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WORKBOOK
Detailed Explanations of
Boilers
T1 : Solution
(i)
LaMont Boiler: This boiler works on a forced circulation and the circulation is maintained by a
centrifugal pump, driven by a steam turbine using steam from the boiler. The following figure shows
a LaMont boiler. The feed water passes through the economiser to the drum from which it is drawn to
the circulation pump. The pump delivers the feed water to the tube evaporating section which in turn
sends a mixture of steam and water to the drawn. The steam in the drum is then drawn through the
superheater. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 t of superheated steam at 130 bar
and 500C.
Steam
Drum
Water
+
Steam
Steam to
prime mover
Flue gas
Water
Economizer
feed
Water circulating
pump
Tube
evaporating
section
La Mont Boiler
(ii) Velox Boiler: Velox boiler makes use of pressurised combustion. The gas turbine drives the axial flow
compressor which raises the incoming air from atmospheric pressure to furnace pressure. The
combustion gases after heating the water and steam, flow, through the gas turbine to the atmosphere.
The feed water after passing through the economiser is pumped by a water circulating pump to the
tube evaporating section. Steam separated in steam separating section flows to the superheater,
from where it moves to the prime mover.
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Workbook
Steam to
prime mover
Convective
Super heater
Flue gas
Steam
Evaporating
section
Tube
evaporating
section
Feed pump
Water
circulating
pump
Axial
Gas
compressor turbine
Water
Velox Boiler
The size of the velox boiler is limited to 100 t/h because 600 BHP is required to run the air compressor
at this output.
Advantage of velox boiler:
(i) The boiler is very compact and greater flexibility.
(ii) Very high combustion rates are possible.
(iii) It can be quickly started.
(iv) Low excess air is required as the pressurised air is used and the problem of draught is
simplified.
T2 : Solution
For small steam requirements, fire tube boilers are
suitable. Fire tube boilers have different characteristic
feature as follows:
Low first cost
Reliability in operation
Need for only unskilled labour
Less drought required
Quick response to load change
W aterTube Boilers
2. Economical to use.
T3 : Solution
Benson Boiler: In the LaMont boiler, the main difficulty experienced is the formation and attachment of
bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles to the tube surfaces reduce the
heat flow and steam generation as it offers high thermal resistance than water film. Benson in 1922 argued
that if the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm.), the steam and water have the same
density and therefore, the danger of bubble formation can be easily eliminated. The first high pressure
Benson boiler was put into operation in 1927 in West Germany.
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Transit
section
Convection
superheater
Radiant
parallel
tube section
Steam
Feed
pump
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T1 : Solution
Compressor stall: When the compressor blades cannot process the amount of air coming from the engine
inlet (and the stator vanes as well) the compressor of turbine engines stall this translates generally by
a very noisy explosion outside of the airplane and a flame that scares everyone around the aircraft.
The blades of compressors are airfoils and every airfoil can be stalled that is when the angle of attack of the
incoming air is too steep to be handled by the compressor. To prevent compressor stalls, engines, have
variable inlet guide vanes to direct the incoming air at a better angle.
Aspect of Comparison
Centrifugal Compressors
Type of flow
Radial
Pressure ratio/stage
About 1.25
Isentropic efficiency
Frontal area
Smaller
Larger
Flexibility of operation
Limited
Higher
Poor
Better
Effect of deposits
Adverse effect
No adverse effect
Starting torque
High
Low
More Suitable
Difficult
Delivery Pressure
Less flat
More flat
T2 : Solution
Volumetric Efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of Free Air Delivered (FAD) to the swept
volume. FAD is the volume of air delivered by the compressor measured at some reference condition
(which may be the ambient condition or the standard sea level condition). FAD is less than the swept
volume due to the following reasons:
(i) Throttling and pressure drop at inlet valve and passages;
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(ii) Heating of inlet air by coming in contact with hot cylinder walls; and
(iii) Re-expansion of compressed air retained in the clearance volume.
