HS Discrete Math FInal

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Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics
Contents

Introduction
Section 1: Mean, Median and Mode
12
Section 2: Addition and Multiplication Principles
16
Section 3: Combinations and Permutations
20
Section 4: Case Analysis in Counting Problems
23
Section 5: Advanced Counting Techniques
27
Section 6: Geometric Solutions of Probability Problems
34
Introduction
Purpose
If you are reading this, you probably like
math and enjoy thinking about challenging
problems. The purpose of this book is to
help you develop a robust set of strategies
for solving a broad range of problems. These
strategies are suciently broad-based to be
of value in the course of your education, and
possibly in your career, but our focus will be
on mathematics competitions.
problems are significantly harder than, or

at least dierent from, those that you are
likely to encounter in a homework
assignment. Finally, we assume that you
are willing to commit about an hour a day
for twenty weeks in order to achieve
greater success on the contests.
We assume that you are familiar with the

topics that are typically covered in high
school geometry and first- and secondyear algebra. However, you can still use
this book if there are gaps in your
knowledge. Each section will contain a
list of the tools (i.e. facts, formulas, and
techniques) that you will need to solve
the problems in the section. The internet
abounds with web sites that can help
you develop the needed tools.
If the above is at least somewhat descriptive

of you, then how are we defining success?
Well, to be clear from the outset, we do not
define it as getting a perfect score on a
national math contest. In fact, if you are
among the small group of students for whom
a perfect score is a realistic goal, you are
well beyond the level of what is being taught
here. Of course, if you enjoy the process of
participating and doing your best, you are
already having a successful experience in a
meaningful way. What this book and its
companion volumes can oer you in addition
is an opportunity to develop the techniques
and strategies needed to place among the
top 5-10% of the participants in a typical
contest. We hope you will agree that this is a
significant measure of success in the world
of math contests.
We assume that you have attempted, or

at least seen, a national high school
math contest. If not, you can obtain
mock contests, similar to the American
AMC 10 and AMC 12 contests, at
edfinity.com/catalog. We also assume
that you have had limited success in
solving the problems on the contests.
This is because the majority of contest
Each volume in this series is divided into six

sections, each of which illustrates the
application of a general problem-solving
method to problems in a specific content
area. Because each section is designed to
be mastered in about three hours, you
should be able to finish each volume in
about four weeks by devoting about an hour
a day to it.
Because no book can be appropriate for

students at all levels, we are making a few
assumptions about you:
The volumes can be read in any order, but we recommend the following sequence:
Weeks
1-4
Volume 1 (algebra)
Weeks
5-8
Volume 2 (geometry)
Weeks
9-12
Volume 3 (discrete math)
Weeks
13-16
Volume 4 (number theory)
Weeks
17-20
Volume 5 (advanced topics)
If youre still reading, youre ready to begin. Heres wishing you many hours of hard, but
enjoyable, work.
An Organized Approach to Problem Solving

There is no magical formula that will allow you to solve every mathematical problem that
you may encounter. However, problems are more likely to give up their solutions to you if
you approach them methodically, using thought processes that have proven to be
eective. The general four-step method described here is based on one developed by the
Hungarian mathematician George Polya (1887-1985) and has been adapted to apply to the
types of problems that commonly appear in contests. You should feel free to modify and
add to it as you gain experience with it.
Step 1:
Understand the problem.
In order to solve any problem, you must have a clear understanding of the question you
are being asked to answer. Even when the question is clear to you, but especially when it
isnt, you should take some time to organize your thoughts and focus on the problem
before starting to solve it.
Read through the problem once without focusing too much on the details. Just
recognize the subject area it appears to be dealing with and notice your gut feeling
about how dicult the solution is likely to be. If it seems especially hard, remind
yourself that a systematic approach can make seemingly hard problems easier.
Read the problem again more carefully, and make an eort to understand the
question. At this stage some or all of the following strategies may be helpful.
Break the problem statement down into short sentences or phrases, and
make a mental (or physical) note of the information given by each. A similar
strategy is to break the problem into parts.
Draw a picture. This is helpful in most geometry problems, but sketches are
also often useful for problems that involve graphs or are set in a physical
context.
Substitute numbers for symbols. For example, if the problem statement
contains a complicated condition placed on integers m and n, you might ask,
What does the condition mean when m = 2 and n = 3?
Restate the problem in your own words. Can you ask the question in
language that is easier for you to understand?
Choose a tool. That is, recall the facts and formulas that might be related to the
solution of the problem. If the problem is about right triangles, you may well need the
Pythagorean Theorem. Look for key words and expressions in the problem statement
that might suggest the use of certain tools. Also keep in mind that other tools might
suggest themselves to you as you proceed.
Step 2:
Devise a plan.
Sometimes you will be pretty sure that you know how to answer the question. It may be
clear, for example, that you need to create a system of two linear equations in two
variables and then solve the system. If so, then that is your plan. Often, however, there is
no obvious path to the answer. At such times, one or more of the following strategies may
help you to recognize a path to follow.
Look for structures and patterns. This strategy can take several forms, including
the following:
Name the unknowns. If the problem contains several statements that give
information about one or more unknown quantities, give symbolic names to
each unknown. If the problem involves quantities that can vary, name the
variables.
Look for relationships among the given quantities. If some given number is
the sum or product of two others, then how, if at all, might that be important?
Does the problem describe a triangle with side lengths in a familiar ratio such as
3:4:5?
Look for symmetry. Does a geometric figure have lines of symmetry? Do two
or more variables play identical roles in an equation or a system of equations?
Make a table. What sort of relationship exists between two variables in the
problem? Is it linear, quadratic, exponential, or something else?
Make a conjecture. If you observe a pattern in a problem, especially in a sequence
or an iterative process, make an educated guess about how the pattern might
continue. If possible, test your guess by examining a few cases.
Explore a related problem. This strategy can also take several forms, including the
following:
Change the conditions. Have you encountered problems that looked similar,
but with a slightly dierent set of conditions? If so, how did you solve those?
Might some aspects of the solution process be applicable here?
Use smaller numbers. When a problem involves large numbers, such as the
current year, you can often gain insight into the solution by solving the same
problem with a smaller number.
Use simpler expressions. When a problem involves a complicated

