude as a function of amplitude V.
distribution, threshold crossing, cumulative (acoustic emission) Ft (V) the number of times the acoustic emission signal exceeds an arbitrary
threshold as a function of the threshold voltage (V).
distribution, differential (acoustic emission) amplitude f(V)the number

of acoustic emission events with signal amplitudes between amplitudes of V
and V + V as a function of the amplitude V. f(V) is the absolute value of the
derivative of the cumulative amplitude distribution F(V).
distribution, differential (acoustic emission) threshold crossing ft (V)
the number of times the acoustic emission signal waveform has a peak
between thresholds V and V + V as a function of the threshold V. ft(V) is the
absolute value of the derivative of the cumulative threshold crossing
distribution Ft (V).
distribution, differential (acoustic emission) threshold crossing ft (V)

the number of times the acoustic emission signal waveform has a peak
between thresholds V and V + V as a function of the threshold V. Ft (V) is
the absolute value of the derivative of the cumulative threshold crossing
distribution Ft (V).
distribution, logarithmic (acoustic emission) amplitude g(V)the number
of acoustic emission events with signal amplitudes between V and V (where
is a constant multiplier) as a function of the amplitude. This is a variant of
the differential amplitude distribution, appropriate for logarithmically windowed
data.
dynamic rangethe difference, in decibels, between the overload level and
the minimum signal level (usually fixed by one or more of the noise levels,
low-level distortion, interference, or resolution level) in a system or sensor.
(dB overload dB threshold ?)
effective velocity, nvelocity calculated on the basis of arrival times and

propagation distances determined by artificial AE generation; used for
computed location.
emission, bursta qualitative description of the discrete signal related to an
individual emission event occurring within the material.
NOTE 3 - Use of the term burst emission is recommended only for describing
the qualitative appearance of emission signals. Fig. 1 shows an
oscilloscope trace of burst emission signals on a background of continuous
emission.
FIG. 1 Burst Emission on a Continuous Emission Background. (Sweep

Rate - 5 ms/cm.)
emission, continuousa qualitative description of the sustained signal level

produced by rapidly occurring acoustic emission from structural sources,
leaks, or both.
NOTE 4 - Use of the term continuous emission is recommended only
for describing the qualitative appearance of emission signals. Fig. 2 and
Fig. 3 show oscilloscope traces of continuous emission signals at two
different sweep rates.
FIG. 2 Continuous Emission. (Sweep Rate5 ms/cm.)
FIG. 3 Continuous Emission. (Sweep Rate0.1 ms/cm.)
energy, acoustic emission eventthe total elastic energy released by an

emission event.
energy, acoustic emission signalthe energy contained in a detected
acoustic emission burst signal, with units usually reported in joules and
values which can be expressed in logarithmic form (dB, decibels).
evaluation thresholda threshold value used for analysis of the
examination data. Data may be recorded with a system examination threshold
lower than the evaluation threshold. For analysis purposes, dependence of
measured data on the system examination threshold must be taken into
consideration.
evaluation thresholda threshold value used for analysis of the

examination data. Data may be recorded with a system examination threshold
lower than the evaluation threshold. For analysis purposes, dependence of
measured data on the system examination threshold must be taken into
consideration.
event, acoustic emission (emission event)a local material change giving

rise to acoustic emission.
event count (Ne)see count, event.
event count rate (e)see rate, event count.
examination areathat portion of a structure being monitored with acoustic
emission.
examination regionthat portion of the test article evaluated using acoustic
emission technology.
Felicity effect - the presence of acoustic emission, detectable at a fixed
predetermined sensitivity level at stress levels below those previously applied.
(E 1067)
Felicity ratiothe ratio of the stress at which the Felicity effect occurs to the
previously applied maximum stress. (E 1067, E 1118)
NOTE 5The fixed sensitivity level will usually be the same as was
used for the previous loading or test. (E 1118)
instrumentation dead timesee dead time, instrumentation.
first hit locationa zone location method defined by which a channel
among a group of channels first detects the signal.
floating thresholdany threshold with amplitude established by a time
average measure of the input signal. (E 750)
hitthe detection and measurement of an AE signal on a channel.
interval, arrival time (tij)the time interval between the detected arrivals of
an acoustic emission wave at the ith and jth sensors of a sensor array.
Kaiser effectthe absence of detectable acoustic emission at a fixed

sensitivity level, until previously applied stress levels are exceeded.
location accuracy, na value determined by comparison of the actual
position of an AE source (or simulated AE source) to the computed location.
location, cluster, na location technique based upon a specified
amount of AE activity located within a specified length or area, for example: 5
events within 12 linear inches or 12 square inches.
location, computed, na source location method based on algorithmic

analysis of the difference in arrival times among sensors.
NOTE 6Several approaches to computed location are used, including
linear location, planar location, three dimensional location, and adaptive
location.
a. linear location, none dimensional source location requiring two or more
channels.
b. planar location, ntwo dimensional source location requiring three or
more channels.
c. 3D location, n three dimensional source location requiring five or more
channels.
d. adaptive location, nsource location by iterative use / of
simulated sources in combination with computed location.
location, continuous AE signal, n - a method of location based on

continuous AE signals, as opposed to hit or difference in arrival time location
methods.
NOTE 7 - This type of location is commonly used in leak location due
to the presence of continuous emission. Some common types of continuous
signal location methods include signal attenuation and correlation
analysis methods.
(a) signal attenuation-based source location, n - a source location method that
relies on the attenuation versus distance phenomenon of AE signals. By
monitoring the AE signal magnitudes of the continuous signal at various
points along the object, the source can be determined based on the
highest magnitude or by interpolation or extrapolation of multiple readings.
(b) correlation-based source location, n - a source location method that
compares the changing AE signal levels (usually waveform based
amplitude analysis) at two or more points surrounding the source and
determines the time displacement of these signals. The time displacement
data can be used with conventional hit based location techniques to arrive
at a solution for the source site.
Correlation-Based Source Location

Dispersion and Group Velocity
The velocity defined in 2-4 is the phase velocity. For
unbounded media and surface waves on a single
surface, this wave velocity is independent of
frequency. By contrast, all waves traveling in bounded
media (where the physical dimensions are within an
order of magnitude of the acoustic wave length) are
dispersive, that is, the phase velocity is a function of
frequency
Figure 2-3. Waveform with compression

and shear wave (a) at origin, (b) some
distance from origin
time displacement of signal (a)
location, source, nany of several methods of evaluating AE data to

determine the position on the structure from which the AE originated. Several
approaches to source location are used, including zone location, computed
location, and continuous location.
location, zone, nany of several techniques for determining the general

region of an acoustic emission source (forexample, total AE counts, energy,
hits, and so forth).
NOTE 8Several approaches to zone location are used, including
independent channel zone location, first hit zone location, and arrival
sequence zone location.
(a) independent channel zone location, na zone location technique that
compares the gross amount of activity from each channel.
(b) first-hit zone location, na zone location technique that compares only
activity from the channel first detecting the AE event.
(c) arrival sequence zone location, na zone location technique that
compares the order of arrival among sensors.
logarithmic (acoustic emission) amplitude distribution g(V) - see distribution,

logarithmic (acoustic emission) amplitude.
overload recovery timean interval of nonlinear operation of an instrument
caused by a signal with amplitude in excess of the instruments linear
operating range.
performance check, AE systemsee verification, AE system.
pressure, designpressure used in design to determine the required
minimum thickness and minimum mechanical properties.
processing capacitythe number of hits that can be processed at the
processing speed before the system must interrupt data collection to clear
buffers or otherwise prepare for accepting additional data.
processing speed - the sustained rate (hits/s), as a function of the parameter

