CONTENT

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ABOUT BOLTS

1.1. History
1.2. Introduction
Bolting Terms
Chapter 2: WHAT ARE BOLTS?
2.1. Screw Vs Bolts
2.2. Mechanical Classification
2.3. Types of Bolts
1. T Head Bolt
2. T Slot Bolt
3. Anchor Bolt
4. Askew Head Bolt
5. Carriage Bolt
6. Elevator Bolt
7. Hanger Bolt
8. Lag Bolt
9. Hex Bolt
10.
Plow Bolt
11.
Shoulder Bolt
12.
Stove Bolt
2.4. Theory
Preload
Tightening Method:
1. Uncontrolled Tightening
2. Controlled Tightening
I. Torque Tightening
II. Bolt Tightening

Chapter 3: MANUFATURING OF BOLTS

3.1. Overview of Method
3.2. Transformation Method
1.
2.
3.
4.

Flat Die Thread Rolling

Planetary Thread Rolling
Two Die Rolling Method
Three Die Rolling Method

3.3. Material
3.4. Processes

Wire Drawing
Header Machine
Thread Rolling Machine
Die Design
Polishing Drum
Finishing
1. Plain Finishing
2. Corrosion Protective Coating
Zinc Plated
Cadmium Plated
Phosphate

Conclusion

Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION OF BOLTS

1.1. History :

History of threads can be traced back to 400 BC, the most significant
developments in the modern day bolt and screw processes were made
during the last 150 years. Even though the threaded bolt dates back to
the 15th century, the unthreaded bolt goes back to Roman times when it
was used for barring doors, as pivots for opening and closing doors. The
Romans developed the first screw, which was made out of bronze, or even
silver. The threads were filed by hand or consisted of a wire wound around
a rod and soldered on.
The History of the Nut and Bolt Industry in America by W.R. Wilbur in
1905 acknowledges that the first machine for making bolts and screws
was made by Besson in France in 1568, who later introduced a screwcutting gauge or plate to be used on lathes. In 1641, the English firm,
Hindley of York, improved this device and it became widely used.
Initially, screw threads for fasteners were made by hand but soon, due to
a significant increase in demand, it was necessary to speed up the
production process. In Britain in 1760, J and W Wyatt introduced a factory
process for the mass production of screw threads. However, this milestone
led to another challenge: each company manufactured its own threads,
nuts and bolts so there was a huge range of different sized screw threads
on the market, causing problems for machinery manufacturers.
It wasnt until 1841 that Joseph Whitworth managed to find a solution.
After years of research collecting sample screws from many British
workshops, he suggested standardising the size of the screw threads in
Britain so that, for example, someone could make a bolt in England and
someone in Glasgow could make the nut and they would both fit together.
His proposal was that the angle of the thread flanks was standardised at
55 degrees, and the number of threads per inch, should be defined for
various diameters.

1.2. Introduction:
Bolts are one of the most common elements used in construction and
machine design. They hold everything together from screws in electric
toothbrushes and door hinges to massive bolts that secure concrete pillars
in buildings.

Bolting Terms:
The bolt consists of a shank and a head. The end of the shank is threaded
to accept the nut. There usually a washer underneath the nut and possibly
also the bolt head. In some application, the thread is allowed to extend
into the grip length. The grip length is the part of the shank containing the

plates, flanges or other components which are being connected. Primary

actions is to clamp the components together between washer faces or nut
washer and head face. These two faces also constrain

components from separating axially as a result of external forces applied

to them. In basic terms, an externally threaded fastener, designed for
insertion throw holes for assembled parts usually intended to be used
along a nut is called as BOLT.

Chapter 2 : WHAT ARE BOLTS?

2.1.

Screw Vs Bolts:

There is no universally accepted distinction between a screw and a bolt. A

simple distinction that is often true, although not always, is that a bolt
passes through a substrate and takes a nut on the other side, whereas a
screw takes no nut because it threads directly into the substrate (a
screw screws into something, a bolt bolts several things together). So, as
a general rule, when buying a packet of "screws" you would not expect
nuts to be included, but bolts are often sold with matching
nuts. Machinery's Handbook describes the distinction as follows:
A bolt is an externally threaded fastener designed for insertion through
holes in assembled parts, and is normally intended to be tightened or
released by torquing a nut. A screw is an externally threaded fastener
capable of being inserted into holes in assembled parts, of mating with a
preformed internal thread or forming its own thread, and of being
tightened or released by torquing the head. An externally threaded
fastener which is prevented from being turned during assembly and which
can be tightened or released only by torquing a nut is a bolt. (Example:
round head bolts, track bolts, plow bolts.) An externally threaded fastener
that has thread form which prohibits assembly with a nut having a straight
thread of multiple pitch length is a screw. (Example: wood screws, tapping
screws.)

2.2.

Mechanical Classification:

The numbers stamped on the head of the bolt are referred to the grade of
the bolt used in certain application with the strength of a bolt. Highstrength steel bolts usually have a hexagonal head with an ISO strength
rating (called property class) stamped on the head. And the absence of
marking/number indicates a lower grade bolt with low strength. The
property classes most often used are 5.8, 8.8, and 10.9. The number
before the point is the ultimate tensile strength in MPa divided by 100.
The number after the point is the multiplier ratio of yield strength to
ultimate tensile strength. For example, a property class 5.8 bolt has a
nominal (minimum) ultimate tensile strength of 500 MPa, and a tensile
yield strength of 0.8 times ultimate tensile strength or 0.8(500) = 400
MPa.
Ultimate tensile strength is the stress at which the bolt fails. Tensile yield
strength is the stress at which the bolt will receive a permanent set (an
elongation from which it will not recover when the force is removed) of
0.2% offset strain. When elongating a fastener prior to reaching the yield
point, the fastener is said to be operating in the elastic region; whereas
elongation beyond the yield point is referred to as operating in the plastic
region, since the fastener has suffered permanent plastic deformation.
Mild steel bolts have property class 4.6. High-strength steel bolts have
property class 8.8 or above.
The same type of screw or bolt can be made in many different grades of
material. For critical high-tensile-strength applications, low-grade bolts

may fail, resulting in damage or injury. On SAE-standard bolts, a

distinctive pattern of marking is impressed on the heads to allow
inspection and validation of the strength of the bolt. However, low-cost
counterfeit fasteners may be found with actual strength far less than
indicated by the markings. Such inferior fasteners are a danger to life and
property when used in aircraft, automobiles, heavy trucks, and similar
critical applications.

2.3. TYPES OF BOLTS:

1. T Head Bolt: This can be practically used for tensioning and

clamping.

2. T Slot Bolt: A heavy-duty T-slot nut with a M12 bolt is rated to support
10000 N.

3. Anchor Bolt: An Anchor bolt is used to attach objects

or structures to concrete.

4. Askew Head Bolt: The beveled head of the askew head bolt engages
the internal wedge shape of H&B concrete inserts (LW-340 or HW-340) and
produces an automatic tightening action when a load is placed on it.

5. Carriage Bolt: A Carriage bolt or Round head square neck bolt is a

form of bolt used to fasten metal to wood. It is distinguished from other
bolts by its shallow mushroom head and that the shank cross-section of
the bolt is circular for most of its length, as usual, but the portion
immediately beneath the head is formed into a square section.[2] This
makes the bolt self-locking when placed through a square hole in a metal
strap, or a round hole in most wood.

6. Elevator Bolt: An elevator bolt is a bolt similar to a carriage bolt,

except the head is thin and flat. There are many variations. Some do not
have a square base, but rather triangular sections of the flat head are
folded down to form "fangs" that cut into wood and hold it secure.

7. Hanger Bolt: A hanger bolt has wood screw threads on one end and
machine threads on the other. A hanger bolt is used when it is necessary
to fasten a metal part to a wood surface.

8. Lag Bolt: Lag bolts are usually used with an expanding insert called a
lag in masonry or concrete walls, the lag manufactured with a hard metal
jacket that bites into the sides of the drilled hole, and the inner metal in
the lag being a softer alloy of lead, or zinc alloyed with soft iron. The
coarse thread of a lag bolt and lag mesh and deform slightly making a
secure near water tight anti-corroding mechanically strong fastening.

9. Hex Bolt: Hex cap screw to always fit where a hex bolt is installed but
a hex bolt could be slightly too large to be used where a hex cap screw is
designed in.