expression, you can often gain insight into the solution by solving a similar
problem with a simpler expression.
Look at particular cases. One form of this strategy is to look at extreme
cases. For example, suppose you are told that a point P is located on side AB of
a triangle. If P is not specified as, say, the midpoint of AB or the foot of an
altitude, it might pay to ask what happens if P coincides with A or B.
Choose convenient numbers. If a question asks for the ratio of the areas of two
circles, you are often free to assume that one circle has radius 1. A similar strategy is
to choose convenient units.
Work backwards. Try to form a sentence like, I could answer the question if I
knew the answer to __________ (some other question), Then work on finding the
answer to the other question.
Take a possible step. If all else fails, think of some conclusion you can draw from
the given information, even if it doesnt appear to point toward an answer to the
question. Remember that any step you take allows you to view the problem from a
dierent perspective and may let you see features that were previously hidden.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan.
If your activities in Step 2 reveal a sequence of calculations and logical implications that
will lead to the solution of the problem, then carry them out. For more dicult problems,
you may recognize how to begin and then get stuck in mid-solution. When that happens,
you can always reuse some of the strategies in Step 2. The following additional strategies
may also be helpful.
Reread the problem. Make sure you remember the problem statement correctly.
Also be on the lookout for any given information that you have not yet used in your
solution. Any piece of unused information is likely to be an important part of the rest
of the solution.
Know when to hold em, know when to fold em. This line is from an old popular
song, The Gambler. What it means is that there are times when it pays to persevere
with a plan and other times when it pays to cut your losses and formulate a new plan.
Knowing when to do each is largely a matter of experience, but when youre stuck,
try to make a judgment about whether you are on the right track.
Step 4:
Look back.
When you are pressed for time, as you are in most contests, you may be forced to record
your answer and move on to the next problem. However, if time permits:
Check your work. There is a reason that your teachers have always told you to
check your solutions of problems. Even the best students (and teachers!) make
careless mistakes, and because no partial credit is possible in most contests,
mistakes can be expensive.
Make sure your answer makes sense. Did you find that the boy in the problem is
running at a speed of 100 miles per hour? Does the triangle in the problem turn out to
have a negative area? If so, you have probably made a mistake.
The process of checking your work is essentially the same for each problem, so we wont
keep reminding you to do that. Our solutions will refer to Step 4 only if there is a quick way
to see whether your answer makes sense.
The solutions of the problems in these volumes will not always mention every strategy
that is being employed. For example, you should always read through a problem, and
you should always make sure your answer makes sense. However, each strategy that
appears in bold type above will be pointed out often enough to let you see when and
how to apply it.
Please dont misunderstand the purpose of this method. One of the statements from
above is worth repeating: there is no magical formula that will allow you to solve every
mathematical problem that you may encounter. Brilliant mathematicians from Newton to
Einstein often experienced failures, so when your hard work fails to produce a solution,
remember that you are in good company. However, if you use the method and tailor it to
your own learning style, you should find that you are failing at increasingly more dicult
problems and experiencing success more frequently.
Addendum: A Bit of Gamesmanship

If a math contest has a multiple-choice format, the given answer choices sometimes
provide a hint about the solution. If the choices for a geometry problem all involve 3,
chances are that the solution involves a 30 or 60 angle. Also, a bit of thought can
sometimes allow you to eliminate some of the choices. Perhaps you can see that the
answer must be an even integer and all but two of the choices are odd, and perhaps you
can also see that one of the two even choices is too big to be correct. In that case you can
choose the correct answer without ever solving the problem! Of course, you should read
and understand the solution later to improve your problem-solving skills, but in the
meantime you will have disposed of a contest problem with a minimum of eort.
Edfinitys Zen Masters Series

Edfinitys Zen Masters series is a collection of 10 digital titles (5 each for Middle and High
School) created for the modern educator and student. The titles are available only in digital
form and consist of carefully crafted problem collections designed to help students master
problem solving. Each title guides students through the themes of a specific topic (such as
Algebra or Probability), presenting concise expository content, select examples illustrating
specific problem solving techniques, and between 150-200 problems for middle school
and 60-75 problems for high school, expertly arranged to help the user achieve complete
mastery.
The volumes are each accompanied with optional access to an Edfinity digital
companion presenting all the problems in the title as a self-paced, online course with
auto-grading and performance analysis. Educators may enroll their students to track their
progress, or students/parents may enroll individually at edfinity.com/catalog. Access to
the guides provides educators access to rich, supplemental problem collections for
classroom use.
The Zen Masters Series is designed to serve broad usage by educators and students
alike, oering substantive general enrichment, development of foundational skills in
problem solving, and contest preparation. In addition to helping students prepare
eectively for local and major international contests, the problems provide robust attention
to standards and guidelines of the Common Core State Standards in Mathematics (USA),
GCSE (UK), Singapores Math curriculum, Australian Curriculum, and most other
international syllabi.
Zen Masters High School Series

Algebra, by David Wells
Geometry, by David Wells
Discrete Mathematics, by David Wells
Number Theory, by David Wells
Advanced Topics, by David Wells
Solutions Manual for each title by David Wells
10
Zen Masters Middle School Series

8 Tips to Solve Any Problem, by James Tanton

Numbers and the Number System, by James Tanton
Structure, Patterns and Logic, by James Tanton
Counting and Probability, by James Tanton
Relationships and Equations, by James Tanton
Geometry, by James Tanton
Solutions Manual for each title by James Tanton
11
1. Mean, Median and Mode

Prerequisites
Definitions
The following definitions apply to a list a1, a2, a3, . . . , an of numbers arranged in
nondecreasing order.
The mean of the list is
a1 + a2 + a3 + + an
.
n
The median of the list is ak if n is an odd integer 2k 1, and

integer 2k.
ak + ak+1
2
if n is an even
The mode of the list is the number that appears most frequently in the list. If there is more
than one such number, they are each modes.
The range of the list is an a1.
Facts and formulas

If a list of n1 numbers with mean m1 is combined with a list of n2 numbers with mean m2,
m n + m 2 n2
the mean of the combined list is 1 1
.
n1 + n2
Basic skills
Before beginning this section, you should be able to do all of the following.
Find the mean, median, mode, and range of a given list of numbers.
Find the mean of a list obtained by combining two or more smaller lists when you are
given the size and the mean of each of the smaller lists.
Tools for Solving Contest Problems

The sum of a list of n numbers is n times its mean. Many contest problems require you to
translate a statement about the mean of a list into a statement about its sum.
12
EXAMPLE 1: A list of five positive integers has mean 12 and range 18. The mode and median are
both 8. How many dierent values are possible for the second largest number in the list?

