Sugar

P ublished:A ugust2013

SugarLove
(Anotsosweetstory)
ByRichCohen

PhotographbyRobertClark

BottomoftheDrink
Theyhadtogo.TheCokemachine,thesnackmachine,thedeepfryer.Hoistedanddragged
throughthehallsandouttothecurb,theysatwithothertrashbeneathgray,forlornskiesbehind
KirkpatrickElementary,oneofahandfulofprimaryschoolsinClarksdale,Mississippi.Thatwas
sevenyearsago,whenadministratorsfirstrecognizedthemagnitudeoftheproblem.
Clarksdale,astorieddeltatownthatgaveusthegoldenageoftheDeltablues,itscottonfields
andflatlandsrollingtotheriver,itsVictorianmansionsstillbeautiful,isatthecenterofacolossal
Americanhealthcrisis.Highratesofobesity,diabetes,highbloodpressure,heartdisease:the
legacy,someexpertssay,ofsugar,acropthatbroughttheancestorsofmostClarksdale
residentstothishemisphereinchains.Weknewwehadtodosomething,Kirkpatrickprincipal
SuzAnneWaltontoldme.

Walton,Clarksdalebornandbred,wasleadingmethroughtheschool,discussingwaysthe
facultyistryingtohelpstudentsbakedinsteadoffried,fruitinsteadofcandymostofwhom
havetwomealsadayinthelunchroom.ShewaswearingscrubsstandardMondaydressfor
teachers,toreinforcetheschoolscommitmenttohealthandwellness.Thestudentbodyis91
percentAfricanAmerican,7percentwhite,andthreeLatinostheremaining2percent.
Thesekidseatwhattheyregiven,andtoooftenitsthesweetest,cheapestfoods:cakes,
creams,candy.Ithadtochange.Itwasaboutthestudents,sheexplained.

Take,forexample,NicholasScurlock,whohadrecentlybegunhisfirstyearatOakhurstMiddle
School.Nick,justtallenoughtoridethecoasteratthebiggeramusementparks,hadbeen135
poundsgoingintofifthgrade.Hewasterrifiedofgym,PrincipalWaltontoldme.Therewas
troublerunning,troublebreathingthekidhaditall.

Ofcourse,Imnotonetojudge,Waltonadded,laughing,slappingherthighs.Imabigwoman
myself.

ImetNickinthelunchroom,wherehesatbesidehismother,WarkeyieJones,astriking
38yearold.Jonestoldmeshehadchangedherowneatinghabitstohelpherselfandtoserve
asanexampleforNick.Iusedtosnackonsweetsallday,causeIsitatadesk,andwhatelse
areyougoingtodo?ButIveswitchedtocelery,shetoldme.Peoplesay,Youredoingit
causeyouvegotaboyfriend.AndIsay,No,ImdoingitcauseIwanttoliveandbehealthy.

Takeacupofwater,addsugartothebrim,letitsitforfivehours.Whenyoureturn,youllsee
thatthecrystalshavesettledonthebottomoftheglass.Clarksdale,abigtowninoneofthe
fattestcounties,inthefatteststate,inthefattestindustrializednationintheworld,isthebottom
oftheAmericandrink,wherethesugarsettlesinthebodiesofkidslikeNickScurlockthe
legacyofsweetsintheshapeofaboy.

MosquesofMarzipan
Inthebeginning,ontheislandofNewGuinea,wheresugarcanewasdomesticatedsome
10,000yearsago,peoplepickedcaneandateitraw,chewingastemuntilthetastehittheir
tonguelikeastarburst.Akindofelixir,acureforeveryailment,ananswerforeverymood,
sugarfeaturedprominentlyinancientNewGuineanmyths.Inonethefirstmanmakeslovetoa
stalkofcane,yieldingthehumanrace.Atreligiousceremoniespriestssippedsugarwaterfrom
coconutshells,abeveragesincereplacedinsacredceremonieswithcansofCoke.

Sugarspreadslowlyfromislandtoisland,finallyreachingtheAsianmainlandaround1000B.C.
ByA.D.500itwasbeingprocessedintoapowderinIndiaandusedasamedicinefor
headaches,stomachflutters,impotence.Foryearssugarrefinementremainedasecretscience,
passedmastertoapprentice.By600thearthadspreadtoPersia,whererulersentertained
guestswithaplethoraofsweets.WhenArabarmiesconqueredtheregion,theycarriedaway
theknowledgeandloveofsugar.Itwaslikethrowingpaintatafan:firsthere,thenthere,sugar
turningupwhereverAllahwasworshipped.Wherevertheywent,theArabsbroughtwiththem

sugar,theproductandthetechnologyofitsproduction,writesSidneyMintzinSweetnessand
Power.Sugar,wearetold,followedtheKoran.

Muslimcaliphsmadeagreatshowofsugar.Marzipanwastherage,groundalmondsandsugar
sculptedintooutlandishconcoctionsthatdemonstratedthewealthofthestate.A15thcentury
writerdescribedanentiremarzipanmosquecommissionedbyacaliph.Marveledat,prayedin,
devouredbythepoor.TheArabsperfectedsugarrefinementandturneditintoanindustry.The
workwasbrutallydifficult.Theheatofthefields,theflashofthescythes,thesmokeofthe
boilingrooms,thecrushofthemills.By1500,withthedemandforsugarsurging,theworkwas
consideredsuitableonlyforthelowestoflaborers.Manyofthefieldhandswereprisonersof
war,easternEuropeanscapturedwhenMuslimandChristianarmiesclashed.

PerhapsthefirstEuropeanstofallinlovewithsugarwereBritishandFrenchcrusaderswho
wenteasttowresttheHolyLandfromtheinfidel.Theycamehomefullofvisionsandstories
andmemoriesofsugar.Ascaneisnotatitsmostproductiveintemperateclimesitneeds
tropical,raindrenchedfieldstoflourishthefirstEuropeanmarketwasbuiltonatrickleof
Muslimtrade,andthesugarthatreachedtheWestwasconsumedonlybythenobility,sorareit
wasclassifiedasaspice.ButwiththespreadoftheOttomanEmpireinthe1400s,tradewith
theEastbecamemoredifficult.TotheWesternelitewhohadfallenundersugarsspellthere
werefewoptions:dealwiththesmallsouthernEuropeansugarmanufacturers,defeattheTurk,
ordevelopnewsourcesofsugar.

Inschooltheycallittheageofexploration,thesearchforterritoriesandislandsthatwouldsend
Europeansallaroundtheworld.Inrealityitwas,tonosmalldegree,ahuntforfieldswhere
sugarcanewouldprosper.In1425thePortugueseprinceknownasHenrytheNavigatorsent
sugarcanetoMadeirawithanearlygroupofcolonists.Thecropsoonmadeitswaytoother
newlydiscoveredAtlanticislandstheCapeVerdeIslands,theCanaries.In1493,when
ColumbussetoffonhissecondvoyagetotheNewWorld,hetoocarriedcane.Thusdawned
theageofbigsugar,ofCaribbeanislandsandslaveplantations,leading,intime,togreatsmoky
refineriesontheoutskirtsofglasscities,tomassconsumption,fatkids,obeseparents,andmen
inXXLtracksuitstrundlingalonginelectriccarts.

SlavestoSugar
ColumbusplantedtheNewWorldsfirstsugarcaneinHispaniola,thesite,notcoincidentally,of
thegreatslaverevoltafewhundredyearslater.Withindecadesmillsmarkedtheheightsin
JamaicaandCuba,whererainforesthadbeenclearedandthenativepopulationeliminatedby
diseaseorwar,orenslaved.ThePortuguesecreatedthemosteffectivemodel,makingBrazil
intoanearlyboomcolony,withmorethan100,000slaveschurningouttonsofsugar.

Asmorecanewasplanted,thepriceoftheproductfell.Asthepricefell,demandincreased.
Economistscallitavirtuouscyclenotaphraseyouwoulduseifyouhappenedtobeonthe
wrongsideoftheequation.Inthemid17thcenturysugarbegantochangefromaluxuryspice,
classedwithnutmegandcardamom,toastaple,firstforthemiddleclass,thenforthepoor.

Bythe18thcenturythemarriageofsugarandslaverywascomplete.Everyfewyearsanew
islandPuertoRico,Trinidadwascolonized,cleared,andplanted.Whenthenativesdied,the
plantersreplacedthemwithAfricanslaves.Afterthecropwasharvestedandmilled,itwaspiled
intheholdsofshipsandcarriedtoLondon,Amsterdam,Paris,whereitwastradedforfinished
goods,whichwerebroughttothewestcoastofAfricaandtradedformoreslaves.Thebloody
sideofthistriangulartrade,duringwhichmillionsofAfricansdied,wasknownastheMiddle
Passage.UntiltheslavetradewasbannedinBritainin1807,morethan11millionAfricanswere
shippedtotheNewWorldmorethanhalfendinguponsugarplantations.Accordingto
TrinidadianpoliticianandhistorianEricWilliams,Slaverywasnotbornofracismrather,racism
wastheconsequenceofslavery.Africans,inotherwords,werenotenslavedbecausethey
wereseenasinferiortheywereseenasinferiortojustifytheenslavementrequiredforthe
prosperityoftheearlysugartrade.

TheoriginalBritishsugarislandwasBarbados.DesertedwhenaBritishcaptainfounditonMay
14,1625,theislandwassoonfilledwithgrindingmills,plantationhouses,andshanties.
Tobaccoandcottonweregrownintheearlyyears,butcanequicklyovertooktheisland,asitdid
whereveritwasplantedintheCaribbean.Withinacenturythefieldsweredepleted,thewater
tablesapped.BythenthemostambitiousplantershadleftBarbadosinsearchofthenextisland
toexploit.By1720Jamaicahadcapturedthesugarcrown.

ForanAfrican,lifeontheseislandswashell.ThroughouttheCaribbeanmillionsdiedinthe
fieldsandpressinghousesorwhiletryingtoescape.Graduallythesinofthetradebegantobe
feltinEurope.Reformerspreachedabolitionhousewivesboycottedslavegrowncane.In
Sugar:ABittersweetHistoryElizabethAbbottquotesQuakerleaderWilliamFox,whotolda
crowdthatforeverypoundofsugar,wemaybeconsideredasconsumingtwoouncesof
humanflesh.AslaveinVoltairesCandide,missingbothahandandaleg,explainshis
mutilation:Whenweworkinthesugarmillsandwecatchourfingerinthemillstone,theycutoff
ourhandwhenwetrytorunaway,theycutoffalegboththingshavehappenedtome.Itisat
thispricethatyoueatsugarinEurope.

Andyettherewasnostoppingtheboom.Sugarwastheoilofitsday.Themoreyoutasted,the
moreyouwanted.In1700theaverageEnglishmanconsumed4poundsayear.In1800the
commonmanate18poundsofsugar.In1870thatsamesweettoothedblokewaseating47
poundsannually.Washesatisfied?Ofcoursenot!By1900hewasupto100poundsayear.In
thatspanof30years,worldproductionofcaneandbeetsugarexplodedfrom2.8milliontonsa
yearto13millionplus.TodaytheaverageAmericanconsumes77poundsofaddedsugar
annually,ormorethan22teaspoonsofaddedsugaraday.

IfyougotoBarbadostoday,youcanseethelegaciesofsugar:theruinedmills,theirwooden
bladesturninginthewind,markingtimethefadedmansionstheroadsthatriseandfallbut
neverlosesightoftheseathehotelswherethetouristsarefilledwithjamandrumandthose
fewfactorieswherethecaneisstillheavedintothepresses,andtherawsugar,stickysweet,is
sentdownthechutes.Standinginarefinery,asmeninhardhatsrushedaroundme,Ireada
handwrittensign:aprayerbeseechingtheLordtograntthemthewisdom,protection,and
strengthtobringinthecrop.

TheCulprit
ItseemslikeeverytimeIstudyanillnessandtraceapathtothefirstcause,Ifindmywayback
tosugar.

RichardJohnson,anephrologistattheUniversityofColoradoDenver,wastalkingtomeinhis
officeinAurora,Colorado,theRockiescrowdingthehorizon.Hesabigmanwitheyesthat
sparklewhenhetalks.Whyisitthatonethirdofadults[worldwide]havehighbloodpressure,
whenin1900only5percenthadhighbloodpressure?heasked.Whydid153millionpeople
havediabetesin1980,andnowwereupto347million?WhyaremoreandmoreAmericans
obese?Sugar,webelieve,isoneoftheculprits,ifnotthemajorculprit.

Asfarbackas1675,whenwesternEuropewasexperiencingitsfirstsugarboom,Thomas
Willis,aphysicianandfoundingmemberofBritainsRoyalSociety,notedthattheurineof
peopleafflictedwithdiabetestastedwonderfullysweet,asifitwereimbuedwithhoneyor
sugar.TwohundredandfiftyyearslaterHavenEmersonatColumbiaUniversitypointedout
thataremarkableincreaseindeathsfromdiabetesbetween1900and1920correspondedwith
anincreaseinsugarconsumption.Andinthe1960stheBritishnutritionexpertJohnYudkin
conductedaseriesofexperimentsonanimalsandpeopleshowingthathighamountsofsugar
inthedietledtohighlevelsoffatandinsulininthebloodriskfactorsforheartdiseaseand
diabetes.ButYudkinsmessagewasdrownedoutbyachorusofotherscientistsblamingthe
risingratesofobesityandheartdiseaseinsteadoncholesterolcausedbytoomuchsaturated
fatinthediet.

Asaresult,fatmakesupasmallerportionoftheAmericandietthanitdid20yearsago.Yetthe
portionofAmericathatisobesehasonlygrownlarger.Theprimaryreason,saysJohnson,
alongwithotherexperts,issugar,andinparticularfructose.Sucrose,ortablesugar,is
composedofequalamountsofglucoseandfructose,thelatterbeingthekindofsugaryoufind
naturallyinfruit.Itsalsowhatgivestablesugaritsyummysweetness.(Highfructosecorn
syrup,orHFCS,isalsoamixoffructoseandglucoseabout55percentand45percentinsoft
drinks.TheimpactonhealthofsucroseandHFCSappearstobesimilar.)Johnsonexplainedto
methatalthoughglucoseismetabolizedbycellsallthroughyourbody,fructoseisprocessed
primarilyintheliver.Ifyoueattoomuchinquicklydigestedformslikesoftdrinksandcandy,
yourliverbreaksdownthefructoseandproducesfatscalledtriglycerides.

Someofthesefatsstayintheliver,whichoverlongexposurecanturnfattyanddysfunctional.
Butalotofthetriglyceridesarepushedoutintothebloodtoo.Overtime,bloodpressuregoes
up,andtissuesbecomeprogressivelymoreresistanttoinsulin.Thepancreasrespondsby
pouringoutmoreinsulin,tryingtokeepthingsincheck.Eventuallyaconditionknownas
metabolicsyndromekicksin,characterizedbyobesity,especiallyaroundthewaisthighblood
pressureandothermetabolicchangesthat,ifnotchecked,canleadtotype2diabetes,witha
heighteneddangerofheartattackthrowninforgoodmeasure.Asmuchasathirdofthe
AmericanadultpopulationcouldmeetthecriteriaformetabolicsyndromesetbytheNational
InstitutesofHealth.

RecentlytheAmericanHeartAssociationaddeditsvoicetothewarningsagainsttoomuch
addedsugarinthediet.Butitsrationaleisthatsugarprovidescalorieswithnonutritional
benefit.AccordingtoJohnsonandhiscolleagues,thismissesthepoint.Excessivesugarisnt
justemptycaloriesitstoxic.

Ithasnothingtodowithitscalories,saysendocrinologistRobertLustigoftheUniversityof
California,SanFrancisco.Sugarisapoisonbyitselfwhenconsumedathighdoses.

Johnsonsummeduptheconventionalwisdomthisway:Americansarefatbecausetheyeattoo
muchandexercisetoolittle.Buttheyeattoomuchandexercisetoolittlebecausetheyre
addictedtosugar,whichnotonlymakesthemfatterbut,aftertheinitialsugarrush,alsosaps
theirenergy,beachingthemonthecouch.ThereasonyourewatchingTVisnotbecauseTVis
sogood,hesaid,butbecauseyouhavenoenergytoexercise,becauseyoureeatingtoo
muchsugar.

Thesolution?Stopeatingsomuchsugar.Whenpeoplecutback,manyoftheilleffects
disappear.Thetroubleis,intodaysworlditsextremelydifficulttoavoidsugar,whichisone
reasonforthespikeinconsumption.Manufacturersusesugartoreplacetasteinfoodsbledof
fatsothattheyseemmorehealthful,suchasfatfreebakedgoods,whichoftencontainlarge
quantitiesofaddedsugar.

Itsaworstcasescenario:Yousickenuntodeathnotbyeatingfoodsyoulove,butbyeating
foodsyouhatebecauseyoudontwanttosickenuntodeath.

IntheBeginningWastheFruit
Ifsugarissobadforus,whydowecraveit?Theshortansweristhataninjectionofsugarinto
thebloodstreamstimulatesthesamepleasurecentersofthebrainthatrespondtoheroinand
cocaine.Alltastyfoodsdothistosomeextentthatswhytheyretasty!butsugarhasa
sharplypronouncedeffect.Inthissenseitisliterallyanaddictivedrug.

Thisraisesthequestion,however,ofwhyourbrainswouldevolvetorespondpleasurablytoa
potentiallytoxiccompound.Theanswer,Johnsontoldme,liesdeepinoursimianpast,whena
cravingforfructosewouldbejustthethingourancestorsneededtosurvive.

IparaphraseJohnsoninavoiceborrowedfromthefables,forwhatareeventhebesttheories,if
nottheoldstoriestoldagaininthelanguageofscience?Some22millionyearsago,sofarback
itmightaswellbethebeginning,apesfilledthecanopyoftheAfricanrainforest.Theysurvived
onthefruitofthetrees,sweetwithnaturalsugar,whichtheyateyearroundasummerwithout
end.

Oneday,perhapsfivemillionyearslater,acoldwindblewthroughthisEden.Theseasreceded,
theicecapsexpanded.Aspitoflandemergedfromthetides,abridgethatafewadventurous
apesfollowedoutofAfrica.Nomads,wanderers,theysettledintherainforeststhatblanketed
Eurasia.Butthecoolingcontinued,replacingtropicalgrovesoffruitwithdeciduousforests,
wheretheleavesflameinautumn,thendie.Atimeoffaminefollowed.Thewoodsfilledwith

starvingapes.Atsomepointamutationoccurredinoneofthoseapes,Johnsonexplained.It
madethatapeawildlyefficientprocessoroffructose.Evensmallamountswerestoredasfat,a
hugesurvivaladvantageinmonthswhenwinterlayuponthelandandfoodwasscarce.

Thenonedaythatape,withitsmutantgeneandhealthycravingforrare,preciousfruitsugar,
returnedtoitshomeinAfricaandbegottheapesweseetoday,includingtheonethathas
spreaditssugarlovingprogenyacrosstheglobe.Themutationwassuchapowerfulsurvival
factorthatonlyanimalsthathaditsurvived,Johnsonsaid,sotodayallapeshavethat
mutation,includinghumans.Itgotourancestorsthroughtheleanyears.Butwhensugarhitthe
Westinabigway,wehadabigproblem.Ourworldisfloodedwithfructose,butourbodieshave
evolvedtogetbyonvery,verylittleofit.

Itsagreatirony:Theverythingthatsaveduscouldkillusintheend.

TheHealthyChef
Thoughjust11,NickScurlockisaperfectstandinfortheaverageAmericanintheageofsugar.
Hyperefficientatturningtofatthefructosetheadmanandcandyclerkpumpintohisliverata
low,lowprice.Onehundredthirtyfivepoundsinfifthgrade,inlovewiththesweetpoison
endangeringhislife.Sittinginthelunchroom,hesmiledandasked,Whyarethegoodthingsso
badforyou?

Butthisstoryislessabouttemptationthanaboutpower.Atitsbest,theschoolcanhelpkids
makebetterdecisions.AfewyearsagoPopTartsandpizzawereservedatKirkpatrick.Now,
acrossthedistrict,menushaveimproved.Theschoolhasagardenthatgrowsfoodforthe
community,awalkingtrackforstudentsandthepublic,andanewplayground.

InasensethestruggleinClarksdaleisjustanotherfrontinthecontinuingbattlebetweenthe
sugarbaronsandthecanecutters.Itsatragedythathitsthepoormuchharderthanitdoesthe
rich,Johnsontoldme.Ifyourewealthyandwanttohavefun,yougoonvacation,travelto
Hawaii,treatyourselftothings.Butifyourepoorandwanttocelebrate,yougodowntothe
cornerandbuyanicecreamcake.

WhenIaskedNickwhathewantedtobewhenhegrewup,hesaid,Achef.Thenhethoughta
moment,lookedathismom,andcorrectedhimself.Ahealthychef,hesaid.

19962015NationalGeographicSociety.20152016NationalGeographicPartners,LLC.Allr ightsr eserved.