set and number of active channels, at which AE signals can be continuously
processed by a system without interruption for data transport.
rate, event count (e) - the time rate of the event count.
rearm delay time - see time, rearm delay.
ring-down countsee count, acoustic emission, the preferred term.
sensor, acoustic emission - a detection device, generally piezoelectric, that
transforms the particle motion produced by an elastic wave into an electrical
signal.
signal, acoustic emission (emission signal) - an electrical signal obtained
by detection of one or more acoustic emission events.
signal amplitude, acoustic emission - the peak voltage of the largest

excursion attained by the signal waveform from an emission event.
signal overload level - that level above which operation ceases to be
satisfactory as a result of signal distortion, overheating, or damage.
signal overload pointthe maximum input signal amplitude at which the
ratio of output to input is observed to remain within a prescribed linear
operating range.
signal strength - the measured area of the rectified AE signal with units
proportional to volt-sec. (MARSE)
DISCUSSIONThe proportionality constant is specified by the AE instrument
manufacturer.
signature, acoustic emission (signature)a characteristic set of

reproducible attributes of acoustic emission signals associated with a specific
test article as observed with a particular instrumentation system under
specified test conditions.
stimulationthe application of a stimulus such as force, pressure, heat, and
so forth, to a test article to cause activation of acoustic emission sources.
system examination thresholdthe electronic instrument threshold (see
evaluation threshold) which data will be detected.
transducers, acoustic emissionsee sensor, acoustic emission.
verification, AE system (performance check, AE system) - the process of
testing an AE system to assure conformance to a specified level of
performance or measurement accuracy. (This is usually carried out prior to,
during and/or after an AE examination with the AE system connected to the
examination object, using a simulated or artificial acoustic emission source.)
voltage threshold - a voltage level on an electronic comparator such that

signals with amplitudes larger than this level will be recognized. The voltage
threshold may be user adjustable, fixed, or automatic floating. (E 750)
waveguide, acoustic emissiona device that couples elastic energy from a
structure or other test object to a remotely mounted sensor during AE
monitoring. An example of an acoustic emission waveguide would be a solid
wire of rod that is coupled at one end to a monitored structure, and to a
sensor at the other end.
Designation: E 650 97 (Reapproved 2002)e1

Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric
Acoustic Emission Sensors
1. Scope
1.1 This document provides guidelines for mounting piezoelectric
acoustic emission (AE) sensors.
1.2 UnitsThe values stated in either SI units or inchpound units are to be
regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not
be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of
the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in
nonconformance with the standard.
1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if
any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard
to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the
applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
E976 Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sensor
Response E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
3. Terminology
3.1 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
3.1.1 bonding agenta couplant that physically attaches the sensor to the
structure.
3.1.2 couplanta material used at the structure-to-sensor interface to
improve the transfer of acoustic energy across the interface.
3.1.3 mountingfixturea device that holds the sensor in place on the
structure to be monitored.
3.1.4 sensora detection device that transforms the particle motion produced
by an elastic wave into an electrical signal.
3.1.5 waveguide, acoustica device that couples acoustic energy from a
structure to a remotely mounted sensor. For example, a solid wire or rod,
coupled to a sensor at one end and to the structure at the other.
3.2 Definitions:
3.2.1 For definitions of additional terms relating to acoustic emission, refer to
Terminology E1316. (Read)
4. Significance and Use

4.1 The methods and procedures used in mounting AE sensors can have
significant effects upon the performance of those sensors. Optimum and
reproducible detection of AE requires both appropriate sensor-mounting
fixtures and consistent sensor-mounting procedures.
5. Mounting Methods
5.1 The purpose of the mounting method is to hold the sensor in a fixed
position on a structure and to ensure that the acoustic coupling between the
sensor and the structure is both adequate and constant. Mounting methods
will generally fall into one of the following categories:
5.1.1 Compression MountsThe compression mount holds the sensor in
intimate contact with the surface of the structure through the use of force.
This force is generally supplied by springs, torqued-screw threads, magnets,
tape, or elastic bands. The use of a couplant is strongly advised with a
compression mount to maximize the transmission of acoustic energy through
the sensor-structure interface.
5.1.2 BondingThe sensor may be attached directly to the structure with a
suitable adhesive. In this method, the adhesive acts as the couplant. The
adhesive must be compatible with the structure, the sensor, the environment,
and the examination procedure.
Note: Use of couplant is not a mounting method.
6. Mounting Requirements
6.1 Sensor SelectionThe correct sensors should be chosen to optimally
accomplish the acoustic-emission examination objective. Sensor parameters
to be considered are as follows: size, sensitivity, frequency response,
surface-motion response, and environmental and material compatibility.
When a multichannel acoustic-emission examination is being conducted, a
subset of sensors with characteristics similar to each other should be selected.
See Guide E976 for methods of comparing sensor characteristics.
6.2 Structure PreparationThe contacting surfaces should be cleaned and

mechanically prepared. This will enhance the detection of the desired
acoustic waves by assuring reliable coupling of the acoustic energy from the
structure to the sensor. Preparation of these surfaces must be compatible
with the construction materials used in both the sensor and the structure.
Possible losses in acoustic energy transmission caused by coatings such as
paint, encapsulants, loose-mill scale, weld spatter, and oxides as well as
losses due to surface curvature at the contact area must be considered.
6.3 Couplant or Bonding Agent Selection:
6.3.1 The type of couplant or bonding agent should be selected with
appropriate consideration for the effects of the environment (for example,
temperature, pressure, composition of gas, or liquid environment) on the
couplant and the constraints of the application. It should be chemically
compatible with the structure and not be a possible cause of corrosion. In
some cases, it may be a requirement that the couplant be completely
removable from the surface after examination. In general, the selection of the
couplant is as important from an environmental standpoint as it is from the
acoustical standpoint.
6.3.2 For sensors that are primarily sensitive to particle motion perpendicular
to their face, the viscosity of the couplant is not an important factor. Most
liquids or greases will work as a couplant if they wet the surfaces of both the
structure and the sensor.
For those few sensors which are sensitive primarily to motion in the plane of
their face, very high-viscosity couplant or a rigid bond is recommended. (lamb
wave?)
6.3.3 The thickness of the couplant may alter the effective sensitivity of the
sensor. The thinnest practical layer of continuous couplant is usually the best.
Care should be taken that there are no entrapped voids in the couplant.
Unevenness, such as a taper from one side of the sensor to the other, can
also reduce sensitivity or produce an unwanted directionality in the sensor
response.
6.3.4 A useful method for applying a couplant is to place a small amount of

the material in the center of the sensor face, then carefully press the sensor
on to the structure surface, spreading the couplant uniformly from the center
to the outside of the sensor face.
6.3.5 In some applications, it may be impractical to use a couplant because of
the nature of the environment (for example, very high temperatures or
extreme cleanliness requirements). In these situations, a dry contact may be
used, provided sufficient mechanical force is applied to hold the sensor
against the structure. The necessary contact pressure must be determined
experimentally. As a rough guide, this pressure should exceed 0.7 MPa [100
psi].
Keywords:
As a rough guide, this pressure should exceed 0.7 MPa [100 psi].
6.3.6 Great care must be taken when bonding a sensor to a structure.