A. 4
B. 6
C. 8
D. 10
E. 12
Answer B
Solution
Step 1:
Understand the problem
It may help to draw a (mental) picture of the list. If the numbers are arranged in
nondecreasing order, the middle number must be 8. Because the mode is also 8, the list
looks like either __, __, 8, 8, __ or __, 8, 8, __, ___. Because the range is 18, the last number
must be 18 more than the first. You need to find out how those conditions limit the number
of possible values of the second to last number.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
As a first step, name the unknowns. If the first number is a, then the last number
must be a + 18. Let b be the other unknown number in the list. Then arranged in
nondecreasing order, the list is either a, b, 8, 8, a + 18 or a, 8, 8, b, a + 18. Now how
can you find the possible values of a and b? Reread the problem to recall that the
mean of the numbers is 12, so you can find their sum. If you also express the sum in
terms of a and b, you should be able to create an equation. You can then answer the
question by finding all positive integer solutions of the equation.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
The sum of the 5 numbers is 5 12 = 60. The sum can also be expressed as 2a + b + 34,
so 2a + b = 26. To find all positive integer solutions that meet the required conditions,
break the problem into parts and look at the two possible structures of the list.
If the list is a, b, 8, 8, a + 18, then a b 8 a + 18. In this case
2a + b 2(8) + 8 = 24 < 26, so no positive integer solutions meet the required conditions.
If the list is a, 8, 8, b, a + 18, then a 8 b a + 18. Because a b, the largest
possible integer value for a is 8. Because b = 26 2a, the positive integer solutions for
(a, b) are (1,24), (2,22), (3,20), (4,18), (5,16), (6,14), (7,12), and (8,10). Only the last 6
of these satisfy the requirement that b a + 18, so there are 6 possible values for the
second largest number in the list.
13
If a list of n1 numbers with mean m1 is combined with a list of n2 numbers with mean m2,
the mean of the combined list is m1 + d, where d divides the dierence m2 m1 in the ratio
n2 : n1.
EXAMPLE 2: All students at Euclid High School and at Pythagoras High School were asked
whether they like math. The table shows the percentages of yes responses for boys, girls,
and boys and girls combined, at both schools. It also shows the percentage for boys at the
two schools combined. What is the percentage for girls at the two schools combined?
Euclid
Pythagoras
both schools
Boys
71
81
79
Girls
76
90
Boys and Girls
74
84
A. 81
B. 82
C. 83
D. 84
E. 85
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
Read through the problem to identify the question. You cant answer it by just taking the
average of 76 and 90, because you dont know how many girls are in either school. The
table contains a lot of information, so read the problem again to see how that information
might help you find those numbers.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
Look for structures and patterns in the table. The first column shows that at Euclid High
School the percentage of yes responses for the boys and girls combined is 74, which is
closer to 76 than to 71. This indicates that there are more girls than boys at Euclid High
School. You should be able to find the exact ratio of boys to girls in the school by relating
the numbers in the first column to each other. Similarly, you should be able to use the
numbers in the second column to find the ratio of boys to girls at Pythagoras High School.
You can also use the numbers in the first row to find the ratio of boys at Euclid to boys at
Pythagoras. That should be enough to let you find the ratio of girls at Euclid to girls at
Pythagoras. Then how can you find the actual numbers of girls? Look for shortcuts and
recognize that you dont need the actual numbers. You can answer the question as long as
you know the ratio.
14
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Name the unknowns and let b, g, B, and G be the numbers of boys at Euclid, girls at
Euclid, boys at Pythagoras, and girls at Pythagoras, respectively. At Euclid, the percentage
of yes responses was 76 71 = 5 more for girls than for boys. The percentage for boys
and girls combined was 74, which divides the dierence in the ratio (74 71) : (76 74) =
3:2, indicating that g: b = 3: 2. (If you would rather not remember this method of finding
a weighted average, see Note 1.) Similarly, at Pythagoras, the percentage was 9 more for
girls than for boys, and the percentage for boys and girls combined divides this dierence
in the ratio (84 81): (90 84) = 1: 2, indicating that G: B = 1: 2. Also the percentage
for boys was 81 71 = 10 more at Pythagoras than at Euclid, and the percentage for
boys at both schools divides this dierence in the ratio (79 71): (81 79) = 4: 1,
2
1
indicating that B: b = 4: 1. Now you can calculate that b = g, B = 4b, and G = B,
3
2
1
2
4
so G = 4 g = g. Therefore the percentage of yes responses for girls at
2
3
3
both schools is 76 + d, where d divides the dierence 90 76 = 14 in the ratio 4: 3.
4
That is, d = 14 = 8, and the requested percentage is 76 + 8 = 84.
7
Note 1: Another way to find the ratio g: b is to express the percentage of yes responses
71b + 76g
for boys and girls combined at Euclid as
. Setting this quantity equal to 74 and
b+g
simplifying gives 3b = 2g, sog: b = 3: 2.
Exercises
Solve problems 1 to 10 in the Edfinity problem set Zen Series High School Discrete
Math Section 3.1 Mean, Median and Mode (edfinity.com/catalog).
15
2. Addition and Multiplication Principles

Prerequisites
Definitions
Events A and B are independent if the occurrence of A does not aect the probability that
B occurs. That is, A and B are independent if P(B A) = P(B).
Events A and B are mutually exclusive if they cannot both occur. That is, A and B are
mutually exclusive if P(A and B) = 0.
When an element of a finite set is chosen at random, it is usually understood that each
element of the set is equally likely to be chosen.
Facts and formulas

Suppose that event A consists of m possible outcomes of an experiment and event B
consists of n possible outcomes of the same experiment.
(multiplication principle)
If A and B are independent, then the event (A and B) consists of mn possible outcomes.
In the language of probability, P(A B ) = P(A)P(B).
(addition principle)
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then the event (A or B) consists of m + n possible
outcomes. In the language of probability, P(A B ) = P(A) + P(B).
Basic skills
Determine whether two events are independent.
Determine whether two events are mutually exclusive.
Use the addition and multiplication principles to solve basic counting problems.
Determine whether two or more outcomes of an experiment are equally likely to occur.
Use the addition and multiplication principles to solve basic probability problems.
16

If a problem asks for the number of ways in which some process can occur, it is usually
helpful to think of the process as a sequence of two or more events. If those events are
independent, you can use the multiplication principle to answer the question.
EXAMPLE 1: A flag consisting of 5 horizontal colored stripes is to be made from a rectangular
piece of cloth. Each stripe will be either blue, green, red, white, or yellow. Colors can be repeated,
but adjacent stripes must be dierent colors, and the middle stripe must not be green. How many
dierent flags can be made?

A. 120
B. 256
C. 1024
D. 1280
E. 3125
Answer C
Solution
Step 1:
Read through the problem to identify the question. If you draw a (mental) picture of the
flag, it is clear enough. Then read the problem again to notice the conditions you are
given. There are 5 colors to choose from and two restrictions placed on the choice of
colors (adjacent stripes dierent, and middle stripe not green).
Step 2:
Devise a plan
You can break the problem into parts and calculate the number of possible ways to color
each stripe in turn. Because there is a special restriction placed on the middle stripe, it
makes sense to start there.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
The middle stripe can be any one of 4 colors (anything except green). Working upward, the
next stripe can also be any of 4 colors (anything except the color of the middle stripe), and
the top stripe can be any of 4 colors (anything except the color of the second stripe).
Similarly, each of the bottom two stripes can be any of 4 colors. Therefore the total
number of flags that can be made is 45 = 1024.
17
If the events that make up a process are not independent, you can often partition the
possible outcomes into mutually exclusive cases and use the addition principle to answer
the question.
EXAMPLE 2: Five women are seated in a row of five chairs. After a while they get up and reseat
themselves in such a way that no woman occupies her original seat. In how many ways can this
be done?

