1

THE LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN

RELIGION:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

AND SOME SELECTED PENTECOSTAL DENOMINATIONS

BY

OKOYE, CHIZOBA CHRISTY

ENG/2006/032

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
CARITAS UNIVERSITY AMORJI - NIKE ENUGU

AUGUST, 2010

TITLE PAGE

THE LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH AND
SOME SELECTED PENTECOSTAL OF DENOMINATIONS

BY
OKOYE, CHIZOBA CHRISTY
REG. NO: ENG/2006/032

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
CARITAS UNIVERSITY AMORJI-NIKE ENUGU

A PROJECT RESEARCH SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
ARTS (B.A.) IN ENGLISH

AUGUST, 2010

4
CERTIFICATION

I hereby certify that this project was carried out by me. No previous
submission of it has been made for any degree. The work of other researchers
are fully acknowledged and referred to accordingly.

Okoye, Chizoba Christy.

Eng/2006/032

Signature---------------------Date ----------------------------

APPROVAL PAGE

This project entitled the Language of Christian Religion: A Comparative Study of Roman
Catholic Church and Some Selected Pentecostal Denominations has been approved as adequate
in scope and quality for partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Award of Bachelor of Arts
in English Language.
..
Mrs. Okoye, Mercy .C.

..
Date

Project Supervisor

.
Mrs. Nwanne, V. N.

..
Date

Head, Department of English

External Examiner

..
Date

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, our Mother Mary, for
her powerful intercession, my beloved Mum, Mrs. Christy Okoye, my Hero Mr.
Peter Okoye and my only Brother, Nnaemeka Okoye.

7
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My special salute goes to the Holy Spirit of God, the giver of wisdom and
knowledge, the unction for function and my beautiful beautifier.
I also wish to acknowledge the role played by my parents Mr. and Mrs.
Peter Okoye, who brought me into this world and denied themselves so
many things just to see to the completion of my education in Caritas
University. My appreciation also goes to my one and only brother
Nnaemeka Okoye for his love and encouragement.
I am also indebted to my supervisor Mrs. Mercy Okoye for her patience
and tolerance throughout this work, for her motherly advice and most
especially for sparing her precious time to read and correct this work
despite her tight schedule. I am also grateful to my H.O.D., Mrs. V. N.
Nwanne who is always there for us and tosss my lecturers Miss Adaeze
Eze, Mr. Aneke, Mrs. Gift Onwuta, Dr. C.C. Umeh, Prof. Amadihe Ezugu,
Mrs. Ugwoke, Mr. Maxwell and Mr. Chikodiri.
Other people worthy of mention are Barr. Cordelia Ibe, Mr. Ben Ojikeme,
Evg. Mrs. Joy Nwachukwu, Rev. Fr. Josephat Obodo, Fr. Vincent
Nnatuanya, Fr. Ejike Mbaka, Bro. Chikezie Ononuju, Mrs. Okpalaokaka,
and members of the Apostleship of Prayer League of Sacred Heart of
Jesus Caritas University chaplaincy, for their prayers.
Finally I thank my friends whose influence also made this work a
success: Eby dear, Princess Nasa, Marybless, Amara, Ada, my cousins
Nky Okoye, Amy and I.k Nwachukwu, my course mates, room mates and
all others who in small or little measure contributed to the success of
this work, I say thank you very much and may God bless you all.

ABSTRACT

This study is an examination of the language of Christian religion with particular

reference to the Roman Catholic Church and Pentecostal denominations. Chapter one
embodies the introduction to the study, the objective of the work, its scope and
delimitation, a brief origin of Christian religion, and that of the two denominations.
Chapter two is a brief review of the related literature. Chapter three brings out the
features of the language of Christian religion; the lexical, grammatical, metaphorical,
typographical and graphological features. Chapter four is a further analysis of the
sermons, rituals, liturgies and sacred text of the two denominations. The final chapter
includes a comparative summary analysis of the two denominations, a brief conclusion of
the work and recommendation.

9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i
Approval Page ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ii
Dedication ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iii
Acknowledgment --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v
Abstract -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vi
Table of Contents -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vii
Definition of Terms-------------------------------------------------------------------------------viii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 Background of the Study -------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.2 Statement of Research Problem ------------------------------------------------------------ 7
1.3 Aim and Objective of the Study ------------------------------------------------------------7
1.4 Significance of the Study---------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.5 Scope and Delimitation -----------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.6 Research Methodology -----------------------------------------------------------------------8
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Review of Related Literature----------------------------------------------------------------10
2.1 Sources of Literature --------------------------------------------------------------------------10
2.2 Review of the of Language of Christian Religion----------------------------------------14
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Features of Language of Christian Religion -----------------------------------------------17
3.1 Grammar of the Langue of Christian Religion---------------------------------------------18
3.2 Lexis of the language of Christian Religion -----------------------------------------------20

10
3.3 Metaphorical Language of Christian Religion---------------------------------------------22
3.4 Typographical Features of Language of Christian Religion-----------------------------23
3.5 Graphlogical Features of Language of Christian Religion--------------------------------24
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Liturgies of the language of Roman Catholic Church -----------------------------------25
4.2 Sermon of the Roman Catholic Church ----------------------------------------------------27
4.3 The Sacred Test of Roman Catholic Church ----------------------------------------------31
4.4 The Sermon of Pentecostal Denominations -----------------------------------------------35
4.5 Sacred Text of Pentecostal Denominations ------------------------------------------------37
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Comparative Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------40
5.2 Conclusion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
5.3 Recommendation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
Works Cited --------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
Appendices ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------46

11
DEFINITION OF TERMS

SERMON: It is a moral statement whose aim is to dictate a certain kind of

behaviors through series of examples.

LITURGIES: It can be invocations, petitions and they can be written to be read

or sung.

THEOLOGICAL TEST:

It is a discursive document with a moral purpose

written by a biblical scholar, theologians or clergy

RITUALS: It is a specific ceremony to mark baptisms and funerals.

OMNIPOTENT: Having total power, able to do something.

SUPERNATURAL: Events forces or powers that cannot be explained by he laws

of science and seem to involve gods or magic.

BENEDICTIONS: A blessing pronounced at the end of church service.

CARNALITY: A state of being unspiritual.

