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IndianLiteratureThroughtheAges

AncientIndianLiterature
ThePurana

AncientIndianLiterature

ClassicalSanskritLiterature
LiteratureinPaliandPrakrit
EarlyDravidianLiterature
MedievalLiterature
WomenPoetsofBhakti
TrendsinMedievalLiterature
ModernIndianLiterature
TheEmergenceofNationalism
TheLiteratureofNationalism,
ReformismandRevivalism

Indianliteratureincludeseverythingwhichisincludedinthewordliteratureinitsbroadest,sense:religiousand
mundane,epicandlyric,dramaticanddidacticpoetry,narrativeandscientificprose,aswellasoralpoetryandsong.
IntheVedas(3000BC1000BC),whenonefindssuchexpressions,IamstandinginwaterbutIamverythirsty,
one marvels at the continuity of a rich heritage which is both modern and traditional. It is, therefore, not very
correcttosaythatancientIndianliteratureincludesonlythereligiousclassicsofHinduism,BuddhismandJainism.
JainnarrativeliteratureinthePrakritlanguageisfulloferoticstoriesandrealism.

IndianRomanticism
TheAdventofMahatmaGandhi
ProgressiveLiterature
MakingofModernTheatre
SearchforModernity
TheIndianLiterarySceneAfter
Independence
DalitLiterature
UseofMythology

ItisnottruetosaythattheVedasareaseriesofsacredtextsusedinreligiousritualsand
sacrifices. The Vedas are essentially archetypal poetry of high literary value. They are
mythical in nature and their language is symbolic. Being mythical, they have multiple
meanings,and,therefore,thetheologianmouldshisrites,thepreacherseekshisbelief,
the philosopher finds the clues for his intellectual speculation and the lawmakers work
outthesocialandpoliticallifestyleinaccordancewiththearchetypaltruthsoftheVedas.

ContemporaryLiterature

Vedic poets are called the rishis, the seers who visualized the archetypal truths of cosmic functioning at all levels of
existence. Devatas of the vedic poetry symbolise the manifestations of the divine force of the One Supreme. Vedas give
importancetoyajna(sacrifice).PurusasuktaoftheRigveda(10.90)describesthewholecreationasayajnaextendedby
thedivineforcesofnature.Etymologicallyyajnameanstheworshipofthedivine,coordinationandgiving(sacrifice).These
threeelementstogether,vision,coordinationandgivingprovideabasicparadigmforanycreativeact.

TheYajurVedaisrelatedtoyajna,whichisnotjustsacrifice,butalsomeanscreativereality.Themantras(versewitharchetypalmeanings)oftheRigVeda
areadaptedtocertainmelodiesandthiscollectionisnamedSamaVeda,andtheAtharvaVedadealswiththepeaceandprosperityofhumansocietyandis
concernedwiththedailylifeofman.
VedicritualispreservedinliterarytextscalledtheBrahmanas.Themaindivisionofthecontextsoftheseextensivetextsistwofoldtheritualisticinjuction
anddiscussionsonthemeaningofVedicritualandallthatisrelatedtoit.TheAranyakasorthetreatisesoftheforestpresentsecretexplanationsoftheritual,
havetheirorigininthephilosophicaldiscussionsoftheBrahmanas,findtheirculminationintheUpanishadsandrepresentthetransitionalphasebetweenthe
ritualisticsymbolismoftheBrahmanasandthephilosophicaldoctrinesoftheUpanishads.TheUpanishads,writtenbothinproseandpoetry,areexpressionsof
philosophicalconcepts.
Intheliteralterm,itmeansthatknowledgewhichisimpartedtothestudentwhoissittingveryneartotheteacher.Thatknowledgebywhichallignoranceis
destroyed.Theknowledgeoftheidentityoftheself(Atman)withtheeternal(Brahman).TheUpanishadsaretheendoftheVedas.Thisistheliteraturein
whichancientsagesrealisedthatinthefinalanalysis,manhastoknowhimself.
The great epics (Mahakavya), the Ramayana (1500 BC) and the Mahabharata (1000 BC) are the, repositories of the ethnic memory of the Indian people.
Valmiki,thepoetoftheRamayana,isknownasAdikavi(firstamongthepoets),andthestoryofRamaisoccasionallyreferredtointheMahabharata.But
boththeseepicswerecomposedoveralongpassageoftime,notbyonepoet,butbymanypoets,forthepurposeoforaltransmissionbysingersandstory
tellers. Both are epics of the people, and as such, reflect the ethos and the psyche of a group of people, not only in a given temporal frame, but have a
universalhumancontext.TheRamayanatellsusabouthowamancanachievedivineness,asRamaachievesdivinitythroughrighteousaction.Italsotellsus
abouthowtoachievethefourfoldobjectives(Purushartha)ofhumanlife,Dharma(righteousness,orloosely,religion),Artha(worldlyachievement,mainly
wealth and prosperity), Kama (fulfilment of all desires), and Moksha (liberation). Inwardly it is a quest to know oneself. The Ramayana consists of 24,000
verses and is divided into seven books, called Kandas, and known as Kavya (poetry), which means that it instructs while it entertains. The Mahabharata
consistsofa1,00,000versesdividedinto10books,parvas,withmanyinterpolations,knownanItihasaPurana(mythicalhistory).Botharelong,continuous
narrativesanddealwithwar.ThekingRamafightsabattlewiththedemonkingRavana,whostealshiswife,Sita,andholdshercaptiveinhispalaceatLanka
(nowSriLanka).Rama,withthehelpofthemonkeyarmyandHanuman,rescuesSita.HistriumphoverRavanasymbolisesthevictoryofvirtueoverevil.
Thispattern,attheindividuallevel,isafightgoingonwithintheselfbetweenviceandvirtue.
WiththechangeinthesocialstructureatthetimeoftheMahabharata,thefightnowtakesplacebetweenthehumanbeingsbetweenPandavasandthe
Kauravas,familymembersofthesameroyalclan,oversuccessiontothethrone.WrittenbyVyasa(Vyasameansacollector),theMahabharataismythical
history,becausehistoryheredoesnotdenotemerelyaneventthattookplace,buteventsthatwillalwayshappenandrepeatitself.ThePandavasareassisted
byLordKrishna,whoismetamorphosedintoaGodhead,andisshownasdescendingintothecyclesofcosmichistorytoassistmaninhisstruggleagainstthe
forcesofevil.HerecitestheBhagavadGita(thesongofthelord)justbeforethewartothePandavaPrinceArjuna,whoisunwillingtofightbecausehefeels
thatvictoryinthebattleisnotdesirable.Thusbeginsthedebateonanepicscaleregardingtheproblemsofactionversusnonaction,ofviolenceversusnon
violence, and ultimately about Dharma. The Gita is incorporated in the Mahabharata primarily to give an integrated view of Dharma. Dharma means to
performrighteouslyonesdutyinaselflessway(NishkamaKarma)withcompletededicationtothewillofGod.Thesurvivorsoftheepicwardiscoverthat
publicesteemandpowerarenomorethanhollowvictoriesinanillusorystruggle.Itisnotbraverybutknowledgewhichisthekeytothemysteryoflife.
ThesetwoepicsofancientIndiaarepracticallytranscreatedinalmostinallIndianlanguages,andhavealsocrossedthebordersofthissubcontinentand
becamepopularinforeignlands,wheretheyeventuallygetmoreorlessadoptedandadaptedandrecreated.Thisbecamepossiblebecauseboththeseepics
arerichinmotifswhichhaveuniversalappeal.