A. 20
B. 24
C. 40
D. 44
E. 48
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
It may help to explore a related problem. If the women were allowed to reseat
themselves without restrictions, then the first woman could occupy any of the 5 chairs, the
second could occupy any of the remaining 4 chairs, and so on. In that case the reseating
could be done in any of 5 4 3 2 1 = 120 ways. The given problem contains the
restriction that no woman can occupy her original seat. You need to figure out how
that restriction limits the number of possibilities.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
It may not be clear how to proceed, so you might look at a particular case and focus on
a particular reseating arrangement. To make it easier to describe the reseating process,
think of the women as A, B, C, D, and E, and suppose that they originally occupy chairs 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5 in that order. When A is reseated, she cannot occupy chair 1, so suppose
that she sits in chair 2. Now B has 4 chairs to choose from. If B sits in chair 4, then D will
have 3 chairs to choose from. However, if B sits in chair 1, then the next woman to choose
a seat will have only 2 chairs to choose from. That is, she must sit in chair 3, 4, or 5, but
must exclude her original chair.
Look for structures and patterns in this example to see that you need to consider two
distinct cases. It may or may not happen that some pair of the women switch seats during
the reseating. Take a possible step and see if you can count the number of possible
reseatings in each case.
18
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Consider first the case in which two women switch seats. Look for symmetry to see
that the number of possible reseating arrangements does not depend on which pair of
women switch. That means that you can assume temporarily that A and B switch seats
and determine the number of ways of reseating C, D, and E. Can any two of those three
switch seats as well? No, because if C and D also switch seats, for example, that would
force E to sit in her original chair. Therefore if C sits in chair 4, then D and E must sit in
chairs 5 and 3, respectively, and if C sits in chair 5, then D and E must sit in chairs 3 and
4, respectively. So now you know that there are only 2 possible arrangements in which
the pair A and B switch seats. Now how many pairs are there among the 5 women?
54
= 10 pairs, so the number of reseating arrangements in which some
There are
2
2 women switch seats is 2 10 = 20.
Now consider the case in which no 2 women switch seats. In this case can it be that three
of the women, say A, B, and C, rotate among their original chairs? No, because then D and
E would have to switch seats. Similarly, no four women can rotate among their original
chairs, because then the fifth woman would have to occupy her original chair. One way to
count the number of possible arrangements in this case is to begin by seating A, then seat
the woman whose original chair is now occupied by A, then the woman whose original
chair is now occupied by the second woman, and so on. Because no proper subset of the
women rotate among their original seats, the last woman to be seated will sit in chair 1.
Therefore A can sit in any of 4 chairs. The second woman must exclude the chair occupied
by A along with chair 1, so she has 3 choices. The third woman must exclude both of the
occupied chairs along with chair 1, so she has 2 choices. Similarly, the fourth woman has
only 1 choice, namely the unoccupied chair that is not chair 1, and the fifth woman must
sit in chair 1. Therefore in this case the number of possible reseating arrangements is
4 3 2 1 = 24.
The total number of reseating arrangements that satisfy the required condition is
20 + 24 = 44.
Exercises
Math Section 3.2 Addition and Multiplication Principles (edfinity.com/catalog).
19
3. Combinations and Permutations

Prerequisites
Definitions
For nonnegative integers n and k, a combination of n objects chosen k at a time is a
k-element subset chosen from a set of n elements.
For nonnegative integers n and k a permutation of n objects chosen k at a time is an
ordered k-tuple of distinct elements chosen from a set of n elements.
Facts and formulas

The number of k-element subsets of a particular n-element set is
n!
k!(n k) !
. This number
is referred to as the number of combinations of n objects chosen k at a time. It is denoted

n
by ( ) or nCk.
k
The number of ordered k-tuples of distinct elements chosen from an n-element set is
n!
. This number is referred to as the number of permutations of n objects chosen k at
(n k) !
a time. It is denoted by n Pk.
Basic skills
n
Evaluate ( ) and n Pk for given values of n and k.
k
Use combinations and permutations to solve basic counting and probability problems.

When a probability problem concerns a sequence of experiments, it is often the case that
the probability depends only on the outcomes of the experiments, and not on the order in
which the outcomes occur. However, in order to work with a set of equally likely events, you
may need to distinguish between dierent orderings of the same set of outcomes.
20
EXAMPLE 1: Three fair six-sided dice are tossed at random. What is the probability that the three
numbers turned up can be arranged to form a non-constant arithmetic progression?

A.
1

36
B.
1
12
C.
1
9
D.
5
36
E.
1
6
Answer E
Solution
Step 1:
If you look at particular cases, the question becomes clear. The favorable outcomes
are the tosses that result in the sets of numbers {1, 2, 3}, {2, 3, 4}, {3, 4, 5}, {4, 5, 6},
{1, 3, 5}, or {2, 4, 6}. To answer the question, you need to count the total number of
possible outcomes and the number of favorable outcomes.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
It might appear at first that the question doesnt concern the order in which the dice are
thrown, so the 6 sets of numbers listed in Step 1 represent 6 favorable outcomes.
However, if you list all possible outcomes without regard to order, the outcomes are not all
equally likely. For example, if you record the numbers in order, there is only one way for all
three numbers to be 1, but there are several ways to obtain the set {1, 2, 3}. To consider
equally likely outcomes, you will need to choose a tool and use permutations to take the
order of the numbers into account.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Each outcome can be represented as an ordered triple (a, b, c), where each entry is one of
the 6 numbers on a die. The tosses are independent, so the total number of possible
outcomes is 63 = 216. There are 3! = 6 permutations of each of the 6 arithmetic
progressions listed in Step 1, so there are 6 6 = 36 favorable outcomes. Therefore the
36
1
requested probability is
= .
6
216
Many contest problems ask for the number of ways to arrange a set of objects subject
to one or more restrictions on the placement of some elements of the set. To solve such
problems, it is usually best to count the number of ways of placing the restricted elements
first.
21
EXAMPLE 2: How many integers between 10,000 and 99,999 contain two digits of 0 and three
distinct nonzero digits?

