SC-GCM-52 CM Issue 1 Copyright 2005 Spirax-Sarco Limited

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Module 5.5
Installation and
Commissioning of Controls

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.5.1

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Installation and Commissioning of Controls

Installation
Valves

Before installing a control valve it is necessary to ensure that the size, pressure rating, materials and
end connections are all suitable for the conditions under which the valve is expected to work.
All reputable manufacturers of automatic control equipment will provide detailed instructions
covering the correct installation procedure for their equipment. Data will also be provided on
how to set up the equipment, plus any routine and regular maintenance to be undertaken. In
most cases, the manufacturer will also offer an on-site commissioning service. In some cases, a
regular after-sales maintenance contract can be agreed. Module 5.5 covers the major points to
be considered before installation.
Piping upstream and downstream of the control valve should be clear and unobstructed. The
correct operation of a valve will be impaired if it is subject to line distortion stresses. It is important
to ensure that all flanged joints are square and true and that pipework is adequately supported.
Control valves should generally be installed in horizontal pipelines with the spindles vertical.
Pipework systems will often be subjected to pressure testing prior to use. This test may be carried
out at a pressure above the normal working conditions. It is necessary to ensure that the control
valve and its internals are designed to withstand this higher test pressure.
Control valves are essentially instruments and will be damaged if dirt or other abrasive or obstructive
materials are allowed to enter them. It is essential in most applications to prevent this by fitting
pipeline strainers upstream of any control valve.
Valves must also be accessible for routine maintenance, such as re-packing of glands and the
replacement of internals. To facilitate this sort of work, isolating valves of a full bore pattern
either side of the valve will keep plant downtime to a minimum while the work is carried out.
If a plant must be kept in operation at all times, even when a control valve is being inspected or
maintained, it may be necessary to fit a valved bypass. However, the valve used in the bypass
must be of good quality and should either be a characterised throttling valve or another control
valve of the correct Kvs. Any leakage through it during normal operation will affect the action of
the control system. It is not recommended that manual bypasses be fitted under any circumstances.
The control valve must be installed to ensure the correct direction of flow of the medium passing
through the valve. Usually a direction of flow arrow is cast into the body of the control valve.
The valve must have a suitable flow capacity and incur an acceptable pressure drop.
In steam lines, it is important to provide a steam separator and/or a trapping point upstream of
the valve, as shown in Figure 5.5.1. This will prevent the carryover of condensate through the
control valve, which would otherwise reduce its service life. This drain point is also important if
the control valve is likely to remain closed for any length of time. If a condensate drain is not
fitted, waterhammer and potentially serious damage can result when the valve opens.
The provision of a steam separator and strainer ensures good steam conditioning.
Control
valve

Stop valve
Drain pocket
or separator

Controller

Positioner

High pressure steam

Strainer

Low pressure steam

(fitted on its side)

Trap set
Fig. 5.5.1 A pneumatic pressure reducing station with steam conditioning

5.5.2

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Actuators / sensors

Again, the manufacturers instructions must be observed. Actuators are normally mounted vertically
above the control valve, although different arrangements may be recommended if an electric
actuator is mounted to a valve handling a high temperature medium, such as steam.
Generally, actuators should be located away from conditions such as excess heat, high humidity
or corrosive fumes. These are likely to cause premature failure in components such as
diaphragms or electric / electronic items. Manufacturers should state the recommended
maximum ambient temperature conditions for their equipment. With some electric actuators,
if condensation is likely to occur within the actuator, models with a built-in heater are available.
Where such conditions cannot be avoided, actuators should be purchased which are suited to
the installed conditions.
Enclosures for actuators, positioners, and so on, will usually carry an enclosure rating conforming
to a national electrical code. This should specify the degree of immunity of the box to the ingress
of dust and water. It is worthless using an electric actuator whose enclosure has a low rating to
the ingress of water, if it is likely to be hosed down!
Care must be taken to ensure that sensors are fully and correctly immersed if they are to carry out
their sensing function effectively. The use of pockets will enable inspection or replacement to
take place without the need to drain the piping system, vessel or process plant. In contrast,
pockets will delay response times. The use of heat conducting paste in the pocket will minimise
any delay in response.

Power and signal lines

With a pneumatic system, compressed air and pneumatic signal lines must be dry, free from oil
and dirt, and leak tight. Locating the pneumatic controller near the valve and actuator will minimize
any delay due to the capacity and resistance of the signal line.
Usually, the valve, actuator and any positioners or converters, will be supplied as a complete
pre-assembled unit. If they are not, the actuator will need to be mounted to the valve, and the
positioner (for a pneumatic control) to the actuator. The assembly will then have to be set up
properly, to ensure that the correct valve stroke, etc. is achieved, all in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.

Electrical wiring for electric /electronic and electropneumatic controls

All too often, many apparent control problems are traced back to incorrect wiring. To quote an
obvious problem encountered as an extreme example, connecting a 110 V supply to a 24 V
rated motor, will result in damage! Care must be taken with the wiring system, in accordance
with the manufacturers instructions, and subject to any local regulations.
Noise or electrical interference in electrical systems is often encountered, resulting in operational
problems which are difficult to diagnose. The use of screened cable, separately earthed conduit
or a self-acting or analogue controller may be necessary. Cables should be protected from
mechanical damage.

Controllers

As mentioned earlier, the application will generally produce changes that are slower than the
response time of the control system. This is why the parameters of the controller, the proportional
band or gain, integral time and derivative time, must be tuned to suit each specific application /
task.
There are a number of methods for adjusting controller parameters, most of which involve the
use of mathematics. The behaviour of a control loop can be predicted mathematically but the
process or application characteristics are usually determined by empirical measurement, which
can be difficult. Methods based on design heat transfer ratios can be found, but these are outside
the scope of this Module.
Before setting the control parameters, it is useful to review each of the control terms (P, I and D),
and the three options regarding settings, for instance, too wide, too narrow, and correct.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.5.3

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

P-band (Figure 5.5.2)

If P-band is too wide, large offset occurs but system is very stable (curve A).
Narrowing the P-band will reduce the offset.
Too narrow a P-band will cause instability and oscillation, (curve B).
The optimum P-band, curve C, is achieved at a setting just slightly wider than that causing
permanent oscillation.
Temperature

A - Too wide
C - Correct

Set point

B - Too narrow
Time
Fig. 5.5.2 P-band setting reaction to change in load

Correct P-band =
Larger P-band =
Smaller P-band =

Summary of P-band (proportional action)

Good stability, good response
Some offset
Better stability, slower response
Larger offset
Instability, quicker response
Smaller offset with oscillation

Integral action (Figure 5.5.3)

With too short an integral time, temperature (curve A) will cross the set point and some oscillation
will occur.
An excessive integral time will result in the temperature taking too long to return to set point
(curve B).
Curve C shows a correct integral time setting where the temperature returns to set point as
rapidly as possible without any overshoot or oscillation.
Temperature

B - Too long

A - Too short

Set point
C - Correct

B - Too long
Time

Fig. 5.5.3 Integral time reaction to change in load

Correct IAT =
Too short IAT =
Too long IAT =

5.5.4

Summary of integral action

Elimination of offset
Stable - no overshoot
Elimination of offset
Response too fast, causing instability and overshoot
Elimination of offset
Slow response, stable, no overshoot

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Derivative action (Figure 5.5.4)

An excessive derivative time will cause an over-rapid change in temperature, overshoot and
oscillation (curve B).
Too short a derivative time allows the temperature to deviate from the set point for too long
(curve A).
The optimum setting returns the temperature to the set point as quickly as possible and is consistent
with good stability (curve C).
Temperature
B - Too much D time

Set point
A - Too little D time
C - Correct D time
Fig. 5.5.4 Derivative time reaction to change in load

Correct derivative time =

Too much D time =
Too little D time =

Time

Summary of derivative action

Quick response, stable
Faster response leading to overshoot and instability
Slower response

Commissioning
Practical methods of setting up a controller

Each controller has to be set up individually to match the characteristics of a particular system.
Although there are a number of different techniques by which stable and fast control can be
achieved, the Ziegler-Nicholls method has proven to be very effective.

The Ziegler-Nicholls method

The Ziegler-Nicholls frequency response method (sometimes called the critical oscillation method)
is very effective in establishing controller settings for the actual load. The method uses the controller
as an amplifier to reach the point of instability. At this point the whole system is operating in such
a way that the temperature is fluctuating around the set point with a constant amplitude,
(see Figure 5.5.5). A small increase in gain, or a reduced proportional band, will make the system
unstable, and the control valve will start hunting with increasing amplitude.
Conversely, an increased proportional band will make the process more stable and the amplitude
will successively be reduced. At the point of instability, the system characteristic is obtained for
the actual operating conditions, including the heat exchanger, control valve, actuator, piping,
and temperature sensor.
The controller settings can be determined via the Ziegler-Nicholls method by reading the time
period (Tn), of the temperature cycles; and the actual proportional band setting at the point of
instability.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.5.5

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Temperature

Set point

Tn
Time
Fig. 5.5.5 Instability caused by increasing the controller gain, with no I or D action

The procedure for selecting the settings for PID parameters, using the Ziegler-Nicholls method,
is as follows:
1. Remove integral action on the controller by increasing the integral time (Ti) to its maximum.
2. Remove the controllers derivative action by setting the derivation time (TD) to 0.
3. Wait until the process reaches a stable condition.
4. Reduce the proportional band (increase gain) until the instability point is reached.
5. Measure the time for one period (T n) and register the actual P-band (proportional band)
setting on the controller at this point.
6. Using this setting as the start point, calculate the appropriate controller settings according to
the values in Figure 5.5.6.

P I D control
P I control
P control

Proportional band
P-band x 1.7
P-band x 2.2
P-band x 2.0

Integral time
Tn/
2
Tn/
1.2

Derivative time
T n/
8

Fig. 5.5.6 Ziegler-Nicholls calculation

The controller settings may be adjusted further to increase stability or response. The impact of
changing the setting of the PID parameters on stability, and the response of the control, is shown
in Figure 5.5.7.
Increase P Band
Increase Ti
Increase TD

Stability
Increased
Increased
Decreased

Response
Slower
Slower
Faster

Fig. 5.5.7 Effect of changing PID settings

Bumpless transfer

The technical specifications for controllers include many other terms and one that is frequently
encountered is bumpless transfer.
Most controllers incorporate a Manual Auto switch and there can be times when certain
control situations require manual control. This makes interruption of the automatic control loop
necessary. Without bumpless transfer, the transfer from Auto to Manual and vice versa would
mean that the control levels would be lost, unless the manual output were matched to the
automatic output.
Bumpless transfer ensures that the outputs - either Manual to Auto or Auto to Manual - match,
and it is only necessary to move the switch as appropriate.

5.5.6

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Self-tuning controllers

Contemporary microprocessors provide the ability for some functions, which previously required
a computer, to be packed into the confined space of a controller. Amongst these, was the ability
to self-tune. Controllers that no longer require a commissioning engineer to go through the
process of setting the P I D terms have been available for many years. The self-tune controller
switches to on / off control for a certain period of time. During this period it analyses the results of
its responses, and calculates and sets its own P I D terms.
It used to be the case that the self-tune function could only apply itself during system start-up;
once set by the controller, the P I D terms remained constant, regardless of any later changes in
the process.
The modern controller can now operate what is termed an adaptive function, which not only
sets the required initial P I D terms, but monitors and re-sets these terms if necessary, according
to changes in the process during normal running conditions.
Such controllers are readily available and relatively inexpensive. Their use is becoming increasingly
widespread, even for relatively unsophisticated control tasks.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.5.7

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Questions
1. A pneumatically actuated pressure control is fitted on the steam supply line to an air
heater battery, which runs for about 5 minutes every 30 minutes. Each time the valve
opens, a banging noise in the pipework occurs and the life of the valve is shortened.
What might be the first thing to investigate?
a| There may be no strainer before the control valve

b| The valve is fitted with the flow arrow pointing in the wrong direction

c| Unsuitable PID values may have been used

d| There may be no separator or steam trap set before the control valve

2. A replacement sensor and pocket is installed to work with an electronic controller.

The response of the system is now slower than with the original sensor.
What might be the first thing to investigate?
a| The controller may not have been reconfigured when the replacement sensor was fitted
b| The air space around the sensor may not have been filled with a heat conductor

c| The sensor may have been fitted upside-down

d| The replacement signal wiring between the sensor and controller may now be
a lot longer

3. On a controller with adjustable P-band, the optimum P-band is achieved at a setting:?

a| With no offset

b| When the oscillation around the set point is regular

c| Not more than 5%

d| Just slightly wider than that which will cause oscillation

4. What is the correct integral action time (IAT)?

a| Where the process returns to the set point as rapidly as possible, without any overshoot

or oscillation
b| Where the process temperature returns as rapidly as possible to the set point, ignoring
oscillation at this stage of the setting up process

c| Where the offset is 0.5 x the proportional band

d| When the actual temperature oscillates equally around the set temperature

5. What is the correct derivative time setting?

a| P-band x 0.85

b| The time taken for the temperature overshoot to return to the set point as quickly as
possible, consistent with good stability

c| The time taken for the temperature overshoot to return to the set point as quickly as
possible with even periodic oscillation times

d| As long as possible in order to bring the temperature overshoot as quickly as possible back
to the set point. Any oscillations can be minimised by subsequent adjustments to P and I

5.5.8

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

6. What is an adaptive controller?

a| A controller which self-tunes, thus avoiding manual commissioning

b| A controller which calculates and displays the most suitable PID terms for the process
which can then be programmed into the controller

c| A controller which automatically sets the required initial PID terms, but resets them if
necessary according to changes in the process system or changing application situations

d| A controller which automatically sets the required PID terms, but then intermittently
shuts itself off to save energy when no change in load has been detected for a
certain time

Answers

1: d, 2: b, 3: d, 4: a, 5: b, 6: c
The Steam and Condensate Loop

5.5.9

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

5.5.10

Installation and Commisssioning of Controls Module 5.5

The Steam and Condensate Loop