IGCSE English Revision Guide

IGCSE English Revision Guide
English Language
Writing to Persuade
Writing to persuade is the one of the easiest forms of writing to do well in because there are a variety
of simple techniques you can use to make your answer stand out. Make sure you learn these
techniques so that you can take full advantage if you happen to get a persuasive question in the
exam. Be sure to distinguish between writing to persuade and writing to discuss because, although
similar, writing to discuss is a balanced account of the strengths and weaknesses of both sides of a
debate ending in a final personal opinion, whereas writing to persuade more strongly argues for your
personal opinion throughout the essay.
Note! It is important that you read the question carefully and make sure you use the correct GAP:
Genre:
make sure that your answer looks like the right kind of writing: if youre meant to be
writing a letter then make sure that it starts with Dear and ends correctly, if youre
meant to be writing an article for a school newspaper then make sure that it reads like a
teen news article, which will be different to the essay you would write if you were asked
to write a news report for the Bangkok Post;
Audience:
this will influence two things: firstly, the level of formality that you use, a letter written to
your friends will be very different to a letter written to your headmaster; more importantly
the audience will also determine the kinds of shared information you can include, a letter
written to your cousins might refer back to an amazing family holiday you went on or the
embarrassing habits of your uncles whereas a letter written to your Head of Year might
refer to things from your Residential, references to the school uniform, the size of the
queue at the noodle bar, etc things that your Head of Year will be expected to know
about;
Purpose:
make sure that your answer does the right kind of thing: if you are asked to explain to
me how a mobile phone works then make sure that you explain how to use it rather than
persuade me that using it is good. Be careful also of the difference between persuasive
writing, which argues strongly for one side, and discursive writing, which is more
balance, examines both sides of the argument and only offers a personal opinion in the
final paragraph.
What's the point of writing to Persuade?
To make the readers believe what you want them to believe / to make them agree with you
To attack the arguments against your position and show that they are weak / unconvincing
What conventions should I use?
Rhetorical questions, alliteration, triads, repetition, emotive words and imagery, hyperbole
References to you or we, us and our to draw the reader in and make them feel you are on
their side
References to they or them to make it seem like the opposition are a faceless enemy
Use of facts and figures / real life anecdotes as evidence to support your position and make it
convincing
Use of expert opinions / quotations from well known sources to reinforce the reliability of your
position
Real names, real places and real examples (even if made up) to make your point seem real
Depending on the audience, informal / easily accessible language might be appropriate
Appeals to the audience's sense of logic and 'common sense'

Emotional appeals / blackmail and the use of emotive words / imagery
Simple comparisons that make your point clear / ridicule your opponent
Confident tone of voice
Flattery to make the reader / audience feel good about themselves and thus more likely to agree
Gentle emotional blackmail to make it difficult to refuse to do what you are suggesting
Make it seem that the changes you are suggesting would be easy to achieve
How should I structure my answer?

Introduction: you need a clear opening that grabs the readers attention and makes it clear what
this essay is going to be about. However, avoid using "this essay is going to be
about..." and get straight to the point possibly with a rhetorical question or by painting
a horrific image of what the world would be life if things don't go the way you want
them to - e.g. if you are writing to argue against the banning of mobile ipods in school
you might start in the following way:
'Can you imagine a world where creativity is viewed as a shameful activity only to be
indulged in behind closed doors? Can you imagine a world where self expression is
not as important as copying down notes from a board? Can you image a world
accompanied only by the monotonous sounds of everyday life instead of one
energized by the latest beats and lyrics. This is the world that the school wants to
create by banning iPods and this is the world that we must fight against with all our
might.
This opening incorporates many persuasive features: rhetorical questions, references
to you to involve the reader, repetition, a confident tone of voice and most importantly
the painting of an image of the awful world that would exist if the school had their way.
Main body:
The main body should be structured in a 'tennis match' style where you start with a
point against you and then go on to attack it in the next paragraph. Before you start
you need to have planned out a clear series of different arguments for and against
your position: these form the basis of your paragraphs and each point is dealt with in
a separate paragraph. Save your two strongest points or the beginning and end of the
main body.
Each paragraph (or pair of paragraphs) should concentrate on just one main
argument for / against your position. It is best to start a paragraph with a point against
you introduced with a phrase like 'Some people may believe that ... because ...'
However, after briefly considering the evidence against you, you should argue back
and defeat that point with a point of your own, often introduce with a phrase like
'However'. In cases where you are using a pair or paragraphs, paragraph one should
be against you and paragraph two for you, so that you always end on a point in your
favour.
It is important that you always support each point for or against you with at least
some evidence / reasoning - even if it is a made up anecdote - so that there is some
validity to your argument and it is not just assertion.
Use connectives at the beginning of each paragraph to show how one idea follows
from, develops or contradicts the previous one.
Conclusion:
you can summarize your overall points but it is often far more powerful if you end
with a triad, catchphrase, short sentence, powerful image or rhetorical question to
really drive your point home.
Useful Connectives:
When introducing a point you do not agree with:
Some people believe/ think/ feel that

Some people may argue
"Others are of the opinion that...".
While some people may claim
Furthermore some people may insist
Although some people would have us believe
When counter arguing and introducing the point that you really do agree with:
However, In contrast, On the other hand, Nevertheless,
While in the case that
Further consideration, however, suggests
Despite the fact that there is some truth in this position,
Although there is some evidence to support this view, it is more likely that
"It can also be argued that...
"However there are also strong arguments against this point of view..."
Hints & Tips:
Do:
plan by making a table of ideas both for/against that you will use in your essay
include points that both agree and disagree with your position
start with a point against you and then go on to attack it to create the impression that there are no
strong arguments against you
end with the most effective point that agrees with you.
include evidence to support your point, in order to make it realistic and convince your audience.
remember to write in paragraphs
remember to distinguish persuasive writing from discursive writing many of the techniques
overlap but discursive writing is more balanced and considers both sides of the argument while
persuasive writing argues strongly for just your opinion, often dismissing the opposition as wrong
there are other, perhaps more interesting ways to write persuasively, but this is at least one
structure that will work
Writing to Describe
Writing to describe is a deceptively simple type of writing that often causes students many problems in
the exam because it seems like an easy task to describe your first day at school. However, these
straightforward recounts of everything you did often become boring and pedestrian: the trick to doing
this kind of task well is to realise that you dont actually have to describe your real first day at school
exaggerate (within reason), make it up (again within reason, your first day in school wasnt on the
Moon), focus on small details and really bring the feelings, impressions and emotions of the day to
life.
Genre:
Audience:
about;
Purpose:
final paragraph.
What's the point of writing to Describe?
To describe something (a place, person, object, emotion, situation, event) so that you create an
image, or a picture in the reader's mind, of what you are writing about.
To bring to life an image inside the head of your reader rather than give them a cold factual
account of the thing being described. So, for example, instead of saying that something is
beautiful you need to manipulate language in order to create the impression that the thing you are
describing is beautiful.
use adjectives, similes, metaphors, personification to create imagery
use alliteration, sibilance, assonance, harsh consonants, hyperbole: descriptive writing is as

close to poetry as you can get in narrative writing and so use all the tools that a poet has at their
disposal to create effects
use words relating to one's senses (sight/touch/hearing/smell)
these senses can be mixed up so that you pretend to taste something that you can actually really
only see (a technique called Synaesthesia) in order to heighten sensation and really bring the
scene to life e.g. 'the warm buttery taste of sunlight on a Summer's evening'
showing rather than telling - e.g. 'My heart was close to bursting' rather than 'I was scared'
sophisticated vocabulary
varied sentence lengths - short sentences followed by long sentences. Short sentences work well
at the start of a descriptive writing piece to grab attention or they can be used when you want to
change tone, change pace of create a sudden shock
varied sentence structures most English sentences are structured Actor, Verb Object - e.g. 'I
(actor) ate (verb) the apple (object)' but a varied sentence structure might bring the verb to the
front and may even put an adverb in front of that: 'Slowly (adverb) devouring (interesting verb) the
apple (object) I (actor) rose from my chair and ...' If you find this difficult the most important thing
is that you just make sure that you dont start every sentence with the same word or phrase, in
particular I
foregrounding, to bring the most important element right to the front of the sentence / paragraph
so that it sticks in the readers mind
repetition to emphasis key moments, elements or ideas
structure - descriptive writing usually has an element of organisation either chronologically or in

order of importance, although this can be disrupted if you wish and your description may be
circular ending back where it started. A circular narrative can be used to create an effect of
inescapability, monotony or routine. An alternative structure is to start right in the middle of the
action to grab the attention of the audience and then 'flash back' to an earlier point in time in order
to explain the events leading up to the point where you started
punctuation one correctly used colon, semi-colon or pair of commas can create a very good
impression as many students do not use these punctuation marks successfully. Be wary of using
too many question marks and exclamation marks as students tend to do this too often
Introduction: begin strongly by trying to create an impression or feeling rather than worrying about
explaining exactly what is going on e.g. It was my first day at school and I woke up
excited is a fairly predictable way to start an essay about your first day at school but
you might start with a short sentence and image from right in the middle of the day
and then only later flash back to make it clear that this is your first day of school, for
example:
Giants! Giants everywhere. Stalking the halls like ruthless predatory dinosaurs waiting
to pounce on any poor unfortunate soul who, isolated, happens to have strayed from
the pack and lost their way. I cowered in a doorway seeking refuge, desperate for
shelter, terrified by the beasts that hulked their way past me grunting in time to the
music on their adolescently angry iPods. It was my first day at school.
This opening is far more gripping and uses a range of descriptive writing techniques to
impress the examiner such as short sentences, varied sentence structure, repetition,
extended imagery, personification, a triad, a pair of commas and interesting verbs
such as hulked.
Main body:
The main body should be split into paragraphs each of which will deal either with a
different element of the thing being described (if you are asked to just describe a
place or an object) or with different things that have happened as you progress
chronologically through time (if you are asked to describe an event or situation). Be
aware, however, that you can disrupt this very linear structure if you wish to in order
to create an effect.
Do not feel that you have to cover everything: you do not have to write about the whole
of your first day. A brilliantly detailed description of your first 5 minutes at school will
score more highly than a mundane and plodding account of exactly what you did on
your first day.
Conclusion:
your conclusion need not sum up everything but there is usually a sense of
conclusion, resolution or completeness. So for example, the lost and terrified student
mentioned in the introduction might end by finally finding the way to his / her class in
time for registration.
Hints & Tips:

Do:
make up facts to your work more interesting - e.g. if asked to write about you first day at school
then you don't have to write about your actual first day, which may have been quite boring and
ordinary or perhaps you can't even remember it. Instead write about the first day in school from
hell - complete with monstrous senior studies students stalking the corridors and slime oozing
from the cockroach infested salad in the canteen
use every opportunity to display your writing skills - exams are about showing off - so don't feel
you have to stick to the truth if you feel you can write more interesting lies: however, your lies
must be sane and believable, ridiculous descriptions will not gain you any marks
do focus on small details: these give you more to write about and more opportunities to use a
variety of descriptive techniques
think like an examiner: include points that you would give marks for if you were an examiner
Dont:
forget to answer the question: if you focus too much on the fine detail you can lose sight of what
youre actually trying to write about
sacrifice detail for quantity
feel like you have to describe everything, or to use the example above, your whole first day. A
brilliant account of your first 5 minutes in the sandpit will probably score more marks than a
routine plodding through of everything that happened on your first day in kindergarten
Writing to Explain
Writing to explain is the only writing genre that is guaranteed to come up in the language exam, so it
is very important that you revise this type of writing.
Genre:
Audience:
about;
Purpose:
final paragraph.
What's the point of writing to Explain?
To inform readers by providing facts that were previously unknown
Do this by making clear, factually accurate statements
Give straight-forward unbiased detailed information

Present tense (because usually you are explaining about something that is currently the case)
First or third person (an explanation could be quite informal, depending on genre and audience
Connectives such as Moreover, Furthermore, However, On the other hand, to join ideas
together
Specific examples and sources, even if these are just personal anecdotes / common examples
that you can expect your audience to understand
Use of facts and figures (if you make them up, then make sure they are plausible)
Confident tone (to make the essay sounds more reliable)
Similes and metaphors to explain using simple clear comparisons that everyone can understand
Rhetorical question (to get the reader involved at the start, although not as a persuasive tool)
Unbiased, no opinion
Explanations of jargon or other technical terms

Introduction: clear opening that grabs the reader's attention and makes it apparent why this
explanation is relevant to them. For example, if, you have been asked to explain the
importance of mobile phones to a group of senior citizens then you might start with a
rhetorical question that raises an issue they have often wondered about: Do you ever
wonder why your grandchildren spend half of their time heads down, furiously
pounding away at the keys of their mobile phone? Are you frustrated when they write
2U instead of to you or CU L8R?
Main body:
plan out 3 - 5 different points about your topic that you think are most relevant to
your audience and will need to be explained. Dont feel you have to explain
everything: just pick the most important bits. Each point should be dealt with in a
separate paragraph and a detailed explanation is needed so that the audience
understands each one here is where you should explain technical terms, use
similes and metaphors to help readers understand new things by comparing them to
old things that they have already grasped, use anecdotes, examples and evidence to
add depth
Conclusion:
you can either summarise the information you have provided so far or end more
strongly on the various things your audience can do now that they understand the
thing that you have just explained to them e.g. the senior citizens can now text their
grandchildren as a better way of keeping in touch or challenge them to a game of
Snake, rather than just worrying about how they cant communicate with them
anymore.
Hints & Tips:

Do:
remember to read the question properly and tailor your text to the given audience
remember that your audience will already know something about this topic you can use this as
a starting point / way in to your explanation but you should be careful not to explain things that
your audience will already know about
be direct and concise and focus clearly on the topic you have been asked to write about
give specific information avoid being vague or overly general
use transitions to connect ideas and main points (e.g. however, therefore, etc)
indentify a key word or a phrase in the previous paragraph and repeat it in transition sentences at
the beginning of you next paragraph so points are developed and flow smoothly into one another
include background data about the topic
mention possible arguments / key issues in this topic
answer questions like what/who? why? what for? when? how?
remember to explain rather than persuade all throughout

Don't:
use too complicated sentence structures or overly formal words the point is to make things
clear. However, dont make it too simple because this is a Language exam and you are trying to
show off how good your language skills are
repeat ideas
be too persuasive / biased the point is to explain how mobile phones work, not persuade me to
buy one. Although your explanation can be enthusiastic in tone and in that sense persuade
people that mobile phones are a good thing
forget the title - often this will be bold and clearly outline the subject your text will be about
Exam Timings
The language exam will last for 2 hours and it is split into 4 main sections. Each section has a
different number of marks allocated to it and you should be careful not to spend too long on questions
that are not worth a lot of marks.
Section A
This is always a question that will give you an unseen extract and ask
you to write about it. It is testing your ability to read a new text and
understand it without the help of your teacher. There will be 3 or 4
questions in this section with the last question always being worth the
most marks. Questions 1 and 2 are usually worth very few marks so
race through those by keeping your answers very short and spend the
majority of your time on the last question.Make sure you check the
marks allocated to each question very closely here so you do not
20 marks
40 mins
write a big answer for a question that is only worth one mark. If a
question is worth one mark it is likely that you should only write one
point and if there are three marks then you should make three points.
If there are twelve marks available for a question and you are asked to
write about three bullet points then you should have three paragraphs
in your essay and make 4 points about each bullet point. Some
questions ask you to write in your own words in this case it is
important that you do not quote as then you will not be writing in your
own words and will get no marks.
Section B(i)
This is always a question based on one of the Language Anthology

Section A extracts that we have studied in class. You will be asked to
write an analytical essay about these extracts in exactly the same
way that you would usually write an essay about your literature texts.
As such it is really important that you remember to write PEE
paragraphs and include quotations from the text to support your
points. This question is testing your ability to read and so spelling and
grammar are not awarded but they are still important in creating a
good impression. This question is worth 10 marks and so you should
spend about 20 minutes on it.
10 marks
20 mins
Section B (ii)
This is always a question which asks you to write in a certain style, it

can bepersuasive, explanatory, informative, descriptive or any
other style When you answer this question you should remember the
following:
Work out the GAP before you start writing
10 marks
20 mins
20 marks
40 mins
Section C
Make sure you write in the correct Genre

Make sure you appeal to the correct Audience
Make sure you write to achieve the correct Purpose
Plan 3-4 main points that you want to make
Use these 3-4 main points as the basis for your paragraphs
Use sophisticated vocabulary
Vary your sentence length and structure
Use colons, semi-colons and pairs of commas
Dont stick to the truth make up interesting but realistic things
This is always a question that asks you to write to inform, explain or

describe. This question is worth one third of the total marks for the
paper so make sure that you leave yourself enough time on it to do it
justice. Spend a few minutes at the start planning your answer.
Remember the following:
Work out the GAP before you start writing
Make sure you write in the correct Genre

Make sure you appeal to the correct Audience
Make sure you write to explain and not persuade or describe,
although your answer may have an element of these
other Purposes
Plan 5-6 main points that you want to make
Use these 5-6 main points as the basis for your paragraphs
Use sophisticated vocabulary
Vary your sentence length and structure
Use colons, semi-colons and pairs of commas
Dont stick to the truth make up interesting but realistic things
Analysing Fiction
Understanding setting
The setting of a text is the place and time used within the text. This may
be:
real or fictional (made-up)
a specific geographical location - such as a named city or country

a type of place or event - like a school or a wedding
Setting is a crucial part of a how a text achieves its effect. It can echo the
themes of the narrative. For example, Of Mice and Men opens in a place
called Soledad, which means loneliness a key theme of the book.
The time of day or year when a text is set also adds to its effect. For
example, a school at night is a very different place to a school during the
day. A ghost story would probably work better at night.
Wider historical context is important too. A text that is set during a war
might suggest that the story is big and important. Or perhaps the story is
a small-scale human one, contrasting with the backdrop of war. This could
suggest the importance of love or friendship, even when world events are
huge and destructive.
How setting is used

In this extract from Charles Dickenss Great Expectations, the weather
reflects what is happening in Pips mind.
Pip is the main character and narrator in Great Expectations

Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the
East, and it drove still, as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and
wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had
the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn
up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in
from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had
accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to
read had been the worst of all.
Charles Dickenss, Great Expectations, Ch. 39
Analysis
The gloomy weather reflects the main characters unhappiness.
The description of the gusts of wind and rain shows the action of his
thoughts. The violence of these gusts represents Pips confusion. This
technique is called pathetic fallacy.
Themes:
Identifying themes and ideas
Although a text may appear to be about events that take place, the
themes are the ideas that run throughout. For example, Romeo and
Juliet is about two young lovers from opposing families who meet by
chance and fall in love. The main theme of the play is fate.
Common themes include:
power
love
money
death
appearance and reality
revenge
heroism
technology in society
friendship
fate and free will
One of the easiest ways to spot themes is through motifs. A motif is a

repeated image or group of images in a text. For example, in Hamletthere
is a motif of actors and theatres. This reflects an underlying theme of
appearance and reality: in the same way that actors pretend to be
different people on stage, some of the characters in Hamlet pretend to be
things they are not.
Finding a theme in an extract

It is sometimes difficult to spot a theme in a short extract. You might only
be able to say what themes are suggested. When working with a short
extract of a fiction text, it helps to look closely at the language to work out
the themes.
Example
Look at the opening of Skellig by David Almond, where the narratorfinds
Skellig for the first time. Try to identify the themes of the larger text.
I found him in the garage on a Sunday afternoon. It was the day after we
moved into Falconer Road. The winter was ending. Mum had said we'd be
moving just in time for the spring. Nobody else was there. Just me. The
others were inside the house with Doctor Death, worrying about the new
baby. He was lying there in the darkness behind the tea chests, in the dust
and dirt. It was as if he'd been there forever. He was filthy and pale and
dried out and I thought he was dead. I couldn't have been more wrong. I'd
soon begin to see the truth about him, that there'd never been another
creature like him in the world.
Skellig, David Almond
Analysis
There are plenty of hints that death is going to be an important theme in
the novel. For example:
the name of the doctor is Doctor Death
Skellig appears to be dead
there is also the worry about the new baby
However, there are also hints at renewal and life-after-death:
the family have moved just in time for the spring, a season of renewal
Skellig seems to have been there forever
The images and word choices in this opening paragraph suggest that a
major theme in this book will be life and death.
Working out the themes of a text is an act of inference. You can make
links between the themes of a text to the characters, the setting and the
language.
Dont confuse the topic with the theme. For example the topic of a text
could be two friends travelling around looking for work on ranches, but the
themes might be friendship and the pointlessness of dreams (Of Mice and
Men).
Exploring contrasts
When you discuss a theme in a text, remember to look beyond the simple
themes of love, hate, family, relationships, power, nature and society by
exploring the clash of opposites at the heart of those ideas. For example:
conflict - us versus them, friends versus foes, the state versus the citizen
family - feelings of safety versus desire for independence
love - desire for something forbidden versus attainable love
power - the individual versus the state, man versus nature
place - an idea of paradise versus reality, the idea of home versus exile
nature - the separation of man from nature, natural beauty versus violence
An interesting theme involves a clash of opposites. Love as a theme is

more interesting when there is conflict. If two people meet, fall in love and
there are no problems, then it is not a very interesting story. Without
something trying to stop love, the story has nowhere to go.
You can give structure and energy to an analysis essay by discussing the
opposite sides of a theme.
Writing about themes

Writing about themes in an extract is different from writing about a
complete text.
With an extract, there are two possibilities:
1. You might be given a theme in the text to explore. In this case focus on
finding examples of this theme to write about.
2. If you are not given a theme, you need to infer the themes from the text.
Are there repeated images, motifs or references to an important idea?
In either case, think about the following:
How does the language support the theme?
Do images or individual words suggest a theme?
How does the content support the theme?
Which events help to develop the ideas in the text?
How do the characters represent the theme?
Example
The opening of Brave New World by Aldous Huxley describes a setting
with very little action. However, we can gather a lot of information about
the text from this.
Aldous Huxley was an English writer and philosopher

A squat grey building of only thirty-four stories. Over the main entrance
the words, CENTRAL LONDON HATCHERY AND CONDITIONING CENTRE,
and, in a shield, the World State's motto, COMMUNITY, IDENTITY,
STABILITY.
The enormous room on the ground floor faced towards the north. Cold for
all the summer beyond the panes, for all the tropical heat of the room
itself, a harsh thin light glared through the windows, hungrily seeking
some draped lay figure, some pallid shape of academic gooseflesh, but
finding only the glass and nickel and bleakly shining porcelain of a
laboratory. Wintriness responded to wintriness. The overalls of the workers
were white, their hands gloved with a pale corpse-coloured rubber. The
light was frozen, dead, a ghost. Only from the yellow barrels of the
microscopes did it borrow a certain rich and living substance, lying along
the polished tubes like butter, streak after luscious streak in long
recession down the work tables.
Brave New World, Aldous Huxley
Analysis
The author creates a cold atmosphere in this extract:
The harsh thin light shines on a clinical and unfriendly setting.
The workers have corpse-coloured rubber gloves.
The building is unfriendly its squat and grey and it belongs to the
World State.
The word hatchery sounds sinister (spoiler alert - this isnt where chickens
are hatched, but where they grow humans!)
The metaphor the light was frozen, dead, a ghost emphasizes the
lifelessness of the place.
These combine to suggest two themes:
life and death
man versus nature
Even from this short extract its clear that the scientific setting is
important. Those who work in the centre are almost lifeless.
The way the light seems to be fighting against the sterile laboratory
suggests there is a tension between man and nature.
Colour and light are important images in this extract. They can be used to
support the theme of life and death. Light is usually a sign of life, but here
it is negative.
Characterisation and narrative

voice:
Writing about themes
Writing about themes in an extract is different from writing about a
complete text.
With an extract, there are two possibilities:
1. You might be given a theme in the text to explore. In this case focus on
finding examples of this theme to write about.
2. If you are not given a theme, you need to infer the themes from the text.
Are there repeated images, motifs or references to an important idea?
In either case, think about the following:
How does the language support the theme?
Do images or individual words suggest a theme?
How does the content support the theme?
Which events help to develop the ideas in the text?
How do the characters represent the theme?
Example
The opening of Brave New World by Aldous Huxley describes a setting
with very little action. However, we can gather a lot of information about
the text from this.
Aldous Huxley was an English writer and philosopher

A squat grey building of only thirty-four stories. Over the main entrance
the words, CENTRAL LONDON HATCHERY AND CONDITIONING CENTRE,
and, in a shield, the World State's motto, COMMUNITY, IDENTITY,
STABILITY.
The enormous room on the ground floor faced towards the north. Cold for
all the summer beyond the panes, for all the tropical heat of the room
itself, a harsh thin light glared through the windows, hungrily seeking
some draped lay figure, some pallid shape of academic gooseflesh, but
finding only the glass and nickel and bleakly shining porcelain of a
laboratory. Wintriness responded to wintriness. The overalls of the workers
were white, their hands gloved with a pale corpse-coloured rubber. The
light was frozen, dead, a ghost. Only from the yellow barrels of the
microscopes did it borrow a certain rich and living substance, lying along
the polished tubes like butter, streak after luscious streak in long
recession down the work tables.
Brave New World, Aldous Huxley
Analysis
The author creates a cold atmosphere in this extract:
The harsh thin light shines on a clinical and unfriendly setting.
The workers have corpse-coloured rubber gloves.
The building is unfriendly its squat and grey and it belongs to the
World State.
The word hatchery sounds sinister (spoiler alert - this isnt where chickens
are hatched, but where they grow humans!)
The metaphor the light was frozen, dead, a ghost emphasizes the
lifelessness of the place.
These combine to suggest two themes:
life and death
man versus nature
Even from this short extract its clear that the scientific setting is
important. Those who work in the centre are almost lifeless.
The way the light seems to be fighting against the sterile laboratory
suggests there is a tension between man and nature.
Colour and light are important images in this extract. They can be used to
support the theme of life and death. Light is usually a sign of life, but here
it is negative.
What is characterisation?
Characterisation is the way authors create characters and make them
believable. When writing about texts, it is easy to treat characters as real
people. Try to remember that the author is creating characters using
language.
Think about the set of characters in a text:
What are the characters like?
How you know this?
What do the characters say (dialogue)?

How are they described?
How are they seen by other characters?
What happens to them at the end of their story?
Characterisation example
Character can be shown through the things characters do, what theysay,
what they look like, and what they own.
What do you find out about Crooks, the stable-hand in Of Mice and Men,
from the extract below?
Crooks bunk was a long box filled with straw, on which his blankets were
flung. On the wall by the window there were pegs on which hung broken
harness in process of being mended; strips of new leather; and under the
window itself a little bench for leather-working tools, curved knives and
needles and balls of linen thread, and a small hand riveter. On pegs were
also pieces of harness, a split collar with the horsehair stuffing sticking
out, a broken hame, and a trace chain with its leather covering split.
Crooks had his apple box over his bunk, and in it a range of medicine
bottles, both for himself and for the horses. There were cans of saddle
soap and a drippy can of tar with its paint brush sticking over the edge.
And scattered about the floor were a number of personal possessions; for,
being alone, Crooks could leave his things about, and being a stable buck
and a cripple, he was more permanent than the other men, and he had
accumulated more possessions than he could carry on his back.
Crooks possessed several pairs of shoes, a pair of rubber boots, a big
alarm clock and a single-barrelled shotgun. And he had books, too; a
tattered dictionary and a mauled copy of the California civil code for 1905.
There were battered magazines and a few dirty books on a special shelf
over his bunk. A pair of large gold-rimmed spectacles hung from a nail on
the wall above his bed.
Of Mice and Men, John Steinbeck
Analysis
Crooks has quite a lot of possessions, emphasising his permanence. Unlike

the other men, he doesnt have to be able to carry everything he owns on
his back.
He seems to do odd jobs around the place. This is shown by the broken
harness, the tools and the cans.
Hes poor he keeps his things in an apple box.
His own medicine and that of the horses is in the same place. Is he of equal
status with the animals?
Crooks is surprisingly educated. He owns books, including a law book,

which suggests he is interested in whats right, or at least in getting what
hes owed.
He isnt used to people being in his space. Hes messy and has belongings
scattered about the floor.
Crooks has his own room. However this seems to show that he is cut off
from other people, rather than being a sign of privilege.
Character development
Characters usually change over the course of a text. These changes can
be a powerful way to present themes and important ideas to the reader.
As the text continues, the author often adds more details to the picture of
a character.
How the reader reacts to a character can be very important to how they
feel about the text.
Look for contrasts or contradictions - not just between characters, but
within each character. In real life no one is simply good or bad. All
effective characters have more than one side.
Typical contrasts between characters
Characters who think versus characters who feel.

Characters who talk versus characters who act.
Sociable characters versus solitary characters.
Predators who take advantage of people versus characters who
are victims.
Characters who want one thing versus those who want another.
Typical contrasts within a character
A person who says one thing, and does another.
A character who sacrifices something important to pursue a goal of their

own.
A character who wants two opposing things.
Example
This extract is a description of a character from Hilary Mantels historical
novel Bring Up the Bodies. Thomas Cromwell is the Kings Secretary an
important role. What contrasts can you find, which help to develop the
character?
Thomas Cromwell is now about fifty years old. He has a labourer's body,
stocky, useful, running to fat. He has black hair, greying now, and because
of his pale impermeable skin, which seems designed to resist rain as well
as sun, people sneer that his father was an Irishman, though really he was
a brewer and a blacksmith at Putney, a shearsman too, a man with a
finger in every pie, a scrapper and brawler, a drunk and a bully, a man
often hauled before the justices for punching someone, for cheating
someone. How the son of such a man has achieved his
present eminence is a question all Europe asks. Some say he came up
with the Boleyns, the queen's family. Some say it was wholly through the
late Cardinal Wolsey, his patron; Cromwell was in his confidence and made
money for him and knew his secrets. Others say he haunts the company
of sorcerers. He was out of the realm from boyhood, a hired soldier, a wool
trader, a banker. No one knows where he has been and who he has met,
and he is in no hurry to tell them.
Bring Up the Bodies, Hilary Mantel
Analysis
Theres a contrast between Cromwells background, as the son of a

blacksmith, and his current job and position.
Theres a mystery about how Cromwell got to where he is people gossip

about him. They dont seem to like him: either he came up with the family
of the queen, or maybe he owes his rise to sorcerers.
Hes had many different jobs a soldier, a wool trader, a banker which
might suggest that hes a man of many talents.
Some of these things make the reader feel sympathy for Cromwell. Hes a
self-made man, who is sometimes looked down on by those around him.
But some of it suggests he doesnt need our sympathy, and perhaps that
he deliberately manipulates his image. Hes in no hurry to reveal the
truth, so perhaps hes dishonest.
When you are writing about characterisation, don't just describe what
characters are like. Always give evidence, and always give a range of
language techniquesthe writer uses.
What is voice?
Voice means the tone of the narrative. Think about the language used in
the narration and what that tells us. In some texts the narratoris also a
character. In others, the narrative voice is more distant.
Narrative can be first person indicating a clear point of view or third

person which could follow one character closely or take
anomniscient standpoint.
To work out the voice of a text, think about the following:
Is it in the first person (I) or the third person (he, she)?
What is the feeling or attitude of the narrator?
How is the story told? What writing techniques are used?
Do we get a clear sense of the narrator as a character in the story? Or is the

focus on the characters the narrator is describing?
Examples of voice
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is a first

personnarrative. The story is told from Hucks point of view, as if
he were confiding in the reader. We get a clear sense of his
character from the language he uses.
Well, I got a good going-over in the morning from old Miss Watson
on account of my clothes; but the widow she didn't scold, but only
cleaned off the grease and clay, and looked so sorry that I thought I
would behave awhile if I could. Then Miss Watson she took me in the
closet and prayed, but nothing come of it. She told me to pray every
day, and whatever I asked for I would get it. But it warn't so. I tried
it. Once I got a fish-line, but no hooks. It warn't any good to me
without hooks. I tried for the hooks three or four times, but
somehow I couldn't make it work. By and by, one day, I asked Miss
Watson to try for me, but she said I was a fool. She never told me
why, and I couldn't make it out no way.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain
In Little Women, Louisa May Alcott uses an omniscient narrator.