A. 504
B. 3024
C. 4374
D. 5040
E. 7290
Answer B
Solution
Step 1:
Read through the problem to identify the question. Then read the problem again, being
sure to notice that the integers must be at least 10, 000, so neither of the 0 digits can be in
the leading position.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
There is a restriction on the positions of the 0 digits, so break the problem into parts and
count the number of ways to place those digits first. Then count the number of ways to
place the nonzero digits.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Neither of the 0 digits can be in the leading position, so they must both be in one of the
other 4 positions. That means that they can be placed in any of (42) = 6 ways. Now there
are 3 positions in which to place the remaining 3 digits, which must be nonzero and
9!
distinct. The number of ways of placing those digits is
= 9 8 7 = 504. Therefore
(9 3)!
the total number of integers that fit the given description is 504 6 = 3024.
Exercises
Math Section 3.3 Combinations and Permutations (edfinity.com/catalog).
22
4. Case Analysis in Counting Problems

Prerequisites
Definitions
For nonnegative integers n, k1, k2, k3, , km with k1 + k2 + k3 + + km = n, the
n
multinomial coefficient k , k , k , , k
is the coecient of x1k1x2 k 2x3k3xm km in the
( 1 2 3
m)
expansion of (x1 + x2 + x3 + + xm) . It is also the number of distinguishable permutations

n
of a string of m distinct objects in which the j th object appears kj times for 1 j m.
Facts and formulas

For nonnegative integers n, k1, k2, k3, . . . , km with k1 + k2 + k3 + + km = n,
n
n !
=
.
(k1, k2, k3, , km) k1 !k2 !k3 !km !
Basic skills
Evaluate
n
for given values of n, k1, k2, k3, . . . , km.
(k1, k2, k3, , km)
Use multinomial coecients to solve basic counting and probability problems.

Some counting and probability problems are solved most easily by partitioning all
possible outcomes into mutually exclusive cases. You can sometimes use the idea of
symmetry to reduce the number of cases you need to consider.
23
EXAMPLE 1: Sam Random lives in a town where all streets run either north-south or east-west.
One day Sam starts from an intersection of two streets and takes a walk of 4 blocks. At each
intersection, including his starting point, he randomly chooses one of the 4 possible directions to
go. What is the probability that Sams random walk ends back at his starting point?

A.
1

16
B.
5

64
C.
3

32
D.
1

8
E.
9
64
Answer E
Solution
Step 1:
The question is clear. Sam has to make 4 independent decisions, each with 4 possible
outcomes, so you can count the number of possible paths, and each is equally likely. It is
not immediately clear how to count the number of paths that meet the requirement of
returning to the starting position after 4 blocks. If you look at particular cases, you can
see that there are several types of paths that meet the requirement. Some, such as EEWW
or EWEW, involve retracing steps. Others, such as ENWS, do not. You need to find a way
to count all the possibilities without overcounting.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
You might draw a (mental) picture of Sams town in a coordinate plane, with Sams
starting point at the origin. Look for structures and patterns in Sams possible paths to
find a way of classifying and counting them. Some paths, such as EWEW, lead back to the
origin after Sam walks 2 blocks. Otherwise, after 2 blocks Sam is at one of the 8 points
( 2, 0), (0, 2), (1, 1), or (1, 1). You should be able to answer the question if you
break the problem into parts and consider each possibility. You can reduce the number
of cases to consider if you look for symmetry. An equal number of paths pass through
each of the points ( 2, 0) and (0, 2), and an equal number pass through each of the
points (1, 1) and (1, 1), so you can answer the question by counting the numbers of
paths that pass through each of (0, 0), (2, 0), and (1, 1) after 2 blocks. Take a possible step
and analyze each of these 3 cases in turn.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
In order to get back to (0, 0) after 2 blocks, Sam must follow one of the 4 paths EW, NS,
WE, or SN. In this case he can get back to (0, 0) after a total of 4 blocks by following any of
those 4 paths again. Therefore this case accounts for a total of 4 4 = 16 four-block paths.
24
In order to get to (2, 0) after 2 blocks, Sam must follow the path EE. To get back to (0, 0) in
this case, he must return along the path WW. Therefore there is only 1 four-block path that
returns to the origin after passing through (2, 0). By symmetry, there is also only 1 path that
passes through each of the points (2, 0), (0, 2), and (0, 2), so this case accounts for a
total of 4 1 = 4 four-block paths.
In order to get to (1, 1) after 2 blocks, Sam must follow one of the 2 paths EN or NE.
Independently, to return to (0, 0) he must follow one of the 2 paths SW or WS, so there are
2 2 = 4 four-block paths that return to the origin after passing through (1, 1). Again by
symmetry, this case accounts for 4 4 = 16 four-block paths.
The total number of four-block paths that end back at the origin is 16 + 4 + 16 = 36. The
36
9
total number of Sams possible paths is 44 = 256, so the requested probability is
.
=
64
256
Contest problems sometimes ask for the number of distinguishable arrangements of
objects, where arrangements obtained from each other by rotating the objects about some
point are considered indistinguishable. To avoid overcounting, it is often helpful to count
the arrangements in which a particular object occupies a particular position.
EXAMPLE 2: Each face of a regular tetrahedron is to be painted either red, white, or blue. Two
colorings that can be made to appear identical by rotating the tetrahedron are to be considered
the same. How many dierent colorings are possible?

A. 15
B. 18
C. 27
D. 54
E. 81
Answer A
Solution
Step 1:
If you draw a (mental) picture of the tetrahedron, the question becomes clear, even if
there is no obvious path to the answer.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
One way to break the problem into parts is to try to count the number of possible
colorings when 1, 2, or all 3 colors are used. The first case is simple enough that you wont
need to consider rotations of the tetrahedron, but in the latter two cases you will need to
find a way to avoid overcounting. Take a possible step and consider each case in turn.
25
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
If only 1 color is used, there are 3 choices for the color, so there are 3 distinguishable
colorings.
If 2 colors are used, there can be either 3 faces of one color and 1 of the other or 2 faces of
each color. If there are 3 faces of one color, there are 3 choices for that color and 2 choices
for the color of the remaining face, so there are 6 choices for the combination of colors.
Suppose, for example, that the 3 faces are red and the remaining face is white. To avoid
overcounting due to rotations of the tetrahedron, you can rotate the tetrahedron so that
the white face is on the bottom, so there is just 1 distinguishable coloring with 3 red faces
and 1 white face. Therefore there are altogether 6 distinguishable colorings with 3 faces of
one color and 1 face of a dierent color.
If there are 2 faces of each of 2 colors, there are (32) = 3 choices for the combination of
colors. Suppose, for example, that the colors are red and white. Then you can rotate
the tetrahedron so that the red faces are on the bottom and the front, so there is
only 1 distinguishable coloring with 2 red and 2 white faces. There are altogether
3 distinguishable colorings with 2 faces of each of 2 colors.
If all 3 colors are used, then exactly 1 color is used on 2 dierent faces, and there are
3 choices for that color. Suppose, for example, that 2 of the faces are red. Then you can
rotate the tetrahedron so that the white face is on the bottom and the blue face is in front,
so there is only 1 distinguishable coloring with 2 red, 1 white, and 1 blue face. There are
altogether 3 distinguishable colorings in which all 3 colors are used.
The total number of distinguishable colorings of the tetrahedron is 3 + 6 + 3 + 3 = 15.
Exercises
Math Section 3.4 Case Analysis in Counting Problems (edfinity.com/catalog).
26
5. Advanced Counting Techniques