Effect of parameters on volumetric efficiency:
(i) Speed of compressor: As the speed is increased the pressure drop in the inlet passage and the inlet
valve increases. Further the air temperature during intake also increases due to less available for
cooling. Both of these factors reduce volumetric efficiency of compressor with increase of its speed.
(ii) Delivery pressure: Refer figure with increase of delivery pressure
the pressure ratio increases and hence during inward stroke a-b,
the effective swept volume is reduced. The volume of air delivered
(FAD) is reduced from pd to pd. Thus the volumetric efficiency is
decreased when pressure is increased.
P
p d
pd
(iii) Throttling across the valves: Throttling across the inlet valve
reduces the pressure in the cylinder at the end of the inlet stroke.
Further, throttling at the inlet and delivery valves increases the
pressure ratio. Both of these effects would reduce the FAD, and
hence the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
V d
Vd
a
T3 : Solution
3
T2
Co
mp
s io
re s
P1 = 1
ion
P2 = 6
ns
pa
m =
P(Bar)
Ex
FAD = 16 m3/min
(measured at 1 bar and 15C)
P1 = 0.96 bar
T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
n = 1.3
V3 = Vc = 0.04 Vs
P2 = 6 bar
mech = 90%
comp = 85%
Piston speed = 300 m/min
N = 500 rpm
(i) Power input to compressor: Mass flow rate of compressor
4 T =303 K
1
1
3
V(m )
Vc=0.03 Vs
Vs
1 105 16
pV
=
= 19.36 kg/min
RT
287 288
[where FAD per minute is V at p (= 1 bar) and T(15 + 273 = 288 K)]
n 1
n
p
T2 = T1 2
p
n 1
n
6
= 303
0.96
1.3 1
1.3
= 462.4K
mR ( T2 T1)
=
n
1
mech. comp.
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1.3
1
1.3 1 19.36 0.287 ( 462.4 303)
0.9 0.85
300 = 2 L 500
or
L = 0.3 m or 300 mm
FAD =
2
D L 2N vol.
4
V4 =
=
V1 V4 =
=
1/n
p
= 2
p1
1/1.3
m =
pV p1 ( V1 V4 )
=
RT
RT1
i.e., FAD/cycle,
V =
( V1 V4 )
V = 0.8763Vs
vol. =
1/1.3
= 4.094
4.094 V3
4.094 0.04 Vs = 0.1637 Vs
V1 0.1637 Vs
1.04 Vs 0.1637 Vs = 0.8763 Vs
Now
6
=
0.96
T p1
T1 p
288 0.96
= 0.799 Vs
303
1
V 0.799 Vs
=
= 0.799
Vs
Vs
2
D 0.3 2 500 0.799
4
16 4
D =
0.3 2 500 0.799
1/2
= 0.29 m or 291.53 mm
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Nozzles
T1 : Solution
Given,
P1 = 4 bar
T1 = 470C
T1 = 743 K
The critical pressure is given by
P1
P*
2
=
P1
+ 1
/ 1
2
P* = 4
2.3
P*
P2
1.3 / 0.3
= 2.18 bar
2s
S
2
+1
T* = 646.08 K
Now
CP =
R
1
1.15(0.3)
103
1.3
R = 265.38 J/kg K
R =
V
h1 = h2 + 2
V2 =
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RT * =
C* = 472.12 m/s
Now specific volume at throat
V* =
265.38 646.08
RT *
=
= 0.786 m3/Kg
P*
2.18 105
=
Isentropic mass flow rate
s
15
s
s =
15
= 15.789 Kg/sec.