ThePurana
ThewordPuranameansthatwhichrenewstheoldandisalmostalwaysmentionedalongwithItihasa.ThePuranaswerewrittentoillustrateandexpound
thetruthoftheVedas.Thefundamentalabstrusephilosophicalandreligioustruthsareexpoundedthroughpopularlegendsormythologicalstories.Nothing
can exert grater credence on the human mind than when it is described as having happened. Thus, Itihasa combined with narration makes a story seem
credible.Togetherwiththetwoepics,theRamayanaandtheMahabharata,theyaretheoriginsofmanyofthestoriesandanecdotesofthesocial,religious
andculturalhistoryofIndia.
ThemainPuranasare18encyclopaediccollectionsoflegendandmyth.Thoughthearchaicformofthegenremighthaveexistedasearlyasthefourthorthe
fifty century B.C., the famous names of the 18 Mahapuranas were not discovered earlier than the third century A.D. The phenomenal popularity of these
MahapuranasgaverisetoyetanothersubgenreknownastheUpapuranasorminorPuranas.Theyarealso19innumber.
TheMahapuranashavefivesubjects.Theseare:(1)Sarga,theoriginalcreationoftheuniverse,(2)Pratisarga,theperiodicalprocessofdestructionandre
creation,(3)Manvantara,thedifferenterasorcosmiccycles,(4)SuryaVamshaandChandraVamsa,thehistoriesofthesolarandlunardynastiesofGodsand
sages,(5)Vamshanucharita,thegenealogiesofkings.AroundthiscoreskeletonofthefivesubjectsanyPuranaaddsotherdiversematerialslikemattersof
religiousconcern,customs,ceremonies,sacrifices,festivals,thedutiesofvariouscastes,differenttypesofdonations,detailsoftheconstructionoftemplesand
images,anddescriptionsofplacesofpilgrimage.ThePuranasarethemeetingpointofdiversereligiousandsocialbeliefs,arelinkedwiththevitalspiritualand
socialneedsandurgesofthepeople,andareauniqueoutcomeoftheevercontinuingsynthesisbasedonanunderstandingbetweenvariousgroupsofvedic
AryansandnonAryans.
ClassicalSanskritLiterature
TheSanskritlanguageisdividedintotheVedicandtheclassical.Thegreatepics,theRamayanaandtheMahabharataandthePuranasarepartoftheclassical
period,butarediscussedseparatelybecauseoftheirenormityandimportance,andareundoubtedlytheprecursorsofSanskritKavya(epicpoetry),nataka
(drama)andotherliterature.ClassicalSanskritliteratureincludestheKavyas(epicpoetry),theNataka(drama),lyricpoetry,romance,populartales,didactic
fables,gnomicpoetry,scientificliteratureongrammar,medicine,law,astronomy,mathematics,etc.ClassicalSanskritliteratureisonthewholesecularin
character.Duringtheclassicalperiod,languagewasregulatedbytherigidrulesofPanini,oneofthegreatestSanskritgrammarians.
ThetallestfigureinthesphereofepicpoetryisKalidasa(betweenA.D.380A.D.415).Hewrotetwogreatepics,Kumarasambhava(thebirthofKumar),and
Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of the Raghus). In the Kavya tradition, more care is bestowed on the form, such as the style, figure of speech, conceits,
descriptions,etc.,andthestorythemeispushedtothebackground.Theoverallpurposeofsuchapoemistobringouttheefficacyofareligiousandcultured
wayoflife,withoutfloutinganyethicalnorms.Otherdistinguishedpoets,likeBharavi(550A.D.),wroteKiratarjuniyam(KiratandArjun)andMagha(65700
A.D.)wroteSishupalavadha(thekillingofShishupal).ThereareseveralotherpoetslikeSriharshaandBhattiwhoareofgreatmerit.
The main purpose of Kavya or even Nataka (drama) is to offer the reader or spectator diversion or entertainment, (Lokaranjana), and also stimulate his
feelings,andultimatelygivehimaperspectivetoilluminatehisvisionoflife.Thedramais,therefore,stylizedandispackedwithpoetryanddescriptiveprose.
Itmovesonalevelofworldlinessaswellasonanotherlevelofotherworldiness.Therefore,thesymbolismofSanskritdramarevealsthatmansjourneyis
completewhenhemovesfromattachmenttononattachment,fromtemporalitytoeternity,orfromfluxtotimelessness.ItisachievedinSanskritdramaby
arousingRasa(theatricalexperienceoraestheticsentiment)inthemindsofthespectators.Therulesandprescriptionsregardingperformance,thetheatre
hall, acting, gestures, Rasa, stage direction, are all given in the first book of dramaturgy, Natyashastra, by Bharata (1st century B.C.1st century A.D.).
Kalidasa is the most distinguished dramatist and his treatment of the rasa of love in all its possible manifestations in the three plays Malavikagnimitra
(MalavikaandAgnimitra),Vikramorvasiya(VikramandUrvasi)andAbhigyanaShakuntala(therecognitionofShakuntala)isunparalleled.Heisthepoetof
loveandbeauty,andbelievesintheaffirmationoflife,thejoyofwhichliesinpure,sacredandeverwideninglove.
TheMricchakatika(theclaycart)bySudraka(248A.D.)presentsaremarkablesocialdramawithtouchesofgrimreality.Thecharactersaredrawnfromall
stratasofsociety,whichincludethievesandgamblers,roguesandidlers,courtesansandtheirassociates,policeconstables,mendicantsandpoliticians.InAct
IIIaninterestingaccountofaburglaryisgiveninwhichstealingistreatedasaregularart.Theinterlinkingofapoliticalrevolutionwiththeprivateaffairsof
thetwoloversaddsnewcharmtotheplay.The13playsofBhasa(4thcenturyB.C.2ndcenturyA.D.),whichwerediscoveredatthebeginningofthe20th
century,areacceptedasthemoststagableplaysofSanskrittheatre.ThemostpopularisSwapnavasavadatta(Vasavadattaindream)wheretheplaywright
hasdisplayedhisskillofcharacterizationandafinemanipulationoftheplot.Bhavabhuti(700A.D.),anothergreatdramatist,iswellknownforhisplayUttara
