---LECTURES for ANIMAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Unit 1.Introduction, Terminology and Anatomical Planes

A. Definitions
1. anatomy = form and structure of the body
a. gross anatomy = parts you can see..also macroscopic anatomy
b. microscopic anatomy = must be seen using a microscope
2. physiology = function of the body
3. Major body systems..
a. skeletal
b. integumentary
c. nervous
d. cardiovascular
e. respiratory
f. digestive
g. muscular
h. sensory
i. endocrine
j. urinary
k. reproductive
B. Anatomical Planes
1. sagittal plane
2. median or mid-sagittal plane
3. transverse plane
4. dorsal plane
C. Directional terms
1. medial vs. lateral
2. dorsal vs. ventral (animals only)
3. cranial vs. caudal
4. anterior vs. posterior (animals AND humans)
5. proximal vs. distal
6. palmar
7. plantar
8. lateral recunbency
9. sternal recumbency
10. dorsal recumbency
11. ventral recumbency
12. prone
13. superficial vs. deep

14. bilateral symmetry

D. Body Cavities
1. cranial
2. thoracic
3. abdominal
4. pelvic
5. oral
E. Levels of Organization
1. cells
2. tissues (only 4 types)
a. epithelial
b. connective
c. muscle ( smooth, cardiac, skeletal )
d. nervous
3. organs ( groups of tissues working together)
4. systems ( groups of organs working together )
F. Homeostasis
1. everything working together
2. example: increase salt intake causes increase in water consumption
3. check and balance for the body

Unit 2 .Chemical Basis for Life (biochemistry)

A. Matter
1. definition = anything that occupies space and has mass
2. can be a gas, liquid or solid
3. composed of Elements
a. an element cannot be divided by ordinary means.
b. 112 elements (92 occur in nature)
c. See Periodic Table of Elements
d. Each element has a chemical symbol
e. Only a few elements make up living organisms
1) N.nitrogen
2) O2...oxygen
3) H.hydrogen
4) C.carbon
f. a few trace elements are needed by living organisms
1) Fe (iron) is necessary to bind oxygen.found mostly in
red blood cells.
2) Ca.Muscle contraction
A neutron walks into a restaurant and orders a couple of cokes. As she is about to
leave, she asks the waiter how much she owes. The waiter replies, "For you, No
Charge!!!"
B. Atoms
Two atoms are walking down the street.
Says one atom to the other, "Hey! I think I lost an electron!"
The other says, "Are you sure??"
"Yes, I'm positive!"
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

smallest unit of an element

atom is made of protons, neutrons & electrons
protons and neutrons make up atoms nucleus
electrons remain in constant motion around the nucleus
protons have a + charge
electrons have a charge
neutrons have no charge
each atom of an element has the same # of protons
atomic number of an atom = the number of protons
a. hydrogen = atomic # 1 ( 1 proton, 1 electron )
b. carbon = atomic # 6 ( 6 protons, 6 electrons )
c. nitrogen = atomic # 7 ( 7 protons, 7 electrons )
d. oxygen = atomic # 8 ( 8 protons, 8 electrons )

10. area around nucleus = electron shell ( atoms can have more than 1 shell)
C. Molecules and Compounds
1. molecule = atoms joined together by chemical bonds
2. molecule is also the smallest unit of a compound that retains the properties
of the compound.
3. ex: an oxygen molecule = 2 oxygen atoms
4. ex: a carbon dioxide molecule = 1 carbon atom and 2 oxygen atoms
5. ex: salt (sodium chloride) = 1 atom of Na (sodium) and 1 atom of Cl
(chloride)
D. Chemical Reactions
What's the difference between Chemistry and cooking? In Chemistry, you should never
lick the spoon.
1. synthesis reaction
a. a new and more complex molecule is made from multiple, simpler ones.
b. ex: single molecules from the digestive tract (are absorbed) and form
more complex substances.
2. decomposition reaction
a. a single, complex molecule is broken into multiple, simpler ones.
3. exchange reaction
a. certain atoms are exchanged between molecules
b. ex: sodium bicarbonate given for indigestion relief mixes with
stomach acid. NaHCO3 + HCL = NaCl + H2O + CO2
4. chemical reactions either require energy or release energy
5. some reactions require a catalyst.usually special proteins called
enzymes
E. Compounds in Living Organisms
Why did Carbon marry Hydrogen? They bonded well from the minute they met.
1. inorganic compounds
a. NO hydrocarbons ( H or C bonded together)
b. Ex: H2O, salts, acids, bases
c. Essential for life
d. Water
1) universal solvent
2) chemicals added to water called solutes
3) result = a solution
4) hydrophilic = water loving (chemicals mix well with
water)