0.95
s =
A*C*
V*
A* =
15.789 0.786
= 0.0263 m2
472.12
Area of throat
T2s
P
= 2s
T1
P1
1/
1
T2s = 743
4
Now given nozzle efficiency,
0.3 /1.3
= 539.57 K
T1 T2
743 T2
=
= 0.9
T1 T2s
743 539.57
T2 = 559.91 K
n =
V2 =
RT2
265.38 559.91
=
= 1.485 m3/kg
P2
1 105
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A2 =
V2
C2
A2 =
15.789 1.485
= 0.0361 m2
648.9
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T2 : Solution
1
P1 = 5 bar
T1 = 348 K
2
P2 = 3 bar
Critical condition
1.667
P*
2 1 2 0.667
=
= 0.487
P1
+ 1
2.667
P* = 0.487 5 = 2.435 bar
But back pressure is 3 bar. So the nozzle will not be chocked condition and gas is still expanding.
Since Pb > P*, exit pressure is equal to lack pressure
T2
P
= 2
T1
P1
r 1
r
0.667
T2
P2 1.667
=
P
T1
1
0.667
T2
3 1.667
=
5
348
T2 = 283.67 K
Density at exit
2 =
P2
3 100
=
= 0.509 kg/m3
RT 2.077 283.67
Cp =
rR
r 1
R =
5.19 0.667
= 2.077 kJ/kgK
1.667
V
h1 + 0 = h2 + 2
2
V2 =
2 (h1 h2 )
V2 =
V2 = 817.16 m/sec
m = 2A2V2
m
A2
m
A2
= 415.93 kg/s-m2
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T1 : Solution
Given,
P6 = 10 kPa
x6 = 1 0.104 = 0.896
Now,
s6 = sf6 + x6 sfg6
3 5
2
1
4
6
s
T2 : Solution
h1 = 3625.3 kJ/kg
s 1 = s2
6.9029 = sf2 + x2sfg2
( )
h2 = hf 2 + x2 hfg2
& s) =
steam rate (m
(h1 h2 ) (h4 h3 )
1
1
=
3625.3 2150.16 10.06
1465.08
= 6.825 104 kg/s/kW
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12
T3 : Solution
m1
1 kg
6
(1m 1)
FWH1
5
Enthalpy of feedwater,
Boiler
Condenser
(1m 1)
4
P
(1m 1)
h5 = 252 kJ/kg
2558 m1 = 656.47
m1 = 25.66% 26%
T4 : Solution
1
Given,
h3
h5
h7
h7
1 640.23
=
=
=
=
=
2622.22
188.39
640.23
mh3 + (1 m)h5
m 2622.22 + (1 m) 188.39
h7 h5
640.23 188.44
m = h h =
2622.22 188.44
3
5
2
(1-m)kg
B
1 kg
Feed
Heater
4
(1-m)kg
m kg
1 kg
8
Condenser
5
= 0.18856 kg/s
T5 : Solution
u = 190 m/s
1 = 20
V1 = 600 m/s
VW2 = 0
P= ?
Vw = VW1 + VW2
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13
Workbook
= VW1
=
=
=
Power output =
=
=
Vw = Vw1
( VW2 = 0)
V1 cos 1
600 cos 20
563.82 m/s
muVw
1 190 563.8
107.123 kW/kg of steam flow
B
1
Vr 1
Vf 1
V2 = Vf 2
Vr 2
V1
T6 : Solution
WP = Vf (P1 P2)
= 0.001 (11 0.07) 100
= 1.093 kJ/kg
Pump work
P1
T1
P1
P2
P2
3
T2
WT WP
746 1.093
=
= 28.46 %
qs
2616.907
T7 : Solution
water (mw)
ms (h1 h3 )
(h3 h2 )
60C
300(3386.1 3256.6)
=
(3256.6 251.11)
= 12.92 t/h
12.98 1000
kg/s
=
3600
= 3.6 kg/s
1
steam (ms),
90 bar &
500C 300 t/ h
steam at 90 bar
and 450 bar
(ms + mw)
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Gas Turbines
T1 : Solution
th = ericsson = carnot
(for many stages of compression and expansion)
carnot
THavg
TLavg
1
=
THavg
= 1
290
1200
TLavg
s
= 75.83%
T2 : Solution
Wnet = WT WC = 150
WC
WT
and
Now,
WC
0.6 WT
WT
WC
= 0.4
=
=
=
=
0.4 WT
150
250 kJ/kg
250 150 = 100 kJ/kg
4
2
1
s
WC
Wnet actual= T WT
C
100
0.85
= 94.853 kJ/kg
= 0.85 250
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15
Workbook
T3 : Solution
T 2( 1)
rp = T C 3
T1
T = 0.8
T3 = 1073 K
C = 0.8
T1 = 300 K
1.4
1073 2(0.4)
rp = 0.8 0.8
= 4.26
300
T4 : Solution
P1 = 100 kPa
P2 = 400 kPa
P
T2
= 2
T1
P1
P
= 3
P
1473
=
T4
(4)
6
2
0.667
1.667
T4 = 845.875 K
=
0.667
T2
= ( 4 )1.667
298
T2 = 518.93 K
T3
T4
T1 = 298 K
T3 = 1473 K
T6 T2
;
T4 T2
=1
T6 = T4 = 845.875 K = 572.875C
T5 : Solution
(Wnet)max = ?