This narrator is not a character, but a voice that knows all the
thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story.
Margaret, the eldest of the four, was sixteen, and very pretty, being
plump and fair, with large eyes, plenty of soft brown hair, a sweet
mouth, and white hands, of which she was rather vain. Fifteen-yearold Jo was very tall, thin, and brown, and reminded one of a colt, for
she never seemed to know what to do with her long limbs, which
were very much in her way. She had a decided mouth, a comical
nose, and sharp, gray eyes, which appeared to see everything, and
were by turns fierce, funny, or thoughtful. Her long, thick hair was
her one beauty, but it was usually bundled into a net, to be out of
her way. Round shoulders had Jo, big hands and feet, a flyaway look
to her clothes, and the uncomfortable appearance of a girl who was

rapidly shooting up into a woman and didn't like it. Elizabeth, or
Beth, as everyone called her, was a rosy, smooth-haired, brighteyed girl of thirteen, with a shy manner, a timid voice, and a
peaceful expression which was seldom disturbed.
Little Women by Louisa May Alcott
Analysing character and voice in an extract
Example
This extract from Charles Dickens Hard Times introduces Mr Gradgrind,
the headmaster of a school. What do we learn about this character?
Bob Peck as Mr Gradgrind from the BBC adaptation of Hard Times (1994)
Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts.
Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything
else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Facts:
nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle on
which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which I bring
up these children. Stick to Facts, sir!
The scene was a plain, bare, monotonous vault of a school-room, and the
speaker's square forefinger emphasised his observations by underscoring
every sentence with a line on the schoolmaster's sleeve. The emphasis
was helped by the speaker's square wall of a forehead, which had his
eyebrows for its base, while his eyes found commodious cellarage in two
dark caves, overshadowed by the wall. The emphasis was helped by the
speaker's mouth, which was wide, thin, and hard set. The emphasis was
helped by the speaker's voice, which was inflexible, dry, and dictatorial.
The emphasis was helped by the speaker's hair, which bristled on the
skirts of his bald head, a plantation of firs to keep the wind from its
shining surface, all covered with knobs, like the crust of a plum pie, as if
the head had scarcely warehouse-room for the hard facts stored inside.
Hard Times, Charles Dickens
Analysis
A third-person narrative voice is used.
Gradgrind uses a lot of commands in his speech. This suggests that hes
used to being in charge. It doesnt make him a very sympathetic character.
We get the feeling that hes very focused on what he thinks, rather than
anyone elses opinions.
He emphasises Facts by using the capital letter F. This suggests he has a

narrow view of education.
Hes described in an unsympathetic way everything about him is square.
The narrator tells us directly that the characters voice is dry and
dictatorial. The narrator doesnt approve of him either.
Although the narrator seems to be describing the character in quite a

factual way suggesting hes neutral he starts to use some complicated
imagery. Gradgrinds hair becomes fir trees that bristled on his head, and
his skin is like the crust of a plum pie. These are vivid and slightly
disturbing images.
Language and structure

Language
Example of a simile from The Hunger Games, Suzanne Collins

When talking about language there are a number of things to look for:
the literary devices an author uses, like similes and metaphors

the emotive language - language designed to make the reader feel a
certain way
the connotations of particular word choices
the types of words used in the text, eg dialect words, long and complicated
words or short and straightforward words
the types of sentences used, eg long or short, simple or complicated
Find out about the characters by looking closely at the words they use
in dialogue. If they use long, difficult words, it might show how clever a
character is (or thinks they are!).
Language also tells us a lot about the underlying ideas of a text. Words
have two sets of meanings:
denotations - their dictionary meaning

connotations - the ideas they link to
For example, the word 'desk' literally denotes a table, but it has
connotations of work and study.
Words can reveal a theme, such as death, or love, or create a particular
mood in a scene.
Sentence length can be altered to show character. An author might

suggest that a character is boring or self-important by making them speak
in long sentences. Whereas, short sentences might be used to create
tension.
Literary devices
Here are some literary devices you might find in a text:
Device
Example
Effect
Metaphor
His home was

his castle.
His home is
presented as a
secure and safe
place to be.
Simile
She had a
smile like the
sunrise.
Her smile seems

bright and full of
hope.
The wind
screamed
through the
Personification trees.
The wind is given

the human
characteristic of
screaming. This
creates an uneasy
atmosphere.
'The clouds
crowded
together
Pathetic fallacy suspiciously
(a type of
overhead as the
personification) sky darkened.'
The emotion of the

situation comes
across through the
description of the
weather.
Device
Example
Effect
Repetition
The repetition
Stephen tried emphasises
and tried and
Stephens
tried to get the desperation at his
ball in the net. failed attempts.
Listing
The choir, the

altar, the old
wooden pews,
the heavy
door
Alliteration
The repetition of
The suffocating the s sound adds
steam filled the to the discomfort
room.
of the room.
A clear sense of
the church is
conveyed by
listing the features
of the inside.
We get a sense of
the cats terror
Howling, the
from the sound of
cat ran through the word
Onomatopoeia the house.
howling.
When you identify literary devices in a text, try to link them to a main
theme or idea.
Example
Here is an extract from Rumpole and the Blind Tasting, a short story by
John Mortimer. Rumpole is a lawyer. What literary devices does Mortimer
use in this extract, and what effects do they create?
It is a good few years now since I adopted the habit of noting down the
facts of some of my outstanding cases, the splendours and miseries of an
Old Bailey hack, and those of you who may have cast an eye over some of
my previous works of reminiscence may well be muttering Plus a

change, plus cest la mme chose or words to the like effect. After so
many cross-examinations, speeches to the Jury, verdicts of guilty or not
guilty, legal aid cheques long-awaited and quickly disposed of down the
bottomless pit of the overdraft at the Caring Bank, no great change in the
Rumpole fortunes had taken place, the texture of life remained much as it
had always been and would, no doubt, do so until after my positively last
case when I sit waiting to be called on in the Great Circuit Court of the
Skies, if such a tribunal exists.
Rumpole and the Blind Tasting, a short story by John Mortimer
Analysis
The first person narrator is Rumpole. He directly addresses the reader

those of you. This creates an informal tone and makes the reader feel the
narrator is talking to them.
The long sentences suggest that Rumpole likes the sound of his own voice.
Mortimer uses complex vocabulary to create the impression of an educated

character. For example, reminiscence instead of memory. This is also
shown by the use of French.
The list of Rumpoles jobs shows us how Rumpole spends his time. It
suggests that he is only interested in his work.
This is supported by the final metaphor - the Great Circuit Court of the
Skies. This suggests that Rumpoles work will continue even after death.
Structure
The structure of a text refers to its shape as a whole. This can mean the
order of the plot events in a story, novel or play.
Think about how the structure works in terms of the effects it creates.
Ask yourself why the paragraphs are ordered the way they are. Is it
important for us to know certain bits of information before we get to the
next part of the text?
Look for links from the beginning to the end of a text. For example, is
there a repeated image? Or is there a significant change in an attitude,
character or setting?
Structural devices
Structural devices include:
story arc has a beginning, a middle and an end, usually with a crisis point
that is resolved in the end
flash-back the main narrative takes place in one time, but there are
episodes from the past
circular narrative the last line of a piece takes you back to the
beginning of it
dual narrative - gives two sides of a story, alternating between viewpoints
Annotating texts
How to annotate a text using an example extract from Rebecca by Daphne

Du Maurier
There are many ways to annotate texts. Try out different approaches to
see what works best for you. Examples of common techniques include:
using different coloured highlighters to pick out different techniques, eg

structural devices, individual words and literary devices
circling words or phrases that are interesting or important and writing notes
in the margin
using one margin to make a note of literary devices and the other margin to
add your own responses
Try to connect language features with what their effects are in your
annotations. When you come to write about the text, your annotations are
a useful way to find the most appropriate examples.
What to look for when annotating

Annotating structure
Read the text and look for patterns in the structure, for example:
paragraph lengths
repeated words and phrases
overall shape of the text
Then look more closely at the ideas in the extract, and how they relate to
one another.
Example
My father's family name being Pirrip, and my Christian name Philip, my
infant tongue could make of both names nothing longer or more explicit
than Pip. So, I called myself Pip, and came to be called Pip.
Great Expectations, Charles Dickens
Annotation
Repetition of Pip.
Analysis
Short paragraph, focused on importance of name.
Annotating language
Highlight any interesting language features in the text.
Pick out examples of literary devices that stand out because theyre
unusual, or because they link closely to the character, theme or purpose.
Highlight individual words to explore closely - those with
particular connotations or ones that seem to relate to the theme of the
text.
Annotating characterisation and voice
Pick out key elements which show the development of characters.
Look for phrases that reveal key details about characters. For example, you
might highlight an example of where a characters appearance is linked to a
theme.
Find clues about the main voice in the piece. Highlight points
where narrative voice is shown through the language.
Is the author using voice for a particular effect? Pick out examples of where
they do so.
Annotating for themes and ideas
Highlight any words or phrases that link to the main themes of a text. With
a longer text you might find colour coding a helpful way to annotate various
themes.
Avoid making so many annotations that you can no longer read the
text! Be selective, and pick out the most interesting things to you.
Always link a feature to its effect.
How to analyse a fiction extract

An essay should be an argument that uses evidence from the text to
clearly make points. Your essay should also draw a conclusion.
Essay questions might focus on:
characters
voice
themes and ideas
language form and structure
Whatever the focus of the task, you should aim to include points about
characters, themes and the techniques the author has used to get across
their ideas.
A good essay is a structured argument with a clear conclusion.
Annotating
The key to planning an essay is to focus on the question. What are you
being asked to do?
The next stage is to annotate your extract, or find evidence from your
longer text to support your answer. Keep the question in mind as you do
this. Highlight or underline key parts of the text that you will be able to
use in your response.
Think about:
the narrative voice

how characters are presented
what the main themes of the text are
what the structure or shape of the text is
what language devices are used
who the audience for the text is and how that affects the way the text is
written
If you are looking at an extract, read it more than once. First read the
entire text from beginning to end and get a sense of its purpose and
meaning. On your next read-through annotate important words and
phrases.
Planning an essay response

When youve read the text carefully and annotated it, make your essay
plan. Start with a bullet point list or a mind map with all the ideas you
can think of that relate to the question. Link your ideas to specific parts of
the text. Then pick the points youre going to use. Aim for at least four to
five main points in an essay. Finally arrange your points in a logical
order.
Understanding the question

The key to a successful essay is to focus on the question.
Example questions
Example question one
This extract is from a key moment in a novel. How is the theme of
conflict presented here? Support your views with detailed
reference to the text.
This sort of question asks you to focus on different examples of a theme
throughout a text. In this case you would ideally find four or five examples
of conflict to write about in your essay. As well as picking obvious
examples of arguments between characters, you would also seek out
moments of internal conflict, conflict in setting and conflict between
appearance and reality.
For each example, choose a few words or lines from the text that
demonstrate the theme. Explore how language, literary devices and
structure work together to create effects. Think about how important the
theme is to the overall message of the text.
Example question two

A student, having read this extract said: The writer creates a
sense of quiet tension here. I feel like the scene is calm, but
theres also something unsettling. Do you agree?
This question is asking for a more personal response. Your main task is to
explain the extent to which you agree with the student and to explain how
the extract makes you feel. However, you still need to use evidence for
each point you make. Look closely at the word choices the author makes
and explore how these affect the reader. Remember to use appropriate
literary terminology and to look for layers of meaning.
Example question three

How does the writer create tension and suspense in this extract?
When youre looking at tension and suspense in an extract remember to
examine the particular words and phrases used. What patterns of words
do you notice for example are there lots of words connected with
darkness, time, fear?
Look at sentence structures and notice how the writer is using these to
create tension. Are there lots of short sentences to build pace? Do longer
sentences keep us hanging on?
How do the characters behave and respond to their situation?
Noticedialogue as well as descriptions.
Pick out four or five examples from the extract that support your answer
to the question. Then, if possible, link to one or two other examples of
tension and suspense in other parts of the text. As well as action, think
about how characters contribute to tension, how setting is important and
how ideas are presented by the writer.
Example question 4
In the last twenty lines of this passage, the writer makes the
reader feel sympathy for the main character. To what extent do
you agree with this view?
If youre asked to focus on a particular section of an extract, then of
course, this is where you should begin! Decide how far you agree with the
statement and find evidence to support your argument.
Remember to look at the rest of the extract as well. Do you feel sympathy
for the character in the other sections as well? Compare the two parts of
the extract and use quotations to support your answer.
Structuring an essay
It can be useful to think of your essay as a layered sandwich or burger to

make sure you include all the main parts
An essay should include:
1. a brief introduction (which focuses on the question)
2. the main body (four or five paragraphs)
3. a short conclusion (which focuses on the question)
Structuring an essay - Writing an introduction

Your essay should begin with an introduction. The first sentence of your
essay sums up your answer to the question. Make a positive statement
that relates to the question. Use key words from the question to
demonstrate your understanding.
Example
Anna Chancellor as Miss Bingley from BBC adaptation of Pride and

Prejudice (1995)
How does Jane Austen present the character of Miss Bingley in
this extract?
When dinner was over, she returned directly to Jane, and Miss Bingley
began abusing her as soon as she was out of the room. Her manners were
pronounced to be very bad indeed, a mixture of pride and impertinence;
she had no conversation, no style, no taste, no beauty. Mrs. Hurst thought
the same, and added,
"She has nothing, in short, to recommend her, but being an excellent
walker. I shall never forget her appearance this morning. She really looked
almost wild."
"She did indeed, Louisa. I could hardly keep my countenance. Very
nonsensical to come at all! Why must she be scampering about the
country, because her sister had a cold? Her hair so untidy, so blowsy!"
"Yes, and her petticoat; I hope you saw her petticoat, six inches deep in
mud, I am absolutely certain; and the gown which had been let down to
hide it, not doing its office."
"Your picture may be very exact, Louisa," said Bingley; "but this was all
lost upon me. I thought Miss Elizabeth Bennet looked remarkably well,
when she came into the room this morning. Her dirty petticoat quite
escaped my notice."
"You observed it, Mr. Darcy, I am sure," said Miss Bingley; "and I am
inclined to think that you would not wish to see your sister make such an
exhibition."
"Certainly not."
"To walk three miles, or four miles, or five miles, or whatever it is, above
her ankles in dirt, and alone, quite alone! what could she mean by it? It
seems to me to shew an abominable sort of conceited independence, a
most country town indifference to decorum."
Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen, Chapter 8
Suggested introduction
Austen uses a variety of techniques to present the character of Miss
Bingley in this extract. She uses language and structural devices to create
humour and creates a character that the reader will not necessarily like.
This:
specifically answers the question rather than just rephrasing it
says what the text is effective in doing (by creating an amusing description)
says in general how that effect is created (using structural and language
devices)
Structuring an essay Writing the main body

Use each paragraph to make one main point. A paragraph should contain:
a link to the previous idea

a statement of the main point in this paragraph
some evidence from the text to support what you think - this will probably
include something on language or structure
a discussion of the evidence, and links to any other possible evidence
a link back to the question, or to the next point
Start each paragraph with a link to the essay as a whole, and the part
which came immediately before. This way you are able to make a chain of
your different paragraphs. Connectives help to show the relationship
between them:
Firstly....
Secondly....
On the one hand....
On the other hand...
Similarly...
In contrast...
However...
Alternatively
Finally.
Using quotations and close analysis

To support your points you need to use quotations and examples.
Quotations should be kept short and to the point. Using just a few words is
more powerful than copying out chunks of text: it shows you are being
selective in what you say. You should also be careful to copy accurately.
Put the quotation inside your own sentence, rather than putting it in the
middle of a page and then commenting on it. This is called embedding a
quotation.
So rather than:
He flew like a butterfly. This is an example of a simile, which shows that
he was light and graceful.
Or:
The author uses similes, eg he flew like a butterfly.
You would write:
The author uses the simile of the boy flying like a butterfly to convey the
impression that he is light and graceful.
The words from the text are embedded as part of your sentence they
make sense as a whole.
Making the most of quotations

You should make a close analysis of the language in the quotation and
use that to support your point.
There are several ways you can do this:
Pick out a word from the quotation and think about what the choice of that
word means. Theconnotations of a word are the things or ideas it reminds
you of, rather than its meaning. Some words might have connotations
which are important to the point you are making, eg the word scythe has
connotations of death and it might be being used to create
an ominousatmosphere.
The quotation may have a metaphor, simile, or other devices in it what
is the effect of that technique? Make sure that if you use a quotation with a
literary technique in it, you name the technique in whatever comment you
make about it.
Link the quotation to another example in the extract, if there is one. Or
show how it is similar to another point youve made. This shows an
overview of the text, rather than being focused on individual examples.
Structuring an essay Writing the conclusion

To conclude, sum up the points you have made so far. Finally, write a
single sentence which answers the question again it will be quite like
your opening sentence, but dont repeat the same words.
Example
If the question is:
How does Jane Austen present the character of Miss Bingley in
this extract?
The conclusion could be:
In conclusion, Miss Bingley is presented as a proud and arrogant
character. The writer uses narration and dialogue to show that Miss
Bingley is unkind to Elizabeth Bennet, the main character. As readers, our
sympathies are with Elizabeth and the structural device of dialogue here
adds to our dislike of Miss Bingley.
Sample exam question and

answer:
Question and extract
The extracts your exam questions are based on will be longer than the
one here but you should still be able to find at least five points to answer
the question. First of all, have a read, and see what ideas you can come
up with. Remember to link each point to a quotation or example.
Question
How does the writer use language and structure to create interest for the
reader in this opening to Lord of the Flies?
Extract
The boy with fair hair lowered himself down the last few feet of rock and
began to pick his way toward the lagoon. Though he had taken off his
school sweater and trailed it now from one hand, his grey shirt stuck to
him and his hair was plastered to his forehead. All round him the long scar
smashed into the jungle was a bath of heat. He was clambering heavily
among the creepers and broken trunks when a bird, a vision of red and
yellow, flashed upwards with a witch-like cry; and this cry was echoed by
another.
Hi! it said. Wait a minute! The undergrowth at the side of the scar was
shaken and a multitude of raindrops fell pattering.
Wait a minute, the voice said. I got caught up.
The fair boy stopped and jerked his stockings with an automatic gesture
that made the jungle seem for a moment like the Home Counties.
Lord of the Flies, William Golding
Sample answer Attempt one

The author uses two characters to create interest. They are both boys.
They are wearing the wrong clothes for the setting. This makes it seem
interesting. He also uses lots of similes and metaphors. There is also
talking in the extract which draws the reader in.
Feedback - Basic
It doesnt have many points, and it doesnt develop any of them.
There are no quotations to support the points, and the points themselves
are not very detailed. Were told the boys are wearing the wrong clothes for
the setting but not what the clothes are or what the setting is.
Saying there are lots of similes and metaphors doesnt show that the
writer actually knows what one is, or how it is used.
Sample answer Attempt two

Golding uses a number of techniques to create interest for the reader. The
exotic setting, which includes a lagoon and jungle, is contrasted with
the ordinariness of the boys, who are wearing school uniform. The grey
uniform is dull compared to the vision of red and yellow of the bird. This
contrast means the reader is left wondering why the boys are in this
jungle.
Leaving questions unanswered is a way that Golding uses the structure of
the text to create interest. The dialogue begins before we are aware of
who is speaking. The voice does not have a body at first. Using the
pronoun it to refer to the voice, rather than the boy behind it, creates a
sense of mystery. This mystery is heightened by the fact Golding does not
tell us the names of the characters one is simply the fair boy and the
other one is just a voice at this point.
Feedback - Improving
Using the name of the author to refer to him shows an awareness of the
fact there is a writer behind the text.
There is an introductory sentence before the answer starts.
The points are backed up with short quotations which are embedded into
the sentences, not left hanging.
The point about the contrast is developed, with detail about the colour
supporting it. The answer then goes on to explain what the effect of this is
on the reader which brings in the second half of the question.
Sample answer Attempt three

Golding uses a number of techniques to create interest for the reader. He
creates a sense of mystery and also one of foreboding, both of which
encourage the reader to read on to find out more.
This contrast is one of several in the extract. The boy is wearing school
uniform, and is Home Counties which is incongruous in comparison to
the exotic lagoon and jungle location. This is emphasised by how
unsuitable his clothing is he is too hot even when he has taken his
sweater off, because he is in a bath of heat. This contrast is highlighted
by the details of the colour: while the boy is grey, his surroundings are a
source of bright colour, like the bird which is a vision of red and yellow.
The bird is also part of the creation of a sense of foreboding. It has a
witch-like cry; the connotations of this simile suggest danger and evil.
This is also seen in the long scar which is smashed into the jungle. The
word scar is associated with wounds, and hurt. Like the boys, it is also
out of place in relation to the jungle surroundings, and the word smashed
suggests some violence. Again, we do not know the source of the scar:
the reader expects that this, like the identity of the boys, will be explained
in time.
The sense of mystery, created by the juxtaposition of the very ordinary
boy and the exotic location, and by the structuring of information in the
extract, combined with the sense of foreboding, mainly created by the
effects of language, makes for an intriguing passage to start the novel.
Feedback - Even better
This answer has a clear structure: it has an introduction and a conclusion,

and the points in the middle are linked but distinct. It is still short in an
exam you would have a much longer passage and a much longer answer.
It uses technical vocabulary

like 'simile', 'juxtaposition', 'foreboding' and 'incongruous' to explain
how effects are created, and it weaves these terms into the argument,
rather than stating this is a simile.
Each point is supported by detailed quotation, and developed with
reference to other details
The effect on the reader is explored implicitly, signalled by words like

intriguing and sense of mystery.
The points are not based around the techniques, but around the effects,
which enables more sophisticated analysis.
The answer is fluently written with confident use of spelling, punctuation

and grammar.
Analysing Non-Fiction
Non-fiction text types
A non-fiction text is based on facts. It is really any text which isnt fiction
(a made-up story or poetry). Non-fiction texts come in a huge variety of
types. You find them everywhere in life, from the back of the cereal packet
at breakfast, to a text book at the library. They can range from a
newspaper article to a review of a new computer game. They are written
for many different purposes, and are aimed at many different people or
audiences.
Non-fiction texts include:
advertisements
reviews
letters
diaries
newspaper articles
information leaflets
magazine articles
Literary non-fiction
Literary non-fiction is a type of writing which uses similar techniques
asfiction to create an interesting piece of writing about real events. These
techniques help to create non-fiction which is enjoyable and exciting to
read. Some travel writing, autobiographies, or essays that consider a
particular viewpoint are key examples of literary non-fiction. Their main
purpose is to entertain whilst they inform about factual events or
information.
Literary non-fiction texts include:
feature articles
essays
travel writing
accounts of famous events
sketches (normally a fact file profile that gives key information about a
person, place or event)
autobiographies (where you write about yourself) or biographies (where

someone else writes about you) - these texts may be written by
sportspeople, politicians, celebrities or other people who arent well-known
Biography
Pel's autobiography tells the story of his life and career as an

international footballer
A biography is writing about someones life. If someone is writing about

their own life it becomes an autobiography. These forms can also widen
out to focus on a specific part of someones life, or their family.
A biography is usually written both to inform and to entertain. This means
it is a mix of factual information and creative writing. The audience is
usually made up of people who are interested in the person being written
about. However, sometimes biographies of people who arent well known
can be interesting because of an experience that theyve had.
Example
This is the opening paragraph of Claire Tomalins biography of Charles
Dickens, the novelist. The young man she is describing is Dickens, aged
37.
14 January 1840, London. An inquest is being held at Marylebone
Workhouse, a muddled complex of buildings spread over a large area
between the Marylebone Road and Paddington Street. The Beadle, a
parish officer responsible for persuading householders to do their duty as
jurors at such inquests, has assembled twelve men. Most of them are
middle-aged local tradesmen, but one stands out among them as
different. He is young and slight, smartly dressed and good-looking,
neither tall nor short at five foot nine inches, with dark hair falling in curls
over his forehead and collar. He is a new resident who has just moved into
a fine airy house with a large garden, close to Regents Park at York Gate:
it is No. 1 Devonshire Terrace, from which the Beadle has made haste to
summon him to his duty.
Charles Dickens, Claire Tomalin
Analysis
Tomalin, the writer of this extract:
uses many literary techniques to create an accurate image of the scene for
the reader, a muddled complex of buildings
starts in the middle of a story, rather than at the beginning of Dickenss life,
to grab the readers attention and highlight a specific event of interest
focuses on the person that the biography is about
gives us detail about the person, so we can imagine him He is young and
slight, smartly dressed and good-looking
contrasts the person to the middle-aged tradesmen to make him seem

special by describing him in a romantic way dark hair falling in curls over
his forehead
Information leaflet
Information leaflets inform people about a particular subject. In leaflets
its not just the content and language thats important, but also the layout
and presentation.
Example
Get baking
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
Analysis
The key features of the leaflet that are used here include:
the heading of the leaflet uses imperative language to give the reader a
clear message - Get Baking!
the language is instructional - it assumes that the reader will agree with the
opinion of the writer Baking is a great British tradition
headings and sub-headings are used to direct the reader through each
section, with a clear contents page to signpost the reader to particular parts
of the leaflet
the language is also reassuring to the reader if they are not necessarily an
expert All the recipes in this guide give step-by-step advice to help you
bake beautifully
Letter
Letters are written for many purposes and audiences:
they can be written to someone close to you, like a parent or friend, or to a

stranger
they can be formal, such as a letter of complaint, or informal, to someone

you know well
they are usually structured in a particular way to show that the text is
directed at someone, using a salutation Dear and an appropriate ending
Yours sincerely
Open letters
An open letter is a letter which is either addressed to the public or is to a

specific person, like a politician, but published in a public forum such a
popular newspaper with a big audience. An open letter is often used to
protest about something.
Example
This letter was written by the author Douglas Adams, who wrote The
Hitch-Hikers Guide to the Galaxy, when he was only 12. It was a letter to
the editor of a comic called The Eagle.
January 23, 1965
Dear Editor,
The sweat was dripping down my face and into my lap, making my clothes
very wet and sticky. I sat there, walking, watching. I was trembling
violently as I sat, looking at the small slot, waiting ever waiting. My
nails dug into my flesh as I clenched my hands. I passed my arm over my
hot, wet face, down which sweat was pouring. The suspense was
unbearable. I bit my lip in an attempt to stop trembling with the terrible
burden of anxiety. Suddenly, the slot opened and in dropped the mail. I
grabbed at my Eagle and ripped off the wrapping paper.
My ordeal was over for another week!
D. N. Adams (12)
Brentwood, Essex
The Salmon of Doubt: Hitchhiking the Galaxy One Last Time, Douglas
Adams
Analysis
This letter:
Is clearly trying to get published - its very dramatic and over the top. This
exaggeration is designed to flatter the editor of the comic I grabbed at my
Eagle and ripped off the wrapping paper.
There is a lot of detailed description of the writer being tense My nails

dug into my flesh as I clenched my hands.
But its also funny for the same reasons. There is comedy is the way he
seems so desperate to get the weekly comic My ordeal was over for
another week!
Douglas Adams signs it with his age it is common to include the writers
age when publishing letters in newspapers.
Review
The most common types of review are film and book reviews, but people
also review music, television programmes, theatre performances and
computer games.
All reviews share a number of different purposes. For example, a film
review needs:
to inform - the review needs to tell people who is in the film, who it is by
and where or when readers can see it
to describe - the review should describe the story, characters and some of
the action - without spoiling the plot or giving too much away
to entertain - to use humour to provide the reader with their opinion of the
item that they are reviewing
to analyse - a good review gives an opinion on whether the film is good or
not and why
to advise - the review should tell the reader whether or not to go and see
the film
Audience
Reviews will vary in their audiences: it could be people who are
specifically interested in that film or book, who are actually considering
going to see the film or buy the book. But it could also be people who are
just generally interested in films or books, who like to read about them. A
review of a kids film is probably aimed at parents, who will want to know
whether or not to take their children to see it. A review in a specialist
games magazine will use very different terminology than a review of a
computer game in a national newspaper. The readers in the games
magazine will have more specialist knowledge, and might judge the game
against specific things that a games expert may want from a game.
Example
This is a review of the film The Golden Compass.
The Golden Compass
Reviewed by Stella Papamichael
Free will is the object of the game in The Golden Compass, a big budget
exercise in orienteering where witches and polar bears point the way to
enlightenment. You'll have to look between the CG seams to find the
original intent of Philip Pullman's atheistic novel, but this isn't the
overriding problem. It's that writer/director Chris Weitz doesn't convey a
strong enough sense of purpose.
Thank goodness for the star presence of Dakota Blue Richards. She is
thoroughly engaging as Lyra, a young girl singled out in prophecy as 'the
one' to save all others from some awful yet indeterminate fate. It all
sounds a bit messianic really, except that organised religion, represented
by The Magisterium, is a force for evil. Nicole Kidman does the ominous
eyebrow lifting as a guardian of the establishment who kidnaps children to
wrest them from their 'daemons' (the animal sidekicks who embody their
better judgment). Among the abductees is Lyra's best friend, and so
begins the voyage north to find him.
Many questions raised
Daniel Craig has little to do as Lyra's scientifically minded uncle except

hint at potential sequels. The draw is in a simple story of friendship and
Lyra's journey of self-discovery. The line-up of curious characters she
meets along the way helps to lighten Pullman's otherwise dark material.
Sam Elliot is wryly amusing as a cowboy aeronaut and the spectacle of
Lyra being carried across the arctic wastelands on the back of a polar bear
(voiced by Ian McKellen) will appeal to the child in everyone. Towards the
end, some impressively realised battle scenes up the excitement.
Disappointingly though, all this magic and mystery fails to lead to any
grand unveiling. There are just too many questions raised and not enough
answered. Approach this not as a lesson in the facts of life, just a bit of
childish escapism.
The Golden Compass is out in the UK on 5 December.
Analysis
We can divide this review into four parts:
1. Introduction - this gives an overview of who is in the film and what it's
about. It also sums up the reviewer's conclusion about the film (so readers
can form an opinion without reading the whole of the review).
2. Paragraph 2 - the reviewer then describes the plot and the action,
while informing the reader which actor plays which role.
3. Paragraph 3 - the reviewer then analyses the film, talking about the
director and then the actors, looking at good things as well as bad things.
4. Finally - the review informs the reader when the film is out (and
sometimes, in a local review, where it can be seen).
The writer uses a number of language choices to show their feelings

towards the film:
the writers appreciation of the actress She is thoroughly engaging
this is further extended to the other members of the cast Sam Elliot is
wryly amusing
an acknowledgement of the storylines ability to entertain some

impressively realised battle scenes up the excitement
final closing sentences that contradict with this appreciation to reveal the
writers final view of the film Disappointingly though
a sentence that attempts to sum up the film for the reader Approach this
not as a lesson in the facts of life, just a bit of childish escapism
Newspaper article
There are several different types of newspaper articles:
News articles - these are found at the front of a newspaper. They inform
readers about things that are happening in the world or in the local area.
They will be full of facts, like names, dates and places.
Feature articles - these explore news stories in more depth. The purpose
of a feature is not just to tell you what has happened, but to explore or
analyse the reasons why. These kind of pieces normally name the writer
who wrote them - a byline.
Editorials, columns and opinion pieces - these are pieces by
'personality' writers. They might be there to inform (because the writer's
expert opinion is valued), or they might be there to entertain (because the
writer has a comic or interesting way of describing everyday life). They are
likely to have a more personal style that the writer regularly uses when
writing - this could be shown through particular vocabulary or the opinion of
the writer.
The type of newspaper that the article is published in makes a difference

to the way it is written:
if it is in a tabloid it will have shorter sentences and paragraphs and use

more basic vocabulary
if it is in a broadsheet the sentences will be longer and more complicated,
and the vocabulary will be more advanced
Some newspapers also have particular political points of view, which

might affect how they report events in the news.
Example
This feature article is from The Daily Telegraph which is a broadsheet
paper. Only the first part of the article is given here. It is from the morning
of the semi-final of Wimbledon, in the year that Andy Murray won.
Andy Murray's appliance of science

If the Caledonian superman wins Wimbledon this year, it will be
thanks to 50 pieces of sushi a day, a magic potion and a battalion of
experts.
If you want to know what it is about Andy Murray that makes him stand
out from the rest of us apart from that fizzing backhand return and the
huge-mouthed celebratory yodel it is summed up in two words:
osmolarity check.
Today, before he even steps out on to the Centre Court for his Wimbledon
semi-final against the huge-hitting Pole Jerzy Janowicz, Murray will have
been subject to several of these. He does one every time he pops to the
lavatory. The osmolarity check is conducted by one of his staff, its purpose
to gauge the percentages of water and minerals in his urine, to show
whether his body is correctly hydrated. The fact is, if Murray wins today, it
will partly be thanks to the bloke who inspects his wee.
There has never been a sportsman who has been as meticulously
assembled as Andy Murray. Allied to his extraordinary natural skill and
ferocious desire to win, what has carried him to his fifth successive
Wimbledon semi-final is the relentless appliance of science. There is
nothing in his life that is left to chance, nothing that is not measured,
calibrated and balanced. This is a man whose route to the summit of his
profession has been mapped with a meticulousness bordering on the
obsessive.
Take his diet. He will have started eating at 7.30 this morning. While many
of those arriving at Wimbledons press restaurant will have begun their
day assaulting a tottering Himalaya of fried starch, Murray will have eaten
yogurt, fruit and a bagel smeared in peanut butter.
By Jim White, Daily Telegraph
Analysis
This article:
has a headline to grab attention, and a subtitle to tell the reader more
about what the feature is really about the scientific support for
professional sports players
uses literary devices to entertain, like the metaphor describing the
journalists breakfasts as a tottering Himalaya of fried starch
uses humour to engage the audience such as talking about his scientific
support as the bloke who inspects his wee
understands that the reader would not be an expert in this topic and
explains the meaning of technical terms like osmolarity check
Blog
The origin of the word blog is as an abbreviation for web-log that is,
an online diary. Blogs are written by many people all over the world, for
lots of different purposes. They can be diaries, or records of what you
cook, a travel log for people visiting different destinations or book review
blogs, or many other sorts of blogs. The purpose of the writing depends on
what kind of blog it is. Blogs:
often have lots of pictures to make them look attractive

vary the size, font and appearance of text for effect
use links to connect to other web-pages
can include video clips
are usually quite personal written in the first person and written partly
for the authors own benefit
the language is often informal and chatty
may not have a clear audience other than anyone whos interested
Blogs can also be used by organisations to communicate informally with

their audience. Because they are online, they can be regular, and respond
to events quickly.
Example
This is a post from a blog for people studying English by Victoria Elliot. It
talks about a visit to the garden of CS Lewis, who wrote the Narnia books.
An Inkling of another world

This morning I went to Narnia. Sort of.
CS Lewis bought a house in 1930, jointly with his brother and the mother
of one his friends who was killed in the First World War, with whom he had
lived ever since. The house in question was 'The Kilns', in Risinghurst, a
suburb of Oxford. The house then stood at one end of an 8-acre garden,
which included a large pond or lake, which was a water filled clay-pit, with
a number of brick kilns scattered around it, and a wooded headland. Five
acres of this garden are now the CS Lewis Nature Reserve, administered
by the Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust, and
open to the public to wander around at will.
Local lore has it that this woodland is the inspiration for the Narnia books,
written after Lewis moved to the Kilns. This morning it was quiet and
empty, despite the sun. A couple of coots were making circles on the lake,
although a few ducks emerged later on. The trees were ankle-deep in
dead leaves, and there were more than a few muddy holes, some of which
were bridged, some not.
But this woodland isn't Narnia; it's the Wood Between the Worlds. It's the
place from which you can get to other worlds - the place that Lewis leapt
off from. And here and there I began to see where Narnia had crept in. In
the clearing at the top I saw the place where Caspian encounters the
inhabitants of the forest dancing and vows to restore their country to
them. Around the place lie round sandstone boulders, covered with lichen,
known as 'doggers': a board tells of the legend that they were used as
marbles by the giants who used to live in the mediaeval forests of
England. The Silver Chair sprang to mind.
And the best thing about it being the Wood Between the Worlds? It's not
just Narnia you can get to from there. There's a forest full of other worlds
just waiting to be discovered. I'll be going back to find them.
Analysis
This blog:
Contains factual information.