Ramacharitam (the later life of Rama), which contains a play within it in the last act of a love of exquisite tenderness. He is also well known for directly
rebukinghiscriticsbysayingthathisworkwasnotintendedforthem,andthatsomekindredsoulwouldsurelybeborntimeisendlessandtheearthbroad.
Thesearesomeofthebestdramasoutofmorethansixhundredwrittenduringthatperiod.
Sanskritliteratureisrepletewithlyricalpoetryofgreatmerit.Thispoetryconstitutesafusionoferoticandreligioussentiments.Infact,divisionbetweenart
andreligioninIndiancultureseemstobelesssharpthaninEuropeandChina.InKalidasasnarrativelyricpoem,Meghaduta(thecloudmessenger),thepoet
makesacloudamessengertotellthestoryoftwoloverswhoareseparated.Thisisalsoquiteinkeepingwiththesublimeconceptionoflove,whichlooksdark
in separation, like a black cloud with a silver lining. Jayadeva (12 century A.D.) is the last great name in Sanskrit poetry, who wrote the lyric poetry
Gitagovinda(thesongofGovinda)todescribeeveryphaseoflovebeweenKrishnaandRadhalonging,jealousy,hope,disappointment,anger,reconciliation
andfruitioninpicturesquelyricallanguage.Thesongsdescribethebeautyofnature,whichplaysaprominentpartinthedescriptionofhumanlove.
ThedidacticfablePanchatantra(fivechapters),dealingwithpoliticsandpracticalwisdom,whichwaswrittenbyVishnuSharma,andtheHitopadesha,thebird,
animalhumanandnonhumanstoriesofadviceforthebenefitofthelisteners,whichwaswrittenbyNarayanPandit,areliterarymasterpieceswhichcross
thebordersofthesubcontinentandbecamepopularinforeignlands.ThesebooksoffablesalsoindicatethatthewholeofSanskritliteraturewasjustnot
religiousorelitist.Thesepopularfablesareobviouslyaretellingoffolklore.
LiteratureinPaliandPrakrit
PaliandPrakritwerethespokenlanguagesofIndiansaftertheVedicperiod.Prakritinthewidestsenseoftheterm,wasindicativeofanylanguagethatinany
mannerdeviatedfromthestandardone,i.e.Sanskrit.PaliisarchaicPrakrit.Infact,Paliisacombinationofvariousdialects.ThesewereadoptedbyBuddhist
andJainsectsinancientIndiaastheirsacredlanguages.lordBuddha(500B.C.)usedPalitogivehissermons.AlltheBuddhistcanonicalliteratureisinPali
whichincludesTipitaka(threefoldbasket).Thefirstbasket,VinayaPitaka,containsthemonasticrulesoftheOrderofBuddhistmonks.Thesecondbasket,
SuttaPitaka,isthecollectionofthespeechesanddialoguesoftheBuddha.Thethirdbasket,theAbhidhammaPitaka,elucidatesthevarioustopicsdealing
withethics,psychologyortheoryofknowledge.ThejatakaKathasarenoncanonicalBuddhistliteratureinwhichstoriesrelatingtotheformerbirthsofthe
Buddha(BodhisattvaorthewouldbeBuddha)arenarrated.ThesestoriespropagateBuddhistreligiousdoctrinesandareavailableinbothSanskritandPali.
Asthejatakatalesgrewinbulk,theyassimilatedpopulartales,ancientmythology,storiesfromolderreligioustraditions,etc.Jatakasare,infact,basedonthe
common heritage of the Indian masses. Buddhist literature is also abundantly available in Sanskrit, which includes the great epic Buddhacharita by
Aswaghosha(78A.D.).
LiketheBuddhiststories,theJaintalesingeneralaredidacticincharacter.TheyarewritteninsomeformsofPrakrit.ThewordJainisderivedfromtherootji
(toconquer)andsignifiesthereligionofthosewhohaveconqueredthelustforlife.JaincanonicalliteraturebyJainsaints,aswellasalargenumberofworks
onlexicographyandgrammarbyHemachandra(1088A.D.?),iswellknown.Muchalsointhewayofmoraltaleandpoetryaretobefound.However,Prakrit
iswellknownforGathasaptashati(700verses)byHala(300A.D.),thebestexampleoferoticliterature.Itisacompilationof700versesalongwithhisown
contributionof44poems.ItisinterestingtonotethatquiteafewpoetesseslikePahai,Mahavi,Reva,RohaandSasippahaareincludedintheanthology.The
vast Katha (story) literature of Prakrit, written with a conspicuous religious overtone, even by Jain saints, is full of erotic elements. The author of the
Vasudevahindi ascribes this changed approach of the Jain authors to the fact that it is easy to teach religion cloaked by erotic episodes, like sugarcoated
medicine. The characteristic of Prakrit poetry is its subtlety the inner meaning (Hiyaali) is its soul. Jain literature is available in Sanskrit too, like the
UpamitibhavaPrapanchaKathaofSiddharasi(906A.D.).
EarlyDravidianLiterature
TheIndianpeoplespeaklanguagesbelongingtomajorfourdistinctspeechfamilies:theAustric,Dravidian,SinoTibetanandIndoEuropean.Inspiteofthese
four different language groups, there is an Indian characteristic running through these language groups, which forms one of the bases of that certain
underlyinguniformityoflifedescribedbyPanditJawaharlalNehruasunityinthemidstofdiversity.
Dravidianliteraturemainlyconsistsofthefourlanguages,Tamil,Telugu,KannadaandMalayalam.Outofthese,Tamilistheoldestlanguagewhichpreserved
itsDravidiancharacterthemost.Kannada,asaculturedlanguage,isalmostasoldasTamil.AlltheselanguageshaveborrowedmanywordsfromSanskrit
andviceversa.TamilistheonlymodernIndianlanguagewhichisrecognizablycontinuouswithaclassicalpast.EarlyclassicalTamilliteratureisknownas
Sangamliteraturemeaningfraternity,indicatingmainlytwoschoolsofpoets,aham(subjectivelovepoems),andpuram(objective,publicpoetryandheroic).
Ahamdealspurelywiththesubjectiveemotionsofthelover,andpuramwithallkindsofemotions,mainlythevalourandgloryofkings,andaboutgoodand