Tmax = 800C = 1073 K
Tmin = 30C = 303 K
Now,
(Wnet)max = cp
Tmax Tmin
= 1.005
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1073 303
= 236.794 kJ/kg
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T6 : Solution
T1 = 300 K
P2 = 60 bar
T3
=
T1
P2 = P3
= 60 bar
0.667
(3)1.667
T2 = 465.6 K
T3
T4
P1 = 20 bar
T3 = 1273 K
(3)
P1 = P4
= 20 bar
0.667
1.667
4
v
T4 = 820.2 K
QS = Cp(T3 T2)
= 5.1926(1273 465.6) = 4192.5 kJ/kg
QR = Cp(T4 T1)
= 5.1926((820.2 300) = 2701.2 kJ/kg
Wnet = QS QR
= 4192.5 2701.2
= 1491.3 kJ/kg
HR =
QS 3600
4192.5 3600
=
= 10120.7 kJ/kWh
1491.3
Wnet
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Nuclear Science
T1 : Solution
Sodium
(Radioactive)
Sodium
(Non radioactive)
Steam Circuit
Generator
Reactor
Turbine
Primary
circuit
Secondary
circuit
Condenser
Cooling
water
Low pressure
High pressure
Pump
Pump
Pump
Breeder Reactor
In its simplest form a fast breeder reactor is a small vessel in which necessary amount of enriched plutonium
is kept without using moderator. A fissible material, which absorbs neutrons, surrounds the vessel. The
reactor core is cooled by liquid metal. Necessary neutrons shielding is provided by the use of light water,
oil or graphite. Additional shielding is also provided for gamma rays.
Advantages of a breeder reactor:
1. The moderator is not required.
2. High breeding is possible.
3. Small core is sufficient (since it gives high power density than any other reactor)
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18
T2 : Solution
Fast breeder reactors are designed to create or breed new fissile material while producing useful electric
power. A fast neutron reaction with U-238 producing Pu-239 is shown below:
238
92U
239
92U
239
93Np
+ 0n1 92U239 +
24 min
24 days
93Np
239
94Pu
+ 1e0
239
+ 1e0
When a neutron is absorbed in the fuel, it produces neutrons, the number depending on the kind of fuel.
One of the these neutrons must be reserved for further absorption to keep the reaction going (steady
state). Let L be the numbers of neutron lost by parasitic capture in reactor coolant etc. and by leakage.
Ans.(i)
Breading ratio,
C = 1L
Ans.(ii)
If
C << 1, reactor is called burner.
Reactor with high C but less than 1 - advanced converter
Ans.(iii)
Reactor with low C - converter
Ans.(iv)
Reactor with C > 1 - breeder
The time required to produce fissionable nuclei twice the number of fissionable nuclei consumed is called
Ans.(v)
doubling time.
Ans.(v).
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