Shows the writers personal opinion: it is written in the first person.
Makes reference to the Narnia books, which the audience would be
expected to know and be interested in to read the blog.
Has a photograph of the place that it is describing.
Uses devices like rhetorical questions to help engage the reader.
Makes a pun in the title CS Lewis was a member of a group known as the
Inklings. The word Inkling now means a hint or suggestion.
Essay
Essays are not only written by students. People who are considered
experts in a particular topic often write essays to show a new viewpoint on
something. For example, lecturers at universities often write essays to
explain a different idea about a topic. The essay is a form of literary nonfiction in which a writer expresses an opinion on something, or makes an
argument, in a creative form. Essays:
use literary devices

are usually written using formal language and specialist vocabulary that
those people interested in the subject would understand
develop a line of argument
have a clear structure that introduces their idea, develops their viewpoint
using different points to support them, and concludes with a summary of
the essay
Example
This extract is the beginning of an essay by George Orwell, the novelist,
who was also a famous essay writer. This essay is calledPolitics and the
English Language. It was published in 1946, in a literary magazine. It
criticises the ugliness of written English in the modern age.
George Orwell
Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the
English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we
cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our civilization is
decadent and our language so the argument runs must inevitably
share in the general collapse. It follows that any struggle against the
abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to
electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the halfconscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument
which we shape for our own purposes.
Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have
political and economic causes: it is not due simply to the bad influence of
this or that individual writer. But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing
the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified form,
and so on indefinitely. A man may take to drink because he feels himself
to be a failure, and then fail all the more completely because he drinks. It
is rather the same thing that is happening to the English language. It
becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the
slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish
thoughts. The point is that the process is reversible.
Politics and the English Language, George Orwell
Analysis
In this extract you can see:
Orwell uses first person plural pronouns our to engage the reader.
He uses literary devices such as similes, and metaphors, like the idea that
language is a natural growth.
The vocabulary is complex and polysyllabic.
Sentences are long, and complex. This creates a challenge for the reader.
He uses lots of impersonal constructions (it is clear; it follows), to give a
sense of logic to the argument. Note that he avoids using I and that the
tone is formal to add a sophisticated style to the piece of writing.
Travel writing
Travel writing is writing about visiting different places. It can appear as a

newspaper article, informing readers about a specific destination. It can
also be a form of literary non-fiction, written as a book, telling a longer
narrative about a journey or place. This differs from a travel blog because
the writing is more detailed and less informal.
Travel writing:
is usually written in the first person using I
is often descriptive telling you about the place
as literary non-fiction, is aiming to entertain as well as inform
Example
Bill Bryson is a famous travel writer. This extract is the opening paragraph
from his book The Lost Continent (1989).
I come from Des Moines. Somebody had to.
When you come from Des Moines you either accept the fact without
question and settle down with a local girl named Bobbi and get a job at
the Firestone factory and live there forever and ever, or you spend your
adolescence moaning at length about what a dump it is and how you can't
wait to get out, and then you settle down with a local girl named Bobbi
and get a job at the Firestone factory and live there forever and ever.
The Lost Continent, Bill Bryson
Analysis
In this extract:
Bryson uses the first person to talk about where he came from. He also tells
us the name of the place clearly at the start.
He uses humour to create interest for the reader.
He plays around with sentence length, sometimes making short

punchlines.
He creates a long sentence where no matter what path you take, you settle
down with a local girl named Bobbi.... and live there forever and ever. This
also creates a humorous tone for the reader.
Context
The context of a text is the place and time in which it was written, who it was
written by, and where it was published. All of these affect the purpose and
effect of the text.
Context of a non-fiction text
The context of a text is not the things that appear on the page but the
circumstances in which it was written. The context helps to build up a
background of how and why the piece of writing may have been written events happening in the world at the time, how men or women were
regarded in society, or even peoples opinions of religion or social rules
can be reflected in a piece of writing.
It can be useful to think about:
The type of text - if it is a newspaper article about a topic that was

important in that particular time in history.
When it was written texts from the Victorian era are very different to
something written in the last ten years.
Where it was written is it from the UK, or from somewhere else? Or on a
smaller scale, was it written in a school, a home, a prison?
Who wrote it individual people will have different intentions. A child will
write something different from an adult. A fan will write differently from
a critic about a band.
Where it was published a newspaper tabloid or broadsheet? A
magazine is it for football fans, or for a general audience?
What it was written for - the purpose may have been more important in a
different era; for example, a womans traditional role was in the home, and
the text may show that.
Examples of context
Different contexts will affect the text in different ways. An introductory

statement to a text will give you some context, for example:
Following the death of Nelson Mandela in December 2013, US President,
Barack Obama, made this speech as a tribute. Nelson Mandela had risen
from being a political prisoner in South Africa to being the countrys first
black President.
This tells you who wrote the text (Barack Obama), and some information
about him (US President). It tells you when (2013) and some extra
information about why that was important (Nelson Mandela had just died).
It also tells you something about the content its a tribute, so it will be a
positive opinion of Mandela.
Here are some suggestions for things that you might look out for. They
are only suggestions. Context can only suggest things to look out for,
not explain everything in the text.
Time it was written

Victorian or 19th century:
old-fashioned, formal, elaborate vocabulary
longer words and/or sentences
expects an educated audience
During a World War:
might contain fairly serious content
might have a political point to make about the war
vocabulary might be quite advanced or specific to the war, using

terminology or words only known to people living in that era, eg describing
ordinary soldiers in World War One as Tommies
21st century:
modern and up-to-date vocabulary, using modern terminology that an

older writer may not be familiar with, eg tweet, status update
a modern topic like technology
uses a more advanced layout specific to a modern text - for example,
including web links or advanced photography
Where it was written

Abroad:
may use some words in another language
will provide an explanation of some of the topic so that people living in

another area understand it
the writer may have a different opinion of local cultural traditions because
of where they are living when writing
In a school:
words connected to learning, schooling, teachers and pupils - this could be

adapted to more simplistic language if it is a text for children
mostly concerned with the close at hand: a limited viewpoint that is specific
to the school
formal or informal depending on purpose and audience
Where it was published

On the web:
expect links and pictures
layout will have a clear aim to draw the readers immediate attention to a
particular place on the screen - large headlines and different fonts will help
to achieve this
paragraphs will be shorter and more widely spaced
In a literary magazine, like the London Review of Books:
aimed at an educated audience
more advanced vocabulary and more literary devices

longer sentences
As a book:
it may turn its subject into a story (this is called an anecdote)

the overall text is longer, and so the writer can provide more detail than in
a news story
Purpose and audience

The purpose and audience of a non-fiction text can explain why writers have chosen
particular language or laid out text in a specific way.
Purpose
Think about TAP when looking at a non-fiction text:
Text type
Audience
Purpose
A text can have many purposes. Some examples are to:
entertain to make the reader enjoy reading
persuade to change a readers opinion
advise to help people decide what to do
analyse to break down something to help people to understand it better
argue to make the case for something
describe to give details about a person, place, event or thing
explain to make clear why or how something works
inform to tell a reader about something
instruct to tell a reader how to do something
Some types of non-fiction text are linked to specific purposes. For

example, advertising is intended to persuade you to buy something.
To work out what the purpose of the text is, its useful to think about what
the writers attitude was at the time of writing. Looking at
anycontextual information like where its from will also help.
QQuestion
What purpose do each of the following texts have?
a news article
a self-help book
a letter asking for a charity donation
an autobiography
a book review
AHide answer
a news article: to inform but also to persuade, if the article is showing a
particular opinion towards a topic, eg animal testing
a self-help book: to advise
a letter asking for a charity donation: to persuade
an autobiography: to entertain and to inform
a book review: to analyse, inform, and advise
The purpose of a text will also affect what the content is, how its
structured, what techniques are used, and what words are used. But
purpose is not the only thing that affects this; the particular target
audience is also important.
Audience
To find out who the audience is for a certain text try answering the
following questions:
Who is the text aimed at?
Can you work out what age group they are from the language or layout?
Are they people who are interested in a specific topic?
The audience for a local newspaper is very different from a national music
magazine, for example. Writers tailor their texts to their audience
carefully. They consider them in how they write sentences, what
vocabulary they use and the style of their writing.
Any contextual information you have about a text may give you some
clues to its audience. You can also work out who it is aimed at by looking
at:
The topic is it about something of particular interest to a group?
The tone is it chatty or formal?
The words does it use specialist vocabulary, or easy words,

or polysyllabic vocabulary?
Does it use Standard English or dialect?
Does it use you and if so, what kind of characteristics does that you seem
to have?
Is the layout changed for the audience and purpose? For example, does it
use more grown-up colours and a layout that you would expect from a text
for adults?
Example
Here is an example text from the CBBC website. How can you tell the
purpose of the text and the intended audience?
Analysis
The purpose of the text is to inform, and the intended audience is
children. This is clear because:
The layout of the page has a fun, colourful theme with plenty of visual
images to go with the content of the article.
The language is imperative, and the order of the texts is numbered into a
step-by-step guide to show that the article is to instruct the reader to do
something.
The language is informal, using exclamation marks to show that it is trying
to create a fun tone for the reader as they create the task Shiny silver
works really well for a disco ball!
Language and structure

By changing language and structure, writers can convey meaning, create interest,
and show a particular viewpoint. Language and structure also change according to
text type.
anguage
A simile from Martin Luther King's I Have a Dream speech

Commenting on the language of a text is where the really detailed
analysis comes from. When talking about language, you might comment
on:
The literary devices an author uses, like similes and metaphors and for
what effect - how does it help them to present their idea or viewpoint in a
specific way?
The type of words used in the text. Are words long and elaborate or short
and easy? Aredialect words used - does the author use jargon (terms which
are only understood by certain audiences)?
The connotations of specific word choices are words being used that
remind you of something else to create an effect, eg using words with
connotations of death to create anominous effect?
The appropriateness of word choice: are words being used to match the
context, or to extend a metaphor? For example, if a sports report uses the
metaphor of the match being a battle, does the rest of the report talk about
fighting for points, or players as foot soldiers?
Is the text written in the first person? Is the author directly addressing the
reader using you?
Is the text written in the past tense or the present tense? What effect does
it have?
When you identify literary devices in a text, think about how you can link
them to purpose or audience; how is it clear that the writer has chosen
particular words or used techniques to cause you as the reader to react in
a certain way?
Literary devices
Non-fiction texts can use the same literary devices as fiction texts.
These include:
metaphors
similes
rhetorical questions
repetition
parallelism (repeated sentence structures)
listing
groups of three (or triadic structure)
irony
adopting a persona
synecdoche
pathetic fallacy
variation in sentence length and structure
Non-fiction texts are more likely to use direct address, talking directly to
the reader, and second person pronouns like you and yours.
Example
This extract is from My Family and Other Animals, a memoir by Gerald
Durrell, of the five years he and his family lived on Corfu. See how many
literary devices you can recognise.
Durrell's family and friends from the BBC adaptation of My Family and
Other Animals
For some time the Rose-beetle Man would turn up at the villa fairly
regularly with some new addition to my menagerie: a frog, perhaps, or a
sparrow with a broken leg. One afternoon Mother and I, in a fit of
extravagant sentimentalism, bought up his entire stock of rose-beetles
and, when he had left, let them all go in the garden. For days the villa was
full of rose-beetles, crawling on the beds, lurking in the bathroom, banging
against the lights at night, and falling like emeralds into our laps.
The last time I saw the Rose-beetle Man was one evening when I was
sitting on a hill-top overlooking the road. He had obviously been to some
fiesta and had been plied with much wine, for he swayed to and fro across
the road, piping a melancholy tune on his flute. I shouted a greeting, and
he waved extravagantly without looking back. As he rounded the corner
he was silhouetted for a moment against the pale lavender evening sky. I
could see his battered hat with the fluttering feathers, the bulging pockets
of his coat, the bamboo cages full of sleepy pigeons on his back, and
above his head, circling drowsily round and round, I could see the dim
specks that were the rose-beetles. Then he rounded the curve of the road
and there was only the pale sky with a new moon floating in it like a silver
feather, and the soft twittering of his flute dying away in the dusk.
My Family and Other Animals, Gerald Durrell (1956)
Analysis
Gerald Durrell:
Gives a metaphorical name to a character the Rose-beetle Man named

after what he sold.
Uses precise adjectives to describe the colours, like the pale lavender sky.
Uses similes to create an artistic effect: a new moon floating in it like a

silver feather. The word feather also fits with the pigeons which have just
been described.
Lists all the places the beetles were found, building to a dramatic climax.
They are precious like emeralds.
Creates striking visual images like the man silhouetted against the sky.
Structure
The structure of a text can refer to:
the ordering of the events and particular techniques being used such as
flash back or flash forward to draw the readers attention to a particular
point in time first
the ordering of ideas
the use of different elements, such as bullet points or dialogue, headings

or subheadings
withholding information until a later point to shock or interest the reader
Structure of a non-fiction text

The structure of a non-fiction piece could be:
chronological in date or time order
prioritised the most important facts first (like a news article)
separated into blocks by subheadings eg in a feature article
question and answer eg in information leaflets
problem and solution eg in agony aunt columns, or self-help guides
letter structure a salutation (Dear) and an appropriate ending (Yours

sincerely)
starting in the middle of an event, then providing further information to give

several possible viewpoints
Using paragraphs to structure a

text
Look at the way the key ideas in a piece are ordered. This will help you
work out the structure. There is usually one important idea per paragraph,
but some texts have more.
Within each paragraph, ideas can be structured in different ways. A
common approach is to start with a topic sentence the big idea and
then develop it with details or examples. Paragraphs often end with a
hook to make you consider the ideas included in the paragraph that you
have just read, or a link to the next paragraph.
The number and order of paragraphs, the order of the ideas, and how
each paragraph is constructed are all features you can comment on when
talking about structure.
Additionally, a shortened paragraph that stands out to the reader can
sometimes indicate a change in viewpoint or significant point in the text
that the writer may offer a counter argument.
Annotating for language and

structure
An example of how you could annotate a text using an extract from An

Essay by George Orwell
Annotating structure
Look at the overall text to begin your annotation. Can you spot patterns in
the structure? Look out for:
paragraph lengths
repeated words introducing paragraphs
signpost sentences introducing paragraphs (like 'Firstly...', 'Secondly...', 'In

addition...')
headings and subheadings
time and place
Once you have spotted structural features of the text, make a note of the
feature used. Then, to develop your idea, add a note to briefly consider
the effect of that feature - why has it been used? What is the writer
emphasising or highlighting by using it?
Annotating language
Dont highlight all the language features you spot youll end up
highlighting the whole text. Pick out the first example of eachliterary
device you see, and after that, only the more interesting ones. They
might be interesting because theyre unusual, or because theyre doing a
particularly good job of creating an effect linked to purpose or audience.
Do pick out individual words which you can explore closely ones with
particular connotations, for example, or ones which seem especially
significant. These are usually adjectives, or phrases that have used
particular techniques to conjure up a specific image.
Responding to a non-fiction text

In an extended response essay on a non-fiction text you should show your
understanding of text type, audience and purpose, and how the author has used
language and structure.
How to analyse an extract

An essay should be an argument, using evidence drawn from the text to
make your points. You should explore different aspects of the question or
title.
Tasks can focus on effectiveness, themes and ideas, language, form and
structure, or a combination of these. You will usually need to think about:
What kind of text is this?
What is the purpose?
Who is the audience?
Is it an effective text - to what extent does it achieve its purpose?
A good essay creates a line of thought which directs the reader through
from the beginning to the end, using a convincing essay structure.
A good essay is a structured argument with a clear conclusion
Annotating
The key to planning an essay is to think about what the task is asking you
to do. For example, it may ask you to look at a particular theme or
viewpoint. Read the text carefully, with the question in mind. Thinking
about the question, annotate the extract. Use highlighting or underlining
to pick out key parts of the text that you can use in your answer.
You might read the extract a couple of times, focussing on different things
as you do. For example, focus on the language used, then the way that
the argument is structured (the content of the first and last paragraph and
how this is significant), and then finally how both of these things cause
the reader to react in a certain way.
Planning an essay response

When youve read the text carefully and annotated it, then make a plan.
Make a bullet point list or a mind map of all the ideas you can think of
that are relevant to the question. Link the ideas to specific quotations
from the extract.
Then pick the best points to use. Aim for at least four to five main
points, and arrange them in a logical order. Your choice of order should
help you to develop your ideas and reach a convincing conclusion.
Understanding the question

The key to a successful essay answer is focusing on the question. Your
essay will begin with an introduction. The first sentence of your essay
needs to sum up your answer to the question. Make a positive statement
in relation to the question. Use key words from the question to
demonstrate your understanding.
Example questions
Example question 1
Analyse how the writer uses language and structure to interest
and engage readers.
Support your views with detailed reference to the text.
This is a very general question, which asks you to look at the technical
aspects of the text language and structure to see how the writer has
used them to appeal to their audience. Here you need to identifyfeatures
and then explain how these features will interest and engagereaders.
You need to think about who the audience is, and what the purpose of the
text is. As always, you will need to use quotations and examples from the
text to support every point you make.
Example question 2
Read the letter from Henry to his father.
How does Henry use language to try to influence his father?
This question also looks at language use in relation to its effect on the
reader, except that here the relationship between the writer and the
reader is a specific one. Knowing that relationship means that you can
infer more things from what the text says: can you tell what kind of a
father he is? The word influence suggests that the purpose of the text is
also key: Henry is trying to achieve something.
Example question 3
How does the writer use language and structure to make his
description of the lesson entertaining?
This question is asking you to focus on a specific part of the text: a
description. You need to consider the technical aspects of what writers do
language and structure to see how the writer achieves his purpose.
The question highlights that there are two purposes to describe and to
entertain.
Example question 4
In these texts school is presented as a challenging place for the
pupils.
How far do you agree with this statement?
This question is of a different type it makes a statement about the
extracts, which has an interpretation in it. This statement is the focus of
the question. You might agree or disagree with it, but must present
examples from the text to support either opinion. When planning your
answer, you will keep to the idea of challenging place for pupils. The
word presented is important too: it signals that you need to think about
all the ways the writers are showing their ideas. You will need to look at
language, structure, voice, and all the other things a writer can use.
Structuring an essay
It can be useful to think of your essay as a layered sandwich or burger to

make sure you include all the main parts
An essay should include:
1. a brief introduction (which focuses on the question)
2. the main body (four or five paragraphs)
3. a short conclusion (which focuses on the question)
Writing an introduction
When youve planned your points, and ordered them, its time to start
writing. Your opening sentence should summarise your main argument.
The rest of the essay then shows how you've come to that conclusion.
Example
In this article from the 'Comment is free' section of The
Guardiannewspaper, how does Charlie Brooker use language to persuade
us of his point of view on the television show MasterChef?
Have you seen MasterChef? Of course you have, even if you've been
trying to avoid it, because it's always there, like the sky or the ground or
that skin you're in. MasterChef dominates the schedules like a slowmoving weather system dictating the climate. Your TV's stuck on
MasterChef mode. It's not even a TV these days, more a MasterChef

display unit. Cooking doesn't get more omnipresent than this.
Masterchef is the best television show in broadcasting history, if you
ignore all the other ones, Charlie Brooker (2014)
Suggested introduction
In this article, Charlie Brooker establishes a sarcastic tone through
exaggeration and simile to persuade us that he does not like the
programme Masterchef.
This:
specifically answers the question rather than just rephrasing it

says what the text is effective in doing (by creating a sarcastic tone)
says in general how that effect is created (using exaggeration and similes)
Structuring an essay Writing the

main body
Use each paragraph to make one main point. A paragraph should contain:
a link to the previous idea

a statement of the main point in this paragraph
some evidence from the text to support what you think - this will probably
include something on language or structure
a discussion of the evidence, and links to any other possible evidence
a link back to the question, or to the next point
Start each paragraph with a link to the essay as a whole, and the part
which came immediately before. This way you are able to make a chain of
your different paragraphs. Connectives help to show the relationship
between them:
Firstly...
Secondly...
On the one hand....
On the other hand...
Similarly...
In contrast...
However...
Alternatively
Finally
Using quotations and close analysis

Keep your quotations short and to the point. Using just a few words is
more powerful than copying out chunks of text: it shows you are being
selective in what you say. You should also be careful to copy accurately.
Put the quotation inside your own sentence, rather than sticking it in the
middle of a page and then commenting on it. This is called embedding a
quotation.
So rather than:
He flew like a butterfly. This is an example of a simile, which shows that
he was light and graceful.
Or:
The author uses similes, e.g. he flew like a butterfly.
You would write:
The author uses the simile of the boy flying like a butterfly to convey the
impression that he is light and graceful.
The words from the text are embedded as part of your sentence the
quotation fits into the sentence to form part of it.
Making the most of quotations

You should make a close analysis of the language in the quotation and
use that to support your point.
There are several ways you can do this:
Pick out a word from the quotation and think about what the choice of that
word means. Theconnotations of a word are the things or ideas it reminds
you of, rather than its meaning. Some words might have connotations
which are important to the point you are making, eg the word scythe has
connotations of death and it might be being used to create
an ominousatmosphere.
The quotation may have a metaphor, simile, or other devices in it what
is the effect of that technique? Make sure that if you use a quotation with a
literary technique in it, you name the technique in whatever comment you
make about it.
Link the quotation to another example in the extract, if there is one. Or
show how it is similar to another point youve made. This shows an
overview of the text, rather than being focused on individual examples.
Structuring an essay Writing the conclusion
To conclude, sum up the points you have made so far. Finally, write a
single sentence which answers the question again it will be quite
like your opening sentence, but dont repeat the same words. You
are trying to summarise why the writer has written the article - what
did they want to achieve? What are they trying to highlight to the
reader?
Example
If the question is:
How does Charlie Brooker use language to persuade us of

his point of view?
The conclusion could be:
Brooker uses a style of writing that encourages the reader to agree

with his viewpoint towards the television show Masterchef. He
effectively achieves this through his use of persuasive language and
anecdotal, informal tone to convey his views. The writer appears to
have written the article not only to share his opinion of the
television programme, but to cause the reader to question the
overbearing presence of shows such as Masterchef directing the
television schedule, dictating the climate causes the reader to
consider whether the television programme is being forced upon the
viewer rather than being provided in response to viewer demand.
Brooker is clearly writing to evoke a strong reaction in his reader by
highlighting the possibility that they themselves could be being
manipulated.
Sample exam question
An example of the type of question you might be asked in an exam and how
best to approach it.
Question and extract
The extracts your exam questions are based on will be longer than
the one here. You should still be able to find at least five points to
answer the question. First of all, have a read, and see what ideas
you can come up with. Remember to link each point to a quotation
or example.
Question
How does the writer use language and structure to create an

entertaining description for the reader?
Extract
In this extract from his autobiography Clive James describes a gocarting disaster.
I could not build go-carts very well. Other children made superb
carts with wooden frames and wheels that screamed on the
pavements like a diving aeroplane. The best I could manage was a
fruit box with silent rubber wheels taken off an old pram.
After school and at weekends boys came from all over town to race
along our street. There would be twenty or thirty carts. The noise
was incredible.
Go-carts racing down the pavement on one side had a straight run
of about a quarter of a mile all the way to the park. The carts would
reach such high speeds that it was impossible for the rider to get
off. All he could do was crash when he got to the end.
On the other side of the road we could only go half as far, before a
sharp right-angle turn into Irene Street. The back wheels slid round
the corner, leaving black, smoking trails of burnt rubber, or skidded
in a shower of sparks.
The Irene Street corner was made more dangerous by Mrs

Braithwaites poppies. Mrs Braithwaite lived in the house on the
corner. We all thought that she was a witch. We believed that she
poisoned cats. She was also a keen gardener. Her flower beds held
the areas best collection of poppies. She had been known to phone
the police if even one of her poppies was picked by a passer-by.
It was vital to make the turn into Irene Street without hurting a
single poppy, otherwise the old lady would probably come out
shooting. Usually, when the poppies were in bloom, nobody dared
make the turn. I did because I thought that I was skilful enough to
make the turn safely.
Unreliable Memoirs, Clive James
Sample answer Attempt 1

Clive creates a story to entertain the reader. He uses a character, Mrs
Braithwaite, who is a witch. She is dangerous. He also describes the gocarts which he built. They are not very good. He divides the story up into
paragraphs to make it easy to read. Each paragraph is quite short. He
tells the story in order.
Feedback - Basic
This answer:
Does pick up the word entertain from the question, but doesnt answer it.
Notices the character of Mrs Braithwaite, but doesnt go into details about
how she is used to entertain.
Is very short, and has very few details in it. Although the answer tells us
that the go-carts James built are not good, it doesnt use a quotation to tell
us exactly how.
Talks about paragraphs, but in a way that is generalised, and doesnt link
them to the question.
Jumbles all the points together rather than separating them out into
different paragraphs.
Uses the writers first name to refer to him. Always use a writers surname,
not their first name.
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>
Sample answer - Attempt 2

Since this is an autobiography, James writes in the first person, and tells
an engaging anecdote from his childhood to entertain the reader. He
creates a story from this anecdote, including characters, and sets himself
up for disaster at the end of the extract.
The tone of the passage is humorous. James puts himself down by
pointing out how terrible his go-carts are compared to other peoples. His
are made out of bits of old rubbish, like a fruit box and an old pram. It is
also worse because it is silent, unlike the ones that screamed, which
shows what the children valued: noise!
After introducing the concept of go-carting, and the expectation of
crashing, James introduces a character, Mrs Braithwaite. He says that they
all thought that she was a witch, which brings a vivid idea of what kind
of woman she was to the readers mind. While this is the viewpoint of a
child, James mixes the viewpoint with that of the adult he now is. What
makes Mrs Braithwaite dangerous is that she has been known to ring the
police if anyone damages her poppies. This is a much more real threat
than her being a witch.
This extract builds to a climax: the prospect of the disaster. James tells us
that it was vital to make the turn, stressing its importance. This
emphasis is ominous: the reader is left expecting that James will not make
the turn. Anticipating the disaster brings tension to the text, and makes it
more enjoyable to read.
Therefore, James uses both language and structure to create an
entertaining text for the reader.
This answer:
Has many developed points.
Has an introduction which gives an overview of the answer, and a

conclusion, even if it is very short.
Uses quotation and examples to back up points. Some of the points are
developed with further discussion like how bad his go-cart is.
Acknowledges the information from the context and the question this is
both an autobiography and intended to entertain.
Doesn't use any links between paragraphs.

Throughout this extract from his autobiography, Clive James uses
exaggeration, humour, and careful structuring of the ideas in order to
create an entertaining text for his readers, which builds towards the
anticipated disaster of the crash.
James uses self-deprecating humour in describing his efforts at building a
go-cart compared to the other childrens. While theirs are like a diving
aeroplane a simile which emphasises their speed and grace his is
made from a fruit box and old pram wheels. The contrast between the
two descriptions emphasises how terrible his go-cart is. In terms of the
structure of the extract, this establishes our expectations of James, so
when we reach the end of the extract where he thought he could make
the turn, we realise that he is unlikely to be able to do so, and it is all
going to end in disaster.
The simile of the aeroplane also suggests a comic exaggeration for effect,
which is another key technique which James uses to entertain the reader.
The character of Mrs Braithwaite is another example of this. Although the
description of her as a witch is dismissed as simply what they thought of
her as children, she will also phone the police a real danger if any of
the children touch her poppies. Finally, she might come out shooting a
huge exaggeration designed to make the reader laugh, particularly in
contrast to the fact that she is an old lady, who we would expect to be
rather less violent.
Mrs Braithwaite is key to the development of tension through the
structuring of the ideas in the text. Having shown us that we should not
have high expectations of his skill, James then describes the difficulty of
the route, and the danger of going wrong and damaging Mrs Braithwaites
poppies, before making the final dangerous statement that he alone
dared make the turn. The increasing stakes through the text help to
create an enjoyable expectation of James crashing.
The autobiography offers a very personal look into an incident from his
childhood, and James uses the ordering of ideas, humorous exaggeration,
and self-deprecation in order to create an entertaining text which builds
to a climax.