evil.TheSangamclassics,consistingof18works(eightanthologiesoflyricsandtenlongpoems),arewellknownfortheirdirectnessofexpression.These
were written by 473 poets, among whom 30 were women, the famous poetess Avvaiyar being one of them. In the case of 102 poems, the authors are
unknown. Most of these anthologies are of the 3rd century B.C. During this time, a Tamil grammar Tolkappiyam, was written, to understand early Tamil
poetry. Tolkappiyam indicates five landscapes or types of love, and outlines their symbolic conventions. Critics say that Sangam literature is not just the
earliestevidenceoftheTamilgenius.TheTamils,inalltheir2000yearsofliteraryeffort,wrotenothingbetter.ThefamousThirukkuralbyThiruvalluvar,in
the6thcenturyA.D.,servesasamanualofpreceptstoguideonetonobleliving.Itexpoundsasecular,moralandpracticalattitudetowardslife.Thetwin
epics,Silappadhikaram(thestoryoftheanklet),writtenbyIlangoAdigal,andManimekalai(thestoryofManimekalai)byChattanar,werewrittensometimes
inA.D.200300andgivevividaccountsofTamilsocietyduringthatperiod.Thesearevaluablestorehousesandepicsofdignityandsublimity,layingstresson
thecardinalvirtuesoflife.InManimekalaithereisanelaborateexpositionofthedoctrinesofBuddhism.IfTamilrevealsatriumphofBrahmanicandBuddhist
knowledge,KannadashowsJainascendencyinitsancientphase.MalayalamabsorbedarichtreasurecontainedintheSanskritlanguage.Nannaya(A.D.1100)
wasthefirstTelugupoet.Inancienttimes,TamilandTeluguspreadtodistantplaces.
IfoneweretoidentifyanotherstrikingfeatureofancientTamilliterature,theobviouschoicewouldbeVaishnava(pertainingtoVishnu)bhakti(devotional)
literature.InIndianliteraturetheefforthasbeentofindouthowamancanachievedivinity.Thesecretbehindatendencyforheroworshipisloveandregard
for humanity. In Vaishnava bhakti poetry, God descends on this earth as a human being, to share with us our suffereing and turmoil, our happiness and
prosperity.VaishanavabhaktiliteraturewasanallIndiaphenomenon,whichstartedinthe6th7thcenturyA.D.intheTamilspeakingregionofSouthIndia,
with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saintpoets, who wrote devotional songs. They revitalized Hinduism and checked the spread of Buddhism and
Jainism,whileabsorbingsomeoftheirfeatures.ThereligionofAlvarpoets,whichincludedawomanpeot,Andal,wasdevotiontoGodthroughlove(bhakti),
andintheecstasyofsuchdevotionstheysanghundredsofsongswhichembodiedbothdepthoffeelingandfelicityofexpressions.Devotionalsongsinpraise
oftheHindugodShiva(theworshipofShivaandVishnuformsthebasisofthebroaddivisionofHindusintoShaivaandVaishnavasects)werealsowrittenby
TamilsaintpoetNayanar(leader,master)inthe6th8thCenturyA.D.Besidesitsimportanceaspoetryofemotionalbhakti,itguidesusintotheworldof
classical Tamil civilization and explains to us the ethnicnational consciousness of the Tamils as a whole. The flowering of bhakti literature as a panIndian
consciousnesstookplaceinalmostalltheIndianlanguagesduringmedievaltimes.
MedievalLiterature
Around1000A.D.localdifferencesinPrakritgrewmoreandmorepronounced,whichlatercametobeknownasApabhramsa,andthisledtothemodern
Indianlanguagestakingshapeandbeingborn.Theselanguages,conditionedbytheregional,linguisticandethnicenvironment,assumeddifferentlinguistic
characteristics.ConstitutionallyrecognisedmodernIndianlanguagesandKonkani,Marathi,Sindhi,Gujarati(Western)Manipuri,Bengali,OriyaandAssamese
(Eastern)Tamil,Telugu,MalayalamandKannada(Southern)andHindi,Urdu,Kashmiri,Dogri,Punjabi,Maithali,NepaliandSanskrit(Northern).Twotribal
languages,BodoandSanthaliarealsorecognisedbytheConstitution.Outofthese22languages,TamilistheoldestmodernIndianlanguagemaintainingits
linguisticcharacterwithlittlechangeforabout2000years.UrduistheyoungestofthemodernIndianlanguages,takingitsshapeinthe14thcenturyA.D.,
derivingitsscriptfromanArabicPersianorigin,butvocabularyfromIndoAryansources,i.e.PersianandHindi.Sanskrit,thoughtheoldestclassicallanguage,
isstillverymuchinuse,andhenceisincludedinthelistofmodernIndianlanguagesbytheConstitutionofIndia.
The most powerful trend of medieval Indian literature between 1000 and 1800 A.D. is devotional (bhakti) poetry which dominates almost all the major
languagesofthecountry.UnlikethedarkmiddleagesofEurope,Indiasmiddleagesbroughtaboutaveryrichtraditionofdevotionalliteratureofremarkable
merit which dispels the superstitious assumption of a dark period of Indias history. Bhakti literature is the most important development of the medieval
period. It is love poetry. Love for ones Lord, Krishna or Rama, the two main incarnations of the great God Vishnu. This love is depicted as love between
husbandandwife,orbetweenlovers,orbetweenservantandmaster,orbetweenparentsandchild.Thisispersonalisationofthegodhood,whichmeansa
truthfulperceptionofGodresidinginyou,andalsoharmonyinlifewhichonlylovecanbring.WorldlyloveisKama(Eros)anddivineloveisPrema(mystic
Eros).ThedominatingnoteinbhaktiisecstasyandtotalidentitywithGod.Itisapoeticapproachtoreligionandanasceticapproachtopoetry.Itispoetryof
connectionsconnectingtheworldlywiththedivine,andasaresult,theoldformofsecularlovepoetrybegantohaveanewmeaninginalllanguages.The
riseofbhaktipoetrygaverisetoregionallanguages(Bhasa).TheconceptionofbhaktididawaywiththeelitetraditionofSanskritandacceptedthemore
acceptablelanguageofthecommonman.Kabir(Hindi)saysthatSanskritislikewaterofawellstagnant,Bhasalikeflowingwater.AseventhcenturyShaiva
TamilwriterManikkarvachakarhassomethingsimilartosayaboutinhisbookofpoetryThiruvachakam.Bhaktialsoattackedtheageoldcastesystemand
devoted itself to the worship of humanity, because the catchword of bhakti is that God is there in every human being. The movement was in essence
subaltern,asmostofitspoetsbelongedtothesocalledlowercastes.Bhaktiisantitheologyandagainstanykindofconceptualerudition.
ThepowerofancientbhaktipoetryinTamilsetinmotionwhatmightwellbeconsideredapanIndianefflorescence.AfterTamil,Pampasgreatcourtepics
