APA Publication

Manual
Sixth Edition

2001

2010
2

What is APA?
APA
(American Psychological
Association)
It was developed by social and
behavioral scientists to
standardize scientific writing.
It is the most commonly used
format for manuscripts in the
social sciences.
3

What is APA?
Manual Chapters
o Chapter 1:Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
o Chapter 2: Manuscript Structure and Content.
o Chapter 3: Writing Clearly and Concisely.
o Chapter 4: The Mechanics of Style.
o Chapter 5: Displaying Results.
o Chapter 6: Crediting Sources.

o Chapter 7: Reference Examples.

o Chapter 8: The Publication Process.
4

What is APA?
APA style is used for:
o Empirical studies.
o Literature reviews.

o Theoretical articles.
o Methodological articles.
o Case studies.

Ethical and Legal

Standards
6

Ethical and Legal Standards in

Publishing
Ensuring accuracy of scientific knowledge.
o Ethical reporting of research results: be honest.

o Data sharing: make data available during review and publication

process.
o Data retention: retain raw data for five years after publication and
protect confidentiality of research participants.

o Duplicate publication: same data or ideas in two separate

publications.

Ethical and Legal Standards in

Publishing
Ensuring accuracy of scientific knowledge.
o Piecemeal publication of data: unnecessary splitting of
the findings from one research effort into multiple
articles.
o Plagiarism.
o Self-plagiarism: present previously published work as
new scholarship.

Ethical and Legal Standards in

Publishing
Protecting the rights and welfare of research
participants.
o Rights and confidentiality of research participants.
o Conflict of interest.

Ethical and Legal Standards in

Publishing
Protecting intellectual property rights.
o Publication credit: authorship is reserved for persons who make a
substantial contribution to and who accept responsibility for a
published work.
o Reviewers: the manuscript is a confidential and privileged document
during review process.

o Authors copyright on an unpublished manuscript: include the

copyright notice on all published and unpublished works.
o Planning for ethical compliance.

10

Format and
Manuscript Elements
11

Language in an APA paper

Clear: be specific in descriptions and explanations.
Concise: condense information when you can.
Plain: use simple, descriptive adjectives and minimize the figurative
language.

Use:
o The third person rather than the first person:
e.g. Correct: The study showed that
Incorrect: I found that...

o The active voice rather than the passive voice:

e.g. Correct: The participants responded
Incorrect: The participants have been asked....

12

Format
Margins: Set margin at 1 inch (2.54 cm.) from all edges of the
paper.
Alignment: Is set at the left margin only for all text except title
and title page.
Font (typeface): The preferred typeface is Times New Roman 12.
Indents: Indent the first sentence of each paragraph inch. All
other lines of the paragraph wrap to the left margin. Indent
blocked quotes (40 words or more) including the first sentence.
Line Spacing: All lines are double-spaced. The first line of each
page (except title page) begins at the top margin.
13

Format
Page Numbers: Place page numbers at the top right corner (inside
the header), beginning with the title page.

Order of Manuscript Pages

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Title page
Abstract
Text
References
Tables
Figures
Appendices

14

Manuscript Elements: Title Page

Running Head
o On the first line of the title page flush-left.

o Begin with the words Running head following by a

colon. Then give an abbreviated title of your paper in 50
characters or less (in caps.).

15

Manuscript Elements: Title Page

Running Head

16

Manuscript Elements: Title Page

In the upper half of the title page:
Full Title
o Twelve words or less.
o It should be a concise statement of the main topic and should
identify the variables or theoretical issues under investigation and
the relationship between them.

o Should be typed in uppercase and lowercase letters, centered.

Authors name: First name, middle initial(s) and last name. Omit
all titles and degrees.

Institutional Affiliation
17

Manuscript Elements: Abstract

Brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article.
The label Abstract should appear in uppercase and lowercase
letters, centered, at the top of the page. The abstract must begin
in a new page.
A good abstract is (APA, 2010, p. 26):
o Accurate
o Non-evaluative
o Coherent and readable
o Concise
No indentation.

18

Manuscript Elements: Main Body

Type the title of the paper centered, at the top of
the page.

Type the text double-spaced with all sections

following each other without a break.

19

Manuscript Elements: References

Begin in a new page.

The label References should appear in uppercase

and lowercase letters, centered (APA, 2010, p. 37).
Double-space all reference entries.