12

13

CHAPTER ONE

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The major objective of language is communication but the manner in

which language communicates appears to be interlinked with individual
experiences in terms of linguistic attitude, cultural influences and
personal perception. Register is a term that is used to describe variations
in language according to use. For instance, Thorne says that lawyers use
a legal register, doctors a medical register and the priests a religious
register ( 95).
The language of Christian religion will be examined by analysing
the spoken and written forms of the language of Roman Catholic Church
and the selected Pentecostal denominations. Christian religion is the
most widely distributed of the world religions. In the 1990s its total
membership exceeded up to 1.9 billion people (Probert Microsoft
Encarta).There are other systems of beliefs and values such as
Platonism, Marxism, Freudianism or Democracy. Christianity is in many
ways comprehensible only to those who share its benefits and strive to
live by its values.
Wilken points out that Jerusalem is the center of Christian religion,
at least until its destruction by the Roman armies in A.D 70. From it
Christianity radiated to other cities and towns in Palestine and beyond.

14

At first, its approval was large although it was not completely confined to
the adherents of Judaism to which it was presented as new but not a
brand new religion (820).
Leith states that in its very beginning, Christian religion manifested
a dual relation to the Jewish faith, a relation of continuity and yet of
fulfillment of antithesis and of affirmation. The forced conversion of the
Jews in the Middles ages and the history of anti-Semites condemnations
of both by church leaders are the evidence that the antithesis could
easily overshadow affirmation. The fateful loss of continuity with
Judaism has however never been total (450).
Above all, the presence of so many elements of Judaism in the
Christian Bible has acted to remind Christians that He who they
worshiped as their Lord was Himself a Jew and that the New Testament
does not stand on its own but it is appended to the Old Testament. An
important source of the alienation of Christianity from its Jewish root
was the change in membership. And at the same point ,Christians with
Gentile backgrounds began to outnumber the Jewish Christians. Clearly,
the work of Apostle Paul was influential. Born a Jew, he was deeply
involved in the destiny of Judaism, but as a result of his conversion, he
believed that he was a chosen instrument to bring the message of
Christ to Gentiles. He was the one who formulated his epistle to several

15

early Christian congregations and many of his ideas constitute the core
of Christian religion (453).
Manners says that the Christian religion is easier to describe
historically than define logically. Such a description does yield some
insights into continuing practices and essential characteristics of the
Christian religion. One of such element is the centrality of the person of
Jesus Christ. This is in one way or another, a feature of all historical
varieties of the Christian belief and practice. Jesus Christ died so that
his followers might share in the life of the Father in heaven and become
the children of God. His cruxfiction, death and resurrection, to which
the early Christians referred when they spoke about him as the one who
had reconciled humanity to God, made the cross the chief focus of
Christian faith and devotion .It is also the principal symbol of the saving
love of God the father (520).

1.1

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The Greek word Ka0aukoc (katholikos) from which catholic is

derived means universal. It was first used to describe the Christian

church in the early second century. Since the East-West schism of 1054,
Norman states that the western church has generally been known as
Catholic and the Eastern

Church as Orthodox. Following the

reformation in the 16th century, the church in communion with the

16

Bishop of Rome used the term Catholic to distinguish itself from the
various Protestant churches (15).
According to Phayer, Roman Catholic Church is the worlds largest
Christian church with more than a billion members. Its leader is the
Pope who holds a supreme authority in concert with the collage of
Bishops. The church defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus
Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity. It operates
social programme and institutions throughout the world including
schools, universities, hospitals, missions and shelters (930).
Having played a prominent role since the forth century, it teaches
that it is one Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church founded by Jesus
Christ. Its Bishops are consecrated successors of his Apostles and the
Pope, as the successor of Saint Peter, possesses a universal primacy of
jurisdiction through twenty-one ecumenical councils. The church
maintains that it is guided by the Holy Spirit from falling into doctrinal
error. The belief of the Roman Catholic is based on the Holy Bible and
Sacred traditions interpreted by the churchs teachings and they are
detailed in the catechism of the Catholic Church. Catholic worship is
called the liturgy, the central component is the Eucharist (938).

Doctrine

of the Roman

Catholic

Church

17

According to the Encyclopedia of Catholicism, the Catholic Church

holds that there is one external God, who exists as a mutual indwelling
of three persons, God the Father, God the son and God the Holy Spirit
which makes up the Trinity. To Catholics, the term church refers to the
people of God who abide in Christ and who are nourished with the body
of Christ. The Catholics also believe that the fullness of the means of
salvation exists only in Catholic Church. It also acknowledges that the
Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separate from itself
to bring people to salvation.
This doctrine teaches that anyone who is saved is saved even if the
person has invincible ignorance of the church and its teaching.
According to the council of Trent, Christ instituted the seven sacraments;
they are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance),
Anointing of the sick, (formally extreme unction), Holy orders and Holy
matrimony. Sacraments are important visible rituals that Catholics see
as Gods presence and effective channel of Gods grace (353).
In an event known as the incarnation, the church teaches that
through the power of the Holy Spirit, God became united with human
nature when Christ was conceived in the womb of the Blessed Virgin
Mary. Christ therefore, is believed to be fully divine and fully human.
Prayers to the Virgin Mary is also part of Catholic piety but are distinct
from the worship of God. The church holds Mary, as a perpetual virgin

18

and Mother of God, in special regard. Catholics beliefs concerning Mary

include her immaculate conception without the stain of original sin and
bodily assumption into heaven at the end of her life. This is infallibly
defined as dogma by Pope Pius ix .Devotions such as the Rosary, the Hail
Mary, the slave Regina and the memorare are common Catholic prayers
(56).
After baptism, Catholics may obtain forgiveness for subsequent
sins through the sacrament of reconciliation (confession). In this
sacrament, an individual confesses to a priest who then offers advice and
imposes a particular penance to be performed. The priest is forbidden
under penalty of excommunication to reveal any sin or disclosure heard
under the seal of confession. Immediately after death, the soul of each
person will receive a particular judgment from God based on the deeds of
that individuals earthly life (383).
Pentecostal
Probert,

Denominations
Walter

Microsoft

Encarta

states

that

Pentecostal

denominations dates from April 4 1906, when members of the

congregation of Azusa Street Mission in Los Angeles Californian
experienced the

Baptism of the Holy Spirit.