were composed in Kannada in the 10th century. Devotional literature in Kannada, the Vachanas (sayings) of the various saints of the Krishna, Rama and
Shivacults,iswellknown.BasavannawasafamousKannadapoet,aShivadevoteeandagreatsocialreformer.AllamaPrabhu(Kannada)wrotegreatpoetry
underthegarbofreligion.Chronologically,Marathi,theclosesuccessorofKannada,becamethenextvenueforbhakti.Gyaneswar(1275A.D.)isthefirstand
foremostbhaktipoetinMarathi.Inhisteens(hediedattheageof21)hebecamefamousforhispoeticcontributiontobhaktiforVithal(Vishnu).Eknath
wrotehisshortpoeticnarrativesanddevotionalabhangas(aliteraryform),andafterhimitwasTukarram(16081649A.D.)whosesongscastaspellallover
Maharasthra. And then it is Gujarati in the 12th century. Gujarati poets like Narsi Mehta and Premananda occupy a prominent place in the galaxy of the
Vaishnavapoets.Afterwards,thesequentialorderisasfollows:Kashmiri,Bengali,Assamese,Manipuri,Oriya,Maithili,Braj,Avadhi(thelastthreelanguages
come under the umbrella language, Hindi) and other languages of India. Chandidas, a Bengali poet, is acclaimed as a great genius for the lucidity and
sweetnessofhispoems.Similarly,VidyapatiinMaithilicreatedanewpoeticlanguage.LalDed,aKashmiriMuslimpoetess,gaveanewdimensiontomystical
bhakti.Jayadeva,aSanskritlyricpoetofthe12thcentury,influencedalargenumberofdevotionalBengalipoetslikeGovindaDas(16thcentury),Balaram
Dasandothers.SriChaitanya(14861533),agreatBengalisaint,helpedVaishnavismtoturnintoareligiousandliterarymovement,madeitalivingfaith
andbecameasourceofneverendinginspirationtoahostofBengalipoets,includingJivaGoswami.Sankardev(14491568),anAssamesedevotionalpoet,
usedplays(AnkiyaNat)andKirtan(devotionalsongs)topropagateVaishnavismandbecamealegend.Similarly,JagannathDasisalegendarydevotionalpoet
inOriyawhowroteBhagavat(thestoryofKrishna),whichhasspirituallyunitedallthepeopleofOrissaandcreatedalivingconsciousness.MuslimandHindu
saintpoets of rural Bengal known as Bauls (mad lovers) created oral poetry of divine intoxication under the influence of both Vaishnava and Sufi (Islamic
mysticism which enunciates the doctrine of divine love) philosophy. Medieval Muslim Bengali poets like Daulat Kazi and Saiyad Alaoal (17th Century A.D.)
wrotenarrativepoemsbasedonSufisticphilosophy,betrayingahappyculturalandreligioussynthesisofIslamandHinduism.Infact,bhaktibecameagreat
platformforHinduMuslimunity.Kabir(Hindi)istheforemostamongthepoetsofthesanttradition(faithinoneomnipresentgodandnotinmanygodslike
RamaandKrishna).Kabirspoetrytouchesuponthevariousaspectsofdevotion,mysticismandsocialreforms.
Hindi literature, with its supraregional character, attracted Namdev (Marathi) and Guru Nanak (Punjabi) and others to write in Hindi, which by then had
developed into a conglomeration of many languages and dialects, and came to be known as an umbrella language. The centrality of Hindi and its vast
geographicalareawasthereasonforit.Surdas,TulsidasandMeeraBai(15thto16thCenturyA.D.)pointtothegreatheightsofVaishnavitelyricismachieved
byHindi.Tulsidas(1532A.D.)wasthegreatestoftheRamabhaktipoetswhowrotehisfamousepic,theRamacharitManas(thelakeofthedeedsofRama).
Infact,epicsliketheRamayanaandtheMahabharatareceivedarebirthinthenewlanguages.Theselanguagesgaveafreshlife,arenewedrelevance,anda
meaningfulreincarnationtothegreatSanskritepics,andtheseepicsintheirturnprovidedsubstanceandstyletothenewlanguagestoo.KambaninTamil,
KrittibasaOjhainBengali,saralaDasinOriya,EzhuttacchaninMalayalam,TulsidasinHindiandNannayainTeluguarewellknoownandlegion.Muslimpoets
likeMalikMuhammadJayasi,Raskhan,RahimandotherwroteSufiandVaishnavapoetry.Thereligiousandculturalsynthesisthatwasaspecialfeatureof
medievalIndiafindsabundantexpressioninitsliterature.TheIslamicelementisallpervasive,nextonlytotheUpanishadicHinduelement.Nanak,thefirst
SikhGuru,wroteinmanylanguages,butmostlyinPunjabi,andwasagreatpoetofinterreligiouscommunication.Nanaksaystruthissupreme,butabove
truth is truthful living. Guru Nanak and other Sikh Gurus belong to the sant tradition, which believes in one omnipresent God, and not in many gods like
Rama and Krishna. The poetry of the Sikh Gurus is collected in the Guru Granth Sahib (the Revered Book), a multilingual text which talks about the
unchangingonereality(Sat)thecosmiclaw(Hukum),meditation(Satnam),compassionandharmony(DayaandSantosh).BullehShah,themostfamous
MuslimPunjabipoet,popularisedSufismthroughPunjabiKafi(verseform).Kafiisasmallpoeminstanzasfollowedbyrefrainandissunginadramaticway.
ShahLatif,thefamousSindhiMuslimpoet(1689A.D.)inhissacredworkRisaloexplainedSufimysticloveasthedivinetruth.
WomenPoetsofBhakti
The contribution of women writers in different languages during that period deserves special attention. Women writers like Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi,
Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha Brahmavadini, etc., right from the days of the Vedas (6000 B.C. 4000 B.C.), focused on the image of women in mainstream
Sanskritliterature.ThesongsofBuddhistnuns(6thcenturyB.C.)likeMuttaandUbbiriandMettikainPaliexpressthetormentoffeelingsforthelifeleft
behind. The Alwar women poets (6th century A.D.), like Andal and others, gave expression to their love for the divine. Lal Ded (13201384), the Muslim
poetess from Kashmir Lalded & Habba Khatun, represented the sant tradition of bhakti and wrote Vakhs (maxims), which are peerless gems of spiritual
experience.MeeraBai,inGujarati,RajasthaniandHindi(shewroteinthreelanguages),Avvayyar,inTamil,andAkkamahadeviinKannada,arewellknownfor
theirsheerlyricalintensityandconcentratedemotionalappeal.Theirwritingsspeaktousaboutthesocialconditionsprevailingatthattime,andtheposition
ofwomanathomeandinsociety.Theyallwrotesmalllyricsorpoemsofdevotionalfervour,metaphysicaldepth,andwithaspiritofdedicationandutmost
sincerity.Behindtheirmysticismandmetaphysicsisadivinesadness.Theyturnedeverywoundinflictedbylifeintoapoem.

OtherTrendsinMedievalLiterature
Bhaktiwasnottheonlyaspectofmedievalliterature.LoveballadsandheroicpoetryinPunjabi,knownasKissaandVar,werepopularPunjabimedievalforms.
ThemostfamousPunjabiloveballadisHirRanjha,animmortalbookbyaMuslimpoetcalledWarrisShah.ApopularPunjabiheroicballad,sungbyvillage
bardsorally,isNajabatsVarofNadirShah.VaristhemostpopularformofPunjabipoetry,musicanddrama,allrolledintoone,andhasbeeninvoguesince
theearliesttimes.InHindi,between1700and1800A.D.,manypoetslikeBihariLalandKeshavDascreatedsecularpoetryofSringara(eroticsentiment),
andalargenumberofotherpoets,wroteacademicaccountsoftheentirerangeofpoetry,inverseform.
Duringthemedievalperiod,Urdu,asalanguage,cameintobeing.ItwasAmirKhusro(1253A.D.),anearlyarchitectofIndiascompositeculture,andagreat
Sufi poet, who first experimented with Persian and Hindi (then known as Hindavi) mixed poetry, which was the genesis of a new language, subsequently
recognisedasUrdu.UrduhaslargelyfollowedPersianformsandmetresinpoetry,butithasadoptedsomeofthepurelyIndianformsalso.Ghazals(lyrical
couplets),marsia(elegy)andqasidah(odeofpraise)areofIranianorigin.Sauda(17061781)wasthefirstamongthelatemedievalpoetswhogavevigour
andversatilitytoUrdupoetry,whichhispredecessorshadbeenstrugglingtoaccomplish.Then,itwasDard(17201785)andMirTaqiMir(17221810)who
gaveUrdumaturityandclass,andushereditintothemodernperiod.
ModernIndianLiterature
The19thCenturyIndianRenaissance
In almost all the Indian languages, the modern age begins with the first struggle for Indias freedom in 1857, or near that time. The impact of western
civilization,theriseofpoliticalconsciousness,andthechangeinsocietycouldbeseeninwhatwaswrittenduringthattime.Contactwiththewesternworld
resultedinIndiasacceptanceofwesternthoughtontheonehand,andrejectionofitontheother,andresultedinaneffortmadetoreviveherancientglory
andIndianconsciousness.AlargenumberofwritersoptedforasynthesisbetweenIndianizationandwesternization,intheirsearchforanatinalideology.All
these attitudes were combined to bring about the renaissance in 19th century India. But it was a renaissance in a country which was under foreign
domination. So it was not that kind of renaissance which had spread in 14th15th century Europe, where scientific reasoning, individual freedom and
humanismwerethedominantcharacteristics.TheIndianrenaissancetookadifferentshape,inthecontextoftheIndianrace,momentandmilieu,andasa
result,nationalistic,reformisticandrevivalisticthinkingfounditswayintoliterature,whichslowlyturneditselfintoapanIndianmovement,spearheadedin
different parts of the country by renaissance leaders like Raja Rammohun Roy (17721833), Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Vivekananda, Madhav Govind
Ranade,U.V.SwaminathaAiyer,GopalKrishnaGokhale,K.V.Pantulu,NarmadaShankarLalshankarDaveandothrs.Theleadersoftherenaissance,infact,
succeededininstillingnationalisticfervourinthepeople,andinducedinthemadesireforsocialreformandasentimentalyearningfortheirpastglory.
ThemostimportantliteraryeventthatrevolutionalisedliteraturewastheemergenceofliteraryproseinallthemodernIndianlanguages,andtheadventof
theprintingpress,underthepatronageofanEnglishman,WilliamCarey(17611834),atSerampore,Bengal.ItistruethatSanskritandPersianhadavast
body of prose, but the necessity for prose in modern Indian languages, for use in administration and higher education, led to the emergence of prose in
different languages at the beginning of the modern period. The birth of newspapers and periodicals in Indian languages between 1800 and 1850 was
extremelyimportantforthedevelopmentofprose.andthemissionariesofSeramporestartedoffBengaliJournalismonitscareer.Theemergenceofproseas
apowerfulmediumbroughtakindofchangethatcoincidedwiththeprocessofmodernization.
TheEmergenceofNationalism
ItistruethattheideaofamodernstatetookrootinIndiansocietybecauseofIndiascontactwithwesternideas,butverysoon,IndianwriterslikeBankim
Chandra Chatterjee (Bengali, 18381894) and others made use of this newly acquired concept of nationalism to attack colonial rule, and in the process
createdtheirownbrandofnationalism,rootedinthesoil.BankimChandrawrotemanyhistoricalnovelslikeDurgeshNandini(1965),andAnandMath(1882),
acquiredapanIndianpopularityandmadenationalismandpatriotismapartofdharma.Thisalternativewasadistinctivecivilizationalconceptofuniversalism
thatwasacceptedbymanyasareplytowesterncolonialism.Revivalismandreformismwerenaturalcorollariesofthenewlyemergingideaofnationalism.
Rabindra Nath Tagore (Bengali, 18611942), the greatest name in modern Indian literature, made federalism an important part of his concept of national
ideology.HesaidthattheunityofIndiahasbeenandshallalwaysbeaunityindiversity.ThefoundationforthistraditionhadbeenlaidinIndiaatthesocial
level,notthepolitical,bysaintslikeNanak,Kabir,Chaitanyaandothers.ItisthissolutionunitythroughacknowledgementofdifferencesthatIndiahasto
offer to the world. As a result, Indias nationalism is mingled with its spiritual tradition, with truth and tolerance preached by Mahatma Gandhi, and non
alignmentadvocatedbyPanditJawaharlalNehru,showingIndiasconcernforitspluralism.ModernIndianpluralismismultilingual,multicultural,secular,
nationalstateconcept.
TheLiteratureofNationalism,ReformismandRevivalism
Patrioticwritingsproliferatedalmostspontaneouslyindifferentlanguages,astheresistanceofacommunityagainstforeignrule.RangalalinBengali,Mirza
Ghalib in Urdu and Bharatendu Harishchandra in Hindi expressed themselves as the patriotic voice of that era. This voice was, on the one hand, against
colonialrule,andontheother,fortheglorificationofIndia.Besides,MirzaGhalib(17971869)wroteghazalsinUrdu,aboutlove,withunusualimageryand
metaphors.Heacceptedlifebothasajoyousexistenceandasadarkandpainfulexperience.MichaelMadhusudanDutt(182473)wrotethefirstmodernepic
in an Indian language, and naturalised blank verse in Bengali. Subramania
Bharati (18821921) was the great Tamil patriotpoet, who revolutionized the
poetictraditioninTamil.Themesfrommythologyorhistoryweretakentowriteepics,byMaithiliSaranGupta(Hindi,18861964),BhaiVirSingh(Punjabi,
18721957),andothers,withtheexpresspurposeoffulfillingtheneedsofthepatrioticreader.
Thebirthofthenovelisassociatedwiththesocialreformorientedmovementofthe19thcentury.Thisnewgenre,borrowedfromtheWest,ischaracterized
by a spirit of revolt, right from its adoption into the Indian system. The first Tamil novel, Pratap Mudaliyar Charitram (1879) by Samuel V. Pillai, the first
Telugunovel,SriRangaRajaCharitra(1872)byKrishnammaChetty,andthefirstMalayalamnovel,InduLekha(1889)byChanduMenonwerewrittenwith
didacticintentionsandtoreexamineevilsocialcustomsandpracticeslikeuntouchability,castedistinctions,denialofremarriageofwidows,etc.Inotherfirst
novels,liketheBengalinovel,PhulmaniOKarunarBibaran(1852),byanEnglishwoman,H.CatherineMullens,ortheHindinovel,ParikshaGuru(1882)by
LalaSriniwasDas,onecandiscoversharedpatternsofresponseandarticulationtowardssocialproblems.
HistoricalnovelswerewrittenbyBankimChandraChatterjee(Bengali),HariNarayanApte(Marathi),andothers,todescribethegloriouspastofIndia,andto
instillnationalistfervourinherpeople.Novelswerefoundtobethemostappropriatemediumtoeulogizetheintellectualandphysicalrichnessofthepast,and
reminded Indians about their obligations and rights. In fact, in the 19th century, the idea of national identity emerged from literature, and most Indian
writingsturnedintothevoiceofenlightment.ThispavedthewayforIndiatounderstandthereal,factualpositionbythetimeitreachedthethresholdofthe
20thcentury.ItwasduringthistimethatTagorestartedwritingthenovelGora(1910),tochallengecolonialrule,colonialcriteriaandcolonialauthority,and
togivenewmeaningtoIndiannationalism.
IndianRomanticism
The trend of Indian romanticism ushered in by three great forces influenced the destiny of modern Indian literature. These forces were Sri Aurobindos *
(18721950) search for the divine in man, Tagores quest for the beautiful in nature and man, and Mahatma Gandhis experiments with truth and non
violence. Sri Aurobindo, through his poetry and philosophical treatise, The Life Divine, presents the prospect of the ultimate revelation of divinity in
everything.HewrotemostlyinEnglish.Tagoresquestforbeautywasaspiritualquest,whichattainedfruitioninthefinalrealisationthatservicetohumanity
wasthebestformofcontactwithGod.Tagorewasawareofasupremeprinciplepervadingnatureandtheentireuniverse.Thissupremeprinciple,orthe
unknown mystique, is beautiful, because it shines through the known and it is only in the unknown that we have perpetual freedom. Tagore, a many
splendouredgenius,wrotenovels,shortstories,essaysanddramas,andneverceasedtotryoutnewexperiments.HiscollectionofpoetryinBengali,Gitanjali
(song offerings), received the Novel Prize in 1913. Tagores poetry, after the award, inspired writers of different Indian languages to popularize the age of
romanticpoetry.TheageofromanticpoetryinHindiisknownasChhayavad,theageofromanticmystery,inKannada,isNavodaya,therisingsun,andin
Oriya,itisknownasSabuj,theageofgreen.JaishankarPrasad,Nirala,SumitraNandanPantandMahadevi(Hindi)Vallathol,KumaranAsan(Malayalam)
KalindiCharanPanigrahi(Oriya)B.M.Srikantayya,Puttappa,Bendre(Kannada)ViswanathSatyanarayana(Telugu)UmaShankarJoshi(Gujarati),andpoets
ofotherlanguageshighlightedmysticismandromanticsubjectivityintheirpoetry.ThepoetsofRavikiranMandal(agroupofsixpoetsofMarathi)searchedfor
thehiddenrealityinnature.IndianromanticismisfraughtwithmysticismnotlikeEnglishromanticism,whichwantstobreakpuritanicshackles,seeking
joy in Hellenism. In fact, the romantic trend of the modern times follows the tradition of Indian poetry, where romanticism indicates the Vedantic (the
philosophyofoneReality)onenessbetweenNatureandman,morealongthelinesofVedicsymbolismandnotPaganism.MuhammadIqbal(1877198),the
greatestpoetthatUrduhadproduced,secondonlytoGhalib,wentthroughinitiallyaromanticcumnationalisticphaseinhispoetry.Hisbestcollectionof
UrdupoemsisBangiDara(1924).HisquestforPanIslamismdidnotdeterhiminhisconcernforhumanityatlarge.
TheAdventofMahatmaGandhi
TheemergenceofMohandasKaramchandGandhi(Gujarati,English,andHindi,18691948)andTagore,influencingIndianlifeandliterature,werequiteoften
complementarytooneanother.Gandhispokethelanguageofthecommonman,andwasfortheoutcasts.Hisweaponwastheweaponoftruthandnon