This answer:
has an introduction and a conclusion, both of which refer back to the

question
has strong links between the paragraphs, which helps bind the whole
answer together
uses details from the text, embedded into sentences, to support the points
it makes
uses technical terminology, like simile and exaggeration

picks out the effect of specific words, and mentions that in a relevant way
to the question
considers both structure and language and how they are significant in
certain areas of the text
Comparing texts
How to compare texts

Comparing texts can focus on any aspect of the writing. When writing a comparison,
it is important to move equally between the two texts, and write about them together,
not separately.
Comparing by purpose
Imagine two different chocolate bars. They both need to satisfy the
customer, but one might do it through a biscuit centre and one through
the texture of the chocolate. They have the same purpose but different
ways of achieving it.
One way to link texts is through the purpose they are aiming to achieve.
Two different texts may:
have the same purpose but achieve it in different ways
have the same purpose but a different subject
have the same subject but a different purpose
When comparing texts, consider both what they have in common and
what is different about them.
If they have the same purpose:
Do they use similar techniques? For example, two newspaper articles could
use exaggeration to present completely different viewpoints of the same
topic.
Are they aimed at the same kind of audience or different ones? Within two
advertisements, the writers will aim to sell their product but will have a
different target audience in mind.
If they have a different purpose but the same subject:
How do they treat it differently? For example, if you are analysing two
newspaper articles about the same event in the news, how does the
language show how the writer has aimed their writing for a particular
audience?
How have the writers shown a different opinion towards the same subject?
Example
Look at these headlines, from The Mirror and The Telegraph, from articles
reporting the same story. They have the same purpose to inform people
about the landing of a space probe on a comet.
Rock star
The Mirror
European Space Agency's Rosetta spacecraft lands probe on comet
The Telegraph
Analysis
The Mirror have used a pun, which grabs the attention, playing on the idea
that a comet is a rock, and this is a terrific achievement so its like a star.
But a rock star plays on ideas of celebrity. Its a much shorter headline,
which might be more able to grab the attention of the reader, but does not
necessarily inform them of the topic of the article.
The Telegraph headline provides a detailed level of information to the
reader to indicate the topic of the headline. The headline provides the
reader with the name of the spacecraft which adds to the educational tone
of the headline. The newspaper uses a longer sentence rather than making
use of a particular technique, instead relying on the reader's interest in the

topic to attract them to read.
The difference in the approaches could be because of their different
audiences The Telegraphmight be assuming that their audience is already
interested in science, whereas The Mirrormight feel they have to attract a
reader that may not be interested in the topic of the article.
Comparing by context
One way that texts can differ is in their context the time and place that
they were written in. A text with the same purpose and subject, aimed at
the same audience, will be very different if it was written in the 19th
century versus today.
The time a text was written can affect:
the vocabulary used
attitudes towards gender and race
the technology available/mentioned
who the audience is
The audience might be different because of who has power or money at

the time, or even who was likely to be reading. In the 19th century
although school was made compulsory and more people could read, only
middle and upper class people had the time or money to read for
pleasure.
What was happening in history or society at the time can also affect what
is written. For example, a text written about voting in the early 20th
century would probably mention the suffragette movement, campaigning
for women to have the vote. One written in the early 21st century might
talk about the idea of 16 year olds getting the vote.
Example
The following texts are extracts from two book reviews, one from 1847,
and one from 2014.
An attempt to give novelty and interest to fiction, by resorting to those
singular characters that used to exist everywhere, but especially in
retired and remote places. The success is not equal to the abilities of the
writer; chiefly because the incidents are too coarse and disagreeable to be
attractive, the very best being improbable, with a moral taint about them,
and the villainy not leading to results sufficient to justify the elaborate
pains taken in depicting it. The execution, however, is good: grant the
writer all that is requisite as regards matter, and the delineation is forcible
and truthful.
Review of Wuthering Heights in The Spectator, 1847
Hornby nicely recreates a certain version of 1960s London a world in
which aspiring actresses work behind the cosmetics counter at Derry &
Toms, live in Earls Court bedsits hoarding sixpences for the gas fire, and
undertake voice-improvement programmes in which they hone their best
Jean Metcalfe voice. As the decade develops, the novel traces the
emergence of a more fluid new class system of celebrity. Real people,
such as Keith Relf from the Yardbirds and Harold Wilsons political
secretary Marcia Williams, have walk-on parts, as if Sophie Straw and the
rest are one step away from being real themselves.
Review of Funny Girl by Joe Moran, 2014
Analysis
Both texts are aimed at educated audiences they use a high level of
vocabulary, although the language in the extract from 1847 is more formal;
this was usual with all written publications at the time.
The review of Wuthering Heights comments on the moral taint in the

book. Morality was a big concern of the Victorian era. Social ideas were far
stricter, and society was far more male-orientated. In contrast, there is no
sense of that in the modern text.
While the 1847 review is clearly judging the book, and its success, the
modern review is more descriptive, telling us about the content of Funny
Girl. The judgement is more of a suggestion than an instruction of what to
think such as the placement of the word nicely at the beginning of the
extract.
While the 1847 review talks about the writer, the 2014 review calls Hornby
by name. This is also true of the characters. This suggests that 19th century
book reviews were more formal.
How effective is an article?
Sometimes comparing two texts is a useful way to learn more about them:
it points out things you would not have realised just looking at one of
them. The effectiveness of a text is one of the things which you can see
more clearly in comparison: which text achieves its purpose better?
In comparison you can see the effect of making different choices about:
vocabulary
imagery
sentence length and complexity
paragraph length
structuring of ideas
rhetorical devices
You can also make a judgement about which is more effective. This is
where your personal opinion and reaction to the text can be included
within your analysis.
Example
Read the two extracts that reported on the exit of the England football
team from the World Cup in different ways. Which do you feel is more
effective in presenting its viewpoint, and achieving its purpose to inform?
Article 1
World cup 2014: Five things England need to do after
disappointing exit in Brazil
Now what? England have been dumped out of the World Cup after just two
group games. But what can they do to make sure it isnt a wasted journey
to Brazil?
Steven Gerrards face was a study in despair in Sao Paulo. The skipper has
been brilliant and loyal England servant, but he knows its probably time
to pull down the curtain and prolong his club career.
For Frank Lampard, Phil Jagielka and Glen Johnson, too, this is the Three
Lions swansong.
Martin Lipton, The Mirror
Example
Article 2
Who should take the blame for Englands early World Cup exit?
World Cup behind us, the England manager now has the task of turning
the latest crop of raw, but undoubtedly talented, young England players
into a European force. Their club performances under the expert tutelage
of Brendan Rodgers, Arsene Wenger, Roberto Martinez and Mauricio
Pochettino have given us hope of another golden generation. These
managers have received huge praise for the way that they have taken the
Premier League to new levels of excitement, technical ability and
professionalism. They are all progressive, technical students of the game
who preach a positive brand possession, pace and passing football.
Andrew Maxwell, The Guardian
Both articles report on the same event, but use specific techniques in an
attempt to achieve their purpose - to present their opinion of the teams
efforts and subsequent failure to win the Cup.
Analysis
Both articles give an immediate indication of their opinion from their initial
headlines - The Guardian uses a rhetorical question Who Should take the
blame for Englands early World Cup exit? The Mirrors headline Five
Things England need to do after disappointing exit in Brazil presents
more imperative language, eg need to provide practical advice for the
team that the reader would be then inclined to agree with.
Both articles use language to convey their opinion The Guardian uses
sophisticated vocabulary, eg tutelage and alliteration, eg possession,
pace and passing football to emphasise their support of the teams
performance. The Mirror uses a less formal standard of language to present
a viewpoint, including the pun probably time to pull down the curtain and
refers to Steven Gerrard as a loyal England servant to encourage the
reader to feel gratitude for the players efforts.
Both articles assume that the reader is both knowledgeable of football and
a supporter of the national team - they refer to several names within the
profession to support and develop their viewpoint; The Guardian refers to a
series of managerial level names Brendan Rodgers, Arsene Wenger,
Roberto Martinez and Mauricio Pochettino whilst the Mirrors focus is more
directed at the players Frank Lampard, Phil Jagielka and Glen Johnson.
Once you have considered how each article fulfils its purpose, you can
decide to what extent you think the article is effective. Things to consider:
What efforts has the writer made to persuade you to agree with their ideas,
either with particular language choices, or the way that the piece of writing
is structured?
Is the purpose of the text clear enough for you to agree or disagree?
Is there any way that you think the text could be improved to make it more
effective?
Comparing fiction with non-fiction

Fiction (made-up stories) and literary non-fiction (creative writing based
on facts) often use many of the same techniques, and share the same
topics, so it makes sense that they can be compared. They are usually
compared when theyre about the same thing. For example, you might
look at fictional and non-fictional accounts of:
a journey in a particular place
a family meal
a day out
You might compare the methods the writers use to create effective texts,
but you might also compare the ideas that they give of their topic. Do
they show similar ideas despite one being fiction and the other nonfiction?
Example
The two extracts below give descriptions of Christmas dinner. One is a
fictional account by Charles Dickens, taken from a novel. The other is an
introduction to a collection of recipes you might use to cook your own

feast, by Nigella Lawson.
There never was such a goose. Bob said he didn't believe there ever was
such a goose cooked. Its tenderness and flavour, size and cheapness,
were the themes of universal admiration. Eked out by apple-sauce and
mashed potatoes, it was a sufficient dinner for the whole family; indeed,
as Mrs Cratchit said with great delight (surveying one small atom of a
bone upon the dish), they hadn't ate it all at last. Yet every one had had
enough, and the youngest Cratchits in particular, were steeped in sage
and onion to the eyebrows. But now, the plates being changed by Miss
Belinda, Mrs Cratchit left the room alone -- too nervous to bear witnesses
-- to take the pudding up and bring it in.
A Christmas Carol, Charles Dickens
The old fave, my Spiced and Superjuicy Turkey is hard to resist there's
something about the brining method which makes the turkey easier to
carve into elegantly thin slices, so not only will you feel better on the day
but also the turkey will go further and for me this has to go with Allspice
Gravy, Gingerbread Stuffing and Redder Than Red Cranberry Sauce. But I
do want to draw your attention, as well, to the Turkey Breast Stuffed with
Italian Sausage and Marsala-Steeped Cranberries. This is particularly fab
for a party, when you can cook it and slice it (easily) into generous slabs. I
know that Perfect Roast Potatoes is an immodest title but, I promise you,
they are a seasonal spud sensation. My mother always served her
Brussels Sprouts with a lot of buttered chestnuts (and cooked and peeled
her own). I have upped the ante by adding gorgeous salty pancetta cubes
(feel free to substitute bacon) and been unapologetically lazier by buying
vacuum-packed ready cooked and peeled chestnuts.
Christmas Recipes, Nigella Lawsons blog
Analysis
Dickens is describing a fictional meal, whereas Lawson is describing her

Christmas menu in an introduction to a collection of recipes.
Both extracts focus on the food, and emphasise its deliciousness. In both,
there is a central roast, and then accompanying potatoes and sauces.
The extract from Lawsons blog places more emphasis on a variety of

recipes, and the richness of food, as you would expect from a recipe book.
Both extracts suggest the themes of thrift the Dickens passage uses the
word eked to suggest making food stretch, whereas Lawson talks about
making the turkey go further. Christmas dinner might be about
indulgence, but its also expensive.
Lawson uses alliteration to emphasise the food seasonal spud

sensation while Dickens uses the metaphor of the children being
steeped in sage and onion to the eyebrows to emphasise how much they
have eaten.
In both texts there is an expectation that Christmas dinner means eating so
much you feel sick in A Christmas Carol this is shown through the
characters, but Lawson has to show this through the number of recipes she
mentions.
Organising your ideas for a plan

Using spider diagrams
Spider diagrams are useful for recording thoughts and ideas. When you
are writing about one text, you may decide to use a spider diagram to jot
down your ideas and then order them.
When writing about two texts you need to make links between the points
you have identified about each of them. To do this, you could:
make separate spider diagrams for each text, and then look to link points
between them
make one spider diagram showing each point you make about one text (for
example the author directly addresses the audience), and checking to see
if its true of the other text too
Using tables
If you like having a neatly written plan, you might try using a table.
Heres an example:
Point
Example from Example from text

text A
B
Use of
humour
The pun in the

title
Exaggeration about
the mother character
Description
for different
purposes
Lots of detail in
order to sell the
product we
know how great
it is
Lots of detail to build

up a picture of the
family, so we feel
sorry for them at the
end
When you have connections between the points, you need to pick the
most important ones, and decide which order they will go in.
How to structure a comparison

response
A comparison response still follows the basic essay structure:
an introduction
four or five main points supported by details
a conclusion - this must link back to the question, and mention both texts
When you compare texts, its important to talk about both texts all the
way through. Dont write all about one text, then all about the other.
In each paragraph, make sure you mention both, even if a point is mostly
about one of them.
Sentence starters
Some key phrases can help you to compare texts.
Similarities
Similarly
Differences
In contrast
Similarities
Differences
Equally
However
In the same way
On the other hand
Just as... so does....
Alternatively
Both... and...
In a different way
When comparing texts, you are making a point about two different texts,
backing up ideas with evidence and explaining the idea. Then using a
linking statement, you can connect the two ideas together.
Example
Take a look at the structure of the following example, where the writer
compares how their mother and father react to poor behaviour:
Both my Mum and Dad lose their temper sometimes when we misbehave,
but in completely different ways.
My Mum usually reacts to everything by losing her temper really quickly
and screaming in response to make sure everyone knows just how furious
she is. The thing that causes her to react strictly is usually leaving lights
on. The quotation, If I have to tell you again to turn those lights off, I will
take the bulb out of your bedroom! This shows that sometimes she can
exaggerate in her reactions.
On the other hand, Dad will hardly ever lose his temper, or raise his voice.
Instead, he will just stare at you silently, so you know instantly that you
are in trouble. The quotation, Well is the single word that he says once
he has stared at you for a minute, and this shows that whilst he doesnt
scream and shout like Mum, he gives you a warning of the lecture that he
is about to give you.
Analysis
Notice how the writer makes a point about how each parent loses their
temper, backs it up with evidence and then explains their idea. The linking
sentence starting with on the other hand shows how the two ideas are
similar or different.
Sample exam question

An example of the type of question you might be asked in an exam and how best to
approach it.
Question and extracts

The extracts your exam questions are based on will be longer than the
ones here. You should still be able to find at least five points to answer the
question. First of all, have a read, and see what ideas you can come up
with. Remember to link each point to a quotation or example.
Question
Compare the ways these two texts present the life of a writer.
You should consider:
how they use language and structure
the ideas in the texts
Extract A
Here is an extract from the diaries of John Steinbeck.
Lincolns Birthday. My first day of work in my new room. It is a very
pleasant room and I have a drafting table to work on which I have always
wanted also a comfortable chair given me by Elaine [his wife]. In fact I
have never had it so good and so comfortable. I have known such things
to happen the perfect pointed pencil the paper persuasive the
fantastic chair and a good light and no writing. Surely a man is a most
treacherous animal full of his treasured contradictions. He may not admit
it but he loves his paradoxes.
Now that I have everything, we shall see whether I have anything. It is
exactly that simple. Mark Twain used to write in bed so did our greatest
poet. But I wonder how often they wrote in bed or whether they did it
twice and the story took hold. Such things happen. Also I would like to
know what things they wrote in bed and what things they wrote sitting up.
All of this has to do with comfort in writing and what its value is. I should
think that a comfortable body would let the mind go freely to its
gathering. But such is the human that he might react in an opposite way.
Remember my fathers story about the man who did not dare be
comfortable because he went to sleep. That might be true of me too. Now
I am perfectly comfortable in body. I think my house is in order. Elaine, my
beloved, is taking care of all the outside details to allow me the amount of
free untroubled time every day to do my work. I cant think of anything
else necessary to a writer except a story and the ability to tell it.
John Steinbeck
Extract B
Here is an extract from Stephen King's advice book and memoir, On

Writing. He is talking about his writing desk.
The last thing I want to tell you in this part is about my desk. For years I
dreamed of having the sort of massive oak slab that would dominate a
room - no more child's desk in a trailer laundry-closet, no more cramped
kneehole in a rented house. In 1981 I got the one I wanted and placed it in
the middle of a spacious, skylighted study (it's a converted stable loft at
the rear of the house). For six years I sat behind that desk either drunk or
wrecked out of my mind, like a ship's captain in charge of a voyage to
nowhere.
A year or two after I sobered up, I got rid of that monstrosity and put in a
living-room suite where it had been, picking out the pieces and a nice
Turkish rug with my wife's help. In the early nineties, before they moved
on to their own lives, my kids sometimes came up in the evening to watch
a basketball game or a movie and eat pizza. They usually left a boxful of
crusts behind when they moved on, but I didn't care. They came, they
seemed to enjoy being with me, and I know I enjoyed being with them. I
got another desk - it's handmade, beautiful, and half the size of the T. Rex
desk. I put it at the far west end of the office, in a corner under the eave.
That eave is very like the one I slept under in Durham, but there are no
rats in the walls and no senile grandmother downstairs yelling for
someone to feed the horse. I'm sitting under it now, a fifty-three-year-old
man with bad eyes, a gimp leg, and no hangover. I'm doing what I know
how to do, and as well as I know how to do it. I came through all the stuff I
told you about (and plenty more that I didn't), and now I'm going to tell
you as much as I can about the job. As promised, it won't take long.
It starts with this: put your desk in the corner, and every time you sit
down there to write, remind yourself why it isn't in the middle of the room.
Life isn't a support-system for art. It's the other way around.
Stephen King

John says that the life of a writer is easy because Mark Twain used to write
in bed. But you might go to sleep, like his father did, so then you wont
write anything. A writer needs to have someone to look after him, like his
wife. Then he can tell his story. This is a diary.
In contrast Stephen King is not writing a diary. He is writing advice. He
thinks you need a good desk to be a writer. You should put it in the corner
of the room. You also need a big room, which is spacious.
Feedback - Basic
This answer is limited because:
its very short and has no quotation from the text to support it
it talks all about one text and then the other
it summarises bits of the texts, but doesnt analyse
it refers to Steinbeck by his first name
However, it does:
uses the phrase in contrast to show a difference between the text
picks out some examples from the text
begins to think about text type for comparing the two texts

King and Steinbeck both contrast writing with the life that goes on around
it. Both are using first person narrative, although Steinbeck is writing a
diary, just for himself, whereas King is writing a text which advises people
about the job of writing.
Both of the writers discuss the furniture needed to be a writer. For both of
them the desk seems to be central, although King has more of a focus on
the massive oak slab which dominated his view of the writing life in the
same way that it dominates the room he places it into. For Steinbeck the
chair and desk combination is also important. He also mentions another
option - writing in bed like Mark Twain but he is rather suspicious of the
results of writing in bed.
Both writers mention their family as being important in their writing life.
For Steinbeck it is his wife Elaine who is important, because she takes
care of all the details which provides him with free untroubled time to
write. King, on the other hand, seems to like having his family around
him, and to have life in the midst of his writing.
To conclude, both texts present the life of a writer as being part of a
bigger story.
This answer is improving because:
it compares both texts throughout, and moves from one writer to the other
it has an introduction and a conclusion which returns to the question, even

if its very short
it picks two important points which appear in both texts the desk and the
family to compare the texts on
It could improve by:
using more quotations and developing points relating to the language
commenting on the structures of the texts
using more varied introductions to points

Steinbeck and King both explore the relationship of the life of a writer to
the life of others around him. They consider both the physical resources,
and also the more abstract needs of a writer. Both write from a first
person perspective, but while Steinbecks text is in the form of a diary,
Kings text combines memoir and advice, so also has a direct address to
the you of the reader. These differences in text type affect the structure,
so that Steinbecks diary is quite unstructured, following an almost stream
of consciousness as different ideas occur to him. However, in the extract
from On Writing King structures his text around what might be the most
important furniture for a writer: the desk.
The desk is a common element of the writers life in both texts, but in
Kings it is much more important. He talks about the massive oak slab he
dreamed of for years; the physical dominance of the desk reflects its
dominance in Kings idea of a writers life. This physical dominance is
emphasised by the later metaphor of the T.Rex desk the image of the
predatory dinosaur has connotations both of ridiculousness, but also of
danger. In contrast, the extract from Steinbecks diary has a simple
drafting table, and the chair seems to be more important the fantastic
chair. Furniture is clearly important to the writers life: Steinbeck also
explores the idea of writing in bed, as Mark Twain did, but seems
suspicious of it. There is the problem of being too comfortable, and
Steinbeck jokes about going to sleep if that is the case.
This paradox of needing to be comfortable but not too comfortable is not
the only paradox in the texts. Steinbeck notes the paradox of having
everything you need to write (with the alliteration of the perfect pointed
pencil) but no writing. A similar contrast arises in Text B, when King
notes having the perfect desk, yet being on a voyage to nowhere.
The comfort which Steinbeck enjoys is down to the care of his wife, who
takes care of the outside details to give him free untroubled writing
time. This is an aspect of the writers life which is presented differently in
each text. King does not want to be detached from life, instead on
insisting that his desk must be in the corner, not in the middle of the
room: he prefers to have his family around him. He sums this up in the
final metaphor of the extract from his memoir: that art is the supportsystem for life, not the other way around. Steinbeck, however, seems to
require his beloved to be a support-system for his writing. The contrast
may also be reflected in the tone of the two texts: Text A is quite elevated
in its tone and vocabulary (a most treacherous animal full of his
treasured contradictions) but King writes in a deliberately down to earth
way of the job of writing.
So despite the similarity of the focus on the material needs of the writer,
in terms of furniture, and the fear of no writing hinted at in both texts,
there is a fundamental difference between the presentation of the life of
the writer in each text. That contrast is between Steinbecks need to be
released from the reality of life to produce anything, and Kings need to
be always in the corner, with life going on around him.

This answer:
moves from one text to another throughout
considers the ideas in the text, the language and the structure
shows both the similarities and the differences of the text, and links them
together
uses plenty of quotations, which are embedded into sentences
has a clear introduction and a clear conclusion
includes points about the text that are developed and linked to other points
Writing
Context, audience and purpose
Before planning any writing, consider the context, audience and purpose. You can
then make choices about layout, style, language and structure.
Context
Successful writers are able to communicate their thoughts, feelings and
attitudes about a topic in a way that meets the needs of a particular texttype and its audience.
For a literary writer such as John Steinbeck, his particular context was
1930s USA, a time of great poverty and abuse of power. This context
brought him to write the novel Of Mice and Men.
The key to putting context to use is to find ways to imagine yourself in
the situation of a real-world writer. For example:
if you are asked to write a letter of complaint become the person who feels
angry enough to want to complain
if you are asked to write a leaflet promoting a zoo become the advertising
agency writer whose job this would have been
Audience
Questions to consider
Before writing ask yourself the following:
What do you want the writing to achieve what is your purpose? How
do you want your reader to feel as a result of reading it? Is it important that
they are brought to agree with your viewpoint and ideas?
How could the layout of the text help you achieve the way you want your
reader to feel or react?
What language and style choices might help to ensure that your reader
can understand and follow the ideas contained within your writing, and
react in the specific way that you want them to?
The table below shows what kind of style and language might be included
when writing a particular type of text. For example, the purpose of a
tourist guide is to get customers to visit a particular place. The layout and
the language should reflect this by being lively throughout, and especially
at the very start of the guide. Additions like a catchy slogan will help to
make the place memorable.
Text-type
Purpose
Letter tocomplain For the

about a poor holiday reader to
experience
sympathis
e and to
offer
compensat
Content
suggestio Language
ns
Be polite
but firm.
Use the
closing
paragraph
to request
Use
language
that is clear
and to the
point, eg at
the end, I
Text-type
Purpose
ion
Article for
ateenage
magazine giving
your views on
reality TV
programmes
Guide to attract
tourists to a local
zoo
Content
suggestio Language
ns
really must
ask that you
deal with
this matter
compensat immediately
ion
...
A counter
argument
to show
the
positive or
negative
side of
reality TV
For the
(depending
reader to
on what
agree with viewpoint
the
youre
viewpoint going with)
Use a lively
style along
with
persuasive
techniques,
eg Reality?
This is as
far from
reality as
finding a
unicorn in a
chip shop.
Include the
most
exciting
informatio
n at the
start
Use a
slogan, eg
Its time to
get wild!
For the
reader to
want to
visit the
zoo
Purpose
Questions to consider
Before writing ask yourself the following:
What do you want to achieve as a result of someone reading the text?
What kind of ideas and points will work to create an effective structure for
the text, one that might achieve its purpose?
What will the layout of the text need to look like and how can this be used
to your advantage, for example to bring clarity and an effective structure?
What style of language might you choose to suit the requirements

of genre, audience and purpose of your text?
Examples
The points below show the key things to consider when writing different
text types or genres. For example, the way that the text needs to be laid
out on the page, the content of each section, and the style of language
that might be used.
Writing a letter to complain about

a poor holiday experience
Layout
Address (yours and theirs), salutation (eg Dear), paragraphing - use the
opening paragraph to state purpose.
Content
Paragraph 1 - introduction: who you are and why youre writing. You should
use formal language or Standard English.
Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 - key issues clarifying the complaint and what needs
to be done to redress it. These paragraphs should use emotive language to
show dissatisfaction.
Paragraph 5 closing summary - restate the main point and round off firmly
but politely. Use imagery to describe your overall experience.
Writing an article for a teenage

magazine to give your views on
reality TV programmes
Layout
Headline, sub-headings, picture with caption.
Content
Paragraph 1 introduction. The language should be clear using Standard

English.
Paragraph 2 and 3 - key reasons why such programmes might be a
good/bad thing. These paragraphs should use emotive anecdotes to
entertain and absorb the reader.
Paragraph 4 - counter argument as to why some love/hate them. Using
language techniques like hyperbole and sarcasm will show humour.
Paragraph 5 summary restating main argument and main ideas.
Writing a guide to attract tourists

to a local zoo
Layout
Sections for each part - headline or slogan.
Content
Front page - main attraction with catchy slogan. This should use lively
persuasive language throughout.
Page 2 - key areas of interest at the zoo. Use lively vocabulary choices to
explain and describe key aspects of the zoo that would appeal to the
audience.
Page 3 location, cost and contact details. The language on this page
should be instructional so the reader understands where to go and what to
do.
Writing fiction
Writing fiction involves coming up with creative and original ideas to develop
interesting pieces of writing. Find inspiration in your own experiences and the
real world.
How to structure your writing effectively
It is important to structure your work carefully so that a reader can follow

your ideas. Whether youre writing a story, poem or biography, a strong
structure will help keep your reader engaged.
An engaging opening
In a fictional narrative, the first paragraph should hook the reader and
grab their attention. You might do this by describing the setting and giving
specific detail in a way that sets the tone for the rest of the story.
You can also make a convincing start by usingdialogue or by dropping
your reader directly into action. For example, Suzanne Collins opens The
Hunger Games with:
When I wake up, the other side of the bed is cold. My fingers stretch out, seeking Prim's
warmth but finding only the rough canvas cover of the mattress. She must have had
bad dreams and climbed in with our mother. Of course, she did. This is the day of the
reaping.
The reader knows the location of the story and the voice of the main
character. The hook comes in the final sentence. The reader has to ask
what is the reaping? A successful opening invites the reader to ask
questions about the rest of the piece.
A convincing close
Aim to finish your writing in a convincing way, providing a realistic and
believable ending to the narrative. Try to resolve the story and leave your
reader feeling satisfied with the way the story ends.
Using the same tense

It is easiest to write in past tense, describing events as if they happened a
few days, weeks or years ago. Be clear about the distance in time and use
the same tense throughout your writing.
Here is a basic reminder of present and past tense verbs:
Present tense
Past tense
I walk
I walked
She laughs
She laughed
He is thinking
He was thinking
Dafydd goes to the

window
Dafydd went to the

window
An appropriate timeline of events

One way to plot a narrative is to follow a story arc. This structure uses an
opening that hooks the reader and sets the scene, followed by an
introduction to the characters thoughts and feelings, a development of
the storyline, a turning point and finally a resolution.
This is called a five-stage story and can be applied to most stories. Think
back to the last book you read - where were the five points to the story?
For example, Romeo and Juliet:

1. Hook - the play opens in Verona, where two families are involved in an
ongoing feud against one another.
2. Character introduction - we meet Romeo, and then Juliet.
3. Development - our two characters fall in love, ignoring their family feud.
Romeo kills Juliets cousin, Tybalt, and is banished. A number of mishaps
lead to Juliet faking her own death and Romeo failing to learn of her plan.
4. Turning point - Romeo arrives to find Juliet dead, and takes his own life.
Juliet, upon waking, sees Romeo dead and kills herself.
5. Resolution - Both families learn a valuable lesson about the consequences
of their ongoing conflict: they have each lost a member of their family.
Next time you read a book or watch a film/television programme, consider

the five stages of the story - at which point do you discover more about
the characters? What obstacles do the characters face? What is the
turning point? How is the story resolved in a believable way?
Paragraphing
How to use paragraphing to structure a piece of writing
Once you have planned your writing, it is important to think about the
layout. Use the content of each paragraph within your work to ensure your
ideas are well organised and they follow a logical order.
Paragraphs should direct your reader through your writing, or create a
particular effect. A good way to remember when to start a new paragraph
is by using the TiP ToP acronym:
Time, Place, Topic, Person
Start a new paragraph whenever you are:
moving to a different time in your story
changing location
bringing in a new idea
introducing a new character
starting a new piece of action
starting dialogue
You can also use paragraphs to highlight tense or significant moments

within your story. For example, a one-sentence paragraph is likely to
add tension or highlight a turning point in a narrative.
When you start a new paragraph, ask yourself the questions:
Is the narrative moving forward to a different moment in time?
Is the narrative moving to another location?
Is the narrative moving on to a next phase?
Do you want to create a specific moment of tension?
Vocabulary
Using vocabulary to create effects
Using a wide range of vocabulary demonstrates a strong command of
language. More importantly, your vocabulary choices should make your
writing more lively, engaging and interesting to read.
Using particular techniques to create a specific effect

You can use figurative devices such as similes and metaphors in your
writing. These can add colour and depth to your narrative, allowing your
readers to relate to the scenes you describe.
Take care to match your figurative language to the mood of your piece.
For example, if you are writing about a topic that is particularly sad or
sinister, 'the clouds gathered conspiringly overhead, the rumbles of
thunder like whispers between them would probably be more fitting
than the clouds above me were as fluffy as marshmallows.
Using the senses in your writing
Using senses in your writing is a useful way of zooming in on details.