This denomination

emphasized the teaching of the full gospel or foursquare. This term

refers to the four fundamental believes of Pentecostalism : Jesus saves
according to John 3:16, baptizes with the Holy spirit according to Acts

19

2:4, heals bodily according to James 5:15 and is coming again to receive
those who are saved according to Thessalonians 4:16-17.
Pentecostals greatly adhere to the doctrine of biblical teachings,
believe that the Bible has divine authority in matters of faith and adopt
a literalist approach to its interpretation. However, they differ from other
evangelicals by rejecting Colossians teaching. They belief that spiritual
gifts such as speaking in tongues and prophecy did not cease after New
Testament times and that they are still in still in operation today. This is
the fundamental requirement of Pentecostalism. The Pentecostal belief
and practice centers on the understanding of the baptism of the Holy
Spirit. To them salvation is received by grace through faith in Jesus
Christ and cannot be earned through good deeds alone unlike the
Catholic belief.

Ordinances and Practices of Pentecostal Denominations.

Like other Christian churches Pentecostals believe that certain
rituals or ceremonies were instituted as a pattern and command by
Jesus in the New Testament. Some Pentecostals commonly call these
ordinances, while the Roman Catholics in particular, call it sacraments.
However, the ordinance of communion is seen as a direct command given
by Jesus at the last supper. Some Pentecostals reject the use of wine for

20

the

communion;

they

use

grape

instead.

These

Pentecostal

denominations are also seen in Africa and Nigeria.

1.2

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

The problem of this research study arises from the need to know

if actually there is any difference in the language of Christian religion

considering its multifarious denominations.

1.3 THE AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The aim of this research is to identify the language of Christian
religion with particular reference to that of the Roman Catholic Church
and the Pentecostal denominations in order to bring out the differences
and similarities in their use of language.
This research achieves this purpose through the examination and
analysis of their spoken but written and written forms of language.

1.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This work is unique in the sense that it explores and brings out the
language of Christian religion .This is a branch of register that people
have been neglecting or putting little or no effort in researching. It will
also be a stimulant and reference point to future researchers in the area
of language and Christian religion.

21

This work, will in addition, serve as a means of enlightenment of

how language is manipulated or used, especially during worship
services, in the two Christian denominations.
Finally, it will further help to situate the fact that there can be
slight differences even within the language or register of Christian
religion.

1.5 THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

For ease of exposition, the work is limited to the literatures used in
both Catholic and Pentecostal denominations. The language is found in
many contexts: religious newspapers and bulletins, radio tapes, audio
and video compound disc, local publicity materials that promote church
events, sermons preached in both denominations and in their sacred text
the Holy Bible.

1.6

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The observation method was used during the service. The

observation was carried out in three Catholic and Pentecostal churches

respectively in the Enugu metropolis .These churches are:
1. Saint Marys Catholic Church ,Uwani, Enugu.
2. Christ the King Catholic Church, G.R.A, Enugu.
3. Caritas University Chaplaincy, Amorji Nike, Enugu.

22

4. Apostolic Faith Church ,Nkponkiti Road, Enugu.

5. Assemblies of God, Isiagu Street, Uwani Enugu.
6. Living Faith Church, Winners Avenue ,off Presidential Road,
Enugu.
Other sources used include: textbooks, journals, Christian
newspapers, Holy Bible, written sermon and internet facilities.

23

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

Most of all the related and relevant works reviewed for the purpose
of this study are obtained from textbooks in the areas of language,
linguistics, communication and religion. Websites on the Internet dealing
with these mentioned field were consulted. Other sources include
Christian newspapers and bulletins.
The literature review is assessed based on the contributions of
scholars in the area of the researchers study.

2.2

According to Okeke , Christian religion helps man to explore his

attempt to live a good life. He also states that religion is a means of

getting on terms with what ever final reality there may be after life.
Okeke says that it is necessary to understand Christian religion. He also
states that some religions have long and known history behind them;
records of teachers, reformers and rituals, yet without a history or sacred
writings. Accordingly to him, Christian religion is regarded as a
commitment to a kind or quality of belief that purports to recognise a
source beyond itself ; usually but not necessary called God (11).

24

He further states that all religions ask fundamental questions

about man, his religious environment, the universe in which he lives, his
origin, the purpose of his existence and the goal he intends to achieve.
According to him, Christian religion is not something which one can see
and handle. There are however temples, ceremonies, various religious
arts, symbols, rituals and appurtenances yet, these can only be
appreciated through the inner perception and evaluation of those who
use the external forms. Okeke continues to state that in the study of
religion, one tries to understand what creates this significance and to
what extent. For instance, in Christian baptisms, the Priest uses water
and his hands. In order to understand what is done during baptism, one
needs to understand the basic Christian truths and the centuries of
experience of adherents of the faith (13).
Malgregor, gives a tentative definition of Christian religion and
critically opines that one cannot know what Christian religion is until
one has studied it, and yet one cannot study it until one knows what it
is. He sees Christian religion as something that should be studied (14 ).
Noah Webster defined Christian religion as something that does not
have one meaning. He sees it primarily as belief in a supernatural power
or powers that control human destiny. He defined the Christian religion
as a monotheistic (belief in one God) system of belief and practices based

25

on the Old Testament and the teachings of Jesus Christ as embodied in

the New Testament., emphasizing the role of Jesus as Saviour.
Webster states that Christian religion is the most important of the
first things in which all children under a free government ought to be
instructed in line with this he says No truth is more evident to my mind
than that Christian religion must be the basis of any government
intended to secure the rights and privileges of a free people.
(www.audo.english.net/ditionary).
According to the Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, Christian
religion is a phenomenon total unto itself that is inextricably bound to
other cultures and societies. That is, religion is expressed and
experienced in ways and forms offered by culture or constituted as
culture. Christian religion enables human beings deal with human
phenomenon and the ideas of religion serve as goals for worldly ends
interactions and transaction is an instrument of religion (128).
Talking about Christian religion and language, Blakely says that
Christian religion has been characterized by a vigorous vernacular
process from the earliest Christian

period. He further states that the

adherents of Christian religion embraced it to the point of being prepared

to suffer martyrdom (235).
.

Whitings on his own part, states that Christian religion is a means

of human needs and skills. According to him, religion has to answer the

26

quarries and challenges of the brainy and yet guide the simple - minded
and at the same time supply encouragement and comfort. He further
states that it is a means by which believers can understand something
about the supreme being and can also make contact with the being
through prayers, rituals and services. Whitings

says that Christian

religion has various forms of worship through which the worshippers

convey their thanks and praises to God (the Supreme Being).
apparently

observed

that

many

religions

have

He

sophisticated

communication system between earthly man and the supreme being .