The first line of each reference is set flush left and

subsequent lines are indented.

20

Organizing a
Manuscript
21

Headings (APA, 2010, pp. 62-63).

There are five possible formatting arrangements,
according to the number of levels of
subordination.
Each section starts with the highest level of
heading.
The introduction section does not carry a heading.

22

Level of Heading (APA, 2010, p. 62).

Level 1

Centered, Boldface, Uppercase

and Lowercase Headings

Level 2

Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase

Heading

Level 3

Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph

heading

Level 4

Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase

paragraph heading ending with a period.

Level 5

Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph

heading ending with a period.

Seriation (APA 2010, p. 63).

Within a paragraph or sentence:
Identify elements in a series by lowercase letters in parentheses
The participants three choices were (a) working with another
participant, (b) working with a team, and (c) working alone.

Use commas to separate three or more elements that do not have

internal commas; use semicolons to separate three or more
elements that have internal commas
Sales classification was (a) low sales, who obtained less than
$25,000; (b) regular sales, who obtained between $25,000 and $100,000;
and (c) remarkable sales, who obtained sales for more than $100,000.
24

Seriation (APA 2010, p. 62).

Separate paragraphs in a series:
1.
2.
3.

An Arabic numeral followed by a period but not enclosed in or

followed by parentheses.
The first word is capitalized, and the sentence ends with a
period or correct punctuation.
If the use of numbered lists may connote an unwanted or
unwarranted ordinal position among items; these items could
be identify by bullets.

25

Numbers and
Statistical Symbols
26

Numbers
Use numerals to express numbers 10 and above and words to
express numbers below 10.
Exceptions:
o Use words for approximations of numbers of days,
months, and years
...about three months ago.

o Any number that begins a sentence, title, or text heading.

Thirty-four men were selected to participate in the experiment.

27

Numbers
Exceptions (cont.):
o Common fractions.
one fifth of the class

two-thirds majority.

o Universally accepted usage.

the Twelve Apostles

Five Pillars of Islam

Combining numerals and words to express numbers

o Use a combination of numerals and words to express
back-to-back modifiers.
2 two-way interactions

ten 7-point scales

o When combining numerals and words, readability may

suffer, spell out both numbers.
first two items
28

Numbers
Decimal Fractions
o Use a zero before the decimal point with numbers that
are less than 1 when the statistic can exceed 1.
0.23 cm 0.48 s
o Do not use a zero before a decimal fraction when the
statistic cannot be greater than 1.
r(24) = -.43
p = .028

29

Numbers
To form the plural of numbers, whether expressed as figures
or as words, add s or es alone, without an apostrophe
fours and sixes

1950s

10s and 20s

Commas in numbers
o Use commas between groups of three digits in most
figures of 1,000 or more.
Exceptions:
Page numbers
Binary digits
Serial numbers
Degrees of temperature
Degrees of freedom

page 1029
00110010
290466960
3071 F
F(24, 1000)
30

Statistical Symbols
When using a statistical term in the narrative, use the term, not
the symbol:
o Use: The means were
o Not: The Ms were

Population parameters are usually represented by Greek

letters:
o Population correlation would be represented as r.

Most estimators are represented by italicized Latin letters.

o Population correlation would be represented as r.

31

Statistical Symbols
Symbols for number of subjects:
o Use an uppercase, italicized N to designate the number of
members in the total sample: N = 135.
o Use a lowercase, italicized n to designate the number of
members in a limited portion of the total sample: n = 30.

Symbol for percentage: use it only when it is preceded

by a numeral: 18%.

32

Statistical Symbols
Standard, boldface, and italic type:
o Greek letters, subscripts, and superscripts that function as
identifiers and abbreviations that are not variables are set in
standard typeface:
mgirls, a1 bi
o Symbols for vectors and matrices are set in boldface:
V, S
o All other statistical symbols are set in italic type:
N, Mx, df, SSE, MSE, t, F

33

Tables and Figures

34

Tables and Figures

Enable authors to present a large amount of information
efficiently and to make their data more comprehensible.
Tables
o Show numerical values or textual information arranged in an
orderly display columns and rows.

Figures
o May be a chart, graph, photograph, drawing, or any other
illustration or non-textual depiction.

35

Tables and Figures: General Information

Number all tables and figures with Arabic numerals in the
order in which they are first mentioned in text.
Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2...