Prerequisites
Facts and formulas
You may not have encountered the following two theorems before, so they are not really
prerequisites for this section. However, they will each be used extensively in the solutions of
the examples and problems. As you study the examples and work the problems, you
should refer back to the theorems often in order to make sure you can use them as
problem-solving tools in the future.
(Stars and Bars Theorem)
Let n and k be positive integers.
The number of ordered k-tuples of positive integers whose sum is n is
n1
.
(k 1)
The number of ordered k-tuples of nonnegative integers whose sum is n is

n+k1
.
( k 1 )
The theorem is so named because every ordered k-tuple to be counted can be
represented by a row of n stars and k1 bars. For example, if you want to count the
number of ordered quadruples of nonnegative integers whose sum is 10, the
quadruple (4, 0, 5, 1) can be represented by the arrangement ****| |*****|*.
(Inclusion-Exclusion Theorem)
For finite sets A and B,
AB = A + B AB .
For finite sets A, B, and C,
A BC = A + B + C ( A B + AC + BC )+ A BC .
The theorem can be generalized to an expression for the number of elements in

the union of n finite sets for any positive integer n, but the general expression is
cumbersome. It is rare for a contest problem to require more than the special cases
shown here.
27

The Stars and Bars Theorem provides an important step in the solution of many
contest problems. With experience, you will learn to recognize problems in which it can be
applied.
EXAMPLE 1: How many 5-digit integers have the property that the sum of their digits is 11?

A. 992
B. 993
C. 997
D. 1000
E. 1001
Answer A
Solution
Step 1:
Read through the problem to identify the question. Then read the problem again to
focus on the relevant information. The numbers you need to consider are 5-digit integers,
meaning that they are between 10, 000 and 99, 000, inclusive. In particular, these integers
cannot have a leftmost digit of 0.
Step 2:
Devise a plan
You can think of the digits of each 5 -digit integer as an ordered list of 5 nonnegative
integers with a sum of 11. You can choose a tool and use the Stars and Bars Theorem
to count the number of such lists. You will use a row of 11 stars for the sum and 4 bars to
separate the numbers in the list. For example, the arrangement
* * | * * * * || * * * * |*
represents the list 2, 4, 0, 4, 1, which in turn represents the 5-digit integer 24, 041. However,
some lists will have a first entry of 0, and you will need to count those in order to exclude
them. Also, a few lists will contain 10 or 11 as one of their entries, and you will need to
exclude those as well. Take a possible step and see if you can do the necessary
counting.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
First you must count the number of ordered lists of 5 nonnegative integers with a sum
of 11. Using a row of 11 stars for the sum and 4 bars to separate the entries in the list, the
number of such lists is (15
4 ) = 1365. How many of these lists have a first entry of 0? If the
first entry is 0, the remaining 4 entries must be nonnegative integers with a sum of 11.
28
Using 3 bars to separate those integers, the number of such lists is (14
3 ) = 364. Therefore
the number of lists with a nonzero first entry is 1365 364 = 1001. (See Note 1 for an
alternate way of arriving at this conclusion.)
Now you need to count the number of lists with a nonzero first entry that contain either 10
or 11 as an entry. There arent many, so you can count them directly. If 11 is an entry, it
is the only nonzero entry, so the list is 11, 0, 0, 0, 0. If 10 is an entry, then the only other
nonzero entry must be 1. Either the 1 or the 10 must be the first entry, and the other must
be one of the remaining 4 entries. Therefore there are 4 2 = 8 lists that have 10 as an entry
and a total of 9 lists that have either 10 or 11 as an entry. Excluding these from your
previous total gives a final total of 1001 9 = 992.
Note 1: Here is another way to use the Stars and Bars Theorem to show that there are
1001 ordered lists of 5 nonnegative integers with a sum of 11 and a nonzero first entry.
Again use a row of 11 stars to represent the sum and 4 bars to separate the entries.
Because the first entry cannot be 0, the row of stars and bars must begin with a star, not a
bar. The rest of the row consists of 10 stars and 4 bars, and the bars can be placed in any
4 of the 14 positions, giving a total of (14
4 ) = 1001 possible arrangements.
Be wary of using the Stars and Bars Theorem in the solution of a probability problem.
The theorem allows you to describe all possible outcomes of an experiment, but the
outcomes may not be equally likely.
EXAMPLE 2: A circular dart board is divided into 3 sectors of equal size. When Darla throws a
dart, it always hits the board and is equally likely to hit any of the 3 sectors. If she throws a total of
7 darts, what is the probability that each sector is hit at least once?

A.
5

12
B.
7

12
C.
601

729
D.
602

729
E.
201
243
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
Read through the problem to identify the question. Then read the problem again to
understand the relevant information. Each throw has 3 equally likely outcomes. It may be
helpful to label them as A, B, and C and to think of the 7 throws as a string of 7 letters.
29
Step 2:
Devise a plan
You need to count the number of strings that contain all 3 letters at least once. One
possible path to the answer is to think of each sequence of throws as an ordered triple
(a, b, c) of nonnegative integers, where a, b, and c are the numbers of darts that hit
regions A, B, and C, respectively. You will then need to break the problem into parts and
calculate the number of sequences of throws that correspond to each ordered triple with
all nonzero entries. See Note 1 for a solution that uses this approach.
It might be easier to calculate the total number of strings, then exclude those that fail to
contain all 3 letters. You can count the number of strings that contain only A and B , then
look for symmetry to see that there are equally many strings that contain only A and C,
and equally many that contain only B and C. Step back and think for a minute to see that
the sum of these 3 numbers excludes each of the strings AAAAAAA, BBBBBBB, and
CCCCCCC twice. Therefore you will need to choose a tool and use the InclusionExclusion Theorem to arrive at the correct total.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Because each throw has 3 equally likely outcomes, the sequence of 7 throws can be
represented by 37 = 2187 equally likely strings of the letters A, B, and C. If sector A is
never hit, then each throw has only 2 possible outcomes, so there are 27 = 128 possible
sequences of throws. By symmetry, there are also 128 possible sequences of throws in
which sector B is never hit and 128 in which sector C is never hit. Because the strings
AAAAAAA, BBBBBBB, and CCCCCCC are each counted twice, there are 3 128 3 = 381
sequences of throws in which at most 2 sectors of the target are hit. Therefore there are
2187 381 = 1806 sequences of throws in which each sector is hit at least once, and the
1806
602
=
.
2187
729
Note 1: If all three regions are hit at least once, the ordered triple (a, b, c) must be a
permutation of (5, 1, 1), (3, 2, 2), (3, 3, 1), or (4, 2, 1). If (a, b, c) = (5, 1, 1), then the
string that represents the sequence of throws containts 5As, 1B, and 1C. The number
7!
of such strings is
= 42. Therefore the 3 permutations of (5, 1, 1) account for
5!1!1!
3 42 = 126 sequences of throws. Similarly, the ordered triple (3, 2, 2) corresponds to
7!
= 210 sequences of throws, and the 3 permutations of (3, 2, 2) account for
3!2!2!
7!
3 210 = 630 sequences of throws. The ordered triple (3, 3, 1) corresponds to
= 140
3!3!1!
sequences of throws, and the 3 permutations of (3, 3, 1) account for 3 140 = 420
30
7!
= 105 sequences
4!2!1!
of throws, and the 6 permutations of (4, 2, 1) account for 6 105 = 630 sequences of
throws. Therefore there are 126 + 630 + 420 + 630 = 1806 sequences of throws in which
1806
602
every region is hit at least once. As above, the requested probability is
.
=
2187
729
sequences of throws. The ordered triple (4, 2, 1) corresponds to
Note 2: You can use the stars and bars technique with 7 stars and 2 bars to conclude
that there are (92) = 36 possible ordered triples (a, b, c) of nonnegative integers with a
sum of 7. If all three regions are hit at least once, the ordered triple must be one of the
3 permutations of (5, 1, 1), (3, 2, 2), or (3, 3, 1), or one of the 6 permutations of (4, 2, 1).
33+6
5
=
You might then be tempted to conclude that the requested probability is
.
36
12
Whats wrong with this solution? The 36 ordered triples are not equally likely to occur.
For example, the ordered triple (7, 0, 0) corresponds only to the string AAAAAAA, but the
ordered triple (6, 1, 0) corresponds to all of the strings AAAAAAB, AAAAABA, AAAABAA,
AAABAAA, AABAAAA, ABAAAAA, and BAAAAAA.
The Inclusion-Exclusion Theorem is often used to avoid overcounting the number of
elements in a set.
EXAMPLE 3: After the 7 students in Mr. Pascals math class have taken an exam, Mr. Pascal
shues the exam papers and passes them out, instructing each student to grade the test that he
or she has been given. What is the probability that at least one of Akila, Beatrice, or Carla receives
her own paper to grade?

A.
4

105
B.
5

42
C.
1

5
D.
59

210
E.
38
105
Answer E
Solution
Step 1:
One way to think about the problem is to number the students from 1 through 7,
letting Akila, Beatrice, and Carla be 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Then you can think of
the shued exam papers as a permutation of (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). For example, the
permutation (3, 2, 5, 4, 7, 6, 1) represents a situation in which Akila receives Carlas
paper, Beatrice receives her own paper, and Carla receives the paper of student 5.
31
Step 2:
Devise a plan
The question involves probability, so in order to answer it, you need to know how
many equally likely outcomes are possible. There are 7! possible permutations of
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7), and they are all equally likely. Can you calculate the complementary
probability that none of the 3 girls receives her own paper? You might take a possible
step in this direction. If Akila does not receive her own paper, then there are 6 possible
first entires in the permutation (any number except 1). How many second entries are then
possible? If the first entry is 2, meaning that Akila has received Beatrices paper, then there
are 6 possible second entries (any number except 2). If the first entry is not 2, then there
are only 5 possible second entries (any number except the first entry and 2). In each of
these cases, how many third entries are then possible? You can probably analyze each
subcase, but it appears that the calculations will be messy. Before investing the time to
follow this path to the end, know when to fold em and look for an easier approach.
You can count the number of permutations in which Akila receives her own paper. Then
look for symmetry to see that there are an equal number of permutations in which each
of the other 2 girls receives her own paper. If you add the 3 numbers, you will overcount
the permutations in which more than one of the girls receives her own paper, so choose a
tool and use the Inclusion-Exclusion Theorem to answer the question.
Step 3:
Devise a plan
Let A, B, and C, respectively, be the sets of permutations in which Akila, Beatrice, and
Carla receive their own papers. Then the number of permutations in which at least one of
them receives her own paper is A B C . By the Inclusion-Exclusion Theorem, this is
equal to
A + B + C ( AB + AC + BC )+ ABC .
If Akila receives her own paper, the remaining 6 papers can be distributed in any of 6!
ways, so A = 6!, and by symmetry B = C = 6! also. If both Akila and Beatrice
receive their own papers, then the remaining 5 papers can be distributed in any of 5! ways,
so A B = 5!, and again by symmetry A C = B C = 5! also. If all 3 girls receive
their own papers, then the remaining 4 papers can be distributed in any of 4! ways, so
A B C = 4!. Therefore
A B C = 3 6! 3 5! + 4!
= 4!(3 5 6 3 5 + 1)
= 76 4! .
32
The total number of possible permutations is 7!, so the requested probability is

76 4!
76
38
.
=
=
105
7!
567
Exercises
Math Section 3.5 Advanced Counting Techniques (edfinity.com/catalog).
33
6. Geometric Solutions of Probability Problems

Prerequisites
Definitions
If a real number x is said to be chosen uniformly at random from a bounded interval I,
it means that the probability that x lies within a given subinterval of I is proportional to the
length of that subinterval. It is also sometimes said, less precisely, that x is equally likely to
lie anywhere in I.
If a point P is said to be chosen uniformly at random from a bounded region R of 2- or
3-dimensional space, it means that the probability that P lies within a given subregion of R
is proportional to the area or volume of that subregion. It is also sometimes said, less
precisely, that P is equally likely to lie anywhere in R.

A problem may specify that a number x is chosen uniformly at random from an interval
[a, b] and ask for the probability that x satisfies some condition. To answer the question,
you can identify the set S of the values of x that satisfy the condition and find
the total length of the intervals that make up S.
EXAMPLE 1: A real number x is chosen uniformly and at random from the interval [0, 100]. What
is the probability that x n 2 < 5 for some integer n ?

A.
1

2
B.
3

5
C.
7

10
D.
3

4
E.
4
5
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
You might want to restate the problem in your own words. The number x can have any
real value between 0 and 100, inclusive. What is the absolute value inequality saying?
Solving the inequality for x gives n 2 5 < x < n 2 + 5, so the question asks for the probability
that x is within 5 units of a perfect square.
34
Step 2:
Devise a plan
You might draw a (mental) picture of the interval [0, 100] and visualize intervals extending
5 units on each side of each perfect square. Look at particular cases to realize that some
of the intervals will overlap. For example, the interval around 32 = 9 is (4, 14), and the
interval around 42 = 16 is (11, 21). You will need to find the total length of the union of
all the intervals that intersect the overall interval [0, 100].
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
How many values of n do you need to consider? Because ( n)2 = n 2 for each integer n,
you can restrict your attention to nonnegative values of n. For n 0, the interval
(n 2 5, n 2 + 5) intersects the interval [0, 100] only if 0 n 10. If n is small enough, the
intervals around n 2 and (n + 1)2 overlap. Again look at particular cases to conclude that
this occurs for n 4. That is, if x < (4 + 1)2 + 5 = 30, then x is within 5 units of n 2 for some
n 5. What if x 30? The interval that extends 5 units on each side of 62 is (31, 41), so it
has length 10 and does not intersect the interval [0, 30). Similarly, the intervals around 72,
82, and 92 each have length 10 and do not intersect each other or either of the intervals
[0, 30) or (31, 41) . Finally, the interval around 102 is (95, 105), but its intersection with
[0, 100] is the interval (95, 100]. This interval has length 5 and does not intersect any of the
previous intervals. Therefore the values of x that satisfy the given inequality lie in a union of
6 disjoint intervals, of which 1 has length 30, 4 have length 10, and 1 has length 5. The
30 + 4 10 + 5
3
= .
100
4
A problem may specify that two numbers x and y are chosen independently and
uniformly at random from bounded intervals. For such problems, you can regard the
ordered pair (x, y) as being chosen uniformly at random from a rectangle in the coordinate
plane. To find the probability that the ordered pair (x, y) satisfies a given condition, you can
identify the set S of the ordered pairs that satisfy the condition and find the area of S. You
can employ a similar strategy with problems that involve three numbers that are chosen
independently and uniformly at random from bounded intervals.
EXAMPLE 2: Real numbers a and b are chosen independently and uniformly at random from the
interval [0, 10], and circles of radius 1 are constructed with centers at (a, 0) and (b, 0). What is the
probability that the circles intersect?

A.
1

10
B.
19

100
C.
1

5
D.
9

25
E.
2
5
Answer D
35
Solution
Step 1:
Draw a picture of the interval [0,10], and sketch a circle of radius 1 centered somewhere
in the interval. Then visualize a second circle of radius 1 centered at another point in the
interval. Depending on where the centers are placed, the second circle may or may not
intersect the first.
Step 2:
10
Devise a plan
There are infinitely many possible values for a and b, so choose a tool and look for a
geometric representation of the set of possible ordered pairs (a, b). The values of a and b
are defined by the inequalities 0 a 10 and 0 b 10, so they occupy a square of side
length 10 in the ab-plane. For which ordered pairs will the circles of radius 1 centered at
(a, 0) and (b, 0) intersect? The centers must be within 2 units of each other, which means
that a b 2. (If it doesnt occur to you to write this inequality, you can still find a path
to the answer. See Note 1.) This inequality defines a region within your square, and to
answer the question, you need to find the area of that region and the area of the square.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
The graph of the equation a b = 2 is the union of the two straight lines b = a + 2 and
b = a 2, and the inequality is satisfied by the set of points between those two lines.
Draw a picture to show that within your square the inequality is satisfied by the set of
points in a region R, as shown below. Now you need to find the area of R. It is a bit easier
to look for shortcuts and find the area of the region within the square and outside R. That
complementary region consists of 2 isosceles right triangles, each with leg length 8. The
two triangles can be fitted together to form a square of side length 8, so their combined
area is 64. The area of your entire square is 100, so the area of R is 36. Therefore the
36
9
=
.
25
100
36
b=a+2
b=a2
Note 1: If it doesnt occur to you to write the inequality a b 2, there are several ways
to arrive at a picture of the region R. One is to begin with the assumption that a b and
look at particular cases. If a = 0, then b 2. If a = 1, then b 3, and so on. It should then
be clear that if a b, then b a + 2. Then look for symmetry to conclude that if a b,
then b a 2.
EXAMPLE 3: A bored fly plans to crawl x meters east and y meters north, then fly z meters straight
up, with the numbers x, y, and z being chosen uniformly and independently at random from the
interval [0, 1]. What is the probability that the fly will then be less than 1 meter from its starting
point?

A.

16
B.

12
C.
D.
E.
Answer D
Solution
Step 1:
You can gain some insight into the problem if you look at extreme cases. If x = y = z = 0,
then the fly remains at its starting point, so its distance from its starting point is 0 < 1.
If x = y = z = 1, then the flys distance from its starting point is 12 + 12 + 12 = 3 > 1. The
flys final position is determined by the choice of x, y, and z, and its distance from its
starting point may be greater or less than 1.
37
Step 2:
Devise a plan
There are infinitely many possible values for x, y, and z, so choose a tool and look for
a geometric representation of all possible ordered triples (x, y, z). The possible ordered
triples are defined by the inequalities 0 x 1, 0 y 1, and 0 z 1, so they occupy
a cube of edge length 1 in a 3-dimensional coordinate system. Now you can restate the
problem in your own words, using geometric language. The point (x, y, z) is chosen
uniformly at random within your cube, and you need to find the probability that (x, y, z)
is within 1 unit of the origin. Again choose a tool and use the distance formula to express
this condition as the inequality
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 1. The set of solutions of this inequality
defines a region within your cube, and in order to answer the question, you need to find
the volume of that region.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan
Both sides of the inequality are nonnegative, so you can get an equivalent inequality
by squaring both sides to obtain x 2 + y 2 + z 2 1. Recall that the equation x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1
defines a sphere of radius 1 centered at the origin, so the fly must be on or inside that
sphere. (Alternately, look for shortcuts before beginning your solution to realize that
the fly is within 1 unit of its starting point if and only if it is on or inside the sphere.)
The intersection of this region with the cube is the set of points on or inside the sphere
1
in the first octant, so the volume of the region is of the volume of the sphere, or
8
1 4
(1)3 = . The total volume of the cube is 1, so the requested probability is also .
8 3
6
6
Exercises
Math Section 3.6 Geometric Solutions of Probability Problems (edfinity.com/catalog).
38

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Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

Section 1: Mean, Median and Mode

Section 2: Addition and Multiplication Principles

Section 3: Combinations and Permutations

Section 4: Case Analysis in Counting Problems

Section 5: Advanced Counting Techniques

Section 6: Geometric Solutions of Probability Problems

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

problems are significantly harder than, or

We assume that you are familiar with the

If the above is at least somewhat descriptive

We assume that you have attempted, or

Each volume in this series is divided into six

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Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

Volume 3 (discrete math)

Volume 4 (number theory)

Volume 5 (advanced topics)

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

An Organized Approach to Problem Solving

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Use simpler expressions. When a problem involves a complicated

Carry out the plan.

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

Addendum: A Bit of Gamesmanship

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Zen Masters High School Series

Algebra, by David Wells

Geometry, by David Wells

Discrete Mathematics, by David Wells

Number Theory, by David Wells

Advanced Topics, by David Wells

Solutions Manual for each title by David Wells

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

Zen Masters Middle School Series

8 Tips to Solve Any Problem, by James Tanton

Structure, Patterns and Logic, by James Tanton

Counting and Probability, by James Tanton

Relationships and Equations, by James Tanton

Geometry, by James Tanton

Solutions Manual for each title by James Tanton

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Facts and formulas

Tools for Solving Contest Problems

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

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Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

Boys and Girls

Understand the problem

Carry out the plan

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

2. Addition and Multiplication Principles

Facts and formulas

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

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Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics

Understand the problem

Zen Series High School Discrete Mathematics