Fatigue

Chapter 7: Fatigue and Impact
All machine and structural

designs are problems in fatigue
because the forces of Nature are
always at work and each object
must respond in some fashion.

Carl Osgood, Fatigue Design
Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, taken April

28, 1988. The midight fuselage failure was aNributed to
corrosion-assisted fatigue. (Steven Minkowski/Gamma
Liaison)
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
2014 CRC Press
On the Bridge!
Figure 7.1: On the Bridge, an illustration from Punch magazine in 1891

warning the populace that death was waiting for them on the next bridge. Note
the cracks in the iron bridge.

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Design Procedure 7.1: Methods to

Maximize Fatigue Life
1. Minimizing initial aws, especially surface aws. Great care is taken to produce
fatigue-resistant surfaces through processes such as grinding or polishing
that produce exceptionally smooth surfaces. These surfaces are then carefully
protected before a product is placed into service.
2. Maximizing crack initiation time. Compressive surface residual stresses are
imparted (or at least tensile residual stresses are relieved) through
manufacturing processes such as shot peening or burnishing, or by a number
of surface treatments.
3. Maximizing crack propagation time. Substrate properties, especially those that
retard crack growth, are also important. For example, in some materials
fatigue cracks will propagate more quickly along grain boundaries than
through grains. In this case, using a material that has elongated grains
transverse to the direction of fatigue crack growth can extend fatigue life
(e.g., by using cold-worked components instead of castings).
4. Maximizing the critical crack length. Fracture toughness (Section 6.5) is an
essential material property, and materials with higher fracture toughnesses
are generally beNer suited for fatigue applications.
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Cyclic Stresses
Mean stress:
Compression Tension
Stress
m =
1 cycle
mmax
ma m
0
mmin
max + min
2
Stress range:
r
mm
Time
Figure 7.2: Variation in nonzero cyclic

mean stress.

r = max min
Stress amplitude:
a =
r
max min
=
2
2
Stress ratio:
R=
min
max
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Cyclic Properties of Metals

Material
Steel
Conditiona
1015
Normalized
4340
Tempered
1045
Q&T 306$ F
1045
Q&T 500$ F
1045
Q&T 600$ F
4142
Q&T 400$ F
4142
Q&T 600$ F
4142
Q&T 700$ F
4142
Q&T 840$ F
Aluminum
1100
Annealed
2014
T6
2024
T351
5456
H311
7075
T6
Titanium
Ti-6Al-4V Solution treated+aged
Nickel
Inconel X
Annealed
a Q&T - Quenched and tempered.
Yield
strength
Sy ,
MPa
Fracture
strength
f,
MPa
Fatigue
ductility
coefFLHQW,
f
Fatigue
strength
exponent,
a
Fatigue
ductility
exponent,
_
228
1172
1720
1275
965
1720
1340
1070
900
827
1655
2720
2275
1790
2650
2170
2000
1550
0.95
0.73
0.07
0.25
0.35
0.07
0.09
0.40
0.45
-0.110
-0.076
-0.055
-0.080
-0.070
-0.076
-0.081
-0.080
-0.080
-0.64
-0.62
-0.60
-0.68
-0.69
-0.76
-0.66
-0.73
-0.75
97
462
379
234
469
193
848
1103
724
1317
1.80
0.42
0.22
0.46
0.19
-0.106
-0.106
-0.124
-0.110
-0.126
-0.69
-0.65
-0.59
-0.67
-0.52
1185
2030
0.841
-0.104
-0.69
700
2255
1.16
-0.117
-0.75
Table 7.1: Cyclic properties of some metals. Source: After Shigley and Mitchell
[1983] and Suresh [1998].

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Common Stress PaNerns and R.R.

Moore Test Specimen
Four frequently encountered paNerns
of constant-amplitude cyclic stress
are:
1. Completely reversed: (m = 0, R =
-1)
2. Nonzero mean: (as shown in Fig.
7.2)
3. Released tension: (min = 0, R = 0,
m = max/2)
4. Released compression: (max= 0,
R = , m = min/2.

7
__
3 16
0.30
9 78 R
Figure 7.3: R.R. Moore machine

fatigue test specimen.
Dimensions in inches.
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6m1
6m2
dlc
dN
Number of cylces, N
(a)
10-2
Kc
Regime A
10
Regime B
1 mm/min
-4
dlc
= C(6K)m
dN
m
1
10-6
one lattice
spacing
per cycle
10
1 mm/hr
1 mm/day
Regime C
1 mm/week
Crack growth rate at 50 Hz
6m2 > 6m1
Crack growth rate, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)
Crack length, lc
Fatigue Crack Growth
-8
log 6K
(b)
Figure 7.4: Illustration of fatigue crack growth. (a) Size of a fatigue crack for two
dierent stress ratios as a function of the number of cycles; (b) rate of crack growth,
illustrating three regimes.