Some people focus on the visual aspects of a scene. By
includingsounds, smells, feelings and (where appropriate) tastes you
can really bring your writing to life.
Compare these two descriptions of a forest:
The trees were tall and an owl sat on a low branch above me. The green
leaves were dark, even by the light of the moon.
An owl screeched from the low branch above me. I couldnt make out the
tops of the trees, no matter how far I craned back my neck. The green
leaves seemed to whir in the cool breeze. The moon failed to pierce the
darkness.
Notice how appealing to the senses makes the second version more vivid.
Show, dont tell

In real life we learn about people from their clothes and belongings as well
as from the things they tell us. We understand someones mood from their
facial expressions, movements and tone of voice we dont need
someone to tell us they are in a bad moodwe can usually figure it out
from the way they are shouting!
It is the same when you read. Instead of telling your readers everything
about a character, try to show them instead.
For example:
Telling - The woman walked into the room looking intimidating and angry.
Showing - The woman stormed into the room, her black coat flying
behind her. Her scowl was fierce as she scanned the room. Her piercing
eyes settled on Sarah.
Sentence variety
Demonstrating variety within a piece of writing
Using a variety of sentences can help you to create pace and tension in
your writing. Experiment with different sentence lengths and types to
build atmosphere, mood and suspense.
Varying sentence length

Use your sentence lengths to reflect the pace of the action in
thenarrative. On a basic level, short sentences can show a faster pace
whereas longer sentences slow it down.
Here is an example using a long sentence:
He looked out of the window, noticing the girl who at that moment was
walking towards the heavy door to the library.
Notice the difference in pace when the same scene is described with short
sentences:
He looked out of the window. He noticed the girl. She was walking towards
the library door.
Varying sentence openings

Vary the way that you start sentences to keep your writing interesting and
lively. For example:
Sentence opener type

Simile - comparing
something to something
else
Example
As quiet as a
whisper, he turned to
me
Preposition - informs you

of the position of someone Beyond the gate, the
or something
road stretched far away
Adverbs - an adjective to
describe a verb
Cautiously, he moved
away from the lion
Connectives joining
words
Despite the sunshine,

Mr Tucker was wearing
a heavy coat
Time preposition - moves Afterwards, it was

the timeframe to a
clear that he regretted
different point
his actions
Heres a piece of writing that lacks variety:
I woke up. The sun was beaming through the window and warmed my
face. I turned towards it, closing my eyes to enjoy the moment. I stayed
there for a moment, and then got out of bed. I padded across to the
window. I opened it to hear the birds outside. It looked like it was going to
be a good day.
Notice how sentence variety changes the feel of the piece:
I opened my eyes to the warmth of the sun that was beaming through the
window. Turning towards it, I closed my eyes and enjoyed the moment.
Moments later I got out of bed and padded across to the window. I opened
it. I heard the birds outside. I knew it was going to be a good day.
Planning a response
The importance of planning
Planning is an important part of the fiction writing process. Many
professional writers use a plan as the basis for a first draft, which they will
later edit several times before the work is complete.
Planning and proofreading should bookend your writing process. In the
planning phase you prepare your ideas and narrative structure. As you
proofread you check how well your writing is working. During each phase
you might focus on vocabulary and effective forms of expression.
Planning a piece of writing

There are several different ways to plan a piece of writing; it really is
whatever you find easiest to understand. You could:
create a mind map
bullet point your ideas
create a flow chart of each stage
draw out a table
What to include in a plan

A plan is an outline of your ideas. You could use the five-part story
arc or a timeframe to help structure your narrative.
You could also use your plan to remind you of key features you want to
include (figurative language, variety of sentence structures, TiPToP
paragraphs). A plan can also be a useful for collecting vocabulary and
phrases that you want to include in your final piece of writing.
Proofreading
When you have completed a piece of writing, it is a good idea to check
over what you have created. Simple spelling errors, missing punctuation
or words are common errors to make when you are writing creatively.
Once you look back over a piece of work, it is easier for you to spot things
and put them right.
Sample question
Question
Write the opening part of a story about a place during a storm.
Attempt 1
It was windy and wet and the road was full of big puddles. Walking along
whistling he was making his way home from school in a bit of a dream.
Hed got out early because of the bad weather. Which is why hes
whistling. He doesnt much like wind or rain but he likes being let out of
school early. Thats when it happens this car comes out of nowhere and
just drove right through the biggest puddle youd ever seen. It splashed
up him as he stands there drenched not knowing what had hit him, he just
knew hed be in for it when he got home because his new parka was filthy
and his mum would be furious.
Feedback - Basic
The writer shows an awareness of the purpose of the task and begins to
write an entertaining story.
There is some attempt to control the narrative voice but the verb tenses
vary from present to past.
The ideas are linked well and the structure of the paragraph is good.
There is little sentence variety and the sentence lengths are all similar,
some being too long because of punctuation errors.
The vocabulary choices are varied and effective but could be much more
ambitious.
Attempt 2
The wind howled and the rain battered down. The roads were more like a
lake than a city centre full of puddles. Walking along whistling, a
schoolboy was making his way home from school. He was in a bit of a
dream. Hed been let out early because of the bad weather. He didnt
much like the wind or the rain but he was thrilled at being let out early.
That was why he was whistling. You would think it was a summers day!
That was when it happened.
The car came out of nowhere and just drove right through what was more
like a miniature lake than a puddle. The water just flew up from the road
and showered over the boy who stood there drenched. He didnt know
what to do but he knew hed be told off when he got home, he was
wearing his brand new parka which his mum and dad bought him for his
birthday at the weekend.
The writer communicates in a clear and effective way and matches the
purpose of entertaining with the story form and the intended audience.
The flow of images and ideas link nicely to create a well-structured

narrative.
Sentences are varied in length and type creating a lively voice and help the
story to flow.
The vocabulary choices and imagery are varied and begin to be ambitious
(eg howled, like a miniature lake).
Attempt 3
The wind howled like a banshee turning the rain into a salvo of bullets.
This was a November day in Oxford? It was more like the monsoon season
in Delhi! The roads were covered in puddles the size of small lakes.
Walking along and seemingly unaware of it all was a schoolboy. Whistling
as he strolled along, hands in his pockets, he was casually making his way
home from school. To say he was in a bit of a dream was an
understatement. Hed been let out early because of the bad weather and,
although he didnt much like either wind or rain he was in his new parka
and, best of all, he was thrilled to the core at being let out of school early.
That was why he was whistling. To him it was a summers day!
That was when it happened.
A car came out of nowhere and drove right through a puddle that was
doing a very good impression of a miniature lake. The water leapt up from
the road with a life of its own and drenched the day-dreaming boy. He was
jolted out of his reverie and stood there dazed and drenched. He didnt
know what to do; but he knew hed be in for it when he got home. His
brand new parka had turned from green to a kind of dirty khaki-brown and
green mixed. This wasnt going to be fun. The parka had been a very
expensive present from mum and dad.
Feedback- Even better
The story is absorbing and convincing.
Tone, style and voice all match purpose, form and audience to create an
engaging narrative.
The sentences are varied in length and type to create a lively style.
Punctuation is accurate throughout and sophisticated in places with good

use of semicolons.
Spelling is accurate and vocabulary choices are ambitious (eg banshee,

understatement, reverie and khaki-brown).
The description is impressive with some great uses of figurative language

and alliteration (eg like a banshee, thrilled to the core, leapt up and
dazed and drenched).
Writing non-fiction
Writing non-fiction texts usually means writing about facts or opinions. Many nonfiction texts come with conventions of language, form and structure.
Introduction to writing non-fiction

Non-fiction can be used to describe a variety of texts, including speeches,
leaflets, newspaper and magazine articles, reports, letters and guides.
Each text has its own conventions for layout, structure and language.
With every text type, two key questions can be considered:
What is the purpose of the writing? (What is it meant to do?)

Who is the audience? (Who is the intended reader?)
Once these questions have been answered the layout, structure, language
choices and particular techniques that you should use within the piece of
writing can then be established.
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Writing a speech
Structure
A speech often follows a three part structure:
1. a highly engaging and motivational opening
2. a well-structured argument with several main points and including objection
handling
3. a positive conclusion
Language
The language used in a speech will vary depending on the audience. In a
speech to a professional audience, such as a business pitch or a talk to
headteachers, formal language is more appropriate. However, in a
presentation to younger children, more informal and colloquiallanguage
would be suitable.
The purpose of a speech is often to convince listeners of a particular point
of view and so the language is typically persuasive.
Example
Heres a passage from a speech by Barack Obama about climate change.
Think about his audience and purpose:
We, the people, still believe that our obligations as Americans are not just
to ourselves but to all prosperity. We will respond to the threat of climate
change, knowing that the failure to do so will betray our
children and future generations.
Some may still deny the overwhelming judgement of science, but none
can avoid the devastating impact of raging fires, crippling drought
or powerful storms. A path towards sustainable energy sources will be
long and sometimes difficult, but America cannot resist this transition.
We must lead it! We cannot concede to other nations the technology
that will power new jobs and new industries; we must claim its
promise. Thats how we will maintain our economic vitality and our
national treasure. You and I as citizens have the power to set this
countrys course. You and I as citizens have the obligation to shape the
debates of our time not only with the votes we cast but with the voices
we lift in defence of our most ancient values and enduring ideas. Will
you join us?
The audience is American citizens
The purpose is to convince people to take responsibility for acting on

climate change
Notice the repeated use of we within the opening paragraph to engage

the listeners and include them in the topic of the speech.
In the second paragraph Obama uses emotive vocabulary to highlight the
negative impact that climate change has had on America.
Obama then ends on a powerful message, using 'we' and 'our' to ensure
that the audience feel as though he is working with them.
He finished with a rhetorical question for impact, so that the audience feel
that they have no option but to agree with his ideas.
Writing a letter
Structure
A letter has a conventional structure with addresses at the top, an
opening address using Dear and ending with a standard salutation
such as Yours sincerely (if you know the readers name) or Yours
faithfully (if you have started your letter Dear Sir/Madam). In a formal
letter, the opening paragraph should outline the overall aim of the letter
and the conclusion should summarise the main points. Each paragraph
should link to the purpose.
Language
The language used will depend on the audience of the letter; if you are
trying to persuade the recipient of a particular idea, then your language
may be positive and upbeat in tone. If the letter is being used to make a
complaint, the language is more likely to be formal,

withemotive language to describe the experience or service.
Example
Here is an example of a job application letter. The writers overall purpose
is to persuade the reader of their suitability for the role.
Dear Mr Hopkins,
I am writing in response to the recent advertisement for the position of
sales assistant that has become available in your shop. I would like to be
considered for the position.
I am currently working in a local coffee shop, where I am responsible for
the service and distribution of food and drink to customers. I am a key
holder for the premises, and my daily duties include taking orders, dealing
with customer queries and managing the till takings at the end of the
working day. I work as part of a small team to ensure that the needs of the
customers are met.
Before working in the coffee shop, I spent several years working as a sales
assistant in a bookshop. In this role, I gained extensive experience of
organisation, stocktaking and meeting specific requests for customer
orders. In this full-time role, I developed interpersonal skills and
confidence within customer service.
In addition to this I can offer competent skills with Microsoft Office
software and I am currently completing an evening course in accounting. I
have included details of my GCSE qualifications in my attached CV.
Thank for you taking the time to read my application; I look forward to
hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
Marisa Ahmed
The opening paragraph outlines the purpose of the letter to the recipient.
The writer then explains their previous experience in sales and refers to
their qualifications to show that they are suitable. The closing paragraph
refers back to the overall purpose, and assumes that the writer expects to
hear from the recipient - this shows confidence.
Notice that formal language is used throughout.
Writing a report
Structure
A report is highly factual and informs the reader rather than trying to
make them feel or react in a particular way.
A report typically uses subheadings, to organise the text. There might
also be statistics, graphs or evidence to support the text. Bullet points
could be used to highlight key information to the reader.
Language
The language in a report is objective. It states facts rather than
attempting to manipulate the readers emotions.
The purpose is usually to provide the reader with relevant information in
an ordered way. Therefore, the vocabulary should beStandard
Englishand straightforward, presenting the topic precisely.
Heres a report about the catering services at a school. Notice the use of
subheadings to focus each area of the reporters findings.
Report: Little Gotham Catering Services
Overview
The report found that most areas of the catering facilities were adequate
or exceeding expectations for their purpose. Inspections were carried out
at each stage of the service process, including a customer satisfaction
survey. The report includes strengths of the service provided, and
recommended areas of improvement.
Preparation and hygiene standards
All staff followed a strict hygiene policy prior to handling any food. Raw
and cooked foods are prepared in separate areas of the kitchen, using the
regulation stated chopping boards and equipment for the food in question.
Prepared food is checked rigorously for expiry dates and additional marks
or signs of the food being at an inedible stage.
Quality control and nutritional value
All dishes present on the menu are checked both at ingredient quantity
stages, and also at tasting for salt content and temperature. Food is
circulated every eight minutes, with any food out on the service floor for a
period that exceeded eight minutes being disposed of immediately.
On more than one occasion, food was not checked for content before
service; for example, meat/vegetable ratio in the winter stew, or custard
measurement for dessert dishes.
Service and customer satisfaction
Service is both efficient and polite. All staff are available to respond to
customer needs and queries. During the survey, many customers made
personal reference to particular members of staff - this shows that staff
have built up rapport over a long period of time.
The only area of concern was that the condiment and cutlery drawer was
not replenished on regular occasions to meet customer demand.
Summary of findings
Overall, the catering service is clearly a business that has high
expectations of its staff, and consistently uses strict policy and guidelines
regarding food preparation and hygiene to ensure that customers received
a high quality of service.
The only points of recommendation that the report would like to put
forward are:
more rigorous quality control of portion sizes
ensure staff responsibilities during service are clear so that customer

demand (eg for condiments) is met
The writer has used subheadings to highlight the areas of focus within
the report. The writer also uses signposting sentences at the beginning
of each paragraph. Notice in the structure of the third paragraph negative areas are mentioned only after the positive findings have been
included. The report ends with a clear summary of the report findings,
and a bullet-pointed list of general recommendations to end.
Writing an article
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An example of how to structure and write an effective article
Structure
The structure of an article for a newspaper, magazine or website, is
usually in three parts:
introduction engaging the reader, or outlining the main point of the

article to follow
middle making clear and interesting points about the topic
end a concluding paragraph that draws the points together
If the aim of an article is to persuade the reader, then the opening and
closing paragraph will outline the writers viewpoint and make it most
memorable. Subheadings are sometimes used to signpost the content of
each.
Language
The language of an article depends upon the purpose and audience;
usually, the vocabulary of the article will fit the topic content, and who it is
targeted at. For example, you would expect an article about a recent film
release to include the vocabulary of actors, scripts and performance.
A catchy, memorable headline is essential to grab your readers attention
and entice them to read the whole article.
Articles are usually written in Standard English, but colloquialsayings
or phrases might be used to emphasise a point. Persuasive devices,
such as rule of three, rhetorical questions and alliterationcan be used
to encourage the reader to agree with your point of view.
Example
Heres an extract from an article that tries to persuade the reader to eat a
more balanced, healthy diet:
Eat Right: Live Longer

It has been scientifically proven that the less junk food a person
consumes, the longer they are likely to live. So why isnt everyone
dumping the junk? Jordan McIntyre investigates.
Fast food equals fat
A staple part of twenty-first century British home-life is the weekly
takeaway treat: finger-licking burgers, sticky ribs and crispy chicken wings
are, for many, the normal Friday night feast. The average national calorie
count in the UK is a whopping 4500 a day, a key factor in the obesity
cases that are soaring. Fast food is packed with fat and obesity contributes
to a range of health issues - most significantly heart disease and
depression. So why arent we changing our lifestyles?
Short on time
Families these days are spending less and less time at home during the
working week. School commitments, work meetings and extra curricular
activities mean that time is short and fewer people are prepared to put in
the effort to prepare fresh, healthy meals.
And when time is tight, it seems we are even more willing to compromise
our waistlines for a little bit of what we fancy fast fatty food.
Eat yourself healthy
However, Georgia Thomas of the University of Food says, I am convinced
that it is possible to live a busy lifestyle AND prepare healthy, satisfying
meals. It seems that people have simply got out of the habit of cooking.
We are busy people; how do we reward ourselves? You guessed it - food.
Britain clearly needs to shift the stodge, and fast.
The article uses a short, bold headline using alliteration to get the
readers interest and present the topic of the article. The rhetorical
question in the opening paragraph encourages the reader to challenge
the topic. The subheadings direct the reader through the text, and act as
mini headlines, drawing the readers attention. The writer
uses hyperbole, and colloquial sayings to produce a lively, interesting
article. This style of language is used throughout with phrases such as
little bit of what we fancy and shift the stodge adding a conversational
tone to the whole piece.
The final paragraph uses quotations from an expert to add credibility to
the argument. You might would expect the article to go on to explore how
we can eat healthily and to conclude with an explanation of how easy it is
to do this.
Writing a guide
Structure
A guide might be a leaflet or handbook, giving instructions on a topic or
procedure.
It is typical for a guide to use subheadings so that the reader can see the
main points at a glance. The order of these headings will depend on the
purpose of the guide. For example, if the guide is to encourage people to
visit a tourist attraction, the key areas of interest may feature first with
cost and a map appearing at a later point.
Language
As with all writing, the language should be suitable for the audience. In a
guide aimed at children, the language will need to be easy for that age
group to understand, but also exciting and lively enough to make them
want to read it.
It is common to use imperatives in a guide, eg Go here, Pay attention
to, Sign up now giving clear directions to the reader.
Example
Here is an extract from a BBC Children in Need guide. The purpose of the
guide is to explain how to take part in challenges that raise money for
charity.
Each section has a heading that outlines the main topic of that part of the
guide. Notice that the subheadings are short and bold to draw the readers
attention to the crucial information.
The writer has used the personal pronouns you and your to directly
address the reader.
Several persuasive techniques have been used within the guide to
encourage the reader to get excited about the idea of fundraising. For
example check out some of our famous friends top party tunes.
Some sections with crucial information, such as the website address, are
highlighted for emphasis.
Overall, the layout and language clearly guide the reader on how to get
involved with fundraising for the charity.
Sample question and answers

Question
A school wants to raise funds for new sports equipment. As a
member of the committee, you have been asked to write a report
that investigates how the money could best be raised. You should
present your findings before coming to a recommendation based
on these.
Attempt 1
I have looked at three ways to make money for the school. We could do a
raffle, a car boot or a fun run. I am going to report on them all before
saying which is best.
A raffle is the best idea, it is easy to do and cheap to run we could sell lots
of tickets to students at break and lunch times and they could take them
home to sell to their families. We could get the prizes given by local shops
so it wouldnt cost much to set up and run.
Feedback - Basic
This writer shows an awareness of the purpose, the format of the task and
the audience.
Paragraphing is accurate and clear.
The style is too personal and subjective (eg using the pronouns I and we)
and uses language which is too colloquial, eg do a raffle and saying
which is best.
The writer does not create a balanced investigation but gives a personal
view straight away, eg A raffle is the best idea.
The sentences are mostly properly punctuated but there is the use of a run
on sentence beginning, A raffle is the best idea, it is easy to do and cheap
to run we could sell instead of, A raffle is the best idea. It is easy to do and
cheap to run. We could sell.
Attempt 2
There are several options to raise money for the sports equipment the
school needs and this report investigates three options including a raffle,
a car boot sale and a fun run. Each option has some advantages and
some disadvantages and these will be made clear before a conclusion is
made and a recommendation given as to which option to choose.
A raffle is always likely to be an effective option. In its favour, assuming
local businesses could be persuaded to donate prizes, it will be cheap to
set up and easy to run. Tickets could be printed using the schools IT
facilities using desktop publishing. This could be incorporated into lessons
to combine a learning purpose into the activity. The tickets could be sold
by students at break and lunch times as well as taken home to be sold to
families and friends.
This writer shows a clear awareness of the purpose, the format of the task
and the audience.
The style is impersonal and effective.
The language is aimed at the right level for the task and uses
mainly Standard English.
Paragraphing is accurate and clear.
The writer creates a sense that the report will be fair and balanced and sets
out the options in a clear and unemotional way.
Sentences are informative, varied and well punctuated.
There is a sense of analysis and range of vocabulary well suited to the

audience and purpose.
Attempt 3
There are three main options that would offer the school the opportunity
to raise the money it so badly needs for its new sports equipment. The
three are:
a raffle
a car boot sale
a fun run
These have each been considered and investigated in detail. The findings
will show that each has some clear advantages but that to balance this,
each also has certain disadvantages. The report will make these clear
before reaching a recommendation as to which option is most likely to
succeed. The options below are not reported in any order of preference.
Option 1: A Raffle
The option of a raffle offers many significant opportunities but does come
with risks that will need to be weighed up before deciding whether this
option is viable and useful. In its favour, assuming local businesses could
be persuaded to donate prizes, a raffle is the cheapest and easiest of the
three options under consideration. If it works, it would raise a significant
amount of money and do so with the least amount of effort. The tickets
could be designed and printed in-house thus keeping control over costs
and time frames. The design work could be carried out as a part of school
IT lessons and thus combine a learning purpose into the activity. The
tickets could be easily sold by students both during break and lunch times
as well as from home to relatives and friends. On the surface, this seems
the obvious choice; however, it is not without potential pitfalls
This writer shows a sophisticated awareness of purpose, format and

audience.
The style is impersonal and very convincing.
The language choices are often ambitious with use of language devices
appropriate to the form, for example, a use of alliteration - potential
pitfalls.
A formal tone and a use of Standard English is used throughout with
excellent punctuation, spelling and grammar.
It shows good structure, for example, the use of bullet points.
There is a clear sense of argument and of a developing argument, eg The

option of a raffle offers many significant opportunities but does come with
risks that will need to be weighed up.
Planning
The key to a successful piece of writing is the planning. It helps you to select
vocabulary and order your paragraphs. You should also plan in time at the
end to proofread your work.
Planning a structure
By failing to prepare, you are preparing to fail.

Benjamin Franklin
A writing plan should help you to work out what to include, and act as a
way of remembering areas to focus on. For example, a timescale could be
set for each part of the writing if the writing is to a specific deadline, such
as in an exam.
Different methods of planning work for different people. Work out what
works best for you.
Mind maps
A mind map is a visual way of planning out ideas. Writers often use mind
maps to prepare for a piece of writing because they are a flexible way of
jotting down ideas and organising the flow of a piece of work. They can
also be used as a checklist as they write.
You may want to make branches in your mind map to create a plan for
each paragraph or topic within your overall response. Some people like to
categorise their ideas so that each part of the mind map highlights
features that have to be included, such as the sub-topics that will be used
to explain the writings main topic. It might also be used to highlight
particular vocabulary, the topic content for each stage or some specific
techniques to use within the writing.
Bullet points
Bullet points help to capture all your thoughts and ideas in a clear and
concise way. Heres an example of how you might use bullet points to
plan, making the bullets as a kind of note to self:
Question
Write an article for young people that outlines how to deal with the
stresses of modern life.
Must use a witty and catchy headline, maybe From stress to rest: How to
deal with life as a teenager.
Must include subheadings.

Must use a voice suited to my reader and text type.
Must keep it all lively and clear, varying sentence styles and lengths.
Maybe include an ultra-short sentence and a one-line paragraph?
Paragraph 1) causes of stress - mobile phones and social media, bullying,

exam pressure. Must make the final sentence one that I can link to next.
Paragraph 2) why it makes life difficult and what kind of health problems
they can lead to - sleep deprivation, isolation, not sharing worries. Must
make my first sentence a transition from the last one.
Paragraph 3) ways to overcome stress and deal with modern life - take a
break from IT, sleep well, use relaxation techniques. Must make my first
sentence a transition from the last one.
You might also want to add in notes about key issues such as text type,
audience and purpose and notes of particular vocabulary that you might
include.
Flow chart
A flow chart is like a mind map that offers you a visual way to plan. A flow
chart allows you to order your ideas and paragraphs into an effective
structure, allowing you to consider the topic and content of each
paragraph as you plan.
Some writers find a flow chart helps them make sure they consider each
important stage of the writing process.
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Table
A table can be used to help plan the flow of your writing. Here is an
example of a task and a plan that could help the writer:
Question
Write a letter to a newspaper, giving your opinion about the use of mobile
phones.
Introduct
ion
For
Agains Summar Proofrea

t
ise
d
Thank
reader
for
Helps Can be taking
people very
time to
Purpose of keep in distracti read
letter
touch ng
letter
10
minutes
Use a
rhetorical
question
Captur
e
mome
nts visual,
audio
Sophistica
ted
punctuati
on
maybe
semicolon
s?
15
minute 15
10
s
minutes minutes
10
minutes
Note how the writer of this plan has allocated a specific time for each part,
and has also included a reminder to leave time to proofread over their
writing.
Key things to remember
Use the kind of plan that works best for you.
Add in the key information topic and sub-topics - and think about how to
create a clear and convincing structure using a flow of connected
paragraphs.
Include reminders of key areas to focus on within your writing.
Think about allocating a specific time if you are working to a particular

deadline.
Editing and proofreading

By the time I am nearing the end of a story, the first part will have been reread and
altered and corrected at least one hundred and fifty times. I am suspicious of both
facility and speed. Good writing is essentially rewriting. I am positive of this.
Roald Dahl
Proofreading
Proofreading is reading back over the work to check for mistakes that you
might have missed, and to edit or improve what has been written. All
professional writers revise their work over and over again to improve or
alter it until they are satisfied.
Capital letters
This is an easy area to overlook when writing. Read back over your work
and check that each proper name, letter I and each sentence has been
started correctly with a capital letter. Also, check misplaced capital letters
have not accidentally been included mid-sentence.
Omissions
It is quite common to miss words out, or even to miss letters from words.
Check back over the writing to make sure that all the words required for a
sentence to make sense are present, and in a clear order.
Punctuation
When proofreading, ensure that sentences are grammatically correct,
and that sentences are completed with a full stop. A common error is to
overuse commas to break up sentences rather than punctuating
correctly with full stops, or adding connectives to link each sentence
together. A good tip is to read through and stop at every comma and ask
yourself whether it should be a full stop because its an end to a sentence.
Spelling
Even the most expert of spellers will make simple spelling mistakes when
writing. It might help to follow the spelling rules as well as use any
strategies that you have found useful over time. If you are using a wordprocessor, dont ignore the red squiggly lines under misspelled words.
What to improve
Look back over your work, and try to look at it objectively - that means as
though you are reading the writing of somebody else. If you had to give
that person advice on how to improve, what would you ask them to
change? It is a really useful skill to be able to edit and improve your own
work.
Organising information and ideas

Structuring work well allows your reader to follow the processes behind your ideas,
and the overall direction of your text. Ideally, each paragraph should take you a step
closer to your conclusion.
Paragraphs
Deciding on the order of the text
Once you have planned out your ideas for a piece of writing, you need to
work out the best order for your paragraphs so that your reader will follow
and be interested in your writing. Refer back to the overall purpose of the
writing and, with your audience always at the back of your mind, think
about which order of paragraphs will help you to achieve that purpose.
Example
When writing an article to inspire young people to follow their dreams, the
following could be a rough plan of the paragraphs you could include:
Introduct Paragra Paragra Paragra Conclusi

ion
ph 1
ph 2
ph 3
on
Introduce
the topic
of the
article and
why it is
important
to the
audience
Inspiratio
nal
celebritie
s who
have
never
given up
Ways of
Example following
s of how our
life can dreams
be
in daydifficult to-day
at times life
A
motivatio
nal
summary
to follow
our
dreams
The reasons why following a dream is important should go first. Your

writing must be styled in a way that brings your reader to feel that your
view applies to them. Then, to create a balance, examples of how life can
be difficult can follow. Again, your reader needs to be able to relate to the
situations you write about; the problems you mention will then be solved
by what follows in the next paragraph: ways of following your dreams in
day-to-day life.
You may have a different order which would work - but you should be able
to justify why that order would be most effective for your reader. In
writing, the readers response is very important.
Signposting and linking ideas

In a typical paragraph, the first sentence is used to highlight the topic in a
way that is interesting. It is followed by four or so extra sentences of
explanation and support. The first sentence acts as a short introduction
before the idea is developed in the rest of the paragraph.
Variousconnectives can be used to guide the reader, or open the
particular topic of the paragraph.
Linking paragraphs to develop ideas

The first sentence of a following paragraph should link subtly with the final
sentence of the last: it needs to be made into what is called atransition
sentence. This acts like a signpost to create a sense of fluency, logic and
direction that readers need. Your ideas will then appear fluent and
connected, neatly developing the overall main idea of your article - its
main idea.
If your text is a story, this could be the next event in the life of the main
character; or if it were a persuasive letter, it could be another aspect of a
complaint being made.
The last and first sentences of paragraphs deserve lots of thought and
attention, showing the reader that a deliberate effort has been made to
help them enjoy working through your ideas by giving them a sensible
sequence to follow.
For example:
...and so, to face your fears and overcome obstacles, you have to see
the end goal - your dream.
Finally, through all of the challenges that you come up against,
you are in control of following your dreams. Only you have the
power to grab life and squeeze all you can out of every minute.
Key points to remember
Decide on the order of your paragraphs.

Use signposting transition sentences to direct your reader.
Link each paragraph to develop the main controlling idea.
Sentence structures and variety
Varying sentence openers
Your writing needs to be lively if your reader is to enjoy it. As well as

varying the length of sentences (see grammar for details of how to
do this), changing the way that sentences start makes a piece of
reading more interesting and engaging for the reader. There are
many ways to do this.
Example
Take the sentence 'The man shouted out of the window':
Sentence starter
Example
An adverb to describe the verb

(action)
Frantically, the
man shouted out
of the window
An adjective to add further

description to a noun (ie the
subject of the sentence)
Enraged, the
man shouted out
of the window
Consequently,
A connective to place the event in the man shouted
relation to other action within the out of the
text
window
A prepositional phrase to place
the time, place or manner of the
action. Prepositions create
phrases that act like adverbs (1)
or adjectives (2)
1. Above the
crowd, the man
shouted out of
the window
2. In a terrified
state, the man
shouted out of
the window
A simile also acts like an adverb

or adjective, to describe the verb
(1) or the subject (2)
1. As loud as
thunder, the
man shouted out
of the window
2. Like a
terrified beast,
Sentence starter
Example
the man shouted
out of the
window
Have a look at this example to see how the writer changes the
sentence openers to create variety for the reader:
Attempt 1
I walked into the room. The lights shone brightly. People were
everywhere and the music was blaring. There were people outside
talking. I saw my friends in the corner of the room and went over to
join them.
Attempt 2
Cautiously, I walked into the room. Overhead, the lights shone

brightly. Like excited animals, people were everywhere and the
music was blaring. Outside, there were people talking. With a sigh
of relief, I saw my friends in the corner of the room and like a
shot, I hurried over to join them.
Literary techniques
Techniques are used by writers as an attempt to make the reader think in a certain
way. These techniques can be used to intrigue, inspire, persuade or simply convey
information to the reader.
Descriptive language
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How to use descriptive language techniques effectively

Descriptive language is used to help the reader feel almost as if they are a
part of the scene or event being described. Description is useful because
it helps readers engage with the world of the story, often creating an
emotional response. It can help a reader visualise what a character or a

place is like.
Here are some techniques and examples of how they can be used:
Technique
Examples
Simile - a descriptive
technique that
compares one thing
with another, usually
using 'as' or 'like'.
The trees stood as tall

as towers.
Metaphor - a
descriptive technique
that names a person,
thing or action as
something else .
The circus was a

magnet for the children.
Hyperbole - a use of
obvious exaggeration
for rhetorical effect .
The sun scorched through

the day.
Personification - a
metaphor attributing
human feelings to an
object .
The sun smiled at the

hills, ready to begin a new
day.
Pathetic fallacy - a
type of personification
where emotions are
given to a setting, an
object or the weather .
The clouds crowded

together suspiciously
overhead as the sky
darkened.
Technique
Onomatopoeia words that sound a
little like they mean .
Examples
The autumn leaves and
twigs cracked and
crunched underfoot.
Oxymoron - a phrase
combining two or more There was a deafening
contradictory terms .
silence
Emotive language language intended to
create an emotional
response.
A heart-breaking aroma
of death filled the air as he
surveyed the devastation
and destructionthat had
befallen them all.
Example
In the example below, look at how the writer uses descriptive techniques
to create a vivid setting for the reader and how the weather reflects the
mood of the text.
The ground crumbled like sand under my feet as I heaved another step
towards the summit. Looking below, the trees were dots to my squinting
eyes in the midday heat. Beating down upon my back, the sun was
relentless as I wiped the drips of salty sweat from my neckline. The
silence of the chasm below was deafening; suddenly, eagles broke the
silence and screeched above me in hunger.
Analysis
The writing opens with a simile to show the texture of the ground. The
sun is personified as it is described as relentless, giving it a ruthless
personality. The silence is described as deafening, an oxymoronthat
helps to emphasise how unbearable the situation is for the
character. Pathetic fallacy has been used here - the uncomfortable heat
mirrors the characters struggle as she continues on her journey. These
descriptive techniques allow the reader to feel as if they are there and pull
them into the story.
Persuasive devices
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How to use persuasive language techniques effectively