5) hydrophobic = water hating (chemicals do not mix well

with water)
2. organic compounds
a. contain hydrocarbons ( H and C )
b. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
c. essential for life
F. pH

(measure of acidity)
1. acid = 1.0 (max)
2. base = 14.0 (max)
3. blood and tissues need a pH of 7.4 (critical)
4. stomach acid = 1.0 to 2.5
5. saliva = 9.0 to 11.5
6. metabolic acidosis
a. too much acid in the bloodstream and body
b. cause.can be related to diabetes and too much fat breakdown
c. cause.can be related to kidney problem and cannot excrete acid

F. Proteins
1. made of amino acids (AA)
2. 20 different AA
a. essential = must supplement in diet
b. non-essential = made by the body
3. Functions
a. catalysts for chemical reactions
b. immune system
c. structural framework.bones, tendons, ligaments
d. physical movement
1) actin and myosin are proteins that are filaments which
slide upon each other to cause contraction and shortening
of a muscle. This results in movement of a bone or soft
tissue.
G. Nucleic Acids
1. DNA
a.
b.
c.
2. RNA
a.

contains instructions for cells to build proteins

coded in segments called genes
blueprint for the cell

transfers instructions out of nucleus and into cytoplasm and

builds the proteins.
b. RNA is the fax or printer that delivers the instructions
3. nucleotides
a. building blocks of nucleic acid

b. 5 different nucleotides
4. genes
a. sequence of nucleotides that carries the information to make one
peptide chain.
b. Long chains of genes are combined with proteins to form
chromosomes.
H. Conclusion or Why ?.........Who Cares ??
1. Physiological processes are derived from chemical reactions.
2. Digestion of food, Respiration, Growth, Reproduction and Stimulation of
Nerve Impulses all rely on molecules and chemical reactions.

Unit 3.The Amazing Cell

A. Viruses
1. not visible with a regular microscope, need an electron microscope
2. all have a protein covered capsule
3. either one strand of DNA or one strand of RNA, but never both
4. parasitic..cannot live independently.rely on cells for nutrition and to multiply
5. attaches to cell surface and injects genetic material into cytoplasm
a. reprograms cell to manufacture viruses
b. virus ruptures and kills the host cell, releasing hundreds of new viruses
6. very few anti-viral agents.most treatment is supportive therapy
B. Prions
1. proteins without DNA or RNA
2. can cause inherited or transmissible diseases
3. Prion diseases are fatal and cause progressive, neurodegenerative problems
a. literally, holes in the brain
4. brain resembles a sponge.so diseases are called spongiform
a. examples of spongiform encephalopathies are.
1) Scrapie.in sheep and goats
2) BSE .Mad Cow Disease
3) Chronic Wasting Disease
5. Prions are either inherited or ingested from tissue (brain and spinal cord) of
Infected animals.
C. Cell Anatomy
1. cell membrane

a. controls passage of substances into and out of the cell

b.. cilia = hair-like structures on the cell surface
2. Nucleus
a. CEO of the cell.contains and processes genetic info (controls cell)
b. chromatin = regulates protein synthesis
1) DNA and proteins condense to form chromosomes
3. cytoplasm = inner substance of the cell ( excluding the nucleus )
a. organelles = structures in cytoplasm that do special functions
1) mitochondria = largest of the organelles
a) powerhouse of the cell.produces energy
b) oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide excreted
2) many biochemical reactions occur in the mitochondria
4. cell membrane process
a. diffusion = passive movement of a substance down the concentration gradient
1) goes from concentrated to less concentrated
b. osmosis = passive movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane
into a solution which is less concentrated.
c. hypotonic = extracellular fluid is less concentrated than the intracellular fluid
d. isotonic = intra and extracellular fluids are equal in concentration
e. hypertonic = extracellular fluid is more concentrated than the intracellular
Unit 4. Tissues
A. Four types
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous
B. Epithelial
1. sheets of cells that cover and line other tissues
2. histology = microscopic study of tissues and organs
3. functions of epithelial tissue
a. protects, covers and lines
b. filters biochemical substances
c. absorbs nutrients
d. provides sensory input
e. manufactures secretions
f. manufactures excretions
4. classification of epithelial tissue
a. number of layers
1) single layer = simple epithelial
2) multiple layers = stratified
b. shape of cells
1) squamous = flat, ex: lining of blood vessels
2) cuboidal = square-like, ex: surface of ovaries
3) columnar = vertical columns, ex: lining of GI tract

c. surface specializations
1) cilia
2) keratin
d. transitional epithelial tissue
1) stretches..ex: bladder
e. glandular epithelial tissue
1) endocrine glands
a) glands with ducts or tubules
b) secrete hormones into the bloodstream directly
c) ex: thyroid, adrenal.pancreas is both endocrine & exocrine
2) exocrine glands
a) have ducts to deliver secretions
b) ex: sweat glands, salivary, .and pancreas

B. Connective Tissue
1. Examples..
a. blood
b. tendons
c. ligaments
d. fat
e. cartilage
f. bone
2. Adipose (fat)
a. white adipose = found throughout body
b. brown adipose
1) found in newborns
2) found in animals that hibernate
3) site of heat production
4) high number of mitochondria for heat production causes
dark cytoplasm which causes brown fat.
3. Ligaments
a. connect bone to bone
b. have elastic fibers that allow some stretch
c. massive Nuchal ligament in horses allows them to lower heads
for long times.
4. Tendons = connect muscle to bones
5. Cartilage
a. present in joints to prevent rubbing
b. no nerve tissue, so can tolerate a lot of wear with no pain
c. present in nose, ears, other areas where structure is needed

d. composed of chondrocytes and a firm gel containing chondroitin

sulfate and hyaluronic acid ..reason for joint supplements
e. avascular = no blood supply, so is slow to heal
6. Membranes
a. thin, protective layers that line body cavities, organs, and cover
surfaces.
b. Types of membranes.
1) mucus
2) serous
3) cutaneous
4) synovial
c. Mucus Membranes (MM)
1) connects to the outside environment
2) includes digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive
tracts.
3) Can produce mucuswhich lubricates and protects
4) Used to evaluate animals condition
a) CRT (capillary refill time)
b) icterus
c) cyanosis (purple color of MM due to low oxygen
d. Serous Membranes
1) often called serosa
2) covering of organs and the body cavity
e. cutaneous membranes (skin)
1) also called integument
2) epidermis = outer layer
3) dermis = inner layer
f. Synovial Membranes
1) lining of joints
2) secretes synovial fluid which is a thick fluid to lubricate
C. Muscle Tissue
1. purpose is to CONTRACT
2. proteins called actin and myosin make up the muscle filaments
3. contractions or shortening of muscle occurs by actin and myosin filaments
sliding over each other.
4. muscle has an origin and an insertion
a. important to know when treating injuries
5. result is bones move and so does blood and soft tissue structures
6. nerve must stimulate a muscle to contract
7. Muscle types
a. Skeletal muscle
1) controlled through conscious effortvoluntary muscle
2) called striated muscle because muscle bands are alternate
light and dark microscopically.
3) Majority of all muscle tissue.

b. Smooth muscle
1) not consciously controlled.involuntary muscle
2) found in blood vessels, bladder, stomach, intestines
c. Cardiac muscle
1) only found in the heart
2) specialized cells in heart muscle (SA node) supply signal
for heart to beat.
3) Pacemaker can override SA node.
4) Involuntary muscle.no conscious control
5) Also is striated microscopically.
D. Nervous Tissue
1. Receives and transmits electrical and chemical stimuli.
2. Neuron is the basic cell unit.
3. dendrites = extensions of cell that receive impulses
4. axon = long, single extension of neuron that conducts impulses away from
the cell.
E. Tissue Healing and Repair
1. Inflammation
a. area becomes hot, red, swollen and tender
b. bodys attempt to isolate the area
c. steps..
1) vasoconstriction initially to control hemorrhage
2) heparin and histamine are released to area to stimulate
blood flow.which causes redness.
3) Fluid from plasma flows to area causing swelling.
4) Clot formation begins using fibrinogen and platelets.
5) Macrophages (like Pac-Man) clean up debris and
neutrophils arrive to fight infection.
6) Histamine and heparin decrease, causes return to normal.
2. Granulation Tissue
a. pathogens inhibit healing
b. bright, pink tissue called granulation tissue.
c. Too much granulation tissue is called Proud Flesh .
1) common in horses
3. Epithelialization (scar tissue)
a. scab is bridge over both sides of wound to allow healing below.
b. Some flexibility is lost with scar tissue.
c. 1st Intention Healing
1) edges of wound heal without serious granulation or
scarring.

d. 2nd Intention Healing

1) edges of wound are too far apart and healing occurs with
granulation tissue.

Unit 5 .The Integument

A.

General Notes
1. Largest organ system of body.
2. Covers and protects the entire body.
3. Includes hair, skin, hooves ,horns, claws and skin glands
4. Outer layer are all dead cells.
5. Keratin = tough, protective, protein which allows skin to be waterproof.
6. Skin regulates body temperature.
7. Sensory organ..via touch and pressure.
8. Important in Vit D synthesis.
9. Thickness of skin varies with species and location on body
a. ex: Rhino vs. mosquito
b. ex: Giraffe skin is 1-2 inches thick.
10. 2 layers of skin
a. epidermis = composed of keratinized cells which form waterproof
schield. It is avasculari.e. no blood vessels.
b. Dermis = deeper layer made of tough, fibroelastic tissue which contains
blood vessels.
c. SQ = subcutaneous.which is below the dermis and is mostly adipose
tissue. Majority of animal injections are given SQ.
B Epidermis
1. Most cells are keratinocytes.which produce keratin.
2. Constant shedding of dead keratinocytes is called keratinization.
3. Pigment in skin is caused by melanocyted
a. controlled by MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone) from the brain

4. Skin cancer = abnormal growth of cells.

a. squamous cell carcinoma is the most common
1) seen around head and face in non-pigmented areas.
5. Digital pads (paws)
a. thick epidermis and insulating fat pad.
b. some animals have carpal, metacarpal (tarsal) pads
c. location of only true sweat glands found in dogs
6. Chestnuts..(horses)
a. inside (medial) of each leg
1) knee on front and hock on rear legs
2) thought to be vestige of carpal & tarsal pads of digit I
7. Ergots ..(horses)
a. smaller than chestnuts and on inside (medial) of fetlocks
b. thought to be vestiges of digits II & IV
8. Cutaneous pouches of sheep
a. jnfoldings of skin which secrete substance to cover skin
b. located in front of eyes, groin and between toes.
9. Hair
a. regulates body temperature
b. camouflage for wild animals
c. hair shaft is visible, hair follicle is anchored in dermis
d. growth cycles (shedding)
1) influenced by environment, temperature and photo period
2) hormones also play a role in hair growth
a) thyroid, cortisone,
b) after whelping, a bitch may blow her coat due to hormones
e. color of hair is controlled genetically and type of melanin
1) horses only have one type of melanin, so color depends on amount
and location of melanin.
2) dogs have 2 types of melanin
3) As animals (and people) get older, melanin decreases so
hair becomes gray.
4) White hair is a result of no pigment and is replaced with air.
f. types of hair
1) primary hairs = thicker & longer (dominant hairs)
2) secondary hairs = shorter
3) tactile hairs = used for sensory (touch)
a) ex: whiskers
4) Arrector pili muscles = make hair stand up puff up
a) response to fear
b) goose bumps in people
C. Dermis
1. fibro-elastic tissue that can stretch
a. elasticity decreases with age.(old, wrinkled skin)

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

b. made of collagen and elastin(Botox injections are collagen)

hair follicles, glands, blood vessels and nerves found in dermis
The actual hide of the animal.
Tattoos
a. ink is injected into the dermis
cells of dermis do not migrate to surface and shed like the epidermis
Glands of the skin
a. sebaceous glands
1) secrete oily substance called sebum
2) in sheep it is lanolin
3) sebaceous glands are sensitive to changes in sex hormones
a) most productive during puberty..acne
4) feline acne = mostly on chin
5) seborrhea = generalized over production of sebum
a) skin is greasy and smells
b. sweat glands
1) helps cool the body through evaporation
2) only found in the foot pads in dogs
3) some horses cannot sweat adequatelyAnhidrosis
c. anal glands
1) scent glands in most animals
2) dogs and cats do not have the muscle to express these gland
a) reason for scooting and anal sac infections
3) skunks and wild animals can express the glands
4) anal sacs are removed in a surgical descenting procedure

D. Claws and dew claws

1. most claws in animals are non-retractable
2. cats (with the exception of the cheetah) can retract their claws
3. dewclaws
a. remains of regressed digits
b. digit I is on front feet of all dogs
c. in cattle, pigs and sheep
1) medial dewclaw = digit II
2) lateral dewclaw = digit V
E. Hoof (more study later)
1. horse walks on digit III
2. hooved animals are called Ungulates
3. ruminants have 4 hooves per foot and walk on digits III & IV
4. in the horse P3 (coffin bone) and the Navicular bone are covered by the
hoof wall.
5. hoof grows downward from the coronary band continually
6. Laminitis (more discussion to follow)
a. student assigned research project/report
7. White Line = on bottom which demarcates sensitive vs. insensitive areas

8. wall = made of tubules or laminae

9. sole
10. frog
F. Horns
1. epidermal in origin.except in giraffes where true ossicons from the
skull form the horns.
2. horns originate from the horn process of the frontal bones
3. generally hollow and communicate with the frontal sinus.
4. horns generally grow throughout life.
5. antlers..
a. initially nourished by soft velvet tissue, then it goes away.
b. Antlers are eventually rubbed off (annually) and new growth
begins.
6. dehorning
a. best done while animal is young
b. important to remove bud or skin where growth of horn begins
c. significant blood supply to area, so need to control bleeding and
infection into frontal sinus.

Unit 6 .Skeletal System

A. Bone (os, osteo)
1. Characteristics
a. 2nd hardest substance of the body.
b. Living tissue with healing capacity
c. Osteoblasts = cells that produce bone.
d. Ossification = hardening of matrix produced by osteoblasts.
e. Osteoblasts become osteocytes.
2. Functions of bone
a. support
b. protection
c. leverage
d. storage of Ca and other minerals.
1) bank for Ca, so body can deposit or borrow Ca.
2) Blood level of Ca is kept at critical ratio to Phos.
e. Ca : Phos ratio is specific for each specific species.
f. Blood cell formation
1) in bone marrow.
2) Called hematopoises
3) Both red and white blood cells (RBCs & WBCs)
3. Bone Structure
a. cancellous bone
1) spongy look
2) light weight but strong
b. compact bone
1) heavy, dense bone
2) shafts of long bones

c. periosteum = tough lining over the outside of bone

d. endosteun = lining on the inside marrow cavity which contains
osteoblasts.
4. Bone Cells3 types
a. osteoblasts = cells that form bone
1) secrete a soft matrix, then supply minerals to make it
harden.
b. osteocytes = osteoblasts that have become trapped in the
matris
c. osteoclasts = cells that break down bone to remodel it.
5. Blood supply to bone
a. most comes via the peristoeum.
b. Nutrient foramen is hole in bone where blood supply enters
6. Bone formation (2 ways)
a. endochondral bone formation
1) bone replaces a cartilage model
2) starts in the shaft or diaphysis of the bone
3) finishes at the ends or epiphyses of the bone
a) growth plates
b) Allows long bones to lengthen
c) Weak area until growth stops and epiphyses close.
d) Common fracture site.
e) Problem with horses less than 3 yrs old racing.
f) Age of closure of growth plates varies with species.
g) Genetically controlled as well.
b. intramembranous bone formation
1) only in certain skull bones
c. Fracture repair
1) alignment
2) immobilization (critical key)
3) time
d. Classification of fracture types
1) avulsion fracture
a) site where muscle, tendon or ligament insertion is
detached by force.
2) greenstick fracture
a) bone is broken on only one side or cortex
3) simple fracture
a) bone is broken but skin is intact
4) compound fracture
a) bone is broken and skin is open

5) comminuted fracture
a) bone is broken into several pieces
6) compression fracture
a) broken bone produced when bones are pressed
together
7) transverse fracture = broken across the bone
8) oblique fracture = broken at an angle
9) spiral fracture = break is twisted or spiraled apart
7. Bone Shapes
a. long bones
1) diaphysis
2) proximal and distal epiphyses
b. short bones
1) squares or cubes
2) ex: carpal or tarsal bones
3) provide strength and some mobility
c. flat bones
1) thin & flat
2) ex: scapula, pelvic bones, skull bones
d. irregular bones
1) ex: vertebrae
2) sesamoid bones
a) named because shaped like a sesame seed.
b) In some tendons over surface of joints
c) Patella (knee cap) is the largest
8. Bone Marrow
a. in hollow medullary cavity of bone
b. red bone marrow = hematopoietic (makes RBCs)
c. yellow bone marrow
1) mainly adipose (fat)
2) most common type in adult animals
3) does not produce RBCs
9. Articular Surfaces
a. Where bones come together to form joints.
b. Covered by a smooth surface of hyaline cartilage (called articular
cartilage).
c. Reduces friction and wear on bones.
d. Terms
1) condyle = large, round articular surface at distal end of
humerus and femur.
2) Head = round, articular surface on proximal end of a long
bone. Ex: femoral head or humeral head.
3) Neck = shaft portion attaching head to body of long bone.

4) Facet = flat, articular surface

a) ex: carpal and tarsal bones
5) Processes = lumps, bumps and projections on a bone.
a) often where tendons attach
b) various names
c) spinous process of vertebrae
d) spine of scapula
e) tibial crest
f) wing of the atlas
6) foramen = a hole in a bone allowing passage of blood
vessels and nerves.
7) Fossa = sunken area on a surface of a bone
a) usually occupied by a muscle or tendon

B. Axial Skeleton
1. Skull
a. 37 or 38 separate bones
b. Joined by immoveable joints called sutures .
c. Mandible (lower jaw) is connected by a moveable , synovial
joint.
d. Occipital bone = a single bone that forms the base of the skull.
1) where spinal cord exits the skull (hole is called the
foramen magnum)
2) connects to 1st vertebra called the atlas.
e. temporal bones
1) form the lateral walls of cranium and contain the middle
and inner ear.
a) external acoustic meatus
b) bony canal that leads to middle ear.
2) Form the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
f. frontal bones
1) create the forehead of the skull.
2) Contains frontal sinus.hollow structure that
communicates to horns if present.
3) Cornual process of the frontal bone is core of horn
g. internal bones of the cranium
1) sphenoid bone
a) houses the pituitary gland
2) ethmoid bone
a) has a cribiform plate related to sense of smell
(olfactory bulb)
h. bones of the middle ear (ossicles..tiny bones)

1)
2)
3)
4)

malleus = hammer
incus = anvil
stapes = stirrup
they transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane (ear
drum) to the cochlea, which has receptor cells.
i. External bones of the face
1) incisive bones.house incisor teeth
2) nasal bones.make up dorsum of nose
3) maxillary bones
a) upper jaw
b) house upper teeth
c) has maxillary sinus
d) palantine bone (hard palate)
4) lacrimal bones..form medial portion of orbit.
5) Zygomatic bonesform protection for the eye with the
zygomatic arch.
6) Mandible.lower jaw
a) houses lower teeth
b) only moveable skull bone
c) forms TMJ
d) 2 bones join together in front by mandibular
symphysis
e) Weakest part and can easily separate upon force.
f) No symphysis in pigs and horses..one fused bone.
g) Shaft is horizontal portion of mandible
h) Ramus is vertical portion of mandible.
j. Internal bones of the face
1) palantine bones.hard palate
2) pterygoid bonessmall bones that support the pharynx
3) vomer bone .single bone on midline that forms
nasal septum (separation of left and right nasal passages
4) turbinates .thin, scroll-like bones which fill nasal
cavity
k. Hyoid bone..U-shaped structure that supports tongue
2. Spinal Column (vertebral column)..5 Regions
a. cervicalusually 7 vertebrae
b. thoracic...12 to 18 depending on species
c. lumbar5 to 7 depending on species
d. sacral ..3 to 5
e. coccygeal 5 to 23 depending on species
f. spinous processes vary with each region
g. vertebral formulae.
1) cat = C 7, T 13, L 7, S 3, Cy 5 -23

2) dog = C 7, T 13, L 7, S 3, Cy 20-23

3) horse = C 7, T 18, L 6, S 5, Cy 15-21
4) cow = C 7, T 13, L 6, S 5, Cy 18-20
5) human = C 7, T 12, L 5, S 5, Cy 4-5
6) sheep = C 7, T 13, L 6-7, S 4, Cy 16-18
7) goat = C 7, T13, L 7, S 5, Cy 16-18
8) pig = C 7, T 14-15, L 6-7, S 4, Cy 20-23
h. parts of the vertebra.see diagrams
1) transverse process
2) spinous process
3) body
4) vertebral foramen
i. Atlas and Axis are the first 2 cervical vertebrae
j. Interveterbral Disk Disease
1) discussion to explain the mechanics of this disease
2) Wobblers Syndrome
a) cervical pressure on spinal cord
b) seen in horses and dogs mostly
c) hereditary and nutritional factors
d) medical treatment generally not worthwhile
e) surgery to relieve the pressure is best option
3. Ribs
a. articulate with the thoracic vertebrae
b. costo-chondral junction is where ribs connect with cartilage
c. sternum is where ribs all join on the midline ventrally
1) manubrium is the cranial end of the sternum
2) xyphoid cartilage is the caudal end of the sternum
d. floating ribs do not connect to the sternum
Appendicular Skeleton
A. Thoracic Limb..not connected by bone (clavicle) in most domestic animals.
1. Scapula..shoulder blade
a. flat, thin bone with a deep ridge or spine
b. distal end forms a ball-and-socket joint with the humerus
2. Humerus
a. long bone of upper arm
b. proximal end has ball to articulate with the scapula
c. distal end has a condyle (knob) which forms the elbow joint
d. articulates with the radius and ulna
3. Ulna
a. one of 2 bones of the forearm
b. olecranon process is the point or proximal end of the ulna
c. triceps muscle attaches to the olecranon

d. ulna extends to the carpus except in the horse

1) horse only has a proximal portion of the ulna and it joins
the radius at midshaft.
4. Radius
a. larger bone of the forearm
5. Carpal bones
a. 2 rows of bones..all cubes or blocks
b. wrist in humans
c. knee in horses
6. Metacarpal bones
a. extend from the carpal bones to the proximal phalanges
b. in humans these make up our hand
c. numbered from medial to lateral (I to V)
d. called the cannon bone in horses (metacarpal III)
e. cattle and cloven hooved animals walk on III and IV
7. Phalanges (toes or digits)
a. P1, P2, P3..some have names..ex: coffin bone (P3)
b. Sesamoid bones
1) found in some tendons where they cross over a joint
a) act as bearings for the tendons
2) horse has 2 proximal sesamoids and 1 distal sesamoid
a) proximals are behind fetlock joint in digital flexor
b) distal is the navicular bone and is where digital
flexor tendon attaches to the coffin bone
c) Navicular bone is a common site for injury in the
horse.
C. Pelvic Limb
1. directly connected to the axial skeleton @ sacroiliac joint
2. Pelvis
a. 2 halves joined by a symphysis ventrally
b. 3 pairs of bones are fused to form pelvis
1) ilium.wing or most cranial part
2) ischium.caudal most part
a) humans sit on our ischium
3) pubis cranial part of pelvic floor
c. acetabulum
1) socket formed in pelvis where femur attaches
2) discuss hip dysplasis
3. Femur.long bone of the thigh
a. proximal end has femoral neck and head which articulates with
the pelvis in a ball-and-socket joint.

b. Distal end has large condyle (knob) which forms the stifle joint
or true knee.
4. Patella.knee cap
a. largest sesamoid bone
b. within the large distal tendon of the quadriceps muscle which
inserts on the tibial crest .
c. patellar luxations in dogs vs. horses
5. Fabellae
a. 2 small sesamoids behind the femoral condyles
b. Not present in horses and cattle
6. Tibia
a.
b.
c.
d.
7. Fibula
a.
b.
c.

main weight bearing bone of lower leg

forms stifle joint with the femur proximally
forms the tarsal joint (or hock) distally
prominent cranial ridge called the tibial crest
thin bone that parallels tibia
complete in dogs and some animals
horses and most animals it is only partial

8. Tarsal Bones
a. same as ankle in humans or hock in animals
b. 2 rows of bones
9. Metatarsal Bones..similar to metacarpal bones
a. make up bones of our feet in humans
10. Phalanges
Miscellaneous Bones
A. Os penis.bone in the penis
1. dogs, raccoons, beavers, ferrets, walruses
2. creates urinary problems if crystals or stones are present.
B. Os rostri.bone in the nose of pigs
1. allows them to root into tough areas
C. Os cordis ..
1. bone within the heart of cattle and sheep
2. helps support the valves of the heart

Muscular System
A. One of 4 basic tissues in the body
1. Muscles only contract.
2. Must have a nerve stimulus to contract skeletal muscle.
3. Cardiac and smooth muscle have built in nerve stimulus.
4. Over 100 muscles in the body.
5. Muscles generally have an origin and insertion.
6. Contraction results in movement..Kinesiology is the study of muscle
movement.
7. Tendons attach muscles to bones.
8. Aponeurosis is where a flat muscle attaches.
9. Linea alba is the aponeurosis where the abdominal muscles meet ventrally.
a. white line is what the linea alba is referred to, and the site to do surgery.
B. Three muscle types
1. Skeletal muscle..voluntarywe can control to some extent.
a. looks striated under the microscope
b. most activities operate on cruise control.such as walking, breathing,
routine things that our body has learned to do automatically,
2. Cardiac muscle .involuntary
3. Smooth muscle..involuntary
a. GI tract, blood vessels, eyes, bladder
C.Muscle Names
a. by action..flexors, extensors, abductors, adductors
b. by shape..Deltoid (triangular).in the shoulder
c. by direction of fibersoblique, transverse, straight (rectus)

d. by # of heads or divisions.biceps, triceps

D. Cutaneous muscles
1. These are below the skin and allow an animal to twitch its skin.
2. This serves as an insect control.
3. Unfortunately humans do not have these muscles.
E. Head & neck muscles
1. facial expressions
2. mastication (chewing)
3. movement of eyes and head
4. masseter muscles close the jaw and are the strongest in carnivorous animals.
F. Abdominal muscles
1. important for respiration, defecation, urination, parturition, etc.
2. muscles meet ventrally at the linea alba.
3. layers of the abdominal muscles.
a. external abdominal oblique
b. internal abdominal oblique
c. rectus abdominus
d. transeverse abdominus
G. Thoracic limb muscles
1. latissimus dorsi.from spinal column to humerus (flexes shoulder)
2. pectoral muscles...from sternum to humerus (adductors)
3. biceps brachii ..distal scapula to radius (flexes elbow)
4. triceps brachii .distal scapula to humerus (extends elbow)
H. Pelvic limb muscles
1. gluteals..from pelvis to femur (extensors of hip)
2. ham string muscles (3)..caudal thigh (extend hip)
a. biceps femoris
b. semimembranosus
c. semitendinosis
3. quadriceps femoris
a. cranial thigh
b. main extensor of the stifle (knee)
4. gastrocnemius
a. calf muscle in humans
b. from distal femur to calcaneal process of tarsal bone (heel)
c. Achilles tendon
I. Respiratory muscles
1. diaphragm.separates thorax from the abdomen

2. intercostals.external oblique and internal oblique

J. Muscle contraction
1. muscle filaments consist of 2 proteins.actin and myosin
a. these slide over each other during contraction
b. must be initiated by a nerve impulse in skeletal muscle
1) nerve stimulus at muscle junction causes Ca to be released
2) ATP is enzyme that provides the energy
3) oxygen and glucose are both needed for contraction
4) glucose stored as glycogen
5) oxygen stored as myoglobin in the muscles
2. aerobic metabolism is when adequate oxygen is present as myoglobin
3. anaerobic metabolism is when not enough oxygen present
a. lactic acid builds up in the muscles and causes pain
4. Heat is a by-product of muscle contraction
a. reason for shivering during recovery from anesthesia
5. Rigor mortis
a. stiffness in skeletal muscles after death
b. muscles get stuck in contracted position (actin & myosin filaments)
c. due to decrease oxygen and sudden release of Ca
d. muscles contract as a result of the Ca.
K. Cardiac muscle
1. involuntary and striated
2. no external stimulus needed to cause contraction
3. wavelike contractions secondary to internal impulse conduction system
a. called SA node (pacemaker) located in the wall of the right atrium
L. Smooth muscle
1. involuntary
2. found in blood vessels, GI tract in the walls of organs
3. large, rhythmic waves of contraction in the GI tractperistalsis
4. no nerve stimulus from outside is needed
5. reacts to stretching by contracting more strongly
a. bladder, uterus, GI
b. hormones override the stretching response in pregnancy