List of Tables (first)

List of Figures (then)

When Tables and Figures are cited in the text : use T and F.

36

Tables and Figures: Copyright Permission

If you reproduce or adapt a table, figure, questionnaire, or test
item from a copyrighted source, you must obtain written
permission for print and electronic reuse and give credit in the
table or figure capture to the original author and copyright
holder.
From [or The data in column 1 are from] Title of Article, by A.N. Author
and C.O. Author, year, Title of Journal, Volume, p. xx. Copyright [year] by
the Name of Copyright Holder. Reprinted [or adapted] with permission.

37

Tables
38

General Information
Allows complex data to be expressed in a tidy format.

They should not be used when results can easily be

expressed in text.
Consider combining tables that repeat data (identical
columns or rows of data should not appear in two or
more tables).
Tables may be submitted either single - or double spaced.

39

Tables
Table Number: Table numbers must be written in Arabic numbers
Table Title: A description of the table in italics, single-spaced from
the table number.
Table Note: Three types of notes can be place below the table:
Note. General notes to a table appear here, including definitions of
abbreviations.
aA specific note appears on a separate line below any general notes;
subsequent specific notes are run in.
* A probability note (p value) appears on a separate line below any
specific notes; subsequent probability notes are run in.

40

Basic Components of a Table

Table Number

Table X

Table Title

Number of Children With and Without Proof of

Column Spanner: heading
that identifies the entries in
two or more columns in the
body of the table
Stub Head: heading that
identifies the entries in
leftmost column

Stub or stub column:

leftmost column of the
table; usually lists the
major independent or
predictor variables

Parental Citizenship
_______________________________________
Girls
Grade

With

Boys

Without

With

Without

281

232

Wave 1
3

380

Decked heads: heading

that is stacked, often to
avoid repetition of words
in column headings

240

297

251

290

264

301

260

306

221

Column heads:
heading that
identifies the
entries in just one
column in the body
of the table
Cell: point of
intersection between a
row and a column

_______________________________________
Table note: three
types of notes can be
placed below the
table, which can
eliminate repetition
from the body of the
table

Total
878
751
877
717
_______________________________________
Note. General notes to a table appear here, including definitions
of abbreviations.
aA specific note appears on a separate line below any general
notes; subsequent specific notes are run in
*A probability note ( p value) appears on a separate line below
any specific notes; subsequent probability notes are run in.

Table Body: rows of

cells containing
primary data of the
table

41

Table Titles
Brief but clear and explanatory
Too General:
Relation between College Majors and Performance [It is unclear what data
are presented in the table.]
Too detailed:
Mean Performance Scores on Test A, Test B, and Test C of Students with
Psychology, Physics, English, and Engineering Majors [This duplicates
information in the headings of the table.]
Good Title:
Mean Performance Scores of Students with Different College Majors

42

Table Titles
Abbreviations that appear in the heading or the body
of a table sometimes can be parenthetically
explained.
Comparison of Median Income of Adopted Children (AC) v.
Foster Children (FC)

If the abbreviations require longer explanations or do

not relate to the table title, explained them in the
table notes.
43

Table Headings
Establish the organization of the data and identify the
columns of data beneath them.
Should be brief and should not have many more characters
in length that the widest entry
Poor:

Good:

Grade level

Grade

44

Table Headings
Use standard abbreviations and symbols for nontechnical terms
(e.g., no. for number, % for percent) and statistics without
explanations (e.g., M, SD, 2).
A list of statistical abbreviations and symbols can be found in
the APA Publication Manual.
Table 1

Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N = 1,022)

Characteristics
Age at time of survey (years)
20 - 29
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59

244
534
132
112

24
52
13
11
45

Table Headings
Establish the organization of the data and identify the columns
of data beneath them.
A column spanner covers two or more columns, each with its
own column head: decked heads, which can be used to avoid
repetition of words in column heads.
Do not use more than two levels of decked heads.
Incorrect:
Temporal
lobe:

Left Right

Wordy:
Left
temporal
lobe

Right
temporal
lobe

Correct:
Temporal lobe
Left

Right

46

Table Headings
Table spanners can be used for establishing divisions
within the text body.
Table 2
Individual and Family Characteristics as a Percentage of the Sample

Table
Spanners

Characteristic
Self - identity
Mexican
Mexican American
Nativity
Mexico
United States
Language preference
English
Spanish

Mother
( n = 750 )
77.2
22.8

Father
( n = 466 )

71.0
29.0

Child
( n = 750 )
41.0
59.0

74.2
25.8

(38.2 )
(61.8)

80.0
20.0

(44.2)
(55.8)

29.7
70.3

30.2
69.8

(52.7)
(48.3)

23.2
76.8

(52.7)
(48.3)

82.5
17.5

(70.0)
(30.0)

47

Table Body
Decimal Values
o In general round to two decimal places.
o To report p values, report exact p values to two or three
decimal places.
o Report p values less than .001 as p < .001.
Table 3
Analysis of Covariance of Posttest Knowledge Scores as a Function of Instruction
Condition and Tutor Help, with Pretest Knowledge Scores and Covariates
Source
Covariate
Instruction condition (IC)
Tutor held (TH)
IC X TH
Error
Total
*p < .05. **p < .01

df
1
2
2
2
54
60

SS
39.31
38.78
30.26
76.04
419.04
573.43

MS
9.31
1 9.39
3 0.26
3 8.02
7.76
9.56

F
4.22**
2.50*
3.90**
4.90**

2
.05
.03
.04
.06

48

Table Body
Empty Cells
o If the data cannot be filled because data are not applicable,
leave the cell blank.
Table 4
Demographic Characteristics of Participants (N = 1,022)
Characteristics
Gender
Male
Female
Age at time of survey (years)
20 - 29
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59

560
462

54.79
45.21

244
534
132
112

24
52
13
11

25.60
34.80
45.50
56.10

49

Table Body
Empty Cells
o If a data cannot be reported, insert a dash in that cell and explain
the use of the dash in the general note.
o By convention a dash in the main diagonal position of a
correlation matrix indicates the correlation with itself.
Table 5
Intercorrelations for Dimensions of Achievement Scale and Five other Need for Achievement
Measures
Measure

1. Dimensions of Achievement Scale

2. Brunswick Achievement Measure
3. Need for Achivement Inventory

-.76
.70

-.88

--

4. Achievement Perception Test

5. Peer rating of need for achievement

.56
.45

.65
.5 5

.61
.52

-.67

--

6. Self - rating of need for achivement

.53

.56

.43

.37

.87

-50

 General Notes

Table Notes

o Qualifies, explains, or provides information relating to the table

(abbreviations, symbols, references and the like).
Table 6
Predictors of Self Reported Moral Behavior

Variable
Constant
Gender
Age
Social desirability bias
Moral identity internalization
Moral identity symbolization
Perceptual moral attentiveness
Reflective moral attentiveness
R2
F
R2
F

Model 1 B
3.192**
0.18*
-0.06
-0.08**
-0.17**
-0.07*

.29
19.07**

Self-reported moral behavior

Model 2
B
95% CI
2.99**
[2.37, 3.62]
0.17
[-0.00, 0.33]
-0.05
[-0.14, 0.03]
-0.08**
[-0.10, -0.05]
-0.16
[-0.26, -0.06]
0.06
[-0.01, 0.12]
0.07*
[0.00, 0.13]
-0.01
[-0.08, 0.06]
.31
14.46**
.01
2.39

Note. N = 242. CI = confidence interval. . Adapted from Moral Attentiveness: Who Pays Attention to the Moral Aspects of Life?, by S.
J. Reynolds, 2008,Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, p. 1035. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychologi cal Association.
*p < .05. **p < .01

51

Table Notes
Specific Notes
o Refers to a particular column, row, or cell.
o Indicated by superscript lowercase letter (e.g., a,b,c).
Table 6

Individual and Family Characteristics as a Percentage of the Sample

Characteristic

Mother
(n = 750)

Father

(n = 466)

Child
(n = 750)

Na tivity
Mexico
United States
b
Language preference
English
Spanish

74.2
25.8

(38.2)
(61.8)

80.0
20.0

(44.2)
(55.8)

29.7
70.3

30.2
69.8

(52.7)
(48.3)

23.2
76.8

(52.7)
(48.3)

82.5
17.5

(70.0)
(30.0)

Note. Adapted from Sampling and Recruitment in Studies of Cultural Influences on Adjustment: A Case Study with Mexican
Americans, by M. Roosa, F. F. Liu, M. Torres, N. A. Gonz ales, G. P. Knight, and D. Saenz, 2008, Journal of Family
Psychology, 22, p. 300. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
a
Census data are for all women or men and are not limited to parents or adults in our age group.bThe most comparable census
52
data for mothers and fathers are for all adults 18 and older and for children are for 15 to 17 year olds.

Table Notes
Probability Note
o Indicate how asterisk are used in a table to indicate p values.
o Assign the same number of asterisks from table to table within
your paper, such as *p < .05, **p < .01, and ***p < .001.
Table 3
Analysis of Covariance of Posttest Knowledge Scores as a Function of Instruction Condition and Tutor
Help, with Pretest Knowledge Scores and Covariates
Source
Covariate
Instruct ion condition (IC)
T utor held (TH)
IC X TH
Error
Total

df
1
2
2
2
54
60

SS
39.31
38.78
30.26
76.04
419.04
573.43

MS
9 .31
1 9 .39
3 0 .26
3 8 .02
7 .76
9 .56

F
4.22 **
2.50*
3.90**
4.90**

2
.05
.03
.04
.06

*p < .05. **p < .0 1

53

Table Notes
To distinguish between one-tailed and two-tailed tests in the
same table use an asterisk for the two-tailed p values and an
alternate symbol for the one-tailed p values.
*p < .05, two-tailed. **p < .01, two-tailed. p < .05, one-tailed. p < .01,
one-tailed.

Order the notes in the following sequences: general note,

specific note, probability note.
Each type note begins flush left (no indentation).
Note. The participants.... Responses
an = 25. bn = 42.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

54

Figures
55

General Information
Figures can be used to:
o Illustrate complex theoretical formulations.
o Represent a theory graphically through a set of path
models.
o Show the sample flow of subjects through a
randomized experiment.
o Flow of participants in a survey study.
o Illustrate the results of a one-way design with error
bars representing precision of the resulting estimates.
o Empirical results from a complex multivariate model.
o Details of an experimental laboratory set-up.
56

Standards
Simplicity, clarity, continuity and information value.
Checklist for a good figure:
o
o
o
o
o
o

Augments the text.

Conveys only essential facts.
Omits visually distracting detail.
Is easy to read, its elements are large enough to read.
Is easy to understand.
Is consistent with and in the same style as similar figures in the same article.

Do not forget that:

o Lines are smooth and sharp.
o Inside the Figure, sans serif may be used because is simple.
o Elements within the figure are labeled or explained.

57

Figures
Legend: Is an integral part of the figure; therefore, it should
have the same kind and proportion of lettering that appears in
the rest of the figure. Capitalize major words in the legend.

Caption: It serves both as an explanation of the figure and as

a figure title. After the descriptive phrase, add any information
needed to clarify the figure including any acknowledgement
that a figure is reproduced from another source. They should
be placed below the figure.

58

Legends
Legends

Integral part of the figure

It should have the same kind
and proportion of lettering
that appear in the rest of the
figures
Capitalize major words in the
legend

59

Captions
Explanation and title of the figure.
The figure itself should not include a title.
The caption should be a brief but descriptive phrase.
Too brief: Figure 3. Fixation duration
Sufficiently descriptive: Figure 3. Fixation duration as a function of the
delay between the beginning of eye fixation and the onset of the stimulus in
Experiment 1.

After the descriptive phrase, add nay information needed to

clarify the figure.

60

Figure Example

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the relationship between TQM practices and

operating and business performance.
61

Figure Example
Home Literacy
Environment
(Predictors)

Language and
Literacy Skill
(Criterion)

a) Direct pathway
Home Literacy
Environment
(Predictors)

Language and
Literacy Skill
(Criterion)
b

Mediators (Phonological Awareness,

Preschool Letter Identification, Vocabulary)

b) Indirect or Mediated Pathway

Figure 1. Generic mediation model being tested (on the basis of Baron & Kenny, 1986).
Adapted from Preschool Home Literacy Practices and Childrens Literacy Development: A longitudinal
Analysis, by M. Hood, E. Conlon, and G. Andrews, 2008, Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, p. 259.
Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
62

Quoting
63

Direct Quotation of Sources

If the quotation has less than 40 words, incorporate it into text
and enclose the quotation with double quotation marks.
Hofstede (1991) defined culture as the collective
programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of
one group or category of people from another (p. 5).
In designing new products and services, we use the
requirements of domestic customers (Samson & Terziovski,
1999, p. 406).

64

Direct Quotation of Sources

If the quotation comprises 40 or more words, display it in
a freestanding block of text and omit the quotation marks.
Indent the block from the left margin.
Schein (1992) defined culture as the following:
A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it
solved its problems of external adaptation and of internal integration,
that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to
be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, to think, and

to feel in relation to those problems. (p. 12)

65

References
66

Citing References in Text

One work by one author
o The surname of the author (do not include suffixes such as Jr.) and the year of
publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate point:
Lagrosen (2003) found that cultural dimensions of uncertainty avoidance
and individualism-collectivism have an influence on the TQM principles.

The cultural dimensions of uncertainty avoidance and individualismcollectivism have an influence on the TQM principles (Lagrosen, 2003).
In 2003, Lagrosen found that cultural dimensions of uncertainty

avoidance and individualism-collectivism have an influence on the TQM

Principles.

67

Citing References in Text

One work by multiple authors
o When the work has two authors, cite both names every time the
reference occurs in text.
As Sashan and Datta (2005) demostrated...
...as has been shown (Sashan & Datta, 2005).
o When the work has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first
time the reference occurs; in subsequent citations, include only the
surname of the first author followed by et al. and the year if it is the
first citation of the reference within a paragraph.
Bolumole, Frankel, and Naslund (2007) found... [First citation in
text].
Bolumole et al. (2007) found [Subsequent citations ]

68

Citing References in Text

One work by multiple authors
o Exception: If two references of more than three surnames with the same
year shorten to the same form, cite the surnames of the first authors and
of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish the
two references, followed by a comma and et al..
Ahire, Golhar, and Waller (1996) Ahire, Waller, and Golhar (1996)
Ahire, Golhar, et al. (1996)
Ahire, Waller, et al. (1996)

69

Citing References in Text

One work by six or more authors
o Cite only the surname of the first author followed by et
al. and the year for the first and subsequent citations.
o If two references with six or more authors shorten to the
same form, cite the surnames of the first authors and of as
many of the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish
the two references, followed by a comma and et al.

70

Citing References in Text

Groups as authors
o The names of groups that serve as authors are spelled out
each time they appear in a text citation and in the
subsequent citations, if the abbreviation is familiar, it may
be abbreviate the name in second and subsequent citations.
Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica (INEI, 2010) [First
citation]
(Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica [INEI], 2010) [First
citation]
INEI (2010) [Second and subsequent citations]

71

Type of Citation

First citation in
text

Subsequent
citations in text

Parenthetical
format, first citation
in text

Parenthetical format,
subsequent citations
in text

One work by one

author

Walker (2007)

Walker (2007)

(Walker, 2007)

(Walker, 2007)

One work by two

authors

Walker and Allen

(2004)

Walker and Allen

(2004)

(Walker & Allen,

2004)

(Walker & Allen,

2004)

One work by three

authors

Bradley, Ramirez,
and Soo (1999)

Bradley et al.
(1999)

(Bradley, Ramirez, &

Soo, 1999)

(Bradley et al., 1999)

One work by four

authors

Bradley, Ramirez,
Soo, and Walsh
(2006)

Bradley et al.
(2006)

(Bradley, Ramirez,
Soo, & Walsh, 2006)

(Bradley et al., 2006)

One work by five

authors

Walker, Allen,
Bradley, Ramirez,
and Soo (2008)

Walker et al. (2008)

(Walker, Allen,
Bradley, Ramirez, &
Soo, 2008)

(Walker et al., 2008)

One work by six

authors

Wasserstein et al.
(2005)

Wasserstein et al.
(2005)

(Wasserstein et al.,
2005)

(Wasserstein et al.,
2005)

Groups (readily
identified through
abbreviation) as
authors

National Institute of
Mental Health
(NIMH, 2003)

NIMH (2003)

(National Institute of
Mental Health
[NIMH], 2003)

(NIMH, 2003)

Groups (no
abbreviation) as
authors

University of
Pittsburgh (2005)

University of
Pittsburgh (2005)

(University of
Pittsburgh, 2005)

(University of
Pittsburgh, 2005)

Citing References in Text

Authors with the same surname
o Include the first authors initial in all text citations, even if
the year of publication differs.
References:
Light, I. (2006).
Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008).
Text
Among studies, we review M. A. Light and Light (2008) and I. Light
(2006).

73

Citing References in Text

Two or more works within the same parenthesis
o Order the citations of two or more works within the same parentheses
alphabetically in the same order they appear in the reference list. Separate the
citations with semicolons.
Several studies (Miller, 1999; Shafranske & Mahoney, 1998)
o Identify works by the same author by year of publication. Give the authors
surnames once; for each subsequent work, give only the date.
Several studies (Porter, 1981, 1992)
o When the work of one author has the same publication date, identify them by
the suffixes a, b, c, and so forth, after the year; repeat the year.
Training materials are available (Department of Veterans Affairs, 2001, 2003a,
2003b).

74

Citing References in Text

Secondary sources
o Use secondary sources sparingly, for instance, when the
original work is out of print, unavailable through usual
sources, or not available in English.
o Put the secondary source in the reference list; in text, name
the original work and give a citation for the secondary
source.
Allports diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003)

75

Reference List
Begin in a new page.
References are listed in alphabetical order.
One-author entries by the same author are arranged by year of
publication, the earliest first:
Upenieks, V. (2003)
Upenieks, V. (2005)

One-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning

with the same surname:
Alleyne, R. L. (2001)
Alleyne, R. L., & Evans, A. J. (1999)

76

References
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

First, write the authors surname and then their names initials; give in
parenthesis the year the work was published
Author, A. A., Author B. B., & Author C. C. (year).
Title: Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if any
and any proper noun.
In each entry the first line is flush left, while subsequent lines are
indented.
Double-space all reference entries.
Some publications include the digital object identifier (DOI), a unique
alphanumeric string assigned by a registration the International DOI
Foundation. We must provide the DOI, if one has been assigned, at the
end of the reference, using this format: doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.3.379

77

References: Books
For an entire book:
Author, A. A. (2001). Title of work. Location: Publisher
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (2003) Title of work. Location: Publisher.

For a chapter in a book:

Author, A. A. (2001). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.),
Title of book (pp. xx-xx). Location: Publisher.

78

Locations
When citing books and reports, the publisher's location (city and
state or, if outside the United States, city and country) should be
indicated.
Locations from United States: the names of U.S. states and
territories are placed in the reference list, using the official two-letter
U.S. Postal Service abbreviations.
Locations outside the United States: spell out the city and the
country names. Use a colon after the location.

79

Locations
When the author is also the publisher, use Author to indicate the
publisher.
Examples:
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Washington, DC: Author.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pretoria, South Africa: Unisa.

80

References: Journals
General reference form
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of the article. Title of
Periodical,Vol(N), pp-pp.

More than seven authors

Gilbert, D. G., McClernon, J. F., Rabinovich, N. E., Sugai, C., Plath, L. C., Asgaard, G., ...&
Botros, N. (2004). Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and attention last
for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress, dependence, DRD2 A1 allele,
and depressive traits. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6(1), 249-267.
doi:10.1080/14622200410001676305

In-press article posted in a preprint archive

Briscoe, R. (in press). Egocentric spatial representation in action and perception.
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Retrieved from
http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.F07.pdf
81

References: Examples
Magazine article
Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing
worker well-being: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their

research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 59(5), 26-29.

Newspaper article
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The

Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.

Online newspaper article

Brody, J. E. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New York
Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

82

References: Examples
Technical and Research Report
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work (Report No. xxx). Location:
Publisher.
Krishna, A., & Uphoff, N. (1999). Mapping and measuring social capital: A
conceptual and empirical study of collective action for conserving

and developing watersheds in Rajasthan, India (Working paper N13).

Retrieved from
http://www.wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentSe
ver/WDSP/IB/2001/10/05/000094946_01092704070811/Rende

red/PDF/multi0page.pdf
83

References: Dissertations and Theses

Doctoral dissertations and Masters theses available from a database
service
Author, A. A. (year). Title of the doctoral dissertation or masters thesis (Doctoral

dissertation or masters thesis). Retrieved from Name of database. (Accession

or Order N.).
Emale, J. M. (2010). An examination of how conglomerates impact small-medium
enterprises in their relationship (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (Publication No. AAT 3407430)

Unpublished dissertations or thesis

Author, A. A. (year). Title of the doctoral dissertation or masters thesis
(Doctoral dissertation or masters thesis). Name of Institution, Location.
84