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Fatigue Crack Growth Notes

Strain-life theory (Manson-Con relationship):
f
=
(2N ) + f (2N )
2
E
Regimes of Crack Growth:
1. Regime A is a period of very slow crack growth. Note that the crack
growth rate can be even smaller than an atomic spacing of the
material per cycle.
2. Regime B is a period of moderate crack growth rate, often referred to
as the Paris regime
3. Regime C is a period of high-growth rate, where the maximum stress
intensity factor for the fatigue cycle approaches the fracture
toughness of the material.

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Fatigue Striations
Smooth
(burnished)
surface
Microscopic
striations
Striations
(visible)
Rough
(fracture)
surface
Figure 7.5: Cross section of a fatigued section, showing fatigue striations or

beachmarks originating from a fatigue crack at B. Source: Rimnac, C., et al., in ASTM
STP 918, Case Histories Involving Fatigue and Fracture, copyright 1986, ASTM
International. Reprinted with permission.

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High Nominal Stress
Low Nominal Stress

No stress
concentration
Mild stress Severe stress

concentration concentration
Fatigue
Fracture
Surfaces
Reversed
bending
Unidirectional
bending
Tension-tension
or tension-compression
No stress
Mild stress Severe stress
concentration concentration concentration
Rotational
bending
Figure 7.6: Typical fatigue-fracture

surfaces of smooth and notched cross-
sections under dierent loading
conditions and stress levels. Source:
Metals Handbook, American Society for
Metals [1975].
Beachmarks
Fracture surface

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Fatigue Strength Ferrous Alloys

1.0
Ferrous Alloys
Fatigue stress ratio, Sf /Sut
0.9
0.8
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
0.7
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
0.6
O
O
O O
O
O
O
OO O
O
O
O O O
O O
OO
O
O
O OO
O O
O
O
O
O
O
OO
OO O O O O O
OO
O
O
O O
O
O O OO
O
O
O
O O
0.5
For steels:
Not broken
O
O O
O
O OO
OO
O
0.4
103
104
105
106
bending :
axial :
torsion :
Se = 0.5Su
Se = 0.45Su
Se = 0.29Su
107
Number of cycles to failure, N

(a)
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of

number of loading cycles. (a) Ferrous alloys,
showing clear endurance limit; Source: Adapted
from Lipson and Juvinall [1963].

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Fatigue Strength Nonferrous

Alloys
80
Aluminum Alloys
Alternating stress, ma, ksi
60
40
Wr
ou
Pe
gh
t
rm
an
en
tm
old
c
30
20
16
12
10
8
7
6
5
103
Sa
nd
c
104
105
ast
ast
106
107
108
109

(b)
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (b)

aluminum alloys, with less pronounced knee and no endurance limit. Source:
Adapted from Juvinall and Marshek [1991].

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Fatigue Strength - Polymers

Polymers
8x103
50
Phenolic
Epoxy
40
Alkyd
Diallylphthalate
30
20
Nylon (dry)
10
PTFE
0
103
Alternating stress, ma, psi
Alternating stress, ma, MPa
60
Polycarbonate
104
105
106
107

(c)
Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (c)

selected properties of assorted polymer classes. Source: Adapted from Norton
[1996]

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Endurance Limit vs. Ultimate

Strength
Endurance limit, Se , ksi
160
Carbon steels
Alloy steels
V Wrought irons
120
0.5
6
0.
'
e
_
S__ =
Su
0.4
80
100 ksi
40
VV
VV
V
VV
0
0
60
120
180
Tensile strength, Sut, ksi
240
300
Figure 7.8: Endurance limit as function of ultimate strength for wrought steels.
Source: Adapted from Shigley and Mitchell [1983].

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Staircase Approach
Applied stress, MPa
475
Failure
Survival
450
425
400
375
350
0
10
15
20
25
Test number
Figure 7.9: Typical results from fatigue

tests using the staircase approach, and
used in Example 7.2.

