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JOUR.\IAl or APPLIF.D SPORT l'SYCHOLOOY. t4 172-204,2002

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Psychological Characteristics and Their

Development in Olympic Champions
DAr-ttL GoULD AND KR1STI:.N Dt&FENOACII
UniverJity of North Carolino Greensboro

AARON MOFFFTT
Michigan Swte Uni1ersity

This study was designed to examine psychological characteristics and their development in
Olympic champions. Ten U.S. Olympic champions (winners of 32 Olympic medals) were
interviewed, as were one of 1heir coa<.:hc~ (n - I 0), and a parent. guardian, or sgnificant other
(n - 10). A battery of psychological inventories was also admimstered to the athletes. h was
found that the ath letes were charactetized by: (a) the ability to cope with and control anxJCty;
(b) confidence; (c) mental toughness/resiliency; (d) sport intelligence; (e) the ability to focus
and block ou1 dtstraeuons; (f) competitiveness; (g) a hard-wort.. ethic; (h) the ability to set and
achieve goals; (i) coachability: U) high levels of dispositiona l hope; (k) optimism; and (I)
adap1ivc perfectionism. Results also revealed that a number of individuals and institutions
influenced the athletes' psychological developmen t including the community, family, the individual himself or herself, non-sport personnel, spon environment personnel, and the sport
process. Coach and family influences were particularly important. Ways in which these sources
influenced the athletes were both di rect, like teaching or emphasizmg ccnain psychological
lessons, and indirect, involving modeling or unintentionally creating eenain psychological
environn1eots. l'sychologieal cbamctcrisuc findings verified current sport psychological research on psychological characteristics a$SOciated wtth peak perfonnance (Williams & Krane.
200 I). They also suggest that adaptive perfectionism, dispositional hope, and high levels of
optimism are new variables to consider. Results are also discussed relative to Bloom's (1985),
Cote's (1999) and Csikzentmihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, and Wong's (1993) talent development research. Practical implications focus on implementing parenting and coaching practices
related to the development of psychological charactcri~tics assoctated with athletic success.
When people think of the psychology of excellence, images of outstanding athletic performances of1en come to mind. Legendary athletes like Bonnie Blair, Carl Lewis, Mary Lou
Received 15 January 2002; accepted 15 March 2002.

This research was supported by a grant from the Sport Science and Technology Division of the
United Stales Olympic Committee (USOC). The authors would like to thank the sport psychology staff
for their assistance. A special thanks is extended to the athletes, coaches and parentslguardianslsigni fi.
cant others who took part in this proJect.
Address correspondence to Daniel Gould, Ph.D., 250 Hll P, PO Box 26169, Department of Exercise
and Sport Science, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6 169. E-mail:
drgould@ uncg.edu
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PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACfERlSTICS l)}N ELOPMENT
173
Retton, and lan Thorpe are remembered for their memorable performances in the Olympic
Games. lt is not surprising, then, that sport psychology researchers have been interested in
identilying what "psychologically made these athletes great." ln addition to determining the
psychological characteristics of these athletes, in the last several years investigators like
Csikszentmihalyi et aJ. ( 1993), !!anton and Jones ( 1999), and Durand-Bush and Salmela (200 I)
have begun to examine how athletes developed these attributes. This study is designed to
extend this research by examining the psychological characteristics of 10 of the United States
most successful Olympic champions as well as to dctcm1inc how these athletes developed
their psychological characteristics.
Psychological Characteristics of Outst011ding Athletes
A number of approaches have been taken to examining the psychological characteristics of
outstanding athletes and considerable progress has been made in our understanding of this
area. Morgan and his colleagues (e.g., Morgan, 1978, 1980) conducted some of the earliest
investigations in the area, studying the personality characteristics of national and Olympic
runners, rowers and wrestlers using the Profile of Mood States. Support was found for a mental health or iceberg profile model where more versus less successful athletes exhibited greater
positive mental health (vigor is above the mean for the population while the negative moods of
tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion are below).
Other researchers (e.g., Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg, J981; Mahoney & Avener, 1977) have
taken a different approach, looking at cognitive strategy differences between more and less
successful athletes. For example, Smith, Schultz, Smoll, and Ptacek (I 995) developed the
Athletic Coping Skills lnventory- 28, a multidimensional measure of sport specific psychological skills (coping with adversi ty, peaking under pressure, goal selling and mental preparation, concentration, freedom from worry, confidence and achievement motivation, a nd
coachability) and (ound that it discriminated between more and less successful professional
baseball players. Specifically, more successful players and players who remained in the league
longer demonstrated higher psychological skills scores.
Finally, other investigators (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a, 1992b; Gould, Guinan,
Greenleaf, Medbery, & Peterson, 1999; Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001; Orlick &
Partington, 1988) have examined psychological variables affecting the performance of Olympic athletes, chiefly through qualitative interviews. For example, Orlick and Partington ( 1988)
found that (a) the ability to focus attention, (b) control of performance imagery, (c) a total
commitment to the pursuit of excellence, (d) the setting of practice goals, (e) competi tion
simulation, (t) mental preparation, (g) detailed competition plans, and (h) having distraction
plans were common variables c haracterizing the successful athletes. Those Olympic athletes
who did not perform up to their potential reported not being prepared to deal with distractions,
changing things that worked, experiencing late team selection, and not being able to focus
after distractions.
After carefully reviewing this research, Williams and Krane (200 I) concluded that a number of specific mental skills and psychological characteristics, such as (a) having a well developed competitive routine and plan, (b) high levels of motivation and commitment, (c) coping
skills for dealing with distractions and unexpected events, (d) heightened concentration, (e)
high levels of self-confidence, (f) self-regulation of arousal, (g) goal setting, and (b) visualization, were associated with peak performance. One would expect, then, that highly successful
Olympic athletes would exhibit these mental skiJis and characteristics.
Although considerable research has been conducted on the psychological characteristics of
more versus less successful elite athletes, this does not imply that our knowledge is complete
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in this regard. A number of factors found to be important predictors of a variety of behaviors

in the general psychological literature have not been examined, such as optimism (Seligman,
1990), perfectionism (Antony & Swinson, 1998), and hope (Snyder, 2000).
Dispositional optimism has been shown to influence physical and psychological well-being
in a variety of areas (Scheier & Carver, 1992; Schneider, 2001; Seligman, 1990). Optimism is
a relatively stable personality disposition characterized by a general expectancy that good
things will happen (Scheier & Carver, 1992). Optimistic individuals differ from pessimistic
individuals in several important ways- most importantly how they approach problems and
the success that they have coping with adversity. Specifically, when confronted with a challenge, optimists tend to take a posture of confidence and persistence while pessimists are
doubtful and hesitant. One would think, then, that highly successful Olympic champions would
be characterized by high dispositional optimism. A related variable that might be expected to
characte1ize champion athletes is high dispositional hope.
Hope as a constJUct was developed by psychologist Charles Snyder (2000), and is defined
by Snyder and colleagues as a "thinking process in which people have a sense of agency and
pathways for goals" (Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999, p. 207). It is a reciprocally derived
sense of successful goal-directed detennination (agency) and planning of ways to meet goals
(pathways). Hence, it can be viewed as a characteristic way an individual sets, seeks out, and
achieves goals. Evidence bas shown that hope is positively related to psychological adjustment, achievement, problem solving and health (Snyder, 2000; Snyder et al., 1999). Moreover, initial sport psychology research reveals that athletes who are higher in hope perfonn
better academically and athletically, after controlling for other possible influences such as
self-esteem (Curry & Snyder, 2000). It is highly likely, then, that champion athletes would be
characterized by a high sense of hope.
A third unexplored variable in the research literature on elite athletes is perfectionism.
Although petfectionism has been associated with athlete burnout (Gould, Ud1y, Tuffey, &
Loehr, 1996), anxiety (Hall, Kerr, & Mathews, 1998), and preoccupation with mistakes (Frost
et al., 1997), positive aspects of perfectionism have not been examined. This is important
because psychological researchers have made an important distinction between adaptive and
maladaptive perfectionism (Hamachck, 1978; Rice & Mirzadch, 2000; Terry-Short, Owens,
Slade, & Dewey, 1995). Both adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists set high personal standards and demonstrate a high preference for organization. I lowevcr, maladaptive perfectionists exhibit an excessive concern about mistakes, strong self-doubts, and perceive parents as
being critical and expecting much of them. Furthermore, adaptive or nmmal perfectionism is
positively associated with achievement while neurotic or maladaptive perfectionism is negatively associated with it. Thus, one would expect that Olympic champions would exhibit adaptive versus maladaptive perfectionism tendencies. However, this issue has not been examined.
Thomas, Murphy, and Hardy (1999) recently developed the Test ofPerfonnance Strategies
(TOPS), a measure of eight psychological skills such as goal setting, relaxation, activation,
imagery, self-talk, attentional control/negative thinking, emotional control, and automaticity.
The TOPS represents an important new development in the area because unlike previous
measures it assesses mental skills in both practice and competition contexts. Initial scaledevelopment work revealed that male and female elite athletes differed from their less elite
counterparts on a number of'f OPS subscales. Based on the work of Thomas and colleagues, it
is expected that Olympic champions would demonstrate scores equal to or exceeding those of
the elite athletes studied_
Thus, based on research in other areas of psychology one would predict that champion
athletes would be characterized by high levels of dispositional optimism, hope, and adaptive
perfectionism. They should also score higb on the TOPS scale.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS DEVELOPMENT
175
It should also be noted that most of the previous studies have examined psychological
charactetistics associated with athletic success using one particular instrument or theoretical
approach. Batteries of assessments have not been administered to provide a holistic profile or
map of the psychological characteristics or attributes of champions. Finally, it is unlikely that
instruments arc available to measure all the attributes of champions, so interviewing champions, as well as significant others and coaches who know them very well, will allow us to
identifY potentially new variables of importance to their psychological make-up.
Psychological Characteristic Development Research
Although research has been conducted on the psychological characteristics of more versus
less successful elite athletes, less is known about how these skills are cultivated and developed. Specifi cally, longitudinal studies examining the process of psychological characteristic
development in elite athletes have not been conducted. However, several large-scale studies
(Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi et a!., 1993) on talent development across a variety of domains (e.g., music, att, science, sport) have provided a beginning to knowledge development
in this area.
'
Bloom ( 1985) was one of the first to study talent development in world-class performers.
Specifically, 120 individuals (renov.ned artists, academicians, musicians, mathematicians, swimmers, tennis players) at the top of their fields were studied. A good deal of consistency was
found across domai ns in terms of the investments of tangible and intangible resources found
to be essential in nurturing promising individuals with talent In addition to financial supp01t
and transportation to numerous competitions and performances, parents found ways to
provide social emotional support- facilitating disciplined involvement while avoiding excessive expectations and pressure. The parents also severed as models for disciplined independence and fostered disciplined independence in their talented children. Bloom's results, then,
clearly show that talent development is a long-term process that involves more than just the
talented person, but also a strong support system. A finding that parallels the increased importance placed on social support by psychologists in recent years (Sarason, Sarasou, & Pierce,
1990).
Interestingly, Bloom (1985) also found that these talented individuals' careers fell into
three distinct stages: the early years or, based on the work ofWhitehead (1 929), what has been
labeled the Romance phase; the middle years, labeled tl1e Precision phase; and, the later years
or the Integration phase. In the Romance phase, the child developed a love fo r the activity, had
a great deal of fim, received encouragement from significant others, was free to explore the
activity, and achieved a good deal of St1ccess. Parents also instilled the value of hard work and
doing things well. In the Precision phase, a master coach or teacher promoted long-term systematic skill learning in the talented individuaL The focus was on technical mastery, technique, and excellence in skill development. Finally, in the Integration phase, an individual
continued to work with a master teacher (coach), practiced many hours a day to turn training
and technical skills into optimal performance, and other activities were sacrificed for the sake
of the main activity. There was a realization that the activity was significant in one's life.
These phases occurred over a 15- to 20-year time period and each person moved through each
phase in a developmental sequence, without skipping phases.
More recently, Csikszentrnibalyi et aL (1993) chronicled the development of208 outstanding high school students who were identified by their teachers as having strong talent in art,
athletics, mathematics, music, or science. These students were tracked from their first to final
years of high school for the purpose of determining bow they differed from their peers whose
talents were more ordinary. These investigators also wanted to determine why some of U1e
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students dc~dopcd ~iT talent and olhcrs fuill!d to d.:~ SQ. O<l&ed or their finc!in~ it was eon
clud<;:c.t th:u talent m~ be viewed as 1 devdopm~tl.lal proocss rather than an all-or.tlOUling
pbeoomeoon aod cunnot be de\elopcd unl~ i1 i$ wluOO by society and tccogt~it~.."'d and nur
tun..~ by 11:tl(:nt~ tcacltcn<, and cMchcs. Spccilicnll)'. tbc.se in~-estigato~ 5\lggo::s.t< that for
talent to d...-vctop. intbnrmtion or koowlcdgt: rcl:ativt t() the tool ~ of the dom:1in muS1 be ptO
vidcd. M~>l i\lltlo' i$ also needed acMI. is sreatly inJlueoocd by suppon 111\d cDCourag;;mtat of
those in the fdd and fumily mcmbcl'$. l'mally, d i~ciplinc is lll'l.."'ded that allows the l.akmcd
teocl'l tO stOOy his ot h don\llin long enough to acquire the skills nc:::ss~try for :>UI>erior p~:rfor
mancc.
Most fclcvant to the pi'C$CIII srud)' were Csik:s.zentmiltalyi and ~.:oHe.:agues ( 1993} linding
1hat lal<.:nl d~~lopm..,nl invol"c:s ' ''"' :u.:4ui.sili()l\ (I( 3 ll'l3lore l)('l'li003lity during the teenage
)"tiltS---a pctscm:dity that allows the individual to oopc with all the opporl uni li~:sand ob~liiK:I.:::s
lhal hew she will f-.;c: in bis or ler cl,~c.n endeal{()t. io aurtutc his or her gift. the talented
teen must h3vc discipline. as wc.U as tnloot Talented indtvidu"Ls we:r~ :Jso fo1utd 10 s.,ad
nwrc t1mc: pi'IM:ti<.:i.ng lbc: :..ctiviay. less liule wokil8 out.~i~ of school, kss tin..c socializing
with friends, more time on hobbies. and less rime: domg c-hor~ than thdr lc:~ 1alent ~d tmuerparts. T~ iuve:slig:hJCl 41b;c) l.:(lfll~luc!M 1hat. I) tCctl38:CI'S can.OOt ckvclop talent unless they
src imrinllically motivated and enjoy tbe ac;u\'ities of their <k.Nua.Ul wtile w()f"kin& ha1d h)
01dl.ic:~ l.l~ar go;l:s; 2) Cl)llflicls i nhcu~nt ;,, the devctopmcnl of talent (e.g.. making ditftcult
choices and coming to tcnns with tbe itnplicalions of their iitdhal.fu;dtly) camot l;!e aroidcd:
omd 3) oo ~;t. ikJ $\1(:(~$ unl c.~~ I1Cor s.hc is Supfl(lrtcd by CMing adults. Talc:ntcd tcms were
aloo \'Cf)' attuned to tbc: quality of teac.:tung in their t<de!ll m~ gi\int; \'C:I) llpc<:ift<: dcl3ils
:.boiJI pOSili...c a'll nc~'\ti\'C bchtiViOfS of their nlOS.t and least fo\'Oritc tc~1cltcrs and t:oacbes.
Lastly. talent ck\'t'lopmettt nunc (':J:Sier to )'0\' tagt!IC:I'$ w]l() le:~med l~hi t'l oonducivc lO talc1\l
(\e\'el()plllCIIL
Finally, in oneoflhe (in;t spon p~bologic.,J sludies<m Ihe lpic, Hantm1S1ld Jcmcs ( 1999)
examined the dcvci()J)I"Cnt of oogllithc llkills tu'ld slratcg:ies tbat fo~d lhc b.uts of d ilc
swimmm prccompetiti"e (aci.Lilahw: ao;(H,:ty. Sptfit;;~lly. 10 dill:: rn:.lc swimmers who coos:istcntly nl3ilttaincd fi!Cilit:.tivc anxicty iniCI'J'lfttettions in oompetition were interviewed. ReS11hs renulod lhat these athletes IJaced tbe de\t:lopm.enl oftheir Jl51YChnlop.ic:.J llki ll ~ tl 1latutsl
le:vning e;~~;pericnccs and variou.~ educational methods. Parents.. coaches. and more e~peri
<'nced swimmers all pi~)'Cd a role m hc::lping them l<:am tu ptrt"ei ..e anxiety :IS fsdlilativc
w:rsus <k:bilitathc. They also ~\eloped goal JIC(ti.ng and imagery skills that belped them prodoctivdy maBo,(!e their af\)(iety. Thus,chc~e :swirnmc~ dcvt:l()pt:d L'()gnitivc ;.kills and ~liatc
gics over an rxtcndcd period of time in both fonnal aDd infi:mnal wa)'s.
ln a rclalod 11lUIJy on lhc: dc:\dopmcnl and m:lintenanc::l.'l uf c-.\f!CII IICrfl'M'mancc in sport,
Durand-Bush 31)CJ Salmela (200 I} interviewed 10 champion atbJctcs. In addition to 1dti!Cifyi~
the person:.~! attnbut" of lbe::.e athle1GS (cnj()ymenlflove of l)J!Otl, confidcooe. s1rong work
ethic, pcrscwranoc. natural talent, and d~cmti nation). tbcy found tbat the ubility tu rocus on
lhe prooc::.s uf pt;rfllnn;uwe m.lht;r tban the (IUII:(Knc w:1lt critiC:1110 the maintCflancc ofathletic
succe.<ts. M~ importanl to the present ~udy was the finding tbal coothL':S omd parcnl$ pl;'1yOO
an impol1a.ltl rok in hdping the athle.e$ focus on the pr(lOt:$$ of tl'3ining and competing. Specifically. parent" did not pressure the athletes and de~pbu.$iled the intJ)Ortanoc: of' winning.
while: eoolcho.!> fOllnd w~y$10 <;h3Jknge rthklc:~ ()(I a daily bas-i$ and celebrated S~maU impnwencnts. Coaches also iooo!pOI'ated interesting activities into p11;11c;ti<.:~
Otvcn Ihe lltJo,.e <;OnltmliOt$, it is suqJtis.il&lhst other d.an HanWfl and Jones ( 1999) and
J>ura.nd-Bush and Salmela (200 I) sport psychology rescan:hS have JK!C c,;on(te.M;tC(I e~ .st\ldits
of ;1thk:ti<: talent (!c\'t:ll)pment and ias rci:UiOI'I$hip to psychological ebaracc~iCli, stills. and
habits. Morc:0\'.'1, alt.bou.gb COO$idcrable research ha.s lx."Cn ooM.Iuc;tcd ()n the J~hl)loiical
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PSYCf-IOLOGICAL. CHARACTERISnCS niWFJ..OPMENT