He says that religion inspire people with a creative urge, and that
music, pictures, sculptures, buildings, and dances have been produced
as a result of religious inspiration. Christian religion according to him,
have dominated history, kings, politicians, and soilders.
Whitings further says that the Sociologist and the Psychologist
point to the important influence of religion in the life of communities and
individuals. Sometimes, Christian religion according to him, exploits
people with vested interest and he says that they must be alert to such
dangers.
Thorne says that the language of the Christian religion is in the
heart of a community and as a result of this fact that literacy was often
spread through religion. It is a language that is often used for everyday
conversation, because most people recognize its use beyond the specific

27

context of the Church. She further states that the language is part of
everyday life because both believers and non believers and writers use
biblical quotations in their work. Formal varieties of English language
draw on some of the archaisms associated with religious language .For
instance the blind leading the blind (Matthew 15:14) and Jesus wept
(John 11:35). She says that despite the varied use of religious language,
it can be recognized by some distinctive features that mark it (346). She
further points out that the language of Christian religion has both
written and spoken forms. The Bible, which has both historical and
spiritual significance, provides the focus of worship for Christians.
Spoken language is also distinctive and marked by special pronunciation
and features such as intonation pattern which plays a crucial part in
making sure that the worshippers relate to and understand the spiritual
message well
( 347).
According to Percke, Christian religion is an organized approach to
human spirituality which usually encompasses a set of narrative,
symbols, beliefs and practices. It may be expressed through prayer, ritual
and mediation. It may focus on specific supernatural, metaphysical and
moral claims about reality, which may yield a set of law ethics and a
particular lifestyle. He further states that Christian religion encompasses

28

ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history and mythology,

personal faith and experiences ( 256 ).
Eneje, on his own part, states that Christian religion belongs to
both the personal practices related to communal faith and to group
rituals and communication (18).

2.2 REVIEW OF THE LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION

Crystal and Derek, view the language of religion as a kind of
language which a speech community uses for the expression of its
religious beliefs. It is usually, one of the most distinctive varieties. They
says that very often, the language of Christian religion is not far removed
from the language of everyday conversation. Occasionally, one finds a
completely foreign liturgical language of a community. The Roman
Catholic Church, for instance is known for the use of Latin.
They noted that the language of biblical translation is in many
important respects different from that of the public prayers. Formal
readings from the scriptures play a main part in most liturgical services
and have been the primary influence on the form of many non-biblical
prayers. Sermons of Christian religion often deliberately echo liturgical
language. The language of sermon has a lot in common, stylistically, with
other varieties of public speaking.

29

According to Gillingham, much of the scripture is expressed in

different kinds of language. He further says that religious language has a
reference point beyond this world, for it transcends physical reality. In
many instances, the language of biblical texts, the language of Christian
religion, are used with particular intensity.
To him, the use of metaphor in myth can equally be important as a
figure of speech in religious language. It is often used to describe a
reality or truth which is non-literal, spiritual, and transcendental by
means of using in part language which is literal, physical and material.
In the Old Testament, a good deal of work on metaphor has been done in
more recent literary critical studies with particular respect to the New
Testament. For instance, one who gives a well-known biblical description
of Christ such as : the Lamb of God, the Prince of Peace, the Living
Water, the Alpha and Omega, the king of kings, the Wisdom of God,
is quite aware that they are metaphors used to convey a religious and
spiritual insight beyond that which is literary and historical (151).
Furthermore,

biblical

material

abounds

in

metaphorical

expressions. Cumulatively, they reveal that a vast proportion of the

biblical material is more about theology than it is about history. He
continues that the rate of metaphor carried over to the New Testament
stories of the account of the temptation, the baptism, the transfiguration,
the ascension and the account of Christs coming again these could be

30

seen as a way of using literal and physical pictures to depict special and
transcendental truth. The appropriation of metaphorical reading can be
so ambiguous that it becomes difficult to know whether there is anything
more than just story and meaning, when texts are read in such a way,
metaphor creates another problem for the historical method (152).
He concludes that, if the metaphorical readings of the poetry of the
psalms of the prophets are in apocalyptic literature, then one has to ask
why one does not do so with the narrative accounts as well. And if one
does not, any historical reading of the text is deemed to be redundant.
And, so, the language of Christian religion is both historical and
metaphorical.

31

CHAPTER THREE

3.0

FEATURES OF LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION

Every religion has a body of sacred texts and written doctrine

which sustains and promotes its particular spiritual wisdom. This is

because Christianity is a religion that originated with the Englishspeaking people. In Christian religion, prayers are a special form of polite
command

or

request

addressed

to

God;

liturgies

are

chants,

thanksgiving, hymns and psalms; sermons are moral statements which

aim to dictate a certain kind of behaviour through stories or examples.
Theological texts are discursive documents with a moral purpose written
by biblical scholars, clergy or theologians; they contain justifications for
certain benefits and lifestyles, spiritual guidelines or explanations of
religious teachings.
The examples to be considered with regard to the distinguishing
features of the writings used by the Roman Catholic church and
Pentecostal denominations are taken from the traditional sources
because they are marked by the most distinctive linguistic features of the
variety as a whole. Although modern versions reduce the number of
archaisms, they provide a paraphrase for the subject specific terms and
avoid unnecessarily complicated sentence structures; however many of
the characteristic features of the traditional version still remain. These

32

features include: grammatical feature, the lexis, the metaphorical

language, typographical language and the graphological features.

3.1

THE GRAMMATICAL FEATURE OF THE LANGUAGE CHRISTIAN

RELIGION
The grammar of the language of Christian religion (Bible) often

resembles the older forms of English. The third person singular verb is
infected with the th and est.
th as in cometh
th as in liveth
est as in highest
Some verbs also have stronger forms such as sware for swore and
shewed for sowed. In modernized version of the Christian religious
Language, modern verbs are very common and they function to imply
contrasts in the speakers attitude. The mood is rarely interrogative, but
frequently declarative:
The Lord hates people who use
dishonest scales. He is happy with
honest weights
(Good News Bible, Proverb 1.11).

In the modernised version of the Christian religious language,

modal verbs serve to bring out contrasts in the speakers attitude. They

33

are sometimes used in conveying certainty in the future or to mark a

special command which should be followed. Pronouns are also distinctive
because of their archaic forms Ye and thee are wildly used most often.

Example: Thou who takest away the sins of the world.

Pro

Sub Clause

The first person singular [I] is rarely used in formal prayer, while
the first person plural [we] is common. This reflects the public group
nature of Christian worship.
Sentences in the authorized version of the language of Christian
religion are basically simple.

Example: In the beginning

Adverb

God

Subject

created the heaven and the earth.

Predicate Object
(Good News Bible, Gen: 1:1).

34

Prayers also have distinctive structure of a sentence. These prayers

begin with a single proper noun which may be proceeded by an object
and adjective or which may be followed by a postmodifying relative
clause. They contain an imperative verb which is followed by an object
and its dependent clauses.
On the other hand, the authorized version of the language of
Christian religion has a different type of sentence structure that is
used in prayers and ritual ceremonies in the book of common prayers.
The authorised version uses archaic features such as inversion of the

subject and the verb or direct and indirect objects. Prayers are more
likely to have long sequences of dependent clauses as shown in chapter
four. Rites are usually more straight forward often using simple and
compound sentences as rightly observed by Crystal (152).

3.2 LEXIS OF LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION

The lexis of the language of Christian religion is subject specific. It
contains nouns such as parables and disciples and verbs like pray and
forgive. In considering the traditional sources, the vocabulary is
sometimes archaic, some verbs no longer have a contemporary

35

equivalent. Some may be linked directly to a specific person, place or

action and take their meaning from a historical situation. As a result of
the traditional language of Christian religion, it has formal phrases and
idioms.
Let there be light is a written language which is taken from the
beginning of the Bible (Good News Bible, Genesis 1.3), while let us pray
is a spoken language directed to the congregation. This language is often
formulaic with openings like we beseech thee and closings like Amen.
This is to mark the beginning and the end of a prayer. The nominal group
in the language of religion especially in prayers tend to be quite long.
Most of the nouns are modified by at least one modifier and post modifier
and noun phrases in apposition are common.

Example:
Thine

Only

Son

Determiner Adjective Noun

Jesus Christ.

Noun phrase in apposition

36

Dearly

beloved

Adverb.

Adjective

brethren.

Noun

In prayers, post modification is usually in the form of a relative

clause following a personal pronoun. It can also take the form of a
prepositional phrases and non-finite clauses.
Example :

Our

Determiner

The

Determiner

father

Noun

kingdom

Noun

who art in heaven.

Relative clause

of

heaven.

Prep. phrase.

The post modifying phrases or clauses sometimes take a human

understanding such as referring to God as our Lord , Father, King, as
seen in Oh Heavenly Father, King of Kings and Lord of

37

Lords.There is also a link, between the unknown human world and the
theological world which is created through modifiers that define divine
attributes. God is the central cohesive concept in Christianity. The
references are made to God and to theological concepts that are also
linked with God. This implies that half of the determiners used are
possessive. As a result of the abstract spiritual nature of religion, some
of the nouns are not countable such as heaven, compassion, salvation
and so on.

3.3 METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION

The metaphorical language of Christian religion is central to the
field of religion. Both the authorised version and the modern versions of
the Bible use a range of techniques that make it more like a narrative.
Metaphor adds an extra layer of meaning to the stories that provide the
philosophy of Christianity. The description of Adam and Eve hearing the
voice of the Lord God walking in the garden, conveys effectively Gods
omnipresent power (Genesis 3:8). The personification here enables the
reader to understand Adam and Eves fear as a result of their
disobedience to Gods wishes. It gives a concrete presence to Gods voice.
The description of Gods anger as fire also portrays the power of God to
punish those who do not follow the spiritual path.

38

The people began to complain to the Lord.

It burnt among them and destroyed one end
of the camp.
(Good News Bible, Numbers 11:1).

Symbolism is central to the interpretation of the language of the

church. In Genesis, Adam and Eve represent humanity, the serpent
represents evil, and the apple represents temptation. The temptation
makes the Adam and Eve story more than just a narrative it becomes a
moral lesson exemplifying the spiritual and religious message.
In fact, the Bible, as Throne has noted has a controlled framework
of balanced structures; the division of the text into verses make it easy to
read aloud. Co-ordination and the frequent use of pauses marked by
comma give it a serious and resonant tone. Some of the service books
are actually written to be read aloud; part of the text is the to be read by
the clergy who is experienced, while other sections are to be read by the
inexperienced congregation speaking in unison. The tone variations are
often predictable and the sentences are rhythmically balanced (341).
3.4 TYPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN
RELIGION
These are features often used to help the congregation read the
relevant parts of the service successfully. Paragraphing and spacing

39

split the text into phonetic value. Full Stop are not always used to mark
the grammatical end of a sentence, but sometimes they imply a major
phonological pause. Commas can reflect a brief pause, capitalization
marks a proper noun, and personal titles and pronouns are used to refer
to the deity.
Throne further observes that this variety is unlike the language of
everyday conversation because even in the modernised version, many
distinctive features can be traced directly to the Christian religious
language of the Good News Bible and authorised version. Both are
marked by archaic language and structure (352).
3.5 GRAPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF LANGUAGE OF CHRISTIAN
RELIGION
The graphological features of the language of Christian religion can
also be said to be the general physical layout of the written materials
which may also signal phonological features. Graphologicallly, it is
important to note the

controlled rhythmical framework of the whole

involving balanced structures and generally slow rate of progression.

There are numerous graphological features distinctive in an earlier stage
of religious language. At this graphological level, there is a reflection on
the old writing habits such as up up for Jesus, Jesus for Jesus

40

Crystal (153). Also there is the use of older pronunciations devices such
as colon which is not the same as in modern use.

41

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 LITURGIES OF THE LANGUAGE OF ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

The Roman Catholic liturgies are written to be read or sung. They
can be invocations, petitions, rosaries, hymns or psalm. They are
distinctive forms of religious language Prayers are recognizable because
they are a special form of polite plea addressed to God Throne (356).
Invocation:
We pray you, O Lord, be merciful to your
people who you have filled with your heavenly
mysteries, and make them pass from the old life to the
new .Through Christ our Lord. Amen.
Sunday Bulletin (3).

Here the prayer is read by the minister and it is addressed to God.

The lexis is typically religious, focusing on God and Jesus. There is an
abstract noun like mysteries it reflect on the spiritual nature of request
that is been made.
We

pray

you,

Pronoun

Verb Pronoun

Oh Lord
Noun

be
Verb

merciful to your people.

Noun Phrase in apposition

The opening and the closing formulae are we pray you Oh Lord
and Amen. The pronoun is seen in you and your . The initial vocative

42

is italised. This is used to mark the point in which the congregation join
in and say Amen after the priest has finished the prayers. The structure
throughout is traditional.
Rosary:
Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee blessed art
thou among women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb
Jesus;
Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and the
hour of our death Amen.
Holy Rosary Prayer Book (2).

The prayer can be read by a minister or congregation, and it is

addressed to God through Virgin Mary. There are abstract nouns like
sinners and death. These reflect the spiritual nature of the request
being made. Archaism like thou is used. The initial vocative is italized.
It also marks the point in which the prayer begins and ends.
Hymn : (Psalm 95 )
Come, sound His Praise aboard
And hymns of glory sing
Jesus is the sovereign Lord
The universal king.
Chorus:
Praise ye the Lord, Alleluia
Praise ye the Lord, Alleluia

Alleluia Alleluia Alleluia!

43
Praise ye the Lord.
Catholic Hymn book (14).

The hymn is addressed to God. The use of archaic form is seen in

Ye and repetition is seen in chorus part of the hymn praise ye the
Lord, Alleluia and Alleluia.
4.2

SERMON OF ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

Sermons are religious statements based on a particular moral or

spiritual view of the world. Ministers sometimes write them as speeches

to be delivered to their congregation or they may speak spontaneously on
an appropriate topic. A lot of ministers prepare their sermon carefully,
and learn them in order to speak in a more immediate and dramatic way.
These sermons contain modern or biblical stories such as parables,
psalms and so on Throne (357).
The Roman Catholic Church delivers the pastoral letter at a
particular time. This sermon is usually from the bishop or archbishop to
every person in the diocese. This is read exactly from the Archbishops
script and no comments are made on its content.
Sermon:

44

Every year on the fourth Sunday of Easter the church

reflect on the image of the good shepherd and applies this to

the slain lamb, the risen Christ.
The shepherd is the one who walks at the head of his
flock to show the safe way leading to pasture and to the
springs of fresh water. In the Old Testament we have great
shepherds like Jacob, Moses, David and so forth God looked
after, guided Israel was applied to him.
In the gospel of John, Jesus takes up once m ore this
Testament title and applies to himself I am the good shepherd.
(John 10,11,14) thus stating the he is the expected liberator
announced by the prophets who all lead the people along the
paths of justice and fidelity to God. Jesus is the vine because
his way and the way he teaches to all, is the laying of ones life
in love. This is why the second reading from the book of
Revelation holds that the slain lamb who sits on the throne will
be the shepherd of those who have the been redeemed and will
lead them into springs of living water.
The risen Christ is shepherd also to the people of God
are still on earth, the church militant. But we must be clear on
this that the true members of the sheepfold are those who have
the courage

to follow his footsteps. In order to make his own.

The good shepherd, Christ does not promise cheep success

triumphs, victories and riches as false shepherds do. He rather
demands self-giving, self-denial and even the laying down

45
of ones life for his followers. At the same time he assures us
that this is the only way that leads to eternal life there are no
shortcuts therefore any person who tries to lead us by ways
different from these is deceiving us and is a false shepherd.
Through baptism we are incorporated, engrafted into
Christ. We become shepherds indeed when we suffer ourselves
for the sake of our neighbors when we make sacrifices to their
benefits. Being good shepherd like Christ is not void of
suffering. Paul and Baranbas had share of it in Antioch in
Pisidia according to the first reading from the Acts of the
Apostles. Being a good shepherd does not go either without
reward. The second reading from the book of Revelation depicts
the place of rest where Jesus, the shepherd and the sacrificial
lamb leads his flock (shepherds of his type) into heaven.

John 1. Okoye
Sunday Bulletin (3).

The Mode of the Sermon:

The mode of the above sermon bridges both written and spoken
language. It is carefully crafted on the page before being delivered orally
to the congregation. The text displays many features of the written
language; however it is written to be spoken [N. T .I ,146]. The minister
makes the language seems spontaneous in its spoken form, intonation,
pitch, pace and emphasis. This helps the congregation to focus on key

46

elements of the sermon even if they were unaccustomed to listening to

complete language structure.
The Manner of the Sermon:
The manner is inevitably formal and this reflects the relationship
between the minister and his congregation. In essence, a minister is
Gods representative on earth and in preaching, his sermon can be seen
in the role of a mentor, advisor, or educator. With a bishop who is known
to his congregation, however, there is a personal relationship beyond the
formality of the Sunday services.
The Field of the Sermon:
The field is clearly religious despite the fact that traditional archaic
language and verb infection have been replaced by modern English. The
sermon is almost a literary text with a religious and spiritual message. It
adopts a traditional prose format, using paragraph rather than verses of
the Bible. This sermon begins with an opening remark; Every year, on
the fourth Sunday of Easter, the church reflects on the image of the good
shepherd Sunday.
The Moral Message:
The moral message of the sermon is that ministers should be good
shepherd who lead by examples and show their flock the right way of

47

living a Christian life; just as Christ did and showed the way to eternal
life.
The Subject Specific Lexis:
The subject of the passage is Christian religion .This is identified
with the use of proper nouns such as Moses ,Jacob David and
modifiers like eternal and shepherd. Abstract nouns like Victory,
success, Biblical names like risen Christ , good shepherd and God
are found in the Bible. The noun phrases are complex and these makes
the variety distinctive even though the sermon is modern.

The

risen

Christ

Determiner Adjective

is a shepherd

Noun

also to
Predicate

the

people of God

Head
Noun

Post determiner

Noun Phrase

The central message of the good Shepherd Sunday is made vivid

through the juxtaposition of the worldly and spiritual typified through
the lamb and the risen Christ.

4.3

Sacred Text of the Language of Roman Catholic Church

48

The sacred text of the language of Roman Catholic Church provides a

focus for believers. They aim to preserve both the essential characteristic
of a particular faith and the linguistic feature associated with its earliest
writing forms as Throne (352) has noted.

Sacred Text of the Roman Catholic Church

i.
ii.

I am the true vine, and my father is the husband

Every branch in me that beareth not fruit he taketh away, and every branch
that beareth fruit, purgeth it, that it may bring fourth fruit.

iii.