Surface deformation, that can be produced by either mechanical loading or
thermal expansion, may cause a bond to crack, peel off, or, occasionally,
destroy the sensor. Bond cracking is a source of acoustic emission. A
compliant adhesive may work in some cases. If differential expansion
between the sensor, the bond, and the surface is a possibility, a suitable
bonding agent should be confirmed by experiment.
6.3.7 When bonds are used, the possibility of damaging either the sensor or
the surface of the structure during sensor removal must be considered.
6.3.8 The use of double-sided adhesive tape as a bonding agent is not
recommended.
The use of double-sided adhesive tape as a bonding agent is not

recommended.
6.4 Mounting Fixture Selection:

6.4.1 Mounting fixtures must be constructed so that they do not create
extraneous acoustic emission or mask valid acoustic emission generated in
the structure being monitored.
6.4.1.1 The mount must not contain any loose parts of particles.
6.4.1.2 Permanent mounting may require special techniques to prevent
sensor movement caused by environmental changes.
6.4.1.3 Detection of surface waves may be suppressed if the sensor is
enclosed by a welded-on fixture or located at the bottom of a threaded hole.
The mounting fixture should always be designed so that it does not block out
a significant amount of acoustic energy from any direction of interest.
6.4.2 The mounting fixture should provide support for the signal cable to
prevent the cable from stressing the sensor or the electrical connectors. In the
absence of a mounting fixture, some form of cable support should be
provided. Care should be taken to ensure that the cable can neither vibrate
nor be moved easily. False signals may be generated by the cable striking
the structure and by triboelectric effects produced by cable movement.
6.4.3 Where necessary, protection from the environment should be provided
for the sensor or sensor and mounting fixture.
6.4.4 The mounting fixture should not affect the integrity of the structure being
monitored.
6.4.4.1 Permanently installed mounting fixtures must be constructed of a
material compatible with the structure. Possible electrolytic effects or other
forms of corrosion must be considered when designing the mounting fixture.
6.4.4.2 Alterations of the local environment by the mount, such as removal of
the insulation, must be carefully evaluated and corrected if necessary.
6.4.5 The mounting fixture should be designed to have a minimal effect on the
response characteristics of the sensor.
6.5 WaveguidesWhen adverse environments make direct contact between

the sensor and the structure undesirable, an acoustic waveguide may be
used to convey the acoustic signal from the structure to the sensor. The use
of a waveguide inserts another interface with its associated losses between
the structure and the sensor and will distort, to some degree, the
characteristics of the acoustic wave.
6.5.1 An acoustic waveguide should be mounted so as to ensure that its
surface will not contact any materials that will cause signal damping in the
waveguide.
6.5.2 If acoustic waveguides are used when acoustic emission source
location is being performed, the extra time delay in the waveguides must be
accounted for in the source location program.
Wave Guide
http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/15/5/11805/htm
7. Verification of Response
7.1 After the sensor(s) are mounted on a structure, adequate response
should be verified by injecting acoustic signals into the structure and
examining the detected signal either on an oscilloscope or with the AE
system to be used in the examination. If there is any doubt as to the sensor
response, the sensor should be remounted.
7.1.1 The test signal may be injected by an external source such as the Hsupencil source, or a gas jet (helium or other suitable gas), or by applying an
electrical pulse to another sensor mounted on the structure. For a description
of these methods see Guide E976.
7.2 Periodic VerificationOn an extended acoustic emission examination, it
may be desirable to verify the response of the sensors during the examination.
Verification should be performed whenever circumstances indicate the
possibility of a change in the coupling efficiency.
7.3 Post VerificationAt the end of an acoustic emission examination, it is
good practice to verify that all sensors are still working and that there have
been no dramatic changes in coupling efficiencies.
8. Report
8.1 Any report of the mounting practice should include details of the sensor
mounting fixture(s), surface preparation method, and the couplant that was
used.
9. Keywords
9.1 acoustic emission; acoustic emission sensors; Acoustic emission
transducers; AE; bonding agent; couplant; Mounting fixture; Waveguide
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Paralichthys lethostigma (Fluke, Southern Flounder) /
STANDARD PRACTICE FOR

CHARACTERIZING ACOUSTIC
EMISSION INSTRUMENTATION SE-750
1. Scope
1.1 This practice is recommended for use in testing and measuring operating
characteristics of acoustic emission electronic components or units. (See
Appendix X1 for a description of components and units.) It is not intended that
this practice be used for routine checks of acoustic emission instrumentation,
but rather for periodic evaluation or in the event of a malfunction. The sensor
is not addressed in this document other than suggesting methods for
tandardizing system gains (equalizing them channel to channel) when
sensors are present.
1.2 Where the manufacturer provides testing and measuring details in an
operating and maintenance manual, the manufacturers methods should be
used in conjunction with the methods described in this practice.
1.3 The methods (techniques) used for testing and measuring the
components or units of acoustic emission instrumentation, and the results of
such testing and measuring should be documented. Documentation should
consist of photographs, screenshots, charts or graphs, calculations, and
tabulations where applicable.
1.4 AE systems that use computers to control the collection, storage, display,
and data analysis, might include waveform collection as well as a wide
selection of measurement parameters (features) relating to the AE signal. The
manufacturer provides a specification for each system that specifies the
operating range and conditions for the system. All calibration and acceptance
testing of computer-based AE systems must use the manufacturers
specification as a guide. This practice does not cover testing of the computer
or computer peripherals.
1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other
units of measurement are included in this standard.
1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if
any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard
to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the
applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 ASTM Standards:
E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
2.2 ANSI Standard:
ANSI/IEEE 100-1984 Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms
2.3 Other Documents:
Manufacturers Operating and Maintenance Manuals pertinent to the specific
instrumentation or component
3. Terminology
3.1 DefinitionsFor definitions of additional terms relating to acoustic
emission, refer to Terminology E1316.
4. Summary of Practice
4.1 Tests and measurements should be performed to determine the
instrumentation bandwidth, frequency response, gain, noise level, threshold
level, dynamic range, signal overload point, dead time, and counter accuracy.
4.2 Where acoustic emission test results depend upon the reproduced
accuracy of the (1) temporal, (2) spatial, or (3) spectral histories, additional
measurements of instrumentation parameters should be performed to
determine the specific limits of instrumentation performance. Examples of
such measurements may include amplifier slew rate, gate window width and
position, and spectral analysis.
4.3 Tests and measurements should be performed to determine the loss in
effective sensor sensitivity resulting from the capacitive loading of the cable
between the preamplifier and the sensor. The cable and preamplifier should
be the same as that used for the acoustic emission tests without substitution.
(See also Appendix Appendix X2.)
Cable Capacitive & Inductive Loading

the cable does not act enough like a transmission line. These short cables (short in terms of a wavelength) act like nothing more
complicated than the sum of these parallel capacitances, series inductances and series resistances. When load impedances are
high, the series inductance, like the series resistance, is too small to have significant effect. Transmission line behavio frequencies
get higher, the electrical signal can travel from one end of the cable to the other and be reflected back to the sending end, just like
a sound wave bouncing off of a reflecting surface. This kind of reflection hap with a resistance equal to its characteristic
impedance, and is the reason video, RF, and high speed digital lines need to be terminated. A line with no termination (or a
different value of termination) is called a mismatched line, and can smear the signal or even weaken it significantly when a
reflected signal exactly cancels the forward one. A line with the proper termination passes the signal with no problems more
severe than the lines simple resistive loss (which gets larger at radio frequencies, mostly because of skin effect). The
characteristic impedance o material and the spacing between its conductors.1 For modern audio cables, this is on the order of
60. (A recent major cable manufacturers catalog specifies nominal characteristic impedances of its audio snake cables as 50
for one type and 70 for another).
The equation for calcula to determine what values to plug into the equation for a given cable. You can get a feel for this
impedance intuitively, however, by comparing audio cables to some familiar cables of known impedance RG58, RG-59 and
300 twin-lead, for example and noting their relative conductor sizes and spacings. A 600 ohm cable that has conductors the
same size as twin-lead (about #22) would need much wider conductor spacing than twin-lead would need. The electrical
wavelength of a 20kHz signal in typical cable is nearly 10,000m (more than 6 miles). To start showing transmission-line effects,
the cable would have to be at least 0.1-wavelength long, which, at 20kHz, is 1,000m (3,280 feet). Significant harmonic energy is
present in all live audio. Response p 60kHz can cause measurable and audible distortion of the waveform when this ultrasonic
energy is clipped or excites intermodulation, generating distortion products (including oscillation) inside the conventional (up to
20kHz) audio spectrum. 3 Minor transmission line effects will begin to appear at 60kHz with about 330m (1,100 feet) of cable.
http://audiosystemsgroup.com/CableCapacitance.pdf
http://home.mira.net/~marcop/ciocahalf.htm
4.3.1 Important tests of a computer-based AE system include the evaluation

of limits and linearity of the available parameters such as:
(a) Amplitude,
(b) Duration,
(c) Rise Time,
(d) Energy, and
(e) AE Arrival Time.
4.3.2 The processing speed of these data should be measured as described
in 7.4.3 for both single- and multiplechannel operation.
4.3.3 The data storage capability should be tested against the specification
for single- and multiple-channel operation. Processing speed is a function of
number of channels, parameters being measured, timing parameter settings,
AE signal duration, front-end filtering, storage device (RAM, disk), and on-line
analysis settings (number of graphs, data listings, location algorithms, and
more). If waveform recording is used, this may influence the processing
speed further.
AE available parameters such as:
5. Significance and Use

5.1 This practice provides information necessary to document the accuracy
and performance of an Acoustic Emission system. This information is useful
for reference purposes to assure that the instrumentation performance
remains consistent with time and use, and provides the information needed to
adjust the system to maintain its consistency.
5.2 The methods set forth in this practice are not intended to be either
exclusive or exhaustive.
5.3 Difficult or questionable instrumentation measurements should be referred
to electronics engineering personnel.
5.4 It is recommended that personnel responsible for carrying ut instrument
measurements using this practice should be experienced in instrumentation
measurements, as well as all the required test equipment being used to make
the measurements.
6. Apparatus
6.1 The basic test instruments required for measuring the operating
characteristics of acoustic emission instrumentation
include:
6.1.1 Variable Sine Wave Generator or Oscillator,
6.1.2 True RMS Voltmeter,
6.1.3 Oscilloscope,
6.1.4 Variable Attenuator, graduated in decibels, and
6.1.5 Tone Burst Generator.
Variable Sine Wave Generator or Oscillator,
http://www.parts-express.com/rolls-mo2020-test-oscillator-variable-frequency-sine-square-wave-generator--245-1068
Tone Burst Generator
http://www.sm5cbw.se/ake/av8000/av8073.htm
Tone Burst Generator
http://www.sm5cbw.se/ake/av8000/av8073.htm
6.2 Additional test instruments may be used for more specialized

measurements of acoustic emission instrumentations or components. They
are as follows:
6.2.1 Variable-Function Generator,
6.2.2 Time Interval Meter,
6.2.3 Frequency Meter, or Counter,
6.2.4 Random Noise Generator,
6.2.5 Spectrum Analyzer,
6.2.6 D-C Voltmeter,
6.2.7 Pulse-Modulated Signal Generator,
6.2.8 Variable Pulse Generator, and
6.2.9 Phase Meter,
6.2.10 Electronic AE Simulator (or an Arbitrary Waveform Generator (AWG)
can be used providing an automated evaluation).
Spectrum Analyzer,
Spectrum Analyzer,
Pulse-Modulated Signal Generator
Pulse-Modulated Signal Generator (military)
http://www.edelpro.com/generators/generators.html
6.3 An electronic AE simulator (or AWG) is necessary to evaluate the

operation of computer-based AE instruments. A detailed example of the use
of an electronic AE simulator (or AWG) is given in 7.4.3 under dead time
measurement. The instruction manual for the electronic AE simulator provides
details on the setup and adjustment of the simulator.
Control of pulse frequency, rise time, decay, repetition rate, and peak
amplitude in the simulator makes it possible to simulate a wide range of AE
signal conditions.
7. Measurement Procedure
7.1 Frequency Response and Bandwidth Measurements:
7.1.1 The instrumentation, shown in Fig. 1, includes the preamplifier with
amplification and signal filters, possibly connected to the AE system which
might have additional signal filters, amplification, and interconnecting cables.
All measurements and tests should be documented. If the preamplifier is to
be tested without the AE system connected, it should be terminated with the
normal working load as shown on the bottom right of Fig. 1.
7.1.2 An acceptable frequency response should be flat between cutoff
frequencies within 3 dB of the reference frequency. The reference frequency
is the geometric mean of the nominal bandwidth of the instrumentation.
Keypoint:
An acceptable frequency response should be flat between cutoff frequencies
within 3 dB of the reference frequency.
FIG. 1 Component Configuration Used for Testing and Measuring the

Frequency Response, Amplification, Noise, Signal Overload, Recovery
Time, and Threshold of Acoustic Emission Instrumentation
The mean frequency is calculated as follows:
= (fL fH)
where:
fM = mean frequency,
fL = nominal lower cutoff, and
fH = nominal upper cutoff.
7.1.3 The bandwidth should include all contiguous frequencies with amplitude
variations as specified by the manufacturer. Instruments that include signal
processing of amplitude as a function of frequency should have bandwidth
amplitude variations as specified by the manufacturer.
7.1.4 With the instrumentation connected to the oscillator and attenuator, see
Fig. 1 and the sine wave oscillator set well within the instrumentations
specified dynamic range, the frequency response should be measured
between frequency limits specified in 7.1.2. The oscillator is maintained at a
fixed amplitude and the frequency is swept through the frequency limits. The
preamplifier or AE system voltage output is monitored with an RMS voltmeter.
Values of amplitude are recorded for each of several frequencies within and
beyond the nominal cutoff frequencies. The recorded values should be
plotted. The amplitude scale may be converted to decibels. The frequency
scale may be plotted either linearly or logarithmically. Appendix X2 provides
further discussion of wave shaping components.
7.1.5 A spectrum analyzer may be used in conjunction with a white noise

source or an oscilloscope may be used in conjunction with a sweep frequency
oscillator to determine bandwidth. With a white noise source connected to the
input, a spectrum analyzer connected to the output will record the frequency
response.
Note: White Noise Source
The White Noise cell generates a signal that contains equal energy per
frequency division (hertz or similar increment).
7.1.6 The measured bandwidth is the difference between the corner

frequencies at which the response is 3 dB less than the response at the
reference frequency.
Note: Bandwidth is the range of frequencies -- the difference between the highest-frequency
signal component and the lowest-frequency signal component -- an electronic signal uses on a
given transmission medium. Like the frequency of a signal, bandwidth is measured in hertz
(cycles per second). This is the original meaning of bandwidth, although it is now used primarily
in discussions about cellular networks and the spectrum of frequencies that operators license
from various governments for use in mobile services.
http://searchenterprisewan.techtarget.com/definition/bandwidth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band-pass_filter
White Noise
The White Noise cell generates a signal that contains equal energy per
frequency division (hertz or similar increment).
7.2 Gain Measurements:

7.2.1 The electronic amplification is comprised of the preamplifier gain, the
wave filters insertion gains or losses and the AE systems gains or losses.
(See Appendix X2 for an explanation of gain measurements.)
7.2.2 The electronic amplification may be measured with the test setup shown
in Fig. 1, with the oscillator and attenuator connected. The sine wave
oscillator is set to the reference frequency. The oscillator amplitude is set well
within the dynamic range of the instrumentation to avoid distortion due to
overload. With the voltmeter at Vosc, oscillator amplitude is set to 1 V. The
attenuator is set for a value greater than the anticipated electronic
amplification. Next, the voltmeter is moved to Vout (preamplifier or AE system
voltage output depending on the test being performed). The attenuator is now
adjusted until the voltmeter again reads 1 V. The electronic amplification is
equal to the new setting on the attenuator. A white noise generator or sweep
generator and spectrum or FFT analyzer may be used in place of the
oscillator and RMS voltmeter. and equal to the required load impedance of
the attenuator, proper compensation should be made.
NOTE 1If the input impedance of the preamplifier is not both resistive and equal to the required load
impedance of the attenuator, proper compensation should be made.
7.3 Dynamic Range Measurements:

7.3.1 The criterion used for establishing dynamic range should be
documented as the signal overload point, referenced to the instrumentation
noise amplitude, while keeping like measurements for both readings (for
example, peak voltage to peak voltage, peak-peak voltage or RMS to RMS
readings). Alternatively, the reference amplitude may be the threshold level if
the instrumentation includes a voltage comparator for signal detection. The
total harmonic distortion criterion should be used for signal processing
involving spectrum analysis. All other signal processing may be performed
with the signal overload point criterion.
7.3.2 The dynamic range (DR) in decibels should be determined as follows:
DR = 20log10 (signal overload point voltage/ background noise voltage)
signal overload point
DR
background noise voltage
7.3.2.1 The dynamic range of instrumentation exclusive of threshold or

voltage comparator circuits, is a ratio of the signal overload level to the noise
amplitude. (A brief description of noise sources appears in Appendix X4). An
oscilloscope is usually required as an adjunct to determine the characteristics
of noise and to monitor the signal overload point.
7.3.2.2 A field measurement of dynamic range may produce substantially
different results when compared with a laboratory measurement. This
difference is caused by an increase in the reference voltage output, and may
result from noise impulses of electrical origin, or ground faults.
7.3.2.3 For an amplifier that has a threshold comparator as its output device,
the dynamic range is the ratio of maximum threshold level to input noise level
at the comparator. Excess amplitude range in the amplifier contributes to
overload immunity but not to the dynamic range. The following measurement
will give the effective dynamic range:
DRe = 20 log10(MaxTh/MinTh)
where:
DRe = the effective dynamic range of the system,
MaxTh = the highest settable threshold value that just passes the largest
undistorted peak signal input, and
MinTh = the threshold value that passes less than 1 count/s with no input
signal.
This dynamic range is the difference between the largest and the
smallest AE input that can be reliably detected by the system.
7.3.3 Measurement of instrument electronic noise is accomplished by

replacing the oscillator/attenuator of Fig. 1, with the sensor that will be used,
including its cable (or with a lumped equivalent capacitance). A lumped
capacitance represents the electrical characteristic of the sensor and cable
combination without adding mechanical noise interference. The RMS noise
voltage is measured with a true RMS voltmeter (see 6.1.2) at the
instrumentation (preamplifier or AE system) output (Vout) per Fig. 1.
Alternatively, a peak AE system noise measurement can be measured by
setting the lowest possible AE threshold which passes less than one false hit
within ten seconds or by setting the AE system threshold below the noise and
recording the peak AE amplitude of hits detected in a ten second period.
7.3.4 The signal overload level is measured by replacing the sensor with the
sine wave oscillator as shown in Fig. 1. The frequency is set to the mid-band
frequency of the instrumentation. The oscillator amplitude is fixed at 1 V peak
to peak monitored at Vosc. The attenuator is adjusted to increase the signal
level to the preamplifier until the instrumentation output (Vout) is 0.5 dB less
than the computed output.
7.3.5 Should the peak amplitude of acoustic mission activity exceed the
dynamic range, several deleterious effects may be produced; these include
clipping, saturation, and overload recovery time- elated phenomena. (See
Appendix X2 for a discussion of overload recovery.) The instrumentation gain
should be adjusted to limit these effects to an absolute minimum in order to
increase the reliability of the data.
7.4 Dead Time Measurements:

7.4.1 The instrumentation dead time may include variable and fixed
components, depending on the instrumentation design for handling the
routine of the input and output data processing. The components included in
dead time are process time and lock-out time. Process time varies from
system to system and usually depends on the number of parameters
processed for each AE hit. Lock-out time, which may be operator controlled,
is used to force a time delay before accepting new AE hits.
7.4.2 Dead time measurement in a counter type AE instrument should be

conducted as follows: Set the instrument to the count rate mode. Set the
oscillator frequency to the mid-band frequency of the instrument. Set the
oscillator amplitude to achieve a count rate equal to the oscillator frequency.
Increase the oscillator frequency until the count rate ceases to equal the
oscillator frequency. Record the frequency as the maximum count rate. (If the
frequency is equal to or greater than the specified upper frequency limit of the
instrument, the dead time of the counter is zero.) Dead time (Td) is given by:
Td = 1/Fm - 1/Fu
where:
Fm = the measured frequency, and
Fu = the upper bandwidth limit of the instrument.
7.4.3 Where the dead time in question is related to AE hit processing such as
measurement of source location, energy, duration, or amplitude, the
measurement is best accomplished by using an electronic AE simulator as
follows:
7.4.3.1 Select an AE hit parameter to evaluate the dead time.
7.4.3.2 Set the electronic AE simulator frequency, rise, decay, duration, and
repetition rate such that the observed AE hit rate in the selected parameter
equals the repetition rate of the simulator.
7.4.3.3 Increase the repetition rate of the simulator until the observed AE hit
rate falls below the simulator rate.
7.4.3.4 Record this value as maximum AE hit rate (processing speed) for the
selected parameter.
7.4.4 The dead time (Td) is given by:

Td = 1/RB DB
where:
DB = the selected burst duration, and
RB = the repetition rate of the simulator where the limit was found.
This dead time measurement procedure should be performed for each AE hitbased parameter of the AE system.
7.5 Threshold Level (Threshold of Detection) Measurements:

7.5.1 Various acoustic emission signal processing instruments rely upon the
signal exceeding a comparator voltage level to register a hit. This level may
be (1) fixed, (2) adjustable, (3a) floating and fixed, or (3b) floating and
adjustable. The floating threshold may be called automatic threshold. Signal
recognition (or hit) does not occur until the threshold is exceeded.
7.5.2 The nonautomatic threshold level should be measured with the
instrumentation assembled as shown in Fig. 1 and the signal processors
attached to the point Vout. The signal processors are frequently digital
electronic counters that may follow the secondary amplifier. Increasing the
oscillator amplitude will result in an increasing signal level at Vout. The
counters will begin counting when the signal at the comparator reaches the
preset threshold level. This level measured with an oscilloscope connected to
Vout multiplied by the gain of the secondary amplifier is equal to the threshold
voltage. Some counters and other signal processors utilizing threshold
detection are frequency sensitive. Therefore, the threshold level should be
measured over the instrumentation bandwidth.
7.5.3 The automatic threshold cannot be measured with a continuous-wave

generator because the automatic threshold level is usually derived from the
rectified and averaged input signal. The tone burst generator provides an
adjustable burst amplitude duration and repetition rate that may be used to
establish the threshold level using the same technique that is used in 7.5.2.
The automatic threshold levels affected by the tone burst amplitude, duration,
and repetition rate.
Floating or Automatic Threshold cannot be measured with a continuouswave generator because the automatic threshold level is usually derived from
the rectified and averaged input signal.
http://www.nvo.com/aecpipes/nss-folder/literature/AE%20Thresholding.pdf
Definitions of Signal Measurements Made on AE Burst-type Signals
Floating Threshold Response to a Burst-type AE Signal With Different

Response Times.
7.6 Counter Accuracy Measurements:

7.6.1 Counters are of two types: summation counters and rate counters.
Counters that tally signals for fixed repetitive periods of time during an
acoustic emission test are known as rate counters. The tallied signals may be
a count of acoustic emission signals, loading cycles, or amplitude levels.
7.6.2 The accuracy of the counting function of the instrumentation should be
measured using a tone burst generator set as follows: (1) the amplitude
should be well above the threshold level, but well within the dynamic range of
the instrumentation; (2) the tone burst frequency should be within the
instrumentation nominal bandwidth; (3) the tone burst duration should be at
least one cycle, but fewer cycles than would cause the automatic threshold to
take effect; (4) the tone burst repetition rate should be adjusted for a period
that does not cause the automatic threshold to interfere with the count
function. The counting accuracy is assured by comparing the emission count
with the tone burst count.
7.7 Computer-Measured Parameters:

7.7.1 The limits and linearity of AE parameters recorded by computer-based
systems may be measured by means of an electronic AE simulator. The
electronic AE simulator provides individually adjustable amplitude, duration,
rise time, and relative arrival time. Burst energy from the AE simulator may be
calculated from the parameters given.
7.7.2 The limits or dynamic range and linearity of each parameter should be
measured as follows for amplitude, duration, and rise time:
7.7.2.1 Connect the AE simulator to the preamplifier input of the channel to be
tested.
7.7.2.2 Set up the AE system to record and display the parameter to be
tested.
7.7.2.3 Adjust the AE simulator to produce a mid range simulated AE signal
where the displayed amplitude, duration, and rise time are 10 % of their
maximum value as specified by the AE system manufacturer.
7.7.2.4 Record the value of each parameter at the electronic AE simulator

output and at the AE system display.
7.7.2.5 To measure upper limits for each parameter, increase the measured
input in equal increments (for example, 10 % of maximum) and record the
displayed value for that parameter until the output differs from the input by 10
% or the specified maximum value is exceeded.
7.7.2.6 To measure lower limits for each parameter, adjust input- utput
condition as in 7.7.2.3, then decrease the input in equal increments (for
example, 10 % of the initial value) and record the displayed value until the
output differs from the input by 10 % or the minimum value specified by the
AE system manufacturer is reached.
7.7.2.7 To test the computer-derived energy per AE hit parameter, it is

necessary to calculate the input energy from the electronic AE simulator in
accordance with the method used by the AE system.
For example, one method used in some AE systems computes approximate
burst pulse AE hit energy (E) as follows:
E DV2/2
where:
D = burst duration, and
V = peak amplitude.
7.7.2.8 Set the initial conditions as in 7.7.2.3. Increment input amplitude to

obtain approximately 10 % of full scale change in energy input. Record the
displayed energy per AE hit value at each increment until the output differs
from the input by 10 % or the maximum value specified by the AE system
manufacturer is exceeded. Repeat this process with amplitude fixed at the
initial value while incrementing pulse duration.
7.7.2.9 Again repeat the process with amplitude and pulse duration except
decrease each parameter until the minimum value specified by the
manufacturer is reached or no further change in the output is produced.
7.7.3 The source location computational algorithm is a complex computer

process not covered by this document. However, a multichannel electronic
AE simulator may be used to check the location accuracy of systems that rely
on the constancy of sound velocity to calculate location. For anisotropic
materials where velocity is not constant, other source location algorithms exist
such as area location based on first hit sensor.
7.7.3.1 Set up the AE system for source location in accordance with the
operators manual.
7.7.3.2 Set up the multichannel electronic AE simulator to provide simulated
AE inputs to the appropriate number of channels. 7.7.3.3 Using the
appropriate velocity of sound for the simulated structure, compute the times of
flight from the simulated AE source position to each sensor of the source
location array. The differences between the times of flight give relative arrival
times (delta T) for the simulated AE sensor positions.
7.7.3.4 Record the displayed location coordinates for this initial simulated
input. Compute and input a new delta T set for a nearby point. Record the
difference between input position and displayed position. Continue this
incremental movement of the simulated AE source away from the sensor
array center until the output position differs from the input position by 10 % or
the source location range specified by the AE system manufacturer is
exceeded. Evaluate any error with respect to the AE system manufacturers
specification for source location linearity. 7.7.3.5 The source location test
procedure should be repeated for two additional rays extending in different
directions from the array center. 7.7.3.6 The source location procedure should
be repeated for each multichannel array of the system.
8. Keywords
8.1 acoustic emission; AE; dead-time; gain; preamplifier; sensitivity; sensor;
signal processor; threshold
APPENDIXES
(Nonmandatory
Information)
X1. DESCRIPTION OF
AE INSTRUMENT
APPENDIXES
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. DESCRIPTION OF AE INSTRUMENT
COMPONENTS
X1.1 Acoustic Emission Instrumentation - Acoustic emission electronic
components or units should include the sensor(s), preamplifier(s), filter(s),
power amplifier(s), line drive amplifier(s), threshold and counting
instrumentation, and signal cables. The sensitivity calibration and transfer
characteristics of sensors are excluded from this standard.
X1.2 Acoustic Emission Sensor:
X1.2.1 An acoustic emission sensor is an electro-acoustic transducer that
converts stress wave energy into electrical energy.
X1.2.2 A transformer or amplifier, or acoustic waveguide, if combined with the
sensor in such a way that the readily accessible terminals include these
components should be considered part of the sensor and the term sensor
should apply to the combination.
X1.2.3 Sensors may be designed with different active elements including

magnetostrictive, electromagnetic, eddy current, capacitive, piezoresistive,
piezoelectric, photoacoustic, or acoustoelectric devices. These may be
assembled in single ended or differential configuration with directional
properties.
X1.2.4 The most frequently used sensor is the piezoelectric type contained
within a conductive housing. The active face is often fitted with a
nonconductive, machinable wear plate or shoe. An electrical connector
mounted to the housing completes the sensor.
EMAT Transducer
http://ultrakraft.ru/en/products/testing-of-plate
X1.3 Acoustic Emission Preamplifier:

X1.3.1 The acoustic emission preamplifier is the first amplifier following the
sensor. The preamplifier power may be supplied by the secondary amplifier,
or directly from the power mains. The preamplifier is defined as the first stage
of amplification with the major function of converting the sensor impedance to
an impedance suitable for driving long signal cables and additional electronic
components or units.
X1.3.2 The input impedance of a preamplifier forms the load for the sensor.
The proper magnitude and phase angle of the input impedance is governed
by the sensor requirements. Inductive sensors may require relatively low
impedance loads. Capacitive sensors generally require high impedance loads.
The low impedance loads depend upon current (or power) drive and the high
impedance loads depend upon voltage (or charge) drive. Because the most
commonly used sensor is a piezoelectric device, the preamplifier input
impedance is moderately high.
Keywords:
Inductive sensors may require relatively low impedance loads.
Capacitive sensors generally require high impedance loads.
The low impedance loads depend upon current (or power) drive
The high impedance loads depend upon voltage (or charge) drive.
Because the most commonly used sensor is a piezoelectric device, the
preamplifier input impedance is moderately high.
X1.3.3 The output impedance of acoustic emission preamplifiers is low,

usually about 50 ohms. This low impedance is required to drive long cables
and reduce the susceptibility to coupled noise currents.
X1.3.4 The acoustic emission preamplifier may include filters and input/output
line transformers. Filters are often employed to reject undesirable signals and
avoid potentially overdriven stages within the preamplifier and succeeding
components or units. Transformers are used for matching impedances
between the source and its load. Transformers are also used for matching
balanced to unbalanced transmission lines.
Acoustic Emission Preamplifier:
http://www.soundwel.cn/enproducts/54.html
http://www.soundwel.cn/enproducts/54.html
X1.4 Acoustic Emission Signal Processor:

X1.4.1 The signal processor provides the final, required instrumentation
amplification. This amplifier must supply sufficient signal power to supply a
combination of additional components or units such as oscilloscopes,
voltmeters, counters, and recorders. For this reason, the secondary amplifier
is often called a power amplifier. Additional bandpass filtering is often
employed in this amplifier.
X1.4.2 The input impedance of the secondary amplifier should provide the
required load impedance for the preceding component. The preceding
component is usually the preamplifier, but may be a bandpass filter.
X1.4.3 The secondary amplifier should be used within its stated nominal
operating range. The amplifier should complement the operating
characteristics of the preceding component.
X1.4.4 The secondary amplifier may also include signal processing circuits
such as an RMS voltage converter and an event counting circuit.
X1.5 Filter:
X1.5.1 A filter separates signals on the basis of frequency. It introduces
relatively small loss to waves in one or more frequency bands and relatively
large loss to waves of other frequencies.
X1.5.2 Filters may be active or passive. Active filters require electrical power.
Passive filters require no electrical power.
X1.5.3 The most frequently used filter is the bandpass filter. A bandpass filter
is a filter that has a single transmission band extending from a lower cutoff
frequency greater than zero to a finite upper cutoff frequency. The gain at the
cutoff frequencies should be 3 dB less than the passband geometric mean
(reference) frequency as defined in 7.1.2. The slope of the filter characteristic
outside the passband is very important for rejection of extraneous signals.
Slopes of 30 dB per octave are typical for AE instruments.
X1.5.4 The filter should not limit the specified signal overload point of the
preceding component or unit.
X1.5.5 AC-coupled amplifiers and preamplifiers limit the bandwidth by circuit
design. Typical bandwidths may extend from a low of 1 KHz to a high of 2
MHz.
X1.6 Line-Drive Amplifiers:

X1.6.1 Where extremely long coaxial cables must be used, line-drive
amplifiers are normally used. The line-drive amplifier is primarily an
impedance conversion device. Line-drive amplifiers are used to supply
sufficient signal current to drive several hundred metres of coaxial cable.
X1.6.2 The output impedance of a line-drive amplifier should be the same as
the impedance of the coaxial cable that it drives, and the cable should
terminate in its characteristic impedance for minimum reflection at the
termination and for maximum power transfer.
X1.6.3 The dynamic range, signal overload point, and spectral response of
the line-drive amplifier should be equal to or greater than those of the
preceding component or unit unless otherwise specifically stated in report
documentation.
X1.7 Counting Instrumentation-Threshold Crossing:

X1.7.1 Counting of threshold crossings is one of the most frequently used
signal processing techniques for acoustic emission. This technique requires
the signal amplitude to exceed a threshold voltage or comparator level to be
recognized and recorded. Counting is often performed in two ways: rate and
summation counting. The accuracy of rate counting depends upon the
accuracy of the clock frequency. The accuracy of rate and summation
counting depends upon the stability of the threshold level.
X1.7.2 The threshold level may be fixed, manually variable, automatic floating,
or a combination thereof, depending upon the design and user application.
X1.7.3 Counters are designed to accept signals that exceed some threshold
voltage or comparator level. Upon counting to some maximum count, some
counters will reset to zero and begin again, while others will latch at the
maximum value. The counters may be manually resettable, and may include
an electrical circuit permitting the counter to be reset by a periodic electrical,
or clock, signal.
X2. EXPLANATION OF SUGGESTED MEASUREMENTS
X2. EXPLANATION OF SUGGESTED MEASUREMENTS

X2.1 Preamplifier Input Impedance:
X2.1.1 The preamplifier input impedance should be documented as the
nominal input impedance. The preferred expression of input impedance
should be a stated value of resistance shunted by a stated value of
capacitance (see Appendix X3).
X2.1.2 Where inductive coupling is used, the input impedance should be
documented in either the polar or rectangular form of its equivalent
impedance as a function of frequency over the designed bandwidth of the
preamplifier.
X2.1.3 Where charge amplifiers are used for acoustic emission amplification,
the manufacturers specification should suffice to describe the input
impedance for direct-coupled piezoelectric generators. Any modification of
the input impedance and the precise change of that impedance should be
documented.
X2.2 Input Coaxial Cables:

X2.2.1 The coaxial cable, coupling the piezoelectric/ capacitive sensor to the
preamplifier, together with the cable couplings should be measured with a
bridge (1.0 KHz) to determine the line capacitance. Visual examination of the
cable should ensure that there is no damage to the line and connection. It is
sometimes useful to know, with some precision, the capacitances of the
sensor element and the connecting cable with its connectors, and the
preamplifier input shunt capacitance in order to adjust sensitivity by
appropriately increasing or decreasing shunt capacitance. Efforts to lower
capacitance shunting the sensor will be rewarded by improved signal-tonoise
ratios.
X2.2.2 The line capacitance should be documented and added to the
preamplifier capacitance. The sum of line capacitance and preamplifier input
capacitance should be documented as the sensor load capacitance for
piezoelectric and capacitive sensors.
X2.2.3 Where the system to preamplifier cable is used also to supply a

voltage to the preamplifier, the cross coupling between the signal lines and
power supply lines might affect the detection of the AE.
X2.2.4 The influence of the coaxial cable and preamplifier impedance on the
sensor open circuit sensitivity should be understood regardless of the sensor,
cable, and preamplifier type or design.
X2.3 Wave Shaping:

X2.3.1 Acoustic emission instrumentation often contains electrical circuits that
modify the applied waveform through a predictable and expected process.
Such circuits are defined as wave-shaping circuits. Wave-shaping circuits
include delayed action circuits, integrators, differentiators, and envelope
circuits. These circuits are often found in instrumentation with floating
threshold and event counters. The number and function of wave-shaping
circuits likely to be found in acoustic emission instrumentation are too
numerous to be listed within this practice.
X2.3.2 The characteristics of wave-shaping circuits of interest should include
rise time, duration, and decay time. The measurement of these characteristics
depends upon the circuit design. The manufacturer should provide the
temporal data and the test methods and measurement of these data in the
operating and maintenance manual supplied with the component or unit.
X2.3.3 There are numerous sources for error in the measurement of

instrumentation characteristics. These include impedance matching of signal
sources to instrument inputs, frequency bandpass asymmetry, and windowing
problems in spectrum analysis. The examples of error sources are mentioned
to alert the user to the fact that a multichannel AE system should be
characterized by comparing parameters channel to channel in order to
minimize differences.
X2.4 Gain Measurement:

X2.4.1 A sensor being acted upon by a stress that generates an electrical
signal can be modeled as a two-terminal black box containing an
impedancein series with a generator of EMF. The impedance is primarily
capacitive and, in the absence of a physical excitation, the substitution of a
stable oscillating signal provides a suitable representation for the transduced
EMF.
X2.4.2 Channel-to-channel sensitivity or gain can be measured and adjusted
easily using a technique known as voltage insertion calibration which takes
advantage of this model. A simple voltage insertion box is shown
schematically in Fig. X2.1. Fig. X2.2 shows the equivalent circuit of the
voltage insertion measurement.
X2.4.3 In this technique a calibrating voltage is inserted in series with the
sensor and the channel gain is adjusted so that all channels in the system
yield the same output level for the same oscillator input. This will assure that
all channels will produce the same output for the same physical excitation if it
were possible to reproduce the same physical excitation for each channel.
X2.4.4 The calibration voltage is chosen to be any convenient value near that
expected from an acoustic emission event of interest, taking into account the
dynamic range expected from the data.
X2.4.5 The frequency of the calibration voltage should be selected to be well
below the resonances of the AE sensors, which are presumed to be of the
resonant (undamped) type, but within the band pass of the AE system. This
will prevent the individual resonances, which may be different from channel to
channel, from influencing the gain adjustments.
X2.4.6 If the oscillator is calibrated and terminated, a known signal can be
applied and the effective gain of the system with cables and sensor can
bemeasured with an indicator on the channel output such as an RMS
voltmeter.
FIG. X2.1 Schematic of a Simple Voltage Insertion Box
FIG. X2.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Voltage Insertion Measurement
X2.5 Overload Recovery Time:

X2.5.1 Overload recovery time results from exceeding the dynamic range in a
limited number of older instruments. The time required to recover from an
acoustic emission event whose amplitude exceeds the dynamic range
depends upon the amplifier and instrumentation design, and current
instruments should have overload recovery times less than one microsecond.
X2.5.2 The recovery time should be measured with an oscilloscope and a
tone burst generator. The tone burst generator replaces the oscillator shown
in Fig. X2.1 and the oscilloscope is connected to Vout. The tone burst
generator is set between the geometric mean frequency and the nominal
lower cutoff frequency. The tone burst should be a simple rectangular burst at
the selected frequency. The duration of the tone burst is set for the duration
expected from the acoustic emission events. Unless otherwise restricted and
stated, the amplitude should be set for 2v peak to peak.
The tone burst should have a repetition time in excess of the instrumentation
recovery time such that instrumentation recovery should occur in less time
than the next tone burst would occur. The oscilloscope should record the
signal at Vout such that the residual feed-through from the tone burst
generator may be observed following the tone burst and instrumentation
overload recovery. The instrumentation overload recovery time is the time
from the end of the tone burst to the time at which the residual has returned to
its quiescent value (usually 1 % of the tone burst amplitude). A waveform
synthesizer may be substituted for the tone burst generator, but provision
should be made to allow measurement of residual amplitude between bursts.
X3. MEASUREMENT OF INPUT IMPEDANCE

SKIPPY
X4. NOISE SOURCES AND MEASUREMENT

PROBLEMS
X4. NOISE SOURCES AND MEASUREMENT

PROBLEMS
X4.1 Types of Noise - Noise is any unwanted disturbance within a useful
frequency band, such as undesired electric waves in a transmission channel
or device. Noise may be erratic, intermittent, or statistically random. Noise is
further defined as (1) acoustic noise or (2) electric noise to avoid ambiguity.
This section is concerned with identifiable and controllable noise sources.
X4.2 Acoustic Noise Sources:

X4.2.1 Acoustic noise is detected by the sensor as a mechanical wave. This
may be noise generated by reactive agents in contact with a specimen,
loading fixture noise, or fluid noise. Fluid noise may be generated when
orifice size and fluid flow velocity form an effective Helmholtz resonator. The
signals generated by leaks may or may not be considered artifact noise,
depending on the application of the acoustic emission technique or
instrumentation.
X4.2.2 Thermal emission may be considered noise for some applications of
AE examination. Thermal emission should become relevant when either the
specimen or sensor is subjected to temperature changes. Thermal emission
is often generated by material phase change, material geometry change
(stick-slip AE), and the pyroelectric effect of some sensors. Many other
sources of acoustic noise exist, but are not discussed here in the interest of
brevity.
Helmholtz resonance is the phenomenon of air resonance in a cavity, such as when one blows
across the top of an empty bottle. The name comes from a device created in the 1850s by
Hermann von Helmholtz, the Helmholtz resonator, which he used to identify the various
frequencies or musical pitches present in music and other complex sounds
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmholtz_resonance
X4.3 Electrical Noise Sources:

X4.3.1 Electrical noise is noise coupled to the acoustic emission
instrumentation by electrical conduction or radiation. The preponderance of
electrical noise is synchronized to the power mains frequency. Electrical
noise may contain the largest number of high-amplitude harmonics of any
signal detected. Electrical noise may also be stable and continuous, or
random in amplitude and repetition rate. Ground loops are often a problem at
one work area, but may not be a problem at an adjacent work area. Radio
transmitters may be another source of intermittent noise. Radio transmitters
may include the traditional voice transmission units, or such sources as
electrical motors, fluorescent lamps, and resistance welding.
X4.3.2 Noise may be introduced to the amplifier from noise impulses on the
power mains through inadequately filtered power supplies. The noise is often
intermittent and includes random impulse or burst signals of short duration
and very fast rise time compared with acoustic emission signals. A series of
several low pass (on fast raise time signals?) , power main filters will often
suppress this noise to an acceptable level.
X4.4 Electronic Component NoiseThere are several sources of noise in
electronic circuits. In practice, the noise figure of an amplifier is usually
determined by the first, or input, stage of the amplifier. This is because noise
introduced by other succeeding circuits of the instrumentation will undergo
less amplification, and, thus, will be relatively unimportant in the
instrumentation as long as the amplification of the first stage is moderate.

20160724 0020hrs
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AET-2006 Reading 8A

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My Pre-Exam Reading on

Acoustic Emission Testing

2016-05: For my ASNT Level III Examination

Fion Zhang/ Charlie Chong

Acoustic Emission Testing

Fion Zhang/ Charlie Chong

Acoustic Emission Testing

Fion Zhang/ Charlie Chong

Acoustic Emission Testing

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Acoustic Emission Testing

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Fion Zhang at Copenhagen Harbor

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SME- Subject Matter Expert

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

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The Magical Book of Tank Inspection ICP

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ASNT Certification Guide

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2 Equipment and Materials

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4 Interpretation and Evaluation

References & Catalog Numbers

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

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Section B: Acoustic Emission (E 750, E 1067, and E 1118)

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

acoustic emission (AE)

acousto-ultrasonics (AU)a nondestructive examination method that uses

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

AE rms, nthe rectified, time averaged AE signal, measured on a linear

attenuation, nthe decrease in AE amplitude per unit distance, normally

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continuous emissionsee emission, continuous.

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dBAEa logarithmic measure of acoustic emission signal amplitude,

DISCUSSIONIn the case of sensors with integral preamplifiers, the AO

dead timeany interval during data acquisition when the instrument or

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distribution, differential (acoustic emission) amplitude f(V)the number

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distribution, differential (acoustic emission) threshold crossing ft (V)

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effective velocity, nvelocity calculated on the basis of arrival times and

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FIG. 1 Burst Emission on a Continuous Emission Background. (Sweep

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emission, continuousa qualitative description of the sustained signal level

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FIG. 2 Continuous Emission. (Sweep Rate5 ms/cm.)

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FIG. 3 Continuous Emission. (Sweep Rate0.1 ms/cm.)

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energy, acoustic emission eventthe total elastic energy released by an

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evaluation thresholda threshold value used for analysis of the