Persuasive language is used for many reasons, for example, to help to sell
products or services, or to convince people to accept a view or idea.
Politicians often use persuasive techniques to get their audience to agree
with their views on a particular topic. Persuasive language is a very
powerful tool for getting what you want.
Here are some types of persuasive techniques and examples of how they
can be used:
Technique
Flattery complimenting
your audience.
Examples
A person of your intelligence
deserves much better than
this.
Opinion - a
personal viewpoint
often presented as In my view, this is the best
if fact.
thing to have ever happened.
Hyperbole exaggerated
language used for It is simply out of this world
effect.
stunning!
Personal
pronouns - I,
you and we.
You are the key to this entire

idea succeeding - wewill be with
you all the way. I cant thank
Technique
Examples
you enough!
Imperative
command instructional
language.
Get on board and join us!
Triples - three
points to support
an argument .
Safer streets means comfort,

reassurance and peace of
mind for you, your family and
your friends.
Emotive
language vocabulary to
make the
audience/reader
feel a particular
emotion.
There are thousands of animals

at the mercy of
ourselfishness and disregard
for kindness.
Statistics and
figures - factual
data used in a
persuasive way.
80% of people agreed that this

would change their community
for the better.
Rhetorical
question - a
question which
implies its own
answer.
Who doesnt want success?
Example
Thinking about what an opposing writer may say and providing a counter
argument can be very powerful and will make your own point appear
stronger.
William Wallace led the Scottish rebellion against Edward I in the
fourteenth century. His exploits were made into the film Braveheart. In
this extract from his speech for freedom, think about his overall purpose
and how is he trying to convince his audience in a certain way.
I am William Wallace. And I see a whole army of my countrymen, here in
defiance of tyranny! You have come to fight as free men. And free men
you are! What will you do without freedom? Will you fight? Yes! Fight and
you may die. Run and you will live at least awhile. And dying in your bed
many years from now, would you be willing to trade all the days from this
day to that for one chance, just one chance, to come back here as young
men and tell our enemies that they may take our lives but they will never
take our freedom!
Analysis
William uses plenty of personal pronouns (I, you, our) to make the
audience feel as though he is speaking to them on an individual level. The
repeated use of free emphasises the overall topic of his speech, and the
benefit to the people listening. He repeatedly uses rhetoricalquestions,
one after the other to impact on the audience - they feel that they must
fight to protect their freedom. The closing sentence is highlyemotive; he
uses the word freedom to leave the overall message with his audience to
consider for themselves.
Informative language
When writing unbiased texts like reports of factual information, it is
important to use a specific style of language that means that the
information is clear and precise to your reader.
Be factual
When writing to inform should avoid biased information wherever
possible. This is to make sure that you are not manipulating the readers
ideas or viewpoint in any way. You are simply providing them with the
information to form their own viewpoint.
Be specific
Informative writing provides readers with key information linked to the
topic, location, time period, process and possible reasons why. A simple
way to remember this is:
What, where, when, how and why
This helps the reader to understand the information and ensures that you
are being precise. It makes sure that you prioritise the content of the text
for the reader. Start with what they need to know, then want they want or
would like to know. It is essential to include relevant information.
Clear, polite imperative language

The language that you choose to use when writing to inform should be
precise, and where required, imperative. This is language that instructs
the reader and is often used in recipes, directions and other texts used to
inform.
Example
In the example below look at how the writer used the key aspects of
informative writing.
Zoo opening times and directions
The zoo is open all year round, with the exception of Christmas Day and
New Years Day.
Summer and winter hours vary - see our website for further details or ring
the booking office on 0123 456 789 who will provide the information to
you for your visit.
We are located in the South of Leicestershire, and the zoo site is clearly
signposted from junction 21 of the M1. Once you leave the motorway,
follow the signs to just outside Hawthorn until you arrive at your
destination. Please take care to drive in the centre of the entrance
driveway; the safari animals do wander freely in this area.
The writing informs the reader of key information that they require to visit
the zoo. The location and times with any changes are outlined in the text.
The writer directs readers to the telephone number to assist with further
questions that they may have. Note the use of imperative language within
the directions; follow the signs and drive in the centre outline the
expectations of the zoo from the reader, but in a polite way by using
please.
Key things to remember
Consider how the language needs to help you to achieve the purpose of
your writing.
Be ambitious with the vocabulary that you choose to use when including
literary techniques within your work.
Make sure that the technique fits with the mood of the piece of writing ensure that the language you choose helps you to fit the genre of the text.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary helps to create a particular style, tone or emotion for your reader. By
showing ambition and creativity with your vocabulary, you can make your reader
laugh, cry or think about an idea.
Expanding vocabulary
The more words you know, the more clearly and powerfully you will think...and the
more ideas you will invite into your mind.
Wilfred Funk
The key to trying out new vocabulary is to avoid flat-sounding and

boring words or phrases. These are words that are overused and that
have lost their spark. They wont stand out for or convince your reader.
Keep in mind the need for liveliness in your writing as well as the need to
create a sense that it is authentic and authoritative.
Plan your writing

The planning stage of your writing can be a useful stage to think about
effective vocabulary. Keep in mind who you are writing for, what
thegenre requirements are and what you hope to achieve.
Review vocabulary choices
The best way to be sure youve used an effective vocabulary is not only to
think about each sentence while you write but also to revise your work
once it is complete. Change a few key words, especially where you find
youve overused one particular word. Try to find alternatives
synonyms that are livelier or fit better with the overall mood you are
trying to achieve.
For example, writing the weather was bad does not use specific
vocabulary and wont excite the reader. Using words that add detail,
especially if this is a story, will help to suggest a mood and setting for the
reader. Vague words deaden a piece of writing; precise words, full of
descriptive energy, bring it to life.
Use precise verbs

A way to liven up a piece of writing is to choose action words - verbs - with
great care. Use words to show the reader the actions or behaviour of a
character. For example:
He walked into the room and said, This is what I was waiting for.
By altering the boring words, you will help the reader enjoy the
experience of reading as well as give depth to the writing. This will allow
the reader to build up an overall idea of the character. How does each of
the following sentences change your perception of the character?
He strolled into the room and muttered, This is what I was waiting for.
He marched into the room and barked, This is what I was waiting for.
He shuffled into the room and sobbed, This is what I was waiting for.
By altering vocabulary to match what is actually occurring in the scene,
the reader can be given a better understanding of the character as well as
the feeling that they want to read on.
QQuestion
Here are some further examples of potentially flat vocabulary

choices. Can you think of alternative words that you could use
words that will make the sentences livelier and more interesting to
read? Consider especially what the reader needs to feel about the
thing that you are describing, whether it be a character or an object.
Creating an appropriate emotional response in your reader should
be at the heart of your thinking.
Good
Nice
Very
Happy
Big
Hate
Said
Walked
AHide answer
Good - superb, fantastic, excellent, brilliant, outstanding, spectacular
Nice - marvellous, enjoyable, pleasant, wonderful, glorious
Very - extremely, highly, deeply, terribly, hugely, massively
Happy - ecstatic, cheerful, pleased, overjoyed, elated, thrilled
Big - huge, gigantic, ginormous, enormous, colossal, immense
Hate - despise, detest, repulsed, loathe, condemn, dislike
Said - shouted, bellowed, whispered, sniggered, mumbled, grunted, sang,

exclaimed
Walked - strutted, bounded, sprinted, ambled, trudged, wandered, trundled
Vocabulary to create a particular effect

Vocabulary can be used to change the way a reader feels about a scene.
By changing just a few key words a setting can be made much more
interesting to read. For example, a church might be a typical part of the
setting of a ghost story. The vocabulary choices can be used to create a
sense of fear for the reader.
Bats swooped dangerously close to my head as the haunting outline of

the moon glaredover the silhouette of the gravestones. Thestench of
decay hung in the damp night air, as a warning to those that dared to
enter.
Key vocabulary choices imply a feeling of danger and provide a sinister
tone for the reader to create their own mental image. The language is
lively and precise, full of energy to enliven the scene.
Notice how in this second piece, this completely changes to a different,
now positive mood:
Doves soared overhead as we bustled from the church doorway. The

clouds parted for thebeaming sun that warmed the backs of the guests.
Confetti and the scent of perfumed flowers filled the air; laughter
twirled like ribbons around the bride and groom.
By making deliberate vocabulary choices, you can create the right mood
that will draw the reader emotionally into the story.
Here is a table of words that suggest a mood and a setting. You could use
these to help you think up your own when you plan a piece of writing.
Setting
Mood
Example vocabulary
Happy
A bright sun glinted from the

skyscraper windows
Jungle
Sad
The baboons plaintive cries

pierced our hearts
Desert
The sand burned, the dust

Determin stung; but we marched on
ed
regardless
City
Mountai
ns
Hopeful
Small white cloudlets hovered

so close to our heads we felt we
could touch them
Beach
Crabs scuttled hither and

thither, children squealed in
delight
Excited
Things to remember
Get into the habit of using a thesaurus to experiment with different

vocabulary within your writing.
Make notes of useful key vocabulary choices when you plan your writing.
Read back over your work to check over your vocabulary choices. Are the
words ambitious AND do they fit with the style of writing?
Check that you havent accidentally repeated key words in nearby

sentences.
Spelling, Punctuation and

Grammar
Spelling
English spelling can be tricky to master, partly because of the many influences on
the English language over time. Luckily, there are strategies to help you remember
correct spellings.
Common spelling errors and strategies

There are many ways to help you remember how to spell words. If you
repeatedly misspell a word, then spend some time learning and practising
it so you can easily recall the correct spelling in future. Accurate spelling
helps to ensure that your intended meaning is carried through your
writing.
Try out the following methods to master your spelling.
Mnemonics
A mnemonic is a tool that helps your memory to retrieve information you
have stored in it. In spelling you might use a pattern, rhyme or saying to
help you recall the way a word is put together.
For example, a mnemonic for remembering necessary could be:
Its necessary that a shirt has one collar and two sleeves.
Finding words within words is another way to create a mnemonic.
For example, Emma faced a dilemma might help you remember that
there are two ms in dilemma.
Another mnemonic involves creating an acrostic . These work best when
you have invented them yourself.
For example:
Big Elephants Can Always Understand Small Elephants the initial letters
form the word BECAUSE.
Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move is a useful way to
rememberRHYTHM.
Hear with your ear

Another way of remembering a tricky spelling is to sound the word out. By
doing this, you break down the way the word is structured and this makes
it easier to remember.
For example, you might break down the word friend to 'fri-end' to remind
you that the 'i' comes before the 'e'.
Common rules to remember

There are some general rules that can help when checking your spelling.
'i' before 'e' except after 'c'
Notice how the i comes before the e in believe, achieve andretrieve.

But after a c the e comes before the i as
in receive, ceiling anddeceit (beware that the word weird likes to break
this rule - perhaps because it is weird!).
Past tense
Take care when using the past tense. You usually need to add -ed to a
verb, though some verbs need extra consonants as well.
Here are some examples of verbs that add -ed in the past tense:
Verb
Past tense
Walk
Walked
Direct
Directed
Inspect
Inspected
Wish
Wished
Discuss
Discussed
If a verb is three letters in length and ends in a consonant, you will usually
need to double the consonant before you add -ed. For example:
Verb
Past tense
Hug
Hugged
Tag
Tagged
Pin
Pinned
Nap
Napped
Tip
Tipped
Some verbs have irregular spellings in the past tense. You might need to
invent mnemonics to remember these. For example:
Verb
Past tense
Think
Thought
Buy
Bought
Run
Ran
Go
Went
Forget
Forgot
Silent letters
Some words contain silent letters. These are not spoken aloud. For
example:
Silent w - wrong, write, wrap, wrist
Silent b - climb, comb, thumb, lamb
Silent k - knowledge, knuckle, knee, knife
Some commonly misspelt words

Look at the list of commonly misspelt words and notice those that you are
less confident about. Spend some time coming up with a mnemonic to
remember the spelling and practise using the words when you can:
accommodation
assessment
interesting
weird
knowledge
acceptable
concentration
argument
listening
receive
atmosphere
collectable
proportion
development
beginning
mischief
daughter
noticeable
conclusion
permanent
abandoning
fierce
jealous
visible
evaluation
contentment
compromising
believe
explanation
invincible
appreciation
independent
confirming
foreign
liaison
negligible
Tip - its better to learn one or two a day than all of them at once!
Homophones
Homophones are words that sound identical but have different spellings
and meanings. Finding ways to remember which one to use is helpful as
getting these wrong can really confuse a reader.
Common examples include:
witch and which
too, two and to
sight, site
through, threw
whether, weather
theyre, their and there
break, brake
right, write
waist, waste
where, wear, were
coarse, course
its, its
stare, stair
male, mail
weak, week
so, sew, sow
by, bye, buy
tail, tale
bored, board
piece, peace
serial, cereal
aloud, allowed
flour, flower
sent, scent, cent
in, inn
It is useful to think of ways to remember the correct homophone for your

sentence. You might like to use pictures or, as with your spellings, you
could make up a rhyme or mnemonic to help you.
For example:
To/too/two
To remember just the one 'o' to get from one place to another.
Too means 'as well as'. Remember the spelling by thinking that it has
toooooooooooo many os.
Two remember this by thinking of the w meaning 2.
Waste/waist
Remember the difference between waste and waist with the sentence:
I have a waist. The i in the sentence refers to the i in the spelling.
Aloud/allowed
Remember that if youre speaking something aloud, it will be loud
Things to remember
Mnemonics
Hear with your ear
Homophones
Punctuation
Using punctuation effectively means that your reader can make sense of your
writing, It can also help create a particular effect to give your writing depth.
Full stops
Full stops are essential to separate sentences. Here is an example of a
piece of writing where full stops are lacking. When you read it out loud,
you will notice that it doesnt quite make sense. You might find that, to
make it easier to read, you naturally insert pauses where full stops should
be:
When thinking of a new invention it is important that you try to imagine a
solution to a problem for example something that causes people problems
my nan says she hates having to reach down for her stick she could do
with some sort of machine to rest it next to her another idea that I had
was some sort of multi-weather coat it could automatically get thicker
that way it could be used all year round.
Here it is again with punctuation added:
When thinking of a new invention, it is important that you try to imagine a
solution to a problem. For example, something that causes people
problems. My Nan says she hates having to reach down for her stick. She
could do with some sort of machine to rest it next to her. Another idea
that I had was some sort of multi-weather coat. It could automatically get
thicker: that way it could be used all year round.
Commas
Commas signal to your reader to pause very slightly while reading. This
can help make the individual parts of a sentence clearer in meaning. It
also shows how sentences are split up, and separates words in a list.
For example:
The kitten was cute, fluffy and cuddly.
To make a perfect cup of tea, you need a teabag, sugar, milk and hot water.
Jones, the baker, is now also the candlestick maker.
Sam Haskins, who broke his leg in that car accident, still managed to pass
all his exams.
Sentence separation and comma splicing

A common mistake in writing is to place a comma where in fact a full stop
is needed. This creates an over-long sentence. This misuse of the comma
creates what is called a 'comma splice'. Aim to avoid comma splices in
your writing.
When you proofread your work, highlight each comma and decide whether
it is needed, or whether a full-stop would be more effective.
Look at the example below:
The room filled with smoke, I froze in panic.
This is an example of comma splice. The comma in the middle should not
be there because each half is a complete sentence in its own right.
So in fact you should use two full sentences, each ending with a full stop.
This makes for two shorter but much livelier, sentences:
The room filled with smoke. I froze in panic.
Alternatively - you could use a conjunction (joining word) to connect the
two sentences:
The room filled with smoke and I froze in panic.
OR when the two sentences are closely linked in some way, you could
use a semi-colon:
The room filled with smoke; I froze in panic.
QQuestion
Identify the comma splices in the following piece of writing. As you

find each comma think about what would happen if it were replaced
with a full stop. Remember that the two sentences each side of a full
stop must be meaningful and complete.
I was nervous, making my way through the crowd in the darkness.
Lights glistened in time to the music, I blinked at the brightness.
Fetching a drink from the corner, I looked at the food on offer. It was
a pretty good spread, Hollie had really made an effort. It was just a
shame that her mum had made a massive princess cake. The thing
was wonky, but the creepy smile on its face was the worst part.
AHide answer
Lights glistened in time to the music, I blinked at the brightness.

It was a pretty good spread, Hollie had really made an effort.
These are both examples of comma splicing. A full stop, semi-colon
or conjunction is needed for the sentences to be grammatically
correct.
Exclamation marks and question marks

An exclamation mark shows shock or surprise. It lets a reader know that
they should add emphasis to a sentence.
With exclamation marks, less is more is a useful approach. They become
more effective the less they are used. As a rule of thumb, aim for no more
than two exclamation marks in a single piece of writing.
A question mark is used to show that a direct question has been asked. Be
careful not to use a question mark to indicate an indirect question. For
example:
Direct: What time is it?
Indirect: The man asked me if I knew the time.
You only ever need one exclamation mark or question mark at the end of a
sentence. Avoid putting more than one, for example:
Thats it?!?!?!?! he screamed. Dont you think Ive had
enough????!!!!!!!!!
Instead:
Thats it! he screamed. Dont you think Ive had enough?
Apostrophes
Apostrophes are used to signal two things to a reader:
1. possession (apostrophe + s)
2. omission (replaces a letter or letters in a word or words)
Possession
This is when one thing belongs to another. The apostrophe + s shows
ownership.
For example:
Example 1 The boys shoes were left outside the door.
Example 2 The dogs paws were dirty.
If the possessive noun is plural and ends in an s already, then an

apostrophe is placed at the end of the word, but there is no need for the
extra s:
For example:
Example 1- The boys (not boyss) shoes were outside the door.
Example 2 - The dogs (not dogss) paws were dirty.
Work out where to put the apostrophe by thinking what belongs to
whom. The boys shoes were left outside the door. (The shoes belonging
to the boy were left outside the door.) The boys shoes were left outside
the door. (The shoes belonging to the boys were left outside the door.)
With singular nouns that end in an s, you can either add an apostrophe
alone to show possession, or you can add an apostrophe + s. Both are
correct, but you should be consistent.
For example:
Example 1 Mr Joness clock has stopped. Or - Mr Jones clock has
stopped.
Example 2 The classs homework was due. Or - The classhomework
was due.
Omission
This is when we miss out letters from words to shorten them, forming a
'contraction'.
For example:
Example 1 - do not becomes dont.
Example 2 - could not becomes couldnt.
Example 3 - cannot becomes cant.
Example 4 - will not is irregular and becomes wont.
Its and it's

'Its' (without an apostrophe) shows a relationship of possession, eg 'Its fur
is smooth and shiny.'
'It's' uses an apostrophe to show contraction. 'It's' is short for 'it is' (or
sometimes 'it has').
For example:
Its almost home time! = It is almost home time!
It's got a lot of errors in it. = It has got a lot of errors in it.
Round brackets
These are sometimes called 'parentheses' and can be used to add extra
information from the writer, or add description to a sentence:
The boy (a young boy who had never left home) looked terribly pale.
If you are using brackets towards the end of a sentence, the full stop to
complete the sentence goes outside of the brackets:
Neharika wore the blue shoes (her sister, Amrita, had already chosen the
red ones).
Ellipsis and semi-colon

Ellipsis
Three dots in a row are called ellipsis and can be used to signify that
something is missing. It is mainly useful in dialogue. For example:
"I wonder" said Harry.
The ellipsis suggests that Harry is thinking of something else.
Avoid using ellipsis to end sentences.
Semi-colon
Use the semi-colon to link two connected clauses. For example:
I have lots of homework; I cant go out tonight.
Using punctuation for effect

In this example, look at how the writer uses punctuation to signal to the
reader to feel a particular way towards a character.
His eyes filled up with tears as he looked around him in shock. Red
balloons danced before his eyes like autumn leaves in the breeze.
Mesmerising. How had they known? His lips moved to the words; he sang
to the familiar tune, smiling. "Happy Birthday to you!" they chorused. This
was easily the best moment of his life.
A one-word sentence does break the normal rules of grammar, but it is
allowed when the style demands it. Here, mesmerising helps the reader
fully appreciate the characters intense feeling. This is followed with
a rhetorical question which also signals the shock and surprise felt. The
writer uses a semi-colon to link two sentences that share the same topic
(ie singing happy birthday).
Things to remember
Take special care over using commas. Check whether a full-stop or semicolon would be more effective.
Check by reading back that the work would be clear and make full sense to
your reader.
Avoid excessive use of exclamation marks!
Be ambitious practise using sophisticated punctuation such as semicolons and colons.
Grammar
Grammar refers to the structure of language and how different words fit together.
Knowing something about English grammar rules should help you to construct clear
and meaningful sentences.
Sentences, words and phrases

Sentences
A sentence:
is built from a subject and a verb

contains at least one main idea
sounds complete
starts with a capital letter
ends with a full stop or equivalent
Subjects and verbs

In a sentence, the verb describes the main action or state of the subject.
Different types of verbs have different functions:
to show action, eg run, play, skip, discuss

to show state, eg think, consider, wish
to help out the main verb (auxiliary verbs), eg do, have, is
to show likelihood or possibility (modal verbs), eg might, could,
would, should
Verbs also show the time frame of the action (past, present, future):
past, eg the BBC was founded in 1922

present, eg he finished his breakfast (action can be complete) or he is
eating his breakfast (continuing)
future, eg the Johnsons will celebrate Christmas in style!
In most sentences, the verb comes after its subject. The subject is
usually a noun (a person, place or thing), for example, he ran; theirpet
Siamese cat mewed.
Words and phrases

A sentence is built up from words. Sometimes words are grouped together
in phrases.
A phrase acts as a single unit of meaning for example their pet Siamese
cat, the fast-paced Hollywood film. A phrase does not include a verb.
You can tell if a group of words is a phrase because it can always be
replaced by a single word, eg the phrase pet Siamese cat would be
replaced by the single word cat and still have the same basic meaning.
We use phrases to add more detail to our writing.
Clauses
A clause contains a verb and has one main idea. It can form a complete
sentence, eg The cat mewed. This is called a major clause.
Other clauses do not work as independent sentences. For example
because the dog growled. This is a subordinate clause.
A sentence can contain more than one clause:
The cat mewed, because the dog growled.
QQuestion
Identify the main and subordinate clauses in the following

sentences:
The birds ate their food, even though the cat prowled below.
As he was feeling brave, Jos took a step forward.
Johnston, who was only fifteen years old, was already a brilliant
footballer.
AHide answer
The parts in bold are major clauses; the parts in plain text are
subordinate clauses:
The birds ate their food even though the cat prowled below.
As he was feeling brave, Jos took a step forward.
Johnston, who was only fifteen years old, was already a brilliant
footballer.
Notice that subordinate clauses can also be embedded within their major
clause.
Sentence types
Simple sentences
These are sentences built from just one major clause. These have one
main verb attached to its subject. The subject can be one word or a
phrase.
Example 1 - Spiders spin webs.
Example 2 - The shaggy-haired Siberian wolfhound sat outside.
Compound sentences
A compound sentence joins more than one major clause with a
conjunction (such as and, but, or).
For example:
It was raining and Sher had forgotten his coat.
Sophie had seen a parrot before but she had never seen one this big.
Zeb could go to school or he could stay under his duvet all morning.
Complex sentences
A complex sentence includes a major clause and at least one subordinate
clause. The term complex here can be confusing as some complex
sentences are very short and simple in meaning, eg The cat mewed,
although it was asleep, whereas a simple sentence can be long and very
complex in appearance and meaning, eg The wild, ferocious Siberian
wolfhound from Londons Regent Park zoo escaped six weeks ago.
In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are in bold. Notice how
the major clause works without the subordinate clause:
The girl, who had long blonde hair, stood at the window.
While he does his homework, Jack listens to the radio.
Subject, object and complement

Many verbs need an object to make sense, eg Ajay plays the piano. Like
the subject, the object is usually a noun or a noun phrase, eg the big,
black grand piano. Verbs that take objects describe some kind of action
rather than a state of being.
For example:
Ajay plays the big, black grand piano.
Teagan watches television.
Some verbs do not need an object to make sense. These either:
Work alone, as in, Connor screamed.
Describes a state as in, Maire is tall. or Mandip felt ill.
If no action is transferring from the subject to the object, the word is

called a complement.
Word classes
Different types of words can be grouped according to what they do in
their sentence.
Nouns
Nouns are by far the largest category of words in English. They signify all
kinds of physical things both living and inanimate; they also signify
imagined things like a ghost; and ideas or concepts, such as love, guilt
or fate.
Concrete and abstract nouns

Concrete nouns signify things, either in the real or imagined world. Its
usually possible to detect a concrete noun with one of the five
senses.Abstract nouns refer to concepts and so cannot be perceived,
except as an idea.
Examples of concrete nouns include:
The football lay discarded on the pitch.
The candle glowed in the darkness.
The Liverpool crowd cheered in excitement.
Examples of abstract nouns include:
There was hope in his eyes as he looked up.
Intelligence can be measured in several ways.
He was full of courage as he walked towards the battlefield.
Love is all around but hate hides in the shadows.
Proper nouns
Some common nouns are made individual and special by being given a
name. These are called proper or naming nouns. They are shown by being
given an initial capital letter. Peoples names, street addresses, cities, and
book titles are all proper nouns, for example:
Ryan had never been to London before; Saturday was going to be his
first time.
Adjectives
An adjective is a describing word or phrase that adds qualities to a noun.
It normally comes before a noun, or after verbs like am, is, was,
appears or seems. For example:
The greedy man counted each shiny coin in his money pile; he rubbed
his grubby hands excitedly. He was extremely greedy.
Verb
A verb lies at the heart of a sentence. It describes the action or state of
the subject; that is, it is the doing or being part of the sentence. Verbs
are used to signify a physical or mental action:
Abigail ran through the field.
Jane tore off the wrapping paper.
Some verbs can also link extra information about their subject to
acomplement:
The cake was delicious.
Noah appeared unwell.
Adverb
Adverbs give extra detail about many other words apart from nouns. They
can add detail to a verb, to an adjective or even to a whole sentence; and,
like adjectives, they can be single words or phrases. This makes them a
very useful but quite a difficult category to spot. Commonly, an adverb
labels how, when or where something happens (and they often end in
ly):
The dog growled menacingly.
There were several seagulls squawking nearby.
The seagulls suddenly pounced on the familys picnic.
The family could hardly move.
It was a very nice day.
Prepositions
Prepositions are short words and phrases that give information about
place, time and manner.
For example:
She first put it on the table but then hid it under her bed.
Hes coming at 6.
A preposition can also be used at the start and end of a sentence.

For example:
Under the windowsill, the cat looked at me with disgust.
After ten oclock, we went for a well-deserved ice cream.
Thats the table I want you to put it on.
On the stroke of six, he walked away.
Joining words
You can join sentences, clauses and phrases together using joining words.
Some common joining words include and, but, so and then. Using
these can make your writing flow more easily and let your reader know
where you are with your narrative or argument.
Be adventurous with your joining words and aim to use some of the
following:
whereas
whilst
beforehand
afterwards
firstly
finally
although
moreover
since
despite
consequently
because
instead
when
nevertheless
furthermore
Rules to follow
For a sentence to be complete, there are certain rules that you can use as
a guide.
Capital letters and full stops

Ensure that every sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full
stop.
Tense
Verbs are the active part of the sentence. They can also show time scale,
letting the reader know whether something is meant to take place in the
past, present or future. This is known as the tense of a verb. For
example:
Present tense something that is happening now:
The fire burns brightly.
The car runs well.
The mobile phone is ringing.
The girl is dancing.
Past tense something that has already happened.
The fire burned and billowed clouds of smoke.

The fires have burned all night.
The previous fire had burned brightly the night before.
Future tense something that hasnt happened yet.
The
The
The
The
fire will burn well, once lit.

car will run well when it has been fixed.
exam starts next Wednesday.
exam season is starting next month.
Using tenses in your writing

If you are writing a story, the past tense can be easier to manage. It
allows you to refer to events and add detailed descriptions, whereas
present tense requires much more skill. Novelists such as Suzanne Collins
use present tense to create fast paced and lively narratives. For example,
her novel The Hunger Games is written entirely in the present tense:
When I wake up, the other side of the bed is cold. My fingers stretch out,
seeking Prim's warmth but finding only the rough canvas cover of the
mattress. She must have had bad dreams and climbed in with our mother.
Of course, she did. This is the day of the reaping.
The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins
For short pieces of descriptive writing, present tense can be a good
choice. You can draw the reader into an experience of a place or person.
For example:
The morning is still cold and dark when we walk out to the vehicle. Its
Central Australias way of telling us we shouldnt be outside yet. But
Nigels pick-up splutters to life and the headlight beams reveal that the
outback bushland is still there, spinifex grass being tousled by the predawn wind. He begins driving, and within ten minutes weve parked up at
the foot of Kings Canyon.
An Alternative to Uluru by Ben Lerwill
Common mistakes
Aim to be clear and precise in your writing and avoid writing in the way
you would speak to friends. If you can, read your work aloud to check for
sense and appropriate tone.
Common mistake
Put it right
This were the worst

idea.
This was the worst idea.
They was good

friends.
They were good friends.
I
should of/could of/wo Should have/could have/wo
uld of/might of.
uld have/might have.
Gonna/woulda/coulda Going to/wouldve/couldve.
Common mistake
Put it right
.
And I said to him no
way Jos!
I said to him, No way,

Jos!.
QQuestion
How does the text need to change in this example to make the
grammar and spelling appropriate for a written piece?
I knew it were gonna be sunny that day. The clouds might of been
on holiday themselves as it was so hot. And the beach is so
crowded. So I buy alot of ice cream and sit down on the pebbles.
AHide answer
I knew it was going to be sunny that day. The clouds

might havebeen on holiday themselves as it was so hot and the
beach was so crowded. I bought a lot of ice cream and sat down
on the pebbles.
English Literature
Part 1- Tips and Hints
Exam Essay Writing Step by Step Guide
In the English Literature exam you will have to write three essays in 2 hours and 15 minutes i.e. 45
minutes per essay. You will have to write one answer about a prose text, one about a drama text and
one about poetry. The paper is split up into Prose, Drama and Poetry sections and you must flick
through each section until you come to the questions that are relevant to the texts that you have
studied. You will have a choice of two questions for each text. 45 minutes is not long, so you must
make sure that you use your time well, Here is what you should do:
Planning: 5 mins
1. Calm down and read both questions a couple of times so that you come to a sensible and clear
decision about which question to answer without jumping the gun.
2.
Decide on a question but dont just go with your first response. Think carefully about whether
or not you can really write a good, detailed, interesting and original essay about that question. If
the other question seems harder does that actually mean that it will give you a good opportunity
to show off? Be careful though, dont take too many risks!
3.
Plan your answer. This is crucial but you must do it quickly. One good way to plan is to jot down
the POINTS that you will make in response to the question. For example, if you are writing about
how a sense of childhood trauma is created in The Barn by Heaney you might make a number
of different POINTS about how this feeling is created, e.g.:
the child is made to seem small and insignificant
the world / objects in it are made to seem threatening and unusual
there is a sense of nightmare, suffocation and no escape created
4.
A good essay is going to have 5-6 main POINTS that are explored in detail.
These POINTS then become a map of the paragraphs your essay will contain. The first
paragraph after the introduction will be about the child seeming small and insignificant, the
second about the world, etc This will help you to give a nice clear structure to your essay.
Make sure that you put your most interesting points at the beginning and end of your essay so
you start and end strongly.
5.
With a bit of alteration the POINTS can also be used as a TOPIC SENTENCE for each
paragraph. A TOPIC SENTENCE is the first sentence of a paragraph. Its job is to make it clear
what that paragraph is about and how it relates back to the question. So, for example,
paragraph one might start: Heaney creates a sense of childhood trauma in The Barn by making
the child persona in the poem seem small and insignificant. This is a great first sentence
because it makes it clear what I will be writing about in this paragraph and how what I am going
to say helps answer the question.
6.
You should also briefly jot down some ideas for evidence that you might use to support each
point, e.g.:
the child is made to seem small and insignificant (objectified as chaff, insect like verb
scuttled, etc )
7.
Before you move on to writing you should look back over your points and make one last check
that they ANSWER THE QUESTION. There is no point you including the best point in the world
supported by the most beautiful evidence if it is irrelevant to what the question is asking you
about. By the time you get to the exams you will know an awful lot about your exam texts and
unfortunately a lot of what you do know wont be relevant to the questions that you are asked.
So make sure that youve filtered out all the irrelevant bits before you start writing so that the
only things that end up in your essay are POINTS clearly related to the question.
Writing: 35 mins
1. The Introduction SHOULD NOT talk about what you are going to do in the essay. You dont
have much time to impress the examiner and so instead of wasting time talking about what
you are going to do you need to start doing what you are going to do straight away.
Generally speaking essays that start with In this essay I will or This essay will consider
are already off to a bad start. See the page on Introductions for more information about this.
2.
The Main Body of your essay should contain a series of 5 or 6 paragraphs each of which
explores one of the POINTS identified in your plan. There should only be one point per
paragraph and paragraphs should follow the PEE structure. Multiple pieces of evidence should
be used to support each point and the evidence used should cover a range of different literary
features, such as: the connotations of words, sound effects, rhyme, rhythm, images, symbols,
etc See the Features to Consider page for more ideas
3.
The biggest part of a Main Body paragraph however, should be the Explanation section. Here
you need to spend time really exploring in detail what the connotations of words suggest, how
the sounds and repetitions reinforce these ideas, what the structure of the text contributes to this
feeling and so on. All of these points need to clearly relate back to question and one way to
ensure that you are doing this is to keep referring to key words from the question, in this case
childhood trauma, in your paragraph. However, you have to avoid repeating the same phrase
again and again because this will make your essay sound boring, As such you will have to find
alternative phrases which mean the same thing or ways of implying an obvious link to childhood
trauma without actually saying the words, e.g. The child is threatened by nightmarish creatures
such as rats and bats, which would clearly be disturbing. The which would be
disturbing bit is a good example of how you might refer to the idea of trauma without actually
saying the word.
4.
The Conclusion is also important. Remember you want to impress the examiner and leave him
thinking Wow! Many people are tempted to conclude by summing up the points they have
made in their essay and, while this may seem logical, its not exactly the most interesting way to
end. There are a number of ways of trying to increase the impact of your conclusion, for
example: you might end with a quotation that sums up the feel or flavour of your answer; a bold
statement of your point of view; a question left unanswered or an insight into how this question
might relate to another relevant issue. See the page on Conclusions for more information about
this.
Checking: 5 mins
5. You will want to keep writing for as long as possible in order to get down everything that you
want to say but it is really worth spending time at the end of each essay reading back over what
you have written and correcting a few quick and obvious mistakes. Very few people get it perfect
first time.
Organising Principles
The first step when writing about a text is to figure out what the Organising Principle of that text is.
What is the main mood, message, idea or theme that the poet is trying to get across to us? An
Organising Principle can be anything, for example a writer might try to:
make a statement about life / the human condition / mans place in the universe
show us an old thing in a new way / challenge a clich
show us something new about the world
create a mood / feeling / emotion
make a political statement
make us laugh
make us sympathise
bring a character to life / show how they have changed
depict a relationship between two people
conjure a world for us
share an idea or experience
express a personal opinion
persuade us to believe something
All of these and many more could be Organising Principles but you have to be careful because many
texts have more than one. If you think that you have identified more than one Organising Principle in a
text then try and write about all of them. The best candidates will be those who realise that a text says
more than one thing at a time.
When trying to work out the Organising Principle of a text, here are some useful questions you might
ask yourself:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What is going on in the text?