10. Plow Bolt: A plow bolt is bolt similar to a carriage bolt, except the
head is flat or concave, and the underside of the head is a cone designed
to fit in a countersunk recess.

11. Shoulder Bolt: Common applications for shoulder screws include

rotating mechanism joints, linkage pivots, and guides for the stripper
plate of a metal forming die set.

12. Stove Bolt: A stove bolt is a type of machine screw that has a round
or flat head and is threaded to the head. They are usually made of low
grade steel, have a slot or Phillips drive, and are used to join sheet metal
parts using a hex or square nut.

2.4. Theory:

Threaded fasteners are used across industry to assemble products ranging

from pipelines to heavy-duty earth movers and from cranes and bridges
and many more. Their principle function is to create a clamping force
across the joint which is able to sustain the operating conditions without
loosening.
Correctly tightened bolts make use of their elastic properties, to work well
they must behave like springs. When load is applied, the bolt stretches
and tries to return to its original length. This creates compressive force
across the joint members.

Preload:

The main purpose of a bolt and nut is to clamp parts together with the
correct force to prevent loosening in operation. The term preload refers
to the loading in a bolt immediately after it has been tightened. The
amount of preload (residual load) is critical as the joint can fail if the load
in the bolt is too high, too low, or not uniform in every bolt.

Uneven Bolts can result in:

Some bolts being loose while others are overloaded.

Crushing of the gasket on one side, leakage on the other side.

Tightening Methods:

Principally there are two modes of tightening: "Uncontrolled" and "Controlled".

1. Uncontrolled Tightening:
Uses equipment and procedures that cannot be measured. Preload is appllied to a bolt and nut
assembly using a hammer and spanner or other types of impact tools.

2. Controlled Tightening:
Employs calibrated and measurable equipment, follows prescribed procedures and is carried out
by trained personnel. There are two main techniques: Torque tightening and Bolt Tensioning.

I.

Torque Tightening - Achieves preload in a bolt and nut assembly

via the nut in a controlled manner using a tool.

II.

Bolt Tensioning - Achieves preload in a bolt and nut assembly by

stretching the bolt axially using a tool.

Chapter 3 : MANUFATURING OF BOLTS

3.1. Overview of Method:
There are various methods for generating screw threads. The method
chosen for any one application is chosen based on constraintstime,
money, degree of precision needed (or not needed), what equipment is
already available, what equipment purchases could be justified based on
resulting unit price of the threaded part (which depends on how many
parts are planned), etc.
Threads of metal fasteners are usually created on a thread rolling
machine. They may also be cut with a lathe, tap or die. Rolled threads are
stronger than cut threads, with increases of 10% to 20% in tensile
strength and possibly more in fatigue resistance and wear resistance.

3.2. Transformation Methods:

Thread forming and thread rolling are processes for forming screw
threads, with the former referring to creating internal threads and the
latter external threads. In both of these processes threads are formed into
a blank by pressing a shaped tool, commonly called a 'thread rolling die'
against the blank, in a process similar to knurling. These processes are
used for large production runs because typical production rates are
around one piece per second. There are four main types of thread rolling,
named after the configuration of the dies: flat dies, two-die

cylindrical, three-die cylindrical, and planetary dies.

1. Flat die Thread Rolling:

2. Planetary Thread Rolling:

3.Two Die Rolling Method:

4.Three Die Rolling Process:

3.3. Material:

Materials are limited to ductile materials because the threads are cold
formed. However, this increases the thread's yield strength, surface
finish, hardness, and wear resistance. Also, materials with good
deformation characteristics are necessary for rolling; these materials
include softer (more ductile) metals and exclude brittle materials, such
as cast iron.

3.4. Process:
Wire Drawing:
Initial process begins with wire drawing. This is a metalworking process
used to reduce the cross-section of a wire by pulling the wire through a
single, or series of, drawing dies. There are many applications for wire
drawing, including electrical wiring, cables, tension-loaded structural
components, springs, paper clips, spokes for wheels, and stringed musical
instruments. Drawing is usually performed at room temperature, thus
classified as a cold working process, but it may be performed at elevated
temperatures for large wires to reduce forces.

Header Machine :
Its a cold metal working process. A common type used for making bolts or
screws is the one-die, two-blow header. Below is example as:

There is a limit to how much you can deform the material with a single
blow, so two hits are often necessary to create the correct geometry of
the head.

The first blow makes a shape like a tulip. Then a shifting mechanism
moves the first punch over and places the second one in position. The
second punch comes in to produce the finished shape of the head. After
the second blow, a knockout pin pushes the piece out of the die.

Fead rate can be changed in header:

Die used in header:

Output of header: output of header can range up to 100 to250

screw blank per second.

 Thread Rolling Machine :

Once cold headed, the screw blanks are automatically fed to the threadcutting dies from a vibrating hopper. The hopper guides the screw blanks
down a chute to the dies, while making sure they are in the correct feed
position.
The blank is then cut using one of three techniques. In the reciprocating
die, two flat dies are used to cut the screw thread. One die is stationary,
while the other moves in a reciprocating manner, and the screw blank is
rolled between the two. When a centerless cylindrical die is used, the
screw blank is rolled between two to three round dies in order to create
the finished thread. The final method of thread rolling is the planetary
rotary die process. It holds the screw blank stationary, while several diecutting machines roll around the blank.

All three methods create higher quality screws than the machine-cut
variety. This is because the thread is not literally cut into the blank during
the thread-rolling process, rather it is impressed into the blank. Thus, no
metal material is lost, and weakness in the metal is avoided. The threads
are also more precisely positioned. The more productive of the threadrolling techniques is by far the planetary rotary die, which creates screws
at a speed of 60 to 2,000 parts per minute. Feed mechanism shown below
:-

Die Design: Under ordinary condition, each thread diameter and

pitch require a set of dies made especially for the diameter and
pitch specified. The same dies are not used for different diameters
of the same pitch.

The best rolling conditions and maximum die life can be only
be
obtained when correct die speeds and number of blank revolution
are used for rolling the thread. This is particularly true when close
accuracy for roundness and size is required, especially on harder
materials. Too many revolution of blank may have tendency to work
harden some type of material, and thereby reduce the life of the die,
Production rate vary with the nature of the work,
hardness and kind of material, and the equipment use. The rate of
production is usually less for harder material and where the work is slow
and difficult to handle.

Number of revolution of blank (N)=

 Polishing Drum: Once the goods are ready they are been clean by
de-greasing. Then the goods are put into polishing drums (hex
barrels) along with dry saw-dust, and the drum rotates for some
time with the goods inside for getting the shiny finish. Which create
a shining finish on Bolts/screws, etc. This process is not very
expensive and create a shiny finish.

 Finishing: There are many finishes or coating applied to fasteners;

some corrosion protective, some decorative, or there may be no
added coating at all.

1. Plain Finish:
An 'as produced' finish on carbon steel products having an oil residue
which provides some shelf life but no real corrosion protection when in
use.
Today, less than 20% of carbon steel fasteners would be purchased plain
finish.
Stainless steel, brass and other non-ferrous materials protect themselves
through a reaction of the surface to oxygen, creating a protective
chromium oxide film.

2. Corrosion protective coating:

Zinc Plated:
The most economic and common fastener finish, comprising a thin
coating of zinc applied either by electroplating or mechanically. A
shiny silver grey appearance, it will normally be enhanced by a
chemical chromate passivation conversion which applies a harder
surface film. This can be clear (bluish tinge), or iridescent yellow
which is thicker and gives marginally better protection.

Cadmium Plated:
Formerly a popular electroplated or mechanically applied finish,
looking like but giving slightly better protection than zinc and
providing increased lubricity ; also chromate converted. Very seldom

used today due to its toxicity and environmental non-acceptability. If

specified, it is usually through habit, error or ignorance and possible
confusion with zinc.

Phosphate:
A thin, dull grey phosphate coating obtained by insertion in a
solution containing phosphoric acid. Gives a lower level of protection
than zinc in mild environments, but gives an excellent base for
painting or organic lubrication. Often used in automotive industry.
The thicker the deposit, the longer the protection; however, there
are practical and economic limitations to the thickness applied.

THIS ARE SOME OF BOLTS BEGIN MANUFATURED IN

DWARKA FASTNERS
Conclusion: