Public Policy Philippines

1. Scholars have developed various public policymaking models over the years in an attempt
toexplicate the process and to teach students andpractitioners how to make public policy. Some
scholarsstudy the policy process generally and try to develop aknowledge base that can be
applied across policydomains.The following are some of the models of policy making. Theseare
not the only theories/models.
2. Policy is a product, authoritatively determined,implemented and evaluated by the government
institutions:Congress, presidency, other elective officials and thebureaucracies both local and
national. In this model, a policy does not become a public policyuntil it is legitimized by
government entity concerned.Government policies provide legal powers that demandobligations
from and command loyalty of the citizens. This typeof policy has its concomitant punitive
components. The structure of the various government institutionscontribute to the context of
public policy. The Constitutionserves as the highest kind of policy to which all other policiesmust
subscribe. Laws passed by Congress, executive orders andjudicial decisions come second in
terms of relevance andpriority.
3. The relationship among these politicaland administrative institutions of governmentdetermine
to a large extent the content ofpublic policy. This also clearly describes andvisualizes how the
doctrine of separation ofpowers operates as well as the politics-administration dichotomy.
4. President recommends legislation; may convene Congress; may veto legislation Congress
creates departments &LEGISLATIVE appropriates money; confirms EXECUTIVE BRANCH
appointments; can override veto and BRANCH impeach President JUDICIAL BRANCH Source: Dye
(1995)
5. A theoretical model of how public policy decisions are (or perhaps ought to be)taken. All
possible options or approaches to solving the problem under study areidentified and the costs
and benefits of each option are assessed and compared with eachother. The option that promises
to yield the greatest net benefit is selected. Rational policy is one that achieves maximum social
gain; that is, governments should choose policies resulting in gains to the society that exceeds
cost by the greatest amount, and governments should refrain from policies if costs are not
exceeded by gain.Basic Assumptions of Rational ModelSystem is stable;The government is a
rational and unitary actor and that its actions areperceived as rational choices;The policy
problem is unambiguous;Well defined objectives are established; alternatives and
consequencesare known; preferences are clear; there are no limitations of time or
cost;and,Policy as maximum social advantage that maximizes the economicbenefit.
6. Rational-Comprehensive Model 1. Establishment of complete set of operational goals with
weights 4. 6. INPUT 3. Prepara Compari- All resources Preparation of 5. son of net needed for
complete set -tion of Calcula- expecta- pure complete OUTPUT of alternative rationality tion of
net tions and policies set of Pure process expecta- identifica- predic- rationality tion for tion of
tions of policy each alterna- benefits alternative tive/s with and costs highest net for each
expectation All data alternative needed for 2. Establishment pure rationality of complete process
inventory of other values and of resources with weights
7. Simply put, all considerations are looked into before the decision is made. But is this the
reality in decision making? There are a lot of assumptions, requirements without which
therational decision model is a failure. Therefore, they all have to be considered.The model
assumes that we have or should or can obtain adequateinformation, both in terms of quality,
quantity and accuracy. It further assumesthat you have or should or can obtain substantive
knowledge of the cause andeffect relationships relevant to the evaluation of the alternatives. In
otherwords, it assumes that you have a thorough knowledge of all the alternativesand the
consequences of the alternatives chosen.The following are the limitations for the Rational
Decision Making Model: requires a great deal of time requires great deal of information assumes
rational, measurable criteria are available and agreed upon assumes accurate, stable and
complete knowledge of all thealternatives, preferences, goals and consequences assumes a
rational, reasonable, non political world

8. The main problem with rational-comprehensive approaches is that it is often verycostly in

terms of time and other resources thatmust be devoted to gathering the relevantinformation.
Often the costs and benefits of thevarious options are very uncertain and difficult toquantify for
rigorous comparison. The costs ofundertaking rational-comprehensive decision-making may
themselves exceed the benefits to begained in improved quality of decisions..
9. Incremental ModelThe Incremental Model Slowly building the blocks
10. The incremental model emphasizes the structured sequenceof activities that are leading to
the solution to a problem. This model suggests that major decisions are broken down insmall
steps taking place in three major phases: the identification,development, & selection phases.
Incremental trial-and-error process is needed to solve a bigproblem in small steps. When
roadblocks are hit, decisionmaking can recycle back to the last known good state. The
policyprocess is one of disjointed incrementalism or muddling through. Make incremental
decisions to achieve an objective and avoidtotal commitment to a decision you cannot change if
the stakesare high and the situation allows. In each small step you do notfundamentally rock
the boat.
11. Characteristics of Incrementalism (muddling through) Public policy deals with moving
targets; The process is not completely rational, analysis is limited, information isambiguous and
subject to interpretation; Different stakeholders may hold varied opinions about means and
ends; The process of mutual adjustment of many actors with their own interests andperceptions
about what is the public interest or good; Helps to forge compromise and reduce unnecessary
conflicts; Helps to build legitimacy; and, Forecasting helps decision making in uncertain contexts;
yet, the political shortterm may remain the main concern (e.g. elections).
12. Incrementalism is the antithesis of intrusivecentral planning, which can create rigid work
systemsunable to deal with the actual problems faced at thegrassroots level. Some scholars
point to a danger associated withfocusing on incremental decision rather than
"systemicoverhaul." The danger is that any solutions reached willinvolve only relatively
insignificant changes for the existingconflict situation and that these changes will be made
"onlyat the margin." Radical innovations may be lost if parties areoverly cautious in their
attempts to come to an agreement.
13. Problem streamSolution stream Window of opportunityPolitical stream The Streams Model
14. The multiple streams model of policy-making is defined by J.W.Kingdon (1984). The model
which focuses more on the flow and timing of policyaction than on its component steps, is useful
in understanding thecomplexities and realities of policy-making. In this model, particular
attention is paid to three streams:the problem stream, the policy stream, and the political
stream, whichmove independently through the policy system As noted by Porter and Hicks, this
model aims to explain whysome issues and problems become prominent in the policy agenda
andare eventually translated into concrete policies, while others neverachieve that prominence.
Kingdons starting point is the "garbage canmodel" of policy-making, developed in 1972 by
Cohen, March, and Olsen.This model contradicts the rational approach to decision-making,
claimingthat policies are not the product of rational actions, because policy actorsrarely evaluate
many alternatives for action and because they do notcompare them systematically.
15. Kingdons model underlines theexistence of three distinct, butcomplementary, processes,
orstreams, in policy-making. It is thecoupling of these streams thatallows, at a given time and in
agiven context, for a particular issueto be turned into a policy.
16. The emergence of a major problem or issue,the proposal of a solution, and a
conclusivepolitical climate are important factors in order fora problem to be placed on the
governmentsagenda. The arrival of a window of opportunity isalso usually required for the
government to take aproblem into consideration. Such a window ofopportunity may be
predictable (e.g. an election)or unpredictable (e.g. a crisis).
17. The problem steam The rationale behind this stream is that a given situation has to be
identified and explicitly formulated as a problem or issue for it to bear the slightest chance of
being transformed into a policy. A situation that is not defined as a problem/issue, and for

whichalternatives are never envisaged or proposed, will never be convertedinto a policy. The
feeling that a current or foreseen situation is wrongand that something should, and can, be done
to modify and/or improveit is thus a prerequisite for turning an issue into a policy. Moreover, it is
necessary to be able to demonstrate that theproblems mentioned can actually be attributed to
causes within humancontrol and thus that action can be taken to change the situation.
18. The solution streamThis stream is concerned with the formulation of policyalternatives and
proposals.New policies will never be shaped if there are no ideas orpolicy proposals on which
they can be based anddeveloped.An important aspect of the streams model developed
byKingdon is linked to the idea that such proposals andsolutions, which must be technically
feasible, are not initiallybuilt to resolve given problems; rather they float in search ofproblems to
which they can be tied.
19. The political stream Although they take place independently ofthe other two streams,
political events, such as animpending election or a change in government, canlead a given topic
and policy to be included orexcluded from the agenda. Indeed, the dynamic and special
needscreated by a political event may change theagenda.
20. It is not always necessary for all three streams to meetsimultaneously for a policy to develop.
In some cases, partial couplings,the convergence of two of the streams, are sufficient. Contrary
to the other models, the streams model does notpicture the policy-making process as one that
involves steps andstages. Rather, it views the policy process as the result of theintersection of at
least two independent streams at one time. In thismodel, there is no chronological sequence or
priority among thestreams. Streams act and react according to their own logic, until awindow of
opportunity is opened and two or more streams coincide andbecome a policy.
21. This model shows that the top of political and economic hierarchies setthe institutional
agenda (top-bottom style). It focuses on who sets the agenda.Elites include political officials,
corporate representatives, interest groups, andother influential people and institutions. Agenda
setting is viewed as follows: Elites on their own randomly select issues they specialize in, or
observe hierarchies like congressional committee structure. Societys elites may select issues
that serve their own interests and ignore the publics interest. The elitist model has the following
key assumptions: there exists a dominant class (elites) that monopolize political power; and,
ordinary citizens (the masses) have relatively little power over matters that are of concern to
elites
22. Policy DirectionPolicy Execution Masses
23. Policies may be classified in many different ways. They help usto understand when there is
likely to be a conflict over the adoption,enactment, and implementation of policies. The following
are samplesof several different types of policies:a.Reactive and Proactive policyb.Substantive
and Administrative policyc.Vertical and horizontal policyd. Redistributive and distributive policy
24. Reactive policy emerges in response to a concern or crisis from theinternal or external
environments by: resolving problems and issues meeting stakeholder/public concerns reacting to
decisions by other governments, other levels of government, or other departments with
intersecting orinterrelated mandates allocating fiscal resources, natural resources, etc. reacting
to media attention (generally adverse) reacting to crises or emergencies.
25. Proactive policy is introduced and pursued through deliberate choice. Itregularly scans its
operating environment, identifying potential issuesand factors that could affect the organization
and predicts and preparesto mitigate contingency through:Planningstrategic managementrisk
managementcriteria selectionpriority making
26. Substantive policy is concerned with the legislation, programs andpractices that govern the
substantive (content) of what the community needs. Itis about particular and specific issues what government does. Administrative or procedural policy focuses largely upon
administrativeprocedures. It is a policy that structures how the political process works - howthe
government does things
27. Vertical policy is the normal or traditionalway in which policy decisions are made. It
isdeveloped within a single organizational structureand generally starts with broad overarching