Who is involved? Who is speaking?
To whom is the text addressed? Who is the audience?
When is the text set in the past , present, future or at a specific event?
Where is the text set how does setting reflect content, character(s) or ideas?
Mood - what is the general mood of the speaker(s)/character(s) / atmosphere?
Motive - what prompted the writer to put pen to paper?
Once you have answered those questions you should be able to begin working out what the writers
purpose was. Why did they write this text? What were they trying to say / do / achieve? This will end
up being your Organising Principle.
This is the first step in the process, however, and after that you must start to think about how the
writer has tried to achieve their purpose, how they have tried to affect the reader and how they have
affected you. This is when the real work of analysis begins.
Features to Consider
This is a list of literary features that you might consider writing about in your essays. The list is broken
into structural, linguistic and paralinguistic features, although not every feature is relevant to every
kind of text. Paralinguistic features, for example tend to be more relevant to drama texts.
Linguistic Features:
Sound effects (Alliteration, Onomatopoeia, Sibilance, Fricatives, etc)
Symbols and Images (Metaphors, Similes, Personification)
Foregrounding e.g. whats at the start of lines
Monosyllabic vs. Polysyllabic words
Complexity of vocabulary (diction)
Use of jargon / technical words
Connotations of words
Sentence complexity
Tone of voice
Punctuation
Pronouns
Silences
Paralinguistic Features
Position of characters relative to each other e.g. above, below, sitting, standing, kneeling
Movements away from / towards certain characters / objects / places
Body language arms crossed suggesting anger, etc
Looks at / away from other characters
Turn-taking in speech / interruptions
Props, setting, lighting and costume
Exits and entrances
Facial expression
Amount of speech
Actions
Asides
Structural Features:
Flow of time chronological, circular, flashbacks, foreshadowing
Use of Narrator (first or third person) / Persona
Use of Authorial Intervention
Rhyme Scheme, Rhythm and Repetition
Order of scenes / events
Stanza length / line length
Soliloquy, Dialogue
Enjambment
How to get Good Grades

Analysis:
Consider how the writer has used all of the literary features at their disposal to create a certain effect.
Make sure that you consider the text on a number of different levels for example, Krishna is a
frustrated teacher and you will be rewarded for exploring the ways in which Narayan creates the
impression that he is frustrated. However, Krishnas character is more than just this: on at least one
level he is an autobiographical representation of Narayan himself (he was a teacher, a writer and his
wife died young); he may also be used as a symbol of an India which is divided and uncertain of itself
under the British Raj or he may be modeling a kind of spiritual journey of self-discovery that the author
would like us all to undertake. Dont just go for the superficial or obvious reading: be imaginative.
Links:
Make links and comparisons between different parts of the poem and show how a range of different of
features from throughout the poem are working together to create a given effect. You should look out
for contrasts, shifts, changes and developments that appear as the poem progresses.
Quote:
Use short and precise quotations that pick out the words or other features that are really doing the
work i.e. really responsible for creating the effect that you are talking about. Embed these quotations
smoothly into your sentences and make sure that you know the technical terms for the literary
features you are talking about
Explain in detail:
Develop your explanations as much as possible: these should be the longest parts of your
paragraphs. Try and develop ideas in detail and depth and come up with original interpretations of the
effect of something or make unexpected connections. Remember, however, not to be too off the wall.
The effect must always be sensibly related to the overall theme or Organising Principle of the text.
Write clearly and coherently:
Make sure that your arguments and explanations are clear and that your paragraphs follow on from
each other logically. This doesnt mean that there can be no breaks where you suddenly switch to a
new subject; it just means that, when you do this, you have to use a clear linking phrase that signals
this break from the previous paragraph e.g. An alternative interpretation of
Give a personal response:
This does not mean that you have to fill your essay with phrases like I or In my opinion. If you write
passionately and excitedly about something then it will be clear that your response is personal. A good
trick, however, for writing personally is to comment on what you find most effective or successful in a
poem judgments like this are necessarily personal because they talk about how much you have
been affected by something.
Be careful with your language:
Make sure you get crucial spellings such as the name of the poet or poem correct. Avoid using slang
because it suggests that you dont know that exams are a situation where you should be writing
formally. Equally avoid clichs because they suggest that you are not capable of coming up with your
own inventive or original thoughts.
Writing Formally
One thing that many students find difficult is writing in an appropriately formal tone. Here are some
tricks to help you achieve a more formal style in your essays:
1.
Use linking phrases at the start of paragraphs. These can range from simple one word
connectives such as: Therefore, Moreover, However, Nevertheless, On the other hand and
In conclusion to more complex phrases that make it clear how the new paragraph follows of from
the one just before, for example: Napoleon is also further vilified in the chapter six, when
2.
Vary your linking phrases to come up with more innovative examples such as ultimately, initially
and penultimately.
3.
Find alternative verbs to replace shows in the phrase This shows that . Some obvious
examples might be implies, demonstrates, indicates, suggests and creates the impression.
However, more adventurous examples might include insinuates, echoes, caricatures,
satirises, lampoons (look it up!), vilifies or ridicules. Note that with some of these verbs you no
longer need the that in the phrase and you can instead just use This ridicules the animals on the
farm for their
4.
Remember to use phrases that allow you to show how different aspects of a text work together to
achieve a given effect, for example: enhances, reinforces, emphasises, exaggerates,
exacerbates (makes worse) or alleviates (makes better).
5.
Try to replace big verb phrases in your writing with noun phrases. For example the verb takes
over in When Napoleon takes over the farm it demonstrates can be replaced by the
noun take overas follows: Napoleons take over of the farm demonstrates which is a much
nicer, more efficient, more concise sentence.
6.
Use appropriate literary terms: novel, persona, narrative voice, sibilance, foregrounding, etc
7.
Be as precise with your language as possible make your points as clearly, cleanly and quickly.
8.
Avoid using conversational phrases such as: like, basically, essentially. Remember that you
dont want to give the impression that there is anything basic about what you are doing. An
examiner is not going to award an A grade to a candidate who tries to squeeze down the
complexity of a novel, poem or play into one basic statement.
9.
Avoid using vague phrases such as a variety of features (what features?); on a number of
occasions (what occasions?). Particularly you should try and avoid the vagueness of just saying
something is positive or negative. Give me some idea of why a word has negative connotations
is it vicious cruel and heartless, or dull, boring and insipid?
10. Avoid referring to yourself or your essay. Good writers dont write about themselves and good
essays dont talk about themselves they just focus on the issue that they are meant to be
concerned with. You might be tempted to use I or me to introduce a personal opinion and
sometimes that is ok, especially in a conclusion or perhaps introduction, however, if you write a
good essay that really engages with the question and the text then it will be clear to the examiner
that this is your personal response and you wont need to use I to make it obvious.
Exam Essay Checklist

Throughout this check sheet the phrase the issue refers to the ideas that the question wants you to
write about.
Introduction
does it avoid starting with phrases like In this essay I will be writing about ?
does it instead jump straight in to a direct statement about the issue in the texts being
discussed?
does it perhaps use a quotation that sums up the issue / answers the question?
does it clearly mention the names of the text(s) and writer(s) being discussed?
does it mention the text and writer names almost as an aside while talking about the issue?
does it grab your attention or sound like its going to make an interesting point?
does it avoid repeating the question without answering it?
does it avoid vague phrases e.g. phrases like various literary features or numerous
feelings
Main Body - Structure
does it have topic sentences at the start of each paragraph to make clear what the Point is?
does it use linking phrases (simple connectives and longer sentences) to join ideas together?
does it save its two strongest points for use at the start and end of the essay?
does the order of points flow logically / make sense?
does each paragraph clearly relate to the question?
does it avoid repetition are all related points grouped clearly together?
does it avoid repetitive phrases like: which again demonstrates

Main Body - Quality of Ideas
how well has the writer grasped the ideas/ themes/ moods/ attitudes / issues in the poems?
does it remain focussed on the issue?
does it identify clear points or comparisons (contrasts, similarities, progressions) if necessary?
does it identify interesting, insightful, clever or original points or comparisons?
does it develop ideas in depth are the paragraphs relatively long and detailed?
does it persuade you?
does it sound like the writer believes what they are saying and arent just repeating other
ideas?
Main Body Use of Evidence
does it use quotations from the text to support every point?
does it use more than one piece of evidence to support most points?
does it use short quotations which pick out the key words / sounds / literary feature?
does it smoothly embed quotations into the sentences most of the time?
Main Body - Appreciation of Literary Features
does it examine connotations of words in detail and the effect they have on the reader?
does it examine a wide range of literary features such as sounds, images, personification,
etc...?
does it examine at least some of the hard features such as structure, rhyme or rhythm?
does it make references to any absences, such as absence of rhyme, rhythm, dialogue,
people?
does it examine the use of tone / humour / satire?
does it examine the symbolism / significance of the historical, geographical or cultural setting?
Main Body - Additional Features for Novels & Plays
does it examine methods of characterisation, e.g. direct speech, description, actions,

thoughts?
does it examine narrative style: description, direct speech, narrator intervention,

foreshadowing?
does it examine narrative technique e.g. first / third person, differing points of view, speech,
etc?
Main Body - Language
does it frequently refer to the author / poet / playwright by surname?
does it use the words emphasises and reinforces at least once?
does it use technical vocabulary such as symbolism, alliteration, paralinguistic, etc?
does it put a comma after every connective i.e. However,
does it use the word quotation instead of quote?

Conclusion
does it clearly relate back to / answer the question without repeating it?
does it sum up the flavour of the essay rather than just recap the points already made earlier?
does it end with a most effective / most powerful point?
does it end with a snappy quotation / question / statement that leaves the reader thinking?
Revision Activities
There are three key things that you should bear in mind during revision:
Revision should be an active process, simply reading and re-reading old notes is not the best
way to get the information into your head
The best way to remember something is to make it your own. It may be hard to remember
whether or not your best friend likes, for example, cheese but it is easy to remember whether
or not you do. In fact, you dont need to remember at all: its just obvious. No one stands in
front of a block of cheese thinking: Hmm now do I like cheese or not? I can never
remember. Oh well, here goes. You dont need to ask that question because you just know.
Its the same with English, if you have your own view about a poem, play or novel then you
will remember it because its yours but if you are trying to remember my view then that will be
very much harder.
The best resource you have for revision is each other: work together, test each other,
challenge each other, mark each others work. Collaborating in this way will help both of you
do better
Bearing these three things in mind, here are some activities to help you revise:
On your own:
1. Re-write and re-order your notes rather than just reading over them.
2. Convert written notes into pictures, diagrams, brainstorms, character webs, etc
3. Brainstorm key moments / motifs / themes from a text
4. Re-read poems or important scenes from the play or novel and devise your own Organising
Principles for them.
5. Get blank copies of the texts and track them again to see if you notice any different now that you
are at the end of your course
6. Practise writing timed plans for different questions on each text. Give yourself 10 minutes per
question and come up with a series of main points and quotations you will use as evidence.
7. Write directors notes for a scene from a play, novel or poem. How would you use setting,
lighting, action, movement to convey the message of the poem?
In groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Pair up with a friend and write an essay about the same question and then mark each others
work using the Essay Checklist on this page.
Divide a text up into sections within a group and set each other quizzes on each section. The
quiz writers will get to know their section of the text really well and their questions will help draw
the attention of everyone else to important points in their section
Similarly devise quotation quizzes for each other so that you can practise identifying, locating and
remembering key quotations from the texts which will save you having to look them up in the
exam.
In pairs devise 5 or 6 essay questions for each other and get your partner to produce quick 10
minute plans for each question. The plans should outline 5 or 6 main points that could be made
and the quotations that might be used as evidence to support them. Discuss these as a pair did
the answerer make the same points as the question setter?
In pairs jointly write introductions or main body paragraphs in response to essay questions. Then
write paragraphs separately and swap and mark them.
Part 2- Literary Features

Connotation & Denotation
The main tool that poets can use to create an effect is, obviously, words. The words we use often
work on two levels. The first and simplest level is their denotation and the more complex and
interesting level is their connotation.
Denotation:
The denotation of a word is its basic meaning. For example the denotation of the word black is
simply the colour of the text on this screen. Black means this colour. The denotations of words are
useful for communicating ideas, descriptions and points of view clearly.
Conotation:
The words we use, however, do not stop there. They are rich with the shadows and echoes of other
meanings that they have acquired over the course of history. The connotations of the word black are
therefore much more interesting than the mere colour of this text. In this case Black suggests ideas
of death, evil, mourning, loss, sadness, darkness, fear, etc
The important difference to notice is between what a word means and what that word suggests.
Simply writing about the meanings of words will not get you a very good mark in your essays. Talking
about all the different things that a word suggests, all the different connotations of a word, on the other
hand, now that is how to score highly.
Here is a diagram that begins to trace all the different connotations of the colour white:
Sound Effects
How would you pronounce the word ghoti?
George Bernard Shaw once complained that English spelling was so crazy that the word ghoti could
actually be pronounced like the word fish. Confused? Heres how:
take the gh sound from the end of enough this gives you the fff sound
take the o sound from the word women this gives you the i sound
take the ti sound from the word emotion this gives you the sh sound
And if you put all three together you get the sound fff-i-sh
Aside from being a curiosity this highlights a mistake that students often make when they are writing
about sounds: that is, they confuse sound with the alphabetical appearance of a letter but there are
over 40 sounds in the English language and only 26 letters so some letters must be able to make
more than one sound.
This is obvious when you think about it. Compare the sound the letters ch make in the words cheap
and choir. In the first example the two letters make a fairly predictable ch sound but in the second
they make a sound a little more like a q. And it doesnt stop there: the same two letters in chef, for
example, even make a sh sound.
So, when talking about sounds, you have to bear in mind that really you are not just talking about the
letters used but the sounds those letters make. However, dont worry most of the time you will be able
to identify sounds just by looking at the letters because English generally sounds like it looks.
Here is a list of some typical sounds that you might be able to identify in the texts you are studying:
Sound
Technical Name
Effect
m / n / ung
nasals
calming and soothing
k/t/p/b/g/d
harsh consonants
violence, anger, etc
f / th
fricatives
calm or sinister
s / sh / z
sibilants
calm or sinister
e/o/i
high / short vowels
happiness
ay / or / ar
low / long vowels
Sadness
Onomatopoeia
Despite being the hardest word to spell in the English language, onomatopoeia is, very simply, when
the meaning of a word is echoed by or similar to its sound. Basically, it is when words sound like what
they mean. For example:
fizz
buzz
crash
bang
whisper
the zz sounds a bit the noise something makes when it is fizzing

is similar
the violent c sound makes this sound a bit like a crash
the harsh b sound here has a similar effect
the sibilant s makes you almost whisper this word out
It is often pointed out that fizzing things dont actually make the sound fizz, in the same way
that dogs dont actually go bark bark. While this is true there is enough of a similarity
between the zz sound in fizz and the hissing sound that fizzing things make for the sound of
the word to echo its meaning.
Here is the first stanza of a poem called Breakdown by Jean Kenward that uses
onomatopoeia to good effect:
Rackerty clackerty
clickerty BONG
the washing machine
Has gone terribly wrong,
Onomatopoeia can often be quite fun or used to create violent, loud, crashing, disruptive effects.
Symbols
One of the best ways to think of symbols is as shortcuts, kind of like emoticons, that help writers to
express an idea really quickly instead of taking the long way around. Instead of spending ages trying
to explain in detail a feeling or idea a writer can use a symbol to sum up that idea more quickly and
often much more effectively.
The world in which we live is full of symbols: the movies that we see, the books we read, the songs
we listen to all of them contain symbols and we are so used to them that most of the time we dont
even notice when they are being used. For example: roses and hearts suggest love, doves suggest
peace, lions suggest pride and power, etc
It is only because we know these symbols so well that writers can take advantage of them in their
texts. If we had to spend ages figuring out what a symbol meant then it would lose its effect. This is
what makes symbols such powerful tools and such great shortcuts for writers and film-makers. For
instance simply dressing a character in black and perhaps placing a swastika emblem on their clothes
automatically singles them out as a villain without any further work having to be done.
A more technical definition would be that a symbol is a word, picture or image which represents or
sums up another much bigger idea, feeling or quality.
This is very similar to the difference between the connotation and denotation of a word. The
denotation, the basic meaning of a rose is just the red flower but the connotations symbolise the ideas
of love and romance.
When analysing a text keep your eyes peeled for symbols or objects that could have a symbolic
meaning and dont forget that one object can have more than one symbolic meaning. A rose does not
necessarily suggest love; it might also suggest beauty or the idea of hidden danger because of the
thorns.
Consonant Sound Effects

When you notice sound effects in texts you must not just simply point them out. Instead you must
analyse how sounds are used by the writer to support the effect or Organising Principle that he or she
is trying to create.
Consonant Sound Effects:
Here is a poem written by Alexander Pope that makes good use of consonant sound effects:
But when loud surges lash the sounding shore,
The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar.
When Ajax strives, some rocks vast weight to throw,
The line, too, labours, and the words move slow;
Not so, when swift Camilla lightly scours the plain,
Flies oer th unbending corn, and skims along the main.
Notice how he chooses words with s and sh sounds in the first line to make the readers lips work at
the hissing noise of the sea, then words with r sounds in the second line, making the readers throat
do some rasping work. These are forceful and vigorous sounds for a physically violent scene.
When he wants to create a calmer effect, he uses words which contain m and n nasal sounds,
produced by letting air out through the nose, not working the tongue, lips, mouth or teeth. These
sounds are soothing and mellow, fir for a description of gentle lightness.
Tennyson wanted to create the drowsy heat of a summer day in his poem In Memoriam, so he wrote
the following:
The moan of doves in immemorial elms
And the murmuring of innumerable bees
He could have chosen other birds, trees and insects, as well as different adjectives and a verb. Would
it have had the same effect if he had written the following?
The croak of crows in timeless oaks
And the buzzing of hundreds of wasps
The sibilance and harsh c consonants in the second version make the scene seem much more
threatening than the gentle nasal sounds in the first.
Repeating consonant sounds at the start of words is called alliteration. Repeating these sounds
within words is called consonance.
Imagery
Imagery is often defined as something which creates a picture in your head. However, I have never
found this useful because it seems to me that poems very rarely actually create anything like pictures
in my head that I can actually see.
As such, a better way to think about imagery is that it is just a form of comparison that helps try to
explain one thing by comparing it to another. Now you may ask why anyone would bother with this.
Surely it would be simpler to just straight-forwardly describe something using adjectives rather than go
to all the trouble of making comparisons. This seems sensible at first but have you ever really tried
describing something accurately to someone else using just words? Its actually a lot harder than
youd think, especially if you are trying to describe something new to that person or make them see
the world in a new way, which is what poets and writers are often trying to do.
Making comparisons, then, is a good way of allowing us to use the knowledge that we already have to
understand the new things that someone is trying to tell us. Take giving directions for example its a
lot easier to understand directions to an area that youre already partly familiar with than directions to
somewhere that youve never been.
There are three main types of comparison that writers often use. The simplest is simile:
Simile:
A simile is a statement that uses like or as to make a comparison.
For example when I say the sun was as red as blood this evening, I have borrowed your already
existing knowledge of the sharp and bright colour of blood to give you an idea of how vibrant and
stunning the sunset was.
Metaphor:
A metaphor is a direct comparison between two things where you pretend that one
thing actually is another.
To turn the above example into a metaphor I would have to tell you about the blood-soaked sun which
set this evening. Obviously the sun was not really bleeding so what I am saying cannot literally be
true but it again conjures up the idea of a bright and shocking colour. You might notice as well that the
metaphor is a little more powerful than the simile and has a more threatening feel perhaps because,
without the words like or as, it is not so obviously a comparison.
Metaphors often work effectively as one-offs but sometimes writers try to push the metaphor as far as
it will go and use different versions of it again and again throughout their text. In this case the
metaphor has become an extended metaphor.
Personification:
Personification is when a writer gives human qualities to an animal / object / idea / any other
inanimate object.
Often personification is achieved by using adjectives or verbs that we usually associate with people,
particularly verbs that give objects desires, intentions, plans or emotions. We personify things all the
time in our daily lives e.g. we might describe our mobile phone as hiding in the bottom of our bag
when we cant find it or you might say that the traffic hates you because it always decides to be busy
whenever you go out. Time and luck are also often personified. Time can be described as running
away from us or chasing us and luck can be on our side or against us.
Tone
The tone of someones voice is very important in understanding exactly how they want you to interpret
what they are saying. Compare for instance, your teacher when they roar WHAT ON EARTH ARE
DOING? with your friends when they enquire What on earth are you doing? You know that the
second one is a question whereas the first one really isnt. The teachers tone of voice lets you know
that, although what theyre saying looks like a question on paper, its actually more like a statement
telling you to stop what you are doing right now. Indeed the teacher would probably not be pleased if
you answered their question and would probably take it as a sign that you were being cheeky thus
getting you into even more trouble.
The same is true in writing. The writers tone will tell you whether they are wondering, denying,
accusing, preaching, confessing or whatever.
Some poems are written as if the writer is speaking confidentially to their friends. Others may be very
direct or almost aggressive. In the following poem Dylan Thomas writes as someone desperately
urging the reader to listen and take advice about coping with old age before its too late. He is being
instructive, telling his reader how to behave:
Do not go gentle into that goodnight.
Old age should bun and rave at close of day.
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
In the last stanza of Dulce et Decorum Est (part of a Latin phrase which roughly translates as 'It is a
good thing to die for your country') Wilfred Owen personally accuses his reader, challenging their
thinking by directly addressing them and insisting that if they had seen what Owen had seen when he
was fighting in the trenches in World War One they would not believe that war is a brave
andhonourable thing.
If in some smothering dreams you too could pace
Behind the wagon that we flung him in,
And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,
His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin;
If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood
Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,
Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud
Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues,My friend, you would not tell with such high zest
To children ardent for some desperate glory,
The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est
Pro patria mori.
Literature Essay Writing Help

Book:
Article 1: Writing a Poetry essay
Many students experience writers block when they first begin writing a poetry essay. Poems
are unwieldy beings which throw up all sorts of images, ideas, associations and emotions.
As a result of this, it is not uncommon for a student to feel somewhat overwhelmed by their
thoughts on a given poem and to struggle with transforming their reading of it into structured
sentences and paragraphs. Here, planning is key. Plenty of students find it useful to follow a
set plan to order their thoughts. Making a few notes under useful headings prior to writing
the essay can give students the confidence they need to write a successful poetry essay.
Below is an example of a plan that has proven useful to many.
Introduction: Ideas, Attitudes and Feelings
In the introduction to a poetry essay, it is important that students signal that they know what
the poem is about. Thinking about the ideas, attitudes and feelings expressed in the poem
can be a handy way into getting a hold on its content. Is it a happy or a sad poem? What is
the subject matter? What events occur in the poem? Is it about memory, the present moment
or the future? What is the tone of the poem?
Voice
The question students must ask themselves here is, Who is speaking?. In some poems, the
speaker can be clearly identified. In others, the identity of the speaker may be a little more
difficult to detect. Is the poem written in first person? Who is it written to? How old might the
speaker be? Are they male of female?
Structure
The word structure refers to the way in which the ideas, events or details of the poem are
unfolded to the reader. For example, a poem might begin with a tone of uncertainty, move on
to ask a series of demanding questions and then end on a note of resignation. It can be
helpful to visually group together similar lines in a poem and see where the tone, language
or subject matter shifts and changes.
Language
When writing about poetry, the focus should be on the language that the poet uses.
Alliteration, assonance, adjectives and adverbs should all be scrutinised. What effects do
they create? Metaphor and similes should also be looked for. What images do they conjure
up? It can be interesting to see what sort of objects appear in a given poem. For example,
are there lots of objects that have to do with the world of work, or the beach, or wealth? Are
there any clusters of words, or semantic fields, that relate to the same subject? Does the
poet favour short or long words? Here, it is very important to give short quotations from the
poem and explain the effects the poets language choices have.
Form
The form of a poem should not be confused with the structure of the poem. It refers to the
way in which the poem is crafted. Rhyme, metre and stanza organisation are all key here. Is
the poem long or short? Are lines grouped into stanzas? Does the poet use rhyme? Are
rhyming couplets employed? Is the rhyme regular or irregular? Is there a uniform number of
beats in each line? Which words rhyme together? Students should brush up on the literary
terms that are used to describe the formal elements of poetry so that they are able to cite
aspects of the poem as evidence for their points and explain the effects produced.
Conclusion
Just as every essay should always have an introduction, a conclusion is also mandatory.
Here, students should sum up the main points that have been made in the body of their
essay. They might also like to close with a short discussion of which of the poems features
most intrigued them and why.
Reading poems can be illuminating and thought provoking. Equally, writing an essay on
poetry can prove a creative and engaging task. Crucially, the student should adopt an
inquisitive and critical reading stance and pay attention to every choice the poet has made in
the creation of their poem.
Article 2: Comparing and contrasting two poems essay

Throughout your career as a student you'll have to write several kinds of essays. One of
these is the compare and contrast essay. Literature students, for instance, must write
compare and contrast essays on two specific works of literature -- in this case, poetry.
Such essays analyze the similarities and differences between two literary works to
encourage critical thinking.
Step 1
Choose an idea or theme to focus the essay on, such as love, nature or death. Literary
movements have certain characteristics that make it easy to pinpoint two poems with
similar ideas or themes. For example, compare Miguel Hernandez's and Pablu Neruda's
accounts of love.
Step 2
Make a Venn diagram by drawing two overlapping circles -- one for each poem by the two
authors. Write the similarities in the overlapping section of the circle, such as similarities
in form, technique or ideas. In the individual spaces of the two circles write
characteristics independent of each other. When making the diagram, consider what
each poem is about. Are they part of the same literary movement? What is the focus of
each poem? What is the author's tone? Is the poem broad or narrow in scope?
Step 3
Work on the thesis of your essay. Your thesis will organize the thoughts swirling in your
head so your essay has direction for not only the reader but also for you. Consider the
expectations of the essay. For instance, why are you writing this paper on these poems?
Why should people care? To this end, consider the content of your class. Your thesis
should not merely announce the comparison to the two poems but also your method of
doing so.
Step 4
Organize your paper either subject-by-subject or point-by-point. The former involves
discussing all the characteristics, ideas and themes of the first and second poems in full.
The latter discusses one point of a particular poem and transitions into a similar or
contrasting point of the second poem back and forth.
Step 5
Outline the essay according to the format you are using. Write the main point of each
paragraph followed by a list of subpoints to emphasize or exemplify your main point.
Step 6
Write the introduction of the essay. Move from the general (poetry) to the specific (the
poems). Your first two sentences should tell the reader the "what" and "why" of the
essay. Include your thesis near the end of the paragraph but before the transition into the
body.
Step 7
Draft each body paragraph according to your outline. Start each paragraph with a topic
sentence telling the reader the main point you are discussing. Use examples from the
poems to make your points stronger. Use transitional phrases to help the reader
comprehend the flow of ideas. Some transitional devices include: like, similar to, also,
unlike, similarly, in the same way, compared to, likewise, again, on the contrary,
however, although, yet and conversely.
Step 8
Conclude the essay with a brief summary of the main idea or ideas. Make a conclusion
based on the two poems' similarities and differences. End with a restatement of the
thesis and a final thought on the essay that leaves readers thinking long after they finish
reading.
Article 3: Analysing novels and writing an essay

Used primarily in literature, an analysis essay requires the writer to interpret a literary
work. Writing an analysis essay can be a challenge for students because many have only
been taught how to write descriptive essays. An analyzing essay differs, however,
because it requires the student to interject her own opinion and interpretation of the text
and its meaning. Writing these essays usually require a combination of research and
creativity.
Step 1
Choose a literary work to analyze. Choosing a book that has had many different scholarly
critical evaluations already will be helpful for your first analysis essay. This will allow you
to view the work of professional scholars in the field and understand how to analyze a
literary work.
Step 2
Read the piece of literature in its entirety. Take notes as you read. Make note of the main
characters, the overall plot of the story and any details that may be important to the
story or may have some type of symbolic significance.
Step 3
Develop a thesis upon which to base your essay. The thesis stresses the main theme or
underlying meaning of the book you are reading. This meaning may be readily apparent
as you read the book, or it may be a deeper symbolic meaning that requires digging
deeper into the text. It may require you to look at the work of other scholars, too, but try
to develop the thesis on your own first. This will help to avoid plagiarizing any ideas from
other scholars.
Step 4
Create an outline for the structure of your paper. The paper should consist of three major
parts: an introduction, body and conclusion. The introduction will contain your thesis and
some additional information regarding the setting of the book.
Step 5
Write the body of your essay. The body of the essay will elaborate on the main thesis of
the paper. Since your thesis indicates what the main theme of the book is, the remainder
of your paper should explain how this theme is recurrent throughout the book. Follow the
basic chronology of the book highlighting the main theme as it appears in various places
throughout the book. Each instance should point back to the main thesis of your paper.
Step 6
Conclude the essay by reemphasizing the main thesis of the paper and bringing the
various elements of your essay together. The conclusion is your last chance to tell the
reader that you have discovered the main theme of the book and provided an accurate
analysis.
Step 7 Revise to be sure your ideas come across clearly. Proofread for spelling and
punctuation errors
Commenting on poetry:
Commenting on context- Overview
The context of a poem can help you to understand it better. Context can
include:
the time and place the poem was written
how the poem has been read at different times and in different situations
biographical details about a writers life
how the poem relates to literary traditions
times and places referred to in the poem
Knowing about these things can give us an insight into the poets
intentions and purpose in writing a poem. A poem may appeal to you
more strongly during a particular stage of your life. Also consider how
different readers might have engaged with a poem through time. These
factors can all influence the way a poem is interpreted, so the final
meaning of a poem is never entirely fixed.
If you are writing your response to a poem and have been asked to
comment on context, its important that you only offer information that
is relevant to the question, rather than just including all facts you know
about a poem or the poet. This guide will help you think through different
contextual factors to help you develop your skills.
About the poet
Wilfred Owen is considered one of the greatest war poets

Often, a poem will reflect aspects of the writers life. However we cant
always assume a poem is autobiographical, even if it is written in the first
person.
Biographical clues from a poems context can give you insights into its
themes or message. Some questions you might ask include:
Are events or places from the poets life reflected in the poem?
Are people or relationships from the poets life reflected in the poem?
Are the poets ideas or beliefs reflected in the poem?
You can research the poets background to discover answers to these

questions. Be careful to only include details you have discovered that
reveal something about the poem.
Case study
Wilfred Owen is considered one of the greatest war poets. His poems
contain vivid, horrific details of soldiers experiences in World War One.
These details were communicated to people back at home in Britain, who
did not necessarily understand the miserable conditions soldiers were
facing at the time.
QQuestion
Which of these facts about Owens life might be useful when

answering a question about his portrayal of war in his poems?
Owen was born in Oswestry in the Welsh borders
he spent time teaching in France
he fought as a soldier in World War One and suffered shell shock
he was awarded the military cross for bravery
he was killed in action in the final week of the war
AHide answer
The fact Owen served as a soldier, and that he died whilst out on
service, are important to many readers of his poems. He saw the
reality of the war for himself, and had first-hand experience of it.
Details about his birth and earlier life may be interesting, but what
is most relevant to understanding his poems is the context of his
military service.
Times, places, events

Some poems may refer directly to places, events and particular times in
history. This information may be clear in the poem itself but if it isnt, you
could research facts about a poem to find out these details.
Poets sometimes find the subjects or themes of their poems from source
material. For instance, Lord Byrons poem The Destruction of
Sennacherib is based on a story in the Old Testament of the Bible, and
knowing this can help us understand that poem more fully, even though
Byron does not mention the source in the poem itself.
Case study
'What Were They Like?' explores the effects of the Vietnam War
Denise Levertovs poem What Were They Like?opens with the lines 1) Did
the people of Vietnam/ use lanterns of stone? and goes on to ask
questions about the culture of Vietnam. The second half of the poem
answers these questions with references to their children were killed and
bombs smashed those mirrors, showing something terrible happened in
the country.
QQuestion
How might the following facts about Vietnam develop our

understanding of this poem?
Vietnam is a country in South East Asia with ancient cultural traditions
conflict between the North and South of the country resulted in war that
began in the 1940s and ended in 1975
during the war it is estimated that 4 million civilians and over 1 million
soldiers died
chemical weapons such as napalm were used in the war causing horrific
burns
it took many years for Vietnam to recover from the war, but now it is a
peaceful country and popular with tourists for its beauty and culture
AHide answer
Knowing some details about the war helps our understanding of this
poem - eg if we know about napalm, the line laughter is bitter to
the burned mouth is even more powerful. Also, although the war
will never be forgotten, knowing the country is flourishing again may
make readers feel more hopeful when reading the poem.
The reader
The way different readers interpret poems and their opinions of poets can
change over time. A poem that was read in one way when it was first
written can be read very differently today.
When considering the readers of a poem, you might ask yourself:
how might this poem have been read when first published?
have readers views and attitudes changed since then?
how is this poem seen today?
Case study
Mary Lamb wrote stories and poems, often for children

Mary Lambs poem Envy was first published in 1809 in Poetry for Children.
The verse was originally illustrated with a picture of a young girl and her
mother. Rhymes and stories that taught a moral lesson to young children
were popular in the 18th and 19th centuries and Lamb is writing in this
tradition.
Today, some readers may think such moral lessons seem a bit old
fashioned. Others may argue that nursery rhymes remain popular and
have not gone out of fashion, so readers still enjoy this form. Envy is still
an emotion people feel today, so maybe the poem is still as relevant as
when it was written.
Literary contexts
Romanticism is often about an artist's relationship to nature. Modernism is

often about Man's relationship to society
We can deepen our understanding of many poems by thinking about how
they fit into literary traditions such as the genre or form, or whether they
reflect a particular literary movement such as Romanticism or Modernism.
Romanticism
Romanticism is a term used to describe developments in literature, art
and music in the late 18th and early 19th century. Some key Romantic
ideas include a focus on the power of nature, imagination, revolution, the
world of children and the lives of people marginalised in society.