ch~u'aetcristics of more versus Jess suoocssiUJ elite nthloetC$ (See l l<anly. Jones. & C0t1ld. 1996,
and WiiJwm<; & Krane. 2(1(11, for detailed ~vi ews) linle is known about how these skills arc
cullivnt1.'d 3.00 dc\'Ciop~-d.
Netv.t jrH (11111 Purp<~.te ()/the Prd.fml Study
Thill s.cudy was designed to Cltumme p~bologicuJ takot ;md it:s dtvclopmott m Olytnplc
cbllrnpi()tl$. Given the c)(pl ot:~tOI'}' rl:Uutc ofthe topic, the plimary method used was qualitathe
interviews. Ten current or forll)er U.S. Olympt~; champion$ with W llllilnding performance
n:~ ()vcr time (winnm ()( 28 Olynlpic gold medal$. three silvcr medals. and Olll: bronze
medal) were iniCT\'ic:wod, as were one of !.heir ~ches (11 - 10). and a parenl, gu~udi:m, or
$Jgnilicant mhcr (" - 10). A bGttCI')' of(lsycflalogjcal tests was al'>Oadministcred to lhe lltbktes
IOJ the purpose Of idenllf)'lng lbetr ~bologu,:~l cll:\r:\Ch:risti(;$, Qp.!ll<llcltd intCr\i<:Wll wid1
the :ul!lcu:.~ thenl~el v~ a.~ well all coaches and sis;nilkllllt others. bdptd ideotify potentially
new cbnracteristic:s of inlpOt'lanc;e, as wdl as ;,llowoclthc c:xpl<natj,()n or the p!<)dh'lloRic:al
mknl &::w::IO(Iu'IC1ll ptOCC."'- In addition, the intct'o'icws pto\'idcd a way of lrinnguluti~ tbe
q uantitnti\'C- findings.
METHOD
Snmple tmd Proceduret
Ten U.S. Olympki.~bampioos n:pn;seutlng rOu~ different Olympic l<t'IO t~{c.s., sl:iing, wte~
dins, swimming. icc hockey. st>eod skating. tra~:k and field) served as p.lntdpant,os. These
athletes hlld oompet~ tn ~ ur moo:: Olympic G:~ult$ betv.'ten the )'C:US of 1976 and 1998
with an avc.-a.sc of 2.4 Olympic gsnlCs each {nl.llge 1 to 4). They V."tre cbosen bill;OO on an
aoalysi.s of Olympic. Gllmc> perfonnw-.:.:. tt:~ 3 1\d patticipant 3\ai\ahility. Retwcc:n tbcm
these athl~cs hsd won 32 Olyrnpi<: mcd31s{2S gold.. 3 sliver. I bronze). with lin Q\'t'ng..:: or J.2
Olympic mcdal:s per p;~rl.idp:mt (r.uge: I t" 6). F~1t ofthe :~thlctcsparticipalcd inwintcrOlyrnpic
games, wllilc the remaining s..ix athlcus were suouner gwnes panu.:rpants, Six m;Je ;,nd f<:M.r
fcrnalC$ atbJctes oonprisd the ru~l SAmple. Ar the- time of ti\C imc,v;cw, the average age of
the patticipating athlete!> walt 35. 1 )'Cars with 11 runge of2.4 lo 42 ~II'$ ol<.l. 'Orest :)thletes h:w.l
t:ompc:h'd :at ao mt cm;.~tioo;~J lev(! (ot betwtC11 .S 81'1d 22 year.~ with a mean of 11.7 years of
intcmationaJ.kvcl competition. Eight ofdleathlelcs pal1icipatiog m liM: sli.M.Iy batin::tirtd from
elttc c;ompctttion m lbttr $port wt1ilt the tcm:tu'ling two were $till lroining ond competing at the
elite level.
TIM: priml.ll)' method I)SCd ibr the U\ICmll rroje\:1 was in-dc:pth qualitative interviews, tun.g
ins from (,0 to ISO minutes in length. IQtervkwing 10 Athletes ;~llowt the inve.~t iMo'l.Um to
dmw <:Oocl\lsion.s about the mtd;lllbtl! as a group while at the s:.me cimc allowing lbc inter
vkws co be carried out with the dl:pcb nocdcd to nc;hly dCS(;ribe: e;)(;h atht..:tc's mique psycll()logilrl!l ch.'I~<Ktl,:rilihc;s and hi ~ or l1<:r t)Syti\I)I<Jogical dcvdopmcnt. Ten intet\iews WCte also
coostdcred to be lh<: maximum number !Mt oould be C()n<.IIJCtCld v.hi!c: :,;fill making it fdsiblc
10 conduct ~onvbor.ting interview~ with 003Chcs and the parcrn..'llguardiansfsignificant others
(30 intcrviews in all) and to oonduct the oontmt tmlllysJ$111:~ ilOurlo!CS.
P;artic-ipatina :tllli!tCS were selected bsscd on the liM aulbor's contacls with them or
\'ia Uniced States Olympic Committee/Nutt()tl.;ll SJX)r1 Governing Rody {USOCINGB) sttfT
coot:el$. &nph:~sis was pi:\Ce.:l c>n lle<:king out individuaJs who had not ooty won Olympi<:
gold medals. but who also hud bocn <:on~i.stcnf outstandiog pe:tfOmlc:rs in their chosen sport..;
ovet a number of )'tars (e.g. t'!:tcing in the World Championships Soe\'l.'fill yet~~ in <t rOw).
Consistent top pcrfonnens were Mlught because we wanted to insure that these indivi-
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duo.tl:s hlld the psycholog>C<II sl(dls and characterislics to excel across tunc ;md
c)()t Jl.lSI on 0t1e
occnsion.
Onoe :uhle1es agn,:,ed to pnrticiPQtc in lhc study. a packet containing :1. :s.ndy introdothc)n
lcucr. 11 written consent IOtm, pap::l'w(lrk n<!Ce$3;\cy I() rtct1~ the s:wo participation stipcc~
t)rovldcd by the USOC, the batt1.-cy of psyclwlogit'al USSI.".iSmcms. and a stamped addreMod
n:tum CO\'clOpe lOr tbc consent form :lr)d :~urvcy Wa!$ m:ilcd. AM11ionally, eucb mhlcte was
u.~h"'l.lto idet~ tify and Jlf'(>vidc oont<M.:t infOrmation for n coach and a parent. sibling. or ~ign ili .
caru ollw:r who v.<ould be fami liar with his or her cac\.~r and devclprnl!l'll
(n all. 10 coothl'lS (<nt: cQ;Kh i<.kntifiOO by t:l.l(:h of the athJ((es) were intcrvicwcd. Specifi
cally, tbt: uthk."t~ recommended the coacb wh.o ws~ tllWi-t f:1mili:1r w1th hts or her career. one
"'llO they ICII blew hi1l1 qr h.....- l l~<t besc. All couches suggested by the athlclcs agreed to IL'U'tici
pllll.! in lh ~tOO)'. Of the (0 ooacl!CS. OillC WC!C 103\e$ a1Mi one Wll$ f'l."m\IIC. S1.-ven of these
ind ividuals coocbod the :uhlt:tt: in Uloom"lS (1985) elite phase of his ocher career. one ill \)()lh
tbe elite ;md middle phases. one ill the middle 1)\\aliC, 3nd <)thi! in the t:arly pf::sto:.
Finnlly. 10 pa.tcm.~. sibli n~ Qr :~igni lic:ml othm wae mtcrvicw~d. one tOr C3Ch all1le1e.
GigbtvfiJ)t:Sc indhlduuls wcrc pnrcnts (5 mothers.. 3 f:uhcts), one a sibling, :.md one 01 $lgtufi
cant other. All p.lfetus/siblin8f'l!'igoif::ml ul~ rcoonunmdcd by ihc athletes agreed 10 p:'U
lt..:ip:Ue in &be study.
flll~rview
(;mdes'
lntt."fvi<:w guides wcre used to belp standardize all iot~vic\'nl. :len~>~ pl'lli<:pomls ;,r.nd to
minin1ize bias. The intcr-.iew ~uide~ tt!lfl(l it this lSttMJy were desi.grk'd bnsed on the talcm
d~.ovdupm~l rel:llcd htcnuurc aDd were evalu3tod by USOC sp:111t l)t;)'(:'(IIOJCY $t:llYa" wcll.-s
other spon ps)'cllotogy cottcag~ fvr face \';hc.fity. ppropriatcoess. and clarity. The athlete
mt.:rvM:w h.:g:m with J;.'t'OCn&l questions about the atbJC(cs career (t:.K., wl~n tiM: at.hldo: began
participating in the IIIX llt. competin&, wls;l:stppurt 1M: or$Itt: n:oci;ed ftotu parents and eoocbcs).
N1:.1<t. d1e fV~="ll of the interview questions turned to the athlete's ment:d s\ill ~ln:ngllb 1-'inally,
questions tOcused on how the: athlete dt:\'d l)f.l.i thc:);l.! stren.glh:> rdnthc to eoc-h. of Bloom's
(J9SS) caiee:1 plg:sc:;; the eorly. mtddlc a.Ki later yc:ars. as well as S(le<:ific 4UI!l:laiol$ fO<.:uliing
on iSSU<.'$ idcntiticd in the Csil:lv.tmenilalyi ~ :~1, (1~93) tlllt:nicd t~Xn rcscardt.
Co:l(;h and p:m:ol/ll ibfing/st~'llificnnt ocbcr interviews were always complet ~:l.l aflt:r 11~ oorrcspondmg atblcxc interview had I~' ~o&.llu;t .:d. Jn ~;,-wer.d. tbe tooch and parent interviews
fvllowcd tl~e S.'IUlt: in1~:rview fonnat by asking theJ>amc question.~ a~ tltQSe 1)1)$e:d ll) tltt: :1tbktc:s
and rele"am to tl!c carocr phn~e of which eact i ~iviiJtJ;J had btowlcd~oe (e.g.. lhc: elite coach
was tlOt ad:ed al.x>tlt tl1e :1tbJelc,is e<rly de\-clopmcnt unlcs~ he Ol' .she k-flcw the llthl.:tc 1niwto
coaclt.iog him or Iter. pamus were a.,.;kcd about the atiLide"s a~tjrc: carotr). Addilionally. OO~d
()cl the !\'Stilts fr<>n lbt: :lthlde inlcntew:; and sui'\'C'}"S. SJ>ccific q u~tions about e:lch parlicul;ar
ath11c"s cbirat(cti.stic:s nnd dcvclapne:nt were: I)O$ed (t:.g., it' 110 alhlecc rnenbolled a spccitic
iUnctS or inju.y and the totpa..:C it had oo him or her. this was mcmioncd to the cooch aoll
(KU1..-"fltlsibling/5ignificanl otht if the)' did1)'1 bnng: it up during tbe.ir re$pee1i"e tntervicws).
ll!lentev."er und ln!t'rd<:w PIYX't'dun:
'l'bc: s:1me intcncwer pcrfom~cd all 30 i1ntntiews in tltit: ~1tdy She w-.s a 30-ycar-old
in 1be :ldwnccd st113es ofh~:r doctorul degree work m sport ps)chology. Training for
tbc interview portioo of this study inclu<L..--d reading qu,'llitative intc:rviewmg toc;hntqtte books
f~male.
51~

Sport Roefolff'U
~I'C!
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
l'SYCIIOL<XilCAI. CIIARACTEIUSTJCS DlWELOPMeNT
(e.g. Lincoln & Ci1lha, 19g,; Mill!ll & 1-lubl:nnan. 1994: Panon. 1990) and condu~-:ting t~evCr,il
pilot interviews. Pilot intcnicws conducted by the intc.vicwtr wer-e t;)_pe n..wrdt.'d and cri
tiqued by !liC principal invC;Siig;uor,~;md colleagues.
A thlde inttrviC'\\'S wcro scheduled after thdr OOliSCnl r<Wm and t~urveys h;wJ bi>cn n..'OCi\'Cd
aKi scored. Coach snd Jll.'ln!ntlt~ibl ingf$igmlie<ant-olher mtcrviews were scheduled and con
dllctt.-d <.mJy nfler the athlete interview was complete.
The intnvicwtt b3d the (1Jl(l.;M1urlity tO n:vi~.-w tho: p~~ntcrpant's pS)x:hologiCI'Il ch:uactcrill
tte:s survey r~ull.s pri01 to conducting each athlete imcrview. Additi()n:dly, ti-e athJct..: inlet
\icw wa.~ tc\'icwod by tl1<: interviewer prior toconi,.I~.M;ttng the coach and pnrcnr/sibling/signili
e;'ll'lt Other intc:rvJew;s.. For all intcl'\icws. although the intc"iewet' fo\l<)w\:~1 :a:structurod int(l'
view guide, she was free to ptoceed i.- tbe din:ction ..ti<.:t.ah:d by the natural llowof theoon\'ct
sa.tion. l lowever, by the end uf the intavicv. all pt~nic.ipa.ntll v;x:re 11.$l:ed :111 ..,r the m01j()J <lUesdons from the interview guide.
Fi,l:llly. it~ IJrc;: ge:nc;:r:,l introduction to the intctViCW!I, participants were assured of wmplcte
coofi deotialit)' :md anonymity oflltcit t\':mark$ (e.a,., dfur1s howe been made to disguise spon.o;
:ltld athlete ~ndel'$ wbCJM:\'ef possible). II was etupbru>ib."d thot pa.nicij'l3tiLS sftQllld f~XI ~ tu
\'Oi<:.: botb thcir pollitivc and ncsstivc Of>injol'ls.
ME'Ittol Skill and Auribute ..tsse.u.men&

To hdp dct~.n-ninc OOtn(l(tnO'!Its or Utc: athlete's mt'Otlll skills and attributell thOilRht to he
key to date performnnoe. a scrie.." of psychological tCllt" ..-.-ert :'lrlmini$ten:d to e.1ctt athlete prior
to his Ot' llt.'t interview. ' I hcst: tct~t.s were J;elected based on their previous usc in tl."$.Cateh wi!Jt
clit..: mhtetes Md/or for their potential to idcntjfy new vatiableJI hl:cly tu be ~ssooimOO wilh
athletic SttOC:~'l. Tlte inlltrumcnl.ll admi nit~t erod iocJudOO tbe fOllowing.
1'm it cm:riel)'. The Sport Anxiety Scsle (SAS; Srnid1, Smc)ll. & Schut.-:, 1990) WM used to
mcasures()m:uj"' lrail anxi.:ty, wvrry, and conoeotTolion disruptions. ns well as an overall tlll ~i
.;ty !SCOn:. 'Ibe SAS blls boeo subjeC1od to rigorous psycbonlclti<: tcstinx :uut h li.S bn tsbown to
dcmoosuatc g()(')({ p!<ydttMuc.tric prop<;rties (::imllh et at, 1990).
Mullidimtruional pe~fection/Jm. Frost. Manco. Lahan, rutd R$:nbl.-.te (l~YO) developed
the Muhidimensior'-"11 P..:tft:etivni ~m Scale (MPS)Ihat has been sucoc:ssfirllyemployod to study
:.thJdcs. Thi:; 35-item scalcyiddJI an o~-eraU perfectionism SOOC'e,:!IS wdl :.!>six s1.1b.sc.;;rJe t;COI'C!i:
(a) conccm over .njSL'll:t::>; (b) Ptl'lOn;al ~1;a@nh;; (<.:) po~n::olal cxpcecations: (d) pa.remal crili
~.;t~m; (e) d~rbcl; <~bout nccions; aDd (f) o-gani?'.ation. 'The MPS ha.~ be.:n siM.>wn to h:~ve good
internal consistency and conve~nl validity.
Optimism. 'flle reva~ Life Orientation Test (LOT-R~ Scheier, Ca"et, & l):rit.lgl:lS, 1994)
is a 10-item scale th:U assesses indivil.ltmJ k\t:-1~ ofQPCimi:sm. An optimism score ranging from
: lvw of61o o high of JQ is determined by the U>T-R. Scheier <:tal. (1994) haVt: tlt:tnoo~tr:~l1.1
bolh acceptable reliability :ltld ,,a.bdity fvr tbt: lOT- It
/lope. 'l'hc: Adtllt Trout !-lope Scale (Snyder ct aL. 1999; Snyder et aJ., 1991) it~- :l 12-itcm
measure of hope defined :u ILtl it1dividu:al's re<:tpt'l)t;aUy 'h:ri,td 5eo,;e Qf ~ucocSiiful at,'(:ncy
tll'ld p:1thw:y. IICOOtslSIS of two JiUbscalcs: agency (the will; the pc:rocwo:l ability 10 be3iu :1:!
well as to continue: akmg a selected p:tthway 10 a ~I) ancJ p;.tllw:t)' (the w;ay; the perceptions
of being 11ble to produce one or rnore workable routes 10 goals). Res1>0ndcnts ate a:tked t<) use
an 8-point Likert scale to i ndi~tc low false <K uue e:'!ch ur 12 ~t:ttc:mc:ot.)> nre for them (e.g.. "'I
encr~tieally pu~1e my goals..; I delinitcly fal.sc to 8 = definitely true). Subscalc SOOf<:li fol'
agl~cy and pathway range from 1 t<t 32, while ow:rall scores ra~ from S to 64. 1'be validity
and rdi.'lbllity <>r the Adult Truit !lope Sulc has bocn detnor1Sinlted by Sn)dct ct al. ( 1999).
Tru.k ego orlertrarlon. O...da (1989) dc\'clo1M!'d tJt<: I ]item Task Rg<> OricnUttion S~lc
W(l~ ~.~.,
~~('~"'
tiJ4!
'""
W\IIW s.Jrt.C'I
1\1_,., ._ ...., ..,._ .......
.,,*_ ....
O.out1J>" \1
~....n:(ll:OSQ)IOe--... .OO."dDI:J,''*"'.tqv~iasports. T'O~aJ.e

<Ortlo.. -.It ~m oh-m'!all and ego iawot..ft'nei'II,~:M be *'tmllllCd rrum tbe TI!OSQ w11111 tcOfD
mncm1 frnm I to 5 on each subsc;alc:. 1~ TEOSQ h.u bn fou.rd to bavc aocept.-blc p.,~flo.
nt<:U~ propcrt1~ (I )ud,l0 19S9).
lt,J oJt~nfiN'i>tdiK~ 3troU'git's. The Test o( Pcth.lrM<uM Slr:Ucgics (TOPS~ Thong~~ al..
1')99) oonalliU of M bel~viorb3Sed statcmcnt.. tl\.\1uthktl'l J;SS(!5'1ll$ina 4-polnt Liken l!Cile
l'\liting tCI mdic:ate how frequ..ntly they use elil)'lt mcmnlllkl l ~ (c.a.. "I visualm: my(;nl>ethlon
amn; cMtLIJ)' the way 1w-acu nto go"; 1 - n&:w to S -lwnyl) for pr.:tcticc a1kl oompeltk>
llle Cli hl TOPS j)rnctioc psychc>l(~ie;,l slill11 a\.W-...~d 11'u:lude goal setting, n:la.xo~tion,acti VII
bon, UNII:t"'Y, .,,,Mtalk, auc:Miooa1 oontn'll, ~IWIIOnill oeoniiol. Md aulM~ticity. Compdlll<u
(l)I'S ~114 ~Jot:SIICd mtJI.Ide &oJOtl1le'lli.ng, rt:la,MlMM\, IICll.,aliOO. ~.,;clf-t3.!l., 1~1\'e
t!ttnlr~Z~~~o crn.~ll<tn.d cumol and adomo.tK"tl y A II '-Wibll !IOCII'a f1111~ from 1 ( ne..-""C'f U!loc: lhL',.,,11) kl S (ah-1)'1 use IbiS skiU). C~~ 47l ..hk<ko. uldp(1.iq ia a~ of pctfotmlnce
Jndl .,J "f"-llt..., Thomas n 11. (199'9) ~ eood 1rt!UAI $Uf"PPf' ror me~ r..._
.aruc1\IR: or lk TOPS
A,.,_. <'t-K SLib III'NWOI'p--18.. 'l"k A.,.lctiC""""' Sl.alls la~\'Cl'Uory--18 (A( I~ ~.
~nud'l Cl al 1995} tS a 28-iktn ~c ~ lC"'oc-" eWes ofipon~fie ~op.-11.!
coptn, 4.alh mdudiil@ coping wtth adv""'iry, pakln, und p~essurc: goal scttm,g ;md mo.: nul
pttpauhon.; ~onccnlnal1oo; frttdotn from 'A'OfT)': cnnfttlcncc: .00 udli~artmt motivanOI'I., wW
rouchitbtlaty. f lw ~CD subscaJc:s"R: samamcd and uvttupJ to pa"tw,dca total pt"f'SQfl-.1 coptii,R
aeAAutct ~. P~;)"\:hotnttric ptOt>errics oflhc: ~:tte I~\'C been demunstr:ucd with high school
mhlt:tt!S oll!tii)IOfCS$iOnal buse~dl pfii)'C'f'l (Smhh CluJ, 1994; 1995}.
Datil Alla/')'IIS
All mlerut.""'s \\'tt'C tape ~lortkd and ronletlt aNtyt~ h)' throe ia\cs.ttgalufl; f\tllowina
1-iubm!Uil (I~) MIS ~fully emP'oYtd 1r1 ~
"*" Q~Mht..tivt ~ (Ooukl d .J... 1992a. 19'JZb: <;uuW d. aL 1999). 5pc~.;r~n). cadi
twccdu~ rcoommcndo:d b)' Miles and
tm'C'IlaptOr ~ lapdi of~ ~"1C"W); ..S 1\"*1 Md reread '-ertuliutltSOSO"ipts. Jbw dllbl
~(~or~ quOU'S ltpitKal. . a ~ poGI or lhousJ~~ ~

ullln-tduelty ~.r,m add~ nW..< .. )()0 boun t>f pe'mp ~
dw
l.hn:. lfl~olipWn pn:Kill. 'lbr: ra"" d:ua ~ ""'"" llw:n Olplli:ttd mru p.1llftfb tl( l!.k.c
~wain die ~ata ll!.g.....oonficlc:oce lo lr)' ~ diI'I&L- ""btbe'~>nl in self." '"'nco.tt doabkll
,._th
'Jdr")lo ~IUIIC larger 1110R tu.dU~IW lllc:tningfW #')UP!IlK" ( UJbthcLncS then b~ 01 &r thea~,
then 1hc ~ 1vbal grouping umOO:II.;t t.-aesm')') ond auanrn;ary l3bc:ls ....-ere dc:tmmrn:d ltlr
eoad1 (lh}t.lflUlg levt:l (t: g . cbe prn aausly lis1d rilw d.ltll then~ wt:rt: grouped into 11 anora:
#CI~r'll llubllw:ull.' called scll:.CoofiJ~t:), Athlete:, coadt. t~nd p.1i!:ll responses v.-e~ liUHlnl.lrited !l1r c:aeh medal wmnt:r a .ct an imcgr.ucd prunl-c or each casc Wi'S c;t1;npri....:d.
IX'II.:riptl'~>'t !IUaU!.Uc:s v.-crc used to cxl\atlinc cho quun111a11 v~ d111a. Psychological ~tn:ngllw
.-nd lanut.AliON were dd..-mun.cd by cxu.nunin~ thfl m~W~itudc of tbe p:utieipsn1'11 ow" fC>Sf"'"K\ on lhe ~ho&ogical i.n.stmmC!fsb JJdma ni(l~ l.n e1~ when: cltle athlete rt~.1nn11
eu~l (C.Jl. TOPs). pwtlCipmt seon:s m oomi"Ucd 10 cxuti~ D()tTI1l; for cl11.e ath~ts Re
qs,Ju Vto(ft al-o COCIIII*I!d. wltb fmdm,p fn'lln ocbc:r Alld~C"tlhM ~dille~
RESULTS
Ql-ut/IIU/1.._ f:I.HS.J"Kifl P:ryc~/ (~t,.,Uli!Gf
ltcJ...lt:J
SptN'f tfnxJd_Y &off'. Thc01)1tJII'C (:i'c.'lmpiOOIJ '" th'4 ...cudy had a mean somatic 1ra1t ai'I.\W:t)'
ran&ll'll from II &o U rhc mean worry subscalc score lOt
~uNcnle ~eon: of 16.7 ($D = 4.52).
!Itt l'oi41Wo
,,. ........ ...,., .. "'".......,..... "'"' tr ....- .....
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
p
PSYCIIOl.OGICAl.. ('l fARACTl:.R.ISrtCS 01WI:.L01'MtN1'
181
these mcdnl winners wus 11.2 (SD- 3.43). with a range of 8 to 19. Con<:erur.ttion disns1>1ion
soon:s for pnniciJ)ants in th.is $ludy ranged from S 10 12 with " mt.'0.n !;t.'Ofe of7.0 (SD- 2.58}.
Fu1ally, lhc ovo:mll SAS W>re I'UJlb'tS from 24 to 49 with a mean scO't of 34.9 (SD &.57).
In a stud>' by Smith and ooll1!'3gutll (1991) u~i ng lite: SAS. 12) <.:oll<:gc fOotbllll pltlycrs
de:m<.mlSlr::.lo.,S 11 me~~n tr..aillh.Jrrnltiot: anxiely scnle of 18.98 (SD = S.48).n mean u-a.it won'Y !1:COrc
of 14.17 (SD = 4.47), a mean cooctntr.uion di~<suption ~rc: <.~f7. 71(SD- 2.21) and <an O\'Ctu.ll
rnt.;m of 40.86 ($0 - 9.99) In cootrast. the Ol)'mpic athletes surveyed in this study demon
str.ttcd lower mean anxic1y scores oo all th1ee 31\xieay subsclal~ (16.7, 11 .2, omd 7 respcctivtl)) and for lhc ow:rnll 10a.m: (34,9).
Multidillft.H.fi<Hial Perfoi:t/Oilism Srole. The e<mc:em O\'cr rni ~uk~ subS~.;alo;: lllh.l a possible
r':11lgc of9 I() 45. For tJt~ OlympmMthe meun SI.:OC' for this subscale was 11.6 (SD- 7.01}
witb a range of lO to 29. The second subsc:dc. pct!>On.'ll stand::uds Qf achi~cnt , has a~
sil>lc rsng.e of 7 to 3S. Tl)( p:utiocip;n\s in this $tUd)' had a mnge of 17 to 35 and a mean SOOfe
of111 (SIJ- S.25). Scores on parental cxpcc:~aticuls. the thifd subscale, ba~l a potcnti;d r.mge of
5 to 25. TIIC SC()ftij; f()t l)flrtil;ip:utts io lbi$stUd)' l<llll,~d from 5 to 16 (M = l 1.&. SD = 3.74). On
lbe p.1n::nlal ct iricism subscale soorc!l could I)Ot~mially r.lfl&e fmm 4 co 20. 111~ atb.ldcz bd
a ran&c of-Ito 13 an(t a n~an :;<;vi': of6.2 (SD- 2.66). The doo'bcs about ttctions sub;calc had
11 potcnt.nd ru.nge of 4 to 20. lOOse-gold mcdsl li~t.<t had a range of 4 to 15 i01 this su))$cal.: witl1
a n-.can SC()(C of 8 (SO - 3.92). 'fl~ last t~'bsca.lc, org;mi:atioo. bad I'Un.b~ of 6 to 30. l llo:sc
Olympkms had a ~~ of 18 to 30 (M = 23.9. SD = 4.01). f'it13lty, :\CMing the sub$c:tl.::i
togt"tbcr yielded a tot.sl pcrfcct;oni$1n S(:()llt, with put.:oti<ll soott". r.mging from 35 (low per
fccliooistn) to 175 (high pcrfctionism). Thcr.c participants had a scni ng 1:tns,c ()( 12 10 113
and s mc:m :.core of95.5 (SI) - ltU.'). Ct.JTently t h~~ ~ oo av..tiJable norms ofdi1c athletes
on tb~ Mrs.
Life 0Y(en.rlllitm Te.~1-Revi.<:w/. Atltlctes in th$ $Mrtple;: m.d LOT R SCO!l$. mcasu.rin.g dis
pooih0011l optunism. raoging from low of 13 to high of 22 (M= 18.7, SD 254). Th i~ mean
score ofslmo~ot 19 WS.'IIl'llldl hi$thcr th;m tJ1e ~lm score of J4 33 (SO - 4.21:1) of 2055 oollc~::
S'ludcnls ~s reporttd by Scltc::ter ct aL ( 1994). It is interesling to 1.01c that in this sa~n1>IC ofelite
athletes tbc maj(l(ity of 1lt<: Sle)te.'( were hctwccn 17 Jtnct 22. wid1 only ooe athlete rcporttng a
.;;cllre low.:r th11n the mellll scoo:: rql0rtd by Scbder et al.. (1994).
1(13/( Ego o ,.ienrutlt'm Soole (!IU!$/i()IIJIDi1Y'. For the f:t>~l. cwicnllJltiQn $U~calc lbc paJtic:i
p;tnt.s hud ~ iiCOflng range of3.86 to 4.86 with a mean of 4.36 (SD ~ 0.37). On the ego 01ic1da
lion subscalc. the OJ)llll>ians SCI)res .-anK'(:d fi\Nn I t () 3.83 with a ml.!<m ofl.$7 (.'il) - 0.1:1 1).
Athlctit; Coping Skill.$ hnwrwy-18. E11ch of the six subscalcs of ACSl-28 has a I>Otcnti41
rangc ofO(low) 10 12 (high). Alkliliull;lly, 1hc tl\'l'r.lg.:: $COre of the t;ub:;calcs )idd::s an O\'Ct'all
~'Wnitl Wping ~:1! $COre. Tnbk I cootains the AC.::Si-28 m~ns alld standard deviations
lOr the: I 0 Olympic cham1>ioM. s:tulp)~<L Tl~ athh:h.'tl' awrJ.~ $COre$ wtn: higb-::se on conli
dence, coneen1r..11ion, (n:l!dom from worry. and OOIICh.1bilily. Lowest scores came on the
coping with adve-rsity and pcaldng sub!lC:tles, l1hh1>u3h b(.ch ufthL'tle wtr\!: 8 ()r ;~bo\'e oo the
1 2~p<~int stale.
Table I also provides a com,,ari:>on of the coping sk1lls of prQfe!l~it.l'mal niti(W l.:a,ijtlt tx:&!ii:
b>lll pbyers, :~ r:pOrted by Sm1tb and O.ri6tl'f1Sen ( 1994). to the lindinw; of this study. This
comparison I'C\-eals chat !be Ol)mpic cl~ampions !leotcd higher lhM the b.'lS~III pl:l)'t:l'tl ()It
cc:>piug with :t(henuly, p~k.Uig tmdcr pressure. gouJ !ic:tting aDd mental preparation. cooccntra
11on. freedom from \'/Ofl)'. and oonti<k:nce subscalcs. Tbc baseball playets scoro.->d hig.hcr ()II
lbe e~chabil ily l!UbtiL-:sle.
7'h~ Adult Tl'ait Hope Scale. In !his sample, tbc athlettS' ag<:l<:Y scores yielded a mean
sOOfC of 29.1 (SD -2.13) wilh a rang.: of24 to 3 1. 'llle mean pathway t~ubsc;al..: :i~ ror lhi.s
sample was 26.8 (SD 2.35) witb a range of23 to 31. Combined. these subscalcs }'icldcd !Ul
W(l~ ~.~.,
~~('~"'
tiJ4!
,.,
1\1_,., ._ ...., ..,._ .......
W\IIW s.Jrt.C'I
0 (j(JUU)
.,,*_ ....
AI
Tbk-1
\ ~1 23 S~k &orn ror Thf, ad CparM" Stucl.lft
TI!&Soooo....
,...,_...
... t9i)l}
f'VI'Iilh c~
A( '\1 l~
.v
''
rr.
{'- ........ ..,
.WI
Ccopl.,.
I'O.IIIIfll
1,3!0
(io.ll
uo
...,.
......
,,..........
c.-
ill I '
'lOT<\l
....
~
UJ
........
1.11
2..16
,..,
!Itt l'oi41Wo
,,. ........ ...,., .. "'"......., ..... "'"' tr ....- .....
.v
Sl>
1.$5
2.43
..
21.
'"'
LIO
~
.....
...
4 4;11
,
"'
...
211
.....
..,,,
0 "
( I I)
...
..,
!~
Ill
o~~ml l l'ltll~
..core meao of 55 9 ($1) - l.4R) wttb ~ nn~;e of31 co 61.

TeM oj P,ljUrmtlntY' Strtirt#a . Tb.c TOPS yw:M'i 1(, ~ubscak t!dM"C~. a~~!iil~ ci.bf pt)'
chQIIll(icul likll p:r(onnance str.-lcgb in lx~h pt~thco ftnl cOCilpclitioa ooniCllb (Soo l 11bl"
l}. Mcun11 lllld ,.tluwbtl deviations for nll cornpc:t ht~\n ..ubscales rc cumaincd ill Table 2atw1
~hnw thul Chc O lympums exhb tcol thc hi~~ ICOI'ts lvr tnal !>Ctting, .CUVOIIIOO, NI~\UI"m
W emOh(U).11 4.''"'"'1. For the prat'tiC't contt"\t, tu~o:hi.'M KlOI't$ 'A"C~ ubl.aincd fol' goaliC!ttn;
ud au~~ ivnal control
Compan10n~ f the Olympians' pnl('l.ice llld Qll111ldltioo TOPS ~ to tbosc ofGS mtrt
UI.Mwwl .d~'tel CCJIII&IIICd m the orittinal a...lk dn'tkopmcnl '11!\'ld: of~ d ~ (I~).,.
abo COIIta.IIW:'d '" I..Noe 2. An~ ot 1111~ Wtlc IC''Ciis ltill the' Olympic tdlk1cs 1n dut
~llody ,...VOif, ll!buaonally t.pt:r m the C!Oelpt1~ ~~ IIIII CIIJIOCJOrail Qlfllrol.
1} ud ~.,.tU\ and ao.u thin d:lc tmat~llilllldcs on ~-e dliak:ing. ~ 10
Pfkl~c '"MCJ'O 11x otyn~p;am ietnd hlahcr on ~ ~LWtg and Ultmrioaal WQIIOI an.l
town- on tm.IIC\'I'Y
..-...-IC-
Qu(l/lfat;~..- P11dlologkol CIIUnuJt-rlll~tt Rt>fllltt
Th llhl( lt<4, ooechcs. ond ptrtt'ntsl~blinj!'\J~tigni li<:llllt ul:her" "''C~ an osked the gl'fletul
() Uo.'~lion. "wMI were IJ~<: ~ydM)Iogical chsniCll tli ~IIC!i tlflhe Ol)mpic ;1thlctc lltal hdl'll'(l him
<If het !iiJCOC~;<P" 1-'uur huOOr< fort)-fo.r mw duta rc~s ~ultcd from the nnswcr'l to thh
gc'lttll q~l ion TbCl'lC: mw cbt.a rl!!ipolliCS wen: C(lflll'T111malyud through a Clln-.t.'fl\Uili)Jt'()o
c::codorr lh lhe lhroo resc..archen dl!lt:Uii.,,Jttl, and ~~~~ 1o DOnlOtltSUS oo thC' grourm;g of the
u d.l.l 1 ~sc:s mto m1:2ni:ngfuJ wbc:at~et. and llltlft' !;I'O'IP:n&$- Lil" nn~ dab rc-~ 'Wtn: lf\ll4ll!d firsl in10 ~ Ill.: bdlcmt-s wert g:rwpod tnto bt&hc"t-ordd'
lhcl"" llDII rdRd ht.Jhcro(llrtier" ibtMo -~ WW'"-ntd 10 m:ale tile larpsl ~\., mcumhftJil ~This~ mutwd 111144111bchcmnU. "tttgroopcd tfltOlt httrhcr
min thnacs 111111 ~ dlen ~ INDCtJht Mcrall ~ c:kvx.m.s..a:~.,..
brdb ta"-"'IOf'O I) Groen~ Pawnal ly ~IIQ IDd Val.s; 2) Perf~ E.rthiai'IC
mffi Skdllund lll.utM.:~tics~ 3) MoownonaJ )...~ Md ()ncWb()(l$04) Ovmll H;wfl,n;
or Ad"~"ily 1nd Prtaure: 5} h)'choiOftC:al Ch..ruci!Cnslia 110 <h"tttome:; 6) (;ood Mon~l"'
Spon~fiC1MJn,tup; 7) Self-Aw:m::ness; and 8) tlll\'lnllll Scruc
OaliltiOO bctwttn Sport ml
or
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
F
PSYCIIOl.()(iiCAL t:IIARAC.'TERI~IICS Ot:.VUOf'Mt:.NT
18.)
"''siIe z
Tdt of l,erformat Strate;:_II.':S Srori.':S for 'l'his 11.nd C<Jmparl.son Studies
Till~
Sallk
~~.-tllllull Alhltlts
O.SJ
.....
IM'J
1-S
(lhlliJIIIS 11'1 'L 1999}

(..\)\lri-:TI TION .STJtATFc;U',S
Sd('l'll!k
.w
flll(.'(ioflll C611!f(ll
UJ8
Allt.:WIUliC.ily
..l.6.S
sn
U1
...'-"',
...
M c:h ~~ oon
... I ll
Ht,g.ul\-c Tllmk~t~g
U il
........
SD
OU11IS~1lint;
U)
rm..emy
.}.1111
"'"'""llbOn
rRli.<-'TICE STRATr.ot&S
. ...
"'
.t1l
3.n
3.10
4.H
1.3!
:us
..,
...........,
'
I S
I S
4.11
0.56
1- S
""'
L9'l
n.t.l
,_,
:us
.Ui~
&:diullld Cunlnll
AIIIX)mflli<1)'
l.O
,l.,J\1
(io),:d.Sccri~~&
.1. 1$
t.S!
).59
lu:.a~ccy
AtM'aUI)Il
).20
.Uil
....
Rda.wicm
1.78
A\AC;II,I,~t.,i W1111.11
4 , (1(1
._.,
"'
'"'
:uJ
1~ 1
....
0.16
I S
11.74
$>clfT11ll
1.11
.w
).47
1.:u
.l.IS
M5
$1>
....
0.70
1).~1
,,.
0.77
........
O.o.')'
I S
RMI<
I 5
1-S
,_,
I S
1-'
I S
,_,
I '
l.ifc (~ f iJ!.Un: 1). ~ach of these umbrella :Uegorics and the higher-order themes and sub-
themes comprising them are dJKUSS<'d below.

Gt-m~rall~m-y,omllity CJuuLH:ttui.\'flt:.t al'td Yulues. The lirsl umbrella ca1cgory wus gcncml
pcrsooality d aarneteristic:s and \aJues., wbi<;h oonta.inod re:spon$c~ fre~m all )O inll'l'Vicw par~
ticipa:nt~ t'iReen higher-<)f'der thnnc:~ within !hi!! umbrella category nrc dcpiC1cd in Figure I
ond included subthemes such as Emoticnally guanl<vJI(.fflilrl, lntclli}pml, Oim'mi5tidl'wili"'tt,
Orgnni:M/1:J.4!tail<,rittlllnl, a1kl Munilntlutive. The higher-order themes ofOptlnrlslldPoslti1<e
and H!'Oitlty psyclologicnl cllmYJCII!ri.stics were lht: large~o:t. 'fh .:sc themes had rejp(ln$~ fl'(lf'fl
mvrt tl\an hzllf the p:~rtM:iraJlll< wilh 83.3% and 63.3% rcspce:ti\'cl)'.
The subtheme category nnd ~ndmg higher-ord..:r lhc:me f:m.Qtiqna/, Wit$ ~vmprist1l
ofraw d:llll l ~l)(lnse:s il'ldicatin~ !>ttOng cmotionll. such as possion. lOr one's spon. Emotimally
grwrded/Qiliet was compnscd of ruw d.1t11 m;pon~~ !n.Jth as quiet, shy. :ud introvert. Only
one :1thlete :stattllll'llt fell imo lhi$ category, while live pareYUs/siblingslsigniticanl othcn; and
six ooacbes made statco.1e.n1s indicating lllOit th1.")' r~ll 1he a111lete was ..:nwlion:lly iuafdcd/
qu)er, Otle C()acfl cr~.-at<.!d the imaac of his athlete as enocicmally guankdfquict by explaining
how his athlete was during proctK:~ pal1x:uJasly diffieu:ll o)l::s: ' 'hi! jut~l went llhOUI his busi
n~$. Vqu never ~aw him coml)lain. He juslli:stcDCd . . . he jUS( plugged lbrough it in t1 <JUiet
way."'
The /f(f(Jd$lr<m/V!k{(-et!nterod subtheme eotego.y and coiTCSpoDding bi.gherdcr theme
(eitod by 1 athlete. 2 Sll."llificunt (l(hi.TS. uld I C(K)t:b) was 001nptisod of raw doto r~ponscs
t~ud :l>~ having s I3Ck of respect for authority and being srubbom. A sense of g.euc~l. ovcr2ll
oontidci>CC in muJtipiCIU\:";t;S of 001!8 life WAS included in this SUbtJaeiUC {cited by 2 n.thict~'$. 2
51~
rhf! World".f I.N41iforl

Sport Roefolff'U
...
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
www.sirt.c:.a
~I'C!
0, GOULD ET At..
HO.;Mr,.'(OIIUO:II I tO> >O>'
Iii IITII(WU
fintOtit.~olal
IW!IIKCI:If
llmot!Ondly gu.wdt&'qui.:l
l:.ml.ohOilllllly J'lllfd~'qlli('l
l~.od'IIIVn): .,,., ,~;~r-eo.'~~=fOO
llcilllkrq and ="t~<enltnd

<;c.:roll ennt'kld!u
<kunlll (\'11'111~.,1().~
IJtalttty M'Ch~l (h:Jr;o<*l'lfU~-- ll ~alth)' !l'ydllogiul chll!ltMICriJ~
lnii;Uoa,._
IJoldli:;t~nl
( itflml l'f:n;;oMiuy
Ch.lll1KtiCrig~
llnc.l V~lllllli
Optimi.,.idpositi~t~
Ophto~uYt
Or.:.,.a:d~111ol-(lf~
Ofplli:!CCIJ)rui)-orknto:d
Rcalo!fll"
Spccat. r.:a:nd
T(1111'!p(nlr"t"'-'
M11n1puluivc
K - ..-.!w llf tlll.'lt)O:y
N(..'d llvtu.iglll ('lttn:nlll1 ~
Good lOJ'.h p.'tlpii.:IJ,'Wd ~ifol ~~n ~
lta~h:o;dc
SIICllk mimi
Tcmptt.lll'.Cmnl
)bq,ulati ~
Knt.......~ <1f l'l'l(lfley'

Wet>! kvr~..ghl txt~nlal ~P;JN't\
(il.lOOl w ido p((lp!.;./Nol'lo! ~n
.._
......._ N ov<" ~11.11 lellltlcljlmOO.lb!t
Al):lll)' In I'IUll.wl'li;o: ~I'J"?_==== A hilo:y 10 II'I,Udollt.tc n::<O..'tCS.

Ability Itt ~ ;md P~f.\"-: Abid!y 1.10 pllltl lind pttpa~
M~!tO<.Ioe.ill<oumNltienU'd
- Mclb.Jdo:;.oi/Rwlo!!-(11 "~"'""
P\rl'vrn.-:.:
,\btlity 10 :oet pbl
Al!l lny 1.10 SC'I p!~
c~~
M:u..d .CO~:I$
G:lod ir:r0~:C~Y llbilil)'
(j(l(ld ~null~
co~h:.bl<~
i\ltnllll II)Utll1~
Good intli(ICI'Y al:ilily

(jwoJ 11;olll..l>,<:
~ ______r Kt.ler i~NiD:t
t<nllllnctmtn!
Skllb -.1
nur...:~ruuc~
(~'fohi!<l t>lhliOdt:.<(."o..lr.i~ I:U.:n~

( ' 4!11p:t un
PwtloMi"e IJIIinill " ' lolllolt & llo~h- l'ro.:ht.:ti\~ I~ lllli:lllk'. & appl)a,:lo
f'a111< IOIH.anc-t
hi11 11'1'-'lll!!ctc
c.-<mf:Oen~
Stu\ .:uufid..-no."('
Srwt
~"' ulld!!t1Kt
Spo.111 i..ol!l:~;e
l'l-o"e <d f mlk
1\:.:cilin- liC!f u1t

Wil lc h) I)'- :hln!l'
Ability~ Wtvl>
"'w
~
Ab>hl)' 1;,) IW")mllll""'
1\.bihcy 1o r~~~.,.~ un >w t~~" Vlllll,_.t
Willing, 10 Ill'
Abil!ly to lu$h..-. o:.,:;o!y lhlf~ncd
Gull! d~a!ion - - - - - - - - C'ot\d clediCIIli!ln

MoiiY~~Iion:ol b~us
11m! ()! oQCUI~ - [
Dm'fn 111 plt-olhcn
~>~;; ....,
Ownl! llaollllug o f ---1 \\'ayl locupo; wilb ~i;Q~$

ll.dY(Oity & r~'Wte----... Aholilylll dnl wllb ~\10:1)'
l)m,-p 10 111o:1.-11top IICU\1111

'-'\Jo:cllo!UJ'P,.'tfutooni~ltl
======
~l~ti()no'"'--"'!o~m,,.ork~rmlnlllt(IJI
W1)1i 1n Cllpt ,.._.h kl~h

Ability !lei dt;ol '"'" ;~n~i.:ly
l>!.yd~C~osi~
Chlll'il~i~
-> "'~ - - - ~ychnlnied ch~n~etcrU~ 11.1 - - 0''1:~111"1:
Ooo4 nN~
,-{'OI){Io,.1 mor!jJSponupc~ip
Sp:lnsp:rtiO'"hip ~ Good ~
&tf.Awart
S<;lf4WM~;Ilr.lo$
Sti\!IC (If l)aboJOe - - - Sen~ o( blllllll
between ~port
bet.~~ ~
~
& li ~
r,~iet'll
eh:uu-
C:J 110
IWCNO~
OuOO ~~~lot"f'il'~
( ioo.l (ICnOO
StJf,....mno;:n
~
or M:<~nce
bo:lween JpQrt
& li~
Now: lito: t~bl~:~ dOCI!I nut itd* \he Stooll:IQOI om 4r dw , W nrw dau R"SpBnte~ si'"" ~ partidr lllll$.
rlgurc 1. l"$)dlolugic:al cha~ltti5liCS umbfd l$ Cilte<JQrito& <~nd the highcrordc themes and
5Ubthtnw:9.
51~

Sport Roefolff'U
~I'C!
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHAKACTSJUSTICi DEVEL0 11,\ II;:NT
185
signil1can' oChers. and I coac-h). Howt\'ct, l!ia\ing a more $Ck:Cii"c scmc of oonfidcncc in
regards to one's ability l<> perfornt it1sport wus considered separate and wall included in the
uml.m:JI; 1.-a:lc:gory PerfOrmance Enhai)Cemcnt Skill~ :c~nd CharaetcriSCM.:!I.
Another large bighcrMk r ltlemc liWit feU within tbe General Pcl"!ional.ity Cl\llractcri~ics
and V:lue:s umbn:Jiu category was HMltAy p.'yt:lloJ(,gif:{jf chflrtJ<:teri$tks, c.itt:d by 4 athletes,
7 pumtslsiblings/llignifM:ant othoen~, and S couches. This higher-order theme and (:()rTCSpon!J.
ing subthc:m~
compris.cd from raw data I'CSJ)(')II$CS tll3t wtne seen as $1ablc healthy psy
choklgicul cllaractcri!lties, including having no cnlltlemcnt attitude. having patilet:, pri<)e, a
sense (If ~:sponsibility, a sense of humor. being serious, being wdlroundOO, being humbk,
indcpcndau. courngoouS;, emoti~t;dly even, I.IJld cuJm,
lntdligt:lll ~sa hgbt:r-ord tbcme and a OOIYeStM>\di"i Mlbthl!ltlC: <:ited by 2 athletes. 3
signif.cant others.. and 2 C()GChes., FIJr tiM; higber-order tbeme and con-esponding subthL"m~ of
Orxrmkt:tl/lh:ttJi/-Qriented, tOw- athletes had raw data respon$ett india ting tllllt they JCit they
were orgru.lizod'<k-tail-oric-n.ted indi...idu;~ts, ThiS subtheme was abo listed by fou t)3rent.s.f
siblinasf$i~Ufiamt other.; o~nd rour coaches.
lntem;tingly, alllO athlctcs intervi~cJ. i!S wdl u:s 8 parents/siblinglll'significant otbel$ :111d
7 cotielleS, fth IJiiil the: atbJde m quce.rion \\'8!! OptJmi.ttidN~o)'ili~-e. lltnl."ll:, it emerged 1u1 a
sublbl:me and lligbcr-or&rdleti)C. How.e\<t:r, it:shooJd be noted that 1111 pnnic.ipanu wcfe asked
!boot athlete'S optiutism txtsed on the quantitative rc!i:ults..
Anotbet highcr-()rdcr then~ wilhin the ~oer.t.l P<"rsonality ChiUllctCri!!tics and Vaht:s
umbrclb <::Ui!'.@.WY w..ss 0()1)(/ with propi&Nfce f)&:iQif. While o arhletes intc::rvic:wed made
ruw data respon.ses tb:U were cia.~ lied int() thi:s t.:illeJ:,'W)', 6 parmtslsiblings/signific31lt ()Chers
and 5 oooci1CS cJid t\';dtmte the atbkte in such a po~itivc lighL Thi~ high..ordcs lheme V<'tiS
fhnbe:t s~bdivided inlO 2 similar hut sulnly difftt.:ot subtbrotes of Good M'llh peopleK:ood
stxia/.\killt :U1d Nk:t:.~LiJ:roble!Personable. One parcm i1wlicst~d th:H iter :>on was good
wilb people. had good sacisl !dcilk, a.nd was able to leOO olhers. She ~ated that her SM wa.s
abk to: "ifc:ct hi$ lt;IJtl[Oate:s wilh his drive tmd in:cnsity fat~d f he &lined;~ great deal of
re:spcct from his players 3!1 team capt:1in." In d~bing the athletes. S coocbcs used w~
liUCh a!l ~~:lbh:, mc;e, well-man!k"rod, wann. and likC'3blo: 10 describe 1J1e l'lthlettl> a:s they
we"'
~them.
Perfi'?limu;.c 6nhanccmcm Skills ami CharocterlstiC3. The second p!lychologicuJ c;bamctcriseic:s umbrella category was Peifwmllm;;(f l;."'nllann.me.nt Skills and CharoC'It-r/.slle.t and it
also C011tai1W!t.l rtSpvn~~Cl:l from aU 30 paniciponts. Subthemes crcatL'<I from the mw data rc:>ponses we coalesced imo 16 hishU.oOI\ic:r th.:mc:t~ (~e 1'\.b"ll:n: 1). The contents of lhis 1.n'n
brdla cat...'(1fy w.::rc p;.ychological characteristics deemed by the interview partK:rpomts Ali
h11V1n_g h<:lpod the athkte achieve ptl'fuml:woe $1~~ Sp~....;lla~lly, higbL-r-ordcrtbcme.c; within
tbc Pcrfllnmn<:e t nb;uiOI:ment umbn::lla category iocludcd the Ability It) nuuim~ rcwwc~.
~ Abilil)' tos#!'t goals, being Coadrab/e., l1avin& a 17Qt/u(.til~ tmining anihide umf opprooch,
and the Abilil)' l4J jQ(.'U$. lhc t~bihty to fOcus was funber subcatcgOf'izcd into the subthemes of
tfle Abiliry to<tlltomall.u. the Ability UJ fcx.u.t ()n fl.hat ,;vu am (.V)IItrol, llnd the Ability tof.oc:wl
JWt ea.\ily dLflruCJeJ. The laTgCIII higher-order tbemc:s included Ftx:IIS (cited by 73.3o/. of'~
spondent:s), Mental tOitgltnes.t (73.3%), ClmtMtifi()n tJIIihld~Qmpe.titi..Y! (63.3%). Sport con
fidem~~ (60%), $/)()l't intdligE'IICC (S3.J%). ~nd bctng Coachable (SO% of resporldCtl$).
The largest higher ordct theme in the Pcrfom\tii)Ct.: OOI:m(;emenl Sbll:s ;~od Characteristics
unlbrella category, F()CUs, w ;)S oo~:sod o( three subthemes. the Ability to (J_ftt(HJrati=r:, the
Ability to jQCU.S fPJ .,;IJat )OOU ctm rontml. and the. Ability w /Q(.'US!nQt t:tJSily di.stracrcd. The
majority of respons~ w~c c;~tegoriv.xl within the subtheme the obility to JOcuslno4 easily
distmctcd with 7 <thlctes. 6 parct'ltsls.iblin8$fsignificant othm :wd 1 Ol,laLiles uaJont raw data
rt:SI)OilSCS thflt fell into this categOI)'. R.Jw dillil n.:sp:lnl>C.s willlin the ability to tOcu~ not easily
g ?
'""
www..sit\".C'I
rw._.... ._ ....,. ....,..,.,......,...._ ..........,.......,
............ """"."'".......,..,._.,....,......
D. OOULO El' AL.
dasrraQcd nctuckd "'tbe llbtll)' ~ dW ia"' .aod "'h: lhl)' 10 iatcftiCI)' ~ ud q11ict the
tnllll.. As c:ec -.blclt de:.cribtd t1 '"I can Jd 'ftY fi,.'"UICd, 111$ almoA Lte wflcft )'(.1'1 act 110
roc~ lunt ~Uindl JttllA J;ignific...m O!tlcr dcsc::ribed lh(; atlllete's ablhty 10 f~: "ti she ha thQ uncanny :.bdty
to. oo ll\111 h.~ what ll~e llllllal i(lfl i '" , . lOcus Ill nn tiM: tlllll at hand." ()Ill\'I oompooen11 c1f the
f1'1CU.~ category mctudcd 1M subtheme Jtl:nlity to autolntll<fc ~kill11, 11~ abtbty to fOcu!l 011 "''hoi
one c:.an cootl'OI, ud the .tnbty t..l foa.oo OIIC'II -.:If, r.ot oo ~"' An aamplc of the Llutt
4albcbetnt c.~~~ -om dl this rot~, 'fU(* rt'p'd~n~ the t.~s ahl.ry 10 ~ fOC'Woe'd <W
batw.11in rxc, "'It dJdn't m3:1Ja M yonecbe v dut.ac. Thcym:,...,. nab~:~@ Ins"'~ II
only maum:d how he v.-as dotn1 and llt11nk that IS how I'll: looked ar 11."'
I he Mtmtalluughf'Wt1 higluot-ol\'lcr theme wull eonlpfOOd of ru.w dala rt:Sponsc!> 11Ud1 ~~
meaually tnu,t~;b, 1'0"~\ctanoc. tt'illlt':'nl, ruld pcrst~lcnt 11iilt atbltt. I'< rmf1:ul.~$.ibli!-VIIig
ntfunt othef"'. and 6 -adu:$ ndK-tcd thai 1M athlC1e wu mc:ntJ~fly aouah.
De i:q,hn-ufdtt tllcme (~'-'- cwiAJtot.~iK"JJC"1t Cn~ by A adtkt.es., 6 ~t~
Plf.catll ocl'lm.llld S ~) nwde 11p oid$:-nrt.onsby~~ pernc.,_a:s lhA wg*=
tubctltegw~A:ll Uti" thrtt sub(~ -.mensc, k:lllcr t~Nltlrt. and oompch~,f". The .5llbchcme
wn t:t)m~d of mw dutu n::spvnse11 .cuch n (;Uflq)ttlt~\'C ,cpirit. 6gbh:r, d11tll't

give up, oanl "')mJICliti\~. Ruw lllll.ll themes in the mh.'ll'<e subthctn~ were l]l()l'le dlat described
the atbl:c:tc u intC!be or $3-id the lhlc:te hluJ an"'&8Jf'C:l\t~ t,.'<> ((lf it 2.111tudc.''
hzally, fr.~~tlll.."t iASpOCtiiOII of fi&Qte I ~,; dwt e.shl Obct JuPo..otdr..."Y them..~ rorop<iocddris _ _ _ ,_.,.1ool<doh<n''-~-C-.
Ability lt! 'C't ,.w. Ciood ~"" llbclll}. Spon '"1!-lb~. Par11 roJ,.,.ullt~. bcinc; i1 poJ
l~dlffMar~.and l'ti.Jitu..-: .teif-ralk. Of~. St~" Mll/idf'nc' (eitcd hy 1\ athlcl<C$, 5 ''emracant
othe:n;, :t11d S ONdlC$), berng r(l(,. haMt (c.itcd by 'i lthl-ctc!l, 5 signdimnt tlthcnt,and 5 cood.:11),
lite Ability to sct4~'1'lr (eittd by 4 tltblett(, 3 sijl}liflc.~ut 01her$, a.wt I OOilcb), ()()()(/ imaxtry
t~~ltly (t:it..."d by b a&b.k:les, I ~,n, (~~C&A~. other. nd I 0'\leh). and~ l'~ttrlltkt'IJ~ (Cll~ by 6
alhJcecs. 5 stp:1flanl Olhcts. lrld " ~) ere mo. oftca meotiancd, Willie DIO!ot ttl d't.,.w
thnod p31'3lld ~aoos ~h "" lhl: IR'a. spon fll&.illgc'IIIX ._._ ww alfttttll tb3ll ~
It consiSted of n-w data rcspoas :ttu,;:h ~ ~ abtbty hJ an:.lpc, bc1n;ml'IQ\'IIhn, bema a
~utll!ft of lhc ~. muklog {tOOcl tkciRM>ns. unJcn;t.mdmg tbc: natu:n.' orelite .sport and b..:in!!.
qukk karncr. ()ftc coach comnwntcd U. l1is athkte'i Jbthty lO leam by tiltc:.nng outt)l)llf lllld
foeug;rng on u~~eflll mformaJ'"" u'lthc foUO"''Ulg 1411)' '1be grcatc:P thujt Wout her
11hc
t'OWd reaUy liher wt 91-hal wouW wcri: b lief aad ...._ \!Wd 110t. $o lhe (lOU~ l..Lc ..npu1
....... nctybody llld - 'AOOIJ . , . lab: N rron~ Oft!: ~ IOd CWIIi. (nam anochcr ..
Mori~>utiomd lt..ttK.t artd OrlnWII""-' Th th1td ~)""C:holos;it:al cbatkllcn"'t~ u.~IY
Omi{Jii'-flll\oe
......
c.1lCgory wus MOIIVIIhl)llll)
I ~ICII!lnd Oricnt:.tll(lfl" C%.7% of P,'ll'I1CI{MJth
l'rovidcd n:llpt)ll!o(!l
m this e~~a csory 10 coaches, I 0 flgmCJCant other. nnd 9 etdcs) at'llll coos.~~ ~ l or two
tusfw~rdC'f thC'I'nc:s (See f'igw~ I) Tbe b~r themes included Ooul Jhitr"tJOO'f, Cllt'll
by one c:oadl.lnd lXn't!. cikd by 10 llilhkt..-s., 9 s.:i"'tfant Othm.. and 9 ~ Tha! httJia
Otrrlhc:mc nn,,-... r~ttt~~~n~..,fwftMOc'""'- ~Dnlft~t~..,.i-(A
OtMCC.Ztit:wwJW"/nUoff""' bcl'ftl /Jrrvu t~ phw ~. :end gmml 'lolnvtioalW#tlf
tonllktemtlttlltlo" ()(!he <rublhcn~~es wtthin MOC.,IlhOBai iUe.s and Oncnwions, Momo
tlmlllk<lic4'ttlt#lfiAfcnnmmiott und bdng Drlwn In mtct pl'r.l(mallti~:,A c,rprv:tutl()n.t/P~rfl.'...
tium..(m were die mO!!t cited with K6.'7'-0and S3.3~uf t hc I)IU'ticip;.t.ntt hiiYittg respollSCli mc!k:h
~ ~twcl). Witbm Cbc t.fttli\'Ollon.IIXd~rHtn.DererrrcinamHt ~o.w d.ib ttlipl)lliiCII
ft'hlded mociwakd, dll\d. hard wwta. _, hiah .,Oft. cdllc.. for .,_,~ QD( plf'tW c.har.
lldcnZed hl, child ... lkM: to IIICd ht.P per50I'I8l C"q!a.11b08S. perft-~ Ul !be: follow..,
\\lyll. WHe pu;.sMd t111nsclf," ''thll ktd wtl:f driliinz hornacl(." tw1 "he Lepllnvmg to be bdk'f.'"
/\.._,Iller llthl<:le rctl.tcd on bb drt'<fo' aOO dctcrmin;uloo :L~ fol)ows:
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
I lhinl: I worked tcally banS. Tl~ .,....~ 11 Joe ar athh:lel tlu1 ntight bavc been more uknto,:d
"'
thno I WllS, bul I tbinl: I ...,. more dctM'IIincd. I W$11100 to 00 weU 8tld r wan>d to rtach my
goob mil >A'~Un' t gc>il8 eu let llll)'lhing ~bud in my "''.a:y.
Abllicy 10 1/ond/e AtA-er.~iry arnf P~s.ture (Uu/ Psychologicuf Choracti!rl.rJk,v to 01'4'n;rpn.:.

Tw<> mnbJT:ll<t <.:<Hcgunc:s, O~rall l ltmdling of Advc~il)' find Prc.:!lsore, and PS)1.:ho1ogical
Characteristics to o..-croomc. were related yet unique. While both c:ucgoric11 COtl!<idered t.ow
:ullle1es dealt wilh advcn;t :~it~,t~~tions. lb.:y :~tood ;tp;.a:rt b;:;od on lbe oontcxl in which lh)' were
relatc:d. The first umbrella category. Overall Handling of AdvctSity and Ptc!I~UfC, w:u cited by
63..3% of the interview panieip:tnt$ (1 atlllt:t~. 5 si.gni1icont Olher.>, 7 oo.-.ches). TblS category
de.11t with b:.wing the pcr.soaality cbamctcriJ>tics nnd che psychological C31)l'leity to dcsl wid
the r>minc scth~h :l.tld an:<icry :l$.~0Ci;)ted wilb lmimo~ ;,uMJ..:ompetmg to developm-:nlal and
elite le,els of compctitiotL Two bigber-ordcr tbcmcs-IVay.t th cnpe wldt J~lbtJt:kt and the
Abilily to th~l ~~oit/r tJn.tid~llpl i~ the Q,trall li111\dlin8 or J\(l\'d"Sity :md Pressure um
brella <.:ategory. One <.:o~h described his utbl~cs ability to bandk pres.s.urc in the following
vny: "He wa.~ good under ,,,c:o;~ur.:, )'<loll k1.ow. h almo.~t ~"CfllCd like tll<: more p~m: be b11d
oo him lhe better bt' did."
The second related umbrella category. Pq'Chological C:hatacteri:UiC1'; tn OvcrOOtnc (ciecl by
16. JOA of K'l>poudeots I ruhlete. I si.gn.ificnnt otbe1. nnd 3 cooc.fles) detdt witb having tbt.
pcrsonsli1y cltsmcteristics ttnd pS)'(:hologieal cai'I8Cil) m handle cxt1l:'11'1C Mtes~ anc1 :uhi::t$ity
(e.g.. low :scii'C$toem, long-term iUoess, IQ(SS of seo:;e ofsdCbav:iog asc:no;eof sclfonJy ti-ed to
ath1c:tics). Thi:~ category w3S comt>!Ued of a highcr-<~tdcr t11eme 31)1J ~uhtll<:ll)C ()f the AAmt
n:~m..:. (.tiM: athlc:h:, tO r t:xilmplt:, described bcr sucoessfitl stn.tggk to o~rt(l(l1C tying her identity to pcrforntai)C in tbe following way:
I tlunk nly 1!'-"f'llvvllbl)' ....'ltl ootally t1cd 1.1110 pl'tlbmlilOOt' ftnd J rou.kln'l .kp;.u-J.1C the lltct that I
juM pbycd a bnd game \lur I'm $1'itl n &OQd playtr, l j\IM I)IA)'c:dbad ptl), bQII' m Slill II good
pctSOtl.
Othl'!r p.rydtologirol C(ltegories. Finally, thrcc remaining umbrella categoric!;: tou1ki l)ul
tbc: 1\::>JK.IfCSI!l> tP~rn rqpl'\liDB thl! p:;y.,::ologM.::I dtarach::ristics lbc::se Olympi<.: <.:bilmp)QD atbk<cs possessed. according to the interview participant!! (sec Figure 1). These cstc&Orics in
clded Good MO':l.I$/Sp()l15pt11'SOnship(citell by 1 ;tlhlt:te.l sia,ttifl12ot oI~N. ;md <.:Oil<::bes).
Sclf-AwnrcoC$S (citod by 5 alhlet.cs and l coaches). and having a Scn:~c af Balance between
St>Ort 1111d Life (cited l>Y I .sia.nifieant ()tler). Good Morai$1Sp<Kispm;oo:;bip. with 16.7o/
participants responding. mc1uded the higbcr-ordcr themes of being a Good per.ton (cited by I
athlctc :lild ll"C'lddChC$) a..d havins denl()!l..~r.ued Gwd m.twul$4por4JHtF~Y.mship (<.:ited by l
si.gniliamc otbcn;). The final two Clttegories, Sclf-Awanmess ttnd b11ving a Sense of Balance
bc1\li'CC1l Srort S 1ld Life were c:tch comprised of a bighOdet dW!n'le and subehcmc of the
same name aDd were c:ilod by 26.7% ad 3% of the pani..:rpimt.s resjX.'Ciively.
or
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIS11C DEVELOPMENT:

SOURCES OF INFLUENCE
Study participants were asl:cd how tbcy fell the~ elite a tl!lc1d developed tltc psythlllot;i
c;,l siJengtbs and ..:haruclenslics IJ~al belp4-'d lhcm ochieve liUtocss. Spcctr.coJJy, IIIC alhlc;tes
were asked co tdentify il)dividuals and "ituations tl\at assisted their psychological developmenl
O''I.T hmt: and within ~o:ac;h of lfle chn:t; Blooms ~ag.t:S: lhe early, mtddlc:, ;and l;aU.: year$, Coaches
and pan~I!Vsiblingslsignif)Canl others were asked to identify wbut they did co help llllllist the
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
0. GOULD TAL.
188
athlele's dcveiO!)ItlenL Additional!)', they we:re asked to indicate olltemdividu31s and intlu
t:ncts they thought may have impacted the (lllhlec's 6f:,el(lpcrh.'11t.
Q,erall, 63 refcn::1'1CCS: (raw d3ta responses) ""'ere made to soun:es or mtlucoce (e.g., indi
vidlJ31s. instintiOU$) pcn:civod to buve un impact on the athlete's psycbologjcal development
'rbese specili<: $0W'CC'$ of influence were orgaoi7.cd into silt summary sourccg of innuc.\Ce
categories. The o~mi 1.90Urtcs included:
C<rtnnlunity
family
lndividu.sl development
Non-spon personnel
Sport cn'<ironment pcn;oMCI, t~.nd
The spo" pf1.)tcs:s
'"Communiry,"' ai a summary source of inlluenc.:e. inclw.led b<J(h lle il'ldividuals :llld tl~e
gcncn.l environment t11~1 the: ;1thldt: experienced wbile g.towin.g up (e.g. a v.-ealthy stcndard of
living). The owtsll source category "family'' was oompriscd of fosmily envitOI\melL. &f!l)d.
ptt:rmts {grandmother, gr..~ndf<tt~r. 8,1-:IJJ(jpal ~ItS), p;tfl.'rtt~ (mom. dad, parents). siblmgs (brotbers, sister~. sibl ing,~). and significant 01hcrs. ..Individual dcv~IQJMuc:nt " was ~nrti scd of genetic factem, maturity (c.kfinQ.I :1$ \bt 1Jatural proccs.<: of time and growing up}. and selfdc~l
(IS'HUC1ll (dcfiticd M individual experiences uud scU~-~;df.aatioos). for e~~:~unplc. aftet several
diftl cull injuries ooe ltlbldt l1aclll1e &elfl'\:ali?..ation that she would need to fight llt.r'uu.gh mJ.
vc~ity in order to overcome. Another uthkte indicatt"J !MI bis ,,,,mft<tence a,rcw ~~~ 3 tesult of
his own hard v.vrk 1111d 1bc s..eoess hi: eXJ)CI'icnccd. "Non-spon pcrsonll('l'' iod udcd friends
and tc3cllcrs. The category "spon environmenl perronnel.. inchd.od 3.(1;<:1\l'l;, coaches, other/
former <:Lite uthJCies, ~Oiupttil ()rS, S~'Ort }l'<YChologiJ~t.<~;, and teammates. The final SUIUIMI)'
source of intlucncc category was ..the sport proccs$'' il:sc:lf. 11tis eates()('y itcludcd thCSflOCific
$0Uf(:C:S of C()lllpeliti<>n. 11~ o:tture of the: !1(1011, lif'IM advcl'!lity (e.g .. spon frustrnlion. IO$tllg.
the ph)"liical adVCI'llity of spon). training. and lhe sport prof,nlmfOrgimi?:uiou.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CH ARACTERISTIC DEVELOPMENT:
METHODS OF INFLUENCE
W1Utin eac:b of the c.we~U SOI.IJ\.~ ofi.un ,~encc: Clllcgorics (e.g.. comm'Wl.il)'. family). ways
in which each source impacted the athlete's ~)'Chologiet~l de\'elopmcot (t& raught, anodek:d. pro"*<~ cocoumgt:mcot) were labeled ..nltthOOs" of infl uence. Methods of infl uence
included such practices as p3rcnts directly tcuching. di.sct1S$ing. or canpbasiring thingi (q;.,
wolt ethic, delcnm..tion, fOCu$) with their child athlete~ For CXUn1Jllc. pnrents cmpbllsil.od
hnrd "'Ork and discipline with their child!athlete by ex.pecling h1m 10 II)' has h:tl.k:\!1and do the
best he <:ol.lkJ which in 1um inl111e1\Ced the :llhlcte'St work ethic. Finally. it m-u.st be noted ~~
methods: of inftucnoe on psychological dc\'t.lopmcnt within each summary liOIJn::t ofinf1 Ut>1'1Ce
calegol)' (c..g, filmily, non -spor~ perS()nnd) were org;uli?.ed !ICI"arntcly doo 10 tbe fact thut the
specific me1hodll cited VAried ucross $00K~-s (soc F1gu~ 2).
MeJIJods 11.-ithin thtt "Commu11ity" Sourc~
Interview panicipants indicated that athlete's d<:\'C-Iopment w;1.s inOucnced by the ac1iw
community lifestyle in which be <>r sbe was br(JtlsJ!t up snd eXflO.'iUr't' to otb achiC\ers within
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
PSVCJIOLOGICAL CIIARAC.'TERJSTICS
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
DI~Vl:LOPMENT
189
the community (cited by IOo/.. ofd1\! t'CSJ)C)IM.Icnts-1 alhl.::ce and 2 coaches). Thai is. the corn
mumly (lhe (.'flVJroomro1 and individuals in lhc en~in.mmem ooll~tivel y) hdpod sh:ttle 1bc
athlete due to lhc 3Cii VI:: lifestyle ofl'hc il\dividual ~ in the l:(lfnmunity <~ond through tbeacbie~
ment orien1111ion oftho:se in theconununily. For example. one coach i.ndicotcd that being a 1)!1t1
of a commll!lity wr.cro cffot1 and ac::hieven'li!nl were cvi<k:nl all :lll)uJM.Itbc alhJ~e helpod her
rn:1kc "'" lt.~~oc m lton tx:tw'--c:n working bard aod personal achic\c:menl
Methods within tlte ''NWtS{Kwt Per.~()nne/" Smrrn~
1'eacll(~ and friend:; were l.he two specific !ilOun:es cited thlll comprisoc1 summruy source of
inJlucncc category non spon p~.nd (mcmioc>.ed by 200" ofthe po'lr1Jt:ip:Wt$ 3 ,.,tbktc::s <~od
3 p.1: etlslsigtu6~;:;wt ot!tcr:;), 1't"'lcbers were Sllid to inlluence athletes by emphasizing CXJ)I:'ct:iuons and slandards. by taking intcrt!\1 in the :ut.lc:, llrld tl1rOll8b dil\)l!lte;\Ching Qf im1X>rl..1rtt
l>kill~ sucl as i rn:.~g.ery. 1'c::.~cb~ inOuencOO athletes nClldcmie work e!hlc~ theit llbility to rclalC
ctTccrively. and helped them liep:ll'lltC their~~~ of identity fc om s.pon alone. F'(lr example.
OllC 31hle:tc: int1icoucd Utal be lamed the llltal."Cry tocbOtquc:s tbat he later used in his spon from
a teucber outside of the !lj)l)rt cnvironmcnL Anoch attl!C1c nntt:d d1at a t~cftcr wa.~~; 1fll])()rtlfnt
to hi~~; Jl<l;)'(:hfiiQ8-ic-..al di:VIeloptnent b:OJ.ttSC the tearbcr showed an interest in him as an indi
vidu11l bcyood bis spon itwolvcrncm. This hei)'ICd 1he :uhlete !ICC him~lf heyo)nd hilt ~)()rl
idcmity.
Friends. the second spociflC aourec ofinflucncc within d' c fiOtll>t' llrt pcoomw:l lli'lui'Ct cat
eg()(y, influct1t:t:tl athletes development by directl)' providang support, providmg success in
otbe domnins. n.nd i.nditcctl)' through tcslli.tt:g. 0 1.c t1.1hle1.:- illdi<:atOO that ,,ccr ~ helped
her nlaintain :t :nsc nf lll'l111lll1cy utter achieving intcmatiooaJ ditc lcvtl success. Another
important \\o'a)' fric.nds helped ooc athlete's dC\Id opmcnl W3.<1; through the 1\".iilization that she
e(ltlld Cf"C:l.ll~ l'!nd l:)(<:d :11 fiOO sporlr~utod ~cuvi tiC$.. This helped budd her oontidcoce through
success in otbcr domains outside of spon. Teasing from frictkk and p.--ets w:.s llitcd a.~ lw:lt)ing
il~t.:rel!SC a :;crt:;.: i.lf d.:tcrrmn01tion und ;~d vcn;hy coping sk-ilLs or one athlete.
Me1!Jods wuhilr ..the Sport Pf'Ot.'t!J.J .. Suura-
i he summary SQurc:l! cotq;oty "the; t;port pi'QI:.Iess" (rnentJOoed by i!<Wot.lfthe ~spondcnb

9 athlctes. 8 conclw:s and 7 parent!llsignificant 01hm) provided fi ve specific !lc>Urecs of influ
CIICC:: including C(lmpetiti()f, thc: m.ltUR of Ihe sporl, sJKICI progr.unfsporl org:ni:tA~liot:t. IIilimog,
nnd spon adven.it). Tbcscsourccs of influence impaCiod athletes' p!!)'thologict~l development
ina member of w:~ys.
Competlrwn. Competition. ns a part of the .St>Ort process source of inOucnec summsry
e:ucl('l)r)'> wa.~ found II) h:lW: inditectly timght alhletes through demonstr.llmg wt.;at ehte competition was like. providing success ~,xpcnmoes. allowing pm1icipation in the competition
exrcric:nce:, and the genL-rnl Qver., u experienee of C(lfnpC!Ition. When discl)$:!.ing hOw oompclitton and SUCOCl>ll in competition a!T!.octcd the athle1es p;ycbological ski.IJs and de~ctopm.ent.
01~ COIIc.lt mcnti<ned: ' ' l tlink in l1cr c:.~c i1 wliS prohebly 51<>n1CthinSJ that..Jc dl-vcl~ :long
the wa)' {through the coolpeiitive ex:periCJtCe). As Jibe got more and more sttecessful she rcali.r.ed that y(H.I had lo he mure anc.t mcre fi)Cused."
Nmu.y c>jtlte. spon. The nature of the sport in which the athlete was involved was responsible f()l' lelpina tl~ athlete pS)cltologiea.lly dc\'elop in a munber <>f way$. These methods of
influcoce inctudcd the Rtllure of the comp~-titioo experience within that.spon. the nature oflbc
sport f081e:rinsfnur1urinalinsdllina attitudes and dtveiOJmcnt, the aentr"JI SJ)Oil e:c:pericw:c,
1\owing mulrisport experiences. ond the \'CI)' noture of the spon itself. All ofthese compoDI.'fllll
taught. influenced, 1mnu.rcd, f()Sered, ()r instilled p<yeholos,ical cht~ractcristics such a.~ focus.
51~
190

Sport Roefolff'U
~I'C!
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
D. OOUW tT AL
vtork edlic, ability to n::I:)JI;, ,.bilL1y 10 WOfk clli:c:li,,cly with poople, :tnd rtlltM)flsibility. In ci1ins
lhl! irnpot1an1 influence of 1bc: nature of his sport on his psychologJcal development Ot)C nth
lete said,
1 guC$5 111y nbil il)' ll.) rtlu: jt.tSI came with exptrit.'nc>e. I ha\c: bt1t'n lluvc.~j;tl so mllll)' do ilOO.'tll
((llnptlitillllu: tbd tlu:o: u. "..Jiy tolhing that Clln $Ufl'lrist me. So I lind i1 prcttyCII$Y> he inn
rela.\cd (tAme of mind nen in a l:li.a can~liliun.
Anotbct athlel..:, cilins tie~ inl.j)CJCI thtu IICf cxpctic1'1Cct in hct spon had oo her ability to
remain ttumble while achicvmg grt.'UI soccc!ls. sluted, ..My -"fXnl Wl.'S : n:btivt:ty unkm,.wu
spOrt in lllc SM~ M it was easy oot 10 &C1 100 big of a head."
Sporl prtJi;rt'mllorg(lnismion. The OV'Cillll ~1X'f1 prog;mmlorg:nUuion i l$1( inOm~ICed the
alhl~o.1es vis S~:Vtf'l diffc.-~nl m('Chods i~luding lhroog.h 1he fOMcringlnurturing'in:>illing of
positive: skills. ideals. und ;Uitudc:.s, b)' pnwioe.litl$ c::lile wodeb,l.>y pre)vidin3 a. II()SiliV<:: C1Wi
rorullCOI md opl)l)mnitjt:i, by providi.n.g goc:ncrnl !!Uppoll, tm.tcring motivarionaJ ttthniqUC's,
duougb an ()(!Cimi:>tic/posita~ ilttilude. illld by dln:1 tl!'<lc;biot: TI1oe Sp()11 p108,1-:\l!ls/(118:l.ni1.3
1tvns wert cilltld il$ i1tfluc:ncing ~lfchnllcnge. goal sct1ing. eonfid~. tbe sep.1ratioo of sc:o::;e
of sdffom spon, focus, pride, -.od erljoymtnl. I .<X:;:! I ::ttd natioW ch1M :t..d C31llPf' \lo'trc cited
by athlch,:S. pwtnts, and coachC\10 ss having pro\idcd helpful !,'001--sc:uing moeting;sand ll)spirntionuJ :;pccc:hcs.
Trai11illg. Training for spon was iodicuted to facilitate athk-te dc\elopmeot throtgb i'oS'I~
inglnurruringlinstiUmt 1he pS)'thl'l<>e:iC:\1d anu:ta i11rjc~; no::<:Cllsary to achic\C !tl.lecesi. 1llc oooch
citing lbe in.Ou~oc oftmining indicated tht!t the discipline required to trcno played a rok in tbe
dt'vdormet~t of l.hot: ;UJ.Ict.::'s oonfidcncc, fliC\lll, :t.1d her ahilily 10 rcnsi1t cntolionally calm
during difficult situations.
Sjwrt (Nl,.yrsily The fifth and fi nal JICturcc of dtvti()J)InCIU within the so:pott proctll!! source.
or inrluett:e JIUflUl\3.1)' clltegOf)' was sport adversity. Fneing :;pons ad\c:tsily .!>VC.:h as looing in
oompatiti()(l and lmininx fru.,trali<w.~ y,'ef't cited as direcdy teadling, athletes skillli and alii
mdcs impof1;Ul1 to ps)'cbologcal dcwlopmcnt. The expem.'fle<: of :;por1 :1dvc:rs11y t:mgtll :1th
lei($ hew 1{1}0:;(: wilh Kl':tce, nlema.l Slf~ngth, dct~miltat iOil. tl1c ability to cope witb achcrsity.
as weU as ttn uodci"Stnnding that frustration comes wilh sue<:c:s:;. In d~u -.sing the Pl.l~iahc
impacl thai tbc fru~l l"o~ti on \1flu~i ng h;1d (ll hint, vnc athlctl.' J>liiiOO..
Two yo:urc in a row, I w:a.." bnl by tt.;, 11an~: guy. I ao.'tually Jll,_ 1111n00 tho..: los~ tnW a
po41itlvc ;md bytlu: third )'AI' I~ WMOO .,.. y hewn$ going bcn1 me { wn$ prepMC!d memally
;and 1 tiLLnk, you kno.lw. phy!ikally '""~ protQI!Iy a!i prq1:11td ~b I w3.<1111ty time. !:Jut mcu~ally
1Wlb n:ally sound find ( end!XI \lpith 11 time l]uu issriU n cooferenc.erco.ml l'm ~i!i\'c: IIILd
g~:tdog beat h:.d evc)thittg.lo du .,.ilh molal r ttl&t~Uiou and I am pos.-.ve.l wouldu'l have
t\llfl ~t bn)C if it weren't if I hudn'l been J)lll in thm iihlllric)n.
Melh()(b H'ltltm lh(' "lmiMdutl/l')jwclopmcnt .. $Qurce
Jndividuill dC\clopment (cited by 70% of respondents-7 atb1C1cs. 6 significant otbm and

8 cooc;hcs) was onodx:r l!OU!\)1! ofinflU+enc;e $\lmroilry <:attgUry rd.:tive 10 ;dJ.Iete J1$Yd~QIOIP
eal dc~-elopn~nL It was broken down into three more specific SOUI'C($ iocluding genetics.
maturity. und self-d~:vel()pmenl .l!ach &Ourot wiabin lhissununaty category l>ro~ided difl'cl'cot
methods of influence oo the ps)'Choh>gieaJ ck.\'elopmmc of Ute athletes.
Gerr.etics. Oeo~1C$ was viewed Man IJI).1tltl".)!,le fac;l ()l l l~t IJ1e s.cccssful Slhletes made
the most or in their development. Tbe athlete wbo cited ~><:ndiC$ as imporwnt to hill psyc;ho
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
I'SVCitOLOOICAL CHAIV.<.'Tt:lliSTICS OEVELOPMQn'
191
lqgieal devc.loprnoot indicated th:u a 8e!Ciit 1biJ11y 10 tolcrotc lhc pain ortraining mcrenscd
his ability to fOcus and his generAl mcnUtltougltnc:ss.
Gttm:rul maturity. Two n.-spondcnt.t , tin a1h l~e and an unrda.tcd ooocb. incbc;~lcd lh<ll l h..:
gcncru1maturity that come:s w1lh time was an importanl componcnl ofthi:: :nh.letcs dc\'dopmoeru. This maturily influenced focut_ confid.::w:c in making good doci.sions, th..: ability ! ()
scpasnte sclfH.kntily from sport i<krnity.thc abilily to wtrl hard, mld ovcroll dedication.
s~lf~/e~odopme"' Self-development hclpi."<l indi~iduals grow through a sensc ofsdf.aw;Te
moss, by ptUing unc:sc:lr in the nghc cnvtronmCIU. and t~sin,g other mL'flt:al ~kills to bdp one's
owu dcvelopncnl. Maturity w-as c:ited as pl3)'in& a rok in We development of psycholosic:.l
cflaractt:ristiQi 1mp()rlan1 10 sl)(;tess lhrougb maturity unll Do1turl dc:\'CIIOpll'lent. {n ex-planntion
of how sclf-dc\elopmcm helped hct. one athlete indicated chat.
lllwk my <Mer !llefotl& posili\'C qwbtit!i dl'vtkopo:d ~ I wa> stubborn $tid dett:mlint'd. I
\lo'QII)d work and wurit m.d wurlt unlit l aos sornelbiOJ. If I Wl-'n't satilof.N w11b so~hi!g. I
\\'Ouldjusl-.'()ck at i.t aDd ~~oorl; at i1and think aMut itt\'Cl)'day audjuM ~Uy d.-dieat.: my,....f
1(1 il.
Metirqds widtin tht!
",y,,, F.mirmwu:rlt ('(!r$01111d .. SmtiYY!
The summary wurcc ofinflucoce cru:egory "spon environment pcn;onm::l" (.:ited by 100%
of the n:.!opvndcnl:;) iucluded the: ti{IOCilic SOY:I"l;I!:S Q( .:u;u::llt:'.;., lt:;umnatcs. ~ PS)'tboll.lg)'
oonsultams. otbcrlt~r elile at.h.lms. com~"titors. nod ugcnts as iodl\'i<Ju;IS ~~oJ)() played an
imJ>I.lt;ut roll! ir1 the :uhlcb!'S Suct~ful Jl)'}'clw-loicsl d~l/elot>nletll. F..acJI .soon:e pro\'ided
dilltinct subthemes of psy..:bologic:al dcvelopmcnl (~c fiJ.'Uf'C 2).
CQiu:hr:~ As might be CX(ICC1ed, ~~ pllyed u1 it111)()11am rok in tltc devcll.lpllll!lll ;~od
growth of thcs.:: athletes and provided msny method-; of tnflucnc.c on i,l.e:vti4'>J)JllCtlL A~ one
a:lhlete said,
I lhinllh<' ta:tehts lll'l>.lal dilf.-n-nl hm..,. w<rc .rpo:l r.1r ne. Tb.- cootJ J bad
t,turin!~
my
a(l!)bc(tll) W115 {!OOd bex;MI$e be '11.'115 10.~ tfld kltld OffOO>Qd II) I() be IO'J.I')I 01 IU.I'11 !b:tu
I tOOught I W'J.~. My later c!dd waJ; mrrturiug .. . be !''<me ~iu key 111~ for me gel
fooused and kcep me in the rijhl frlmt of ruind.
Coocbe;s pro,idl.:d eocOtrng.:mc:nt nnd suppon unooodiliooully nnl.l ~~oi thout 1>ressure. Tbey
m()li\ated their tuhlctcs using moti\'alional~:hniqutll :md through challen&,'al. 'fht: tm!lhods
coaches used wcte 11s dlll'crenl as the athletes tbcmsci\'C$, for <:llllmrk. OrlC coach helped
nl3inl3in r.;s athlete':. focus and nkltivation by ordering her to lake lime oft'n.nd go ~hvwing
because he:: knew llhc was unnbl-C lo allow ben;clf rda~tntion lime. AMd10!1ooach unchn.tocr
ili1ically ~a\<1: the athlete a litem! kick in the bull;tlll l)ractioc, 11. .ncwc thai W\t.S de9Cribed by
both tbc nthletc and t~ t.:(XI(;h all being pcrfC!Ct for dx: rt'IC)tTitnt.
lnflul."ntial OO.'Iehcs took the lime I() indi\'iltuali7X programs. provide tndi\'t(luit1 alll!'lttM>n,
mcci iOOividual ncods. und unc.krstaDd hi$ or her nthlete ll!; 1 p::r$00. Co;.cltt:s tau.ghl a1hlctcs
bNh directly (n'ICtltoring. tcacbing JlS)'Cholosie~tl skills, pbnned teaching) t~DI.f indiu:e1ly (fus
teringlnurtunrWin~ti Ih"3 import.'lnl llki lis. modeling). fhSl! c<mch~ t:l11!)h3s.izcd c:xpocUltions
;lJld Slaf'Kbrd$.. hard work disciphoo, aMI the :micudc that hurd vloct v.ill P.'~)' off. 0t1e r:~tem,
m describing th.: posi1i".: tnlp)Clll middlo-)'CIU'5 eoucll ~on bl;r son's p!i)'Cbok>giatl <level
oprncm, stated thtu the coach was stem and mean1 busiDCs.s. This coach told his 31hlcl e~ !hat
he expected tlx:rn to be respecl~blc ywng e1til'..en.'S who Stayed ou of trouble and kcpe tbeir
grades up.
51~
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u,...,~
www.sirt.c:.a
O. QOOI.I)ET AL
Confid_.~
lflll!lllcte
Fo.:~~V(ntiqvo.:
Pmvide.:l ~~~~ ~e ~,,.,.,.,,.lt:m
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f~I!Ooo'h:lhl)o>. & "'"~
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II~ '"\ltlt & lhllllIIIB:

H.11 won:~ l'lff
t':oottuna
Ch.:ID~u$
Cwt'-hing ~1y!0;1 inllUCtWN

till~ WWC:IIU0\8 Wlfbr.ee'Wd
Tru~twvnhin~$
i11(1um:IOld
w~s OJ<in"!>'!Wtlll"h\~
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skllk
f'o11~dlw,ntr~dT-!illtd
T1uoeh1 ol"derct:lly - - - - - - - - - -
lr.dividuali:Nf
lr..iiviG.t:ili;l!~ ~gieal
U-.kt*!OOO Mb~
~-..!
netJ:r;
u>divfdlll il!!o;niWQ
l lnclm!Md 111h~1e
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rn1inW wilb
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I mi~llfrt f,"IIYitf'11l'!ltC
f~~
r ooi!.k\1 o;u<'OU:lU.'~ttt:nl/ - - - - - , - GniX';:rut;OO

Sup(ltllt
Tnufllll
nl4.orcaly --------lc
liullpllrl prll~lclcd
f'~d fn~nsdfled
Modeled
l.irnro:d lll@.~ha'
ftsure 2. S~lk ~'"X$ o( and mt;(hQd$ d lrlntJCncc: '-1th1n the~rt c:n'if'OI''''"'IC ~rte olln!lvenc:e
swurnary C:alt!'90C)'.
51~
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lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
PSYCHOUXiiCAI.. CII.AR.AC'TERIST1CS OEVI~lOPMEl\'T
193
Tbeconlidenoc that these conches had and displayed to their athkccs helped psych(llogif.-al
developioC:IlL A$ ()fle ath!.::tc said, ''Coach X, I mean, he just believed in me und tbut is aU11
t.akcs. You know, I just foel like be can'd about roc <'S a pel'$0n :md h..: bclie\"t:d in me a:s an
:uhkte.." C~ehe3 pi'()Vidcd po~ithe. and bc1pful feedback and critiques lhat helped guide athktc: de\'c:lopmc:ot as well as providod posili,e growtng enviromnents:tod O{!POf'tunitics. Addi
ti()nally, study rartieipanl\ indicat.."d that coacks bnd many positive characteristics that helped
tbe ck\elopmc:ot of these suooessf\11 ~lhlcl es, Tht.:sc chJ!n~ttriJSti<:s inch1(1ed :t Jl{ISitiw O(X)e;h
ina style, d1c elite sca.tus of tlw: conch (as a fomlcr nthk1c and/or as a C'\l.tl'ent conch), good
COCl1mUOiCtllion pai1CmS, OV~:TttJIC~wor1h lnt:~S,IliMJ <I ~OSC o r OpCilnillm or O~tnll put~il i v\!
allitude.
Temwmatts. The JW:l(t SOUI'QI: withm thiS liUffiiNof)' .\iQ\.IJ'tC o r mR~.t~:noe Cillqt(lrY Wll$ (c:un
rn:1tc:s, includi n~ l)()tb Ull~ and ~itesex teatnmfltcs. These te:unmatcs helped each other
learn alld ruentorcd ench other's lk.v;::lopmcnt ,,.., inst.;na:, in dc:.scribina :1 p:&r.t~;liam ~hili
re&3rdin& uklel'!ltMding tile ~rure of eompilion and how be pm:civod it. one athlete said,
Wlmt hdp1.-d me mllko: th:rt :oltifl ,.'<t.'l a ttllltnuate.. We wcfc sittitl~and lalkiug ooc day aOO we
rcaUU>d tllat tbe sport renlly $tinb be:>cal$<! you .stmg&k ;all dle time. Vou ~ ool O:\'C':f)' ~by 11nd
~u hwun~.T aud lly l!:'lllb &ud try suoc:thing new, alld tbc-n aoructb:ing else goes awcy. And
"'ileu you K$lizc tb.,c il's not go>iTif. r.o f.l w.:n tdl thc time all(! yuu don't (:~hookln'tJ t ll(lt:d it
"' it'.~ mueh ea<~1et.
1'camrnste!t al!IO pmvidod liUf!POn und enooutagemcot and taught psychologcal IC$SOOS
modeling ~ot1 by f"ost~ring, nurnuing:. :lttd instilling hclt>ful Jll~.yd~l ogical
chataetcristic~. The emironmeut created among the members of a team wns also cit1.'d ~s \1~
ful tOt general psyd)l.)logj~l de\-ek.>pmenl, f.<.w lhret: ;)fthe fenult J'larticipanL~ in thi ~ study,
thi.ll awimtltnellt ir'IC.)uded ttainingat)d or competing with male teumnlatcs. The importl.lnce ot
thi.s intemctiou was meolionod by Qfle ofthi! s.ignifte~nt ()(hers intervicwctl. n. i~ ~i&ni lic:un
()lhet indi<:atOO that training with tbe men really facil itated the athlete's dc\clopment bc;;;u.Lse
if sbe didn't work l\.1rd, 1.:~-=p piUgijmt( :aw:~y, inKI retn:1-in pusiti11e and focused ~be wouldn't
l1aH: bo:.>t:rl able to keep up with them. Thc:~e interactions bclpod develop these fetOOtc athletes'
confidence: as VI'Cll as provided an ovcmJI ~ncr:~! p(le:litivt: dC\,e.lllJ'lC'llCfl!al inRuence.
SJX>rlfl.\')'f.'holtJJO' tVroulwnts. Expcrict'loes with a spon psydlology t.:onsult;mt f;u::ilitO*tl.:d
thlctc dcvdopmcnt through <:1 nu.mbef ()f ;,m:nu~. Till! c:OI\Sultants listened well, fostered!
mutun:..l!instilled a J>OSirh-e mind~et and sense ofoonsistmcy, helped provide tht: right owor
tunitics aDd cnvirornncnl for kamint;. pr(>vidt:d individll31 attention, provided suppon. and
dkeccly taughl ps)'(hological skills.
Otller/fom'" ~lite athletQ. Othc:r ~l i t'~.! athletes and fomlet elite tubloctes, who were nac
direedy involved in !be athlete~ program or li-.-cs (e.g,. oooches, tl!all1liUIICS) wet'~.! ;ri:S<)eittll.l :1~
ha\in.g an impae1 on their pS)'thologie;l develvpnent. These elite: athiCics Sct'\o'Cd as important
itlflueneei tlut providod role n1odels aod cneotll'ab"Cmcnt lo the developing ~~bl<l <:!i. Oue par.
ent. aDd the athl~t~ as wdl, ~rib,:d thl! itllJ)Ortlult influence. of an OI)'ITlpic gold mcdalti$1
from a~thcr Sf!Orl. At a )'OlUlg age d1is athlete Wll.5lnsptrcd by the Otympi t,;h:11npi()l1 '~ aehie\"e
menb ttnd carriOO W'Ound h-er pictu.rc:. decl3ritl~ t.h.a t she too \\'Ould achieve Olympic success.
C(!fiiJ.wJiWr.t. Compccitors influenced athlete$ by CI'Cilting 11 com~lit he ;ttrn<l)here. the
compecilive exp~.TicDCe, by pushit~ tbc athlelC$ to flChie\'c, through behavior modeling. and
wctc ai!OO citod as a g.encral influence souroe.
Agtrii.J For one atltl~:h:, hi$ --~nt wM described fls fostering/nurturing/instilling t.:harnctcr
iscic:s inlpO(Iant f SUOCC$li. This athlete's parent felt that tbrouah i>el"$(l(lal imolvcn)('nt, this
agent fostered goo.lsectlt~J t~kills and skilltntnsiCr front SI>Oit to \iiC in the athlclc.
ind~tly tbrougb
51~

Sport Roefolff'U
~I'C!
194
www.sirt.c:.a
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u,...,~
D. GOULD 6T ,,L,
Af('thods v.4tlrlll the ..FtJmily Sflun:.c

Fa.mily, tbe l011rgcst sumiUilry source of infiucnoo ~tc&ocy (cited by I ~..<. (If l.hc: re:.sp<.m
dents). included pucntll, g.randp:lTents, siblinas, 41nd ~ipilico nt olbt:rs (boyfriend. girlfriend.
<'It spoo~e). A large r..llJ.oe of methods of inllucncc on ps)'cho~gical dc\'cl(lflu'ltnt were ill
tloded within tbesc sub-sourc~ (~ figu~ 3).
S1blin}!S. Siblints inOuc:DCcd the psythologic.al development of tl)c ad'IIC1ei parrici(>:Uin& in
th1s 9:udy through the mctbodll of tca.~i ng. by e)O'ering feedb;l(;k ;md "'Tihque, through sibling
rivalry, by providint .support and by (e~Kbmg both direcdy nnd indircclly. Jndin."Cttcao::hing
in,,ohed f(I(Sta\nglnunuringlinscilling positive and hcahly values lind (lllthwks us wc:IJ us
mode-ling.
Gmmlpo""l:i Grn.ndp..'-rt:nts were inOucntisl by kading atti\'i: lifestyles. by being oph
m~ic/positi vc. at1d thmuR,h tca<:hmg lth du'()Ctly aDd indi~~ly. Indirect tC3chins included
hoth modeling O'lod f0$taingfounurinsfms.illin~('IO!Iiti vc at1d IC:l.lthy :utill1<.les rwd v.duoes. Ad
dWooa.Uy. gru.ndparC'Iltll had a pMiti"c t;entf111mfloi!WX on Ut'C'tr alhletic grandchildren's J)Sf
chnlngic:ll de\elopmeot.
S{gmficam mhel'$.. Athie~' !l.i,~tni licanl nth17$ imp;M;ted the atlt.lotes p;ycbological dcwl
OJ)I'flent thruugh ndirecttc.1chin~ (modeling. fosteringfnunuringli.n.i.tilling) a1ld Chr<Mgh inte.t
tionally teaching impo11rult anitudell and skills. $ignilic.1nt oebers aJso bad a positive/optimis
tic- atlitudi!, J!fcwided support as well as helpful feedback and critique. Mcnti1~ninjlthe ..uppon
;She rti.,.<d ji'om her significant Olh ct dutinK:\ time she wast~tl\lg~tn.gand pertOnningpoorly,
one alhk to.: said, ' My husb;md was U)'ing CV<'rytbing he oould to be supporth'i: and 001t;d in
my way. He was honest and he couJJ s~o><: thi n~ ;m,l t:llk liOOvt thin~ that the 00.1cltcs wt'-tctl't
bta\'C <:~1 tu lninx up."
Fomily~n..irrmml!nf. The family tuv i1 um~nt :;;ouroc. wtthin th.: ov~ral l $tltnmary ofinflu
enec catc&<>>' of f:m1il), io<:I...J.es things done witbin the f3Jllily or due to 1be uatur~ Qf the
f111mily dynamics that intluer.ccd J)S)'Chologic:~l dc:..dopntc:nl, but cvuld 001 be nnnOutcd to
any one individual iu tltt: (;,:mily alone. .C."ampks included things such as bow tJ1e n:lluru "r
having large family blught an atble.:c how to work wilb O(h~, vr how ft~mily dyUimies
within a sin&lcJ)."'fent lv~l.uklaiJowcd the athlete to adopt a hard v.-ork ethic by wih 1~ing
bvw bmd hrs tootbcr worked to take <:ate of lhc family. i ll!! ntt:thWs Qf influeoce within the
fu.mity cn\ironmcm inc:ludhl l~ping $1J<:CC!'S in perspccti\'C. objecri\'Ce"aluatio of pet(Or
mam:c:, :m overa.IJ ullderstanding of the spc~~;1, in1emic;11\illly lc:m:hin~ p~ytllologrc.:al 5kills and
<;haracteristics wilhio the famil)', u.OOoeling. and using moti.,.<~tional techniques. One p:uet~t,
dc$Ctibing lbe: import;1nt infiltCntc oflhc litmilyoo her ehiWathlete, cil.:d how -=vc:ryone in the
fimlly was always there fot C;ICh Othc:r <~od the ""\'DC!'ill suppontve atmosphere ~i thin lhc fam .
ily. 11~ fumily ;;mlronmcnt was also cited as <llll)hasi."l.ing expccuni~>n~ aod $tl.1Dtlirds.. hard
work and discipline, the i mf~Miu.C.: IJf foUowlhrough. a.od the attitude that hard \\OOrk l)a)'$
oil J'l'articiptutl$ indicoh:d that Ute fan\ily environment did not rtaee u.OO prt:ssun: 00 tbe
athlete. and that instead it !)!Ovided uncoodttionul support aod IO\'e.
G.::rctal flunily cl~r..w.:leristics were ai!IO cited as being iiUJ)()t ant in the de\'clOpment oftbc'
psychologi<:al cbllt8CCcristiCll a!NOC:i&tcd witb t~uccm. These mctbodll of mOliCncc included an
active- family lift$tyle (e\'cryone active). a healthy cOnll)ctiti\'C cn...-imlunent., g()()(l communi~tioo skills. the nature or the f:unily it$elf (e.g. independent. lnolhated). parenting s.tyli:li,
religiosity, a1.d an Ophmit~ti<;Jpositi\'C ~1ylc. It is important to I)OtC that a dysfunctjoo:ll famJiy
cnvrronment and financial is.~cs wert also indttutcd illS being methods or influence on ath
k tcs' deNclopmctll withm the fatn.il)' environment i.h3t helped athkt~o~ de\tlop the ps)'d!O
logical characteristics that helped them lluecced. I~or c::t;tmplc:, Qne athlete indicated that although thc~res:t he e.xperieno;;d as a result ofhis J)IU'Cilts' divorce \\iiS diffieult, it did IM:Ip him
4
51~
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PSYCHOLOGICAL C1iAJtACTRJS'I ICS OJNELOPMENT
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Suptowl
lnuthl
p/()'o""'"
w~ ~mlJ31ifl)(oU\'e
L...- l iiutJo! olld~ly -------~
r.~t~d.'na:tt~J..""edlim:rilkd
...._ Mfldcoled
r-
Ktpt ...:c~u in ~rspKtino

t.ilil:llion of p.<rfQI'lll.ltlo;c:
Objr.i~
UII<IMr.OOd sport
Taugllt
Mod<lol
u~ mQti,nli<ll:llll~
Etnplluid
F'amity
E~ltO;hotivn'> oo~1 >otond..Ns

ltv\1 .,.Vtl. ""'111.toeoplone
E~I>O.:h<lil)lo~
_-
ur MIOJW
til~
It" "'"'I. poy~ o>IIUia~uM in~u II!
F..nvitl'lnmcm
11o1)iolt.S l.'nlltrumc-.
lind 811JIIK'Ir7
A~ivc
t!IC!.t)k inOuemecd
CVo~olil)lt
muootphtte !nt!llt*'cd
Oy.CumlJODII llurolly
efl\'IIMfl'll"'ll
.,.....,,.., '""cs e(!b,:fed

Vw<J
(l)l_,.offllmhOII d:itls d'f.:d
!'1111"!'1: or l lmllly ~
W""' (II'Jiiull$:1efpl"!LIW
Pc.MI11 II)'!C:
M.ci~ic)ll$ upbringing C!fl\'iromnt~~~:
Mgurc ~- $1)Cclfic $0l1rco; af inlluence and mtl ll(l(ls or illllle~ within the r.-mll)' $0urc;c:. of lnt1uence
8Uil ltn&l y ~y.
51~
rhf! World".f I.N41iforl

Sport Roefolff'U
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
www.sirt.c:.a
~I'C!
Aottorul r.. pooolle .. funl><t awi"'l >1n<1l,r ,....ww,H.
U. GOULD 1.1 At.
196
r- f<r!No::IU'CMique all~e:cd
(lc:n.t~
rnfbencc
kdisious upbrinM
Und~$p0tt
T"'!"'''
~>mph,;id
_r---"'L_
.
fiJ;pMIIIi(l!Of. fll'd $.WI~

~.-.. ....on: lind kil)tint
xpo:cntiOfiJ vf follllW cit~ '"nuc...:ed
FOc<:l~do'Mwl.~IINiiDcd
Modckd
Su.:Ci:$ e,""'t
CIY.llt!l&:cd
Uwd """MUIOMI
rilfiti~ ,,.. ,11
r.m:.niJ- - --1
cecllmq~$
Acth~ lifc:;l;)lo iiUI.IH.'~J.."('(I

!'.l'lmpc.'tili\.: ll!mowhCI\: innui~M
Q..:.w:d ~~~:lti(Y(al(nl. --~

euvirvnn:o:nl
in child',. -.:liuti~
~pt SU.."'ll:: ie p(l'p(X'I"I}
I n~~'!
l'rnvidcod ~i\1 envir(,Mot"OII 1100

Vji'J'(If1Ufoi!la
~...idvd \ilo'olo:lul'ft~t
b m1U
Nclpt:~
~pruvu.kd
U~iunal
luvdsl.lplll.llt
~(l,t
Good c..,.,.,_.d,l)l p:em efl\oo::ltd

i.a;l,: \If \lf.IOIIIIM,IU(Ciii()ll
I'~
btll-.:o; Ciltb ()Iller
W''l (lplio-tieljl()~oUYC'
r:an<::~~in~: ~)t.:
<k:\elop positive, helpful coping skills. lnten;sl-ing.l),l~ athletes citing these inth.w:nce~ indi
co ted that 111tbough lh~e evcnl3 wete nM Cally at tbe lime. chtd l ~n-ging ein:umsl.anccs dKl help
1hem dcvc~op their strength and detenmn,,tion..
Parf'nts. Ptu"'ts, like coac;he.;. were ciltd as plnying 11 l<'ll'gl! n.lk: io the dcvd oprnent of the
lw::ahhy pi)'chologjcal characteristics of thel>..: Olymt'ic cbampions. lneludod vndcr tbe St*
crfle source cotcgury of p:ltt'llt$ Y.."'CI'C thinp tbnt mothers.. fnthcr$.. ()r parents as a unit did that
infhl\:1lcod lhc athlncs' pS)X'bologicoJ development ih~c methods ofinll ucDC~: ineh1ded p.:.
viding fcedbil(;k ml criliquc,JM'Oviding a religious upbringing. siQWin& iUl understanding of
dw: spllrt, and d irecdy teaching. One mother()( a 3ifl:ed athkcc. in dcscn'bing tho: aeions (If lw:r
spouse, indico.tod lh:u as a father be had a 101 of influf."'IOC: on 1}le mhlete's dcvelopn1cn1. She
i1.dicatcd tbat he pushed all of hi:> c;hildreo, inchwli118 tbeir Olympic champ100, in ~iti ~ and
ot....-er deslflM:II~ lolo':'l)'$. Par~.nts were also foulld to provide l,mc:ondilillnal love and support
with no preS$Utc, 1111d to motiV',.ICo.thJ~ lhrou&l challenges.. motivatioool u:c:lutiquc:s, and by
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
f'SYCIIOLOGICAL CJIARACTERISTICS DEVELOPMENT
,.,
03eng p<)$Jtive p;JJtnt;tJ pu......hing. E.lillltlph::s of posith..: p;m:ntl.ll pushing indud~:

l'l.nhina me enough M it slill cnmc 1\Qm my heart The times 1 really Deeded the moivuioo,
tlu:y "'"'ttl: nglld tlu:re pvi~ il to mo:.
I think I h:1d 11. rally ~I hnlmce be:!"'~ cnQUJh di!!Cipli-ne :l(l(j enough aood humnt tlu.t it
....'<Ki<< out ...,'cll.
CHher sourocs of posiri\'e support, sucb as a cru-in& coach, v.'Cro evident as well.
A l lhOuJ~II in lhe rnin,lf'ity, thae wen!' lwo Cll~ when: one: pan:nt wtL'S tOC posili\dy suP"'
portive. instead bns.ing Of withholding lo\'1:' depending on bow lhe adllcte pcrfonncd or pres
JWting ot jlU$hing their a.tlllete. 11~ bc:lllvion; wen: reptJrt~:ti!Q I:J..-.: twg:th-.: t:Onseque:n";Q.
oo l.hc athletes invoh-cd. In both th~ cases. howc\'tr, tbc othCf parrn1 exhibited U))C(IOdi
1i01ul lovc and $\IIJil<}tl tl\at oO'!ioi:llii<J.llY uf these m:pliV\! effedS.
E.xpocwtions ofburd wort. discipline, of tOIIow~tbrough., &od of upholding st.1ndunh were
l':ubthcrnCll of inflm.':nct f)f(lvic.led by pt.lreJdS. as was indirtct 1eachina liSing n)()dclins and by
rostatng IUld nu:rturing b'OOd skills and cburoaeristics.. l'be hlird work ctttic sublbcme was
dc:ri~d fl\un llt.'itcn.cm.s sucl :~s,
My po:l)j!IC' o.m<' e~ver from l!aly ;u the tum ol' tbe oentul')' mvl they~ ~11{ :.nel l a.t>cd I) !dl
the kids his nU tb~ time. 1b:;-y l13d t.kboUC' and S"-U n 1ey didil'uit dowt~ and eay tutd say
f.'(IIX me. ew:rylx>dy is lkriminlllin)! ng;a;0$1 m~ . They!?" " I" and worked hard :.;nd e.~;cc:Ucd
over the )'catS. They '.l>(:( SUCC\."SSful b\11 tbo.)' 'oO.'Ot'k:OO.
The emphasizing fllllowthmugh sublhcmc wa.~ he:;.t t'ritomin:d by the following J'IGrCnl
:SI:'demenl.
I! the cbiklren. made 0l'IU1litmt!M, I Cl(pcc!cd tbctl110 fi>lkl"''tbro~J8b., I '>'Wid dltbem yo11
don't ba~ k!du11. Y<u don't ha'~ ll>,ign up lOt it. Thai i:'l ~U7dVlic:c. Onocyoo do u,U.: lhal
choice, then they muss OOil)IDillO at So I e~IC\'1 lllcm 10 follow ltlroo~.
Pi!t'Cnts wm also said 10 have croau:d a positive achievement cnvirollO)Ct'IC wiUt an ache
and I!trough pl'()v1dini,( ~l rU(:Iu~ :lfld
s~ting limits. The achkvement CJWirottnlCtll was also maintained by keeping success in per
Spt.'<:live, lhrQugh providing QpJxJrhmilit:s ;:md ;a ~i 1he tovirvnmt"tal. :md Unough p:ucrdal
in\'olvcmcnt in lhe individual's activiics. Relative to keeping suoceu in pcrspx1h-c. one atb
ldt: l.lt~'Ti\x.-'d h.:r tlll)lher's rc:spon!ii: lu bousthold clll)rt~ :anc:r .sht: w..,n ~\lll.lmedl!l as a lt'Cil
a.gcr when sbc indicuted "my moen was like. I don't CM if yoo woo X gold n1cdals. you still
h:tvt )'(!tar d aores :crad tk:m your room.'" Similarty. anOther- alhl<:tt: dcsni~lla i ~ psrenl~' perspective by $1ating.
lif~tyle emphit.~i:-.. il ~tli vc compctllhc t:nviwnmc:nl,
ll'll...-c'i f.:h lib: i(l W()(l3 COI"J'>tlll.tOa lbe'y wCI.~ IWCIIy-('.X11cd.1bcy 'II'CI'C like, lbtll was good,
YQU k.nQw, tho:) ~,id
that e~"'Cl'l 'll'ben I dlc.ln' t perfQfT!I well . . .. l):l)e'W th:ct lh.:y woen- JlrtlUI!,f
me bull t.bioL I kncv.lhc:y w~,c; proud vfmc wbctbc~ 1.,.,'00 Of kl61.

Finally, diC cbaractetisties of tbe f)atellti, including good t"ommunication skills., lack of
O()nlmuniciltton !>kilb, good p11rontal bal:.tt)I;C of om: rutoChcr, ovem.ll p:trenling ~t)'le, nnd a
scnseofbcing op:imisciclpositivc, wer~ mctbod'i of influence aJI cited as buviog bad an impact
On lhC <.kWtfc)ptnCIIt o( lftC ISUIXCIISftaJ indjv)l)uaJ"s l)l>)'tbOJogic::aJ charlk:lCriStiCS.
51~
..
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
D. C.iOULD ET 1\L.
DISCU SSION
PsydwlogiCJ.~I C!~artJ('I('ristics ofOuma11ding Jl thletes
AA(I' an ();.t~tve n:wlew of the litcrn.turc, Willi(L)lls and Krnne (2001) idcntif.cd a number
ofpsyc.hologkal chamc:t~ristk$ ()f hi&hly suctcssful Mhl etc~. a.~ wdl as the <:ntal skills the:se
:nhlch:s us..:d to 11ch.ieve opcunal ps)~hok>gicol stutes. Cbantetet~ics included: self-regulation
of nrousak high oonl1dcntt; benet coneentrtuion ;ond fO<:U~~ an '"'in (:(lntu)l IKit 1)()1 fmemg it..
:mitudt.; pf'IS:ib\'e maeery and llelftalk: and high dctcmltnlltion aod commioncm. Skills used
to achieve peak psychological stat~ includOO: image!); RnaI scumg; th<>uji,llt OOntrOI .o\'ltalt
Ric.~; Sl\"lu!>al m:matnW:nt; welldcvelc.lped eotnpctition piiUIS; well-dc\'eloped coping stmtc.gies: und pnxompt:tithe tnr:mal prepn.nuion plt~ns. '!'he qu:uuilativc :t1wl qunliut, ...c rt~ult~
<:tllletle<l wil:h these OlympH: <:hamproJtS parallckd lhe$C resulls almo61 c:tnclly. For example.
A<.:SI- 28 esuhs s!bow<:d that tM:se.outslarlding pcrfMmCt'S had high cootidcoe~, fceed..'Wn ftbm
\\'<In)', gOOI ~~~m~ :tm.l mcnbtl prqxtmhon, and c:;oocmtnelionlfOcus scores. Similarty. TOPS
results shovot"d that tbesc Olympians ~A-c:rc high Otl g.onls~uing, :aC:(i\':llion. rtl:~.-..:at ioo, ano
tiorml <:l)nln>l, and 3tlt(lm:lhcitylau<:ntion fOc;u$. Quu l it<~tivc results tti..1n~ulntcd many ofl.bcse
lindings. Hcoce-, we can be \'cty oonfidem that thcs" variabkll 3.Cc crilkal oom(l(MlCnt~ of the
psy~.-IJI\.,;y ,,f:lthlt!lic ...-.xc;:lkncc.
ln addilion to 'l(:ril)tins previous tindings in a w:ry sdecti~c SJ'xt~ of S.lll~rh pc-rfuntll-'TS,
th ~ inv\!.llligalion ~nmim~.l ,s.cvt:n~l pn:vi{"l ~ly l.llll:~plorcd Vttnablcslflal migl'tt be rcllltcd to
at.hJctic success. Most notable \\'C:t'<: the t>fcctiontsm. optimism, :tnd ll('){le fildin.<\. Result"
tc\calcd tbat thc: Olympi.:1ns ""'l!fC rooi.kr..ltcly ~OI:tionist~o~; ~lari'VI: to their overall disposi
twn SCOT\!$, More intcrcSiing. however. was the pattern oftliC wbso."'.3k findings. n~ ch!'lmpi.
ons scored nl()(!e.ately litth t)r hig h on ~lst<.I!Kb.rd:; and orpnizuuoo, but low on cooe<m o'l\!r mi:stukes. parental cxpoctarions.. p.trc.ntal criticiMn, and doobts s boUI actioo. Thi$
pane11l ir; wh!'lt (l(li:' would c:.xpe:c! b:~< vn th~t ht.~:r~l \lte ~Xgll rding udllpli ~ \"t!f'SUS muludapli\-e p:rfe4:honi:;m (H11muchck. t?78: Rice & Mir?.adch. 2000). These findin~ ;:rus.scstt.hat
futur~ rcscatchet'S !ihoulrl ~.,plore OO.b lbt: pc.~Sili~~ and n~golwe a:sp<s
)>\'rib.;:liooistic
l;;ndc.ndes in athktes and th<:tT relation~hip to arhlctic succcs!i.
These athlete~ wctc :al~ optimi$1it m tht!iJ oJit:ol;tiortS, scoring btgh Ofllhe LO'I' R. The
qtm1t1;11iv.: fiod~al.so ttiaogulatcd the fncl thatlhcs:c atftJc.cs were optimistic :l.rld J)()Sithrc in
their orientations 3."' 311 lhe athletes, t~ine Q( l)te ooocltes and dgitt t.lf tbe stgniiiet~nt othen;
tc.tl.:otifie~ ttus as 11n imponiUit churac1cri.tic of the Olympisn!i. If Lhill fiOOin& is 'l(:t'ilicd in
more comrol\cd invcsLig;uion!l; a1ki linked I() peJ(onnance. intcrventi<.lft stOOies mi.ghl be m
(ntlcr-as QpCtUli$m can be teamed (SdJ_gntln. 19?0).
This gmup of athletes .....as alslb clt:li:\Citri:.-.ed by high leveb of d~iti oml bope.l'w-t.bcrm(>rc. lhC)' c.xhlbttc..t C)l:trcmely higlt agency and puthway hope subsea!<: ~'Ofcs. 1'hcsc hope
fiodirtg$ wctc ui.nngulatcd I<> some d~.-'8fte by his,h 'I'OI'S and ACSI zg goo1:14:Uing stabscule
SC::Ot>5 and qtmJJIAiti~ fmdjngs emphusizing both goo\ setting aDd goal dedication. Again, be
cause no comparison group was a~:l.ibhlc filr ll1i!il srlllty, 1he r'ellillhlS 0\1'1: only 8uggclSUvt: llowC\c:r, they liTe c<m:s1stent wttlt 1]1(! initial alhlctie bope rcscarcb of Cuny and Snydcr(2000) and
lead us to recommend th:ll spol'l piyclk)lc'SY rt!l;carchell l\u1her ex;ammc chsposilmn:d hope
Bnd its ~I::.J ion:shtp co ~thlctie sococss. Mon."Over, it sboold be: noced thn1 hope is :m cspccislly
intctcSiing oo~ruct to explore bc\:au.~ .qa1psycl<1lutcy ~lill8eltmg r~:s~rch has te.nckd lo
focus m()!lt <1f it$ 11tcn1ion on :spoctf'ic gon1cboractcriscics. H0\1.'\'et. the bope model looks at
gool setting as a syscem wilh hoch di~itiQrl31 at)IJ Slllle C(>mpoatenls., as .,...tJI :t$ 1he $piflc
&oals one iitts, possible path,vays for achieving goals. nnd tOOti\ationuJ Slratlogjes for d('3ling
witb obstadcs tltal blocl: goal achit:\'OOle'Jtl (Sn~r. 2()(1()).
or
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
I'SYCHOLOOICAL CIIARA(..,.EIUS'nCS DI.:!VI:!LOPMF.NT
Consistcrtt with prc...i<Mt!l u::~earcb, the :tbility 10 focus Wltll id~:Jttifit:d illi ooc of lhc most
ctWd chanw;t~:ristic;s of these highly successful perfo11nm.. JIOWC\'CI', s~.-vernJ components of
focus were idcrnif.cd including the ahilit i~ tO nttnvw .mot'l! allcntM>n, bk>l;k out d1sl'mctioos,
illltnd to wholt one: c.:1.m cootroJ.nnd autoo1atize ooc's respon!iiCs. Spon psychology rescorehers
~tudying aucntion and eoocentnuioo mi&ht lind it u..elll to cxpto"' these potential oompoDI:nts, (!Sp<;.,;.ially in hght of the latest m01or learning and control aucntion and petfom1ance
rcscorch (Abemcthy. 20tH).
The <tU<llhilthc r~uiLs also Kkntilied new ''ariablcs and \'atiablc components that fututc
invei1igators may oonsidct. Por cxampk, mcnt:\1 toosJm~ w:LS ;m irnport:mt c;h;n-a~..::rishc
idenlificxl in tbi.!S $ "dy (mc:nlioo< by 73% of the partic:ipants). Whik athlc1cs and coaches
ot\cn talk about mental toughness. !~eldorn h:t<s it tl\..--.:n pn:c-i~dy deftncd. ~rticip;mls (;~lhlclc:s,
$ianific:;ml <.~Ibm;, c:~bc::s) in lhi.s study were certainly oot unifonn in their views of mental
toughnc:s.i. but some of die nwc common COtnponettS of it fVCIISCIJ on n:.silioen~. ~ver
arce, :tt~d lltt abiliy lQ suQI:~uJiy deul w1th advtr.;ity. (These findings arc especially intct
esting gi..-cn Jooc~. Hamon, tmd Conllaug.hton's (2002, this issue}COntiX>tti'IIS<.~f ml!lttal tough
w::.~ llntc,ly IX>1113in.ed tlsc::wb(:te in lhis issue:.)
Finally. spon. intciJiscnoc \\'tiS an im;:rc..~ting ll.O::w ps.ychoi<:>Aic.'ll ch.'lracteri~ic: i<.k:n1ificd in
thi!: ,;;n,dy. It oo-sised of such thc:~nes as the <~biUt)' to analyz~. bcing irulO\'u.ti\'c rclnti..-c to
oocs spon ledmique.. being :t student of the !tpon, m:tking AOt"iod dceis.ii"MlS, Ul'ldetSt:-tndiug 1l1oe
rl:\t\ltC of clile !tpon. and beu:\g., quick leamt"r. Funhcr mtervie'W$ with uth1eces and eoachocs
abou1 this variable and Its components would be u~ful. rn,csti)l3tors oould cxplocc de ll\o'lke
up, :tntccc&:nt-t. ilnd ('ll.'ltnlial eliccts of ~pon intc:IJJgence oo pc:r10nn.1occ:.
1"he Dn't'/QpmE"m ofPS)v:llolop,ical Cltaracteri.~rtet
Thi$ Sludy w:3s :dw lk$~nc:d 'o t:xrumoe howpt)ycbological i.:haructcrislics were developed
m U.S. Olympic champions. Rcsulti shov"Cd that nli3ny individu:lls a1kl ilSiituli<:W:..: wm: per
ccivcd 10 inOuerl~ the: dc:vt:l~t..ml of lht:se OtiMOIOdm.g pert'orml!f'S. Spcclli~lly. these in
c.lud<Xl the oommumty. fomily, non-sport personnel. t.hc indi\'idu31 himself Ot he~l f, ~wr
cnviroJUllC"ilcf~Ulel , and ll1c: :spare J711)1:~ Mor~.wer, way$ of' influence 'vet'e both direct.
such as tel;l(:hmg or empbasizing certain p!t)'cllological lessons.. and indiccct, iw<:>l'rirlg ruodd
ing oc unk1\0wingly cteatil'l& oertaiu P">~OOI<.~gical ~viromnt'nb. Th~ m;ulls. then, suppon
lht' wtlfk of Bk>om (1?85) and Csiks;o..cntrnihalyi and oolleag_ucs (1993) in showill& th:U the
psyeholoaica1 dcvcloprnent <>f <M.tsumliug a.IWdc::s takes pia! un~r 11 long titm pt,:t'iOO and is
influe:oted by a vanecy of indi\'iduals and factors. This long-term process invo.l\<cs bo:lth the
13lentcd pctSOO and a strOng $\lpp<)n :;ysem.
Allhoogil the 10terview guide was organillCd around Bloom's (1985) tbrce catccr ph:uc..<~ of
elite perfom1cr dcv<:lot>mCnl, it was clear 10 lhe tluo:: imcstiptor.s tb:llntl lO ut.hJI::tcs" experi
4:00:S ~'tllsily Iii into these SI!A!,ttS. Hence, in the c111ly )'<!ars (the Roma.noc phase) the athlete
developed a love for the ll{lOt1. l1:.d a iJ.rC:tt ddl Of run., 1etei\'ed tni()Oum~mcnt from sigmfl
i.:liDI utho.m, Wll$ free to explore the activity, and achieved a good dc.al of sucoc!ts. Parents also
instilled the value ofhard work and doing lhings well 4uri c\~ l.he early )'eJ~nJ. lo tbc nudl.lk
)'(:llts (the Preci.:sion phase). a muster cooch teacher promoced kmgtenn sys.tcanatic skill
learning in the talcnltd indi\'ich1al. n,c focu~ was (In tc:dmical m.'ISit:ry, IC(;hnique, ;md exocllent;e m ;Skill de\'dopment. Finally, in tbc latt:r years (tbe Jntcgratioo phltSC) nn individual
eonlinuod to work with il tn3Sit:r tC3Chc:r (coach) and pr.teticed m;sny I10utli a day to tum trai~
ing :md tccbnk:3.1skills mto pcrsoouliZ<Xt perfonnancc~ Outing this phase. there was a realization that lhc acti\'iry wa!l: significruu in ont'!l life.
NQt surprisingly, p;.~.n.:nls and fami lks were pen.:civcd to play a critic;~I role m p~hological
51~
200
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
0. OOULO eT Al..
1aknt dC\<tl)pmcnt. They were found to provide fwnciaJ. logistic-.al. and sociul-ntlolional
support. l;anul.ics ckttrly supportt:d and encouraged p;111c.-ip:uion, but in m061 ettll~ cxcnod
liulc pressure to win. Thill is oon:s:istcm with the )'OUih spons rcsearcb by Power and WoolgCI'
(1994) who found lbot ~n..-nlttl ~>upport w.as postlhdy rela.led 10 childroo'.t enjoymcm a1.d
cntbusi;asm for swiml'ning.. Similurly, it S\Jili'KinS C61C's ( 1999) n:ocnt rcscarc.h with clile 11lh
l<!tts and trn:u fiumlics l>bowin.g tbat famil~ plu}"Q.t u. c:rilical roll: in elite al11lctc iewolvcmcm
and athJccic dcvdopcnenL
MO!ol intertsling W\:re th~ fi1M.Iin~ th::&t illmili~> cmph:~ited :l belief in lhc cl1ild's ability to
sucoced Of "can do" altitude. This is coos.istcnt with the research of Bnstad ( 19!>3), who fo11nl.l
I~\ott a hightr r.1t.: of purenl;d cncollr.Jsc::ml!nl w~ cvm:lalcd wilh perceived physica1 conlpctcncc for childrttl. Families also rnodckd hard work and discipline, a finding t.:onsi.slcml wilh
~;n:h by MQII.'.!:'<ts ( 19S.S), S\Q:Io ( 198S), S<l$niak ( 19R.S). :l1ld Slobod11 and Hov.oc ( 1991)
who showed that parcniS of highly successlUI indlviduuls cspou:sed or modc.led v:h.e:s relate'.~
to :tc:bi.:vc::uenl sud a.~ hMd w()ll:, $1)CCCSS, bcinQ ac1ivc. aewl pcrsL~tcncc.
This O)Ximistic acllievt"mt'nt-oricnlcd climmc created by puren&s,l~. Jtdp-00 <Je:velvp 1l1e
C()tllid~ltt and ntli\'illiOII needed fo.w fum.rc llllC:CC!I!I. At the ss1nc time, parrots crnphasizcd
tl)c anitttdc that if )ware going to do it, do 11 right." Tbe:sc rcsuiLs:.u-eCons.i.sh~ll wtb OJooms
( 19SS) condusion that lhc StJOCc:t>dltl development af a talented individual roquirct~ the lftcilitation ofdisciplined invol"emc:n1 ("'do tt righl- 11Uitudc:) while ;,voiding excessive expeet:Hion!l
(did not rr'C$.'<UfC the :uhlctc). Thill is aJ11o ooullit~lent with \..sikzcmmihs.lyi ct ul. s (1??3) complex family notion. Thai is. Utcse 1~1milics are both intc:{!1<1h;d ;,ud differtttiated-ir'ltter,ucd in
thllt they ...,'Cte s.tablc ifl their sense of !n!p!)C)n and con~tistcncy: diffemuiatod in tlwt they
rocouru~cd thdr children to '"indl\'tdoally"' $k otll nc::w cballeng.es ~od 1'1J)()IJ!lwiticll.
li:kc parent!!. oo.sehcs v;-crc abo found 10 he a plimnry inJl uen<:c-on athlele psytbologic.1l
development Tbey did tblS in 11numbu of,q)'S, jncludng en1ph:!~i:riS <:~ai11 tl1inRll t~ucllat~
hard W()(k and discirlinc 01 having fun. h3ving chanKtcristics that tilcililatcd athlete tnaSI.
pro\'J.ng cnoount-ocm<:nt o.nd suppol1, directly tc,::1<:hing ()f f<r.<li.Tina, mental ...:l.:ilh, and by Ul)dcn<~aMiing th~ athletes. t.ookingaeros." the interviews it WiiS a.lso dear Utallhe sumc-coachmgstr;1tc,:gu;s were not llppi'Qpf-ii'te IQre;u:h l1thleh.-fliffcn:tl1:d l~ required dinen::m thing.~
from lheir coaches at diffe-rent points in their cmen. This certainly cmphasizCll the impor
t.;mce of (;oachc:s re:.ding llthlctcs" ~yd!nlflgical n<:L'(I.~ :11nd utili1-il'l.. diffc1'<:111 ll(ll'lro3Chcs ut
different times and in different situations. Some evidence (1-lallSOn & Gould. 1 ~8) indicutcs..
how...-ver, tJ1at m:my c-~.mchcl! ;1n: llQI skillc~l al readinK tl1eir athktL'S' Jlt'YChc>logicaloccds. A
need cxi!Us to bcucr understand this J)locc:ss.
fin:llly, while noc the major fi)Cut~ of thi~ ~tudy, C()::ll8 (If wlL1ll do::vdupmcm were noted
such as giving up nspccts of a soc:iallife outside of spon or having ditrJculty Sq~Qf\.lting one's
SpOrt and ~lf.ide:ntity. I hi-l> is <:vnsiS'en! with I h.IYo'l! ':s ( 199()) cOI\Ciusio~.>n that My intense ef
fon to dC\"<:Iop talent will have cosiS as well as bcnciitJ;. More :IJI'C<:ilitally e~amming these:
L'<J'$b and l).:nclits would be a fruitful an.-a of funu-c re:)C:uch. Additionally. it would be intcrcsling to e.wklrc the process of bow athlctC11 balance such costs and bene lib: o~ tim.:
Strt>-1'/.J(ih.f and Umlwricnu
'l'blS m~'C~tipti011 b;l(l a numb\.oror t~tn::n.glhl!. fin;e." ''c:ry dite trQup of :uhl~tl!i Wti stud
icd. Seldom before ha''e so many hisJIICV(:) elite athletes been interviewed and Slll''eyed. Th.is
w:~:S IIUI)plemcntcd with icUCf'\'ti!W$ wtth ~>tgttiflc::.'lnt ()the!'$ an4 CQacbes wl1b knew the uthl<:tcs
"CIY "A'CII. Triangulating lindinst~ across m<:thads (sutVcys :md inlcrviews) and soon:l"J (atblttcs. C().'lch<:s, siinilicant other$) wa3 :1 Strength, then. lntervie-wins the three S<JW'(:~ abo
allowed us 10 gain thttt unique views of ps~hologiCill chaructc.:ristics and talcnl in Olympic
51~
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
PSYCf-IOl.OGICAL CHA.RAcrERlSTlCS 06VELOPMF.NT
201
champiOCill. A third lltrcng1h was the lhl'tleperson cooocra:;oal validarioo procedure employed.
In addition, J>rcviou!lstOOics 0 1\ ps;ythc>lo&k31ehaBC:tc(i'Uics ofalhlctcs have us.::d only one of
two inventories .110 e.'tOO:Il\"<: b.1Uery of tcscs was cmployl'd in this study, as wcll as qualita
tive in!ervicws. Finslly, a brosd scope WS!lt:tketlt) the stOOy.
Ll.kc all invc:st ig~.~tion~. this iltudy bd scverallimitatiOfl:s. First, only 10 athletes were surveyed and interviewed. Wbile lbty were certainly en.ique in their performance acxompli!ih
mcnts, thdr tl)lalnumber 1s !!mall :Jnd oo comparison group ofle!Ss succcssfi.tl bl.tt eht ~; tllhJdes
of comparable <:ltpic:BCe (and their significant mhers and ooechcs) was surveyed and intcr"ie:wec.l. Simil;ui), elite athlete n()nns ror most oftbe in\"elltories wen: not avrul.abk for C()m
p3!isoo. pu1p0ses. Finally, because the data wascolloctod in a rctrospecch-e l!lshion, results are
subjtcltu ~uri boution cff.:.:l!:l and memory bins at1d thi.s 1m1st be con~.k:red in mlc:rpreting
tindings.
Future flesl"l1n:.h Directions
Based oo the results oflhis investigation, !IC\'(:1'!'1) tines ofadditional moenrcb urc wamtnted.
Fir~ since thi.~~udy did not cmplny 11 oc>11tparisc.m gr()ll() (lfclitcnthlc:tC-~of !:itnil!rcxpericn<:.e
(who hnd wotk.cd to medal but fi.J.iJcd do so), studying s.uoh n group of comp."'rison nth!es
woold furti)CI' hCl(l dctenni_,c how the$e indi"id1.ull:s tni# have diOi::red frtun thril' 1Mre .~:tiC
oessful countcrpurts.. Similnrly. prospccti\'C: srud..'c:s of clitc $thlctcs would tallow us to later
oo.np;\n! m(l('t and less :~uooe!lsful individu11l~ fr.:c ff()fn the p)AAiblc lllCil)l)fy bill.~ a1ld aurihu
tton eOOct limits of fdr()(Spoctive studies..
Thcdcgn.-..: that psychological eh3ractcri!.11c::s are teamed ve...sus inhclitc:d is a poirll of!lome
oontcntion in the talenl dc,dopmentlilctotwc. Ericsson ( 19<J6) suggCS'Is lb.1t !alent develop
mct~t fCSuiL~ fmm cxtcll~i vc dclibL-nte pr.~ct:ic:c.nOf inltcritcd cMr.tctc:risties ot genetics. Oth
c:rs argue that inherited chnratteristics play a more importtnl rotc (Howe, 1998). Hov.-evcr,
fl!w tt~C3n.-:hc~ h~hc addressed thi;.: i ~ul! in p$)1:~\()~!,gy and no inw~ti.g.:uors in the SJ)(')!l psy
c.hology area. ti."amintng the rote of ddiberote practice in the de'cloptnenl of ps)thological
skills and cha.ractcristic:s is criti~lly impurt:mL
Pm~nling pr.c:tices ;md tbe PQ.rents role in psychologx:al l;~lt:nt devel(lllltll:llt i$ 01 ferttk
arta of fururo research. The present resultS hiahl;slrt lbe impartanccof parcntsSUJ!fiOrting their
chiJd while cmphils~ dilicipline and bard work. In addiiion.. the n(l(ion of po:ulivc or QI'Cl
mal 1X~rcnt push wa.1 evident where pa.tt:lltS wuuld at some time:~ challcn&c a1ki motivate ath
ld..::s and other llmt!$ pru,Kk l!m'J)ittby and support. More ~~~:OO:s to bl:: k.n<,r.o.11 01001.11how par
cnts mairuain the dclic:atc balance between pushing and supporting in\-olvcmcnt Studies of
eO'..x;tive ven~ lcssell'ww~ :sport pal\mtli might be ~pcciaJiy U::;flll. W tgitudiml ~:scud
ic:s and ob!ICrvation research might be: bc!l't suited in lhis regard.
Fin<~lly,cbc ~tbilicy fur cu;tbes lO md:ivldualn:c sl.nltt:gi~ ~!:;1.'(1 011 :tccur.<~te: ai'St~nlt:nl:s of
atblete pS)-ehological characteristics and staleS was identified as imponant by lhcsc. rcspon
d..ml:s. Prc"lous researcb by l lllnwn ;rod Could ( 198$). OOwe,tr, f1:tS shown tl.at M:ltly collett
cross OOUtltry coaches were nO( effective: in reading their athletes' psytbologi~l states and
Cr.li t:~. Scuc.Hcs t.:UOlining r-..ciQI'!I n:lillod to ~be:s' abilic.es tO ~iately te.'ld lheir ath
l~cs need.~ and s1atcs arc badly needed. One possible prcdiccor of sud a abttihts wurthy of
c.x.ploncti<.m mighl be tbc lc"d Q(t:mQiao~U~I iotdlige:ncc <>f the ~h (Golcmal, 1995).
Proctica/lmpllcatioru
These rtsuhs h,a,e a number ofimplkations for those inte:resct:d in enhancing mental skills
in dc,dopin.g atblctes. Fin;l. oor ~Its ore consisl::nl "''ilh previous research ldaowing k~)'
P'$)'Cia<>log.ical cll~r.u::cctistics ~r..:l skills such II$ sdfroaulation of arousal. high cool'idcnce,
W(l~ ~.~.,
~~('~"'
tiJ4!
W\IIW s.Jrt.C'I
1\1_,., ._ ...., ..,._ .......
.,,*_ ....
0 GOtJUl PT AL.
!Oc;w.lftd f'O'Ill"\c: lflWIC'Y telf-tallc att" posiC'MCd by ct.mptOn lllhktes.. Tllo:sc ~Put& pnlpsydJOklglal adb .00 ~t~a '" dnclt"'r'MI aiAictes sboutd tixus
on thew: dlllniC1'"'-'1..~ Sec:and,out tl:l\tllts show thai top t~fii..1Ct*''dop ps)-dtoiosjcal sbl1:1
and cb.tiKh:r!U&<:II o"~r loag tunc periods Jlnd :an: 1nfl~JC~~Ccd by a v.oiOO variety ohnd1 .. 1(~1~
(e.-a. j'la.ttnta, CVIJ.(ba, Ccachers) and institutions(~~., "Chool. sport orsanhrMioDS, family).
gl'lllM to cnh!lt~C~~:
Tbl.l.}.. in 81ttdhlnn tc> fl'yc,bolopQI\ sk:illstninina Wth lndivn1wl atfllctcs. more of Jl ')'(lem...
al'l'lmach hoold be ~kL'Il where key iDdi vidu11l~ wilf11n the lllhlc:te'$ socializatioo nccwork
{e g., fi'UCIIIil, cc*bes) are educate(! all t(lllo{)W tO lOiter deslmhle ,~srchologicaJ ch:u!ICI~I htlc:
gfowlb, Mennal ehnractcrisc)Cs were also IOimd to bo clc..clopcd both 111 fomlal aod inlOrm.ll
ways., IICIW\!\\.'f, 10 io!port Pli)'Chttii'IR)' we ha\'e focused ~of filii attention on timn~t.l Jlli)'Cllologied ilulb: r.mna df.xu lead by spoe1 ~>~ll'IY 11pcculoo Mort antntioon sbou.ld be
gn-en Sl:' JWML ~~plticaul ochtt. and f3n'Lily mrmhor t'duc:a~J( ie the dc~:d~ u( ~
ddopcalcbi~1..CJCS of cblmpioo -~ Fma!l). Me common p.;)~ t'blhi:tm.'\be:A at '--1 d~ dlatliocs.. ~ mch"tdltel dlfTc:rcacc:s ue nuUd. ln ow
effotts 10 dMf:'l C)*."CDMic propb 10 ck'lo~~ pl)ddcJsnl ~tlf.. and cb3rractniM."5"'
aah~c..., "'~
be caRr~ to m:ogl'litt such mrr~
m.
CONCLUSION
Whtlt ll~ l(tuup li)(IIC Olymplllll:i ~l"l! t:hllt:lcfctl7cd by~ numbtr of imponant p;y..::hu
'"KiC:II CllafUCIO:illllic;s, 11 ~ ~ impOit:u'lt to temcmbtt Ut~l II1CJe lllC nomotbt:lic R:$Uit$. No C'lriC
Olympiill\ \0111" .,;l~n.etcrizcd by uti tb.; f:u.;h>l ll idcnllncd In u(khtivn, each was umque in how
du. fact011 wen: combull.."tl to comprise his or hcr po.ycl~lo&iCBJ 11\iiket.W It must al!lo be
cm~ta:J th.d although the l.'niiJO"IYof r:.tuws ilkntiOcd w~n: I"Jl(jti\--c. the J)lln)t;Jp;mb IIJ
lienes ilN;s_kd lll'ld rae~ aoh-mity. Two athldn C'llt"n \!Xf\Crioncod thlliiCiiJ ~. Not \dth
scancbng ll~ factt. these olwr.M.:k:ri~ C':3111 rnw~ .n ~tl &)impsc into the rom!'(~
nen~s of the p~koJO u( e:xcdlc::nce.
Rdll'~ 10 b: dc\'CIIopmclll oftlll!il ~ UikM vt ~1M; data wt
&t:SU thlr ~.,.....J thanoc&crisric dn~ IC b.."U lhcJui;lll of a$ a c:cmplex S)'Siml
D*k wr .,r ..-.nccy or fac:kn o1 ...nuenoe. h " . _. .," poocc:sa: ttqUlR$ pmpa
I'IUitllfin; lr ....ca. ... 10 be totbic:'\'C'd. ~~('f' "")' IMIIflba or t00tvll!u3t~ and ag...-...tc-f
mllunt~..e tlm ptoc:c:. lftd do $10m 1 ....ricty ofdltte4 .00 lnd..wt ,...,.,_ It u our hope th:tt a."
v.e COl'IUn.\lt tq .-u~l)' the proc:tSS of ~bolog1.:3J t:h;tfllo.;l(:n&l~ dc\'C(<Jpncnl in OUI:StswhnG
llil.hkteilwc Will k bctlCS' cqmpped I() bctp all at.hte1c:. ~tt~r dt\'dop mclltllly 9> tb.'lt they ctln
achieve then J)(rl'ltnal t:~Crfonntlnce nnd wellb~mg flh,C~h\'Q..
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~I'C!
www.sirt.c:.a
lltl_,. ._ ...., ..,._.,...,..,.,._ .... ,.., ...
u,...,~
D. OOULO ET AL.
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Tile World's Leading

JOUR.\IAl or APPLIF.D SPORT l'SYCHOLOOY. t4 172-204,2002

001: I0.1 OSO/t0413200290 I03482

Psychological Characteristics and Their

UniverJity of North Carolino Greensboro

Michigan Swte Uni1ersity

Received 15 January 2002; accepted 15 March 2002.

The Worl d's Lea ding

Sport Resource Centre

The World's Leading

in this regard. A number of factors found to be important predictors of a variety of behaviors

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