policy,sometimes called corporate or framework policy. Decisions are made at head office
and guidesubsequent decisions throughout the organization.At the regional level, regional or
strategic policy isdeveloped, which translates the national decisionsto the regional level, taking
into consideration thespecific requirements of the locus.
28. Department Secretary (HEAD OFFICE) Bureau Bureau BureauRegional Office Regional Office
Regional Office Regional Office Division Division Division
29. Horizontal policy-making, referred to asintegrated policy, is developed by two or
moreorganizations, each of which has authority or abilityto deal with only a part of the situation.
It is createdamong organizational components that are similarin hierarchical position. Horizontal
issues are challenging because somany players control one tool, one key. All of thekeys need to
be aligned to bring a suitable andappropriate result.
30. Horizontal Policy Public DOH PNP DILG DepEd Public Policy Policy
31. Other Classification of Policies Process Primary Policy Type Scope Applicable Duration
Characteristics MakersStatutory Societal Governs Practice In Force Until In Force Until Public
Succeeded By Succeeded ByConstitution / Norm Of Individuals & Deliberation Constitutional
ConstitutionalCharter Organizations & Notice Amendment AmendmentLaws Throughout New
Law New LawAppellate Court Jurisdiction (i.e. Appellate Court Appellate CourtDecisions
State/Nation) Decision Decision-Fiscal Policy Resources For Fiscal Period Public Legislative &
Implementation Priority Policies Deliberation & ExecutiveAnnual Budget Subject To Notice
Approval Revision OrActs & Repeal By Plenary UniversityResolutions Body Trustees
32. Process Primary Policy Type Scope Applicable Duration Characteristics Makers-Regulatory
Within Governs Practice Subject To Agency Action. Cabinet Officers Scope Of Of Individuals &
Revision Or & AgencyAdministrative Public Notice Primary Organizations In Repeal By
DirectorsRules Legislative Policy. A Specific Policy Plenary Body Or Approval. Area Agency
Action Force of LawInstitutional Define Govern Agency/ Subject To Internal Agency
Officials Operating Institutional Staff Revision Or OrganizationalPolicy Manual & University
Policies & Consumers Repeal By Process. Trustees &Standards. Plenary Body Or Professional
Limited Public AdministrationTenure & Agency Action Standards Notice
FacultyAppointmentArticulationAgreements
33. Public interest: The common good has to be balanced against theprivate or special interests.
The process should be fully inclusive forthose often overlooked or unable to
participate.Effectiveness: Does the policy achieve its stated goals?Efficiency: Are resources fully
utilized in achieving goals andimplementing policy?Economy: Objective and procedures done at
the least cost.Consistency: Aligned with the broader goals of government and
theConstitution.Fairness and equity: Is the policy fair and just to all members andsectors of
society.Reflective: Is policy in consonance with values of freedom, security,diversity,
communality, choice, and privacy
34. Socially acceptable: Citizens and interest groups acceptthat the policy reflects their
important values, e.g.,fairness and equity, consistency, justice.Politically viable: The policy has
the support of electedofficials and they are comfortable with the decision.Technically correct: The
policy complies with scientific ortechnical criteria established to guide or support
thedecision.Participative: Demands from the general public, or"bottom up" initiatives, can be as
influential as "topdown" directives. Educated and informed public can bemobilized to demand
and support desired initiatives.
35. I. Identify an area or problem where a public policy wasestablished. What model/s was/were
used in theprocess of its creation. Justify your answer.2.Among the models of making public
policy, which is moreconducive to serving public interest and demands? Why?3.Are all
governments governments of the elite? Useexamples to prove your contention.4.Using the
following factors/criteria: public interest,effectiveness, fairness and consistency, evaluate
theproposed constitutional amendment giving foreigners sameeconomic rights as Filipinos in
owning land properties,businesses and public utilities in the Philippines.