Now ye are clean through the word which I have spoken to you

iv.

Abide on me, and I in you, as the branch can not bear fruit of itself, expect it
abide in the vine, except you abide in me.

v.

I am the vine, you are the branches, he abides in me and I in him, for without
me you can do nothing.

vi.

If a man abides not in me, he is cast forth as a branch, and is withered; and
men gather them, and cast them into the fire, and they are burned.

vii.

If you abide on me, and I in you, you shall ask what you want, and I will do it.

viii.

Here my father is glorified that you shall bear much fruit, so you shall be my
disciples.

ix.

As the father has loved me, so I have loved you: continuo in my love.

x.

If you keep my commandments, you shall abide in my love, even as I have kept
my fathers commandments and abides in his love.

xi.

This is my commandment, that you may love one another, as I have loved you.
(King, James, Version Bible, John 15:I-12)

49

The Lexis of the Passage:

The word disciple and commandments clearly marked the field
as a religious field. The verb abides in me makes it to have an archaic
ring. It is always a collocation.

The

father

Determiner

Noun

My

fathers

Determiner

Adjective
{Noun
functioning as
adjective}

the

vine.

Determiner Noun

commandments.

Noun

Here Jesus is speaking to the disciple and it resembles spoken

language.
The godhead is named exclusively in relation to the use of father
instead of God emphasis that Jesus is a man like any other. It draws

50

attention to his human rather that his spiritual side and therefore,
makes it seem easier for his disciples to do as he does.
The Grammar of the Passage:
The word taketh, purgeth, and abideth is an archaic form of the
third person singular. This gives the traditional religious language its
distinctive tone. Modal verbs are used to reflect the meaning of shall
and might: it shall be done and my joy might remain in you . Ye
is used instead of you in the Standard English.
The Sentence Structure: The sentence structure of the sentence is
simple because of the literary tone of the Bible
Compound Sentence:
The compound sentence is seen as follow:

I am

the truth vine,

Main clause

Subject Verb

and

my father

Co-coordinative
conjunction

Complement

Subject

Noun Phrase

Noun Phrase

is the husbandman
Main clause

Main clause

Verb

Complement
Noun Phrase

51

Complex Sentence:
The complex sentence is seen s follows:
Now

ye

are clean

through

the

Main clause

Adverbial clause of reason

through the word

which I have spoken

(Prepositional phrase)
Preposition Det.

Which

world I have spoken to you

Adjectival clause

Noun

have

spoken

subject

Direct object
Prepositional phrase

to you

Proposition
pronoun

Adjective clause

Adv

to you.

predicate

The Metaphorical Language in the Sacred Text:

52

The metaphor fruit and vine is a natural image of growth. It also

represents the idea that somes one who follow the Christian teaching of
God will lead a productive life.
Repetitions is seen in the word abideth and abide and love and
loved.

4.4 THE SERMON OF PENTECOSTAL DEMONITATION

Somebody shout Alleluia!
Alleluia----------------Alleluia-------------Amen
Our Lord is good--All the time
Do something for the lord
(Clap for Jesus)
The book of numbers says, Surely, there is no
enchantment against Jacob neither any divination against
Israel. It shall be said that of Jacob and of Israel, what
God wrought: whatever is said of Jacob or Israel is
applicable to any child of God who has been washed in
blood of Jesus Christ the servant of the Lord is free from
witchcraft, suffering, sorrow, herbalist attack or arrow of
the enemy.
Heritage is what is left over for someone something you
have come to acquire because you belong to the family of

53
God that your belonging or by virtue of your birth is called
heritage. If you are a servant of the Lord your heritage is
Divine immunity. Every believer is saved to serve and to
that extent, we are all servant of the lord.
Isaiah 54:17 says No weapon that is formed against you
shall proper and every tongue that shall rise against you in
judgment thou shall condemn this is the heritage of the
servant of the lord and their righteousness is of me sayeth
the lord.
Sunday Sun October 30, 2005 (42).

The Mode of the Sermon:

The sermon bridges both written and spoken language. The sermon is
spoken by a minister to the congregation. It is delivered orally to the
congregation. The minister makes the language seems spontaneous in
his intonation and this enables the congregation to listen to the complex
language structure.
The Manner of Sermon:
The manner is formal and this also reflects the relationship between
the minister and his congregation. There is also a personal relationship
beyond the formality of the Sunday services.
The Field of the Sermon:

54

The field is clearly religious. There is the use of archaic language

seen in the word sayeth the lord instead of says the lord. Repetition is
seen in the word Alleluia and Somebody shout Alleluia.
The use of metaphorical language is also evident in Do something for
the lord which means (clap for Jesus). The use of contracted form is
seen in ve.
The Moral Message:
The moral message is that belonging to the family of God, through
faith in the Lord Jesus Christ makes one an inheritor of God riches.

55

The subject specific lexis:

The main idea of the passage which is Christian religion is evident in
the use of words in the passage. Words such as Jacob, Israel, Blood
of Jesus, God and Lord are found in the Bible.
4.5 SACRED TEXT OF THE LANGUAGE OF PENTECOSTAL
DENOMINATION
i.

The same day went Jesus out of the house, sat by the see side.

ii.

And great multitudes were gathered together unto him, ship, and the whole
multitude stood on the shore.

iii.

And he spoke many things unto them in parable saying, Behold, a sower went
to sow.

iv.

And when he sowed, some seed fell by the wayside and the fowls came and
devoured them up.

v.

Some fell upon stony places, where they had not much earth and forthwith
they sprung up, because they have no deep of earth:

vi.

And when the sun was up, they were scorched, and because they had no root,
they withered away.

vii.

And some fell among thorns., the thorns sprung up and choked them.

viii.

But other fell into good ground, and brought forth fruit, some on hundred fold,
some sixty fold, some thirty fold.

ix.

Who has ears to hear, let him hear.

56
x.

The disciple came and said unto him, why speakest unto them in parables.

xi.

He answered, and said unto them, Because it is given unto you to know the
mysteries of the kingdom of heaven but to them it is not given.

xii.

For whoever hath, to him shall be given, and he shall have more abundance:
but whosoever hath not, from him shall be taken away even that he hath.
[king James Version, Matthew 13:1-12].

The Lexis of the Passage:

The word parables disciples, mysteries and kingdom of heaven
help to identify the passage as one that belongs to the religious field.
The verb spake that replaces speak is archaic.
The Grammar of the Passage:
The word hath is the archaic form of the third person singular
such as she or he. This gives the traditional religious language the
distinctive tones. The modal verbs are used to reflect the meaning of
certainty as shown in For whosoever hathshall be given.
The Sentence Structure:
The sentence structure of the passage is made up of mainly
complex sentences. They indicate the simple but complex nature of
Christian religious language which also captures its literary tone.
Structurally, there is the frequent use of conjunctive element And and
But at the beginning of each verse.

57

Compound Sentence:
An instance of a compound sentence is seen below
Others fell

into good ground

and others brought forth fruit.

Main clause

Main clause
Conjunction

Subject Predicate

subject

predicate

(Adverbial phrase
Functioning as the

(Complement
of the

Complement of the verb)

Verbal elements)

Complex Sentence:
The complex sentence is seen as follows

And
Conjunction

And

Conjunction

when the sun was up,

Sub. Clause

because they had no root,

Sub. Clause

they were scorched

Main clause

they withered away.

main clause

58

The Metaphorical Language in the Sacred Text of Pentecostal

Denomination:
The metaphorical image of growth is seen in the words fruit and
seed. These images are also present in the texts of Roman Catholic
Church.
In addition, the use of repetition is evident in the sower and sow,
thorns and thornes, hath, and shall. And ,there is also frequent
use of commas and symbolic parables such as the sower.

59

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 COMPARATIVE SUMMARY

In comparing the language of Christian religion, the similarities
have been observed as noted in chapters three and four:

SIMILARITIES

They both make use of archaic languages such as liveth and

cometh.

They both make use of long sentences in their worship services.

Their main sacred text the Holy Bible - is the same.

They both constitute central elements of societal values that shape

the rulers, principles and instructions governing the society.

They both make use of clear words like heaven.

They start a sentence with frequent use of conjunctions, commas,

and incomplete sentential structures.

They make frequent use of phrases and both phrases and

independent clauses are used as if they are used as if they are main
clauses. This is very evident in the Bible.

DIFFRENCES

60

In Roman Catholic Church, the Priests do not quote the Bible

during sermon but the Pentecostals do so.

The Prayers of Roman Catholic Church can be in written and

spoken form for instance Hail Mary, while that of the Pentecostal
Denominations are not always written down.
The Roman Catholic Church observers the liturgy while the

Pentecostals observe ordinances.

The only major difference found between the language use of the two
denominations is that Pentecostals seem to be more rhetorical and
informal

in

their

language

use,

with

regard

to

their

worship,

characterised by the spontaneous joyful noise of the worshippers

(Psalm 100:1). Any other observed difference can be found mainly in
their mode of worship, but their belief system is basically the same Jesus
Christ is seen as

the risen saviour of the world, the soon coming

Messiah, the creator of heaven and earth and the Son of the Almighty
God.
5.2 CONCLUSION
This study is an exploration into the language of Christian religion.
It has briefly examined separately the different language use of the
Catholics and the Pentecostals and have also looked at their similarities
and major differences. The language of Christian religious functions to

61

promote and preserve a particular spiritual belief system, to persuade

the congregation and individual worshippers to live their lives in a
certain Christian way.
Christian religious utterances can be statements of belief, prayers
of supplications, narratives with spiritual or moral messages and
celebrations of occasions. The Holy Bible plays an important role in
defining the nature of Christian religions language both in Roman
Catholic Church and the Pentecostal denominations.

5.3

RECOMMENDATION
This project is a comparative sample survey of the language of

Christian religion with regard to that of the Roman Catholics and

Pentecostals. The generalization made are drawn from the sample
surveys of the Holy Bible and other Christian excerpts. The research in
essence will be a useful tool to students of language and generally to
researchers in the area of register, especially those with particular
interest in Christian religion.

62

WORKS CITED
Blakely, Thomas. Et al. Religion in Africa. London: Heinermann Publications, 1994.
Catholic Diocese of Enugu. Sunday Bulletin: Fourth Sunday of Easter. Enugu: Cathedral
Press, 18th July, 2010.
Catholic Diocese of Enugu. Sunday Bulletin: Sixteenth Sunday of the Year. Enugu:
Cathedral Press, 18th July, 2010.
Crystal, D. and Derek, D. Investigating English Style. London: Longman, 1969.
Eneje, Michael. Roman Catholic Church and Christian Religion . Enugu: Snnap Press,
1989.
Ferguson, Everett. Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. London: Garland Publication,
1998.
Gillingham, S. E. One Bible Many Voices. Different Approaches to Biblical Studies.
Wood Books Publications, 1998.
Hastings, Adoian. The Church in Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Hume, Basil. Good News bible. India: Swapna Printing Works TVT. Ltd, 2009.
Igbaja, Eugine. Holy Rosary Prayer Book. Enugu: Oasis Link Communication, 2008.
.
King James Version of the Bible. London: Hilson Publishers, 2005.
Lahey, John. The Harper Collins Encyclopedia of Catholicism. London: Oxford

63

University Press, 1995.

Manners, John. The Expansion of Christianity. London: Oxford University Press, 1990.
National Teachers Institute. English Language. Cycle 3. Kaduna: National Teachers
Institute Publishers, 2000.
Okeke, David. Foundations of Religious Studies. Enugu: Robboni Publications, 2006.
Pescke, H. P. Christian Ethics and Moral Theology in the Light of God. India:
Theological Publications, 1999
.
Phayer, Michael. The Catholic Church and the Holocaust. India: Indiana University
Press, 2000.
Saint Pauls. Catholic Hymn Book. Mubi: Domine V. Press, 2003.
Thorne, Sara. Mastering Advanced English Language. New York: Palgrave Publishers
Ltd, 1997.
Whiting, Roger. Religions of Man: London: Stanley Publishers. 1987.
Wilken, Robert. Christianity. A National Geographical Society. India: Theological
Publications, 1999.

64

INTERNET/ELECTRONICS SOURCES
Hernngs G. History of Christianity www.gogle.com . 22nd May, 2010.
Probet Walter, Christianity, Microsoft Encarta, 2008.
.. Pentecostalism Microsoft Encarta, 2009.
Webster, Noah. Audio Dictionary of English 2010.

NEWSPAPER
Sunday Sun. Newspaper. Lagos: Sun Publishers, October 30 2010.