Romanticism has been very influential and important British Romantic
poets include Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley, Byron, Blake.
John Keats poem To Autumn is an address to the season, celebrating its
beauty and exploring its changes as winter is on the horizon. The poem is
packed with images of natural, rural beauty. Observing Keats focus on
nature as part of a Romantic tradition helps us see how the poem is about
the link between humans and nature.
Consider
What other poems do you know which are about the natural world? They
may have been written hundreds of years after Keats and other Romantics
were writing, but you can still think about the effect of that tradition.
Themes
There are recurring themes in poetry such as:
love / relationships
power / conflict
time / place
youth / age
Thinking about how poems relate to these ideas can be helpful. You may
not know this information from a poem itself, but it helps to research it
separately. Remember to only write about details which are relevant to the
question set.
Comparing Poems:
Overview
You can discover a lot about a poem by comparing it to one by another

poet that deals with a similar subject or has a similar theme.
Thinking about two poems and identifying where they differ and are
similar can give you a deeper appreciation and understanding of them.
You should not be thinking about whether one poem is better than
another, but about the ways in which the poets have approached their
subject matter.
Things to consider
Themes - are both poems about similar issues or themes?

Attitudes - are the poets expressing similar or different attitudes to their
themes?
Form - are the poems written in a clearly recognisable form or not?

Structure how have the poets chosen to set out the poem and its
stanza(s) on the page?
Language - are there striking features of language (like phrases or lines
that stand out) in each poem?
Rhythm and rhyme - do the poets use rhythm or rhyme schemes in the
same way?
When analysing a poem, try to identify more than just what techniques
are being used by the poet. Look at ways in which the use of form,
structure and language link to the meaning and effect of the poem/s.
Structuring a comparative essay
Packing your analysis of two poems into one essay involves planning.
There are different ways you could approach writing a comparative essay.
These are some points to think about:
use the introduction to explain which poems you are writing about
try to balance out the detail you include for each poem
compare the poems throughout the essay
comment on content, themes, ideas and attitudes as well as form,

structure and language
sum up your thoughts on ways in which the poems are similar and different
in your conclusion
Example question
Compare the two poems about family relationships; Walking Away by Cecil
Day Lewis and Eden Rock by Charles Causley. Where do they share
similarities and differences?
Which of the two essay structures works better when responding to the
example essay question?
Structure A
Introducti How both talk about family relationships

on
between parents and children
How Walking Away deals with family
Paragrap
relationships - themes and form,
h1
How Eden Rock deals with family
Paragrap
relationships - themes and form,
h2
Paragrap
h3
Ways in which they are similar
Paragrap
h4
Ways in which they are different
Conclusio
n
Sum up comparison
Structure B
Introducti How both talk about family relationships

on
between parents and children
How the themes and ideas of Walking
Paragrap
Away and Eden Rock are similar and
h1
different
How the form and structure of Walking
Paragrap
Away and Eden Rock compare and how
h2
this links to their effect
Paragrap How the language of Walking
h3
Away and Eden Rock compare and how

this links to their effect
Conclusio
n
Sum up comparison
Feedback
Either of the examples above could produce a good essay as they both
explore each poem and compare their similarities and differences.
However in structure B, the comparison takes place throughout the
whole essay and avoids looking at the poems separately. This is a better
model to use and one which can be applied to comparisons of other
poems.
Comparing themes, ideas and attitudes
Conflict, love and time are themes that are often explored in poetry
You may be presented with two poems to compare and in other instances,
you may be presented with one poem but be given the option to choose
another poem to compare it with. This will often involve two poems that
tackle similar themes which might include:
love / relationships
power / conflict
time / place
youth / age
Comparisons exercise
Here are some questions to help you think about the themes, ideas and
attitudes of two poems when making a comparison:
Who is the speaker in each poem?
How are the speaker's views similar or different?
Does one poem present a more positive view than the other?
Do they focus on the same aspect of the overall theme?
Is there a stronger point of view in one poem compared to the other?
Do they concentrate on one aspect of a theme or explore different areas?
What about the tone or mood of each poem - are they similar?
Example
Two poems that deal with the theme of family relationships are Walking
Away by Cecil Day Lewis and Eden Rock by Charles Causley. Although they
share the same overall theme, the poems also differ in other areas.
Area
of
focus
Similar
Parent/child
relationship,
childhood,
necessary move
away from parents
as child grows up,
strong family love
Theme outlasting
s
separation.
Different
Walking Away - parent

speaking about
child;Eden Rock - child
speaking about
parents.Walking Away loss, letting go; Eden
Rock - loss, idea of
being reunited.
The table provides some ideas for how you might compare these two
poems but it is not a definitive list of points. It is through exploring and
identifying these similarities and differences that enable us to deepen our
understanding of the poems.
Next step
Try this comparisons exercise with two poems you know that tackle similar
themes. Explore whether or not the poets present the themes differently,
and think about the more subtle differences between them. Consider the
attitude of the speakers and the ideas which are presented in each poem.
Comparing the effect of form, structure and language
Two pieces of art, depicting the same thing in very different ways
An important aspect of analysing poems involves making comment on
form, structure and language. For a reminder of how to approach this sort
of analysis, read the study guide on 'Responding to poetry'.
When comparing the use of form, structure and language in two poems
it's important to remember that the poets will have specifically chosen to
write their poem in a particular way. They will have thought about how
form, structure and language would suit their intended effect. It is
particularly important that you think about ways in which form, structure
and language link to meaning and effect.
Example question
Read the opening of these two poems and think about ways in which they
are similar or different. Try to concentrate on their form, structure and
language.
Poem A
Exposure
by Wilfred Owen
Our brains ache, in the merciless iced east wind that knife us
Wearied we keep awake because the night is silent.
Poem B
The Destruction of Sennacherib
by Lord Byron
The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold;
Example response
Just from the opening two lines of each poem, you can already see ways in
which the poems work differently.
Which of the following responses do you think works best?
Example A
Byron uses a simile like a wolf on the fold which shows how strong the
army is. He compares it to a wolf attacking sheep. However, Wilfred Owen
does not use a simile which makes his opening less powerful.
Example B
Both poets create a strong visual impression in the opening lines. Byron
does this through the simile like a wolf on the fold, comparing the army
to a wolf attacking helpless sheep and showing the armys power. Owens
use of merciless iced east winds shows the bitter cold of the wind, and
the image of it kniving the soldiers shows its violence.
Feedback
Example B is the strongest response. Although example A appreciates the
power of Byrons opening, the understanding is weaker because it tries to
match up the use of a simile too directly with Owen. Owens opening is
not less powerful because it does not have a simile, the poet has just
chosen a different approach.
Next step
Think about two poems you have read and focus specifically on comparing
the ways in which their form, structure and language contribute to their
meaning and effect.
Comparing contexts
You may be asked to compare the contexts of two poems. For a reminder
of how to approach this sort of analysis, read the study guide
on 'Responding to poetry'.
As with other areas of comparison, you should comment on more than just
the different contexts between two poems. Think about how their contexts
relate to each other wherever possible. Try to avoid:
worrying about some poems having very famous or obvious contexts

compared to others - you can consider context in different ways.
fitting in information without relating this to the comparison of the poems

and the focus of the question being asked.
Questions to ask
Think about pairs of poems you know whose contexts could be compared
with one another using the following prompts:
historical contexts - period when poems were written, events in the past
they are about
locations - places or types of places that poems are written about
social and cultural contexts - particular ways of life, people's experiences of

life that are the focus of the poems
literary contexts - genres or particular forms that a poem may be written in

(eg a sonnet) or literary movements a poem may relate to (eg
Romanticism)
readers contexts - ways in which different readers have engaged with the
poems throughout time and in different situations
biographical contexts - how knowledge about poets' lives have affected the
way poems are read
Example
The table below demonstrates some examples for how you might
approach comparing the contexts between two poems.
Context
Historical
Place
Poem A
Poem B
Ideas for
comparison
Exposureby
Wilfred
Owen
Both war
poems: Owen WW1; Armitage
- contemporary
Middle East
conflict. Both
show tragedy
of war and
Remainsb effect on
y Simon
serving
Armitage soldiers.
Living
Space by
Imtiaz
Dharker
Domestic
locations, how
we live in our
homes - life
and buildings.
Dharker precarious
Cozy
buildings, poor
Apologiab lives, Dove y Rita
comfortable,
Dove
safe.
Social and Kamikazeby The

cultural
Beatrice
migreb
Garland
y Carol
Rumens
People affected
by conflict,
excluded from
home, culture,
Context
Poem A
Poem B
Ideas for
comparison
sadness, effect
of culture on
individuals.
Garland speaker within
country,
reflecting on
life as an
outcast.
Rumens speaker safe
but banished
from homeland.
Literary
Influence of
Romanticism:
power of nature
in both, impact
of death. Byron
- relationship
with past,
The
biblical
Destruction
account. Keats
of
To
- focus on the
Sennacherib Autumnb present,
by Lord
y John
personal
Byron
Keats
account.
Context
Readers
Poem A
Envy by
Mary Lamb
Biographic To
al
Autumnby
John Keats
Poem B
What
Were
They
Like? by
Denise
Levertov
Living
Space by
Imtiaz
Dharker
Ideas for
comparison
Lamb - moral
message in
nursery rhymes
popular at the
time, but still
relevant now.
Levertov Vietnam War in
more recent
past, a second
voice used,
reader looks
back with
hindsight.
Biographical
details add to
poems power.
Keats - died not
long after poem
published,
sense of own
death present?
Dharker modern-day
poet who's
spent much
time in
Context
Poem A
Poem B
Ideas for
comparison
Mumbai,
affected by life
in slum towns.
Responding to Poetry:
Overview
Different people will respond to poetry in different ways. You may be

asked to write an essay outlining your personal response to, and
understanding of, a poem. Sometimes you will be asked to compare one
poem with another. Both involve giving a personal response and
offering critical analysis. Although, there are many different ways you
can respond to poetry, there are some simple steps you can follow.
Your personal response
Read a poem and think about the effect it has on you. Read it through
again at least two or three times before starting to write about it. If you
are writing about a poem you have already studied before, re-reading it
will remind you of its effect.
If there are parts of the poem you dont understand or confuse you, dont
worry. At this stage, you are just trying to work out your general response
to the poem.
Questions to consider:
how does this poem make me feel?
are there particular parts of the poem that stand out for me and why?
what is the poet saying or how is the poet expressing themselves that
makes me feel this way?
are there other ways that someone else might interpret the poem?
what are the details in the poem that might support another interpretation?
Example question
Read this first stanza of Jackie Kays poem Dusting the Phone. Think
about what your response to it is and what stands out to you. Try reading
it twice and closing your eyes and looking away, what do you remember
from it?
Dusting the Phone

by Jackie Kay
I am spending my time imagining the worst that could happen.
I know this is not a good idea, and that being in love, I could be
spending my time going over the best thing that has been happening.
Sample response
We can see that the speaker is 'in love' and she imagines 'the worst that
could happen'. This is striking because we imagine being in love as being
something that makes people happy. However the first stanza shows that
this isnt always the case and that love can make someone anxious and
worried.
Feedback
This response demonstrates the readers engagement with the poem and
shows an understanding of the way the poem offers a surprising view of
love. It includes short references from the poem that is effectively woven
into the response.
What to look for in a poem
It's always worth thinking about meaning, imagery, tone, structure and
language when looking at a poem
Once you have thought about your own personal response and other
people's possible responses, think in more detail about how the poem is
achieving its effect. There may not be a clear, right answer, and there
isnt a comprehensive list of things you must comment on. However, there
are some general approaches that can help you think about the power of
a poem.
Themes, ideas and attitudes

There are popular themes in poetry such as love, conflict, time, place,
nature, family, and childhood, but a poem can have any theme. Poets
want to express something to the reader. This is often something they feel
very strongly about so thinking about the message behind the poem is a
good starting point.
Questions to consider:
is it clear what the poem is about and is there a clear theme?
could the poem be about different things and why might you think this?
are there key lines or phrases that stand out to you as saying something
strongly?
are the themes/ideas clear throughout, or do they emerge or change during

the poem?
are there any particular clues in the title or at the start and end of the
poem?
Example question
Read the title and opening four lines of To Autumn by John Keats. What
themes , ideas or attitudes are emerging?
To Autumn
by John Keats
Seasons of mist and mellow fruitfulness,
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun:
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eaves run;
Sample response
The title tells the reader that this poem is centred on the season of
Autumn. The opening stanza focuses on and establishes aspects of nature
during this season, with references to mists, the sun, vines and the eaves
of a thatched cottage. This gives the impression that the speaker very
much admires this beautiful, rural, autumnal scene.
Feedback
This response demonstrates the reader's understanding of the poem being
about nature and autumn and that they form the central themes for the
poem. It also shows an understanding of the speakers attitude, which is
admiration of the season.
Form, structure and language
To see the difference between these three terms, think of a house where
the whole building is the poem's form, the rooms are the poem's structure
and the furniture is the poem's language
It is crucial to observe a poem's form, structure and language but once
you've identified the techniques that a poet has used for these, you
should think about how they link to the meanings and effects of a poem.
Meaning
Form
Some poems
adopt specific
forms eg
sonnets or
narrative
poems. Many
dont have an
identifiable
form.
Structur The way the

e
poet has
organised the
poem on the
page eg
number of
stanzas, lines
per stanza,
breaks in
between lines
and stanzas.
Questions
Consideratio
to ask
ns
yourself
Can you
spot a
specific
form? Why
might the
poet have
chosen
this? How
does it link
to the
message
of the
poem or
its ideas?
How might
the way
the poem
appears on
the page
link to its
meaning
and effect?
If the poem
does not have
a specific form
you recognise,
think about
the impact of
the structure.
Think about
big and small
building blocks
of a poem the overall
shape,
number of
stanzas,
length of
stanzas,
length of lines,
movement
Meaning
Questions
Consideratio
to ask
ns
yourself
between lines
and stanzas.
The poem
may have a
rhyme
scheme
and/or a
Rhyme, noticeable
rhythm, rhythm in
metre
each line.
Can you
spot a
rhyme
scheme? Is
this
regular or
varied?
Are there a
regular
number of
beats or
stresses in
each line?
Does this
vary? How
does this
link to the
mood of
the poem?
Dont just
count beats
and rhyming
words, think
how these link
to the mood of
the poem.
Languag The power of

e
individual
words or
phrases and
When I
read the
poem and
look away,
Language is
like the engine
of a poem.
What fires it
Meaning
Poetic
techniqu
es or
devices
Questions
Consideratio
to ask
ns
yourself
what
words,
phrases or
lines do I
remember
? Why are
they
powerful?
How does
the
language
of the
poem
the overall
support
effect of the the overall
language in a effect and
poem.
meaning?
up is thinking
about the
power of the
language. This
can be a
strategy for
getting to the
heart of a
poem.
Ways in
which a poet
uses
language in a
particular
way to create
effect eg
simile,
metaphor,
Identifying
techniques is
only the first
step. A good
analysis has to
think about
how these link
to meaning
and effect.
Once Ive
felt the
mood and
message
of a poem,
can I spot
the ways
the poet
has used
Meaning
Questions
Consideratio
to ask
ns
yourself
language
to support
the
meaning?
How do
specific
alliteration,
techniques
personificatio link to
n.
meaning?
Example question
Read the opening of She Walks in Beauty by Lord Byron. Select one thing
that strikes you about the form, structure or language and think about
how that might link to the meaning or effect of the opening.
She Walks in Beauty

by Lord Byron
She walks in beauty, like the night
Of cloudless climes and starry skies;
And all thats best of dark and bright
Meet in the aspect of her eyes.
Sample response
Byron uses a simile to compare the woman to a cloudless and starry
night. By opening the poem in this way, he immediately conveys what a
strong impression she made on him. Comparing her to such a striking
natural scene suggests he finds her very beautiful, perhaps even
sparkling like the stars he refers to and therefore standing out from other
people.
Feedback
This response does more than just stating that a simile is used. It shows
clear understanding of the effect of this use and provides an
understanding, and appreciation, for why the poet chose to begin the
poem in this way.
Responding to an essay question

Identifying key words
Begin by identifying the key words in the question which stand out for
you.
In the table are examples of key words or phrases that may appear in an
essay question, along with ideas for how you could tackle them. You
should always address what the words in the question are asking you to
do in your response.
Exam
question
type
Key words and

phrases to look
out for
Comparis Compare/compare
on
and contrast/identify
similarities and
differences.
How
to
appro
Considera
ach
tions
the
questi
on
Write
about
ways
in
which
two or
more
poems
are
Try to
compare
the poems
throughout
your
response,
rather
than
writing
Exam
question
type
Key words and

phrases to look
out for
How
to
appro
Considera
ach
tions
the
questi
on
similar
and
ways
in
which
they
are
about
differe them
nt.
separately.
Understan The ways in which

ding how the poem/the ways
a poem
in which the poet.
works
Write
about
how
theme
s,
ideas
and
form,
structu
re and
langua
ge link
to the
You are not

being
asked just
what a
poem says
but also
about how
it gets that
message
across.
Exam
question
type
Key words and

phrases to look
out for
How
to
appro
Considera
ach
tions
the
questi
on
meani
ng and
effect
of a
poem.
Analys
e the
poem
showin
g you
can
offer
ideas
about
Approachi
the
ng the
Consider/explore/dis way it
essay
cuss/write about.
works.
Think
about
different
possible
readings
and dont
be afraid
to offer
your
personal
response.
Highlighting key words

What are the key words to highlight in the following sample questions?
QQuestion
Explore how Carole Rumens presents ideas of home and conflict

inThe migre.
AHide answer
Explore how Carole Rumens presents ideas of home and

conflict inThe migre.
QQuestion
What are the key words in this essay title?

In Walking Away by C Day Lewis, how does the poet present the
speakers feelings about their child?
AHide answer
In Walking Away by C Day Lewis, how does the poet present the
speaker's feelings about their child?
Essay plan
When writing an essay, its important to first spend some time planning
out what you are going to include in your response. The benefits to
planning mean that:
you wont have to keep stopping to work out the details once you start
writing.
you will keep more focused on the question and not wander off track.
you can organise what evidence from the text you will need.
you pace yourself better and stand less chance of running out of time
through forgetting important things.
In an essay response for poetry, your plan is likely to contain the elements
you see in this table:
Essay section
What to include
Introduction: Brief outline of what

one paragraph you intend to
Notes
Introductions
should be
Essay section
What to include
Notes
short and tothe-point.

Dont repeat
the question.
Show that
you
understand
the meaning
of the
question and
include. Overview of indicate how
the poem(s) which
you will
are specific to the
answer it. If
question being
comparing
asked. Pay attention poems, make
to key words and to it clear which
any bullet points in
ones you are
the question.
writing about.
Body of
essay: a
series of
paragraphs
Paragraphs covering:
themes/ideas/attitud
es, form and
structure, rhythm,
rhyme, language and
contexts (if it's a part
of the question).
Relate each of these
to the essay title.
Use the key words
You may have

more to say
about one
part of the
question than
another, but
make sure
you cover all
the parts
asked and
Essay section
What to include
Notes
refer to
themes/ideas
youve spotted. Back and content,
up the points you
as well as
make with details or form,
quotations from the structure and
poem.
language.
Refer back to the

essay title. Sum up
what you have said
in your essay to
address that title.
Again, mention key
words. Make sure
your personal
response to the
Conclusion:o poem has come
ne paragraph across.
This
paragraph
may be quite
short, but it is
your chance
to show that
you have
answered the
question fully
and that you
have been
able to offer
your own
personal
response.
Using Quotations:
Different readers can have completely different views about the same poem. When
you offer your interpretation, you need to be able to say why you think as you
do. Thats where quoting or referring to the text can help.
When using quotations from a poem, you need to:
choose your quotations carefully and keep them brief (a line or two at most
is usually enough, but a word or phrase may also be fine)
fit it into the flow of your writing
explain what the quotation shows about the poets intentions
describe the effect the poets words have on the reader
Sometimes youll use a reference rather than a quotation. This means describing a
particular part of the text, rather than writing an exact quote from it.
Choosing quotations
When you first read a poem, some words or phrases will stand out.
Highlight these key words in the text so they are easy to find. Ask
yourself:
what does this quotation show about the poets choice of words?
why did these words attract my attention?
Example
Winter Swans
by Owen Sheers
the waterlogged earth
gulping for breath at our feet
QQuestion
Discuss the poets choice of words in this quotation.

AHide answer
Sheers has chosen words to suggest the sounds the walkers will
hear, capturing the glugging sound made when you walk over wet
mud. The g sound in waterlogged is echoed in gulping, which
itself is an example of an onomatopoeia. The wet earth struggling
for breath is an example of personification. Sheers is bringing the
landscape to life in his poem.
QQuestion
Why do these words grab the readers attention?

AHide answer
The image of people walking over a gulping creature is disturbing

and vivid. It is as if they are crushing the life out of it, almost
without noticing.
Forming a view
Use this process with each of the quotations you highlight in a poem. Put
them all together and your answers will help you to form a view about the
poem as a whole.
When writing about the poem, use your quotations as evidence to support
your views. You should try to say something about the poets intention in
their choice of words, the effect the words have on the reader and why
they attracted your attention.
Writing with quotations
Once youve chosen your quotation and you know what you want to say
about it, your next task is to work out how it fits into the flow of your
writing.
Framing your quotation

Think of the quote as a piece of a puzzle that you need to slot inside the
rest of your sentence.
Introduce the quotation by making a point about the poets intention, then
insert the quote and follow up by explaining the effect the quotation has
on the reader.
INTENTION - QUOTATION - EFFECT
Example
Exposure
by Wilfred Owen
Our brains ache, in the merciless iced east winds that knive us...
Wearied we keep awake because the night is silent...
Low, drooping flares confuse our memories of the salient...
Worried by silence, sentries whisper, curious, nervous,
But nothing happens.
Owen intentionally rhymes words on the hard consonant sounds in knive

us, nervous, silent and salient. The effect is unsettling and vividly
conveys to the reader the feelings of a soldier lying low on a battlefield.
Formatting rules
Surround the quote in inverted commas.
If it is a whole line or more from the poem, you should set it out on a line on
its own, slightly indented from the margin.
You should follow the same layout that the poet does. If quoting more than
one line, start a new line when the poet does.
If you have a shorter quotation within your own sentence, use a forward
slash (/) to show where the new line starts (eg 'Worried by silence, sentries
whisper, curious, nervous,/ But nothing happens.')
Quotation or reference?
Sometimes a single quotation doesnt have all the evidence you need to
back up the point you want to make.
Short quotations
Quote from 'Eden Rock' by Charles Causley

If you want to reference a short phrase or several words from the poem,
you can do so by using speech marks within a sentence, like this:
The sky whitens as if lit by three suns. is an unusual line that offers a
dream-like symbol of the three members of the family in the poem.
Quotations as short as this don't need to be indented as this would spoil
the flow of your writing and make it hard for your reader to follow. Instead,
put each phrase you want to mention inside its own set of speech marks.
References
Reference of a quote from 'Eden Rock' by Charles Causley

Sometimes you may want to comment on lines from different parts of a
poem. Rather than try to link two quotations, you can make a textual
reference instead. This means summarising what the lines say and adding
your comment. You may want to comment on the similarities between the
first two lines from Eden Rock by Charles Causley. You could do it with a
textual reference and without need for speech marks like this:
Three suns seem to be in the sky. Perhaps, like the three plates in the
poem, they are a dream-like symbol representing the three members of
the family.
Variety
If youre writing an essay, use both quotations and textual references to
keep your reader engaged and interested. If you always make your points
in the same way, it can make your writing seem dull and repetitive.
Therefore, try to use a mixture of:
short quotations - worked into your sentences
longer quotations - indented from the margin and framed by your

introduction and follow-up sentences
textual references - summarising parts of the poem and adding your

comment
Choosing what to include

Your point of view about a poem is as valid as anyone elses, as long as
you can back it up with a reference to the text. It's important to choose
your reference carefully so that it backs up the point you want to make.
The table below provide some good and bad examples of essay
comments.
Essay comment
Feedback
William Blakes A Poison

Tree poem is creepy and
sinister. He has clearly set out
to frighten the reader.
To be improved:
The opinion might
be right, but the
writer offers no
proof to back it up.
Jackie Kay's Dusting the

Phone signals the narrators
jumpy state-of-mind by the
rhetorical questions, 'Who
would ring me to tell?' and
'What?'. The impression given
is of a nervous woman who is
talking to herself and
supplying the answers, too.
Good: Short
quotations are
woven into the flow
of the sentences, to
support the points
being made.
Cecil Day-Lewis' Walking

Away sets out to describe his
feelings at saying goodbye to
his son: 'A sunny day with
leaves just turning'. The
reader, too, feels the poets
sadness.
To be improved:
The quotation does
not make any
reference to the
poets feelings of
sadness. It is not
relevant to the point
Essay comment
Feedback
being made.
Mary Lamb intends her

poem, Envy, to be lighthearted and kindly and she
reassures the reader with
gentle imagery throughout.
To be improved:
The opinion might
be accurate, but the
comment does not
offer any detailed
proof to support it.
Remembering quotations
Learning key quotations off by heart is useful for essay writing

It is important to learn key quotations when you come to write an essay.
Its helpful to memorise a selection of quotations from different poems for
when you are asked to compare the work of two poets.
Memorising tips
Some techniques to help you learn quotations include:
circling key words in your quotation in different colours
writing quotations on sticky notes and posting them around the house
stressing certain syllables of the lines you want to learn - eg 'And

the sheen of their spearswas like stars on the sea'.
writing the text as a summarised textual reference if you cant remember
the full quotation

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IGCSE English Revision Guide

What's the point of writing to Persuade?

Depending on the audience, informal / easily accessible language might be appropriate

Appeals to the audience's sense of logic and 'common sense'

How should I structure my answer?

Some people believe/ think/ feel that

However, In contrast, On the other hand, Nevertheless,

While in the case that

Further consideration, however, suggests

Despite the fact that there is some truth in this position,

"It can also be argued that...

remember to write in paragraphs

What's the point of writing to Describe?

use adjectives, similes, metaphors, personification to create imagery

use alliteration, sibilance, assonance, harsh consonants, hyperbole: descriptive writing is as

use words relating to one's senses (sight/touch/hearing/smell)

repetition to emphasis key moments, elements or ideas

structure - descriptive writing usually has an element of organisation either chronologically or in

Hints & Tips:

sacrifice detail for quantity

What's the point of writing to Explain?

To inform readers by providing facts that were previously unknown

Do this by making clear, factually accurate statements

Give straight-forward unbiased detailed information

Confident tone (to make the essay sounds more reliable)

Explanations of jargon or other technical terms

Hints & Tips:

give specific information avoid being vague or overly general

include background data about the topic

mention possible arguments / key issues in this topic

answer questions like what/who? why? what for? when? how?

remember to explain rather than persuade all throughout

This is always a question based on one of the Language Anthology

This is always a question which asks you to write in a certain style, it

Make sure you write in the correct Genre

This is always a question that asks you to write to inform, explain or

Make sure you write in the correct Genre

real or fictional (made-up)

a specific geographical location - such as a named city or country

How setting is used

Pip is the main character and narrator in Great Expectations

The gloomy weather reflects the main characters unhappiness.

Identifying themes and ideas

appearance and reality

fate and free will

One of the easiest ways to spot themes is through motifs. A motif is a

Finding a theme in an extract

the name of the doctor is Doctor Death

Skellig appears to be dead

there is also the worry about the new baby

However, there are also hints at renewal and life-after-death:

Skellig seems to have been there forever

An interesting theme involves a clash of opposites. Love as a theme is

Writing about themes

In either case, think about the following:

How does the language support the theme?

Do images or individual words suggest a theme?

How does the content support the theme?

Which events help to develop the ideas in the text?

How do the characters represent the theme?

Aldous Huxley was an English writer and philosopher

The harsh thin light shines on a clinical and unfriendly setting.

The workers have corpse-coloured rubber gloves.

These combine to suggest two themes: