Lecture 1 (6/03/13)

Why and when Arch Historians tried to codify chronology of

Arch History in 1970 to 20th century?
Historiography= why and when ppl started to chronologically
organize and study historical events
Books written between 1930-60 were based on history of
modern movement
1970s-end 20thc=proliferation of arch history w/ diff
approaches
many arch histories faced 2 topics:
- denition of when modernism began to be shaped
- terminology:
- Contemporary
- Ita= mid 19thc-20thc because
maintained contemporary perspectives
throughout the 18thc= innovative theories, 19thc= innovative
practice of the theories = 2 diff beginnings
Critics to Baroque and Renaissance bec couldnt nd specic
style representing spirit of the age (2nd half 19th-rst 19thc)=
ppl return to revivalismetc. Therefore lack of genuine style inauthentc, not innvative etc. therefore modern arch should be
based on new materials or new techs or new forms--> this was
the consequent approach= critique in the 70s

William Curtis <Architecture since 1900>

- published in 1980, post modernism
- up to early 70s all arch history analyzed all that came before
trying to discuss and understand what were the roots of the
modern movement.
- 1900= chosen as beginning bec nally reformist ideas etc.
correspond to new forms+new shapes
- tried to propose a transversal approach of arch history=
WHY, HOW, WHAT rather than proposing a specic
dogma
- when published, post-modernism ideas had already
circulated
- included works of other countries besides EU which were
never considered before
- He criticized:
- myth of modern movement (heroes of modern
arch)
- tried to go beyond isms like history divided in
isms
- tried to go beyond the international style
- go beyond monolithic approach to history
Emil Kaufmann < Von Ledoux bis Le Corbusier >
- published 1933, French
- ledoux is selected as starting point bec. tried to represent
innovative ideas circulating during 18thc--> common point
for history (start from one unique moment, incipit etc)-->
origins= late 18t=1770
- origin= mid 18th century
- ledoux used general forms (spheres, pyramids etc.) therefore
used as origin of the movement

Nikolaus Pevsner<PIoneers of the Modern Movement from

Williamo Morris to Walter Gropius>
- published in 1936
- Origin= arts and crafts movement in the UK= William
Morris
- 1860= origin of modern movement bec Pevsner was
interested in the moral and social aim of arts and craft
movement
- 2 diff geographical sites--> Germany and UK
- followed genealogy of architects trace the history of modern
movement
- 1930 considered the end= when Gropius moves to US
Sigfried Giedion <Space, Time and Architecture>
- published: 1941
- tentative to present arch as unique history, addressed arch of
19thc bec believed he could nd roots for modern arch (=
the experience of the 1940s)
- Giedion= important gure for the critic of arch, key role as
the theorist of the modern movement
Philip Johnson & Henry Russel Hitchcock <Modern
Architecture-International Exhibition> NYC
- published 1932
- wordinternational style was rst used in this catalogue
- brought projects to NYC proposing diff experiences of
modern arch in EU= all based on visuality therefore
transformed this catalogue into element that american
archs could use to copy shapes, forms etc. without caring for
original puposeetc.
- International= political approach idealism to creat
unique style for any kind of context w/out considering local
culture etc.
Bruno Zevi <DellArchitettura Moderna>
- Published: 1950s
- look beyond the experiences of mdoern movement,
tentative to recognize genealogy looks @ other experiences
of mdoern arch.
- organic, cultural syntesis of modern arch
- found the origin in the art&crafts movement of the UK
because modern arch emerged through the combination of
art, architects and artists, also the local vernacular material
in the shaping of arch.
Late50s= tentative to react to unique history of modern
movement=2 diff tentatives to break w/ this approach:
1. Reyner Banham <Theory and design in the 1st Machine age>:
a. PUblished: 1960
b. Considered rst 3 decades of 20thc as origin but wanted
to move beyond idea of styles and look at mechanical
aspect of arch, method of construction and the
technology of buildings for the rst time
c. Origin= early 19thc because of use ofnew materials,
method of construction
2. Peter Collins <changing ideas in Modern Architecture>
a. Published: 1965
b. Experience of modern movement were important but it
was not possible to analyse only on the basis of projects
and forms= history not based on stylistic formalities and

protagonists= propose new methodology to asses= study

theories that gave rise to the movement/innovations
c. Collins stated that social context was the most
important part for arch hisotry
d. Importance given to teories, ideas and texts during the
19thc
e. importance to innovation, changes in ideas, formal
evolution of projects, methodology of theory
f. Origin= 18thc
Leonardo Benevolo <Storia dellarch moderna>
- PUblished 1960
- historiographical approach because stressed on the social
and political factors that generated shift in arch ideas and
forms
- highlighted social and political events that shaped new
theories, forms etc.
- for the rst time in Italian history the improtance of public
programs etc. in 1960
- Origin: mid 19thc in the theory of socialist Robert Owen
(utopic theorist, key for shaping green city, social housing
in G etc)
End 60s= Eu and US= deep criticism of idea of a unique history
+origin
M.Tafuri & F. Dal Co < Storia dellArchitettura
Contemporanea>
- Published: 1976
- Porposed totally diff historical approach= other
fundamental experiences took shape and should be a part of
modernism, arch history therefore one cant pinpoint 1
origin for modern movement
- discussed continuity of unique history and the diff
experiences that generated by diff social factors
- 20s-30s number of other experiencds whcih needed to be
included in history of 20thc
- Discussed concept of continuity= FRAGMENTATION= no
continuity or genealogy therefore several origins and several
moments to be mentioned
70s= revision and criticism in eld of arch hisotry
73= US+UK= rupoture+critique of modernism
Charles Jenks <Modern Movements in Architecture>
- Published: 1973
- Rupture against the Modern movement in the UK
- criticises idea of unique modern movement_indenties 6
diff experiences therefore 6 origins and 6 traditions (based
on geogracal subdivision)
- provocative approach to unique crisis of time span of
chronologies= discourse of Discontinuity
- highlighted importance of classicity of past modernism
Kenneth Frampton <Modern Architecture a Critical History>
- Published: 1980
- paid attention to local context stressing that modernism
could take place in diff contexts: social, political,
geographical
- Origin=1750, showing how antiquity and classicism
produced diff experience in EU therefore iportance of local
context.

- it is imporssible to derive one unique idea of modernity

Henry Russell Hitchcock <Architecture in 19th and 20th
Century>
- paid attention to what happened in 19th century arch in EU
- Tried to propsose that 19th century could have its own
Style/identity because of its innovations, new materials,
tech and histoirical forms as new functions.

1750-1890:
This period was reconsidered by arch historians
Stated that during hte 1nd half of 18thc to the early 19thc,
through Neoclassicism experience and ecelcticism and
revivalism of historical form, architects were not able to provide
the style of modernism= no arch vcab that described that time
period thats why it wasnt recognized till the 1970s
1750-1800= attempts to propose innovative theories without
distinction of forms
Enlightenment= affected all eds= new social group
(bourgeoisie) inuenced all elds+gained importance= new
requirements and new buildings and new style needs
Neoclcissism= archs, historians etc. started to revisit Greece,
Rome etc. attempt to break w/ Rennaissance and Barroque and
create new values representing new social group--> criticized
bec LACK OF INVENTIVE SPIRIT --> classical forms used to
represent new values etc.
Have:
- shaping of new theories
- new forms (siple, abstract forms to try nding new style)
- new materials
19thc period of copying but of innovation, new functions and
typologies= representative because of separation of
nationa&state, national arch, and use historical forms for new
tpologies
Bourgeoisie isolated 3 important points (1750-1850):
1. New relationship that took shape in 2nd half of 18thc w/ new
approach to historical experiences
2. inuence that new scientic research had in shaping of
methodologies in arch+writing of theories etc.
3. new importance the public acquired in social+political realm
attempt to create a public city w/ public heritage
arch became new laboratory--> emergence of a new social
power, social class
relationship between arch+history (Montesquieu- explained in
other elds the importance of history+Voltaire) in this period
we had the most important archaeological works
+scientic enquiries became ref. for shaping+inuence of arch
18thc of Newtons discoveries+ideas inuenced aobjectivity of
archaeological sites_order
role of bourgeoisie affect functions but also shaping of city
city considered FOR public_bourgeoisie (moves away from
embellishment of the royal family)
rst scholars= art hsitorians

Lecture 2 (12/03/13)
Neoclassicism: France, Britain & Italy
Period considered: 1750-1850/80

this period is considered to have no identity/style

new stimulus, new original point bec of cultural, social,
economical reasons (Englightenment)
Neoclassicism= bec of importance given to the classical style
after 1750
after 1750 circulation of classicity for redenition of arch
culture+new discoveries+social changes= new point therefore
wrong to say period w/ no unique style/identity
association of classical forms and new style was considered to
be an innovative point
Half of 18thc, around EU (I,F,GB), there was a rejecion of
Rococo and Baroque styles--> used in churches and domestic
spaces
Circulation of classicity inuenced:
- redenition of a new church (France)
- redenition of domestic space (housing arch in GB)
in F, importance of royal family but in GB private owners had
key role in second half of 19thc
What Happened in France?
all architects working in 2nd half 19thc studied at the Academie
Francaise, france
School founded in 1688= lab for transformation, circulation of
classical models during 2nd half 18thc= started rediscovery/
reconsideration/reinterpretation of classicity= new pamphelets,
books etc. started to circulate in span of 5 years.
Enlightenment= important= new signicance in all elds= also
new importance of history= classicity=Archaeological studies.
2 ways archaeological studies shaped arch:
1. philosophy= symbolic meanings
2. new publication that published measures+modules used in
antiquity= study of proportions (sci+hist interest)
overall produced new arch theories:
1750- rst Encyclopedia ever published: Diderot and
Dalambert--> one of voices= architecture= trying to
understand if arch was to be oconsidered part of reason or
creation
classical orders were expected to represent new functions+new
emerging society.
with new study of archaeology there was also attempt to apply
principles of classicity= development of 2 main schools of
thought= debates:
1. ancients= supporters of classicity
2. moderns= incorrect to support classicity but these roders
were to represent new functions.
To break with new
apporach of
historical
forms=publication
of books that
reconsidered
classical orders.

Ange-Jacques
Gabriel, Petit
Trianon, Versailles
(1761-64)

- break/shift in the use of Baroque&Rococo used for places

up to the early 18thc, reused classical orders, changing the
proportions with simple stone volume
- building had new function=broke w/ceremonial and
monarchical deco of Baroque&Rococo
- tentative to create a primitive volume
- built for maitresse of king
Charles Perrot, Louvre Facade Competition (left facade)
- late 17thc
- changed the official proportion of the orders and adopted
calssical elements totally transformaing the proportion of
columns; relationship between capital & columns to express
public aim of the building=represent building function

Marc-Antoine (Abb) Laugier <Essai sur LArchitecture>

- 1753
- important gure in reconsideration of classicity
- interested in applying the enlightnemnet ideas in arch:
dene a model which states origin of arch
- proposed principles based on classical order but simplied
on basis of reasons
- criticized+attacked baroque excess+tried to propose new
principles NOT model to be copied but symbol to represent
nature of arch
- 1755- published new edition of Essai w/ Frontispiece which
would become symbol: highlighted arch should refuse
orders, excess + take ex. of simple rustic house= Basis of
architecture=HUT= basic model that can be adapted to diff
historical modls w/ new facades etc.
- wanted to highlight basic elements: columns, entablature...
- intersted in Greek temple as symbol of perfect society
+culture.
1670 and 18thc reconsider and codify the 5 classical orders
Roman French Academy, Rome--> these architects went to
ROme and studied Roman arch, they measured and recorded it
in domcuments of its classicity. Every city= diff interpretation
of classicity
Francois Blondel:
- started to introduce symbolic meaning of orders_explaining
how this could be used in new society
- Meaning: Classic-CLassicus= Roman social class of high
position, prestige therefore synonym of team+authority.

1850- intro new material=application of theories+change of

forms
order= used +adopted to dene importance of building
interest to measure, document+record classicity by visiting +
spending time in Rome
Wincklemann
- important german gur
- started to codify for the rst time history using classical
orders and classicity <History of Ancient Art> (1764)
Great Britain
N.Revett+J.Stuart <The antiquities of Arthens>
- published 1762
- measured and published studies of ruins, important in intro
antiquity/greek arch in Britain
- added to debated regarding importance of Greek vs. Rome
- = comparison between classical moderls of ROme and
Greek use of model
- state the unique models could be Greek arch because pure
original arch could only be found in Greece and they
measured and recorded all the monument of Athens.
- published with main aim of redening style of GB arch
1760- inauguration in Rome of imp society of antiquarians
where young archs used to travel and support young archs of
other cities in order to show activities of Roman archs
Back to France:
Julien David Leroy
- did same tour as Revett+stuart but reached diff conclusion:
- drawing_measureing wasnot enough to
understand+redene arch, it was fundamental to
maintain creativity of architect
- arch should interpret the models--> refused
+rejected imitations
- highlighted importance of Greek model as symbol of perfect
sociey and context also where new arch could develop.
- archs should look @ harmony + perfection of society
continuous transformatio of model thorugh the time
- deeply attacked and criticized because was based on
interparetations
- drawings highlighted a building with several eprspectives
- introduced a different way of looking at classical orders
Italy:
Giovanni Battista Piranesi <Antichita` ROmane II>
- 1756
- 3rd approach for the study of classicity
- debate between greek+roman classicity
- this gorup defended the originality of ROman arch
- PIranesi originally from Venice, then went to Rome to study
and design Roman ruins and buildings.
- Piranesi published several books.
- Represented ROman buildings but with great consciousness,
always highlighted the decadency of ROman arch
- stated that roman arch has been inuenced by Entruscan
experiences rather than Greek experiences

- proposed an alternative genealogy that proposed Etruscan

experiences as the refferences of method used for Roman
arch
- this was importat bec changed the roots which was
previously proposed.
<Parere sullArchitettura>
- always piranesi, published: 1765
- highlighted based on Leroy the supremacy of architects
creativity versus the imitations of ruins. Greek arch
inuenced Rome on decorative aspect NOT structural
aspects+Greek inuenced brought to ROman decadence.
France:

Jacques Germaine Soufflot Church of St.Gnvieve, Paris

(1754-80)
- 30 year process
- Transformation of Paris by Louis XV during 2nd half 18thc.
Soufflot worked for public project b4 Louis XV chose him
to redesign Paris, was one of archs who aprtiipated in the
program of renovation/transformation of Paris
- Manifesto= rst case of Greek+Gothic
- arch assumption= create new ideal type for church design
we have to address best method of construction (Gothic) +
best arch references (greek)= new style for signicant and
innovative buildings
- Aim of Luis XV= construct a monumental, symbolic
building to promote &stress importance of Gallican
Church1 which was trying to separate frm Roman church.
therefore St.Genevieve= importance symbolic meaning of
Gallican Church independence
- Greek temple front=main entrance to church
- nished in 1780 by scholars
- wanted max light= combo vaults+windows=combo light
+dark in building
- = requalication of the entire urban sector around the
chruch, Louis XB wanted a kind of stage for that part of the
city
- intention= create open space in front of church to represent
relation between form+temple in classical system.
- based on greek cross plan

1 gallican church= catholic church in France frm time of declaration fo Clergy of France 1682

- Post French Revolution 1789= Church ebcomes Pnatheon

of Paris. Had to change the building several times bec of
structural problems
- windows had to be shut in 19thc because of structural
problems
- soufflot worked on dome for more than 15yrs, amanged to
support the dome w/ walls+columns
- inspired diff projects in Paris
Julien David Leroy < New Type for Christian Churches>
- during the year of inauguration of St. genevieve, published
book to explaining genealogy of the church + innovative
relationship between Greek and Gothic
*Sensationalism= based on importance of human sensation to
objects etc*
In soufflots work there is no distinction between structure
+aesthetic but post-st. geneveive we begin to see divergence
between the two faculties which begin to specialize in their
separate sectors and developing new techs.
- mid 18thc=separation between engineers anda rchitects
- 1747 French Ecole des Pons-et Chauses
- 1688 French academy of architecture
What happened in England?
classical order was rst used by architects in the use of private
housing/mansions
private actors such as antiquarians etc. played a key role in the
denition of architecture
classicism circulated in diff ways in britain:
1. Neopalladianism (based on reconsiderationof experiences of
Palladio)
2. Neoclassicism (through the circulation of classical elements/
orders)
Colen Campmpbell <Vitruvius Britannicus>
- circulated a section of classicism in order to change the taste
of British families; bec these families asked young archs to
combine and use classical orders in their private villas and
private suburban mansion without respecting the principles
and rules of classicity.
- ex. Mereworth House (1722-1725)
Lord Burlington, collector and antiquarian, becam patron of
classicism in Britain. he was involved in formation of British
academy in mid18thc & promoted program to reshape Britain
Robert Adam Kedleston
Hall, Derbyshire, 1760s
-promoted local
interpretation of
classicism particularly in
rennovation in the
interior of GB houses
-adam= protagonist of
interior design of GB
houses in 2nd half 18thc
-criticized Stuart and
Revitt who copied
classicism
- core of rennovation=private villas, intent to reproduce
BRitish house inspired by Roman+Greek arch

- Keddleston Hall:
- North facade= Greek Temple
- South facade= Roman arch+dome
- changed proportions of classical orders
Syon House, Middlesex, 1760-69
- suburban, villa in countryside
- created a rotunda plan
- combination of vaults+arches+columns, references to
Roman Pantheon
Adam also redesigned multiple urban s tructures ex. Adelphi
Terraces, london 1768--> can see how idea to use orders
+classicity in diff way started to acquire greate importance-->
use of order to solve new needs
W. Chambers <Treatise on Civil Architecture> (1759)
- Worked w/ lord burlington
- there are exible rules to use classical orders
- for new typologies etc. orders could be combined+used
based on the needs of the buildings
William Kent, Chiswick house, London 1725
- for Lord Burlington, another ex of classicism in GB housing.

Lecture 3 (13/03/13)
The city and the Public (XVIII Century City)
social change inuenced also city transformation/Urban Plan
Enlightenment period inuenced also perception of the city
+emphasised the role of the citizen-->activity of bourgeoisie
need specic types of places=aim: create stages for public life
theaters, libraries etc. used to be part of royal or ecclesiastic
buildings.
model used= Greek society: Agora`+forum
public sphere= more and more important
in GB instead we see change occurs in domestic spaces
neoclassical became instrumental to characterize new society=
instrumental to show reaction to style+social class
changes citizens life but also citizens taste
Paris mid 18thc
debate about design of Royal square dedicated to Louis XV
Royal square= instrument of ruban design, based on
representing royals/monarchs + used to rennovate
neighborhood+celebrate the king
all they cared for was facade looking into the square, the rest
was irrelevant ie. coudl be left blank and boring.
new approach= as intellecturals, architects etc. to propose a
solution--> MORE DEMOCRATIC = show emergence of new
social class
1747-48
PIerre Patte- tried
new operation
tryin gto put on
one map all
interesting
projects, made
map of utopic
solution for royal
modern squares,

therefore city of circulation and exchanges was developed,

infrastructure started to gain importance
emerged sittuation of Paris still absed on medieval fabric,
needed to redesign infrastructure, sewers etc.
each building has to have specic character through single
intervention= entire urban reform needs of bourgeoisie+publi
are diff
Anges-Jacques Gabriel (Royal Architect)- took into
consideration the proposals+made open square w/ combo of
elements *2 public/civic palaces represent the new importance
of the public in the monarchy
connected 3powers crown-state-church= RUE ROYALE
interest also shown to dene composition rule for entire urban
sector = rst tentative of planning=starting point for debate on
city planning+also a way to imporve city life
to evaluate symbolic building, housing w/out value must be
destroyed to create new urban stage, critique= Parisian layout
had to be revisited
Pierre patte tried to address city as human body--> highlighted
that city should be redened as unique body--> needs codes,
rules for these interventions.
tried to propose modern street
proposed section connecting relationship between height of
building+section of street
<Project for an idea street 1769>--> highlighted new concepts
ex. hygiene, tentative to propose standards.
If in arch they were tyring to give characters to buildings based
on function, in urban discourse=trying to create urban
decorum+tentative on urban reform problems
anticipation to analyze city as machine, complex mix of
monuments, infrastructure, parks etc.
Great Britain:
17thc Great FIre- oppotunity to redesign London--> Sir
Christopher Wren
British society of 2nd half 18thc is composed/lead by
aristocratic familiespublic realm (bourgeoisie) like in France
aristocratic families--> gave oppotunity to experiment in
countryside+had apartment in London
Planning of London is dened by intervention by private
families. Squares= private spaces (like place Royal in France)
London designed in Fragments
First tentative to create urban development=18thc:
John&John Wood, 1725-1770,
tried to redesign 3 elemnts:
-circus
-square
-crescent--> semi copy of
collisseum
-the above r combined to
redesign residential development
Palmer, The Landowne Crescent,
Bath (1789-93)
-wanted to be a natural response
to landscape replicated
movement of landscape
*Picturesque experience started

w/ classical experience but was enhanced by natural element

Private investors started to inuence development of entire city
in 2nd half of 18thc.
CHARACTER--> cod for using the classical language of arch to
nd the Suitable appropriate expression for every building type
Back to france
in French society merchant society started gaining improtance
Paris: Nicolas Le Camus de Mezires, Halle au Bl, 1763
- redesign of entire neighborhood NOT only the market--p>
this was the occasion/excuse for urban transformation
- also esign radial axes to connect neighborhood to other
improtant spaces
- market became civil monument (NEW TYPE)
Peyre
- interesting role in design of new typologies in Paris
- wanted to highlight importance of drama in rome <Project
for a Cathedral and 2 palaces, perspective view, 1753>
- there is not a correct use/proportion for classical orders, can
be changed based on program of buildings.
Theaters
new typology of building
considered as temple of the arts accessible by all social groups
+is also a place for sociability

Charles de Wailly+Perrette, Comdie Franaise (Theatre

Odeon), Paris, 1776
- rst freestanding theater
- during French revm the collonnades @ front were used as
stage+square for public

Lecture 4 (19/03/13)
The City and the Public
Public Architecture: New Theater
Charles de Wailly, Comedie Francaise (Theatre Odeon), Paris,
1776
- classical orders+codes started to be used in exible way to
show specic/new functions (Louis XV requested
construction of 20theaters
- theaters=symbolic/instrumental in social and moral
revolution=occasion to redesign+reshape urban texture
- main entrance+colonnade= lter for public+during
revolution was used as open air theater
desengagement--> construction of iconic public monuments to
redesign + recreate old fabric of the city

tried to dene specic rules/codes for theaters

Victor Louis, Grand Theater in Bordeaux (1773-1780)

- Same layout- follow codes of Wailly+Perret
- additional program to rennovate surrounding of the theater
- starhall *most important space)- open colonnade corinthian
on 1st oor- intent to make cnonection w/ exteriordimesion given is improtant bec. circulation space+meeting
space acquired more importances
- colonnades etc. are all exterior elements therefore aim=
creat public space using elements usually used in exterior.
Another type of building= Unis

Jacques GOndoin, Ecole de Chirurgie, Paris (1769-76)

- idea to create+nd appropriate language to represent
function of public education
- progressive school acquiring greate importance therefore
necessity to represent it differently
- collonades connected by continuous base therefore becomes
inaccessible--> attempt to make transparent wall= ppl
outside were allowed to see into uni
- intent to rep. the thriumphal arch for entrance
- used same layout of Parisian Hotel with combo frm
calssicism
- combo: ironi= main door, triumphal arch- main entrance,
basement connecting columns to allow ppl out to see in
BUT closed w/ certainpannels to show scehens of chirurgie
to emphasize temple of schietic education
- combo of classical elements=obv. inside
- used hotel system/layout
- itinerary to show combo of diff classical referenes:
- main colonnades (ionic)
- corinthian temple facadea
- amphitheater- most important classes+
where dissections took place
William Chambers, <Treatise of civil architecture> , 1759
- later chambers developed a school of architecture

- somerset House, London (1776-1796)

- tried to show rules he codied in the treatise
- porposed to combine diff fuctions:
- navy
- tax buildings
- royla academy
- society of antiquarians
- manifesto of public buildings that didnt exist in
London
- even if there is 1 unique design, by changing the
use of the orders shwoed the diff offices
- facade along Thames chould only be seen from
bridge+had to be manipulated to have a unique
vista
- wanted dpublic city quarter therefore placed
curtyards in image of the place royale of Louis
XV= attempt to create public square, canging
small elements ex. idea of statue in the Place= in
middle but reinterpretation= on side so doesnt
give too much importance to the statue.
- tentative to represent national use of orders
+national public buildings
The Neopalladianism in England
Colen Campbell, <Vitruvius Britannicus> 1715
- new interest for drawings, writing, sketches of palladio
- not interested in numeric relations ma in imitation and
adoption included in the villas
Imigo Jones- rrst connectio w/ Britain of Palladian approach
Neopalladianism- 18thc w/ circulation, publication etc. of
palladian drawings= attempt to create nationalstyle/language
and use of classicity

Colen Campbell, Mereworth House, 1722-25

- exact application of palladios ideologies

- more interested in the ideals of palladio

Lord Burlington
- patron who promoted+ funded Grand TOur + publication
+circulation of plates, showing models etc.
- collected drawings, sketches by palladio

Lord Burlingtton-William kent. Cheswick House, London, 1725

- not residetial aims but to show his sketches, engravings
+drawings of palladio
- small tructure made in desgned garden in design of building
and garden- relation to ROman villa and garden
- absed house on series of drawings on reconstruction of Rom
by Palladio
- dome- octagonal layout iwht dome (diff frm palladio, square
+dome)
- semi-circular windows
- connection to Roman Pantheon, baths, villa etc
- tried to create relationship with garden+had to design
garden- considered 1st attempt to design the landscape
- in garden can nd ecclectic combo of
- ruins
- attempt to experiment and combine diff cultures
that were studeid in their travels. Garden becomes
a LAB
Neoclacissism in the USA

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

Monticello, Charlottesville (1771-1890)
- key adopter of neopalladianism- ideals used instrumentally
to introduce the british experiments on villas
- all references of before and attempt to adapt to French
Pavilion+ la Rotunda+ddevelopment of other winds to
develop new functions. Symbolic meanings adopted

Library of the University of Virginia, Chalottesville (817-1826)

- used same palladian references
- considered core of scientic community
- french pavilion combined with central dome
- circular instead of octagonal scheme
- references for many houses of the century
- way to combo american colonial housing with Paladian
style, also method of construction= that of Paladianism bec.
not rlly have experience in the US

Thornton, Hallet, Hadeld, Latrobe ad Bulnch, Capitol,

Washington (1792-1827)
- in early 19thc the Capitol was destroyed+reconstructed.
Important project for reconstruction of some specic rooms
- tried to produce local/american version of Palladian
experience/ideas+combo of approach in Sommerset House
- interiors of rooms in reconstruction= incontro between
local culture+british neoclassicism ex. corinthian capitals
made w/ tobacco leaves and mais/pannocchie
Landscape Garden
took shape in Britain at same time of neoclassical experience
found perfect lab to create utopic arch system based on variety
of culture
while city had urban constraints, gardens and
landscape=challenge, they were a utopia where architects are
free from constraints and could understand the roigins of
architecture and design
importance of nature and antural discoveries inuenced also
the role of architects
gardne= free expression to create utopicworld
*Sensationalism- intellectual and phylosophic starting point. All
knowledge and info derive from specic sensation and
expreiences. Started to develop also aesthetic theory. New

category to explain how sensation/feelings of specator inuence

interiors etc. ma also other elds
amusing the eye with the pleasure of variety - personal and
subjective apporach to aesthetic
attention paid to design of gardens as way to create sequences
that veloeloped diff sensations
therefore provoked and emphasized the sansation- addition of
articial elements that broke the symmetry etc. to add to
sensation
*Picturesque- developed aprticularly in gardening, gave tools to
design gardens in GB. Wanted to highlight irregularity etc.
Refusal of all the cannons, mainly based on evoking senstion in
visitors.Garden=perfect palce to conenct to search for origins

William Kent, Stowe Garden, Buckinghamshire (1685-1748)

- drammatic qualities and emotional effects
- added tempiettos, statues grottos and combined to create
multiple sensations
- paths designed to provide continuous diff vistas and
consequently diff sensations
- even if you have small garden you can epxeriment with type
of landscapes
- intro of passage sometiems out, sometimes understground
guarantees diff vistas
- provoke diff emotions and sensations
- lake- recurrent element bec of nature of water chatnges
therefore rep change in sensations and emotions. Waterlandscape soul-body
Stourhead, Wiltshire (1755)
- lake=key but managed to guarantee continuous diff vistas
- attempt to design alle elments
- hills articially designed and conceived
also starte to inuence architecture- controversy bet diff
architects:
Chambers etc.
garden monuments=
shaped and combined for
artificial combo

Landscape designers
architecture objects
shouldnt be included in
landscape

conict caused a break between archiects and landscape

designers
*Sublime- new category of judgement for aesthetic

edmund Burke <Philosophical ENquiry into the origin of our

ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful> (1757)
- more sensations
- articial use of picturesque ideas to enhance the sensations
- exasperate sensations by using light and dark, chaing scales
of monuments etc.
- obscurity, modied scale etc.=exasperated
- also developed in design of public buildings, not only
gardens
- *emotions and sensatios = element of judgement

Lecture 5- Edoardo Piccoli (20/03/13)

late 18thc architecture
2 architects, study possible interpretation+meaning of this
archi, mostly public, that they worked on in end of 18thc. They
were inuential also at beginning of 19thc and 20thc
Last 25/30 yrs of 18thc= time of revolution in Eu and US=
intense change in society=moment of rich+intense
experimentation in arch programs, especially with redenition
of what should be a public architecture.
New architectural language- how should new architecture
representing a new architectural society be represented?
- Piranesian approach- vision that Architects and painters
such as Giovanni Battista Piranesi, had of the ancient work
and of antiquity as a world that produced gigantic
architecture that survived the ages and the passing of time
but was consumed by time. Piranesis vision is that of a
complex and varied architecture of gigantic proportions but
nevertheless a concrete, solid, material object, produced,
built by man
2 main axes:
- french rationalist approach=projects by Soufflot (St.
Genevieve)+idealized vision of antiquity as heroic period
w/ rich+varied kind of arch language in drawings by
piranesi
- English approach= Adam brothers and arch of James Adam
(rooted in PIranesian vision of antiquity but is more
domesticated+rened). Idea that modern arch should build
itself using as a foundation the ancient arch+aesthetic of
ancient rome and ancient roman imperial architecture.
All this seems to take a diff direction just a few yrs after
PIranesi and SOufflots death (around 1780s) with a series of
ideal project, unbuilt, most are drawings, and engravings, by 2
important french architects of younger generation:
- Etienne-Louis Boullee (1723-1799)
- Claude-Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806)
How should we read a proejct that is not designed for
construction? how should we read an 18thc project that is
visible on a scale that makes it unrealizable? How should we
deal with ideal projects?
These projects have been considered:
- utopias, invention of impossible archis in an impossible/
inexistent context=formal exercises in composition.
- visions/dreams completely detached frm reality, dreams
that reect on the question of arch space ex. Piranesis
etchings. (became famous engraver of 18thc through

drawings of antiquity+engravings that represent prisons.

=exercise in rep of arch space=visions of impossible interior
spaces. impossible to realize due to technology of the time.)

Boullee+Ledoux start working on series of ideal projects

meant for construction=smtimes v. elementary in forms
+complex in arch space. Piranesian work=important inuence
on their arch+=major turning point in history of contemp
archi.
Can be said that Boulee+Ledoux=enormous inuence more
frm drawings than buildings.
Arch drawing develops for rst time. 2 moments in arch history
where drawing become autonomous+becomes as important as
building itself:
a. 15th-16thc (italian renaissance)=drawings in
sketchbooks+treatise=more important+inuencial than
builings.
b. end of 18thc.=through drawings architects explored
directions for arch not immediately realizable.
Drawings= basis+ground in many arch schools+became
diff frm artistic drawings=started to have own status
+techniques
there are even archs that only drew, ex. Jean Jacques Lequeudrawsman who worked for Soufflot+other architects who drew
+donated drawings to national library.
not the architect artist but the architect draws-man
mathematical+theoretical basis that we use today in arch
drawing=developed in late 18thc by mathematician engineer
that worked in an engineering school.
the series of their (boulee and ledoux) proejct are all designed
between 1770-1800s.= contemporaries.
elements that tend to be common in these ideal projects:
1. presence/refernce of antiquity in rareed way=smthing so
elementary+abstract that it is absolute and new in some way.
2. use of certian symbols that in antiquity=funerary
monuments: cemeteries, monuments to heores, Pyramids.
Represented as physical thing, consumed by time etc.
interested in basis of architecture. the basic/simplest objects, so
arch is dened as smthing that starts frm geometry, mass+
starts as a monumen (ex. Laugiers hut). This reection+belief
also expressed through boullees and ledoux ideal projects.
Ideal projects=drawings exercises, reections in arch theory
+projectsreecting important problems of that time
Why was it so urgent and important to develop such
drawings? Why did successful archs like Boulee and ledoux

dedicate themselves for years to architectural drawing and

creation of ideal projects?
Political context=changes that societies and states were
udnergoing in EU and the colonies in the US in that period.
iLast part of 18thc=characterized by Revolutions (FR+US). US
revolution (1776)=one of most importnat= gave basis for FR.
US in 18thc=THE new world+chose Democracy against
monarchy as basis for constitution. Democracy=modelled upon
antique (Greek) democracy. So not only in arch but also in
politics antiquity=example.
Gave enormous stitmulus to Eu political debate+with this
came a debate in the arts. if we want diff state what kind of
art and architecture shoudl we have ?
- Boullee=public arch should (didnt believe houses were v.
important= radical idea at the time) be imagined in a new
way. If public arch should talk only to small elite (court and
king and ruling party) but has to be comprehensible to every
citizens wt forms+criteria should be used for composition?
Geometry= virtual and perfect forms such as the sphere, cube
etc. that everyone can understand. Pyramid as it has a base
+seems a mountain naturally represents solidity , relationship
w/ ground and continuity. Sphere= perfection+ heaven=natural
+perfect form=can be used in other contexts. Monumnets must
have universal value.
These ideas and reections expressed through drawings+text.
late18thc=peak in book production.
- Boullee and ledoux both wrote essays
- Boullee taught at school of arch, Paris=inuential+writes an
answer to Laugier (published only in the 20th century)
Architettura Saggio Sullarte
- boullee from 1780s stops buildings and focuses on teaching,
drawing and writing.
- ledoux= similar pattern but goes on as practicing arch
building till 1st yrs of revolution+last 15-20 yrs focuses on
engraving of projects+ writing major writing work.
translated as: architecture considered in relation to art,
morals and legislature
Both texts discuss relationship between new architecture+new
society. They percevie these yrs=crucial for status of arch+ for
political status of Eu and the states they live in.
Ledoux (born: 1736)
1760s, starts to build for rich patrons +becomes most
fashionable archi of paris in 1770s. Works for rich+prominent
gures in nance+aristoracy. Architecture=linked to Soufflot
idea of revival of antiquity+piranesian visions.
Vue Perspective de
entree de la maison de
madame de
Thelusson- framed
house as view by
piranesi w/ triumphal
arch framing=one of
the most valueable real
estate buildings.
ledoux imporatant in the
public administration sa architect for imporatant institution=

management of waters and forests. Part of the state

administration that maanaged forests+water =agriculture.
Agency also managed+manufacture mineral+ salt.
Salt=important to ensure conservation of certain goods= state
monopoly.

Ledoux given opportunity in 1770 to build as state architect an

industrial complex+ideal community for those who worked in
extraction of salt in french countryside=built project.utopic
project but expresses new model of society+ new model of
addressing needs of production+dwelling w/ an arch
language=both industry+place where ppl lived in comunal
buildings. Not arch of equality+democracy in its plan
+construction bec=clear hierarchy of society. Central building=
director of the salt works+controls/can see everyhting. building
expresses industrial+social control but= experiment in
formalization of control. negative condition but natural
condition for well structured+well dened society. House of
director was related to the doric order (so antiquity was also
there). Entrance=grotto (picturesque) used to be open to
country. Both direct allusion to mineral salt=extracted from
mountain, ground. In grotto=water owing out from rock
(sculpted water)=direct allusion. But building itself=mix bet
idea of greek propilea+nature. So=monumental axis to temple
of nature+abundance through precious material (salt) for state
economy. Also aesthetically pleasing+fashionable. = Example of
built reection of relation bet arch+industry, society
etc.=symbolical value other than functional.
Previously these buidligns werent considered as architecture +
=important only for function. Ledoux is now saying these
buildings=public, major architectural problems+architects have
to deal with.
As Ledoux wrote his treatise and continues reection on
theoretical problems he begins to expand the project into that
of ideal city/territory. Semicircle becomes a circle+
countryside=populated by architectural+engineering projects.
Series of private+public buildings where Ledoux is saying that
every building for every citizen=public building. in some way
these projects are as important as the palace of the king. obv
palace has different form but not considered more improtant
than this.
Ledouxs idea of society=well ordered+reformed society+
maybe there is still a king, smone who rules+smone obeys but
everyone participates in management of land+goods of the land

+architect=v. important bec gives meaning to function+role of

user in society. Public buildings expressfunction but place in
society of the ppl who live there.
More idealized building=guardians of the wood. Expresses they
live in nature, outside, under sky+have to do w/ nature. More
than just guardians of wood they=sacred gures.
One of rst+most interesting tentatives to create ideal society.
Charactermetropolitan society but agricultural where arch has
entirely new status.
Boullee:
built less than Ledoux+went through diff path
abandoned building all together eventually
began with series of competition projects for real buildings.
national library= public hall where knowldeg=available to all.
begins w/ projects w/ link to real urban questions+develops in
1780s-90s in yrs of revolutions a series of more ideal projects
project for newtons monument (tomb+monument) idea of
tomb. Access to great hollow space=underground only to nd
large hollow space where small perforations reproduce light of
the universe/starts=experiment in arch language
Means to assess values of arch, redenition of what is a
monument for democratic country
3 conclusions:
1. stated possibility that arch=instrument not only for
propaganda or reecting a status of power but to produce
a in society. arch=tool of soical reform+revolution=
political instrument+ep of power
2. value of geometry to express arch principles. Not speaking
of arch orders. Not everyone adopt it but boullee is saying
geometry=more important in architectural language bec
understood by all.
3. importance of arch program to change arch. To have new
public arch we must redene wt=public architecture+must
reinvent diff kind of architectural programs that produce
archis. Denition fo new type=done through essays.
Architectural program (political and functional quesiton)=
base of the new public/private architecture. Also important
in the 1920s-30s. Function is a thing that must be dened
and changed according to requirements of the time.

Lecture 6- 26/03/2013
Eclecticism
ecclecticism- We call eccecticism architecture AFTER 1814
bec=date of Vienna Congress (beginning of restoration period
after Napoleon empire). Arch historians dont agree on end of
period bec term=so vast+includes so many ways of doing arch
that it is difficult to dene an end for the movement.
Some ends dened:
1814-1890: From restoration period to Art Nouveau
1814-1914: From Restoration Period to WWI
1814-1940: From Restoration Period to WWII
Eclecticism denition:
19th century dened as negative/horrible arch+none of the
charcters dened as eclectic would accept to be called such
Therefore there are 2 meanings to eclecticism:
1. category in history of architecture

2. negative connotation to architecture in the 19th century.

Associationalism- we start with ecclecticism in English garden.
Start using ecclecticism when we analyze arch like english
garden that use different styles in the same place. Aim of
designer=present diff arch to make ppl make associations bet
some diff styles+feelings. ex. classical ruins could inspire
harmony, proportion, measure, etc. stylesused in lological
way but to evoke feeling.
Eclectic revivals- revival of diff periods/styles. Diff styles that
come frm other periods in history+try to look ahead. Fast
circulation of arch+made architects more aware of what they
were doing. Architects until rst half 19thc=educated ppl who
could study alone, travel etc. but werent always educated same
way+in same schools. So all these styles in 2nd half 19thc were
taught in arch school, so every architect had courses on history
of styles form Egyptian to contemporary=anyone could design
in diff styles bec studied+visited in school. Schools at the time
also required to design in classic or other styles.
Academic eclecticism- inuence of education that made ppl
design in styles even in the late 20th c. most long-lasting form
of eclecticism because strictly linked to schools
Creative eclecticism- Once you have the principles of every
language you can also start to invent by urself. you dont only
have to copy so started to create new arch from diff styles they
learned= try to create new language of arch (decades before the
modern movement) they started to create smthign new w/out
the tech+w/otu knowing=innovative way of using styles=change
dimensions.+mix techniques and details. Could do this bec
trained to be conscious of every principle of architecutre.
Romantic national eclecticism- important century for
nationalism+romanticism. In period of confusing way of doing
architecture w/ many diff language frm diff countires, one of
the concern=udnerstand what national style was.
Why the development of ecclecticism?
Political changes- started after end of Napoleons empire (1814
Congress of vienna). Rome was no longer the only center for
artistic+cultural spread. Till 18th Rome=important center for us
bec of academies, classical ruins, archs went to rome to
understand classical architecture. But after Vienna COngress,
nations emerged frm a unique empire and the diff nations
became in some cases centers for the arts.=plurality of cutural
centers and soluitons.
Social changes- For architecture=urbanization. Ppl came frm to
urban centers=emerged middle class. Clients changed=required
diff typologies of homes, work spaces etc.=change in way of
doing architecture+functions. Urbanization=archs called to
build new functions for the city (Railway stations, structures for
markets, structures like pavilion for international exhibitions).
new functions could not be approached by copying antiquity
but archs start frm antiquity+work on dening new typology.
Industrial revolution-Dealt w/ changes in cities+technique.
Concrete, glass, iron etc. inuenced course of arch.
Education of architects and clients- clients could also ahve
knowledge on specic styles etc.=become mroe specic in their
requests=new relationship between clients and architects.

Archaeology- 19thc there=campaigns made by english, french,

italians etc. Started excavating+looking at what remained=
important bec they published their drawings which were then
studied by architects and looked at by clients.
International exhibitions-in this circulation an important role
=international exhibitions- there were pavilions on diff types of
arch=point for ppl to meet new styles, cultures. important bec=
place where ppl could learn smthing about other places
Museums and collections- public museums started in the 19thc.
some ex. of public collections existed at end of 18thc but public
museums=phenomenon of 19thc.
circulation of ppl, things and knowledge=characteristic of
ecclecticism
Looking far away: Exoticism and Orientalism
There wasnt very in depth knowledge of what was indian,
chinese, siamese arch etc. rst hting that came was the images/
printings+drawings of merchants. In UK we see rst examples
of these drawing bec=colonies in East EU=also rst applications

William Chambers, Chinese

Pagoda, kew Gardens,
1757-1762:
-=son of important
merchant, employed by East
Indian Company, so
knowledge about China+Far
east arch was from
professional experience
John Nash, transformation of
the Royal Pavilion in
Brighton, 1815-1823:
-usually worked with Neoclassical style. Most important works=residential buildings in
classical styles. In this case he was asked to rebuild a royal
pavilion in Brighton, for the king
- curious architecture that John nash would never build in
London but=suitable for Leisure place. Many times in this
period we nd connection: Leisure-orientalism. Here=Hindu
arch but not well dened bec mixes indian with calssical style
usually followed by John Nash.
- Orientalism=important term in 19thc

John Foulston, odd

Fellows Hall, Plymoutth,
England, 1823:
-little building in small
city in England, built
egyptian-style
building=part of project
for center.
Eclecticism=way to be
astonished abt a building. Egypt=important bec art was
imported in EU after Napoleonic campagin in Egypt.
A big change= looking back at other styles apart classical. After
renaissance classical element were reinterpreted in many ways
but never used idea of excluding classical tradition.

Gothic Revivalism
Gothic=new entrance/element in panorama of architectural
language. Gothic=antagonist of Classical:
- classical=proportion, beauty vs. Gothic=ugly,
unproportioned

Charles Barry (And Augustus Welby Pugin), Houses of

Parliament, 1836-1851
- The rst and most mportant and monumental entrances of
the gothic in 19thc
- gothic bec language in eclecticism would connected to
national roots so=improtnat to build a gov building in an
English style and gothic arch=long lasting tradition used in
church all the way to contemporary arch
- Plan=representative of eclecticism. Didnt care about taking
from diff traditions+styles. Plantypical medieval plan
(usually asymmetric w/ exception of church) BUT this plan
=symmetrical+compact. Paths in building=all orthogonal
(not characteristic of medieval) so=classical plan.
- Gothic aspect=style of facades, towers= picturesque+gothic
appeal
- Traces of classicism also in facade: 2 towers, facade=
compact+symmetrical with partitions one next to the other
+one equal to the other v. innovative way of using style but
inside every detail=gothic. and was designed as gothic arch.
- details taken from religious arch=strange bec= gov buildings
- though gothic application=weird it was not a strange site in
a city like London where many styles were being mixed

Sir Robert Smirke,British museum, London 1823-1852

- choice=Greek style=one of rst public museum, hosted
classical pieces of art. Coherence between interior Greek
exhibition and exterior appearance/style.

- One of many examples of academic eclecticism.

In 19th century architects started to normalize/dene rules on
how to look at new buildings. In UK 2nd half of 18thc built
many museums+majority/all used neoclassical Greek styles.
Looking back to Classicism:
Classicism=diff ways to refer to classic arch but classical arch
also=neo-Classical, Renaissance Baroque
Louis Visconti and Hector Martin Lefuel, the New Louvre, paris
1852-1857
- neo-baroque architecture, 2nd Empire style. Used for
addition to Louvre.

Charles Garnier, Opera House, Paris 1860-1975

- icon of eclectic architecture, a-typical example
- there was a competition for the design of this theater.
Theater=symbolic building for 19thc socieety (middle class)
- principal function=small space in context of general plan.
symbolical role of theater at the moment=place to see a
show+place for ppl to be seen.
- Garnier interpreted theme of theater as place to cirucate in
huge space of entrance, staircases=ritual of looking at others
+being seen=center for plan. A lot of space for circulaiton of
ppl+entrance
- facade allows to understand eclecticism+shows why archs
looked at this kind of ecelcticism as aweful, bec you can see
classical reference but doesnt concern proportion in height
of building. Similar to baroque=is in itself theatrical. arch
inuences public looking at building
- inside=dynamic staircase+focus on rationally organized
paths. Studied in plan diff solns fr ppl w/ ticket, w/out
ticket. ppl arriving by foot/carriage=rational interpretation
of plan.
Looking back to Renaissance
US=important country where eclecticism spread+can easily see
many capitals of 19thc following model of Roman pantheon or
residential architecture in Boston, NY, chicago etc, where
houses=facade in diff syle.
Peculiarity of US: smtimes try to look at styles rooted in EU
culture but not objects of revivalism in EU. Ex. Romanesque
and Renaissance.

!
!
!

McKim, Mead, and White, Boston Public Library, 1887-1895

- pop rm in East Coast=same that you see as designer of the
Chicago Campbell exhibition in 1893. McKim= one of rst
US architects trained in Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris.
- Library=new typology. Important=public library reminded
you of education, so they chose renaissance as important
period for education=copied italian 16th c palace.
- also a way to make ppl associate style w/ concept.
Architectural theories Neogothic:
Through neogothic theories can understand what happened in
19thc+how we arrived to 20thc innovative way of thinking.
Crisis of classical theory of architecture= diff reasons:
- through archaeological studies+excavations ppl understand
that many of the rules they have seen+studied after+during
renaissance arch had rules. Ruleas strict as studied=relative
thinking in ancient arch that they were not aware of=if the idea
of beauty could be relative then application of styles=relative
ex. sublime=quality of arch=inspiring something that is horric,
not concerning major proportion and quality etc.
Gothic arrived after being erased by renaissance tradition, then
reemerge only in second half 18thc through english garden,
sublime etc.
Gothic began to be studied and published like w/ classical arch
=scientic approach=allowed to build a set of examples, studied
in depth, drawn+later used by other arch.
Gothic proposed as new way to do Arch. How? 3 diff theories:
1. Pugin
2. John Ruskin
3. Viollet le duc
All three look at gothic+middle ages as harmony=UNIQUE
style so every craftman, designer+architect worked in same way.
Unique style allow to reach arch truth ex. look at gothic church
can udnerstand which elemnts bear loads+which dont thorugh
deco bec not in opposition but are coherently designed.
Important bec on the contrary in eclectic contemporaneity
materials+elements used outside their own function/ origin
(wood reb marble etc.)
gothic truth=moral truth=religious truth bec gothic linked to
religion/church
1. Pugin
a. Gothic=truth+Catholicism=truth of our culture
b. Looked at gothic as a style+middle ages as moment in
history where society was more equal bec ex. myth of

construction of cathedrals=no clear hierarchy all

worked together.
2. Ruskin:
a. studied gothic arch in Italy+especially inVenice. Idea of
middle agesscientic analysis but impression (shown
in drawings).
b. wrote book Seven Lamps of Architecture one of
lamps=truth so gothic truth= gothic arch virtues
3. Viollet le Duc
a. Dictionnarie raisonnee de larchitecture francaise du XI
au XVI siecle, 1854-1868
b. employee of french gov appointed to monuments of
france. Work=study monuments, look at condition and
propose/plan restoration.
c. France=Gothic arch was v. important+started collecting
docs+materials on gothic arch.
d. Attention on some elements of gothic arch that dealt
with truth=gothic arch seen as arch of rationality. Able
to build high buildings+skilled in construction.
e. Organizing Gothic arch of france in a dictionary he
made this dictionary an expresion of a new theory of
arch. Spoke about construction in gothic architecture
+how this could suggest a way of doing arch in 19thc.
f. idea of studyingcopy but udnerstand essence+
fundamental principles of arch+once understood you
will be able to make a new arch using new techniques.

Lecutre 7 9/4/13
Mid 18th century=need in EU (F+GB context) to represent new
social group adopting+revising historical forms+historical
references. 3 different approaches to use+adopt historical forms:
1. historicism- reuse historical forms ex. classical principles +
classical codes w/out caring about original aims. Diff exs
where architects tried to represent new typologies (theaters,
libraries etc.) combining classical codes+orders w/out caring
about original symbolic meaning+aims+concept of
character=to use in appropriate way the classical references
on basis of function of the building
2. revivalism- architects began to recognize one particular
style (gothic) due to symbolic value+used it to represent
new typologies by reviving one specic style.
3. pluralism- not reuse one unique histoircal reference but
combine diff historical+geographical references to represent
new building types. Aim=develop specic appropriate idiom
to represent new typologies. Must wait till 2nd half of 19thc
(industrial revolution) to see how architects nally have
instruments to create new forms. Late 18th century (buollee
nad ledoux) create radical unbuilt visionary projects using
primary forms to represent new typologies for new needs.
Through industrial revolution architects nally have
instruments to create new architectural forms. (only drawn
and hypothesized by Boullee and Ledoux)
All this search to dene a new architectural idiom+vocab for
building type nally arrived to important break w/ industrial
revolution:

- industrialization provided architects with new materials

+provided new method of construction=standardization+
prefabrication.
- also industrialization affected urban landscape ex. factories,
overcrowded slums with disease et.etc. reaction=design of
utopic cities etc.etc.
Architecture and Technology in the XIX Century
nd new architectural forms never conceived or experimented
before. There is no specic moment for denition of these arch
idioms. Happens more or less throughout EU + US due to same
preconditions that are:
- new materials
- new tech/ new methods of constructions
city/urban context=lab where experiences take place. Important
EU cities became lab for experiences bec rst experiment with
steam power in factories took place there, labour moving to
cities, circulation of capital.
Connected point= possibility to connect city with surrounding
areas (railways). Constitutes core of these experiences in terms
of new arch forms+landscape.
Icons of the city changed no longer cathedrals+palaces but
skyscrapers, factories etc.
New building type= factory. how to design a it? New needs,
new type, new design. before= small factories for artisans
designed by engineers. now=challenge for architects+could
experiment with diff materials. Experiments w/ steel+glass =real
starting point
Some references where already used steel+glass panels. ex.
Glazed sheds+standardized iron components became a motif of
Industrial City/Arch. We have varation of types but system/
method of construction allowed to develop new landscape+new
buildings of the period.
important to understand how to use iron. what were the limits.
Iron: the material of the new age:
- wide spans- small supports to hold wide spans.
- reduced supports, dissolved mass- relationship mass-volume
completely changed.
- new structural systems
- unusual proles
Changed role of architects now the experiences the architects
take to represent new arch forms+shapes come from work of
engineers so bridge method of construction=study elements for
architects
Case of the passage/gallery that emerged during+after the FR
thanks to the merge of iron+glass. Span of 20-25 yrs= space
developed by achievement of new method of construction+new
structural system.
References of sturctures using standardization+iron+glass
system=not conceived for arch aims but conservation+
preservation of exotic plants. esp in GB
Basic system of standardized elements=cast iron columns,
beams+glass panels=develop greenhouses. One of main gures:

!
!
!
!

Joseph Paxton:
Crystal Palace, London Hyde Park (11850-51)
- lead to the rst exhibition pavilion= experiment on
greenhouse typologies+greenhouse constructions. conceived
as exhibition pavilion. Previous greenhouse now used to
represent GB achievement in industrial building @ London
International Exhibtion 1851. Exhibition=show local
industrial design+ production. In this case pavilion=more
important thn exhibited inside.
- Interesting=roles of designer+builder of pavilion. Paxton=
hortoculturalist. project selected by royal family because
responded 2 important requirements= short time+low cost.
Intended to bring building type from one are of expertise to
another.
- Prefabricated buidling=perfect to represent advancement in
industry.Paxton was expected to develop project in 8 days+
build in 9 months.
- On site during the process of construction dened new
rules of construction of pavilions. Used beams as railways
for carts that had to place glass on the roof=functional
elements during construction+structural elements.
- Perception of space =continuous space. Return to material
honesty+express structural principles= structural truth. no
visual interruption.
- Contrast bet buiding+exhibition inside.
- Overall project conceived as simple element was deeply
criticized bec=considered engineering element arch. Here
we begin to see how new aesthetic (not udnetsood at the
time) was being developed=structural elements became
gradually decorative/aesthetic elements.
Paxton anticipated conception of building as a machine.
Another new typology= train station= symbol of new gates of
city. Post-steam engine=need to cover passengers along the
tracks.
2 important cases:
1. Kings Cross (london)

2.St. Pancras
(London) W.H.
Barlow, Roland
MasonOrdish, built
1864-1868.
-aim=little mass,
small support=archs
can achieve new

structures. Used the system of engineers in bridges, moving

it to another context for another function=obtained
undivided unique space. They didnt see discordancy bet
main part of station+shed element=contradiction in style
used to represent specic functions. shed=hidden behind
historical=looking hotel to advertise the station+hidden
behind=shed.
- Hiding structural part progressively disappeared. (shed
gradually accepted, less hidden). Arch of the shed gradually
seen on facade+representing function of building.
- Midland Grand Hotel, St. Pancras Station Head-House,
London (George Gilbert Scott 1868-1874) used Italian
gothic to rep admin part of building. Also Pugin advocated
polychromatic for cathedrals+churches=try symbolize
station as new cathedral=progressive process of acceptance
New function began to gradually develop own style that was
recognizable.

railways=new walls of the city+train station=more important.

Aim=covering tracks w/ reproof systems=iron tech

Henry Labrouste, Biblioteque Nationale 1859-68

- Biblioteque sainte genevieve 1844-50
- Design in smae square where st. genevieve was
- small library shows progressive acceptance of new tech+
exibility that iron+steel allowed. Aim=create public library
expected to be reproof+freestanding to collect+conserve
all rare manuscripts+books of church st. genevieve.
- Important challenge to create building that reps spirit of
age but maintain hierarchy of square=narrow site at edge of
square=supposed to be austere+anonymous in exterior.
- building =focal point for the intellectuals.
- reps use of iron for decorative parts of building.
- courageous+innovative idea to rep+use iron also for deco
of building=sober, austere design of building.
- second oor iron used inside=rep on facade. Labrouste
studied for v long time design of temples in colonies
+followed scholars that during this period rep temples as
structures used for festivals+events. In rep of temple archs
of French academy tried to represent temples+classical
buildings w/ colors as buildings adorned during specic
events. Aim=rep building for particular event, in specic
moment of their life. This is why in facade wanted to rep

adornment elements=way to reect french archs habit of

rep buildings in such a way.
- contrast bet exterior+interior. used iron arches in deco to
dene internal layout of library. Challenge=give specic
aesthetic to structural element.
- Managed to create reading room of the library designing w/
two arches=procession of itinerary inside buildings+able to
create light, open, wide spaces, perfect for library+reading
room=consequences of structure for buildings.
- Idea to create kind of membrane= light/transparent
decoration. combining experiences frm gothic construction
+greek references (temples).
- Showed+stressed the potential of new materials
- advantages: ventilation, lighting etc.
- aim: maximize interior spaces with exterior stone
space that was to hide the innovative interior.
- In temple the space bet 2 colonnades=public/
social space so in library wanted to create the
space as a meeting point for the intellectuals.
Public Buildings:
market places
We dont ahve architectural journals or publications easily
circulating in EU+US. so the world fairs became 1 of most
important moments for exchange bet arch cultures= exhibition
pavilions acquired importance as lab for experiments of arch
forms. London=rst great exhibition=also comparison
+competition bet architects designing pavilions on the
achievements of the local nations. Continuous competition fo #
of visitors, improtvement of industry. Became occasion to
experiment new architectural forms+idiom, then applied for
civil architecture and other typologies. also lab for shaping taste
of citizens+experimentation of architects in the pavilion design,
became a competition for the denition of these new models. V.
Important in 20thc
Continuous competition between shapes+forms, height etc bet
diff countries+exhibitions.
Look at lit of the period+ central topics of romantic lit you
undetsand how problem of disease+overcrowding=key points of
most important EU cities. Scale change in popn+introduction
of railway etc.=starting point for urban reforms in F+GB during
second have of 19thc.
2 diff apporach:
- in EU (france and spain) there are solution, plans, to create
alternative images for existing cities but working on the
existing cities. = embellishcity
- anglosaxon capproach to create industrialized city, to
propose utopic alternative as response=solve overcrowding
With Napoleon in paris we have the attempt to (1852-1870)
develop an imperial city. Plan made by George Eugene
Haussmann=Prefect of the Seine. Asked to redesign paris to
trasnform city into imperial city. Paris=quickly affected by
industrialization problems that needed to be solved.
- must consider city in diff layers and for hte rst time his
plan based principally on infrastructure.
- user of this plan=citizenroyal family= need networks+
layers to provide citizens diff quality of life (sewers etc.etc.)

- changed axis developing 2 axes north south+east west=core

of urban infrastructure+allowed to connect railways in
perimeter w/ city center. Plan based on deff interventions:
- new street cutting medieval fabric= land values
of certian neighborhoods+asking indirectly for
popular/low income family living to move out of
the center bec value of land hcanged and
increased. greenery+green areas in cities=also
used to develop clearances from slums.
- plan considered: health, moral probs, hygiene etc.
- Axis characterized by typologies=3 lined boulevards. Idea =
connect diff mounments important from symbolic pov for
history of paris+connect these focal points through 3 axis
boulevard to create diff focal points+guarantee vista. Cut
old historical decadent tissue of city, redesigning physically
the pavement, urban furniture+map.
=First examples of projects in urban history of 19thc.
since 20s of the 19th centuries(years of demolition of wall
+fortications of city, took place in span of 20 yrs, there was the
problem of what to do in empty spaces that previously divided
compact city with rest of the city.
ex. Barcelona 1858 Ildefonso Cerda-->engineer
- problem of quick industrialization+enlargement of city=
starting point for the enlargement of the city.these projects
also constitute an aesthetic approach.
- started with creation of new communication system=back
bone for enleargement of city then used orthogonal grid
cutting corners of blocks to create small squares at end of
each bock.
- Idea that the enlargement of the city could be based on data.
(number of inhabitants, types, social class etc.etc.)=v new bec
no one in 19th century developed extensions for city in such
a way. Therefore designed orthogonal blocks following such
data+making proportions of functions+apartments+
development of blocks on two sides leaving green inside.
Cerda consideredto be rst to have conceived functional plan
of city.
Madrid 1892, Arturo Soria y Mata
- 40yrs later than Cerda.
- Professional, conceived diff rule to contorl enlargement of the
city based on the uniform enlargement of the center+creation
of continuous linear growth of the external city.
Same period in the second half 19thc we have shaping of diff
idealists that created alternative cities to contrast negative
effects of overcrowding. Create ideal alternative structure in for
industrial cities.
Belgium: Jean-Baptiste Andre GOdin, Familistere at GUise
(1859-1877)
- followed same structure as baroque palaces=utopic
community where ppl could live work+stay together. where
idea of the problems of industrial city=solved bec of
egalitarian situation.Extremely important for all experiences
of ideal cities
Ebenezer Howard, UK, The Garden Cit (1898-1902)
- Published 2 versions of garden city, used as solution for
suburban cities/outside of the compact city.

Lecture 8- 10/04/2013
the Chicago School and the invention of a new building type
the skyscraper - result of industrial revolution in US
late 2nd half 19th century and post war *1950s*
between 1870 and end of century we have denition of a
skyscraper type. 1920= 2nd generation of skyscraper design.
Post-war period through affirmation of international style,
1950s we see how structural elements of skyscrapers wll acquire
their own aesthetic and become elements of the facade.
1st generation: 2nd half of 19thc in US
Why chicago?
Geographic panorama: in this period chicago=connection bet
east+west+was place where immigration passed to arrive to
west+had economic importance because=core of system of
communication=impressive growth of american economy.
Core of railroad system=Problematic place bec diff social
+ethnical groups that arrived. Chicago =symbol/icon/core of
american expansion+conquest of the west.
Also had construction of canals connecting the lakes=way fo
transportation also for materials. So constructionof canals bet
illinois river+michigan lake (1847) constitutes precondition for
economic development of chicago.
Chicago economy based on industry=stockyards we could nd
on the shore of the lake deeply affected panorama of the black
city. Production of meat= big part of chicago industry.
Chicago protrayed and described by visitors, intellectuals and
writers as black city bec industrial city. Center=built through
intensive housing=bad life condition=industrial families, low
income, immigrants etc. this is why the reconstruction of the
center took place exactly in Chicago and at that time
Growth of chicago: frm village of 350 inhabitants (1833).
1836=4000 inhabitants. incredible growth in little time
Chicago=imigrants=maintained identity, habits and culture=
problems of regulating relationship bet diff groups+also took
place rst american Labor Unions bec factory life characterized
this society so deeply= rst improtant strikes organized by
workers.
No building codes+regulations in north american cities, must
wait till 1st decade of 20thc regulating height of buildings=
uncontrolled growth of cities.=perfect millieu for strikes,
revolution, etc.

Map of the town of chicago and canal lands, 1836, prepared by

the commissioners fo the illinois and michigan canal:
- followed simple orthogonal grid to redesign/organize city.
- didnt consider ppls needs etc

- orthogonal grid consequences: exclusively a bidimensional

development. No regulation for vertical development+
distance between buidligns
Ex of orthogonal development: NYC
- simple way of regulaiton.
- Created 12 avenues from north to south, 155 streets E-W
and redesign Manhattan following this
Grid conceived as instrument of urban planning+distribution
of land bet inhabitants+owners=powerful instrument of
regulation for growth of city, bec not probelm (in theory) to
control the growth of the city and enlargment because just
replicate orthogonal block w/ out worry of overcrowding
Jefferson considered system as most democratic system for
planning of city, aim=eliminate complexity+diversity in city, no
hierarchy develops, simplify infrastructure, common spaces.
2nd ha 19thc=rst strong critique to democratic system of
grid started to take shape through work of rst landscape+
garden designers who proposed to break grid system:
Frederick law Olmstead and Calvert Vaux- Central Park,
1857-1870
- Olmstead= grid charact of US cities but needs green to
interupt so ppl can feel like they are also in nature.
- central park follows picturesque
Preconditions leading to skyscraper+chicago skwl:
- situation in chicago (provided millieu for skyscraper)
- orthogonal grid (framework where 1st skyscrapers developed)
- Elevator-Elisha Otis (NY), rst elevator for passengersconceived for 1st time+applied in 1857- in Chicago)
NY =tentatives to use new technologies mentioned before: cast
iron, and iron beams as structural+decorative element for
develop of high rise (6-7 oor) buildings
denition of skyscraper as a type=combo of 2 innovations:
- cast iron
- introduction of elevator
Cast iron district in NY is still characteristic. 1850s=use of cast
iron for entire residential neighborhoods+deco of buidlings.
Important bec skyscrapers inuenced denition of new
building develop+brought to the denition of skyline.
Skyline in north american cities became aesthetic category to
evaluate landscape
Clear intent to propose alternative to EU culture=skyscraper=
idea of proposing identitarian character for US but=problem of
dene a vocab for this new aesthetical identity.
In this period they mixed EU stylistic codes, native american
deco+structural elemnts bec in search for local vocab.
Origins:
Skyscraper as type-dened+conceived in CHicago after 1870+
Chicago school= responsible for denition of type, worked in
chicago bec of economic, historical+social events of period
1871- The Great FIre- reconstruction of Loop of Chicago. re
destroyed center of city= the Loop of city (district)=poorest+
most decadent part of city. Chicago=built along shore of
rivers=soft land+buidlings=wood structures
one of rst aims=use only reproof methods of construction

Fire created more than 100,000 homeless+gov used this to move

poor ppl out of city bec wanted loop for commercial+high
income housing=strategic point connected by railway+w/lake
1871= starting point of frenetic+quick process of construction.
More than 10,000 building permissions given by gov.
=opportunity for archs all over US to dene new forms+vocab
planning=only based on orthogonal grid
Aim of users+owners=intensify use of land+develop vertically+
only function to be used=office building
Brought to shaping of movement of group of architects that
worked together on reconstruction+shared new arch idiom,
dening itself the Chicago School=inuenced leading north
american archs= Frank Lloyd WRight belonged to this gorup
bec aim=develop identitarian movement and character for US
all members studied in EU, did grand tour+were formed by
principles of EU architecture. Returned to US trying to
combine previous experiences w/ local nature of US arch and
needs of US arch. All of them worked in office of William le
Baron Jenney (1832-1907)
Louis Sullivan=reference for all archs starting to work in US in
early 20thc
in this context thnx to skeleton frame of cast iron columns+
wrought iron beam/slabs=structure to build their skyscrapers.
able to include panel of glass in this structure that acquired
during this period the name of Curtain wall
elevator- initially steam, then hydraulic used bec strutural and
technological developments
As happened in EU engineers+architect roleclear, the
boundaries bet two expertiseclear so collaborated at rst to
develop new structural type.
engineers experimented in reproof systems+new technologies
archs dened new types. light= importantto illuminate core of
building (courts)=develop building along border of block.
so they arrived to: skeleton frame based on beams+rectangular
utility cage w/ elevator. after this problem=aesthetic/identity for
cage/skeleton
3 diff positions/schools among group of archtiects:
1. vernaculars- identity style=national vocab+ aesthetic for
skyscrapers. massive part of building=skin of building bec
structure=steel frame=Problem= facade treatment
2. classicism+revivalism, adoption+recuperation of EU ideals/
references, use historical characts/classical forms for facade
3. structuralists- wanted to represent structure on facade,
highlight importance of cast iron grid in facade, including
windows by maintaining regularity structure.
= Overall process of acceptance+legitimization of structure as
aesthetic element

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Examples of hiding
structure:
Henry Hobson
Richardson,
Marshall FIeld Store,
Chicago 1885-1887
(demolished in
1930)

!
!

- traditional facade, romanesque ref (Flrence+renaissance

palace)+character fo chicago
- wanted massive facade to create a monolith
- See internal interruption in facade, continuous series of
windows bec inside it is an open space=no partition
- Big contrast between interior+exterior during the rst
approaches bec attempt to separate+hide the structure

Henry Hobson Richardson, Glessner House, Chicago

1885-1886
- romanesque reference=roman aqueduct considered as
elemnt of classicity that can give prestige to the facade
- also Plazzo Rucellai, Bauakademie, Bibliotheque Sainte
Genevieve etc.etc. are references that richardson used

- Interior=tentative by Sullivan(being of vernacular group)to

create deco of native+motifs=intent to break w/ historical+
classical arch+use other motifs coming from native US
arch. some consider this beginning of US art nouveau
- tentative to dene local vernacular decorative idiom for
interior of the skyscrapers
- System of ventilation+heating=very simple+=contrdiction
bet aesthetic and structural aspects of the buildings
- rst tentative by Sullivan to dene a rule/code for design of
facade, also inventor of 3 partition of skyscrapers facade:
- ground oor, core and corniche
- introduced this idea while working on facade of
auditorium
- gradually move to denition of type/form of
skyscraper that slowly dene the structure/type

Daniel Burnham and

John Welborn Root,
Monadnock
Building, Chicago
1891
-last skyscraper built
using traditional

techniques (bricks/stones). after this they nally dened

structure for skyscraper that will all be made in iron+later
in steel
- dened bay window=used to allow more light into the
offices+included in the structure of the skyscraper.
- Began considering building as egyptian papiro leaves but
progressive abrstracition+simplication of shape arriving to
simple system, to corniche= own aesthetic, then office, then
group oor=progresive simplication of skyscraper so it
also represented modernity of office/business life.
- arrived to 17 oors on ground oor ahd 2 m wall+would
diminish. structure all in brick but iron structure= windows

Adler&Sullivan, Auditorium Building, Chicago, 1887-1889

- Used same stones used in Richardsons buildings to rep the
auditorium (new/different type of skyscraper)
- We have references to palazzzo medievale w/ intent to
differentiate+separate two parts of building.
- building meant to host opera house+hotels+offices for
workers of opera+hotel=separate stylistic way diff functions
- iron structure allowed to accentuate interior of opera house
- Richardson early experiments each structural element=own
support, now intro idea of unique to support all elements

William le baron Jenney(founding

father of Chicago School) (1832-1907)
Home Insurance Buidling, Chicago
1883-1886
-intent to show structural elements in
the facade
-trained as enginneer, able to create
aesthetic for iron buildings following
rhythm+grid of skeleton inside. Iron

steel frame gradually accepted+represented

in facde

-Burnham and root, Reliance Buidling,

Chicago 1889-1895
-decided to cover the beams and columnes
with terracotta
-2/3 of the facade are glazed

- proto-modernist buidling bec there is abstraction of deco

+celebration for the structure of the building.
Develop of these buildings gradually emphasized need for
codes.
Henry louis Sullivan (1856-1924)
- tried to codify design of the skyscraper. from the debate on
how to treat facade, to codication of design fo the facade
- he was professor to many important architects of the time
- title of essay: <how to design an artistic skyscraper>
- form follows function
- at a certain point these codes he dened concerned:
- separation of facade in 2 parts, starting with
separation bet functions of building:
- below=machinery+engines
- group oor= commercial activity=
semi-public spaces+smtimes hall
- secondary sotries/mezzanine=
commercial activity+connected by stair
- offices= repetitive number of stories
dedicated to offices=idea of
honeycomb, modular units
- nishing/corniche=can contain
machinery but considered nish - attic
- metaphoric aspect to subdivision= always compared to
organic gures (human body)+compare building w/ tree
(roots=machinery, trunck= offices, branches= corniche).
distinction inuences aesthetical treatment of facade ex. if
massive materials used for 1st+2nd stories, openings=
wider+dont have to maintain same rhythm as offices and
the deco could eb differentiated, may be richer.
- Corniche=deco+ornaments, sometimes abstract historicla
forms in other native american motifs- leaves etc.etc.
started to substitute iron w/ steel. bec with steel system you can
arrive at height u want, can multiply the stories so there are no
limits to the vertical development of these cities.
competition amongst corporation started based on height of
building, no codes for height=vertical development in few yrs.

Louis Sullivan, Guaranty

BUilding, Buffalo (NY) 1895
-emblematic for the scheme
dened by Sullivan.
deco became big problem bec
didnt kno which kind of deco
shiould be used to cover
structural elements.
Flatiron Building, Daniel
Burnham, NY, 1909
-particular bec narrow triangular

perimeter
- again skeleton steel frame+separation w/ diff proportions
bet 3 parts of the uildings
important point= skyscrapers show very well that architects
payed no attention to the urban role. attention on facade+
structure. but no attention of effect of buildings in street section

Wait till 1916 for rst regulaiton/buidling code dening+

regulating vertical design fo skyscrapers= NY zoning code.
1916- NY Zoning Code- followed setback layout
- dened certain dimension and height
- all skyscrapers after 1916 had scalinata, set abck layout for
concern of neighborhood, urban role, light and ventilation
Chrysler Building, William van
alen, NY 1928-30
-set back model
-the idea of dressing the
skyscraper was still a vivid debate
even in the 20s
-we have to wait till post-war
period, early 40s and 50s to have a
nal, official acknowledgement of
structural+technologicla elements
for facades of skyscrapers.

!
!
!
!

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Lake

shore drive apartments, chicago,
1948-51
-third generation of skyscrapers
-used I beams to decorate the
building
-in the 20s we still had conservative
elemnts but here you see acceptance
fo international style ideas+celebration
fo the technology and used structural elements of the
beams.
In chicago there is a big debate/contrast bet black city=
industrial city+city of skyscrapers and white city=designed by
Chiacago school for World columbian fair 1893- Barnham=
leading gure in chicago school, along with others, asked to
design new image for the city. asked to design pavilions for the
exhibition+decided to make a white city+developed pastiche
combining classical/EU elements to represented prestigiousness
of US architecture. =dened as festival of Kitsch
Transportation Building. Louis Sullivan- used polichromatic
buidling+native american deco to break w/ idea of white+
classicism=against rules placed building out of court of honors.
while in EU exhibitions pavilions=labs for archs to experiment
bec of compact city of EU in US tech achievements=common
everyday arch and did not correspond to stylistic/forms for
exhibitions where US architects still wanted to compete with
EU architecture.

Lecture 9- 24/04/13
ARTS AND CRAFTS
Eclecticism
the attitude that took shapes towards historical forms

Moving on the discourse of the early modernist movement next week. The approach that took place in 19th century
created a reaction against this.
Eclecticism - during 19th century, the approach towards
history started to change (at one point the greek and roman
history were the only models, but during the second half of
the 19th century, new models were taken: exotic references,
egyptian, chinese architecture.)

Tentative for taxonomy for forms and specific types.

In Germany - aim to create a national identity started to
emerge, influenced by the reaction of the germans against the
French physical domination but also architectural influence.
(Napoleon) Contrasting French dominance through
architecture.
There are anyway regional differences: bavaria prussia. Local
national architectural ideas

Three fundamental approahces

- classicism (revivalism of one specific model)
- historicism
- pluralism
They shaped the architectural histories analyzed.
The principles in the shaping of a new architectural language
were shaped (by combining, varying and associating these
models that were used to
greek architecture - prisons
gothic - church

The reaction against France was not from the citizens against
Napoleone, but against the Ecole des Beaux Arts (that
dominated the European architecture till mid 19th century) - France, romanticism was created
- the concept of national genius (romantic literature)
influenced the role of german architects during the 19th
century). Discourse: why in German culture and climate we
have to adopt greek and roman models? Why german culture
needs to imitate classicity? The climate did not represent the
right context for greek and roman models. There is a need to
define a national architecture, one that answers the needs of
Germany (critique to national style).
Germany looked for symbols to define their national culture
- fragmented context
The construction of the Cathedral of Cologne - gothic
construction, architecture.
Gothic castles, cathedrals were built in German climate and
responding to the climate, context.
After German unity, 1810, this process started to influence the
architectural debate. Architects acquired the role of rebuilding
this society through the definition of a local specific
architecture.
Identitarian reasons.
Churches represented very well the idea of local roots,
materials and architectural style - patriotic reasons at the basis
of this movement.
- reconstruction of german society - method
In the construction of mediaeval cathedrals - the entire society
participated in the construction process
Character -the use of a specific classical element in the
appropriate way for a specific building type. They found one
style (gothic) - for the construction of the new society. They
refused the concept of character (because it was repressntative
for the French academy).
F.k.Schinkel, war of liberation monument, berlin 1815

Not to imitate a historical model, but use different historical

references to realize a specific building type.
Britain, during 19th century, gothic was studied as the unique
model to represent British society.
A catalogue of historical forms - used without historical
principles to represent a specific type.
A style for each architecture/ a dress for each occasion.
- without appropriate rules, character
1725, 1761, 1823, 1825
The shaping of modern movement is no more about a
principle of composition, but a method in evolution. Students
had the exercise of studying parts of architectures and then
mix them together (architectural pastiche: elements
decomposed and reshaped to represent a specific building
type).
This shaped the definition of a new vocabulary.
1890, 1889
- synagogue that represented the eclecticism ideas (Turin combination of a variety of architectural styles)
The search for a National architecture - France and Italy
- W Goethe, On german Architecture
Early Eclecticism in Germany
- the shaping of a local architecture (national ideas influenced
the declination of eclecticism towards a local taste - national
architecture). There were not specific rules, but in general in
Eruope, antiquity (classicity) were always used to represent
knowledge or moral values (they represented culture) universities, libraries etc.
British ideals is used in the design of country houses.
Orientalism - they are used to represent new buildings type
Gothic, neo-gothic, gothic revival - were used for church
architecture

The gothic became an instrument for national renewal. The

idea was to involve the community. There is the tentative to
create a local national identity. (gothic cathedral - product of
the entire civilization). Process of revival of mediaeval
architecture started to be developed.
The gothic cathedral was also the centre of the crafts. Artisan
work, participation of citizens with professionals and artists.

!
Bavaria and Prusia the approach is totally different
- the intent was the same - but the stylistic and cultural
program is totally different

He refused imitation. Leo von Klenze adoptted and combined,

imitated. Greek is the expression of monumental stone
construction. He refused the concept of the rustic hut
(introduced in XVIII by Lauger). He started with the theory: I
cannot accept a wooden element as standard and reference
for architecture. Local materials can not represent the method
of construction adopted by greeks.
The idea was to define other principles representing the
german tradition in construction.
He stated that the climate, local materials and the specific
moment needed to be represented through the new method
of construction. The achievement of the method of
construction of the time to be represented. So not look back to
the greeks.

!
Architecture in Bavaria, Leo Von Klenze- a German Pantheon
- mUnich as capital of Bavarian State - based on national
monuments representing the german culture, heroes etc construction of a number of national monuments in the
territory - iconic places in Bavaria
- public intellectual buildings
- reshape Bavarian architectural discourse (national
monuments in the territory - an itinerary that celebrates the
local tradition and local culture, to create national monuments,
through the use of Greek classicism to represent the national
society
- romantic setting
- combination of wired elements ( doric greek temple
parthenon - symbol, ziggurat mixed)
- commemoration of local culture (celebrate pan-german
heroes - celebrating the local methodology)
The Sculpture Gallery - Leo von Klenze, Glyptothek, Munich
(1816- 43)
- intellectuel public centers (museums) - Munich
- greek elements (reference to Afalia temple in Greece)
- greek element representing the main entrance (fragments of
historical elements combined)

Heinrich Hubsch (1795-1863)

"in what style should we build?", 1828
The rudbogenstil
- use of local materials. He introduced the debate in Germany
arguing in which style we have to build in order to represent
the german identity?
The battle of styles started in Bavaria and was circulated in
universities, journals, etc. Hubisch was a promoter of this.
Provocative operation: design of 5 churches using 5 different
styles (it was not only about style: different styles could be
adopted to represent the function of the church). He advised
the architecture realized with local materials.

The style needed be defined on the basis of the structural

system.
The rudbogenstil was a style developed by him. THe segmental
arch - exposed arches. It is the base of the system - wider span
using it - a form typical of the brick system of construction.
Idea of traveation from greek system and roman arch and vault
system and mediaeval pointed arch - a synthesis of
experiences. It was based on masonry construction

He wanted to achieve a simple and economic method of

construction to represent the german culture.
Ridiculous to look at treatises, to imitate, so he tried to define a
new, entire structural system. the steel (structural system) also
creates the style. The roman architectural vaulted system never
arrived to represent a style (as it happened for greek
architecture).
The roman technical achievement never found its own
aesthetic. The vault was taken from the greeks. The
architecture was lying - roman arch used greek aesthetic and
style.
(the only true architecture is the greek one)

Experiments with segmental arch:

- combine local tradition and potentiality of greek structural
system and traveation
Hubsch, Baden-Baden
- specific expression to the brick and terra-cotta that were local
materials that represented the local tradition and society
- Schinkel Bauakademie was based on this experiments

Karl Friedrich Schinkel Schinkel - leading figure in 19th century

panorama
- he managed to redefine and reshape the local architecture
through a number of public buildings for the renewal of
Prussia as a nation
- he started with church design, brick construction

Schauspielhaus
(1818-1821) built on
the site of the
burned National
Theatre
- symbol to
represent the
perfect society that
needed to be
reshaped in Germany (specific idiom, style for different
building types)
- center of Berlin (a new Berlin) - to be redesigned through a
public program development through a number of cultural
public buildings - effort to define a modernized vocabulary stimulate the renewal of the language (through architecture)
-modernization of classical language (classical trabeated
system combined - column at entrances, but the idea of
trabeated grid). This search for modernization started with
rhythm, proportion of trabeated system - hybridization of
classical order - original ionic portico has a new role due to
the presence of the stairs - like a journey to get there.
Process of abstraction of the system - importance of methods
of construction (brick method of construction) - tentative to
define a specific aesthetic for the brick and masonry
construction
- brick must have its own architectural expression

F. Schinkel,
Bauakademie, Berlin
1832-35 (school of
architecture, public
works)
- total break with the
classical language - he
went beyond classicism,
beyond gothic,
adopting the segmented
arches that Hubisch defined in Bavaria one decade ago
HE arrived to give an expression and an aesthetic
- the structure generates the style
- the brick arrived to influence the definition of aesthetic and
style
- the frame defined the aesthetic of the facade (break with the
previous projects)
- reference to british warehouse - reference to represent the
modernization of the local culture (reference to industrial era)
- the colors of the facade - maintaining the expression of the
brick: terra-cotta and bricks are the only elements used
- refusing any kind of historical forms
- show through the building the history of its construction the building with didactic aim

At the end of his career, Schinkel tried to codify and fix the
principles he defined during his life.
(catalogue of elements, references to be used)
ex: the experiences of Durand - taxonomy of architectural
forms to be used and re-composed
- ex: piers to be combined to define a space

F Schinkel, Altes Museum

(see lecture on Eclecticism)
- as Von Klenze, he acquired a public role, a public mission in
the re-shaping of prussian state and defining Berlin as the
capital
- he created the same taxonomy - combining the different
elements (stoa - main entrance, dome for the exhibition
spaces) - he combined in a kind of catalogue/dictionary of
historical forms a number of elements that represented the
achievement of german culture
He selected the model of the stoa that represented the
concept of public in greek society - also the conclusion of a
public space
This rectangular block that faces the baroque royal palace and
the garden was a tentative of environment design (through
the building, a space is formed - garden, museum, palace) - the
stoa concludes the public space.
- combined without any kind of coherent historical principles
- colonnaded stoa is like a filter
- after the main colonnade, the domed rotunda - celebration of
the pantheon
Stair hall - deeply criticized
The aim of Schinkel was not to respect classical principles and
proportions, but to create a journey inside the building for
visitors in order to teach them about historical forms.
- visual continuity between inside and outside created by the
use of the stair hall.
Reciprocal view - inside/ outside - a continuous element- one
of the first tentative of environment design.
Cancel the separation of interior/exterior - being inside, the
visitor sees many architectural forms, but also has a view of the
outside - semi open space
- design that involved not only the building but the entire area
- the functional needs influenced the use of greek and
historical elements - specific space for sculptures etc etc
The functional requirement influenced the shape of the plan so it wasn't about proportion that shaped the plan.

- greek skin around a plan that didn't respect the rules of

classicity
- semi-public (colonnade), central area( the exhibition area),
the galleries (light can get inside)
- two chores
- his buildings were representative as panoramas (sketches,
water colors showing that)

!
!

Architectural textbook: comparative morphology of building

the same principles adopted in the most diverse building types

-reshaping of society through architecture

- new vocabulary that didn't repsect the rules and proportions
defined by classical architecture

The idea in the arts and crafts movement was to re-educate

the British society introducing new patterns in the production
of every-day life objects in the society (furniture, wallpapers
reflect new graphic design).

John Ruskin, William Morris - important role in the debate of

industrialization, industrial life.etc
1819-1900 - the critique of the division of work (as
consequence of industrialization, capitalism)
***
The aim= educate the citizens
Entire museums devoted to culture+had function to conduct
journey in local art using classical elements to create rst
accessible museums celebrating local art+architecture.

3 country houses by Schinkel

- architecture as the continuation of nature in her construction
activity
- classical and italian rustic vernacular models (picturesque)
Sansouci- royal residence for the royal family adopting a
variety of elements
Charlottenhog - the gardener house (roman thermal baths)

The German Empire

- 1871 growing Nationalism, search for identitatan and
representative architecture
- Grunderzeitsitil - the style of the founding- fathers
Schinkel proposed a modernized version of architecture
(because the culturally developed kings and governments
allowed them to develop with vocabulary)

Patterns could represented a good inspiration to enrich the

patterns
Owens started to study the geometries, patterns, principles
from other societies) - only looked at graphic patterns) - to
liberate the british architecture from any kind of historical
forms
- look at external references to define British Architecture
- islamic, chinese culture to enrich british design, vocabulary
1856 - the grammar of ornament - codifying the pattern
(universal principles of good design by looking at all the
experiences (persian, chinese etc patterns as graphic elements
to design everyday life objects). Catalogue of references to
renovate british design.
- references from natural realm (plants, flowers) - as graphic
elements - Cristopher Dresser
- they represent symbols, not meanings of plants, natural
elements that enrich the language
- the constitute the shaping of the Art Nouveau (the use of
organic shapes, natural elements, plants etc)
Owen Jones, examples of pattern application.

Leo Von Klenze, Glyptothek, Munich (1816-43)

During the same time the rst tentative to dene local idiom
+vocab based on use of exposed greek+local materials started to
emerge. Heinrich Hubsch, in same period while Von Klenze
with greek revival was developing program of national public
museums, had role in denition of local identity. Introduced
important debate in G stating+arguing in which style should we
built to represent a G+local identity (von klenze= combo
classical elements w/ aim of bavarian national programs) battle
of style started in G/bavaria in this time through circulation of
journals etc.
Hubsch=protagonist in campaign. Started w/ provocative
approach designing 5 diff churches w/ 5 diff styles showing it
was not only matter of functions bec diff styles could be used to
rep the same function. Problem=How to combine antique/
classical ref. with local forms to develop a local style?
Criticized imitation (ex.von klenze). Greek= expression of
monumental STONE construction BUT G=tot diff tradition in
building+constructions=Brick. Also refused concept of
wooden/rustic hut (Laugier), couldnt accept wood arch as basis
of G arch bec not related to G style/arch history.
Ciruclaiton of concept thorugh treatise=improtnat+use other
codes+rules for G construction. Stated local materials+present
had to be rep through construction tech methods= industrial
rev tech should design/inuence the buildings to rep G culture.
Style must be dened based on structural system. started to
experiment w/ materials to dene new methods of construction
+ began to advocate (began movement: tudbogenstil). Wanted
to achieve simple+economic method of construction, to rep
new german society bec=ridiculous to imitate greek classical
orders etc. bec diff climate, culture etc.+ridiculous to base on
treatises of 18thc to dened a new style.

assumption=roman arch/style+system of construction have gr8

circulation but dened style, principle+codes= roman tech
achievement never found own aesthetic+vaulting system
remained one of most interesting structural systems+always
borrowed principles from greek vocab.
Hubsch wanted to show that there was a kind of lie bec even if
construction method=roman, language used= greek.
idea=start from tech possibilities of arch+vaulted systems of
rome, observe diff inclination in Byzantine+medieval context.
Experimenting w/ this system he arrived to dene segmental
arch. Experiment of weight test w/ brick he dened basic arches
of steel style=style of the segmented/exposed arch.
tech experiment+historical combo=synthesis of two experiences
including medieval pointed arch, combined to dene local
elements. Conceived new type using terracotta+bricks based on
masonry construction. Began to experiment w/ form of
segmented arch combining local medieval arch+new industrial
tech etc. to show how arch could show identitarian+lcoal vocab.
in his opinion this arch represented G tradition+society.
Concepts will inuence important experiences like Schinkle
Bauhaus uni in Berlin. combo medival art, roman arch system
to give aesthetic to method of construction corresponding to
greek trabation. Point=while greek dened specic style+
principle of construction+aesthetic the roman method of
construction+structural achievements never had its own
specic aesthetic+often looked at greek principles+codes for
deco. so idea=rep G society creating style based on segmented
arch=combo of roman mehod of construction+medieval arch
providing specic style ex. aesthetic+color of this system= brick
+terracotta= own sytle.
Started as structural experiment it became a local stylistic
achievement.
After diff weight test using diff chains+distances he dened this
segmented arch. concept=REFUSE imitation of historical
shapes+forms
Bavaria context
G=fragmented=tentative to create unitarian national local
vocab there are 2 diff directions in Prussia+Bavaria. Leo von
Klenze=Bavaria developed program of valorization of G culture
through construction of diff national structures museum etc. to
reeducate society. Similar operation in Prussia+leading gures
in process of dinition+shaping of lacal arch idiom is of course
F. Schinkel:
-leading gure in 19thc panorama. Moved frm Berlin to
Potsdam, w/ collaboration of gov was able to redene+
reshape local arch vocab w/ design of symbolical buildings for
unication of G.
-Also here began with church design. Experimented w/ brick
construction+medieval experiences in gothic cathedral design
(gothic= considered symbol of G nation+represented result of
collaboration of entire society=perfect soceity)
even in prussia there was still ecclecic approach to use specic
idiom+style for diff types of buildings. gothic=churches, british
country house=estates in suburbs+ redesign center of the city
through public program developed by Gov= museums,galleries,
schools.

-New styles to give expression of ideals of prussian states=

shaped, developed+promoted by schinkel in efforts to dene a
modernized vocab for local arch style+public buildings= key
of these publications.

F. Schinkel, schauspielhaus (1818-1821)

-Built on site of burned national theatre
-followed operation of modernisation used to represent these
public buildings
-search for modernization started w/ rhythm, proportion of
the trabiated systems, use of windows+combo of diff masses
+systems=hybridizaiton of classicla orders.
-Exterior= symplied+system of principles+references=
reconsidered+revisited ito modernize classicism.
-Tentative to abstract system+ highlighted improtance of
methods of constructions.
-brick= iportant. Refused model of laugier rustic house bec G
culture had to look at other references+towards end of career
arrived to break with methods in effort of dening local arch
through use of bricks.

Bauakademie, berlin
1832-35
-Went beyond
classicism, gothic etc.
using arches dened
by Hubsch. Finally
gave arch+expression
to brick.
-brick method=
inuence denition of principles+ aesthetic +style.
-External parttitions correspond to internal division of
buildings. Frame denes aesthetic of facade, totally breaking
w/ principles used in design of theater+museums.
-references to british warehouses bec admiredd british
inustrial society+looked to warehouses as rep of
modernization of culture.
-grid on facade. 8 bays that also inuence internal part of
building. colors of facade=give specic expression of building.
-terracotta+brick. rst dened grid system then added shape
of terracotta windows+nally refused previous arch.

-one of rst masonry frame built in prussia. half timber was

usual system. this kind of aesthetic also represented v. well
vernacualr tradition bec. of exposed bricke tc. since this is a
school of arch, building also has didactic aim=show
construction method through facade.
-building deco decided to include terracotta panels showing
improtant arch, art profesisonal gures in tradition of G.
-Refused greek=rep F dominance of napoleon+academie.
dened new sturcutrual system+giving him specic aesthetic.
at end of career schinkle tried to codify+x the principles he
dened during his life showing how study of method of
construction could be catalogued+become reference element to
be used for development of other buildings.
tentative= establish taxonomy of brick.
Hubsch+leo von klenze acquire public role+mission in
reshaping prussian shape+redesingn of berlin as capital of new
nation. Same program as in abvaria to educate public.

Schinkel, atles
(old) museum
(1824-30)
-Created same
taxonomy he
wanted to
represent in hsi
sketches. combined
diff elements
coming from historical experiences (stoa for main entrances,
domed rotunda for sculpture exhibit room, galleries etc.) in
kind of dictionary/catalogue of historical forms aimed to
represent acheivement of german culture.
-cultural center for public=reason for use of stoa, reps
concept of greek society+conclusion of a public space.
-Already consisted of palace+garden therefore constituted
interesting tentative of environment design. one of rst
approaches to compose space that is formed by garden, royal
baroque palace+museum.
-through stoa colonnade we see the three elements combined
w/out historical coherence. colonnade= lter but also central
domed rotunda= obv reference+celebration of pantheon+
exterior stair hall= deeply criticized element of combo of
historical forms. BUT aim respect classical preinciples and
proportions but to create a journey inside buildings for
visitors, to teach them about historical forms.
-Dictionary he wrote=possibility to educated citizen+has
didactic aim.
-concept of isolating the exterior+closing+createng continuity
bet in and out is emphasized thorugh stair hall. intention of
visual perspective towards palace etc. through frame of
colonnade+create reciprocal view as continuous element=rst
efforts of environment design.
-visitors can see succession of arch forms, had perfect view of
public squares outside.
- wanted to create specic space for each exhibitionand
wanted a specic route/passage for ppl to go through. =greek
envelope/skin around a plan that used greek elements but

didnt respect prpoportion+ules of classicity. bec building had

educationl purpose to create journey inside the building.
-addition of 2 courts totally breaks with classicity.
-can understand how he cared about perspective view,
maintain relationship between public space and museum and
also to create a panorama, bec idea=building within a setting.
-Museum district (island) following plan proposed by
Schinkel. This complex represented+reected an idea to
transform berlin as capital+reshape society through
intellectual+cultural builings and institutions and to create
new arch style that didnt repsect calssical rules, vocab etc.
schinkle while working in the center of berlin is also involved
in a number of suburban estates for families+gove combining in
an ecclectic way the classical, italian and pictoresque elemtns
for the design ex. sanssouci (royal residence) adopting variety
of diff elements frm classical to renaissance to picturesque,
italian tower etc. so use of historical forms+references to break
with all principles
After Hubsch+Schinkle architeture will take a totally diff
direction. bec cultivated kings+govs alowed to experiment with
new vocab. Schinkel=key references for entire arch of 20thc.

Arts&Crafts Moevement in GB (The reforms of arts&crafts)

context:
1851 international exhibition- emerged crisis of GB design, still
based on copy+imitation of historical forms.
1851= starting point for real reform of arts. Began to propose
alternatives for the local design. Victorian age, so all domestic
space+housing designs=based in britain in coding of historical
forms=lack of imagination+creativity of GB designers.
Movement called arts&crafts=considered rst tentative to create
modern movement +as consequence of moment in gothic
revival where they tot refused role of industrialization, capitalist
society, contribution fo the machine.
two diff interpretations brought to diff visions by historians:
1. rupture: with the current architectural, artistic, gurative late
vicotrian culture, beginning of modern movement
2. part of a general reform of the applied arts within the cutlural
frame of the gothic revival.
Rupture in eld of art+design started as a rst reaction of
industrial revolution+industrializaiton of british everyday life.
Attack to industrial revolution by Ruskin and Morris tended to
refuse inuence of tech.
Crisis that started on occasion of the fair quickly inuenced
debate of arch design. In same period Pugin+others of gothic
revival founded museum of the copies dedicating an entire
building to showing furniture that could be copied to furnish a
british house, quality of the time+models=based on historical
experiences. Products didnt show feeling of the age.
So it was clear that within the xhibition there was a contrast
between colonial countries bringing original patterns, ideals EU
countries, in particular GB, where designers based themselves
on design of classical forms.
some of colonial nations invited, created ientire installation of
vernacular architecture ex. Owen Jones started to study the
alhambra+installation of alhambra in the crystal palace.

Owen Jones
began to study geometries patterns+symbols form other
societiesconsidering local cultures but graphic aspects+
patterns to create abstract system of decorative elemtns+
liberate GB arch from historicism. One osluiotn=toally refuse
forms denouncing crisis of the time showing how these patterns
from diff societies could rep good reference+inspiration to
enrich catalogues+patterns to be used in british spaces.
on basis of htese studies, in 1856 the same Jones arrived to
codiy patterns+abstract system creating the grammar of
ornament where he wanted to codify universal principles of
good design. How? looking at design of other parts of the world
as grac elemnt+patterns to be adopted+used.
created catalogue of references to rennovate british design.
Experiences=extremely improtant for shaping of Art Nouveau
where organic forms, natural elements etc. are used to reject +
refuse any kind of historicism+look at other elements+graphics.
why did owen jones try to do these operations? bec idea=
reeducate GB society introducing new patterns grac systems
also in production of everyday life objects for entire society.
Every family (even low income) will be allowed to have teacups,
furniture, wallpaper following this new graphic design=tentative
to create a catalogue to renew british design. but also
theoretical improtance=reform art+arch= role that John
Ruskinand WIlliam Morris had in the 2nd half of the 19thc in
the debate and critique against industrialization etc.etc.
John Ruskin 1819-1900
critique of work conditino and prnciples=attack on capitalism
+industrialization used by the arts&crafts movement to dene
the encounter bet ne arts+artisans/handcraft.
two different interpretations of arts+crafts movements show
very well why arts+crafts is considered as beginning of modern
movement: refused any kind of historicism BUT is also aprt of
a gneral reform of applied arts that constitutes starting point of
gothic experiences.
arch should eb organized on model of gothic workshop=
everyone participates in creatino of arch+design obejcts.
William Morris 1834-1896
pupil, student and collaborator of JOhn Ruskin
started to adopt/assume all these theoretical critiques to
industrialization+capitalism to reform the arch culture+art
work. highlighted that in everyday life, workers didnt reect
local scoiety but=negatino of personal aspects= proposed:
1. arch allow the transformation+redesign of all everyday life
use objects to counter banal impersonal appraoch of ppl
during hte industrial period
2. every element of design needs to be consdered as important.
3. wanted to renovate gure of architecture
Interest for medieval period=also social intent=reform method
+discipline in the eld of arhcitectural design. cooperation bet
artists needs to be the base to reshape society.
tried to develop principles for his idea but understood by the
end that in arch it was not possible to control the entire proces
+aslo began accepting machine in cretion of elmeents of
everyday life (which he had refused throughout the his life).

proposed design and architecture be based on: cooperation+

handcraft production.=arts and craft movement became a way
to attack+criticized depersonaliation of work+everyday life
thorugh intro of patterns+obejcts+also a way to confront crisis.
By reshaping design at that moment following his utopic idea
based on medieval principles, it was also possible to solve other
moral problems affecting factory life etc.
operation=educate british ssytem+way of life.
1907 in G an architect, Mutesius, will travel inEngland, study all
the experiences+introduce principles+ideals in G including also
colaboration of industries in producitno of everyday life
objects= rst conception of industrial design.

William morris design 1 house: Red House with collaboration

of Philip Webb at Bexley Heath, Kent.
Represented Morris idea of architecture+design=
-cooperation bet designer (morris)+architect (webb)
-focus on all details of the building with cooperation of other
handicraft+artisans who built the entire house.
-totally refused historical references but looked at local,
vernacular experiences ex. british castles, use of local bricks,
local amterials
-broke with symmtry
experiement BECAME the manifesto fo the arts+crafts
movement+reunion of arch+handcraft showing utopic concepts
advocatd by morris and webb refusing industrialization etc.etc.
BUT Morris realized quickly that this housing form+approach
was unsustainable+could not be adopted by general public
(only medium+wealthy) so began to cnsider possibility to intro
machine production+collaboration bet industry+arts&crafts
+artisan work under control of architect+designer.
=First time where gure of designers took shape as profession
w/ specic peculiarity diff from architects+artisans. the case of
morris+webb highlighted new gure emerging in the 19thc.
Important moment bec: redened work of domestic arch in
britain who managed to adopt asymmetrical model in building
brick etc. for design of masions+private houses durig the last
decade of the19thc.

Lecture 10- 7/5/2013 The Search for Modern forms in Europe

1890s-1910s
we saw until now that in the 2nd 1/2 19thc we can nd 2 diff
approach:

1. archs and engineers giving forma nd expressions to specic

materials and technologies. try to provide the nal expressive
forms for materials
2. archs trying to dene new vocabulary to express stylistic
needs that breaks with lessons of Beaux art academy.
a specic movement started to take shape around EU at end of
19thc that is the ART NOUVEAU.
art nouveau= not only movement but general condition that
characterized the urban middle calss and bourgeousie in most
eu countries. Need to break with the french lesson of classicism.
There is the inuence and elgacy of the arts and crafts
experiences that took shape in Britain (most important
concept= decorative art and architecture needs to be combined
and the building must be considered as a total work of art
where the artist and architect can control the entire process. But
there was also another important legacy from the Arts and
crafts= intent and aim to give objects of everyday life [teapot,
wallpaper, etc] a formal quility/style expression for objects of
every day NOT only for elite)
architects start to shape an innovative vocabulary refusing and
breaking with traditional forms. This process circulated in a
specic context: Belgium.
Art Nouveau (1890-1910):
in belgium= critical political context of conict between
emisha nd french (?) and therefore a search by the architects
to underline a belgian style.
combo of: political situation in belgium+arts and crafts
experience+ need to show new social class= Art Nouveau
Viollet le duc- concept of Truth= must show true nature of the
material (founding father of structural rationalism). Le Duc
when he introduced his Entretiens he often used organic forms,
showing how architects could nd inspiration for deco frm
organic/natural shapes.

Iron Bridge at Central Park, NY, 1864, Calvert Vaux

- architects are supproted by the possibilities of the new
techniques and searhch for an expression for these materials
for this reason many architecture historians consider these
experiences such as the arts and crafts and art nouveau as the
pre conditions for modernism. First attempt to represent new
style/dene new forms to represent the specic moment.
Historiography on art nouveau:
contradictory hapennings. Architectural historians looked at
art nouveau since the 60s= recent historiographical research.
Art nouveau represents a specic type of art representing
specic formsa nd decorations. and is used in deco without

political and social engagements. We will see that there are only
few rare examples of public buildings that adopt the art
nouveau vocabulary
form of art= private realm, without social and political
engagements
sparks contrast between: ***
Pevsner- rst form of art nouveau can be seen in 1883 in cover
of book by mackmurdo - in this book if we look at graphic art
and design we nd for the rst time the use of ccurvilinear
lines in abstract way that could represent for art nouveau
architects an important inspiration.
AN started in eld of variety of other disciplines (outside
architecture) and then arrived to architecture.
movement that takes place in the city that was aimed at
representing the new bourgeousie and show its differences if
compared to the aristocracy and wanted to represent their
identity amongst the diff social groups. THis is extremely
improtant because it is not only graphic but is aimed at
providign specic values for the social class etc.
in histories up to the 90s, AN is always considered an
INternational movement. BUT infact AN is deeply inuenced
by regional and national context. the tendency though is the
same and is what circulated and was then adapted/adopted by
the regional and national context.
AN internationally. All following styles have same
preconditions but tot. diff interpretation of AN ideas:
- Modern Style in Scotland
- Jugendstjl in Germany
- Florla or Liberty iin Italy
- Sezession in Austria
- Catalan Modernism in Barcelona
th clients always= members of new bourgeoisie who wanted to
beprogressive and use innovative vocab to differentiate from
aristocracy and Academy which reps old generation of
architects.
Based on natural/organic forms and natural realm. Thanks to
new technologies (iron steel and glass) totally refused all
principles and theories form french academy ex. Symmetry,
proportions, rectilinear forms to representyound spirit, nation
and generation (in the case of belgium)
What is interesting in our discourse are also the places of its
elaboraiton and development. How did they discuss and
observe these expressions. International exhibition and fairs
were improtant places for spreading, circulationa nd
implementation of this new style.
International Exhibitions: Paris (1900), Turin (1902)
Shops, Stores, galleries: Salon de LArt Nouveau in Paris, Tiffany
in NY, Liberty in London= collectors where collectors met and
had exchange= place for circulaiton and exchange of new ideals.
Specialized press= art journals

Brussels and belgian context can be considered one of

important contexts for development of AN.
Origins: Flemis Nationalism and Art 1830-1839
- wanted to break w/ french. and shape new vocab. In this case
certain publications and journals= core/platform for

exchange and promotion of architectural type. Ex.

publication: emulation = perfect platform for the campagin
for a new architecture, new generation of architects and
bourgeoisie.
- in this discourse of search for modern forms and break with
tradition we will look at EU overview.

Victor Horta, Hotel Tassel, Brussels,

1892
-horta and other archs looked at these
houses as total work of art that arts and
crafts experiences of morris wanted to
highlight.
-aim= reshape everyday life of new
bourgeoisie and change style of life .
Change in domestic life= one of
improtant preconditions for rationalist
and functionalist experiences.
context= center of Brussels= Urban
experiences. in the above case Horta tried proposing new
layout. Looked at typical belgian houses= narrow and long site
crossing form street to internal court and thanks to use of glass
and thin structure wanted even visual continuiey between
entrance and court on other side.
in facade t= timid tentative to add new vocab and idiom. the
interior and core= stair hall that synthethizes these experiences
because horta experimente possibilities.
thin structural elements allowed (in other projects) the use and
addition of colored glass.
looking at references of Horta you can udnerstand v well how
certain models and experiences and theoretical experiences to
express aesthetic experiences etc. (viollet-le-duc, Owen Jones)

victor horta, Maison/Atelier

Horta, Brussels, 1892-1893
-arrived with more corrageous
operation to arrive to represent in
the facade the interiors and hte
potentialisties of cast iron and
raught iron also in the facade.
in the HOrta experiences we see
how much he tried to apply the
studies of the Art Nouveau in all
details of hosues.
Victor Horta, Maison du Peuple, Brussels, 1896-1899
-can see trying to
shape space for public
-can see how arrived
to have steel metal
cage for meeting of
workers that also
became a decorative
elements.
-this was later
destroyed but we had panels and thin support so there is the

tentative to go beyond the rst experiences to develop space

for masses.
- used iron cage structure but also decorative elements esp bec
was in corner therefore curvilinear form.
Henry Van de Velde, furniture for his own
house, Brussels, 1895
-tried to dene aesthetic principles and forms
for everyday life objects. Conceived ornament
looking at organic forms, therefore
organisms. Started to look at certain
mechanical objects ex. Machines, Aeroplanes,
boats, in order to conceived each object as a
machine. He stressed the alliance between
industry and decorative art and started
(shiftwith discourse of arts and crafts) highlighting that even
these organic decorative elemtns could be realized thanks to
support of industrialization and machine.
- this approach is improtant bec. thnx to industrial production
wants circulaiton etc. of products.
Hector Guimard, France, Metro Station, Paris, 1900
-experiences of Horta is
shaped and transformed by
Guimard showing how these
forms and vocab could be
used for private realm and
bourgeoisie families but also
for poor /lower class
families.
- obvious connection to insects, but provided structure used
by everyone because= public space but the serial production
allows to make it used by everyone.
- standardization and serial production allow the
combinationa nd alliance between industyr and art,i
industry and architecture, industry and decorative arts. if
you look at the subway exit and entrance and his ideas you
can nda gain Viollet le Duc ideas found in entretien and
Arts and crafts district HOWEVER he stressed the
improtance of industrialization. important= how he always
returned to the attempt to give expression to the materials
(glass, concrete, iron, steel etc.)

Nationalism and Architecture:

Catalan Nationalism & revival of Catalan cultural tradition
- shared ideals, principles etc. But DIFF interpretation.
What was hapenning in catalunia?
tentative in 1860s to acquire separation from centralization and
dominance of madrid. Madrid= capital and tried to send its
architects and engineers to barcelloa to circulate ideals and
styles. There is a tentative to represent and develop/identify a
Catalan style (which was prohibited in spain). therefoer is a
reaction to role of central administration.
Guadi= one of most improtant gures
Domenec Motanere
Antoni gaudi, Reus 1852, Barcelona 1926, Casa Mila, La
Pedrera, barcelona 1906-1910

- made specically for the bourgeoisie and allowed gaudi to

experiment more with the break fromfrench academy.
- alos improtant because of inuences that shaped gaudi but
also for the structural elements of the building.
- using also local technique and materials was able to breakw
ith traditional technique and architecture.
- can see possibilities of new technologies and the attempt to
completely breakw ith symmetry etc. and also can read many
different metaphors
Antoni Gaudi, Casa Batl
- tryed to develop catalan style without using classical
elements and traditional elements.
Parc Guell, Barcelona, Gaudi, 1903-1914
- wanted to hsow industrial bourgeoisie. was commissioned
for industrial purpose to design parc. With use of concrete
was able to recreate efects of natural elements. Grottos,
forests. etc.
- it was conceived as an entire garden city but only a part was
built for the workers to live in.

Scotalnd: Charles Rennnie Mackintosh (1868-1928)

the Glasgow
School of Art
Uk after Arts and
Crafts the number
of architects
started to strees
the decandence of
this arts and crafts
ideas. therfore
started proposing

abstraction of these ideals.

Mackintosh was member of a group of artists, intellectuals in
scotalnd who wanted to propose break with academicism with
french elsson etc. but were deeply inuenced by tradition.
generally can see his experimentation in the development of
shops, teashops, galleries etc.
with the school of arts he was asked to
create the building. thanks to combo of
iron, steel and glass and AN ideas that
can be found in rejection of classical
elements and certain decorative
elements in the facade he created this
building= local scottish style creating
local nationalist version of movement.
mackintosh highlighted how the style
had to be expressionof the structure but
at the same time of sfunction of
bulding (Ex. sullivan in chicago) bec. of
criticism of exoticism tried to propose abstraction and
simplication of ideals inuenced by traditional Scottish
elements.
the most interesting part o f the school and most emblmatic
part= LIbrayr. Managed to combine ideals of before and played

with thte spaces combining spaces that in his dieal neeeded to

represent forests.

Austrian Secession (Joseph HOffmann, Gustav Klimt, Joseph

Maria Olbrich, Otto Wagner)
- started to use art nouveau ideas to express spirit of the age
Otto Wagner, Metro Station, Wien 1897
Joseph Maria Olbrich,
Secession Exhibition
Building, Wien, 1897-98
-use of simple shapes
abstract shapes and is
criticism to monumental
buildings built in the apst
age in the ringstrasse.
-through use of rectilinear
form and geometries
managed to represent aAN style
Otto Wagner, Majolicahaus, Wien 1898-1899
- natural form decoration
- the principles and proportions re siplied and rectilinear to
show pure forms.

Otto Wagner, Post-Office

bank, Wien, 1903-1906
-wrote a lot about moderna
rchitecture and how AN
ideas can be revised to
represent modern ideas.
-in public and ocllective
buiding they needed to
represent the modern public
life and oculd not represented by expcess of ornmanets and
personal style (As advocated by AN). therefore experiences
of Horta= 2 expression of 1 individual. Need to simplify and
abstract of forms for collective modern life in urban sector.

=style and experiences to shape and educate the taste of a group

of ppl a modern style that is totally elimintated through the
advent of the war.
the most improtant occasions for the architects to debated
about the art nouveau ideals are the exhibitions: Paris 1900 and
Turin 1902
In italy we have the circulation and hbridization where art
nouveau because, bec of aprticipation to exhibitions, because
new vocab for young architects to break wth academicis and
historicism/traditionalism

PIetro Fenoglio, House La Fleur, Turin,

1903
elio Luzio Sergio Jaretti, Casa dellObelisco,
Turin, 1954-59
-criticism
-post-war reconstruction
-within a young generation of architects
studying at politecnico di torino, liberty

became again a way to represent the local identity.= NeoLiberty

- this neo-liberty will mark in turin and italian architectural
culture an improtnat break with rationalist and modernist
experiences and shift to creating local identitarian italian
architectural culture.
documentary by arte`

Lecture 11: Proto-Rationalisms in Europe 1900-1910

1. The Concrete, France
a. Joseph Monier: patent for reinforced garden tubs and
pots, 1865
b. Hennebique system, 1897

going to analyze:
domesticity, innovation in use of materials and new aesthetic
that the industry started to acquire in the rst decade of the
19thc
rst point to address: possibilities that the use of a new material
such as reinforced concrete gave to architects and engineers to
dene shapes and create a enw arch vocab. We will focus on
france which constitutes the base/core for the possibilities of
reinforced concrete. But we will see that this debate on the use
of this material circulated.
AN circulated as a way of living to represent new group
(bourgeoisie). what is important is that this reaction against
academicism and classicity brought briey to a strong critic to
the same AN principle because considered expression of
individual taste and not a form that could eb typied and
reproduced through industrial production.
the debate= appropriate form to give to the industrial city/
metropolis. This is important because now the point wasnt to
imitate and reproduce certain forms but to create certain fors
for new materials and forms. so structure became fundamental
for the expression. this is why these experiences are called
protorationalism because in all cases there is a functional
reason that provoked the development of these forms. in the
end of the 19tch in France architects began to experiment with
the denition of a new engineering system thanks to the
inuence of the 19thc engineer culture (bridge, expo pavilions)
so the technique produced and achieved by the engineers in the
denition of new structure in iron and steel inuenced the
experimentation of the ocmbo between concrete and iron to
dene a systemt hat started to deeply inuence the expressive
transformation of materials and new forms.
Viollet-le-duc advocated and stressed the improtance of the
true nature of materials, improtance to show the real nature of
the materials and not to hide them with false decorations and
ornaments. through his theories he dene a way to use and
dene these materials but hte shift is produced when in france
engineer began to combine metal grids/elements with concrete.
one of rst experiments= Joseph Monier (monier system).
Simple rst experiments to include metal elements/grid in the
design of small objects (pots for plants etc). through this
monier began to udnerstand the potentials of concrete

combined with the iron grids. A few years later Hennebique

arrived to the most important experiment:
1. introduced elements with circular diameter in beams to
understand possibility and potentiality of structural element
and system
2. in span of 10 year experimented to dene a system to be used
in an y kind of construction and arrived at combining use of
circular elements and brackets to dene a system to combine
the metal elements, beams, vertical supports and slabs that
arrived at creating a sistema a telaio/frame systemt hat
allowed hennebiqeu to change the form/possibilites in the
structural system:
a. abel to use wide span
b. experiment with curved surfaces
this si the denition of a system that is interesting beacuse in
span of few years hennebique created a team that experimented
on this and patented it to spread it around EU
important experimental and technical achievement that allowed
architects to experiment with vaults, public housing, patents to
be create for public buildings.
at the same time at the end of the century we have the
hennebique experiences in france and in US same work was
done with reinforced concrete (Ransom) that allwoed archs to
develop great factories etc.etc. based on concrete grid. these
experiences all contributed to developing a language, form for
the concrete.

Saint-Jean de Montmartre
-made with skeleton
imitating medieval vault
that was only covered by
panels= search to nd
expression/modern form
for structural elements
and skeleton. What form

to acheive for this material?

- thanks to the new achievements of the new materials what
kind of vocab did architects have to adopt? this is the
important shift bewteen engineer and architecture. Some
remained there others were important tochanged and shape
a new avant garde aesthetic.
- this discource is based on VLDs idea of showing geniune
nature of material.
- intent to give expression to the concrete skeleton frames
started at the beginning to become a chalenge for architects
and engineers in construction of simple industrial buildings
and factories. hennebique system was used to biuld all local
buildings iof the inventor all over EU.
ex. Silos Hennebique built in Genoa by the Turin-based
building enterprise Porcheddu, 1898-1910
the diff bewteen the two experienes (US and F) was that the US
experience became pure engineer structures whereas in EU they
became part of new architectural movement
The scientic organization of work advocated by the
tailorization of work in the US inuenced also the process of

production that need diff spaces and series of ambients and

inuenced also the development/shape of building.
all consequences of these structures (lighting, ventilations etc)
because for the avant garde of the consequent decade as a
central point to develop an international idiom that oculd be
adopted and used in all the diff countries.
through this movement there is the intent to internationalize
this idiom. While in US it idd no develop sysmbol of
mdernization in EU through creation of factories etc. there is
the development of this movement as a symbolfor modern
movement.
Auguste Perret- was able to condify for the rst time amodern
architectural idiom using reinforced concrete. Consequently
became central studio to learn the basis of the functioning of
concrete. started studying the principles and the rules of th use
of new materials. use of reinforced concrete changed technique
of constructio but also theories and ideas to shape new vocab.
Studied all diff elements. Father owned building construction
rm. therefore gave perret the workforce to develop the new
construction techniques.
Rue Franklin Apartments,
1902-03
-family develpment that show the
potentiality of the skeleton/grid
and structural system.
-1. was able to enlarge the
dimensions of the windows and
to differentiate the facade. he
managed to used pilotis to
differentiate the entrance frm the
rest and also to differentiate the
facade with the top etc. so
allowed to experiment with
modularity of the building.
- same wiht interior. was able ot model the spaces based on
functions rather than structure
some arch historians see htis as a tentative to create an
alternative vocab to classical one for the use of reinforced
concrete. this is an operation that Le COrbussier would do.
Particularly evident in another project by auguste perret
constructed between 1910-13= Theater of Champs Elyse.
- was able to include entire structure for the project. was able
ot create through section an abstraction of the classical
language and system for the new vocab he wanted to expose
for this new technique. we have orthogonal grid with NO
ornamets to show that structural system becomes/acquire
decorative elements. this is a process that started to
inuence the eld of housing and factory design.
during the same decade Robert Maillart started to apply
technique of briges to create thin tensed concrete structure to
create cured bridge BUT never became icone for architects,
only engineering symbol. Developed thin abstract structure but
never inuenced the architectural elds
what inuenced these are the design of curved structure that
started to be built in france.

Charles Eduard Jeanneret (Le Corbusier),

Maison Dom-ino, 1914

worked in the office of Auguste
Perret and learned the
principles and types that
perret proposed adopting
this orthogonal grid. this
prototype of the maison dom-ino
(domus+innovation and also the domino game as assemblage
and combo of prefab elements). why did le corbusier develop
this? orthogonal aesthetic started to inuence the sketches and
rawings and theoreis of le corbusier at the beginning of the
decade to create a system to solve problem of housing during
hte war. pre-war he thinks of developing entire vilage in short
span of time to give normal man/technicians the instruments to
buidli a house. Because of critical sittuations le corbusiers
thinks this would be a good and improtant element for the prewar society. Started consdiering viollet le duc theories and also
was tyring to create these systems as a game. to assmeble a diff
# of houses. starting frm the skeletona nd frame that will
constitute all projcts up to post-war period= skeleton of all
houses+buildings. he created a systme to solve all problems
produced by traditional masonry construction.= simple system
of 3 slabs and 6 supports connected by stairs he solved diff
problems:
1. facades- no longer structural aim but aestheticand the facade
no longer has to be on the same level of the structure= open
facade.
2. no need for internal partitions=open plan he advocates and
stresses in the 20s
3. introduction of the at roof/roof terraces
4. introduces for the rst time the importance of pilotis. that are
the vertical supports on the ground oor that ocnstitute one
of 5 poitns of LC. therefore shows thow thorugh this you cna
have ground open oor ofor cars, social activity etc. therefore
created new expression for reinforced concrete and this
structural system will inuence the form of all buildings
shaped by the modern movement in the 20s.
function of screens of facade is not structural so can be treated
as one wished.
How this inuenced the development of the industrial city:
Tony Garnier, cite
industrielle, 1904-1917
-cobines utopic theories for
communitarian society
-combining these theories
with the concrete principles
developed a utopic city
where he separated the
fucntions= rst attempts at
functional zoning.
- ceated specic type and introducing concept of zoning that
will inuence the debates throughout the 20s.
- the only functions not included is the church bec socialist
city therefore religious buidligs- eliminated.

- all representative buildings ahd most evocative forms

created by concrete
- blocks show how useing panels of reinforced concrete he
managed to design an entire neighborhood proposing the
same skeleton don by LC.
- dened a type replicated and copied for entire
neighborhood all done by reinforced concrete to show how
this material mirrored the achievements of the modern/
industrial society.
- repetition of same geometrical elements represented
movement that circulated in that period
The image of the Factory
Germany:
germamny had a delay in industrialization (last decade 19thc
and 1st decade 20thc)
we will see how a specic aesthetic started to be discussed and
created by architects
the is an improtant diference:
intent in G is to start to recreate a link and connection between
art world and the industry. how? artists defended the
expressionof the individual forms (subjectivity of art).
industrialists etc. defended serialization and industrialization of
production.
the idea was to have them cooperate to modernize everyday life
of ppl by serialization and typication of hte materials.
for the rst time it is in this period that we hear he term
industrial design.
artists who at rst defended creativity and originality and then
came to compromise with industrialization/acceptance of
mechanicism
this important cooperation between art and industry and
architecture and industry take palce within a specic
association/group/movement= Deutscher Werkbund, 1907=
associatioin of artists, industrialists and architects who worked
together to improve quality of german industrial production i
that had delayed compared to french and british
industrailization and to create genuine german product thatnks
to collaboration of arts and crafts and contribution of
industrialization. this production/movement arrived at a certian
oint also to inuence idea of architectural types= new industries
and factories.
hwo did this happen in span of few years? improtant gures:
Hermann Muthesius= invited/sent to london to study and
observe the arts and crafts experiences and came back to
germany and was asked to introduce at local level the
experiences explaining how movement took place and the
principles of the movement.
preconditions for the movement= emerged since 1896. On the
one side within the UNI, certain labs of handcraft were founded
to show importance of artisan and handcraft work and at the
same time an improtant gure= Peter Behrens (1903) became
chair of shool of art in Dussledorf and started to inuence local
formation of young architects. Point= integrate institutions,
artistic circles and industries.
Muthesius returned and had to explain the advantages the
advantages and disadvantages of the art and crafts movement

and propose the principles for a german school/movement of

arts and crafts.
emphasized that only through industry could the movement be
successful.
in Dresden Exhibition of Arts and Crafts 1906- muthesius
advocates the mass production. emphasizing the improtance of
standardizing and industrializing the crafts to make them
available to everyone and therefore reeducate society.
1907- Muthesius and Karl Schmidt founded the Deutscher
Werkbund
Darmstadt Colony- permanent architectural exhibition.
Curator= Alexander Koch (industrialist).
- here young architects and industrialists stayed togehetherr
to debate on how to dene new manifest for industrial
design.
- attempt to undrstand effect of industrialism in art and
architecture
- most important gure in this movement= Peter Behrens=
same role in germany that Auguste perret had in france to
shape protorationalism vocab. Behrens studied style
(classical orders) but progressively tried to move and adopt
to dene rules principles and vocab for the design of
factories= industrial desing.
- therefore all those that refused AN etc. were very interested
and fascinated by the industrial enw typology (Silos,
factories, etc.etc.)
Bahrens in the program of cooperation between industrialists
and archs he was responisble for all the progects of this
movement= AEGAllegemeine Akktricitts Gesellshaft
had to produce all materials promoting the factory= improtant
experiment because thanks to cultivated patrons was able to
create specic modern vocab expectecd to represent factory life,
industrialization and factory-industry, art-industry life..
iportant to understand the efforts of this group to promote the
shaping of a new modern vocab. in the behrens office there also
came all the most improtnat architects we will analyze in the
following lessons.
Behrens= rst industrial design producer. deeply inuenced by
classicism at the beginning and his idea was to create and shape
alternative cvocab to classical orders.

if we look at his factories

(ended producing entire
factory) was deeply
inuenced by the
requirement of the programs
(inside building need to
move turbine form one part
etc. wide open spaces, mobile
spaces within building) what
is impportant in the formal expression is that he is still looking
at the temple model. because he conceived the factory as the
temple of the new modern society= gradual process of
elimination of any kind of classical elements. rst temtatives:
AEG turbine buildings can see the idea /traces of temple
(facade fronton, side rhythm colonnade. therefore classical

systema nd pediment of facade still looked at temple) obv have

exposed skeleton. still need to maintain proportion and
principles of classicism

discusison of mechanizaito ad industrializaiton inuenced the

shaping of 2 diff groups:
- expresison of object
- aesthetic of factory etc. as reference for housing and public
buidlings as prototype of mdoernity/modern expression to
shape new vocab.
in behrens office many young architects went to try study diff
principles of industrial design etc.
within the experiences of the AEG turbines etc. collaborated
students of architecture (amongst which Walter Gropius= one
of key gures in german Bauhaus experineces but started int
this period in working on shaping for new vocab for industrial
design)
gropius participated to Werkbund and the yearly books the
werkbund published. one= the development of mdoern
industrial architecture (1913) ex. Grain silos (CAnada and
US), Khan factories that became symbols/icons in tentative to
develop modern alnguage( all monumental buidings that
represented engineer achievement in US)ex. detroit factory.
Cologne 1914- improtant moment in werkbund experiences
where the supproter of artistic creations and supproters of
industrial creations exploded. Muthesius who stresed
importance of serialization, typication an dindustrialization
started to debate withVan der Welde the idea of Type.
important discussion bec Muthesius wanted catalogue of object
type s to be produced, standardized and replicated to educate
the masses (wanted to arrive to dene ruels and types for
industrial object sand principles for industrial design), Van De
Velde as all AN experinece architecture started to emphasize
the INDIVIDUAL form celebrating the individual genius. This
contrast between typication and individual form started to
acuqie siginicant importance and constituted moment of
division between functionalists and expressionism. within this
german group of architects working in the same bauhaus the
support/groups of archs that defended individualitty of the
artist will lay the basis for the fundamental movement and
ideas= Expressionism bec give individual specic xpresison to
the forms. Functionalists instead followed idea of typication
and standardization of objects.

can understand how in diff places you can see the opposition
betwen AN ideas and the new functionalist ideas that ocme
from industrial design and use of new materials. Perret used
these grids etc. as new ideals. behrens refused Jungendstile. later
Adolf loos refusing secessionist ideas.
process of simplication and dematerialization of factory is
more evident than the turbine AEG factory designed by young
walter gropius. the idea was to dematerialize and simplify
temple and calssical proportions that Behrens still defended by
abstrating the principles. in facade you can see how we have the
dematerialization of the massive corners and a uniform cglass
facade for main entrances and for lateral facades (Fagus Shoe-

Last Factory, Alfeld,

1911-1912, built for
Karl Bensheidt). Same
thing ca be said for
the lateral support.
idea of trasnparecy
mirrors the scientic
xperientations of the
time in the US. intro f the glass facade and the maintaining of
transparent corners even if they have modular rhythm represent
these new experiences.

Aldof Gropius, Adolf Meyer, Werkbund Pavilion, Cologne,

1914
can see gradual acceptance of transparency and tentative to
breka with engineer object proposed by khan in US. in o1914 in
occasion of Deutsche Werbund expo in cologne grpius and
meyer were expected to represent achievement of indsustrial
production. most interesting part of pavilion is how they used
the model of the factory adopeted for another type. the
principles in factory design shaped b Behrens and Gropius will
be used for schools, houses, public buidlings etc.
what is interesting in plan is to manage the elments tha
tinterrupt the symmetrical layout of the factory. what is
important is to udnerstand how two positions in the Deutsche
Werkbund that layed out the ideals for the two schools:
Expressionism and Functionalism are visible wihtin the
exhibition.
Bruno Taut: The Glass
Pavilion, same expo
int he two pavlions can
udnerstand the two
movements. Taut with this
pavilion constitutes the
representation of the
potentiality of glass. breaks
with regularity and doesnt
aim at representing funciton f
buidling but expression of glass.
improtant to see that in one pavilion you see idea of standarda
nd in oanother you see idea of expression.
wanted to show possibility of galss and to show the diff
possibilities for modern architecture.
Taut through pavilions shows anothe rimportant point= basis of
all utopic projects by architects of the 20s= importance of glasss
as symbol of radicality and utopia of architecture that in this

period is used to represent the manifesto of the radical groups

of the time.
taut and scheerbart began to see galss as utopic meaning:
glass could be used for a social reform of society- crystal
structure and crystal cathedral and crystal buidlings became
icons fo the new utopic moements of t his period. the point in
arriving from reform of architecture to reform of society is
recurring but what is interesting is that this campaign for use of
glass and defence of use of glass as material alowing real
performacne = shaping of one of most improtant manifesto for
mfoundation of bauhaus. Symbolic aim of cathedral and use=
thanks ot werkbund experiment in collaboration= starting
point for denition fo bauhaus as arch and formal experiences
(Bauhaus-1919)
fascination for the machine and industrialization is not only a
concern of German young designera rchs and artsits beacuse
also in Italy at the beginning fo the decade a group of
intellectuals and artists ttarted to refuse, cryticize and reject
critical ideas, exces of liberty principles etc. campaigning and
advocating ht eimprotance fo the machine via. Manifesto del
Futurismo etc.
Santelia la citta nuove- shows how models frm US inuenced
new imagination of artists and architects. via rejection of
ornaments. critics show how objects like bycicle etc. dont need
ornaments so started to refuse any kind of deco.
in this representation of Santelia in Lacitta nuova you
understand well the diff ereferences and modelsf rm the US and
of modern society.
Futurist manifesto of
Architecture (1914)- can
udnerstand how this process
arrived at rejecting any kind of
decoration
La bellezza nuova del
cememntoe del ferro viene
profanata con la
sovrapposizione di
carnevalesche incrostazioni
decorative che non sono giusticate ne dalle necessita
costruttive, ne dal nostro gusto e traggono origine dalle
antichita egiziana, idniana o bizantina, e da quello sbaloriditivo
urire di idiozie e di impotenza che prese il nome di neoclassicismo (...)
inf ew years the lingotto in turin became representation of
moderna dn industrial society in tialy etc.

Debate about a new way of life

we analyzed that hese ways of life of the young new bourgeoisie
started to also be deeply criticised as kistch and manifestation
of false style of life .
the politic aesthetic and spatial reform aslo inuenced the
modernization of the way of living etc. shaping of new buidling
codes that toally changed rules of 19thc in program of housing
design. improtant too understand how certain architects
criticized AN experiences.

Adolf Loos wrote and criticized excess and exoticism of this

way of living. BUT defended german idea of combining art and
industry but more improtantly the western culture. he started to
look and study single objects, fashions and publish study of
typical traditional office to inuence local genuine, simple way
of living and the simplication of the layout and any kind of
ornaments tha tin his opinion inuenced the ideas of the
secessionist movements. Looss ideas synthesized in Steiner
House (1910) =a rrive at
extreme synthetization
and simplication focusig
on complexity of spatial
distributionof internal
spaces.

***
Lectures mIssed

***
Lecture 14 (21/05/13)

we will start to understand how in different geographical

contexts the aim to arrive at a coherent language are extremely
different in chronology of acceptance and theory.
between the 10th and the 1st 5 years of the 20s a young
generation of architects started to propose an international arch
vocab to be circulated as an official, universal idiom for the EU
contexts. the platform for the circulation of these modern ideas
and so on are exhibitions, models of ideal cities, schools
(Bauhaus, through reforma d revolution of formative programs
of architecture tried to shape new arch movement) and
circulaiton of architects (exchange and travel). Also platforms
established by young architects which tried to establish
manifestos to codify the new experiences and ideals that started
to circulate.
Event in le Corbusiers life we see these characteristics shaping
his architectural formation.
Internationa conference of modern architecture= one of
platforms
What hapened in the US?
the american process of denition and acceptance of a modern
idiom had a tot diff approach and time.
if we see the years of post WWI till nantial crash (1929) we
see that aremrican arhitects are still inuenced by traditional
beaux art formation and the debate of new style is still in
process.
while in EU we see young genration propose new principles
based also on political and oscial experiences in US we have tot
diff situation
however the US economy and cities are deeply marked by
events fo the time. Development of new infrastructure, new
skyscrapers, expansion of cities. What is interesting is the kind
of relationt hat took place between EU and US. If EUs looked
at the US as a model because of the engineers discoveries and
achievements, at the same time US young archs continued to
look at historical EU culture based on beaux arts experience

based on construction of their old buildings. there is a double

inuence and is emblematic in the words of le Corbusier where
he emphasizes the improtance of the american engineers but
had to move away from american architects betcause they tstill
looked at beaux arts. In this time we dont have an artistic avant
garde which had shaped the arch forms in EU. young american
architects didnt ahve this connection with art millieu.
we have seen the 3 schools that developed and the debates that
followed in the late 19thc with ehC hicago school. These
debates still ocnitnued regarding the styel for the skyscrapers
even in the 20thc. To simplify we can say we see three
itineraries:
1. the debate abotu the skyscrapers- progressive acceptance in
the styles of the skyscraper construction
2. inuence of the modern movemnt and progressive
acceptance by young architects who emigrated during the
20thc
3. searhch of a local identitarian american modern vocab
through the work of Frank L. Wright.

we start with debate about skyscrapers:

- economic boom that inuenced the shaping/intensication
of the density of the center of big capital cities are provoked
by the fact that each enterprise wanted own office building
in the center of improtant amercian cities and this
competition obviously greatly impacted the landscape of
NY.
- you can see that intthe early 20s and 2nd half of 30s the
centers of american cities became kind of dream scapes
with references to native american arhchitecture, axtec,
gothic etc,etc.
- there is not a consensus about a modern style and idiom
also bec of zoning code that in 1916 was approved in the US
promoting the stepped buildings and the set back in the
construction of the sky scrapers which deeply inuenced the
skyscrapers of the 20s and 30s.
- there is an improtnat moment whent his debate ebtween
americana rchitects, bauhaus profs and more traditional
architects took place= the ocmpetition for the daily journal
buidling office for the Daily Journal. The building also had
to have persuasive aim and what is interesting is that it was
organizeda s international competition.
- just looking at the theoretical skyscraper ideas/utopic
drawings of skyscrapers that circulated in Europe we see
utopic radical projects that shows the achievement of th
ehteoretical debate in EU.
- however the projects provided by american architects
represented the general architectural culture that circulated
at the time:
- among the 300 projects the distance between EU
culture and the american debate started to emerge
- in the project o f american architects we could see
the same facade system that was provided during
the chicago school period looking to the historical
buildings in EU which ahd by now passed in EU.

- this conservative architecture of US is deeply

criticized by EU architects. ex. Adolf Loos started
to criticize the use of orders in the sky scrapers
facade showing the application of orders
interrupts the windows and icreates a problem for
the reugalrity of the facade, brings lack of light
etc.etc. and his proposal to prove this point was
ocnsequently that of proposeing a skyscraper in
the shape of a doric ordered column.
- also walter gropius and adolf meyer proposed,
together, the solution for this building
emphasizing the improtance of glass (As they did
in their factories) which was a role glass had
achieved in EU and the achievement of a new grid
allowed in EU by use of reinforced concrete. also
element of pilotis, etce.tc. all come from their
work with the deutschewerbund.
Raymong hood, John Mead Howells Chicago, 1922-25, Chicago
Tribune building
-won the competition
-evident gothic roots
-culture deeply rooted in the american
formation of architecture emerged also
in others of their works
-we see abstractionof certain historical
forms and use in a n eclectic way the
neogothic references and he
mesoamerican ecos etc.
-we understand well this process of
progressive simpliciation through
the progressive development of their buildings reaching a
peak with eh mcGraw-Hill building 1928-30

!
!
!
!
!
!
!

(Gropius+Meyer
competition entry, left;
Saarinen 2nd place
entry, art deco)
- overall there is no american style but there is still mirror of
the personal taste of the architects and the taste of the
committers that ask architects to show improtance of
building through height and through references to history
this process is deeply inuenced bythe economic process o the
US and in 1929 we have the nancial crash and the depression.
so the buidings up till 1929 represent the cathedrals of
capitalism that were the skyscrapers in the big american capital
cities int hsi period
this debate on skyscrapers is also inuenced by a wider
discrouse that circulated in theis period about the vertical city,
all these also promoted tentatives to create new urban projects
based on urban developmetn tin american cities.

up till that moment sky scrapers didnt have an urban role and
there was no care for the wider scale and the city. during this
period lms like Metropolis provided architects and planners to
consider planning in a larger scale. making them consider utpic
images of the vertical city that were strongly inuenced by EU
experiences.
this connection and mutual inuence between EU and uS is not
so clear ebcause amny of these images started to circulate the
theoretical discourse and many architects in EU started to
travel to US where they found big industrial cities which
becagan to inuence the EU archits ideas themselves.
the EU archs were mainly inuenced by the ENGINEERS
woorks.
one of the inuencing books involve also Enrich Mendelsohnss
1926: amerika. Bilderbuch eines architekten (america: bookof
images by an architect) where he provided a series of pictures to
show his impression of the american city.
this exchange between EU and US deeply inuenced the
deifnition of both vocabs.
some of the industrial landscapes sucha s Albert Khans
structures (conceived as the result of engineer work) became
the references and inspiration for EU architects.
this process in fact and architectural discourse totally changed
after 1929 twith eh Great Depression and the inauguration of
the new Deal policy (1933). The architectural discourse on
modern arch took a tots diff direction. this moment deeply
inuenced also the kind of forms that owuld hve to inuence
the skypscrapers. in this period we also see the imediate
simplication in decorations and the use of local materials.
Raymond Hood&associates,
rockefeller center,
began to be considered a
vertical city within the city, a
project at an urban scale based
on highrise. bec of great
depression, oly part of wider
project was actually built. inf
act all skyscrapers built in that
decade reectv. well the new
restrictions frm the New Deal
and the politcies archs had to
repsect during depression.
tso we arrive to international
style skyscrapers. After WWII we will have proliferation fo thes
kinds of forms and pricniples in concstruction of entire North
american cities. THis is the unique modern international style
skyscrapers built before the woar, and tit isfor this reason
considered a prototype/foundig of the later
internaitonal style:
William Lescaze, George Howe,
Philadelphia saveing fund society building,
philadelphia, 1926-1932
this is a kind of manifesto because
represents the combo fo the diff theories
debated:
-separation of the spaceson the facade

- open plan
- the basement (rst arir conditioned skyscrapers in US) is
also dedicated to public transport, commerical activity etc.
but is also a reference to mdnelsons experiences. separation
of vertical distribution and the back block in respect to the
core. core (stairs and elevator) is moved to the back corner
- the different distribution of horizontal and vertical spaces is
seena s the introduction of modern vocab in US.
Lescaze was amogst architects that after WWI moved to US and
began to introduce the EU experiences.
also built the modern town house in NY 1930s . obvious
difference in appearance and materials used.

this is the second process of denition of american modernity=

Aarchitectural modern vocab inuenced by emigrants
other han lescaze ther are also:
Rudlolph Schindler (1887-1953)
worked part of his time in Frank lloyd wrights office

Chase HOuse, Hollywood, california, 1921-22

- house for himself
- managed to combine local materials with concrete
introduing idiom form EU experiences:
- at roof
- wide glass sufaces
- eh managed to combine these to local landscape
process of search for local modernity is developed by schindler
thorughout the use of reinforced concrete always combining
iwth local materials and elements typical of west cost houses
like use of patios and relationship between indoor and outdoor
spaces.

Lovell Beach HOuse,

Newport beach, california,
1923-26
-combines schindlers
principles
-built for cultivated local
doctor who asked to design
a house in fornt of the beach
trying to introduce/adopt all principles and dispositives/
systems frm EU experiences.
- ifwe looka t this house we nd in fact a number of points
ex. conception of a horizontal box supported by pilotis
(structural piers in this case) then intro of ribon windows,
functionalism of the project, that of representing in facade

the functions and distribution in the interior. and the

structure is designed to be represented in the exterior.
- there is the intent to maintian continueous perspective that
for many reasons allows us to consider the experiences of
the le corbusier.
within this group of young emigrants who studied in most
revolutionary EU schools we must also consider Richard
Neutra (particularly in post WWII). He had a key role in
shaping international style ideas. worked i the same rm fo
FLW with Schindler and was aksed to build a house for the
same client but in another place: Lovell Health HOuse, Los
Angeles , 1927-29
using same visual elements, structural elemetn sand principles
etc. they managed to develop the same conditions (the beacha
nd the hill). This house is also improtnat because it is i the rst
house with a steel structure built in US. We have a number of
tentatives to spread the idea.
also neutra had desire to move frm scale of building and
provide solution for utopic city. ex. Rush City REformed, 1925.
at a certain point in a specic moment this oocncept of
international style started to be introduced, circulated and
codied in the US. this hapenned in a specic moment and
specic events that had a fundamental role in the shapig ofo the
history of arch in the 20thc. IN this moment the term of
international style was coined and invented. In NY, MOMA,
which at the time had hte power and ability to inuence the US
society decided to make an exhibition dedicated to EU 20s
experiences. BUT there was an improtant points, in the US the
social and political aims of basis of these EU experiences could
not be introduced. So Henry Russell HItchcock, and Philip
JOhnson deicded to organize a travel in EU visiting all
improtnat arch experiences in EU and selected a number of
projects that would then be shown in an exhibition to circulate
and propose number of models, references etc, that would
ebcome new vocab to be used by US architets. THis operation
they did to simplify original context and only show forms is
based ona specic aproach of MOMa= visual aproach. they
showed a number of forms, pictures without aim, political aims
etc. so proposed pure architecture/catalogue of forms that could
be used in a universal way (international) and it was a style,
only the aim of catalogue of forms, only visual attention to
these projects.
in these exhibitions they separated social housing and
architecture. Housing not considered architecture because o
fsocial aim and in architecture they didnt put social housing=
dene vocab:
- no decoratino
- volume can replace mass
- supported idea of reugalrity instead of symmetry
through these three principles they introduced a modern
cvoocab to be used as catalogue purieed from social and
political intents that represented how projects had been
originated in EU.
in the sectionhousing we nd number of projects by Lescaze,
during the 20s and early 30s we have not avant guarde
movements in the eld of art in the US and all the experiences

analyzed till now are deeply based in the avant guarde of EU.
however new deels programs etc. are also the emergence of
certain principles.1933 Roosevelt started to promote wider,
alrger-scale projects and itnerventions to build new
infrastructure in the us and promoted most improtnat public
housing projects developed in history of us. These constituted
oportunity for young EU architects that couldnt work ont hese
wider scale works. private commisisons disappeared during
great depression.
this is the case for a number of housing projects by lescaze for
NY. ex. Howe&Lescaze, Cristhie-Forsyth Housing Develompent
Project Modern Architecture. International Exhibition, MOMA
project for lower-east part of manhattan, where he proposed to
replace old overcrowded slums based on orthogonal grid
tradition with superblocks that were the application of tLe
Corubsiers housing projects.
broke with local morphology and typology.
these projects were not implemented but constituted occasion
tocirculate EU experiences and advocate economicity of these
blocks.
L shaped blocks that allow inlcusion and intro of greenery,
open spaces, creation of open spaces/super blocks within
overcrowded traditional cities
we see here the inuence of le corbusiers plans and the
barcelona plans as well as other projects and EU experiences.
in river gardesns the layouts were inspired by traditional forms,
he played with diff heights etc.
after all these utopic and revolutionary projects and utopic
provocations he nally buil a housing project withint he federal
programs fshowing how in the mid-30s ain the beginning
deant started to accept these ideas. The following housing
projects in the us would consequently take form these
modernist ideals, introduction i the federal programs and these
models will be the most used typologies in housing till the 50s
till we have critical histories regarding these radical
interventions.
what happend w/ project of williamsburg area. Initially
overcrowded. lescaze proposed diagonal layout.

we saw more or less how this process of progressive

introduction and acceptance and introduction o;/f[ ;[modernist
ideas took place in teh US also thanks to the federal govs. in
fact the debate of the city int he 30s in the US was deeply
inuenced by the constrution of infrastructure that took place
in the late 20s and early 30s. most improtant highways,
speedways, railways etc. connecting the american cities began to
inuence the conguration of the city. With this architects
began to develop utopic cities as vertical cities furture cities.
ex NY WORLD FAIR- in the general motors pavilions the
installation of FUTURAMA by norman bell geddes shows how
thanks to new modernist principels that were nally accepted
would developin the future
we have to wait till post war to see constructio of these models,
reerences and ideals.
Wiliam curtis wrte abotu interestig phenomenon= EU
arhcitecturs are in a way domesticated because are going to

build more moderate proejcts that the utopic ones they

proposed in the 20s. so it is an encounter ebtween loscal
contexts and the ideals the brought frm eu
in the US during 20s and 30s debate on the city was concerned
with decentralization and construction of the suburbs becaus
einfrastructure allowed for this. these were also inuenced by
the experimentation of the Garden cities in UK and the
tranditional landscape design that developed in the 19thc
(central park Olmsted). the american landscape showed/
mirrored a tots diff situation. tradition of american landscape
was obviously based on suburbanization and planning of the
entire territory. during 20s while these modernist experience
took place in moma in skyscraper etc. the most improtnat
experiences fo regional palnning took shape in the US because
the local idea of city planning were inuenced by all utopic
theories of centralization, suburbanization and integration
ebtween palnnign and natural elements. for that reason howard
and olmestds presented the most improtnat principles.
most improtnat example of suburban settlement developed
during 20s and 30s based on garden cities ideal= Greenbelt
town program, Radburn, New Jersey, 1928-1933.
after all these experiences we have at the end of the 20s
beginning of the 30s the shaping of the so called regional plan
of NY 1923-1931. Plan that put together all experiences shaped
and developed in design of vertical cities, cuburbs etc. trying to
develop plan at the scale of territory for an american city.
when the eu modernist architects found a tradition *suburban)
so they ahd to encounter this tradition with the modernist
architecture
project for constructiure for infrastructure along tennessee river
requried also a requalitcation of the area.
same period during hte 20s within the regional plan shown
ebfore created at the end of the 20s we alos have in the US the
denition of a specic system that is the neighbor unit that
bases on the garden city etc. to plan an entire city.
created idea of neighbourhood unit, a system that is based on
the organization of an organization starting form the
elementary school and that the number of inhabitants can be
dened based on the number of students in thes chool and
coud ebe used to codify distances from housing to schoole
tc.etc.
with this systemt hey were able to requalify tentire urban
sectors through repetitino of entire sectors. Y? because needs of
great depression and federal programs to dene systema nd
codify entire cities.

within this itinerary of progressive acceptance and denition in

EU had a key role.

as mentioned there are several itineraries that developed the US

modernist movement:
1. skyscraper
2. immigrants
3. efforts and works of Frank lloyd Wright
a. the contirbution of wright is iinteretsting because=
alternative in producing a series of forms to be used to

build modern buildings. he was also infcluded in the

international style exhibitions but in a provocative way
he campained in 1922 tsstating there was an alternative
way to dene modernism that oculd be deend by his
housing ocmplexes.

Prarie Houses 1890-1916

FLW waqs a pupil of sullivan, worked wit him and participated
in ocnstruction of auditorium etc and deeply acquired the idea
to create an american architecture based on native american,
local tradition as alternative to beaux art experieneces but also
to modernist principles of EU,
in prarie houses FLW begins to break with the rules of housing
and dpresents alternative models for domestic spaces.
praries houses (93 houses built)= new style/vocabulary/
approach to domestic housing
becgan to udnerstand that middle class famlies needed to dene
a style somea rchitectural form and easthetic to ditinguish
themselves frm other social groups but also needed low cost rep
of modern constructions to represent the middle class values
and references.
FLW wa sinuenced by sullivans search for an identitarian
architecture for the us, by richardsons experiences in private
housing, the arts and crafts movement in the UK, the presence
of the veranda of the colonial houses that was an important
elements in the traditional domestic layout in american houses
BUT he started form 1893 to be deeply inuenced by japanese
grac, architecture and aesthetic. he never traveled to japan
(rst travel is a tthe beginning of the 20sc) but he was
impressed by jap pavilion for chicago worlds fair and therefore
bgan to study jap housing layout based on this false example
shown at the exhibition. also theories by social reformers and
utopists about centralizationa nd life in nature and integration
between house and ladscape hwo deepy inuenced denition of
this type. Progressively FLW dened aesthetic for housing.
ex. Winslow House,
River Forest, Chicago,
1893
-rst tentative to
introduce these
principles.
-always have sloping
roofs that are inuence
by the japanese
experiences and pavilions

- importance of horizontal ayout

- how layout of the japanese house that was organized about
hte core that was called tokonama, was used as a reference
by FLW who replaeed this with an american eleemtns=
replace which constituted symbolic core and element of
symbol for fmaily life. with this he also inuenced the layout
of the house
- horizontality shows the organization of the diff spaces and
the continueity of one ambient to the next. the only vertical
element= the chimney.
Robie HOuse,
chicago, 1908
-manifesto of the
prarie house
-can nd all the
elemnts
-the oatin roof
-horizontality
-distinguishes via
brick colors the
horizontality of the
wall vs. vertical elements
- and we see how he greaks with the symmetry
- also inuence of arts and crafts
- and arrived through the layout to develop the separation
and continuity between the ambients
1916-1922 Imperial Hotel of Tokio
- started to consider the possibility to look at maya arch,
axtec, native american as a reference for his work aso in the
us
- improtant experience that marked FLW
FLW traveled to Eu inuenced by secessionist experience,
jungendstill, to enrich the set of references (hoffman)
the dutch context started to be inuenced by his worked, it was
the rst opportunity for Eu architects to learn from the
american experiences.
1911 while in eu , inG after organization of exhibition there was
also the publication fo the 1st monography of work by FLW
and of course circulated in EU.
1905= rst travel to japan
The types of housing FLW presents in the 20s:
HOllybock house, LA (CA), 1916-1921
shows potentiality of materials, all these houses are based on
the representation of potentiality of concrete, blocks fof
concrete, representing potentiality of the material and also
shows the new interest towards native american architecurea nd
deco
Millard HOuse, Pasadena (CA) 1923- more evident rep of
interest in native american arch and deco. were in the same
area and period of Schindler and Neutra experiments
he arrived to use concrete block as structural and deco material.

as other gures we analyzed, also FLW worked on utopic

suburban design of anideal city:
here we understand well how the suburban scale deeply
inuneed the planning and urban design of american architects.

because not presenting urban viison but proposing via 1932Disappearing city and 1934-35 broadacre city, a plan that
represnets theimportnce of the automobile and infrastructure in
design of american cities. we have rep of entire territory as
combo of countryside and city. showing anti-urban model
focused on distribution of activities housing ain entire territory.
in broadacre city- urban sprawl was the central element of the
project.

!
!
!

***
what hapenned at the end of the decade/20s and how at a
certain point a fundamental shifttook place in the work of may
protagonists.
The ideologies that developed in the rst part of the decade
developed and inuenced and shifted at the end of the decade
and we see the rst emergence fo thew eakness of the models
developed during the machine aage and th e modern movement
an important day for many arch historians which marks the
beginning of this shift is 1927
late 10s ad early 20s we see architects begin to cooperate to
develop a shared international vocab. The mdoel and reference
for these models afte WWI was the labor committees, working
together etc. so not only reform discipline but society of post
war. this moel of internationalization that looks at these
workers internationalist experiences and the cooperation of diff
gures and elimintation fo distance between social groups starts
to becomethe most common method between architects.
there are 2 important moments which mark the nal
acceptance fo the legitimization of vocab the rst i the League
of Nations meeting in Geneva where Le Corbusier proposed a
proejct w/ Pierre Jeannerret, comniinign many avant garde
experiences and references also to hsi own purist experineces.
We see how in this project that entered in the competition
wasnt chosen because problems in tech elements. YET very
publicized because evident change of scale frm house to public/
alrge scale. And we see also beginnning of monumental
elemets.
we see in this moment le corbusier begins to rethink about his
purist ideals which he advocated in the 20s. int he 30s in fact he
begins to personalize and humanize his vocab and shows new
attention to local tradition, vocab etc. This league of nations
proposals were seen at rst as radical, revolutionary and
generated frm a specici context, became n the 20s a recurrent
model w/out the original concer for social and economic aims
that at the beginning originated htese models. At the end of the
20s (1927) naly at the end of the decade the vocab became
official vocab and officially acknowledged and showed variety of
diff declination of the debate and can be seen aslso in the
Weissenhofsiedlung buit in Stuttgart for the Deutscher
Werkbund Exhibition. Mies Van Der Rohe was asked to design
the entire masterpla, the exhibition was payed, promoted and
organized by the local municipality BUT van der rohe asked
diff architects frm EU to propose their own concept of house.
therefore became a City exhibition and we nd all the

experiences we
analyzed during this
period, declinated in
diff way sfrm villa,
collective blocks,
common house etc.
that originated frm
same idea of mechanization and mahcine but thanks ot he
prefabrication, tipicaiton, standardization it became a formal
development and we nd a catalogue of forms/solutions for
private houses thatwere shown in 1 unique example (each
architect proposed own interpretation.)
number of diff examples. 33 houses, 17 architects:
- House 1-4 Ludwig Mies van Der Rohe
- House 5-9 Peter Oud- de Stile
- HOuse 10 Victor Bourgeois- declinated topic of individual
houses bease on purist le corbusier systems
- HOuse 13 and 14-15- Le corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, one
based on Citroen modela nd one on 5 points of le corbusier
which he develped in the 20s.
all these experineces were put together to show the official
results and concretization of the experiences.
Vand der rohe was very criticized for this exhibition because
vocab was offciially acknowledged in the architectural culture
but were seen as exotic and refused because not based on local
identitarian values but on an international style. therefore
criticized by conservative approach. experiences have been seen
as antigerman.
end of the decade, we nally have in all the countries the ocial
acknowledgeent of the vocab and to circulate and x the
guielines of these experiences ex. De Stijl journal but als
Donmus and casabella. Le Corbusier publishes the Esprit
Nouveau etc. so through journals there isthe circulation fo the
ideas but also through Exhibitions. ex. exhibitions of modern
architecture both in EU and US the year marks a specic
beginning of this period that is 1927. (league of nations, monza
biennale, etc) THere is a rapid moment of circulationa nd
dissemination of these ideas.
we also have model villages neighborhoods urbna sectors
showing and faturing these experineces.
to understandhow at the endof the decade these experineces
that took shape during hte 20s wtarted to be codied and
studied by historians, architects, and critics, we can look at the
number of narratives of the modern movement thtt started to
be publicshed. the rst historica accounts of the modernity take
shape in 1932 with the catalogue of theexhibition of modern art
which was also the occasion for the publication of the book title
INTERNATINAL STYLE
shaping of modernity in US, in 1932 rst tentative to intro EU
mdoern experineces in US was the exhibition. also HItchcock
and JOhnson also did signicant operation bec put together
projects without mentioning social, economic and political
contextst where the projects originated.
also other rst tentatives to write and synthetize the modern
movement experineces and to pinpoit the origins fo the
modmovements were written at the time. Another example is

the bookk by Nicholas Pevsner pioneers of the modern

movement from *** this book in this period was very important
because we see the attempt to dene a genealogy ot dene the
modern movement.
1941- bible of the modern movement is
the book by Sigfried Giedion (narrative
on the history of th emodern movement)
one fo the most important architectural
hsitorians that wrote during the 20s
centruy. Marked and xed in his books
the critic and failure as well as the success
and achievements of the mdoern
movement space, time and architecture.
at the endd of the 20s since this vocab
hadd already circulated and acknowledged in EU we se how
these principles and guidelines started to be used for various
functions that doesnt show less the function of th ebuilding but
shows stylistc solution for a variety of destiinations and
functions.
ex. Van nelle Factoryrotterdam 1929
-within these groupsof
projects built in the end
of the decade showing
the achievement of
modernity. we see the
some fundamental
principles
-horizonatlity
- overlapping of elementary plans (de stijl),
overlapping of plans
- references combined (GOlos of workers club)
- these elements started to be combined beyond the
functions of thebuildings to show the assimilation
of the 20s experiences.
- Elements that were used for factories and
hosueing ewere now being use d for shops,
interiors etc.
- from urban plan to interior
ex. SCHOCKEN
DEPARTMENT STORE, eric
mendelsohn, Chermnitz,
1928-29
-process fo abstractionn of
certain ideals. Medelsohn
traveled with the author of
metropolis, studied for a long
time tamerican factories etc.
and was deeply inpmpressed by the built landscape of
american cities and published a bok introducing these
experineces in EU.
- ehre we see one unique curved surface which is an
adaptation fo the linera surfaces of the decade
- emphasis on horizontality
- obvious connections to his rst sketches of silos,
emphasizing dynamism etc.

manifesto fo Purism- Le Cobusier Ville Savoye 1928-1929

expresses the end of this movement, conclusion of the
vocabulary that had been developed. Moves form mechanicized
approach and inuence to a more human approach inuenced
by local values and natural elements.
among diff manifestos marking the end of this projcess that had
started with the avant garde, there si also the Mies Van Der

ROher German Pavilion in Barcelona (1928-29)

- manifesto of mies van der rohe activity, EU part of his work,
also reps achievement of the theoretical experiences (glass
skyscrapers and the brick villa), all these theoretical
experineces could arrive to a nal synthesis through his
project for the pavilion. THis was a great oportunity for Van
der Rohe to celebrate the improtance of Germany. After the
involvement with expressionism and after involvement with
De Stijl, he arrives through this temporary structure to show
the combination of all these elements. Created innovative,
temporary structure to show the social program of the the
WEimar republic.
- COncevived a simple elementary structurebased on two
slabs and introduction of diff partitions not conceived as
partitions but plans in travertine, onyx or glass, aimed at
inuencing th emovement of visitors in the pavilion.
- Broke linearity with two swimming pools. one representing
more private space of pavilion and one the more public.
beyond the analysis of the pavilion it is important to know
how many inuences we see. ex. FLW emphasizing the
sequence of spaces. Walls not aimed at making internatl
partitions but just plans that inuence th emovement of ppl
in the pavilion. also in the small pool emphasized the
improtant of the replace thtt was characteristic of FLW
- looking at plan can understand many other references. only
8 pillars for support/structure.
- linearity

- grac work of elementarists in De Stijl work

- arrived at developing concept of totalwork of art
- looking at organization of plans ther eis no intention of
developing a specic space but a series of open spcaces that
could constitute an improtant inuence.
- inuence of domino
- also theory of centripetal (frm palladio, start frm core) vs.
centrifugal (FLW). Brick Villa w/ continuous lines used to
divide the spaces and distribute them is a tgood example for
the centrifugal approach.
- used cruciform column for structure because gives idea that
you can go in any direction. Compared use in his project
between I beam and Cruciform. I beam gives direction,
Cruciform doesnt.
- also introduced concept of glass box which becomes central
to his work in th epsot war period
- became a fundamental references for the international style
experiences. and was one of most publish projects
- why was this project so important?
- Mies emigrated as any protagonists of BAuhaus to
the US (because of political reasons) between 1934
and 39 left EU.
- achieved local role in unis
- 1939-1959 asked to design the Illinois institute of
technology.
- when he emigrated he brought inuence that was
far from EU modern movement. after success and
acknowledgement of barcellona pavilion he was
asked to become director of the Bauhaus school.
always during htis period Mies stated and
defended himeslf as Apolitical. This is not a detail
in the discourse on migration because the last
director fo the Bauhaus was Johannes Mayer
(radicalleft wing) and for that reason moved to
Societ Union. Mies was asked to become director
of the school because he always emphasized
distance from political approach unlike swiss and
bauhaus schools. THis is also why he had so much
success inthe US. his works had not political
connotation.
- defended apolitical position and stressed
importance of construction in the construction
and denition of his layout and projects.
- references include:
- elementarist works of painters
- schinkel- exspecially for classical
formation= infsturmental use of classical
systems
- FLW prarie houses
- so WHY MIES ACWUIRED SO MUCH
IMPORTANCE?
- catalogue of internationl style exhibition
which constituted means for US to enter
in contact with EU experiences apllied
to domestic space the model he
supproted and advocated.

- throughou this operation hitchcock and

the other guy chose this project because
it was the eleast political.
- project of the pavilion inunced in postwar US is emphasized by the masterplan
he designed for the illinois institute of
tech. rlly market acceptance and intro of
EU modernity in the US and its
hybridization which is result of
encounter with local society and culture.
we nd classical and symetrical result
that shows orthogonal grid of american
cities where he placed simple prisms in
brick, glass and metal structures looking
at a variety of local references like
deutsche werkbund and others, that
constitute in all these examples his
research about the relationship between
the sking and the support. All buildings
composed by brick, colored class and
stel structure.
- there is also anothe rimportnat point
that inuenced the research of Miesthat
the started to work specically on the
solution of angles and the oslution for
panels and pillars.
- THrough this experiencment hedened
false structure that covered original one,
becoming decorative element.to
emphasize and stress the presence of
this support.
- also crown hall is importnat because
inthis building had the same problem
when he was asked to design the
barcellona pavilion. He didnt want to
ineunce the internal denition fo the
spaces with partitions but wanted a
spaces that could be adapted to watever
was necessary. for that reason the
structure of the corwn hall is really
inuenced by the BArcellona Pavilion.
We have the 2 slabs, travertine podium,
so combo between glass facade, metal
sstructure, 2 slabs and travertine
podium became key elements in his
activities.
- began this way on his reection on open
plan. some of the inueces and
references are evident as it was in the
barcelona pavilion.
- we have double structure and uiding is
not supported by metal piers but is
suported by metal second row of piers.
*** represents the concept of loating
glass box (suspended by primary
structure) and the second glass box.

- primary structure of piers and then

secondary structure that is suspended by
piers.
at the beginning of the 30s we have some important shift that in
many cases started to show and highligh the weakness of
certain ideals concerned with the machine age. WE have diff
itineraries:
1. what happened int he totalitarian context (soviet union, nazi
germany, fascist italy)- we have shift from rationalist
experiences and reconsideration of historicist and traditional
references
2. revision and reconsideration of the radical assumption of the
20s (walter gropius etc)
3. late circulation and denition of modernity- in the Iberian
context, Japan, East EU, Latin AMerica but also in Britain
and Scandinavia wehave a a late criculation and arrival of
these experineces of the 20s. Therefore delya in shaping of
local modernity.
an important person is: Alberto Artoris Enciclopeida della
Nuova Architettura, 1948- nd 3 diff relationship between order
and climate:
1. nordic- relationship betweeen landscape and so on acuqire
diff forms
2. medinterranean- relationship between order and climate
acquire specic aesthetic and form
3. American
these three bgi categories show 3 diff encounters between the
new orders of the 20s and the climate (not only the literal
meaning but also political, national, social etc)
Buck Fuller and the USA- shows very well how even if there is a
main stream and narrativ eof the modern movement, other
alternative experineces were taking shape, sometimes as a
reaction to the international style. ex. in the deniton fo the
international style in the US is related to the 1932 MoMa
exhibition. In the same period the AMerican engineer founded
this structural study association (SSA). stating that international
style doesnt take into consideration the structural system.
Buckminster Fuller- famous for the geodesic dome developed
in the post war years. (DIMAXION?) also founded a journal as
alternative to international style experiences, and many
architects and engineers tarted to work proposing a reaction.
in this process of understanding the circulaiton and
dissemination of the experiences of the 20sm the experinece of
britain is improtnat bec political social and cultural reasons
Britian and Scandinavia have late shaping of modernity:
- britain because architectural (in particualr in private
housing) was deeply inuenced by the arts and crafts
movement, b books of ruskin and morris, and a refusal and
deance by the british architectural cutlure against the
experineces taking shape in EU and a critical distance that
ciruclation during the 20s. Britian was a monarchy and there
was also an inunece in the circualtion of these ideologies
etc.
- this process started in the early 30s when some fo these
experineces were already showing their conclusion, failure
and weakness.

- british also didnt have the Avant gardein the reld of art in
the 1920s. we see that in EU all the 20s experiences develop
frm art, in Britian this wasnt hte case
- y did these ideologies migrate so late in britain? BECAUSE
of geography of architects migration. All the architects
active in germany and in the EU countries in the beginning
of the 30s, more or less after the conclusion of the Bauhaus
experience and advent fof the Nazi party, are expected to
leave to the US. And they all pass thorugh Britain and create
real community of immigrants in London. ONe of the
fundamental gures= Berthold Lubetkin:
- worked with auguste perret, stayed in paris and
had contact with le corbusier and at a certain
point arrived in london and founded the group:
Tecton.
- The rst tentatives were developed in the london
zoo for the gorilla cage and the penguin pool.
- also in 1933 founded MARS (Modern architecture
....). What is interesting at that moment is that in
this oval swimming pool, using reinforced
concrete, he created to curved, interlaced ramps
for the penguins, looking for the diff images ocing
frm constructivism and collaborated with Ove
Arup, creating this structure. (became icon of
beginning of modernity in UK)
- inuence of constructivist experineces is seen
better in the eld of housing. After the
construction of the penguin pool, workd on the
construction of the rst modern collective
houseign project developed inbritain. THese are
all designed by Emigre architects that arrived in
britain. in the tradiitonal longdon context of time
these buildings provided a radical shift. High
Point I, London 33-35:

- inspired frm Le Corbusier Cruciform

TOwer, constructivist experiences of
soviet union (social condenser), all
functionalist experineces (ribbon
windows,pillotis, improte ventilation
and lighting via cruciform layout).
- these radical architectural and urban
ideals coming form specic contextsts
and originating form speic institution
are adapted to the british way of living
and british society

- if we look at the group oor we see the

adaption to the british way of living and
the vernacular traidition (curvilinear
elemetns adapting to the landscape,
instead of community laundries etc. we
nd tea shops etc)
- als this was not a public housing
builidng but for high class
Well Soastes, Isokon Flats,
1932-34
-for elite group but shows
inuencefrm EU
experience
-this group of architects
also tried to develop a
program aanlogous to the
Bauhaus expdrerineeces.
Unfortunately only a series
of furnitures were
developed. But htey tried to create an aanalogous
experineces in the britain.
Eric Mandelsohn, Serge Chermayeff, 1933-35
- designed pavilion in southern UK landscape.
- managed to combine diff elements placing them in the local
landscape of england. Concept of open box without specic
function inside, spiral stairs included in the glass semicilindric trasnsparent glass which is a literal quotation of the
pavilion of the Deutsche Werkbund in 1914.
Lubetskin and Tecton, High Point II, 1936-38
-continuation of HIgh
Point I. inclusion of
other materials in the
facade (not only
concrete and galss) and
intent ot moderate the
radical approach
proposed for high point
I reect the critic and
attack that the model
for High Point I received for the lcoal context in Uk. THis
second solution shows the solution fo the encounter ebtween
the European movements and the British local context.(also
addition of caryatyds int he entrance)
the rst official acceptance of modernity, hapenned again in the
museum of modern art in NY. they organized for the rst time
an exhibition entirely dedicated to british architecture. IN the
international style exhibition of 1932 we had no examples of
british modern architecture. We have to wait till the late 30s to
nd an official acknowledgement, codication, accoutn f this
process of codicatione tc.
in these itineraries of modernity we will see how in fact there
are sever l narratives of the EU modern movement and that
these experiences will be circualted in a variety of diff ways
showing int he 30s the result of the encounter ebtween these
principels and the lcoal context.

Lecture 9- 24/04/13- ARTS AND CRAFTS

Eclecticism = attitude that took shape towards historical forms
Three fundamental approaches:
- classicism (revivalism of one specic model)
- historicism
- pluralism
They shaped the architectural histories analyzed.
Principles in the shaping of new arch languages=shaped (by
combining, varying+associating diff models that were used, ex.
greek architecture - prisons, gothic - church...)
Not imitate a historical model, but use diff historical refs to
realize a specic building typeappropriate rules, character,
historical principles used to rep specic type
Shaping of modern movement=no longer principle of
composition, but method in evolution=new vocabulary.
Search for National arch/local arch-national ideas inuenced
declination of eclecticism as local taste=attempt of develping
national architecture
There were not specic rules, but in general in EU:
- antiquity (classicity)=rep knowledge/moral values (culture)
- British ideals is used in the design of country houses.
- Orientalism -represent new buildings type
- Gothic, neo-gothic, gothic revival -church
Early Eclecticism in Germany
Aim=create national identity, inuenced by reaction against F
Still regional diffs: bavaria, prussia. Local vs. national arch
ideas. Reaction against Ecole des Beaux Arts
F developed romanticism=concept of national genius that
inuenced role of G archs+their discourse during 19thc.
why have to adopt+imitate classical models in G culture
+climate? Climateright context for greek+roman models.
Need national arch, that answers needs of G. Looked for
symbols to dene national culture but faced fragmented context
Gothic castles, cathedrals were built in G climate+context.
After G unity, 1810, process started to inuence arch debate.
Architects acquired role of rebuilding society through denition
of a local specic architecture=nationalist+Identitarian reasons.
Not only Gothic=diffused model, non classical but also idea at
basis = work all together in construction process, therefore t
with intent of reconstruction of G society
Character: use of a specic classical element in the appropriate
way for a specic building type.
Gs found one style (gothic) - for the construction of the new
society=instrument of national renewal. Refused the concept of
character (because rep for the F academy). Process of revival of
mediaeval arch. Gothic cathedral=centre of crafts. Artisan
work, participation of citizens with pros+artists=involvement of
society in develop new language adapted to their needs+tastes
ex. F.k.Schinkel, war of liberation monument, Berlin 1815
Bavaria+Prussia=same intent= create unitarian national local
vocab BUT diff stylistic+cultural progrm
Architecture in Bavaria
Munich=capital of Bavarian State - shape arch language based
on national monuments+heroes. Search for national identity
via emphasis of G nationalism=construction of many new

national monuments=itinerary that celebrates local tradition

+local culture through use of Greek classicism to represent
national society=romantic setting+combination of diff elements.
Commemoration of local culture=heroes +local methodology
The Sculpture Gallery - Leo
von Klenze, Glyptothek,
Munich (1816- 43)
-intellectuel public centers
(museums) - Munich
-greek elements (reference to
Afalia temple in Greece)
-greek element rep main
entrance (f ragments of
historical elements combined)
- imitated the styles and reapply (in contrast w/ Hubisch)
During same time rst tentative to dene local idiom+vocab
based on use of exposed greek+local materials.
Heinrich Hubisch (1795-1863)-same period while Von Klenze
with greek revival was developing program of national public
museums+had role in denition of local identity.
Intro important debate in G: in which style should we build to
rep G+local identity? (von klenze= combo classical elements w/
aim of bavarian national programs) battle of style started+
diffused via circulation of journals...
Hubisch: Started w/ provocative approach designing 5 diff
churches w/ 5 diff styles showing it was not only matter of
functions bec diff styles could be used to rep the same function.
Problem=How to combine antique/classical ref. w/ local forms
to develop a local style?
Criticized imitation (ex.von klenze). Greek= expression of
monumental STONE construction BUT G=tot diff tradition in
building+constructions=Brick. Also refused concept of
wooden/rustic hut (Laugier), couldnt accept wood arch as basis
of G arch bec not related to G style/arch history.
Local materials+present had to be rep through construction
tech methods= industrial rev tech should design/inuence
buildings to rep G culture.
Style dened based on structural system. Experiment w/
materials to dene new methods of construction. Achieve
simple+economic method of construction, to rep new G society
began movement: Rudbogenstil
assumption=roman arch/style+system of construction have gr8
circulation butdene style, principle+codes= roman tech
achievement never found own aesthetic always borrowed
principles from greek vocab+vaulting system remained one of
most interesting structural systems
Wanted to show there was a kind of lie bec even if construction
method=roman, language used= greek.
idea=start from tech possibilities of arch+vaulted systems of
rome. Experimenting w/ this system he arrived to dene
segmental arch. Experiment of weight test w/ brick he dened
basic arches of steel style=style of the segmented/exposed arch.
tech experiment+historical combo=synthesis of two experiences
including medieval pointed arch+new industrial tech, to dene
local elements+show identitarian+lcoal vocab.

Conceived new type using terracotta+bricks based on masonry

construction=arch represented G tradition+society
Inuenced important experiences like Schinkle Bauhaus uni in
Berlin. combo medival art+roman arch system=aesthetic to
method of construction corresponding to greek trabation.
Started as structural experiment, became local stylistic
achievement.
Prussia context
Similar operation to von Klenze w/ museums and education of
society in Prussia+leading gure=F. Schinkel:
-Moved frm Berlin to Potsdam, w/ collaboration of gov was
able to redene+ reshape local arch vocab w/ design of
symbolical buildings for unication of G.
-began with church design. Experimented w/ brick
construction+medieval experiences in gothic cathedral design
Still eclectic approach to use specic idiom+style for diff types
of buildings added to intent of redesign center of city through
public program developed by Gov= museums,galleries, schools.
New styles to give expression of ideals of prussian states=
shaped, developed+promoted by schinkel in efforts to dene a
modernized vocab for local arch style+public buildings
F.Schinkel, schauspielhaus (1818-1821)
-Built on site of burned national theatre
-followed operation of modernization
used to rep these public buildings:
started w/ rhythm, proportion of
trabiated systems, use of
windows+combo of diff masses
+systems =hybridizaiton of
classicla orders.
-Exterior= simplied+system of
principles+references= reconsidered+revisited to modernize
classicism.
-Tentative to abstract system+highlighted importance of
methods of constructions.
-brick= important. Refused model of laugier rustic house (G
needs other, new refs)+towards end of career arrived to break
w/ methods to dene local arch through use of bricks.
Bauakademie, berlin 1832-35
-Went beyond classicism, gothic etc. using
arches dened by Hubsch.
Finally gave expression to
brick. brick method=inuence
denition of principles,
aesthetic+style.
-Frame denes aesthetic of
facade, totally breaking w/
principles used in design of
theater+museums.
-references to british warehouses bec admired british ind
society+looked to warehouses as rep of modernization
-grid on facade. 8 bays that also inuence internal part
-terracotta+brick. rst dened grid system then added shape
of terracotta windows+nally refused previous arch.
terracotta= show art of pro gures in G tradition

-one of rst masonry frame built in prussia. half timber was

usual system. also rep v. well vernacualr tradition bec. of
exposed brick.
-School of arch= building also didactic aim: show
construction method through facade.
-structure is main aprt+is given expression
At end of career, schinkle tried to codify+x principles showing
how study of method of construction could be catalogued
+become reference element for development of other buildings.
tentative= establish taxonomy of brick.
Schinkel, altes (old) museum (1824-30)
-combined diff elements from historical experiences
( sto a=mai n ent r anc es, d ome d
rotunda=sculpture exhibit
room, galleries etc.) in
dictionary/catalogue of
historical forms to rep
achievement of G culture.
-cultural center for
public. stoa, reps concept
of greek society+conclusion of a public space.
-Already had palace+garden=tentative of environment design.
one of rst approaches to compose space formed by garden,
royal baroque palace+museum.
-3 elements combined w/out historical coherence.
-colonnade= lter
-central domed rotunda=pantheon celebration+ref
-exterior stair hall= criticized element of combo of
historical forms. BUT aim respect classical
principles+proportions but= journey in buildings
for visitors, to teach about historical forms.
-concept=isolating exterior+creating continuity bet in+out
emphasized thorugh stair hall. intention of visual perspective
towards palace through frame of colonnade+ create reciprocal
view as continuous element: building in setting
-can see succession of arch forms
-wanted specic space for each exhibition+specic route/
passage for ppl to go through=greek envelope/skin around
plan w/ greek elements butrespect classic proportion+rules
-addition of 2 courts totally breaks with classicity.
-Museum district (island) following plan proposed by
Schinkel. Complexity rep+reected idea to transform berlin
as capital+reshape society via intellectual+cultural builings
+institutions+create new arch style (NO CLASSICITY)
schinkle while working in center of berlin, also involved in diff
suburban estates for families+gov combining in ecclectic way
classical, italian+pictoresque elemtns for design ex. sanssouci
(royal residence)=variety of diff elements frm classical to
renaissance to picturesque, italian tower etc.=use of historical
forms+references to break w/ all principles

Arts&Crafts Movement in GB
context:
1851 international exhibition- emerged crisis of GB design, still
based on copy+imitation of historical forms= starting point for

real reform of arts. Began to propose alternatives for local

design. lack of imagination+creativity of GB designers.
arts&crafts=considered rst tentative to create modern
movement+consequence of moment in gothic revival where
they tot refused role of industrialization, capitalist society,
contribution fo machine.
two diff interpretations brought to diff visions by historians:
1. rupture: with current arch, artistic, gurative late vicotrian
culture, beginning of modern movement
2. part of a general reform of the applied arts within the cutlural
frame of the gothic revival.
Rupture in eld of art+design started as reaction of industrial
revolution+industrializaiton of british everyday life. Attack to
industrial rev by Ruskin+Morris=refuse inuence of tech.
In same period as fair Pugin+others of gothic revival founded
museum of the copies=entire building to show furniture that
could be copied to furnish GB house=based on historical
experiences. Products didnt show feeling of the age.
in the xhibition=contrast bet colonial countries bringing
original patterns vs EU countries, in particular GB, where
designers based on design of classical forms.
some of colonial nations invited, created entire installation of
vernacular arch ex. Owen Jones started to study the alhambra
+installation of alhambra in the crystal palace.
Owen Jones (1809-1874)
began to study geometries patterns+symbols frm other
societiesconsidering local cultures but graphic aspects+
patterns to create abstract system of decorative elemtns+
liberate GB arch from historicism. Toally refuse forms
denouncing crisis of time showing how these patterns from diff
societies could rep good reference+inspiration to enrich
catalogues+patterns to be used in british spaces.
on basis of htese studies, in 1856 the same Jones codied
patterns+abstract system creating grammar of ornament to
codify universal principles of good design by looking at design
of other parts of world as grac elemnt+patterns to adopt+use.
Important for shaping of Art Nouveau where organic forms,
natural elements etc. used to reject+refuse any kind of
historicism+look at other elements+graphics. why did owen
jones try to do these operations? bec idea= reeducate GB
society introducing new patterns, grac systems also in
production of everyday life objects for entire society. Every
family (even low income) will be allowed to have teacups,
furniture, wallpaper following new graphic design=tentative to
create catalogue to renew british design.
John Ruskin 1819-1900
critique of work conditino+prnciples=attack on capitalism
+industrialization used by arts&crafts movement to dene the
encounter bet ne arts+artisans/handcraft.
2 diff interpretations of arts+crafts movements to understand y
it is considered beginning of modern movement: refuse any
historicism BUT is also part of general reform of applied arts
constituting starting point of gothic experiences= arch should
eb organized on model of gothic workshop= everyone
participates in creatino of arch+design obejcts.
William Morris 1834-1896

pupil, student+collaborator of JOhn Ruskin

started to adopt/assume all these theoretical critiques to
industrialization+capitalism to reform arch culture+art work.
highlighted that in everyday life, workers didnt reect local
scoiety but=negation of personal aspects. proposed:
1. arch allow transform+redesign everyday life objects to
counter banal impersonal appraoch of ppl during ind period
2. every element of design needs to be consdered as important.
3. wanted to renovate gure of architecture
Interest for medieval period=also social intent=reform method
+discipline in eld of arhc design. cooperation bet artists needs
to be base to reshape society.
understood by the end that in arch it was not possible to
control the entire process+aslo began accepting machine in
cretion of elmeents of everyday life
proposed design+arch be based on: cooperation+ handcraft
production=arts&craft movement=way to attack+criticized
depersonalization of work+everyday life thorugh intro of
patterns+obejcts+also a way to confront crisis.
Also intent of solving other moral problems in factory life
1907 Mutesius travels to England, study experiences+intro
principles+ideals in G including colaboration of industries in
production of everyday objects= irst conception of ind design.
William morris design 1 house: Red House with
collaboration of Philip Webb at
Bexley Heath, Kent.
Represented Morris idea of
architecture+design=
-cooperation bet designer
(morris)+architect (webb)
-focus on all details of
building+cooperation of
other handicraft+artisans who built the entire house.
-refused historical references but looked at local, vernacular
experiences ex. british castles, use of local bricks, materials
-broke with symmetry
experiement BECAME manifesto fo arts+crafts+reunion of arch
+handcraft showing utopic concepts advocatd by morris and
webb refusing industrialization etc.etc.
BUT Morris realized that this housing form+approach=
unsustainable+not for general public (only medium+wealthy)
=began to cnsider possibility to intro machine production
+collaboration bet industry+arts&crafts+artisan under control
of architect+designer=First time where gure of designers took
shape as profession w/ specic peculiarity diff from architects
+artisans. highlighted new gure emerging in the 19thc.
Important moment bec: redened work of domestic arch in GB
who managed to adopt asymmetrical model in building brick
etc. for design of mansions+private houses durig end 19thc

Lecture 10- 7/5/2013 The Search for Modern forms in Europe

1890s-1910s
till now in 2nd 1/2 19thc we can nd 2 diff approach:
1. archs+engineers giving form+expressions to specic materials
+techns. trying to provide nal expressive forms for materials

2. archs trying to dene new vocab to express stylistic needs

that breaks with lessons of Beaux art academy.- nationalism
a specic movement started to take shape around EU at end of
19thc=ART NOUVEAU.
art nouveau= movement+general condition that characterized
urban middle class+bourgeousie in most eu countries. Need to
break with the F lesson of classicism. Inuence+elegance of arts
+crafts experiences that took shape in GB (most important
concept=decorative art+building must be considered as a total
work of art where artist+arch can control entire process.
Another important legacy from Arts+crafts=intent+aim to give
everyday life objects formal quility/style expression for all)
Start shaping innovative vocab refusing break w/ traditional
forms. Process circulated in a specic context: Belgium.
Art Nouveau (1890-1910):
Belgium= critical political context of conict bet emish+ F
=search by archs to underline a belgian style.
combo of: political situation+arts&crafts experience+need to
show new social class= Art Nouveau
Viollet le duc- concept of Truth= must show true nature of
material (founding father of structural rationalism). Le Duc
when he intro his Entretiens often used organic forms, showing
how archs could b inspired frm organic/natural shapes for deco.
Calvert Vaux, Iron Bridge at Central
Park, NY, 1864
-archs supproted by the possibilities
of new techniques+search for an
expression for these materials
for this reason many architecture
historians consider these experiences
(ex. arts and crafts+art nouveau) as
pre conditions for modernism. First
attempt to represent new style/dene
new forms to represent the specic
moment.
Historiography on art nouveau:
contradictory hapennings. Arch
historians looked at art nouveau since the 60s= recent
historiographical research.
Art nouveau reps specic type of art using specic forms
+decorations+is used in deco w/out political+social
engagements. Only few rare examples of public buildings that
adopt art nouveau vocab
Contrasts develop:
Pevsner- rst form of art nouveau can be seen in 1883 in cover
of book by mackmurdo-graphic art+design use of curvilinear
lines in abstract way=inspiration for art nouveau archs
AN started in eld other disciplines+arrived to arch.
movement takes place in city, aimed at reping new bourgeousie,
wanted to rep identity amongst diff social groups=extremely
improtant bec=graphic+aimed at providign values 4 social class.
in histories up to 90s, AN considered International movement
BUT is actually deeply inuenced by regional+national context
All following styles have same preconditions but tot. diff
interpretation of AN ideas:
- Modern Style in Scotland

- Jugendstjl in Germany
- Florla or Liberty in Italy
- Sezession in Austria
- Catalan Modernism in Barcelona
clients always= new bourgeoisie who wanted progress+use
innovative vocab to differentiate from aristocracy+Academy
Based on natural/organic forms+natural realm. Thnx to new
techs (iron steel+glass)refused principles+theories of F academy
Int exhibition+fairs= important places for spreading, circulation
+implementation of new style. Paris (1900), Turin (1902).Shops,
Stores, galleries=where collectors met+exchange= place for
circulation+exchange new ideals. Specialized press=art journals
Brussels and belgian context
Origins: Flemish Nationalism+Art 1830-1839
publications+journals=platfrm for exchange+new arch type circ
Victor Horta, Hotel Tassel,
Brussels, 1892
-looked at these houses as tot
work of art
-aim= reshape everyday life of
new bourgeoisie. in domestic
life=important precondition for
rationalist+ functionalist
experiences.
-c o n t e x t = c e n t e r o f
Brussels=Urban experiences.
-Tried proposing new layout.
Looked at typical belgian houses= narrow+long site crossing
frm street to internal court+thx to glass+thin structure
wanted even visual continuity bet entrance+court.
- facade= timid tentative to add new vocab+idiom.
- interior+core= stair hall=horta experimented possibilities.
thin structural elements allowed (in other projects) use+
addition of colored glass. looking at refs of Horta can
udnerstand how certain models+theoretical experiences were
used to express aesthetic experiences
(VLD, Owen Jones)
Victor horta, Maison/Atelier Horta,
Brussels, 1892-1893
-more courageous operation to rep in
facade the interiors+potentialities of cast
iron+raught iron also in facade.
Horta=attempt to apply studies of AN in
all details of hosues.
Victor Horta, Maison du Peuple, Brussels,
1896-1899
- can see trying to shape space for public
- steel metal cage=meeting of workers, also became deco lmnt.
- later destroyed but had panels+thin support= tentative to go
beyond rst experiences to develop space for masses.
- used iron cage structure+decorative elements esp bec was in
corner therefore curvilinear form.
Henry Van de Velde, furniture for own house, Brussels, 1895
- tried to dene aesthetic principles+forms for everyday life
objects. Conceived ornament looking @ organic forms.
Started to look at certain mechanical objects (Airplanes,

boats), to conceive each object as machine. Stressed alliance

bet industry+decorative art stating that even these organic
decorative lmnts could be realized thx to support of ind
+machine= shift w/ arts and crafts= improtant bec. thx to
industrial production wants circulaiton of products.
Hector Guimard, France, Metro Station, Paris,
1900
-experiences of Horta=shaped+transformed by
Guimard to show how these forms+vocab used
for private realm+bourgeoisie families as well as
poor /lower class families.
-obvious connection to insects, but available to all
bec= public space where serial production makes
it available to all.
- standardization+serial=alliance bet industry+art, industry
+arch, industry+decorative arts.
- nd again VLD ideas of entretien+Arts&crafts BUT stressed
improtance of ind. important= always returned to attempt to
give expression to materials (glass, concrete, iron, steel etc.)
Nationalism and Architecture:
Catalan Nationalism & revival of Catalan cultural tradition
shared ideals, principles etc. But DIFF interpretation.
Context: (1860s) attempt to acquire separation from
centralization+dominance of madrid. Madrid=capital+tried to
send archs+engineers to barcellona to circulate ideals+styles.
Tentative to rep+develop/identify Catalan style (prohibited in
spain)=AN=reaction to role of central admin.
Antonio gaudi, Reus 1852, Barcelona 1926, Casa
Mila, La Pedrera, barcelona 1906-1910
-made specically for bourgeoisie+allowed to
experiment more w/ break from F academy.
-also improtant bec inuences+structural
elements
-Allowed break w/ traditional technique+arch.
See possibilities of new techs+attempt to
completely break w/ symmetry+can read many
diff metaphors
Antoni Gaudi, Casa Batl
- Develop catalan style w/out use classical+tradition elements.
Antoni Gaudi, Parc Guell,
Barcelona, 1903-1914
-w ant to hs ow i nd
b ourge oisie.
commissioned for ind
purpose to design park.
-W/ concrete=recreate

effects of natural elements.(grotto...)

- conceived as entire garden city but only part was built for
workers to live in.
Scotland: Charles Rennnie Mackintosh (1868-1928)
Uk after Arts&Crafts # of architects started to stress decandence
of arts&crafts=start proposing abstraction of ideals.

Mackintosh=amongst those who wanted break w/ academicism

with F elsson etc. but=deeply inuenced by tradition.
his experimentation=develop of shops, teashops, galleries etc.

school of arts, 1897-1909

- combo of iron, steel+glass=AN ideas=rejection of classical
elements+certain deco lmnts in facade.
- building=local style=nationalist version of movement.
- highlighted how style=expression of structure+function of
building (Ex. sullivan in chicago). Criticism of exoticism
tried to propose abstraction+simplication of ideals
inuenced by traditional Scottish lmnts.
- Most interesting+emblematic part of skwl= LIbrayr.
Combine ideals of b4+played w/ spaces combining spaces
that in his diea neeeded to represent forests.
Austrian Secession
AN to express spirit of age
Otto Wagner, Metro Station, Wien 1897

Joseph Maria Olbrich, Secession Exhib Building, Wien, 1897-98

- simple, abstract shapes
- criticism to monumental buildings in ringstrasse.
- rectilinear form+geometries managed to represent AN style
Otto Wagner, Majolicahaus, Wien 1898-1899

- natural form decoration

- principles+proprtins=simpled+rectilinear=show pure forms

Otto Wagner, Post-Office bank, Wien, 1903-1906

- wrote about modern arch+how AN ideas can be revised to
rep modern ideas.
- public+ocllective buiding need to rep modern public liferep
by excess of ornaments+personal style (As advocated by
AN)=experiences of Horta=2 expression of 1 individual.
Need to simplify+abstract forms
overall=style+experiences to shape+educate taste of group of
ppl, tot elimintated by war.
Italy
circulation+hbridization bec aprticipation to exhib+AN =new
vocab for young archs, break w/ academics+historicis/tradition
PIetro Fenoglio, House La Fleur, Turin, 1903
Elio Luzio Sergio Jaretti, Casa dellObelisco, Turin, 1954-59
- criticism+post-war reconstruction
- in a young generation of archs studying@poli di torino,
liberty became again a way to rep local identity=Neo-Liberty
- neo-liberty will mark in turin+italian arch culture improtnat
break w/ rationalist+modernist experiences+shift to creating
local identitarian italian architectural culture.

Lecture 11 (8/5/13): Proto-Rationalisms in Europe 1900-1910

Concrete, France
- Joseph Monier: patent for reinforced garden tubs+pots, 1865
- Hennebique system, 1897

New material= provided new possibilities for archs+eng to

dene new shapes+create new arch vocab=new aesthetic
AN circulated as way of living to rep new group (bourgeoisie).
Critic to AN principle bec=expression of individual tasteform
that could b typied+reproduced through ind production.
Debate: appropriate form for ind city/metropolis=nowto
imitate+reproduce certain forms but create certain forms for
new materials=structure became fundamental for expression.
Protorationalism bec there is functional reason that provoked
develop of these forms. end 19thc, F archs began experiment w/
denition of new eng system. Inuence of 19thc eng culture
+technique (bridge, expo pavilions) in denition of new
structures in iron+steel=experiment w/ combo concrete+iron to
dene system that inuence expressive transformation of
materials+new forms.
VLD advocated+stressed importance of true nature of materials
hide them w/ false decos+ornaments=Dened way to use

materials but=shifted when F engineer began to combine metal

grids/elements w/ concrete.
one of rst experiments= Joseph Monier (monier system).
Simple rst experiments include metal elements/grid in design
of small objects (pots for plants etc). began to udnerstand
potentials of concrete combined w/ iron grids.
later Hennebique arrived to most important experiment:
1. intro elements w/ circular diameter in beams to understand
possibility+potentiality of structural element+system
2. 10 yrs experimented to dene system for any construction=
combining circular elements+brackets to combine metal
elements, beams, vertical supports+slabs that arrived at
creating sistema a telaio/frame system that allowed to
change form/possibilites in structural system:
a. able to use wide span
b. experiment with curved surfaces
@ same time have (end of c) have hennebique experiences in F+
work w/ reinforced concrete (Ransom) in US that allowed archs
to develop great factories... based on concrete grid. experiences
all contributed to developing a language/form for the concrete.
Anatole de Baudot, Saint-Jean de Montmartre, 1904:
- skeleton, imitates medieval vault, covered by panels=search
expression/modern form for structural elements+skeleton.
achievements of new materials=what kind of vocab archs have
to adopt? =important shift bet engineer+arch. --VLD
intent=give expression to concrete skeleton frames=challenge
for archs+eng in construction of simple ind buildings+factories.
hennebique system used for all local buildings of inventor all
over EU.
ex. Silos HennebiqueGenoa by Turin-based
building enterprise
Porcheddu, 1898-1910
diff bet two experiences
(US vs F): US
experience=pure eng
structures, EU=became
p ar t of n e w arch
movement
Scientic organization of work on model of work in US.
Inuenced also process of production=need diff spaces+series
of ambients+inuenced develop/shape of buildng+all
consequences of these structures (lighting, ventilations...)
inuence avant garde of following decade+become central point
to develop international idiom.
US, unlike EU,consider factory as core of modern movement
Auguste Perret
Codify for 1st time modern arch idiom via reinforced concrete.
Became central studio to learn basis of functioning of concrete.
Started studying principles+rules of new materials. technique
of constructio+theories+ideas to shape new vocab.
Father=building construction rm=provide workforce

!
!
!
!

How this inuenced the development of the industrial city:

Auguste Perret, Rue Franklin Apartments, 1902-03

- show potentiality of skeleton/grid+structural system.
- able to enlarge dimensions of windows, managed to used
pilotis to differentiate entrance frm rest+differentiate facade
w/ top=allowed to experiment w/ modularity of building.
- interior(same)=model spaces based on functionsstructure
seen as tentative to create alternative vocab to classical, for use
of reinforced concrete=operation that LC would do.
Auguste Perret, Theater of Champs Elyse,
1910-13
-Create in section abstraction of classical
language+system=new vocab 4 new technique
-orthogonal grid w/ NO ornamets=show
structural system becomes decorative
lmnt=process that started to inuence eld of
housing+factory design.
Robert Maillart started to apply technique of
bridges to create thin tensed concrete structure
for curved bridge BUTbecame icon for archs, only eng
symbol.
Charles Eduard Jeanneret (LC), Maison Domino, 1914
worked in office of Auguste Perret+learned
principles+types that perret proposed
adopting orthogonal grid.
Prototype of maison dom-ino (domus+innovation+domino
game=assemblage+combo of prefab elements).
orthogonal aesthetic inuenced sketches+drawings+theories of
LC at beginning of decade=create system to solve problem of
housing during war.
Pre-war: considers tools and techs needed to develop village in
short span of time.
Started considering VLD theories+trying to create systems as
game=assemble diff # of houses. start frm skeleton+frame used
in all projcts up to post-war period. Systme solved problems of
traditional masonry constructon=simple system=3 slabs+6
supports connected by stairs. solved diff problems:
1. facades- not structural but aesthetic+no longer has to be on
same level of structure= open facade.
2. no need for internal partitions=open plan he advocates in 20s
3. intro of at roof/roof terraces
4. intro of importance of pilotis=vertical supports on ground
oor=one of 5 poitns of LC. Shows how allows ground open
for cars, social activity etc.=expression for reinforced concrete
+ inuence form of all buildings of modern movement in20s.

Tony Garnier, cite industrielle, 1904-1917

- combines utopic theories for communitarian society
- combo these theories+concrete principles= utopic city where
fucntions are separated=1st attempt at functional zoning.
- created specic type.
- only functions not included=church bec socialist city
- reprsntatve buildings=most evocative forms by concrete
- panels of reinforced concrete to design an entire
neighborhood proposing same skeleton done by LC.
- type replicated+copied for entire neighborhood all in
reinforced concrete to show how material mirrored
achievements of modern/industrial society.
- repetition of same geo lmnts reped movement that
circulated in that period
The image of the Factory
Germany:
G=delayed industrialization (end19thc+1st decade 20thc)
specic aesthetic started to be discussed+created by archs
G aim=start to recreate link+connection bet art+industry. 2pov:
1. artists defended expression of individual forms
2. industrialists defended serialization+ind of production.
idea=have them cooperate to modernize everyday life of ppl by
serialization+typication of materials=1st industrial design.
important cooperation bet art+industry+arch take palce in a
specic association/group/movement= Deutscher Werkbund,
1907= worked together to improve quality of G ind production
inuenced by industry+arts&crafts. also inuence idea of arch
types= new industries and factories.
Hermann Muthesius=sent to london to study+observe arts&
crafts experiences. return to G to intro experiences @ local level
explaining how movement took place+principles of movement.
Explain advantages+disadvantages of arts+crafts+propose
principles for G school/movement.emphasized: only through
ind could the movement be successful.
Dresden Exhibition of Arts&Crafts 1906- muthesius advocates
mass production. emphasizing improtance of standardizing
+inding crafts to make available to all+ reeducate society.
1907- Muthesius and Karl Schmidt founded DW
preconditions for DW: emerged since 1896:
1. Uni-labs of handcraft founded to show importance of artisan
+handcraft work

2. Peter Behrens (1903) became chair of shool of art in

Dusseldorf+started to inuence local formation of young
archs. Idea=integrate institutions, artistic circles+industries.
Darmstadt Colony- permanent arch exhibition. Curator=
Alexander Koch (industrialist).
- young archs+industrialists stayed together to debate how to
dene new manifest for industrial design.
- attempt to undrstand effect of industrialism in art+arch
- Peter Behrens= same role in G of perret in F to shape
protorationalism. Studied classical orders but progressively
move+adopt to dene rules/principles/vocab for desing of
factories=industrial desing.
- those refusing AN=interested in new typology (Silos, fact...)
Bahrens responisble for all progects of this movement=
Allgemeine Elektricitts Gesellshaft (AEG)
had to produce materials promoting factory= imp expermnt
bec thnx to cultivated patrons=able to create specic modern
vocab to rep factory life, ind+factory-industry, art-industry life.
Behrens= 1st industrial design producer. inuenced by classcsm
@ rst, idea=create+shape alternative vocab. His factories=
deeply inuenced by requirement of programs (inside building
need to move turbine=open spaces, mobile spaces in building)
formal expression is still looking at temple model: factory=
temple of new modern society.
rst tentatives: AEG turbine buildings=idea/traces of temple
(facade fronton, side rhythm colonnade, classical system
+pediment of facade) obv have exposed skeleton+maintain
proportion+classical principles.
discussion of mechanization+industrializaiton inuenced
shaping of 2 diff groups:
- expresison of object
- aesthetic of factory=ref for housing+public buidlings,
prototype of modern expression to shape new vocab
Gropius participated to Werkbund+yearly books published.
one= the development of mdoern industrial arch (1913)
ex. Grain silos (Canada and US), Khan factories
Cologne 1914- improtant moment: supproter of artistic
creations+supproters of industrial creations exploded.
Muthesius stresed importance of serialization, typication
+indtion started to debate w/ Van der Welde idea of Type.
wanted catalogue of object types to be produced, standardized
+replicated to educate masses, Van De Velde as all AN
emphasize INDIVIDUAL form celebrating individual genius.
contrast bet typication+individual form=moment of division
bet functionalists+expressionism.
G group of archs in bauhaus archs that defended individualitty
of artist lay basis for movement+ideas= Expressionism bec give
individual specic xpresison to forms.
in diff places can see opposition bet AN+functionalism that
ocme from industrial desig+use of new materials.
process of simplication+dematerialization of factory
Turbine AEG factory designed by young walter gropius:
- aim=dematerialize+simplify temple+classical proportions of
Behrens by abstrcting principles.

- Facade=dematerialization of massive corners+uniform glass

facade (Fagus Shoe-Last Factory, Alfeld, 1911-1912, built for
Karl Bensheidt)= rep of new experiences
- Same thing=lateral support. idea of trasnparecy mirrors
scientic xperimentations of US.

Aldof Gropius, Adolf Meyer, Werkbund Pavilion, Cologne,1914

- 1914 DW expo in cologne grpius+meyer expected to rep
achievement of ind production.
- gradual acceptance of transparency+tentative to breka w/
engineer object proposed by khan in US.
- most interesting part=how used model of factory for
another type. principles in factory design shaped by Behrens
+Gropius will be used for schools, houses, public buidlings...
- plan=manage lmnts tht interrupt symmetrical factory layout
2 skwls in DW are visible in exhibition.
Bruno Taut: The Glass Pavilion, same expo, 1914
- Taut rep of potentiality of glass. breaks w/ regularity+doesnt
aim at rep funciton but expression of glass.
- 1 pavilion=idea of standarda+another=idea of expression.
- want to show possibility of galss+modern architecture.
- Also= basis of all utopic projects by archs of 20s= glass as
symbol of radicality+utopia that in this period is used to rep
manifesto of radical groups of the time.
taut+scheerbart began to see galss as utopic meaning:
glass could be used for a social reform of society- crystal
structure+crystal cathedral+crystal buidlings=icons of new
utopic moements of this period. from reform of arch to reform
of society. Campaign+defence of glass=shaping of one of most
improtant manifesto for foundation of bauhaus. thnx to DW
experiment in collaboration=starting point for denition fo
bauhaus as arch+formal experiences (Bauhaus-1919)
fascination for machine+industrialization also in Italy at
beginning fo decade group of intellectuals+artists start to
refuse, criticize+reject critical ideas, excess of liberty
principles. advocate machine importance in:
Manifesto del Futurismo-1914
Antonio Santelia, la citta nuova
-shows how models frm US inuenced
imagination of artists+archs. via
rejection of ornaments. show how
objects like bike... dont need
ornaments=start to refuse any
deco.
in few yrs lingotto(turin)=rep of
modern+industrial society

Debate about a new way of life

ways of life of young new bourgeoisie started to be criticised as
kistch+manifestation of false style of life.
politic aesthetic+spatial reform also inuenced modernization
of way of living, shaping of new buidling codes tot rules of
19thc in housing design.
Adolf Loos wrote+criticized excess+exoticism of this way of
living. BUT defended G idea of combining art+industry+
western culture. started to look+study single objects, fashions...
to inuence local genuine, simple way of living+ simplication
of layout. Looss ideas synthesized in Steiner House (1910)
=arrive@xtreme synthesis+simplication focusig on complexity
of spatial distribution of internal spaces.

Lecture12 (14/05/13) LC(1887-1965)-CharlesEdouard Jeanneret

born in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switz, 1887.
early designs=mix AN+Regionalist inuences
1903-1905= AN+watch-making period
1908- Paris+ begin experinece w/ Auguste Perret- inuenced by
french classicism + Bton Arme=learned basic lesons of
reinforced concrete+VLDs ideas
1910- Peter Behrens in Berlin, developed+got idea that new
arch must rest on idealization of types+norms designed to serve
needs of modern society+be in harmony w/ means of mass
production. Also studied decorative arts and DW experineces.
1911- Voyage Dorient

Villa Jeanneret-Perret, Maison Blanche, 1912

- 4 internal columns dene layout + provide reference for
denition of partition position+separation of functions.
1913- opens own arch office+specialized in reinforced concrete
Maison Dom-ino 1914-15
- concrete housing system
-designed as housing kit to
help in rapid
reconstruction
-idea=mass-producing
basic set of components,
including necessary
moulds, to make simple
6 point support concrete
skeleton w/ cantilevered slabs= framework could be
assembled in less than 3 weeks+rubble walls made frm
ruined buildings could be used as inll
- windows+furnishings= mass produced+modelled on local
precendents+inserted in skeleton

- central generator of arch+urbanism of later LC experinece

=skeleton itself, designed w/ help of Dubois= structural unit:
3 horizontal slabs, smooth below+above, each of upper 2
supported on square sectional posts of concrete, lower level
lifted frm ground on squat concrete blocks. w/ concrete
stairs connecting levels.
- no use of brackets of beams (unlike Hennebique system)
slabs and posts= completely clean= pure structural idea
- glass placed@coners of some places: cladding= free +exible
- interior=free plan=saved space+achieved functional exibilit
- parts of slab could be removed to create double/tripple
height volumes.lower level=public +at top=terrace
- attempt to create modern, industrialized equivalent to
vernaculars of past- traditional and conned interiors
- rested rmly in Rationalist tradition

Villa for Anatole Schwob, 1916

- applied hennebique system=skeleton frame, symmetrical
plan organization, elementary geometry- also inuence of:
classicism, Behrens, perret, FLW
- attempt to combine lessons frm concrete+classicism
- reinforced-concrete armature, double height central space
+overhangig galleries, at roof+double glazing in windows
October 1916- paris + name to LC, begins Purism period w/
Amede Ozenfant- dedicates to paintings, ind design+arch.
purism-form must answer functional needs via improvement of
standard, objects types, abstract, simple, primary forms.
1920-25<Esprit Nouveau> LC, Ozenfant, and Paul Dermeio
1923- <Vers une Architecture> LC
- new modern icons/engineering objects= silos and ships.
- analogy classic/modern- civilisation machiniste
- primary forms: sphere and cilinder
- Machine house/Car-House. mass produced dwelling, new
way of life
1922- LC opens own atelier w/ cousin PIerre Jeanneret
Maison Monol, 1919
- rst attempts+experiments w/ standardized dwellings
Maison Citrohan, 1922
- for indstrialist Henry Frugs=house/car, machine for living.
- rst attempts w/ mass produced dwellings
- Double-height space, two bearing walls, at roof
- intros <5 points for a new architecture>, published in 1926
- 1926- Citrohan model adopted for low-cost housing
- 1927- model adopted in Weissenhofsiedlung, stuttgard
Villa la Roche (art collector):

- for art collector. Ramp, double-height space, plan renvers

- promenade architecturale
Immeble-villas, 1922
- citrohan model for high-rise buildings/collective housing.
La Ville Contemporaine: a City for 3MIllion Inhabitants 1922
Plan Voisin for Paris 1925
Pavilion of Esprit Nouveau, Paris Exhibition 1925
5 points of the new architecture:
1. pilotis
2. plan libre
3. open facade
4. ribbon window
5. garden roof

Lecture 13
(15/5/13) BAUHAUS + CIAM
Tentative to shape new vocab to rep: society post-WWI+new
generation of archs formed at beginning of century that wanted
to react at basis of protorationalism.
G, post war=political+economic=tentative by young archs+
artists to participate to reconstruction of nation+new society.
Artist technocrats=important gures circulating post 1919 who
wanted promote shaping of new national culture. How? via
paper projects=writing/manifestos=emerging tool to circulate
+collect ideas bec econ+housing crisis=no physical prjct possibi
G tried exchange w/ EU contexts to reshape nation+society.
Hope to build new society=new arch idiom. Political rev
intention=break lessons from academists=create unique,
international idiom, beyond local culture, traditions+ideals
Taut, G arch, via paper projects+manifestos circulated beg 20s
started to promote+show via images+utopic models=basis of
new utopic societeis+ideas. Avant garde=starting point in new
generation of archs+artsits that wanted to ght against prewar
situation. rejection+refusal of tradition/academic tradition
+tentative to propose rev/shift through diff methods:
1. internationalists
2. abstraction
3. simplication of any kind of existing references+forms
avant-garde come frm military vocab started to be used to
dene forces that were circulating+started to take shape in EU
ex. art=cubist experinece deeply inuenced architectural avant
garde (De Stijl). pointshape object as is ma wt u know of
object via simultaneous combo of diff pov same object.
up to post-WWII avant garde still considered dominant culture.
30s-40s AG=rev movement but isolated+want break w/ arch
+art culture. 40s-50s accepted as dominant+official culture
+language. 60s= end of this period
all protagonists of bauhaus produced a lot of paper projects,
unbuilt, manifestos. ma have to wait post-war period in US to
nd built work
russian rev (1917)=starting point for the implementation+
circulaiton fo these experineces, WWII=other limit of these
experiences=events taht codify+acknowledge AG principles
how these ideals ciruclated? associations, jorunals, exhibitions,
conferences=exchange platform for young archs diff manifestos:
CIAM, International Style at MOMA, all try shape international

idea+vocab going beyond consideration of local menthod of

construction, tradition etc.
manifestos- imporntat for establishment+circulation fo AG in
arch+art, try to dene series of principles expected to be shared
+accepted in all EU context, rst=International Congress of
Modern Architecture (CIAM)=international platform to dicusss
+share principles in eld of arch. another improtnat point=
exhibition on international style in NY, MOMA in 1932, where
officially 2 american critics accept+invent international style to
unify all experiences that took place in EU.
Bauhaus
started via manifestation+intent to dene manifesto+diff
principles+guidelines of new arch to rep effort by young artist
technocrats, to create new radical society+post-war period.
DW= basis of bauhaus manifesto!
1919=gropius attempt to dene draft for manifesto, expected to
rep universal arch idiom to be circulated in EU among diff
artists+arch. manifesto rep ideal cathedral of future=glass
building rep in abstract way medieval cathedral, why? bec
gropius wanted collaboration bet artists+artisans in construct of
new society. glss=important in rep of utopic society+iconic of
cathedral coming from middle age experience, rep cathedral of
socialism bec in gropius statement had diff tentatives to unify
decorative, art+handcraft
end DW, gropius proposed combo of 2 teachign/working
experiences=academy of ne arts/local school of arts+school of
applied arts. Attempt to combine 2 experiences, mirrored
tentative by DW to combine artisans+artist.
bauhaus important also for formative experiences from
1919-1933=rev in eld+school of arch+way to form+teach
young archs. y? bec gropius started to coordinate programs of
art eld. Idea=regenerate visual culture in G via combo
+infusion of 2 projects+tried to understand how to organize
this school=via workshop based on model of middle age
+collaboration, joint effort of artist+craftman
why title of manifesto cathedral of socialism? bec wants unify
classes+social groups in shape of new society. arch, sculptor
+painter, collaborate in shaping building object+society. Crystal
reps new face of future. Cover of manifest emphasizes myth of
gothic cathedral+new applications of materials+merging of diff
elds=core of experiences fo bauhaus
Gropius decided to reform program+found new shcool=idea of
transforming academic institution in lab/workshop where archs,
design+artists expected to collaborate via practical work.
Organized work in system of workshops, students considered
practitioners in skwl+had 2 important diff courses:
1. study of forms, colors, materials, followed by some of most
famous artsits of period coming frm soviet experineces+rst
yrs fo constructivist experiences
2. foundation course=mandatory- chaired/organized by swiss
painter Joannes Iten, start to teach young arch+designers tot
refusing academic principles+mehtods. Approach= ask
students eliminate any kind of previous experiences. Course
based on spontaneous+instinctive attitude of students to
allow them to rlly understand their attitude+approach to
design+arch. how? working w/ amterials, tetiles, colors, via

practical experiences allowing direct contact. Startd to be

deeply criticized by aprt of bauhaus profs who supported
functionalist ideas BUT course aim= show feeling of students.
idea= via instincitve approach they expressed real state of
mind. Started to strongly inuenced way of living of students
bec started to intro courses of medical training, psycology
=inuenced way of living, rhythm of life of students.
Experience started to move to revisionism=far frm gropius
ideals+functionalist ideals. Artists+designers frm holland,
Theo van Doesburg (De Stijl) arrived in 1922+started to
criticize+react against this approach=beginning 20s, 2 diff
positions supported by gropius+develop amongst students.
Doesburg supported another appraoch= teachings of
handcraft for industrial production= Bauhaus should be
based on typication of objects+functionalist ideas of DW.
1923 itten had to leave skwl+replaced by Molinari=tot change
approach. Will be one of those responsible for foundation of
new Bauhaus in chicago in post-war,particularly focused on
idea of collaboration bet synthesis of art and context.
In this period cannot nd ref to ind production, prefabrication
+standardization, have to wait till last yrs of bauhaus for intro
+acceptance of these elements.
gropius ideas=implement concept of manifesto+combo w/
principles to concept of ind. In school, students asked to design
+produce objects@beginning up to cale of building=Gropius
responds to itten proposals w/ other concept=Bauhaus accepts
mahcine+believes machine=modern medium of design. gropius
reacted to itten principles capaigning for intro of machine+ind
also in school=practical study course =based on realization of
industrial objects.
Return to initial approach of 20s+concept of tot work of art that
comes from gropius experinece. These ideals+princiles will be
reped in same school tht in 1926 bcame manifesto fo bauhaus
theo van doesburg=moment bet 1923-26 when bauhaus start to
be inuenced by destijl=even inuenced student production
graphic work+furniture obv tht concept=important in 30s as
synthesis of art becomes important in shaping avant garde.
1926-utpic+radical artists+archs start to be criticzed by local
municipalities+citizens for fear of danger for local tradition
=gropius asked to move skwl frm Weimar to south
Bauhaus Building/School (1926):
- asked to design new building for combo of all activities:
everyday life of students+dorms+tech school combo w/ art
skwl+restaurant+theater all in 1 buidling=rep theoretical
principles in studio.
- Show free layout+experiment w/ previous experiences in
factory design+ideals of LC+rep specic function in each
part of building that is key point in manifesto.
- Also furniture used=emphasis on gradual acceptance of ind
At a certain moment research+experiments in eld of design+
art+arch arrived combine in shared eld=housing design+low
cost housing+massive housing design.
late 20s=tentative in G cities to shape official municipal housing
programs based on these experiments+tentative in bauhaus to
create prefab system to concentrate+combine all efforts of

disciplines in housing. proposals producedhouse as a machine

for living (LC).
Interest in mass housing+low cost housing+new consideration:
ventilation+lighting...inuenced also last shift of program in
eld of arch=1927- Johannes Meyer, key role in exporting
bauhaus in latin america, arrived @skwl+became responsible
for arch section. so: IttenVan DoesbergMolinariMeyer.
Gropius for political reasons asked to leave skwl+1 yr later
meyer became director. Meyer=group of archs promoting
socialist ieals deeply criticized liberal concept promoted by LC,
Gropius+moderate avant garde. Related to concept of new
objectivity=elimination of any diffs bet social groups. these
archs worked w/ municipality in public housing in G+started to
inuence attitude of school in bauhaus program. Meyer+few
others workedto create low cost+massive housing+criticized
more moderate approach of LC+Gropius that weret v.
interested in housing crisis. Meyer=socialist=start to advocate
that arch roleproduce only innovative+rev vocab but use
cheap economic materials, cheap methods of construction, to
solve problem of masses w/out caring too much about forms of
obejcts+buildings=separated concept: arch+bulding production
bec radical+rev apporach also meyer asked to leave skwl+Mies
Van Der Rohe asked to take his place+move skel to Berlin.
1933-berlin-van der rohe tried to propose more moderate
approach compared to meyer, but again for political reasons,
school had to close.
post-1933 all these gures started to try emigrate to US+GB
constituted intermediate step. 1933-37 all leave+arrive to US.
bauhausbuilding+school but extremely complex formative
experinece tht produced rev+shift in teaching+learning of arch
CIAM
diff conferences with specic topics of discussion+topics
debated started to deeply inuence projects in EU. Theoretical
discourse circulated to inuence entire arch culture of this
period. (in post war period conferences deeply criticized
functionalist+rationalist ideals.)
1928(Switz)=rst meeting. F, G+Switz archs lead by LC=
meeting to create forum of archs+dene manifesto of
international principles of modern arch=rst occasion of
discussion+manifesto=dened w/ general principles=1st
opportunity for collaboration bet planners, archs+artists.
1929 (Frankfurt)=1st conference where archs started to debate
about specic topic=big discussion on prefabrication+mass
housing. Inuenced organization of conferences+method+
topics of discussion in international conference of modern arch.
Groups of radical archs frm G+Switz inuenced rst 2 events
up to 1933 then 1930s in USSR=inauguration of rst
quinquennial plan+prmootion of construciton of diff new series
so all move to USSR to participate to utopic program for
construction of new cities. =why in 1933 moderate gurs like
LC+gropius start to chair+became responsible for organization
of conferences, just problem of power/leadership but dened
method of analysis+process of discussion of arch.
In conferences scale of discussion change: 1. apartment, 2.
house, 3. city etc.
occasion of rst effective conference:

1929 Frankfurt- topic=Existence Minimum

- aim=dene min layout for apartments for low income
family+understand standards tht could guarantee min level
quality fo life for masses.
- Dene: standard for ventilation, lighting, min dimensions
for min qlty life=tentative to codify+create standards.
- looked+compared diff plans+sections, w/out caring about
form+arch styles but only looking@2D rep showing positive
approach of group, comparing layouts.
- publication of 1st book of CIAM <Existence minimum> the
arrived to dene standards for ventilation
- interesting=arrived to dene diff units that could be
assembled based on needs+composition of families=
innovation bec=sociological approach where nucleus of
family+workers=basis of denition of units. basic unit
combod based on type of nucleus, evolvement in
generations=contribution for housing crisis of EU in 20s.
- new attention to role of women=tentatives in G+swiss to
codify+dene standards for internal spaces of house. ex.
kitchen by Gretel Schutte Lihotsky=design furniture to aid
momvent around kitchen=improtant social analysis at basis.
- overall= also attempt at reorganizing domestic space.
- theoretical discourse take shape@same time when partcipnts
were contributing to entire urban sector housing developt in
frankfurt+berlin. Based on: these ideals+achievement in
prefab+standardization, solved problem of housing crisis.
- 1st tentatives=no attention to formal+visual arch aspects.
- no reference to tradition
1928=DW exhibitions, many protagonists of CIAM+Bauhaus,
participated to exhibition for housing Weissenhofsiedlung in
stuttgart, Mies van der rohe asked to design entire master plan=
one of platforms to circulate ideals of the archts. all protagonists
of 20s avantgarde proposed own interpretation of housing solns
1930 Brussels- topic: Rational Method of Construction
- Further step for solving housing crisis
- communitarian aims but how to distribute units in block
+which layout to select for these buildings (highrise
skyscrapers, slab lot...)+ how to combine blocks to guarantee
standards also @ scale of neighborhood.
- same approach: comparison+2D analysis of cases that show
location of buildings in blocks
- interesting proposal by Gropius=Studied relationship bet
distance of buildins (section of street)+height:conclusion
=vertical growth=unique soln to guarantee dened
standards.
- Started debate bet archs pro vertical develop+those who pro
low residential blocks. density discussed as a soln to
guarantee greenery+gropius advocated eocnomic advantages
for bildings w/ elevators.
- changed layout of buidlings: position of internal corridor to
position apartments, intro common services @ ground oor.
- comparison bet cases is based on same positivistic apporach
to compare+analyze only plans
- instead of perimeter blocks have diagonal distribution=max
amnt of light+air.

- also consdiered plans of US low cost housing develops.

plans=based on individual detached/semi detached houses
1933 Marseilles-Athens- topic= Functional city
- analyze implemented projects for enlargement of certain EU
cities+propose a method/grid that could be applied for
study of all existing cities+design of new cities.
- concept shaped in this conference inuenced urban debate
in certain EU contexts.
- Expected to meet in moscow but bec shift in gov=
important+radical shift also in arch culture. palace of the
soviet competition: moscow=1st prize=conservative project
showing totalitarian ideal of gov. soviet gov refused
possibility of platform+discussion of modern arch in
moscow post-1932. LC alternative=host 4th CIAM on board
of ship: Patrice II=symbolic meaning travel frm modernity
(marseilles) to roots of ancient arch (athens). on ship
analyzed+discussed 33 projects for cities, using same
methods to arrive to dene a grid= functional city to be
applied to analysis of existing cities+new modern cities.
- grid conceived on the separation of 4 functions: works,
housing, leisure+transport. using 4 categories+fnctions=able
to plan new cities analyzing existing citydening project,
ma method that will characterize urban design of 20thc.
- denition of grid frm:
1. prjct of enlargement of amsterdam by Van Eesteren
1930-34=president of CIAM+introd in discussion this grid
that he dened for amsterdam=method he wanted to
show=Scientic apporach based on functions deeply
criticized by archs bec of lack of 5th function=social,
intellectual, cultural, human activities.
2. Plan Macia for Barcellona-GATCPAC+LC, 1932=showed via
plan purposely conceived to celebrate new spanish repulic of
barcellona the role of functional city. nd ideals of CIAM
members: group of administrative/commercial activities on
waterfront in skyscrapers, historical part of city, medieval
fabric, cerda` 19thc plan. out of existing urban fabric created
new entire urban sectors dedicated to industry, housing+
entire urban sector for workers leisure. can also nd
transport function/hierarchy. new housing sectors used same
LC blocks for his plan including 2 diff housing types w/ 5
points all applied.
- LC for conference proposed plan for radiant city. Project
shows how can nd horizontal orientation+separation of 4
functions=radiant city became symbol+manifesto of
functional city
Apporach of protagonists, later called functionalists, towards
historical city+urban fabric? Plane Voinsin (LC) slogan=
TABULA RASA, maintain only number of isolated, monumetal
buildings, to be connected+maintained for itineraries
end CIAM 1933produce= <Athens Charter>=until 60s
manifesto of functional cities. Showed approach of CIAM
(analysis+deisng of cities)+based on 4 functions. can nd 5th
function=patrimonio storico,=rep approach towards hisotrical
city previously mentioned.

model of functional city applied to construct periferies after

end of war. literal application of functional city in immediate
post war years+latin american cities during 50s.
Delay of acceptance in EU 40s= criticism of functional city.
whereas still in 50s were using model in US and latin america.

Lecture 14 (21/05/13)- US 1920-30

What hapened in the US while Bauhaus and CIAM in EU?
US process of denition+acceptance of modern idiom:
post-wwi till nancial crash (1929)=US archs=inuenced by
tradtn beaux art formation+debate of new style=still in process.
@same time EU=young generation propose new principles
based on political+social experiencesin US: econ+cities
=deeply marked by events fo time. Developt new infrastructure,
new skyscrapers, expansion of cities. Interesting=relation bet
EU+US. EUs looked @ US as model bec eng discoveries
+achievements, at same time US archs look at historical EU
culture (beaux arts+construction old buildings)=double
inuence+emblematic for LC where emphasizes improtance of
US eng but move away frm US archs bec still follow beaux arts.
in USartistic avant garde like Eu bec young archsconnection
w/ art millieu.
3 schools+debates of late 19thc (Chicago school)mconitnued
(skyscraper style). Three itineraries:
1. debate abt skyscrapers- slow acceptance of their construction
2. inuence of modern movmnt+progressive acceptance by
young architects who emigrated during the 20thc
3. searhch of local identitarian US modern vocab in FLW works
Debate about skyscrapers:
economic boom inuenced shaping/intensication of density of
center of big capital cities bec each enterprise want office
building in center=great impact in NY landscape.
Early 20s+2nd half of 30s centers of US cities became kind of
dream scapes w/ refs to native arch...
No consensus abt a modern style+idiom also bec zoning code
approved in 1916=promote stepped buildings+set back in
construction of sky scrapers= skyscrapers of 20s+30s.
improtnat moment when debate ebt US archs, bauhaus profs
+traditional archs took place=ocmpetition for office of Daily
Journal=building had to have persuasive aim+was organized as
international comptitn. Looking @ theoretical skyscraper ideas/
utopic drawings of skyscrapers in Eu=utopic radical projects
showing achievement of theoretical debate in EU. BUT projects
of US archs reped general arch culture of time:
- project o f US archs show same facade system of chicago
school period looking@historical buildings in EU.
- Conservative arch of US=deeply criticized by EU archs. ex.
Adolf Loos criticize use of orders in skyscraper facade:
application of orders interrupts windows+creates problem
for regularity of facade, lack of light etc. to criticise+prove
point=propose skyscraper in shape of doric column.
- Walter gropius+Adolf meyer proposed, together, solutn for
building emphasizing improtance of glass (As in factories)=
important material to rep EU achievement+movements. also
pilotis... all from work w/ DW.
Raymond hood,John Mead Howells, 1922-25, Chicago Tribune (Ch)

- won competition
- evident gothic roots
- culture deeply rooted in US formation of arch
- abstraction of certain historical forms+eclectic use of
neogothic ref+mesoamerican decos...
- process progressive simplication through develop of
buildings reaching peak w/ mcGraw-Hill building 1928-30
- overall no US style but mirror of personal taste of archs+
committers=ask to show importance via height+history refs
Process=inuenced by econ of US. 1929=nancial crash.
Buidings until 1929 rep cathedrals of capitalism=skyscrapers in
big american capital cities
debate on skyscrapers inuences discrouse abt vertical city,+
promoted tentatives to create new urban projects.
up till that moment sky scrapersurban role: there was no care
for wider scale+city. Films like Metropolis provided archs+
planners to consider planning in large scale. making them
consider utpic imgs of vertical city inuenced by EU experience
connection+mutual inuence bet EU+uSclear
Inuencing book=Enrich Mendelsohnss 1926: amerika.
Bilderbuch eines architekten (america: bookof images by an
architect)=provided pics to show impression of US city.
industrial landscapes: Albert Khans structures became refs
+inspiration for EU architects.
process tot post-1929 (Great Depression+inauguration of new
Deal policy, 1933). Discourse on modern arch=diff direction.
produced imediate deco simplication+use of local materials.
Raymond Hood&associates, rockefeller center
- began to be considered vertical city w/in city=project
@urban scale based on highrise.
- great depression=all project building. All skyscrapers built
in that decade reect new restrictions frm New Deal
+politcies archs had to repsect
Arrive @ international style skyscrapers. post-WWII=
proliferation of thes forms+pricniples in concstruction of entire
North US cities=unique modern international style skyscrapers
built b4 war+considered prototype of later internaitonal style:
William Lescaze, George Howe, Philadelphia saveing fund
society building, philadelphia, 1926-1932
kind of manifesto bec reps combo fo diff theories debated:
- separation of spaces on facade
- open plan
- basement (rst air conditioned skyscrapers) also dedicated
to public transport, commercial activity... but also ref
mdnelson experiences. separation vertical distribution+back
block w.r.t core=stairs+elevator=moved to back corner
- diff distribution of horizontal+vertical spaces=intro of
modern vocab in US.
Lescaze was amogst archs that moved to US+began to intro EU
experiences. also built modern town house in NY 1930s .
Architectural modern vocab inuenced by emigrants
other than Lescaz also:
Rudlolph Schindler (1887-1953)- worked in FLW office
Chase House, Hollywood, california, 1921-22
- house for himself
- combo:local material+concrete=intro idiom of EU expernce:

- at roof
- wide glass sufaces
- managed to combine these to local landscape
- Search for local modernity develop via use of reinforced
concrete+combo w/ local materials+elements typical of west
coast houses=patios+relationship bet in+out spaces.
Lovell Beach HOuse, Newport beach, california, 1923-26
- combines schindlers principles
- For cultivated local doctor, house in fornt of beach trying to
intro/adopt all principles +systems frm EU experience
- conception of horizontal box supported by pilotis
(structural piers in this case) intro ribon windows,
- functionalism=rep in facade functions+ distribution in
interior+structure designed to be repd in exterior.
- intent=maintian continuous perspective that allows to
consider the experiences of the LC.
Richard Neutra (particularly in post WWII).
key role in shaping international style ideas. worked for FLW
w/ Schindler+build house for same client but diff location:
Lovell Health House, Los Angeles , 1927-29
- use same visual lmnts, structural lmnts+principles managed
to develop same conditions (beach+hill).
- irst house w/ steel structure in US.
also neutra=desire to move frm scale of building+provide
solution for utopic city. ex. Rush City REformed, 1925.
The International Style 1932- Term of international style
coined+invented in NY, MOMA (introd, circulated +codied),
which had power+ability to inuence US society decided to
make exhibition dedicated to EU 20s experiences. Social
+political aims of EU experiencesintroduced. Henry Russell
Hitchcock, and Philip Johnson deicded to organize travel in EU
+selected diff projects that would be shown in exhibition to
circulate+propose models, references... that would become new
vocab 4 US archs. Operation to only show forms is based on
specic aproach of MOMa=visual aproach=proposed pure arch/
catalogue of forms that could be used in universal way
(international). separated social housing+arch.
Housingconsidered arch bec of social aim+ in arch they didnt
put social housing= dene vocab:
- no deco
- volume can replace mass
- supported idea of regularity instead of symmetry
Via 3 principles introd modern vocab to be used as catalogue
repd how projects had been originated in EU.
20s+early 30s US avant guarde movements in art. All
experiences are based in avant guarde of EU.
deals/programs etc. =also emergence of certain principles:
1933-Roosevelt start promote wider, larger-scale projects+
interventions for new infrastructure+promoted improtnat
public housing projects=oportunity for young EU archs bec
GD= stop private commission.
=the case for a number of housing projects by lescaze for NY
Howe&Lescaze, Crystie-Forsyth Housing Develompent Project
Modern Architecture. International Exhibition, MOMA
- project for lower-east manhattan. proposed replace old
overcrowded slums w/ superblocks=apply LC housing prjcts.

- broke w/ local morphology and typology.

- projectsimplemented but=occasion to circulate EU
experiences+advocate economicity of these blocks.
- L shaped blocks that allow inlcusion of greenery, open
spaces in overcrowded traditional cities
- inuence of LC plans+barcelona plans+other EU experinces.
after all utopic+rev projects+provocations nally built housing
project in federal programs showing tht in mid-30s started to
accept these ideas. Following housing projects in us+intro in
federal programs=models=most used typologies in housing till
50s. Project of williamsburg area. Initially overcrowded. lescaze
proposed diagonal layout.
intro+acceptance of modernist ideas took place in US also thnx
to federal govs. Debate of city in 30s in US=inuenced by
constrution of infrastructure in late 20s+early 30s. most
improtant highways, speedways, railways etc. connecting us
cities began to inuence conguration of city=archs began to
develop utopic cities as vertical cities furture cities.
NY WORLD FAIR- general motors pavilion installation of
FUTURAMA by norman bell geddes shows how new
modernist principels would develop the future
Wiliam curtis wrte abotu interestig phenomenon=EU archs= in
a way domesticated bec are build more moderate proejcts that
utopic ones=encounter bet local contexts+ideals frm eu
US 20s+30s debate on city=concerned w/ decentralization+
construction of suburbs bec infrastructure allowed this. Also
inuenced by experimentation of Garden cities in UK+tranditi
landscape design of 19thc (central park Olmsted). Traditional
us landscape= based on suburbanization+planning of territory.
20s=most important experiences of regional planning bec
inuenced by utopic theories+ integration planning-green=
howard+olmestds presented most improtnat principles.
Henry Wright+Clarence Stein, Greenbelt town program,
Radburn, New Jersey, 1928-1933.
- most important example of suburban settlement based on
garden cities ideal
Regional plan of NY 1923-1931.
- combo all experiences shaped+develop in design of vertical
cities, suburbs, trying to develop plan @ scale of territory
New Deal Program: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1936
- project for constructn of infrastructure along tennessee river
- requried also requalitcation of area.
develop idea of neighbourhood unit=system based on
organization starting form elementary school+#of inhabitants
can be dened based on #of students +coud be used to codify
distances from housing to school able to requalify tentire
urban sectors through repetitino of entire sectors.
efforts and works of Frank lloyd Wright
contirbution of FLW=interetsting bec=alternative in producing
series of forms to be used to build modern buildings. infcluded
in international style exhibitions but capaigned in 1922 in more
provocative way stating alternative way to dene modernism
seen in his housing ocmplexes.
Prarie Houses 1890-1916
FLW=pupil of sullivan, worked wit him+participated in
ocnstruction of auditorium+deeply acquired idea to create us

arch based on native, local tradition=alternative to beaux art

+modernist principles of EU
begins break w/ rules of housing+presents alternative models
for domestic spaces.
began to understand that middle class families need style/arch
form+aesthetic to distinguish frm other social groups+need low
cost rep of modern constructions.
FLW=also inuenced by richardsons experiences in private
housing, arts&crafts movement in UK, veranda of colonial
houses=important elements in tradit layout of us houses BUT
1893 start to be inuenced by jap grac, arch+aesthetic.
First travel to jap=beg 20s, but impressed by jap pavilion @
chicago worlds fair+bgan to study jap housing layout based on
false example of exhibition. Also theories by social reformers
+utopists abt centralization+life in nature+integration bet house
+ladscape deeply inuenced denition of this type.
Winslow House, River Forest, Chicago, 1893
- sloping roofs inuence by jap experiences+pavilions
- importance of horizontal layout
- layout of jap house organized around core=tokonama=ref by
FLW who replaced this w/ us lmnts=replace=symbolic core
+element of symbol for family life.
- horizontality shows organization of diff spaces+continuity of
one ambient to next. only vertical element= the chimney.
- main facade=symmetrical
- 2nd level set back+texture w/ terracotta
Robie House, chicago, 1908
- manifesto of prarie house, can nd all elemnts
- oatin roof, horizontality
- distinguishes via brick colors horizontality of wall vs.
vertical elements, breaks with the symmetry, inuence of
arts and crafts
- arrived via layout to develop separation+continuity bet
ambients
1916-1922 Imperial Hotel of Tokio
- started consider possibility to look at maya arch, axtec,
native american as reference for his work also in us
FLW traveled to Eu inuenced by secessionist+jungendstil
Dutch context started to be inuenced by his works=rst
opportunity for Eu archs to learn frm the american experiences.
1911=publication fo 1st monography of work by FLW
1905= rst travel to japan
The types of housing FLW presents in the 20s:
Hollybock house, LA (CA), 1916-1921
- shows potentiality of materials
- based on rep of potentiality of concrete+shows new interest
towards native american arch+deco
Millard HOuse, Pasadena (CA) 1923
- more evident rep of interest in native american arch+deco.
- same area and period of Schindler and Neutra experiments
he arrived to use concrete block as structural and deco material.
utopic suburban design of ideal city:
suburban scale deeply inuneed planning+urban design of us
archs. bec presenting urban viison but proposing via 1932Disappearing city and 1934-35 Broadacre city, a plan that reps
importnce of automobile+infrastructure in design of us cities.

rep of entire territory as combo of countryside+city. showing

anti-urban model focused on distribution of activities housing
entire territory.

Lecture 15 Architecture and UP in 1930s

1st part decade=search for modern/machine age movement,
end of decade=weakness of model emerge. 10s-20s archs
cooperate to create international vocab.
beginning of shift for historians=1927 (LoN, monza biennale...)
2 moments mark nal acceptance fo legitimization of vocab:
1. LoN meeting 1927, Geneva (LC proposed project w/ Pierre
Jeannerret=combo avant garde+refs to purism. project chosen
bec problems in tech elements BUT v publicized bec scale
frm housepublic scale. also=beg monmntal lmnts.
LC revisits purist ideals+in 30s begins personalize+humanize
vocab+shows new attention to local tradition. LoN proposals
seen @ rst as radical, rev+generated frm specici context,
became in 20s a recurrent model w/out concern for social
+economic aims which originated model. End of 20s (1927)
vocab became official+showed variety of declination of debate
+also seen in Weissenhofsiedlung in Stuttgart, DW Exhibition.
Mies Van Der Rohe was asked to design entire masterplan
=payed, promoted+organized by local municipality BUT van
der rohe asked diff archs frm EU to propose own concept of
house, became a City exhibition+nd all experiences of this
period: declinated in diff ways frm villa, collective blocks,
common house etc. all originated frm idea of mechanization
+mahcine but thnx to prefab, tipicaiton, standardization it
became formal develop.
number of diff examples. 33 houses, 17 architects:
- House 1-4 Ludwig Mies van Der Rohe
- House 5-9 Peter Oud- de Stijl
- House 10 Victor Bourgeois- topic of individual houses based
on purist LC systems
- House 13+14-15- LC+Pierre Jeanneret, 1 based on Citrohan
model+1 on 5 points which LC develped in the 20s.
Van der rohe was very criticized bec vocab was officially
acknowledged in arch culture but seen as exotic+refused
becbased on local identitarian values but international style.
1927=rapid moment of circulation+dissemination of these
ideas.Also model villages neighborhoods urbna sectors showing
+faturing these experineces.
First historica accounts of modernity take shape in 1932 w/
catalogue of exhibition of modern art=occasion for publication
of book title INTERNATINAL STYLE
Other tentatives to write+synthetize modern movement +
pinpoit origins:
- Nicholas Pevsner pioneers of the modern movement from
*** =attempt to dene genealogy ot dene the modern
movement.
- 1941- Sigfried Giedion space, time and architecture central
to modern movement, one fo the most important
architectural hsitorians of 20s. Marked +xed the critic
+failure+success+achievements of the mdoern movement.
Brikman, Van der Vlugt Stam, Van nelle Factory rotterdam 1929
- show achievement of modernity. fundamental principles

- horizonatlity
- overlapping of elementary plans (de stijl)
- Elements started to be combined beyond functions of
buildings to show assimilation of 20s experiences.
- Elements used for factories+hosueing, now being used for
shops, interiors etc.
- from urban plan to interior
E. mendelsohn, Schocken Department Store, Chermnitz, 1928-29
- process fo abstractionn of certain ideals. Medelsohn traveled
w/ author of metropolis, studied for long time us factories
+was deeply impressed by built landscape of us cities+
published book introducing these experineces in EU.
- 1 unique curved surface which=adaptation fo linera surfaces
- emphasis on horizontality
- connections to rst sketches of silos, emphasizing dynamism
manifesto fo Purism- Le Cobusier Ville Savoye 1928-1929
- expresses movement end/conclsion of vocab tht developed.
- Moves from mechanized approach+inuence to human
approach inuenced by local values+natural elements.
Mies Van Der ROher German Pavilion in Barcelona (1928-29)
- manifesto of van der rohe activity, EU part of his work
- reps achievement of theoretical experiences (glass
skyscrapers+brick villa), all theoretical experineces arrive to
nal synthesis in project for pavilion.
- great oportunity to celebrate improtance of G. After
involvement w/ expressionism+De Stijl, arrives to show
combo of all these elements. Innovative, temporary structure
to show social program of WEimar republic.
- Concevived simple elementary structure based on two slabs
- diff partitionsconceived as partitions but plans in
travertine/onyx/glass, aimed@inuencing movement of
visitors in pavilion.
- Broke linearity w/ 2 swimming pools. 1 representing more
private space, 1 more public.
- inuences =FLW emphasizing sequence of spaces. Walls
internatl partitions but just inuence movment of ppl. small
pool emphasize improtance of replace+replace image
- grac work of elementarists in De Stijl work
- arrived at developing concept of totalwork of art
- plan=no intention of developing specic space but series of
open spaces. only 8 pillars for support/structure, linearity
- inuence of domino
- also theory of centripetal (frm palladio, start frm core) vs.
centrifugal (FLW). ex. Brick Villa w/ continuous lines used
to divide spaces+distribute them=centrifugal approach.
- cruciform column for structure bec gives idea that can go in
any direction. Compared use in his project bet I beam
+Cruciform. I beam gives direction, Cruciform doesnt.
- intro cncept of glass box, becmes central 4 his postwar work
became fundamental ref for international style experiences.
+=one of most publish projects. why project so important?
- emigrated to US (because of political reasons) bet 1934 and
39 left EU.
- achieved local role in unis
- 1939-1959 asked to design Illinois institute of tech.

- when emigrated brought inuence far from EU modern

movement. after success+acknwledgement of barcellona
pavilion was asked to become director of Bauhaus. During
htis period Mies stated+defended himeslf as Apolitical=also
reaosn for success in US
- defended apolitical position+stressed importance of
construction in denition of layout+projects.
- references include:
- elementarist works of painters
- schinkel= infsturmental use of classical systems
- FLW prarie houses
so WHY MIES ACWUIRED SO MUCH IMPORTANCE?
- catalogue of internationl style exhibition=means for US to
enter in contact w/ EU experiences apllied to domestic space
model he supproted+advocated+chose project becpolitical
- pavilion inunced post-war US, obv in masterplan for
illinois institute of tech
- marked acceptance EU modernity+hybrdzatn to US culture.
- classical+symetrical result, in orthogonal grid of us cities
placed simple prisms in brick, glass+metal structures. All
buildings composed by brick, colored class and steel=
importnat inuence of Mies research, started to work on
solution of angles+panels+pillars.
- dened false structure that covered original one, becoming
decorative element=emphasize presence of this support.
Mies, crown hall 1950-56
- importnat bec had same problem as barcellona pavilion:
didnt want to ineunce internal denition fo spaces w/
partitions but wanted spaces that could be adapted to wtvr
necessity=structure of inuenced by BArcellona Pavilion.
- 2 slabs, travertine podium(became key elements in his
activities)=combo bet glass facade, metal structure
- began reection on open plan.
- have double structure+buiding supported by metal second
row of piers. represents the concept of oating glass box
(suspended by primary structure)+second glass box.
- prmary structure=piers+2dary structure=suspended by piers.
beginning 30s=shift that started to show weakness of certain
ideals concerned w/ machine age. WE have diff itineraries:
1. totalitarian context=shift from rationalist experiences+
reconsideration of historicist+traditional references
2. revision+recnsideratn of radcal assumption of 20s (gropius...)
3. late circulation+denition of modernity (Iberian context,
Japan, East EU, Latin AMerica+Britain+Scandinavia)=delya
in shaping of local modernity.
Alberto Artoris Enciclopeida della Nuova Architettura, 1948nd 3 diff relationship bet order+climate:
1. nordic-relationship bet landscape acuqire diff forms
2. Mediterranean- relationship bet order+climate
3. American
these 3 bgi categories show 3 diff encounters bet new orders of
the 20s+climate (not only literal meaning but also political,
national, social)
Buckminster Fuller+USA

- shows how even if there is main stream+narrative of

modern movement, alternative experineces were taking
shape, as reaction to international style.
- Same period founded Structural Study Association (SSA).
stating that international style consider structural system.
- Famous for geodesic dome developed in the post war years.
- Also founded journal as alternative to international style
experiences+many archs+eng started proposing reaction.
For political social+cultural reasons Britian+Scandinavia=late
shaping of modernity.
GB bec arch (in particualr private housing) was deeply
inuenced by arts&crafts+refusal+deance by british arch
cutlure against experineces taking shape in EU+critical distance
that ciruclation during the 20s. Process started in the early 30s
when some fo these experineces were already showing their
conclusion, failure and weakness.
GB alsohave Avant garde in 1920s art. EU 20s movments
develp frm art NOT in GB bec dont have avant garde
ideologies migrate late in GB bec of geography of archs
migration. All archs frm G migrated to US and stop in UK=
create real community of immigrants in London. ONe of the
fundamental gures= Berthold Lubetkin:
- worked w/ Perret, stayed in paris+had contact w/ LC. in
london founded group: Tecton.
- First tentatives develop in london zoo for gorilla cage
+penguin pool.
- 1933 founded MARS (Modern Architectural Research Grop)
- Penguin Pool= oval swimming pool, using reinforced
concrete, created 2 curved, interlaced ramps. looking 4 diff
images frm constructivism+collaborated w/ Ove Arup,
creating this structure(=icon of beginning of UK modernity)
- inuence of constructivism seen better in eld of housing.
construction of penguin pool, workd on construction of rst
modern collective housing project in GB.
- All designed by Emigre archs in traditional London context
these buildings provided radical shift:
Berthold Lubetkin, High Point I, London 33-35:
- inspired frm LC Cruciform Tower, constructivist experience
of soviet union (social condenser), all functionalist
experiences (ribbon windows, pilotis, improve ventilation
+lighting via cruciform layout).
- radical arch+urban ideals frm specic contexts+originating
frm specic institution adapted to GB way of living+society
- ground oor=adaption toGB way of living+vernacular
traidition (curvilinear elemetns adapting to landscape,
instead of community laundries etc. we nd tea shops etc)
- not public housing builidng but for high class
Well Coates, Isokon Flats, 1932-34
- elite group but shows inuence frm EU experience
- this group of archs also tried to develop program anlogous
to Bauhaus. Unfortunately only series of furnitures develop.
Eric Mandelsohn, Serge Chermayeff, De La Warr Pavilion, 1933-35
- designed pavilion in southern UK landscape.
- managed to combine diff elements placing them in local
landscape of UK. Concept of open box w/out specic

function inside, spiral stairs included in semi-cilindric

transparent glass=literal quotation of pavilion of DW 1914.
Lubetkin and Tecton, High Point II, 1936-38
- continuation of HIgh Point I. inclusion of other materials in
facade (not only concrete+galss)
- intent to moderate radical approach proposed for high point
I reect critic+attack that model for High Point I received
for local context in Uk. Second solutn shows solutn fo
encounter bet Eu movements+British local context.(also
addition of caryatyds in entrance)
First official acceptance of modernity= MOMA: organized
exhibition entirely dedicated to GB arch 1937. Wait till late 30s
for official acknwldgement, codication, account of this process.

L. 16- 4/06/2013- 1930s Dissemination of international style

alberto sartoris, enciclopedia della nuova architettura, 1948=
critic@ end of 40s tried to dene genealogy of disemination+
circulation of mdernist ideas+international style ideas, highlight
3 diff kinds of relationships bet modernity+local climate.
EU 20s= develop style, 30s= acceptance of idiom
US=1932 acknowledgement of modern style-idiom/style of EU.
nordic countries 30s=dissemination, 1937=beginning, 1934-35
rst actual experineces.
1937 exhibition MOMA by Hitchcock decided to make
exhibition fo modernity.
Scandinavia
Political situation: monarchy=late acceptance, circualtion+
hybridization of modernist principels
takes shape later bec strong presence fo traditional academy
+strong importance in formation of archs+still ahve improtant
role of state contrasting intro of modernist experiences=late
process fo circulaiton.
project that deeply marked shift+mirrored emergency fo
attention for international modern experience:
Erik Gunnar Asplund, Stockholm exhibition Building 1930.
-shows in interesting way combo
bet new method of construction,
techs+imagery fo period, ex. de la
Warr pavi lion, GB=same
aesthetic that marked this

encournter bet local arch culture+modern acceptance.

- GUnnar Asplund- important in rupture w/ academic
Sweden= nordic classicism. Finland= vernacular national
Sweden
contrast bet nordic classicism+importance of vernacular
experiences (gothic revival etc.)
based on local methods of
construction.
Asplund- works linked iwht
nordic classicist tradition.
Gunnar Asplund, LIbrary in
stockholm 1924-28
-became kind of icon of break w/

classical refs.
- asplund since beginning of debate bet nationalist romantics
+nordic classicists tot refused+rejected attention for
vernacular arch, methods of construction etc.
- rst experiments=attempts to break local tradition
- layout of library=combo of 2 fundamental refs frm nordic
classicist experiences=square layout+dome. Dome revisited
+shows inuence of rotunda. other references: visionarist
experiences of 19thc- Boulee+ledoux elementary forms
- reading room= core of building+rep break w/ traditional
proportion=ref to Boullee library+maison metropole
- layout shows combo bet cilider= reading room w/ skin of
books to highlight function+simplication of classical lmnts
(rectangular windows etc.)+square.
- interesting=encounter bet visionary experiences+refs+
produce break in classicist lesson still circulate in sweden

Erik Gunnar Asplund, Crematorium, Woodland cemetery,

Enskede, Stockholm, 1935-40
- itinerary created
- project=entire cemetary: cremtorium+chappel+external path
- last step of long projects developed by asplund
- external path inclunding project w/in landscape
- aim- abstract of classical idiom maintaining rhythm of
columns, showing improtance landscape+local nature,
climate started to acquire in deniton fo the local idiom.
2 early experineces tht show contrast bet nordic classicist+
vernacualr arch in academy
experiences w/ national romanticism allowd to produce
important examples bet tradition+modernity that constitute ref
+starting point for shaping of local interpretation of modernist
ideals of Alvar Aalto=Finnish arch important in develop of
experiences bec of continuous contacts w/ rest of EU which
allow him to move from formation in national romanticism to
the shapin local mdoern idiom. Why nland?
Finland was part of russia till 1917. Russian revolution=
opportunity to develop local national identitarian idiom
refusing lesson of USSR. Beginning constructivist ideas start in
1917. Before in USSR= beaux art lesson. attemtp to react
against accademical lesson+produce vernacular arch.

!
!

Alvar Aalto , Viipuri Public Library, Viipuri, 1927-1935

- 2 regular vernacular forms inuenced by 20s experineces,
+Asplund=managed to intro importance of materials
- auditorium/meeting room in library w/ intro of acoustic
ceiling, reps in a visual way one of senses=rst examples of
humanization of modernism.
- have sapce of reading room bec have reading room w/ top
light (zenethal oculum) used light design instrucment
- acoustic ceiling become recurrent element+also a way to
emphasize place of encounter.

Alvar aalto, Praimio Sanatorium, nland, 1929-1933

- progressive acceptance fo ideals also arriving in exterior.
- manifesto of encounter bet tradition+culture. tentative to
break w/ modernist principels frm EU experinece of 20s.
- assemblage of diff slab blocks dedicated to diff functions.
- concept that originated idea= bauhaus by gorpius
- gropius used cartesian regularily in distributing blocks+
functions=alvar aalto tentative to create diff movement,
break w/ orthogonality.
- Attention to landscape+break regularity giving diff
orientation bec of diff needs, sun, ventilation of each
function. tries to guarantee specic orientation to each
specic blocks, emphasizing views to diff landscapes+
importance of landscapes in diff buildings.
- tentative humanize vocab=combo function-human needs
- didnt intro natural materials but managed to guarantee role
of nature in design+shapin of building opening it in layout.
- managed to humanize+personalize interiors buildings but
design all elements to create appropriate form for object use.
- obvious refs also to naval arch for interior+exterior, refs to
layout of airplanes etc.

!
!
!

internal space waned to rep 5 senseess+give kind of tactile

experinece to visiotrs of pavilion
- verticality of timber= forest+horizontal strips=convergence
w/ modern principles. Ondulated wood surface became
signature+arrived to x previous experiences introduced in
nland. showed history of nnish production+thnx to nish
production highlighted opennes of pavilion etc.
Alvar Aalto, baker house, dormitory, MIT, Cambridge, 1947-48

Alvar Aalto , Villa Mairea, Nootmarkku, Finland, 1938-1941

- mnifesto of his romantic mdern ideas w/ dsgn of private hse
- produced manifesto bec of cultivated client (LC)= imprtnt
producer of timber allowed him to experiment w/ natural,
vernacular, traditional materials+technologies.
- facade- combo wood+use of wood to rep in symbolic way
forest+white surfaces= 20s modernist experiences.
- in inteiror see interwaved spaces that break w/ regularity
- intent to combo regular shape w/ irregualr forms=ref to
landscape+lakes etc.
- even if we had rigid form in facade=evidence fo rustic hut,
academic but reps typical traditional vernacular form that
reps domestic spaces in nland.
- layout of villa=L shape, regular forms+combo natural
elements: sauna, swimming pool=comparison w/ human
body, reps Head of body+combo wood, stone+plastered srfs.
- diff facades=ref to bauhaus+regular facade
- intro of lmnts tht in symbolic way rep local tradition=
tettoia+inside block of stair hall used timber lmnts showing
effect of forest+create unexpected views personalize space.
- topography of the forest acquires improtance.
- combo bet rustic+modern, natural+articial all lmnts tht
would become basis of local romanticist modernity.
- tentative to separate private, semi private and public spaces

Alvar Aalto, Finnish Pavilion, NY Worlds Fair, New York, 1939

- curvilinear timber= attempt to combo venacular+traidiotnal
arch. xed lmnts as signature of his work
- pavilion expected to celebrate achievement of nnish
production=decide to use acoustic curvilinear forms. Via

- curvilinear form seeped into entire building. post-war

period(moment when internaitonal style= circualting
+inplementd in US)=design dormitory in MIT uni, Boston
+decided to use this signature shape of odulated wall.
- diff material=brick=interesting how background develoepd
+hspaed in nland+brought to post-war US.
- curvilinear form also used to dene diff sizes+type of dorm.

CORBUSIER
post-war period=weakness+rigid schematism of functionalism
strarted to be criticized. beginning 30s same authors of projects
started showing improtance of landscape+topography.
20s- radiant city, manifesto of mechanization+functional city=
most important LC projects starting to look at non EU ex in
other contextsts.
1929 for latin american cities, travelled w/aviator, SaintExupery
+while ying on latin american landscape, LC began to see
interest in landscape+began to sketch views+perspective
proposing radical innovations.

1930-41=plans for algiers=new vision+reconsider fo rationalist

+functionalist ideas. Shift also evident in artistic works= moved
from purist principles. In arch=new attention to brick+wood+in
UP=attention for landscape+visual aspects. sees city as orgnism
respecting morphology+topography of landscape. Arrived to
design using concept of viaduct=respecting alyout of landscape
+viaducts=backbone of city, tot based on curvilinear forms, also

conceived as highways where asked clients to propose own

apartments based on own tradition+uses= bec attempt to
focus on tradition.
internationalism replaced by attention to local
Architecture in Italy in the interwar period
30s= 3 specic political+national contexts:
1. nazi G
2. Soviet Union
3. Italy Fascism
=reconsideration of historical+conservative models to rep totn
govs+rep through monumentality local totalitarian gov
G all those of Bauhaus are expected to leave, shift in G arch bec
Alber Spier=attempt to rep monumental+conservative nazi.
Italy:
fascist arch absed on monumnetal approach + historicist
principles BUT= particular case. Experiences of rationalism
took shape in early years of the fascist govermnet.
Initial political context=frame for shaping modern arch idiom.
futurist experiences (=I avant garde) took shape in other arts,
arch, provided manifesto+inuenced also eld of arch, b4 war
+during WWI. Futurist principles+ manifesto+work by
Antonio Santelia=1913 promoted citta` nuova, celebrate:
1. industrialization
2. electrication
3. movement
4. dynamism
5. rapidity
WWI yrs= futurist attempts to renovate+reform idiomprovide
frame for shapin/renovation in eld of arch=principle remained
as theoretical experience. reaction= novecento experineces=
develop new order based on reuse of classical experience.
1914- rst faculties of architecture in Italy
1919- emergence of one center of arch that will acquire
extremely importance end of war=School of Arch of Rome=
center for shaping new experineces.
1922-Marcia su Roma. First official acknowledgement in the
italian gov+official begin fascist xperinces.
2 important preconditions-originate in prewar+develp postwar:
1. experineces in art+shaping of new plastic values, thnx to
metaphisic art(De Chirico+Mario Sironi)=view traditional
buildings+refused approach of futurists+rep in immobile,
xed way of diff calssical+traditional lmnts, composed w/out
respect to classical orders+experineces.
2.futurism prewar= art +thnx to
Antonio Santelia in arch when he
designed la citta` nuova
(1914)=celebration of mechnztion
+conept of ideal cities
Lingotto Fiat factory, Turin became
icon+manifesto fo futurist ideals.
SatnElia promted lingotto as rep of
indn+mechanizatn-concrete grid+strcture=celebrated factory.

1st/new generation of graduated students start to look at

classicist experineces bec shock of war+group of MI archs,
provoked as kind of rejection+celebration of machine
young architects: GIo POnti, Giovanni Muzzio, de netti ...
founded group that started to be called Novecento. The
Novecento experineces in arch marked 1st process in arch
supported by fascist gov.
The most important/signicant example that briey became
manifesto of novecento movement= Ca Brutta by Giovanni
Muzzio- deeply inuenced by metasic art= use classical refs

frm diff periods (Rotonda, Trabation, circle), combining in

conceptual way, w/out respect to classicity.
manifest of futurism refused ornamentation, historical forms
+styles+tot refused refs to previous experineces. factory=icon
+manifesto of futurism.
Muzzio, Gio Ponti etc. abstrac combo of classical refs ex. Ca
Brutta=diff= horizontal register+use of materials+calssic lmnts,
highlighted that they wanted to break w/ classical system.
wanted movement based on ITALIANITY=neoclass xprnces.
Gio Ponti=shaping of idiom of Novcentisti=Casa italiana=
continuous rejection+refuseal of idea of car as the machine,
defended local italian domestic model=shape 1st ratnlist mvmnt
1926- Gruppo 7 founded in polimi by young generation of
students, 1st generation that graduated+started to advocate
denition of local modern arch idiom in programs inaugurated
by same mussolini in shaping new administrative centers, new
cities, redesign of core of certain cities. 1926 gorup publihsed
diff articles on journal Quadrante became arch publication of
regime. promote works of 1st rationalists+start x principles,
importnat points of rationalist idiom:
1. crete a style that rep spirit of age= fascism.
2. start refusing refs to futurist experiences bec shock+
deception provoked by war@same time xed, highlighted+
stressed foreign experineces=improtnace rationality in
construction+give asthetic+form to certain methods of
constructions based on italian tradition+rationality of
construct system.
3. started to state+write about concept of types, look at roman
experineces as models. Stressed roman arch as ref limited # of
types, 4-5 building types= Basilica, temple, circus, baths etc.=
provocative way showed how roman arch already based on
serialization+typication.

=way to dene orgins for italian modern arch=types.

Biennale of arch was founded for the rst time in Monza 1927
+rst exhibition=Gruppo 7.
Biennale monza showed work of gini pollini, terragni, rst
experinements within the group of rationlists.
key gure= giuseppe terragni
beginning biennale of monza 1927+via 1st theoretical projects
of factories+officina del gas of 1927 showed v. well how his
work was inuenced by constructivist, DW designs
project of officina del gas showed well use of industrial lmnts,
inuence of DW+AEG+1st tentatives to dene local level
modern arch idiom.
Edicio per la Nautica Pietro Lingeri in COmo 1926.

all these experinments evidently based on LC. progressive

domestication fo terragni arch idiom, b4 arriving to rst
examples of casa del fascio can dnd many prjcts that mirror
the encounter.
Novo COmo 1927-28
-apartment building
-mirrored constructivist inuence
-refs of club for workers, DW pavilion+building
in front of novo comnu=traditional local
building w/ curved corner +shows attemtion
terragni started to pay to traditional residential
models of MI =revisited and reinterpreted.
1928 foundation fo the 2 improtnat platforms
for ita modernist:
1.Domus (Ponti)
2.La Casa Bella (Pagano), showed very well
reaction fo buildings in this period. For Novo
Como-said this house no criticized but
would=recurrent forms of rationalists.
1928- innauguration of 1st exhibition of rationalist archi.
Rationalist Experience in Turin:
programs by mussolini for reshaping+reconstruction of most
improtant ita cities=program known as sventramenti =
demolish core of I cities. establish new cities+infrastructuralize
Center of turin 1930 -36, reconstruction of Via Roma= w/
monumental buildings showing power of fascist gov.
have creation of diff facilities+became evident that htese
programs for reshaping rep attitude of mussolini+fascist govs
the creation fo monumental centers. mainly public buildings.

these policies for construction=part of wider program of

reshaping traditional cities into fascist cities.
improtnat economic point= relaunch econ. involvement of 1000
workers=how Mussolini wanted to reform+implement econ=y
refused concept of mechanization but include mechanical
instruments in the method of construction.
rst project proposed for reshapin of baroque axis= historical
projectlooked at 17thc model of columsn+arches+wanted to
apply these models. rationalist archs campaign+circualte
alternative soln for false baroque forms, highlighting new
monumental axis supposed to speak language of time. doesnt
make sense to rebuild a historical city
rst part of the turin reconstructino= false baroque and the
second= marcello piacentini (key arhcitect of fascist promgrams
of trasformation) rationalist reaction.
giuseppe terragni asked to design building for casa del fascio
- interesting example of contradictory approach of modern
rationalist arch
- described as manifesto+icon fo fascist program+classical
+simple building
- manifestation+rep fo all rationalists of this period described
as promoter+supporters fo regime, all showed diff way their
reaction agaisnt programs+aesthetic promoted by regime.
- simple layout: half cube w/ 4 facades expected to be
symmetrical+similar (height=1/2 side) but actually intent to
react to symmetrical models
- orthogonal grid on facade covers glass skin behind official
monumental facade=looks symmetrical with internal court/
glass but actually court is no symmetrical at all etc.
- teragniofficially involved in these programs but they had
an unimplicit way to react against these rules
in programs of public buildings, can nd process of progressive
rejection+refusal of rst rationalist ideals. Marcello Piacentini=
mediator moderator bet gov, fascist party+diff arch movements.
out of fascist institution= others that promoted modern arch:
ex. illuminated industrialist: Adriano Olivetti- created kind of
open air museum where frm 20s-50s asked key ratinalist
movmnt gures (gardella, albini, le corbusier etc) to aprticipate
in construction of industrail landscape+facilities for workers
programs inuence+represent foreign models.

Lecture 17 - 5/6/2013
Latin American Context
end 20s to the rst half of the 40s.
big extension of land=diff geog, climatic, cultures, states,
political+econ situations. BUT is observed+described as totality.
during 30s especially US began to observe w/ great interest
countries of Latin America+began to consider it as whole=
region where some countries=more noticeable than others
observation frm US began after 1929 crisis=also contiousness of
latin america as part of continent but w/ diff position in scale of
possibilities+econ power w.r.t northern part of ocntinent.
beginnign 60s, rst years after cuban revolution, latin america
occupied special position in international image
History of arch latin america treated as big box w/diff countries,
v important archs+few perspectives to look at arch frm diff pov.

1929 recurring date in historiography of latin american bec rst

date of LC trip in that region-Argentina, Uruguay+ brazil
<Latin American Architecture since 1945> Hitchcock=
publication frm MOMA 1955- exhibition analyzing last decade
of Latin American arch. curator+editor=marked acceptance+
acknowledgement of latin american arch+context
50s latin america =central place in international image of arch
latin american there was arch that end 20s beginnign 30s is
possible to call modern architecture. ex. alberto sartoris- <Gli
elementi Dellarchitettura funzionale> catalogue where diff
countries explored+some buildings published, in this moment
Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay are present, with diff works.
Mexico
J. OGorman- 1930, end of 20s avant garde established. house
+studio for 2 painters Diego Rivera+wife=work that dialogues
@ same level of EU debate. house as mechanical struture/
factory to live+owrk in. inside =deliberate exhibition of
construction system+tech part of building. anticipation of 50s
brutalism. light system=exposed, ceiling exposed etc.
latin american production by 3 perspectives:
1. urban modernity
urban arch/functional arch/rational arch=phenomenon that
appears in certain conditions ex. how city is lived by inhabitants
= can look @ Buenos Aires.
From 2nd decade of 20thc city life +mdoernity is appearing in
various manifestations. a lot of conditions more useful to
compare with north american realities than EU ones.
beginning 1930s theaters+cinemas became rst typologies of
arch that incorporated new languages.
buenos aires=leading very big transforation: new avenues
oepnned, system=built on colonial grid of spanish=modied.
other part of city (southern boundary)=modern city but frm
other pov bec there ind port w/ transporting system+stock
structures to work w/ infrastructure serving commerce
+transport of goods
Condition of urban modernity=diff way of manifesting itself
+modify city landscape, 1=highrise buildings, rst building
(10-12 sotries)1912=I arch that lived some yrs in rio de la
plata region+built@end of 2nd decade of 20thc=highrise
building in buenos aires+another one in Monte Video. didnt
use modern language of arch but=still modernity.
in 20s verticality+highrise=common event+they became
program for archs, professional culture include new typology
advertising= image of highrise+moder arch but very ecclectic.
1936- high rise in buenos aires, uding gr8 #of styles depend on
client+program. 26-highest LA building=deco style+naval hints
Modern developement in 30s=city is growing+making its
buildings more complex: new functions, popn rising=new
programs, for which diffusion of reinforced concrete=important
urban design=new eld of application of rationality. cartesian
abstraction of territory, streets= system to measure the territory,
every block= 100 m extension=way to rationalize+measure
territory. this type of urbanization=problems of lots not having
rational extention.
Wladimiro Acosta, parents=spanish moved to USSR, then
buenos aires.

Acosta, City Block, 1928-35

-idea of air+sun as main ingredient of
healthy life
-following yrs, elaborated diff models
easily recognized, 20s urban vision of
LC+grostandt by Ludwig Hilberseimer.
-urban system dividing commercial

level where cars can move fast+residential+pedonal level.

- city organized on same basis of buenos aires where a sort of
tower was imagined. @1st w/ form of cross insprired by LC
then it s due to consideration to sun position.
Anancio Williams- imagined to solve problem, how to build in
deep lots=house 1 on other=sort of terraced system that can
penetrate lot+cocnceived as extensive soln.
uraban modernity=new way of life+connected to idea of avant
garde=establish strong link bet art+life. ex. building in center of
buenos aires=for modern way of life bec connected shops+
atelier+houses for artists+building made mainly with glass=at
night works as urban lantern+is possible to c wt is happens in.
2. LC+south america/centre+periphery during 1930s -40s
LC arrived in argentina to attend conferences, invited by uni of
arch+2 associations. Saw buenos aires @ night=strong
impression of lights dividing river+sky.
LC asked to design house for Victoria OCampo. projct built
First time LC was received by ocal elite, most educated in EU.
topics fo conferences=analyzing arch+urban design.
LC compare traditional tectonic system+explained some of his
works, insisted on city, its problem of congestion+his idea of
green city made of tower+parks=propose models of radian city
as solution for different context.
3. the image of barzilian architecture
Diego Rivera=rst painter called to deco one of the most
important buildings of the city.
After 1929 US had new attituted towards southern neighbors:
20s=cold diplomacy+restrictive immigration, 30s=begin 2 build
importnat network of relationship w/ main countries= diplomat
+econ relationships (esp. for GD need econ system expansion)
end 30s relations took new meenings=build image of american
tradition=america seen as whole continent=american culture
very strong+comparable to EU culture=US began to observe=
exhibitions in MOMA etc= v. interested in mexican scene
where mural painters were active during 20s and 30s.
Brazil become important in contxt: rst work gained
international visibility:

!
!
!
!

Roberto Boulemars, ministry of

education+health, 1936-41
=designed w/ inital participation
fo LC- curtain wall on N side,
brise-soleil as protection against
sun radiation. Buidling=public
work of art.
idea of combining art+arch
proposed in right moment bec

material. Also tentative to create temporary prjects+solutns

for housing+creating entire new village close to war
industries. industry affected mobility of ppl, migration of
workers,+experimentation w/ quick emthods of construction.

beginning of 40s monumentalism+synthesis of arts=key words

in international debate.

1939 world fair of NY, brazilian pavilion Lucio Costa + Oscar

Niemeyer=one of most interesting. Used a vocab that has
smehting in common w/ LC, =ramp, white building+pilotis but
inside=carspavilion w/ techs but w/ cafe, restaurant, nature...
1931-32 oscar niemeyer commited to realize neighborhood
dedicated to freetime+leisure+realized some astonishing work
1943- post-works of Niemeyer, MOMA organized big
exhibition on brazilian arch.modern arch in Brazil but include
all brazilian production proposing curve as element of brazilian
tradition. exhibition prepared ground for great fortune that
brazilian+latina merican arch ahd in rst decade after the war

Lecture 18- 12/6/2013- role of war in shaping postwar arch

after end of war, principles of 20s started to show weakness
+lack of humanization+be criticized on basis of new culture.
Critique of modernity @ scale of domestic space+urban scale.
WWII: inuenced post-war implementation of certain tech,
modern ideals+way of conceiving arch. Important points:
1. professional culture during war years=emergence+needs of
war, role of archs in civil society+construction, to
participate to these experineces. Organizations shaped
+inuenced how arch was developed+shaping rst arch rms
+corporations in post-war=new way of wroking. industry
affected in terms of kind of products. archs started to
collaborate w/ eng to use concrete for fortication, metal+
steel for aricraft+war production. certain typologies+
dwelling models, pop in post-war come frm emergency+need
of war. implementation+experiment in use of new composite

Buckminster Fuller- 30s conceived project for daimaxon house

+during war tried to adapt this model, using+reconverting
components of housing system.
2. involvement of architects in the passive defence- involved in
project of camouaging city- developing false cities to avoid
bombing+asked to develop new underground city= tentative
to develop new norms+starndards+reduce construction costs.
3. EU+US archs started since beginning of war to think about
post-war reconstruction- imagine city in post-war, way to
reconstruct, materials+techniques to be implemented. have
an impressive # of publication of <New buildings for 194X>asked archs to imagine reconstruction in post-war. asked to
design 1 type to participate to post-war debate=fantasies of
archs during war+inuenced boom of post-war recnstrction.
isolated experiments in prefab+use of new technologies, became
implemented during the war, method used in mass production=
normal methods of construction in psot-war.
CIAM started timmediately after the war-organization of
converence=gap bet 1937-1947 beccontact bet arch+many of
archs=involved in war. post hiroshima discussions began again.
1947- Bridgewater: new monumentality/synthessis of arts: saw
that application of functional city in periphery= impersonal
cityw/ 1 function
CIAM concludes in 1959 bec new generation tries to system.
archs involved in CIAM start to use+propose model of functnal
city+radial city of 20s+early 30s to reshape all bombed parts of
EU cities. only fragments of these projects really implemented
immediately bec weakness of model based only on 4 functions
+no attention to social culture+human aspects start emerge
Bridgewater CIAM new topics discussed:
1. importance of concept of new monumentality, in all city
archs need to include symbolic spaces that reect+rep
cultural, intellectual+social aims fo citizens+ functions
enough to dene human scale.

2. monument as conceived in totn

countries but NEW
monumentality= symbolic spaces
in cities rep cultural, social
+intellectual life of cities.
move frm city totally concevied for
machine to city paying attention to
human needs. Artists, arch,
urbanists needed to collaborate to
work on symbolic part of city.
discourse 1947 =premise fo debate
on heart of city:concept= 4
functions enough to create city conceived @human scale but
need symbolic function/space that becomes heart of city=
1951 Hoddesdon= The Heart of the City=need for social spaces,
ex. piazza san marco, Milano galleria, Rockfeller center NY in
diff cultures idea of core s but rep need for social space. core
comes frm description of in 40s by giedion+other archs.
Giedion decided kitchen=technical core=where ppl meet and
have a social life.
Hoddesdon developed alternative analyzing concept of core,
analyzed ideas of village to city, looking @ cultural diffs d type
of core. machine @ center of discourse but culture ppl return
to scale association
US: archs like Neutra, repd spces like mall etc.=core
also inuenced debate tin north EU+US=attention to admin
centers+uni campus=show attention to core.
young dutch archs=part of new generations reacting to functnal
city started shwoing importnace fo playgorunds+pedestrian
spaces+new multidisciplinary approach in polifunctional
centers
1953- CIAM memenbers of GB (Alison+Peter Smithson) will
arrive to rep scale of association through prjcts+observation of
neighborhood life.
mid 50s=shift in CIAM, new generation inaugurated TEam X
refused approach of founding fathers of CIAM, advocating
humanization of arch, attention to local tradiiton, culture,
refusal of shaping of international vocab=end CIAM discourse.
Jose Luis Sert- introd functional city in US, introd as a way to
contrast urban sprawl problems
While in EU this mdoel=criticized, it moved to US+Latin
American cities but never really implemented on large
TPA, Havana Plan, Battista dictatorship, 1958
- proposed to demolish entire colonial center of city, maintain
some historical buidlings reping isolated lmnts, created new
admin center+arrived to create entire new island in front
dedicated to function: Leisure. luckily project never built.
Also LC started to revise+reconsider ideals published in <Vers
une architecture> +concept of house as machine for living+
celebration fo functionalist principles of 20s. within activities in
post-war yrs+end fo 30s, new rformal values=enw attention for
local material, traditional methods of construction+aesthetic
that refused concept of amhcine+celebration fo function of
building. discourse progressively humanized+new attention for
aesthetic+nature of certain materials started to emerge

ex new approach= UN
headquarters, NY Manhattan,
Harrison &Abramowits based on
idea of LC:
-based on monumentality tried to
create system of buidlings, unied
thnx to platform to create shared,
common space for social activities.
-platform become shared concept in
post-war US in 40s.
LC activity=improtnat shift,
attention paid to new materials,
intro+celebration fo concrete. Steel+iron=war so post-war=
importance to show aesthetic of concrete. Beton brut- bear
concrete- one of most important experinece of brutalism.
Tentative by LC to give an aesthetic to concrete+critique to
functionalist ideals:

Notre Dame du Haut, ROnchamp, 1950-55

- attention to landscape+spiritual valuesconsidered in 20s.
- response to requirest of committer to create building rep its
functionthrough form but spiritual values
- clients: commission dart sacre`: father counturier asking to
have rep modern functionocnsidered functionalist project.
- also pillgrimage place so thanks to relationship created w/
context managed to create path and connection with society.
- forms adopted:
1. unusual form of roof= ref to crab shell+rep well attention to
natural+organc forms=break w/ rationalist ideals of 20s.
2. reaction poetique
3. engineering objects
- use of natural light shows how light, space+curved forms
reecting light in diff ways are inuenceds+tools that rep
functions of buildings. values reping buildingsform.
Unite` dhabitations,
ISAI program, 1947-52,
Marseille
-acoustic curvilinear
forms, improtance fo
bare concrete etc. all
elements also shown in
ronchamp.
-only able to impelment
few blocks: 1 marseille
and 1 Berlin
- =1 of unique implementation of functional city

- collective residential block+in constitutional gov project for

reconstruction of bombed F cities supported by minister of
re-construction Raoul Dautry etc.
- became projects of city in a city, including all functions in
concept of city. inuence: naval arch, maison citrohan
- concrete=economic reasons, but arrived to synthethize
expeirneces of dwelling+hosing developed in 20s-30s.
- innovation= how assembled duplex units for his vertical city.
- system of 2 units to create street corridor=
backbone of structure but served 3 diff units.
dublex units assmbled creating system of a cage.
- also adapt units based on type of family+needs.
- used all 5 points
- arrived to design specic prototypes, models for diff spaces
fo house. role of kitchen=importnat bec supporter of
discourse of women workers in post-war.
- system= from maison Dom-ino
- layout from mains CItrohan= white cube w/ duplex system.
scale frm small house to city within city
- model of Immeuble-Villa 1922- facade
- Weissenhof 1927-organize apartmnts+structural systems.
- at roof- reps encoutner bet post-war ideas+tentative to
revise immeuble-villa. bottomshared facilities bec on roof.
activities for workers class but all these reference also to
the med culture and marseilles inuence of naval arhc
- acoustic forms rep a ship=tot rejection of functinalist ideals
+celebration fo buidlings
- pilotis- modied but contained tech parts of building
- tech=prewar xprince, terrace+building organiz=new snthsis.
- anothe rimprotatn point in post-war LC projects: LE
MODULOR (1943-50). denition fo dimention of buildings
based on human scale, degree of comfort for humanscale.
apply Fibonacci series to measure human scale+dene
livability. sum of rst 2 parts fo human body = the 3rd part.
unite`=system copied, imitated etc. in diff EU contextsts
producing impersonal residential urban sectors. model created
residential space w/ no other functional spaces+become critical
points for rst protests+struggles of 1968.
Dominican Monastery of La Tourette 1957-60
- travel to rome gave improtna chance to visit Ema charter
house tuscany, saw communitarian life of monks, etc.etc.
- experineces of ronchamp rep in chapel of monastery+shows
inuence of housing in dormitory
- cnnction w/ landscape 3 diff aesthetic=functn of diff blocks:
- church-bare concrete, zenithal light w/ small chpel
- dormitory
- common space- pilotis
end of 50s LC able to design entire new city. create admin
center of new city, synthetizing princples in Chandigargh. New
capital of Punjab, 1951-65
- creatn of 3 admin buildings shows local arch+way of living
- created layout, organizing it along monumental, rep axis but
broke symmetry of layout maintaining perspective+layout
bet diff buildings, also designed entire system of center as an
arch. all fountains+paths bet buidlings=unique arch work.

- looking at complex=combo of local way of living. nd lters

of colored piers, brisolleil adapted for local wood arch.
- concrete in la tourrette+presence fo acoustic forms=
signicant buildings udnerstnad how he differentiate diff
facades creating pilotis, brisesoleil etc. highlighting function
of buidlings with organic, acoustic forms etc.
American architecture 1940s- 1950s
econ important, fundamental point- if EU arrived @ end of war
w/out econ+human sources, end fo war=new historical period
for US+improtant prgrm of export of culture, econ+ind.
looking at EU+Italy postwar yr=deeply inuecned by US.
Marshall plan etc. +at same time=specic cultural programs
allowed to americanize EU. boom of postwar construction
inuenced also arch solutions that took shape=american dream
of ownership fo house deeply inuenced movement of buidings.
EU gures of 30s started to intro modernist ideas incorporating
economy+local vernacular tradition.
What was proposed as innovative in 20s and 30s now=
common. Inuenced by local context+internaitonal style ideals
nally found laboratory, place for implementation=psot-war
america. quick implementation of othousands of skyscrapers
+private housing based on prewar mies+gropius experineces
+improtnace new prefab system of construction based on steel,
iron, and glass coming form war industry started to inuence
also the housing industry.
walter Gropius, Gropius House, LIncoln, Massachussetts, 1938
- one of rst modern experiments
- combo also with wood elents= rst encounter+hybridization
of his dieas.

Richard Neutra, Kaufmann Desert House, Palm Springs,

California, 1946
- shift from house tot built in concrete to new method of
construction inuenced by war experineces=skeleton steel
fram.
- glass box dened+supported only thorugh steel structure w/
simple method of ocnstruction,=more diffused typology to
be used for private housing in postwar america. this glass
box is, along w/ skyscrapers, one of the typologies used for
the development of housing in postwar america

- this tech and method implemented during hte war

inuenced with model which became icon of mdoernism in
thew est coast in psotwar period
- Julius Schulmann
panorama of postwar america that rep the ecnomic boom,
growth and iffusion and implementation of EU international
style arrive to baanlization of system

Ludwig Mies van der ROhe, Lake shore drive

apartments, chicago, 1948-51
-skyscrapers become most improtnat
typologies circulated
+disseminated in post-war
period=initially residential
tower +adopting this
typology.
-structural elements of I
beams, nally in this 3rd
generation f skyscraper
gain own aesthetic and
become decoratie elemtns
Van der Rohe, Seagram
Building, NY, 1954-8
- nd aim ot use structural system to deco facade, aim also to
rep richness+sophistication fo facade using bronze glass
- decision create skyscraper w/ basedment that occupies
entire block but created building on back of lot creating
semi-public/public space in front=care for urban scale.
- attention to create via volume of travertine a square/plaza in
unique project concived as including public squre.

Avant-garde in URSS 1917-1932

USSR+Moscow=important laboratory for shaping new vocab
Constructivism=artistic+arch philosophy originated in Russia
1919. Repd rejection of idea of autonomous art.=great inuence
on modern art movements of 20th century, inuencing major
trends(Bauhaus+De Stijl)
Before 1917=circulation of refs of VLD, Semper, Ruskin=
inuence R in bet 1910-1917 w/ important EU
experiences=traveling of architects+sharing experiences.
Art Nouveau start inuence USSR b4 rev+have international
exhibitions where many ideas proposed+=possibility to
exchange experiences w/ EU archs. Arc reform in same period
of political+social one.
post-rev 1917, thnx to Proletarian culture+support of workers
society, Rbecame lab for new principles+vocab. Starting 1917,
bec R rev+until 1932=shaping of constructivist
experiences+Soviet Avant-garde. 1932=yr
competition for construction Soviet gov.
Boris Iofan promoted conservative ideas start in
1930s +awarded 1st price of Soviet Palace.
Political program inaugurated after 1917
promoted Proletarian culture=important.
Many new municipalities created+have
abolishment of any kind of private
ownership. idea=transform big amnt of

land=impressive place for new projects=part of propaganda.

Possibility to rebuild the society.
1920s=projects for electrication for entire Soviet territory. Idea
=eliminate diffs bet social groups=emergence of rst
experiences of artist+arch asked to rep in monumental
propaganda, victory of rev.
V l a d i m i r Tatlin, Monument to the third International
Communist Congress (in 1921), 1919-1920
-use of glass, iron+steel show how process
of electrication deeply inuenced
imaginary of archs who started to
experiment w/ these materials.
-I d e a = c e l e b r a t e m e a n i n g o f
congress=principal geometric forms
(pyramids, cylinder, sphere)+tried to
break w/diff bet social groups.
-symbolic meaning of primary frms=frm
Boullee 18thc.
communist program promoted also anti-urban approach for
reconstruction of entire countryside+suburban areas+promoted
housing develop post rev yrs. 1921, 1922=tendency to promote
new economical system+create housing system dedicated to
workers. Many refs to 18thc+19thc started to take shape. Most
important=housing program=program for city centers, factories
+villages dedicated entirely to workers.
Moscow became important lab for refusal of academic
knowledge+experiences. Process of electrication w/ simple
metal construction system became important ref for arch.
1st elements of constructivist experiences started to take shape.
Basis of constructivist ideals=visual refs+idea to transfer objects
coming from eng experiences to eld of art.
inauguration of Official Institutional Committee that proposed
new reform in eld of art.
While in G Bauhaus experiences constituted, here these
experiences=official programs supported by gov. W/in
panorama, we have shaping of 2 important groups:
1. Modern wing of arch=members of ASNOVA,
supported idea to give visual expression to building
function, butcnstrctivist aim=celbrate eng matrials
2. OSA=based on combo art, arch+ind+used eng objects
to dene specic aesthetics.
1921=Exhib Society of young artist=Eng object, models +tech
facilities inspired archs to propose AN+other mvmt altrntives.
E l
Lissitzky: many propaganda works for USSR
Cloud-hanger project 1925
-prjct entire urbn sectr w/ housng develp w/
adopted eng ref
skyscraper in Moscow, 1924
-ref skyscraper for San Paolo, Turin 2007.
-radical constructivism of 20thc, still=ref for
different archs.

!
!
!
!

Konsantin Melnikov, USSR

Pavilion for expo of decorative arts,
Paris, 1925
-proposed radical project=2 prisms
covered by 2 glass surfaces,
+=innovative for layout
bec=rejection of refs.
-emphasis of eng objects+processes
of electrication
- Many technical objects, such as typing-machine, became a
reference for Melnikov in that period.
New importance of working class+labor unions for organization
of society=new objects for collective life:
community centers, libraries, dedicated to
workers everyday life. We have 2 kinds of
social condenser: collective houses and the
workers club.
Victor Horta, Maison d Temple,
1887-90=place of everyday life of workers
(beginning of AN experiences). Bcame
fundamental ref for constructivism. Places
dedicated for education of workers:
libraries, theaters,=more and more importance.
Golosov, First workers club, 1927-29 Moscow
-idea=change everyday life of citizens+landscape
of neighborhoods.
-libraries, diff facilities, museums=places for
propaganda.

-experiments w/ primary forms of Boullee+Ledoux

- ref to structures by Gropius+Meyer, ex. DW Pavilion.
Melnikov, Workers Club I.V. Ruzakov, Moscow, 1927-1929
- broke w/ any symmetrical layout+dome=break w/ regularity.
Notable example of constructivist arch.
-built on fan-shaped plan, w/ 3 concrete seating
areas above base. Each volume can be used as
separate auditorium.
-only visible materials=concrete, brick+glass.
-function of this building is expressed in its
exterior.
Another important concept=social housing.
journal where these debates took shape=OSA.
Many LC experiences shown BUT LCconsidered
idea of collectivization in eld of housing.
Ginzburg, Narkomn building, Moscow
(1928-1930)
-rep manifesto of program of common houses.
-specic gov competition for development of
program based on housing for masses.
-made of reinforced concrete, can see a huge #
refs to LC: at roof, duplex layout, to produce
new layout for housing system. Also open faade,

garden roof.
- ground oor dedicated to pilotis, vertical blocks+all these
elements applied 1920s+rep modernization of domestic
space. +standardization of facilities.
Collective housing= debate also in EU in 1920s.
Melnikov, Melnikov house Studio, Moscow,
1927-1929
-one of icons of 20th century arch.
-developed own approach+in own
house, can see importance of primary
forms,+refs to local vernacular houses.
-rev solutions, original layout, elegant
national arrangement +eng techs.
-layout shows importance of discourse
of elementary forms.
- used 2 circles intersect. Intersection=stairs which separate
house into private areas+studio place.
Also program about develop of new cities out of existing areas
Up to 1950s, Melnikov criticized+onsidered outsider. Many
people came to USSR to debate abt construction of new towns,
new urban sectors.
1930s, 2 approaches: urbanist (enlargement of cities)
+disurbanist (enlargement of cities out of Moscow) =shift; Eu
models ex. Garden city, started to be considered.
Milutin, Project for linear city
- ref=Madrid Ciudad Lineal by Soria Mata.
- proposed plan for entire city based on linear organization.
Idea=create diff industrial towns that=occasion to
participation of many archs in construction of new towns.
MoscowEl Dorado.
1933= Boris Iofan, Project for Palace of Soviet Union (Soviets).
- expected take place in centre of city.
- 1932=program of reorganization of art eld, unions started
to b decentralized.
- shift from 1920s-1930s=supporting historicism,
traditionalism. taking shape thnx to institutional programs.