violence.Hewasfortraditionalvaluesandagainstindustrializations.Heverysoonturnedhimselfintoamedievalsaintandasocialreformer.Tagorecalledhim
Mahatma(saint).Gandhibecamethethemeofbothpoetryandfictionofculturalnationalism.Hebecameanapostleofpeaceandidealism.PoetslikeVallathol
(Malayalam),SatyendranathDatta(Bengali),KaziNazrulIslam(Bengali)andAkbarAllahabadi(Urdu)acceptedGandhiasachallengetowesterncivilization,
and as an assertion of the dignity of Asian values. Gandhian heroes swamped the fictional world of that time. Raja Rao (English), Tara Shankar
Bandyopadhyay(Bengali),Premchand(Hindi),V.S.Khandekar(Marathi),SaratChandraChatterjee(Bengali),LakshmiNarayan(Telugu)allcreatedGandhian
protagonistsasruralreformersorsocialworkerswithmoralandreligiouscommitments.Itwasnotthewriters,butthepeople,whocreatedtheGandhimyth,
andthewriters,intheirturn,usediteffectivelytomarkaperiodofgreatawakening.
Sarat Chandra Chatterjee (18761938) was one of the most popular Bengali novelists, whose popularity continues unabated even today, not only among
Bengali readers, but also among people in other parts of India, by means of the numerous translations of his books, which are available in various Indian
languages.Hispetthemewasthemanwomanrelationship,andhewaswellknownforhisportrayalofwomen,theirsufferingsandtheiroftenunspoken
love.HewasbothaGandhianandasocialist.
Premchand(18801936)wrotenovelsinHindi.Hewasatruesonofthesoil,deeplyattachedtotheIndianearth.Hewasthefinestliteraryexponentofthe
IndianpeasantryinIndianliterature.AsatrueGandhian,hebelievedintheidealistictheoryofachangeofheartintheexploiters.But,inhismagnumopus,
Godan(1936),hebecomesarealistandrecordsthesufferingandstruggleoftheIndianruralpoor.
ProgressiveLiterature
TheadventofMarxismontheIndianliterarysceneinthethirtiesisaphenomenonwhichIndiasharedwithmanyothercountries.BothGandhiandMarx
weredrivenbyoppositiontoimperialismandconcernforthedispossessedsectionsofsociety.TheProgressiveWritersAssociationwasoriginallyestablishedin
1936bysomeexpatriatewritersinLondon,likeMulkRajAnand(English).However,soonitbecameagreatpanIndianmovementthatbroughttogether
GandhianandMarxistinsightsintosociety.ThemovementwasespeciallyconspicuousinUrdu,Punjabi,Bengali,TeluguandMalayalam,butitsimpactwasfelt
alloverIndia.Itcompelledeverywritertoreexaminehis/herrelationshipwithsocialreality.InHindi,Chhayavadwaschallengedbyaprogressiveschoolthat
cametobeknownasPragativad(progressivism).NagarjunwasundisputedlythemostpowerfulandnotedHindipoetoftheprogressivegroup.TheBengali
poets, Samar Sen and Subhas Mukhopadhyay, added a new sociopolitical outlook to their poetry. Fakir Mohan Senapati (Oriya, 18931918) was the first
Indiannovelistofsocialrealism.Rootednesstothesoil,compassionforthewretched,andsincerityofexpressionarethequalitiesofthenovelsofSenapati.
Manik Bandyopadhyay was the most wellknown Marxist Bengali novelist. Malayalam fiction writers like Vaikkom Muhammed Basheer, S.K. Pottekkat and
ThakazhiSivasankaraPillai,madehistorybywritingprogressivefictionofhighliteraryvalue.Theycoveredfreshgroundexploringthelifeofordinarymenand
thehumanrelationsthateconomicandsocialinequalitiesfostered.ShivaramKaranath,themostversatilefictionwriterinKannada,neverforgothisearly
Gandhian lessons. Sri Sri (Telugu) was a Marxist, but showed interest in modernism at a later stage in his life. Abdul Malik, in Assamese, writes with an
ideologicalbias.ThecriticalnormsofprogressiveliteraturewereestablishedbythepioneerofthisphaseinPunjabibySantSinghSekhon.Theprogressive
writersmovementattractedtheattentionofeminentpoetsofUrdu,likeJoshMalihabadiandFaizAhmadFaiz.BothimbuedwiththeMarxistspirit,infusedin
theageoldlovesymbolismapoliticalmeaning.
MakingofModernTheatre
Sanskritdramaafterthe10thcenturylostitstenor.Itstrovenomorethroughsymbolandgesturetorealizethetruthbehindhumanexperience.Medieval
Indianliteraturewasglorious,butitwasaneraofdevotionalpoetry,whichwasalittleindifferenttosecularrepresentationoflifeonstage.TheIslamictaboo
againstsuchformsofentertainmentwasalsoresponsibleforthedeclineofIndiantheatre,and,therefore,dramaremainedinastateofoblivion.However,
folkplayscontinuedtoentertaintheaudience.
Withtheadventofthemodernperiodandtheimpactofwesternliterature,dramatookanewturnanddevelopedasaformofliterature.TheParsitheatre,
around1850,startedstagingplaysbasedonIndianmythology,historyandlegends.Withitsmovingtroupes,theytravelledtodifferentpartsofthecountry
andmadeatremendousimpactontheiraudience.AghaHashr(18801931)wasanimporantplaywrightoftheParsitheatre.ButParsiplaysweremostly
commercialandcheapInfact,modernIndiantheatregrewmainlyasareactionagainstitsinitialcrudityandsuperficiality.BaratenduHarishchandra(Hindi),
GirishChandraGhosh(Bengali),DwijendraLalRoy(Bengali),DinabandhuMitra(Bengali,182974),RanchodbhaiUdayram(Gujarati,18371923),M.M.Pillai
(Tamil), Balvant Padurang Kirloskar (Marathi, 18431885) and Rabindra Nath Tagore delved into our folk tradition to create plays to protest against
colonialism,socialinjusticeandwesternization.JaishankarPrasad(Hindi)andAdyaRangacharya(Kannada)wrotehistoricalandsocialplaystohighlightthe
clashbetweenidealismandtheharshrealitiesbywhichtheyweresurrounded.P.S.MudaliyargaveTamilstagerespectabilityandnewdirection.Butinall,
IndianliteraturebeforeIndependenceisgenerallypoorindrama.ThemakingofmoderntheatrebecamecompleteonlyafterIndiaachievedindependencein
1947.
SearchforModernity
Agreatworkofart,intheIndiancontext,istheexpressionofboththetraditionalandtheactual.Asaresult,theconceptofmodernismgrewintheIndian
contextalongdifferentlines.Theurgewastocreatesomethingnew.Eventheimitationsofwesternmodernistcameasachallengetounderstandtheirown
realities.Writersduringthistimepresentedtheirmanifestos,explainingtheirideasofmodernity.Anewlanguagewasfoundtoarticulatetheirownhistorical
position. Jibanananda Das (18991954) was the most important Bengali poet after Tagore who had a total sense of poetry. He was an imagist and used
languagenotjusttocommunicate,buttograspreality.BibhutiBhushanBandyopadhyay(18991950)theBengalifictionwriter,whosenovelPatherPanchali
(TheSagaoftheRoad)wasfilmedbySatyajitRay,andwhichreceivedinternationalacclaim,presentstheunsophisticatedandwarmheartedvillagelifethatis
passingaway.Inhisquestforidentificationwithmanseverydayrelationwithnature,heprovedhimselftobenolessmodern.TaraShankarBandyopadhyay
(Bengali 18981971) depicts in his novels the pulsating life of a whole generation staying in a village or a city, where society itself becomes the hero. In
depictingregionallife,thesocialchangeandhumanbehaviour,heachievesutmostsuccess.UmaShankarJoshi(Gujarati)initiatednewexperimentalpoetry
andspokeoftheshatteredselfinthemoderndayworld.AmritaPritam(Punjabi)createsanintenselypersonalpoetryofanunearthlyglory,withoutlosing
contactwiththeearth.B.S.Mardhekar(Marathi,19091956)reflectsinhispoetrycontemporaryrealitywiththehelpofimages,indicatingthelimitationsof
manandtheinevitabledespairarisingfromthem.GopalKrishnaAdiga(191892),thefamousmodernKannadapoet,developedhisownpersonalidiom,and
becamemystical.Healsodisplaystheagonyofhistime.Practicallyallthewritersreflectthedespairofman,arisingoutofhissenseofhelplessnessinsociety
andinthelargersphereofhistory.ThelimitationoftheWest,thedegenerationofcanonsandthedisillusionmentofthemiddleclasspsyche,aresomeofthe
characteristics of Indian modernity. However, the tradition of humanism is also very much alive and hope for a better future is not discarded. In western
terminology,modernismisabreakingawayfromestablishedrules,traditionsandconventions,butinIndia,itisasearchforalternativestoexistingliterary
models.Butonecannotidentifyonesinglereferencepointofmodernityand,therefore,onemayconcludethatIndianmodernityislikeamosaic.
TheIndianLiterarySceneAfterIndependence
Afterindependence,inthefifties,thedisillusionmentbecamemorevividbecauseofthepressureofthedisintegrationofsocietyandabrokenrelationshipwith
Indias past heritage. In 1946, India witnessed the worst bloodbath in the memory of the subcontinent, just before it became Independent, after the
partition of the country. Indias nationalism at that juncture was a nationalism of mourning. At that time, a majority of new writers portrayed a dreadful
artificialworld,basedontheformulasofwesternmodernism.Therewereexperimentalistswhoshowedconcernfortheinnerrealityintellectualismentered
the realm of modernity. In a culture like Indias, the past does not pass off. It keeps on providing paradigms for the present, but the rhythm broke down
becauseofmodernisticexperimentations.
Most Indian poets looked outside, and accepted T.S. Eliot, Malarme, yeats or Baudelaire as their masters, and in the process, rejected Tagore, Bharati,
Kumaran Asan, Sri Aurobindo and Gandhi. But then, these poets of the fifties, and even the sixties of dark modernism, developed an identity crisis. This
specificidentitycrisis,theconflictbetweentraditionalIndiannessandwesternmodernity,isdiscernableinthewritingsofthemajorlanguageareasinIndia
during those days. Those who adhered to western modernity separated themselves from the common masses and their reality. But the concept of
experimentation (Prayog) sometimes developed independent of western influence, as a quest for new values and a searching examination of the basic
sanctions or sources of value. S.H. Vatsyayan Ajneya (Hindi), Navakanta Barua (Assamese), B.S. Mardhekar (Marathi), Harbhajan Singh (Punjabi),
SharatchandraMuktibodh(Marathi)andV.K.Gokak(Kannada)emergedwithadistinctvoiceandvision,enrichingthenewmovement.
Besides, the literature of social realism, having its roots in the soil, became a dominant trend in contemporary literature. It was a continuation of the
progressiveliteratureofthethirtiesandforties,butdefinitelymoremilitantinitsapproach.G.M.Muktibodh(Hindi),BishnuDey(Bengali)ortheTelugunaked
(Digambar)poetsrevealedthepoetssolitarystruggleinoppositiontothemountingcrisisofuprootedidentity.Theywrotepoliticalpoetryonthethemeof
agonyandstruggle.Itwasapoetryofcommitment.Literaturenowmovedtothedowntroddenandtheexploited.TheKannadaBandaya(therebels)were
concernedwithformsofviolenceinaclasssociety.PeoplelikeDhumil(Hindi)showedagreatrangeofsocialrealism.O.N.V.Kurup(Malayalam)addedtohis
lyricismthesharpnessofangertowardssocialinjustice.ThencametheNaxalitemovementoftheseventies,andwithitpostmodernismenteredtheIndian
literaryscene.IntheIndiancontext,postmodernismarrivedasareactiontomediaoperatedandmarketguidedrealityareactiontothemodernismofthe
sixtiesoftheexistentialanguish,ofthecrisisofidentity,andofthefrustrationoftheidealist,butitcarriedwithitthetrendofprogressiveliteratureofprotest

andstruggle.
DalitLiterature
Oneofthemostsignificantfeaturesofthepostmodernisterawastheemergenceofwritingsoftheoutcasts,asamajorliteraryforce.ThewordDalitmeans
thedowntrodden.Theliteraturewhichisconcernedwiththesociallyunderprivileged,andwhichassertsthesociopoliticalstatureoftheunderdogs,isknown
bythisname.TheDalitmovementwasstartedinliteraturebyMarathi,GujaratiandKannadawritesundertheleadershipofDr.B.R.Ambedkar.Itcameinto
thelimelightbecauseofprogressiveliteraturemovingnearertothedowntrodden.Itisaliteratureofmilitantprotestagainstuppercasteliteratureupholding
Brahmanicalvalues.Marathipoets,NamdevDhasalorNarayanSurve,ornovelistslikeDayaPawar,orLaxmanGaikwad,reflectintheirwritingstheanguishof
a community, and demand the shaping of a just and realistic future for the underprivileged and the outcast in society. Mahadev Devanur (Kannada) and
JosephMacwan(Gujarati),intheirnovels,dealwiththeexperienceofviolence,protestandexploitation.Itchallengesthetoneandcontextofexistingliterary
canonsanddecentralisesthewholeprocessofaliterarymovement.Itcreatesanalternativeaestheticsandextendsthelinguisticandgenericpossibilitiesof
literature.Dalitliteratureintroducesanewworldofexperienceinliterature,widenstherangeofexpression,andexploitsthepotentialityofthelanguageof
theoutcastsandunderprivilegedDalits.
UseofMythology
Inordertobridgethegapbetweenurbanandruralconsciousness,betweenthepastandthepresent,anothertrendwhichisverymuchvisibleinthepost
modernist poetry scene is the use of mythology to present the modern predicament. Mythic thoughts, in fact, are attempts to mediate the gaps between
continuityandchange,therebyauthenticatingtheideaoftotalpoetry.Byusingsimilarmythologicalsituations,abroaderdimensionisgiventothepresent
day chaotic condition in which humanity is living today. The mythical past affirms mans relationship to the transcendent. It has a valuestructure. It is a
rediscovery of the past for the present, and an adaptation for the future. In Ajneyas (Hindi) poetry, one finds a shift towards the realisation that the
individuals entity is just a humble part of a larger reality. Ramakanta Rath (Oriya) and Sitakant Mhapatra (Oriya) use mythology or folk legends to
contemplateonmansalienationfromalifeofnourishmentandgrace.Onecomesacrossmanyinstancesofwriterstryingtoexploretheirroots,findtheir
moorings,andprobewholeareasofexperience,blurredduringaperiodofextrememodernismduringthelastseveraldecades.IncontemporaryIndianpoetry,
along with a sense of urbanity, an attitude of irony, frequent use of mythological sequences as structural images, and a continuous involvement with the
problemsofexpediencyandeternity,areveryvisible.PlaywrightslikeGirishKarnad,Kambar(Kannada),MohanRakesh,ManiMadhukar(Hindi),G.P.Satish
Alekar(Marathi),ManojMitraandBadalSircar(Bengali)areusingmyths,folklegendsandreligiocentrictraditiontounderstandIndiaspresentdayexistence.
The departure from Eurocentric modernism has created a new sociocultural mythical code, which is used in the poetry of Kunwar Narayan (Hindi), Dilip
Chitre(Marathi)andSankhoGhosh(Bengali),andinnovelsbyBhyrappa(Kannada),Prapancham(Tamil)andothers.Mythisnowacceptedasameaningful
subtextoftheliterarytext.U.R.AnanthaMurthy(Kannada),inhisstories,explorestherelevanceofsometraditionalvaluesintodayschangedcontext.His
novel,Samskara,isaworldclassic,whichportraysthespiritualstruggleofmanintermsoftheurgencyoflifesdemands.Thesewritershavemadeaneffort
toretrieve,rediscover,andredefineelementsofcultureinacreativeway,byareturntoprideinonesroots,whilelookingahead.
ContemporaryLiterature
In the uttara Adhunika (postmodern) era the effort is to be natural, to be Indian, to be near to the common man, to be socially conscious. The third
generationofMalayalamwriterslikeN.Prabhakaran,andP.Surendranpreferthetermantimodernismtopostmodernismandarecontentsimplytonarrate
humantaleswithoutanyexplicitsocialmessageorphilosophicalpretensions.VijayadanDetha(Rajasthani,undertheumbrellalanguageHindi)andSurendra
Prakash(Urdu)arenowwritingstorieswithoutanyideologicalprejudices.Themodernistideathatanythingsimpleshouldnotbeacceptedisnowquestioned.
It is established now that simple texts may present complex extratextual structures. Even cultural references simply stated in poetry can have different
semanticvalues.
InthecontemporaryIndiannovelsbyJayamohan(Tamil),DebesRay(Bengali)andShivprasadSingh(Hindi),dealingwithvariousneglectedregions,andthe
spokendialectofthatarea,acompositepictureofatotalIndia,pulsatingwithnewexperienceandstrugglingtoholdontotheoldvalues,andintheprocess
sometimesdiscardingthem,isalsoeasilydiscernible.InthisperiodofUttaraAdhunikta(postmodernism),thesenovelsdramatisetheshiftofthedominant
fromproblemsofknowingtoproblemsofmodesofbeing.ItgivesaglimpseoftheactualIndiaofthevillages,andalsomakesitamplyclearthatthiscountry
belongstotheHindus,Muslims,SikhsandChristians.Itscultureisacompositeculture.Theseregionalnovelistshaveforcefullydemolishedthemythscreated
bythewesternIndologiststhatIndiannessisjustfatalism,orthatIndiannessistobeidentifiedwithharmonyandorder,andIndianvisioncannotperceiveits
ownreality.
ThecentraltensionexperiencedbythevastmajorityofcontemporaryIndiannovelistsisthatoftransitionfromtheruralandtraditionaltoanurbanandpost
modernsituation,expressedeitherthrougharomanticnostalgiaforthevillageleftbehind,orthroughfearandhatredofthecruelimpersonalcity,withallits
sex,horror,murderandcruelty.BirendraKumarBhattacharya(Assamese),SunilGangopadhyay(Bengali),Pannalalpatel(Gujarati),MannuBhandari(Hindi),
Nayantara Sahgal (English), V. Bedekar (Marathi), Samaresh Basu (Bengali) and others, with their ruralurban sensitivity, have portrayed the Indian
experienceinitstotality.Somefictionwriters,withthehelpofsymbols,imagesandotherpoeticmeans,magnifyaparticularmomentinlife.NirmalVerma
(Hindi), Moni Manikyam (Telugu) and many others have made their presence felt in this area. Emancipatory womens writing has emerged strongly in all
Indianlanguages,seekingtosubvertthemandominatedsocialorder,forgingrevisionarymythsandcountermetaphorsbywomenwriterslikeKamalaDas
(Malayalam,English),KrishnaSobti(Hindi),AshapurnaDevi(Bengali),RajamKrishnan(Tamil)andothers.
ThepresentdaycrisisinIndiaistheconflictbetweenexpediencyanduniversality,andasaresult,alargenumberofwritersareintheprocessofidentifyinga
patternofproblemsolvingwithinthetraditionalsystem,vigorousenoughtogenerateandsustainanindigenousprocessofmodernization,whichdoesnot
needreadymadeexternalsolutions,andisinaccordwithindigenousneedsandattitudes.Thenewcropofwritersareconcernedwithtruthastheyseeitin
life around them. Even for the Indian English writers, English is no more a colonial language. Amitabh Ghosh, Shashi Tharur, Vikram Seth, Upamanyu
Chatterjee,ArundhatiRoyandothersareusingitwithoutshowingalackofcommitmenttoIndianness.Thosewriterswhoareawareoftheirinheritance,
complexityanduniqueness,expressintheirwork,withoutanyconsciouseffort,bothtraditionandtheactual.
OnemayconcludethatnosingleIndianliteratureiscompleteinitself,andhencenostudyofit,withinasinglelanguagecontext,candojusticetoit,oreven
toitswriters,whogrowinacommonculturalambience.WhatisnoteworthyisthatIndianliteratureiswritteninmanylanguages,butthereisavital,living
relationshipamongthem,becauseofpolyglotfluidity,interlanguagetranslations,sharedthemes,forms,concerns,directionandmovements.Allthesekeep
theidealsofIndianliteraturedynamicallyaliveeventoday.

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