Design Procedure 7.2: Staircase Approach

1. A designer must rst estimate the
endurance limit for the material of
interest, either with a strength-based
approach such as in Eq. (7.6), or
through preliminary testing.
2. A test interval is then selected, typically
around 10% of the estimated endurance
limit.
3. An initial test is performed at a stress
level equal to the expected endurance
limit.
4. If the specimen breaks, it is recorded as
such and the next experiment will be
performed at a stress level reduced by
the stress interval.
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Design Procedure 7.2 (concluded)

5. At the desired duration (commonly 106 or 107 cycles), the test is stopped. If the
specimen survives, it is recorded as such and the next experiment will be performed
at a stress level increased by the stress interval.
6. A plot of typical results is shown in Fig. 7.9.
7. The mean endurance limit can be obtained from the following steps:
a. Count the number of failures and survivals in the test results. Proceed with the
analysis using the less common test result.
b. The number of events (failures or survivals) is assigned to ni for each stress level
i. In this approach, the lowest stress level is denoted as o, the next highest as
1, etc.
ini
c. Obtain the quantity An from An =
A
1
n
ni
2
d. The endurance limit is then estimated from Se = o + d

where the plus sign is used if the more common experimental result is survival,
and the minus sign is used if the more common event is failure.
8. It is recommended that at least 15 experiments be performed, although more can be
helpful for more accurate quantication of the endurance limit.


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Endurance Limit for Materials

Material
Magnesium alloys
Copper alloys
Nickel alloys
Titanium
Aluminum alloys
Number
of
cycles
10 8
10 8
10 8
10 7
5 10 8
Relation
S e = 0 .35S u
0.25S u < S e < 0.5S u
0.35S u < S e < 0.5S u
0.45S u < S e < 0.65S u
S e = 0 .40S u (S u < 48 ksi)
S e = 19 ksi (S u 48 ksi)
Table 7.2: Approximate endurance limit for various materials. Source: Adapted
from Juvinall and Marshek [1991].

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Finite Life Fatigue

Low cycle (below around
1000 cycles):
bending:
axial:
torsion:
High cycle, nite life (between

around 1000 and 1 million cycles)
Sl = 0.9Su
Sl = 0.75Su
Sl = 0.72Su
log Sf = bs log Nt + C
where

1
Sl
bs = log
3
Se

2
Sl
(Sl )
C = 2 log
+
log
S
=
log
.
e
Se
Se

2014 CRC Press
Notch Sensitivity
Use these values with bending and axial loads
Use these values with torsion
20
1.0
Notch sensitivity, qn
0.8
7 9)
(13
0
14
(9
65 )
9)
(68
0
2)
10
(55
80 414)
(
60 45)
(3
0
5
0.6
180 (1241)
)
120 (827
5 2)
80 (5
4)
60 (41
Fatigue stress
concentration
factor:
Steel,
Su, ksi (MPa)
as marked
Aluminum alloy (based on 2024-T6 data)

0.4
Kf = 1 + (Kc 1) qn
0.2
0
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
Notch radius, r, mm
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Notch radius, r, in.
Figure 7.10: Notch sensitivity as function of notch radius for several materials
and types of loading. Source: Adapted from Sines and Waisman [1959].

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Modied Endurance Limit

The modied endurance limit can be estimated from an R.R. Moore
idealized specimen from:

Se = kf ks kr kt km Se

This is strictly true only for carbon steels.

Correction factors can be estimated from empirical relations. Experimental
verication of designs is usually required.

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Surface Finish Correction

Mathematical estimate:

f
kf = eSut

Note: not based on curve t of
Fig. 7.11.
Manufacturing
process
Grinding
Machining or
cold drawing
Hot rolling
As forged
Factor e
MPa
ksi
1.58
1.34
4.51
2.70
57.7
272.0
14.4
39.9
Exponent f
-0.085
-0.265
-0.718
-0.995
Table 7.3: Surface nish factor. Source:

Shigley and Mitchell [1983].

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Surface Finish Correction

1.0
Machi
ned, c
o
Ta
p
0.4
wa
ter
co
rro
de
d
Hot
rol
ed, c
o ld r
olled
led
Hot f
orged
Salt w
ater cor
roded
0.2
ld for
g
Surface finish factor, kf
Surface finish factor, kf
0.8
0.6
1.0
Fine polishing
60
100
140
180
220
Tensile strength, Sut (ksi)

(a)
16
32
0.8
63
125
250
0.7
500
1000
2000
0.6
0.5
260
0.9
0.4
40
Surface finish
Ra, +in.
80
120
160
200
240
Ultimate strength in tension, Sut, ksi

(b)
Figure 7.11: Surface nish factors for steel. (a) As function of ultimate strength
in tension for dierent manufacturing processes; Source: (a) Adapted from
Norton [2011] and data from the American Iron and Steel Institute.
(b) As function of ultimate strength and surface roughness as measured with a
stylus prolometer. Source: (b) adapted from Johnson [1967].

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Reliability, Size and Temperature Factor

Reliability Factor:
For a standard deviation of 8%
of the mean:
0.11
1
+ 0.508
kr = 0.512 ln
R
Probability
of survival,
percent
50
90
95
99
99.9
99.99
Reliability
factor,
kr
1.00
0.90
0.87
0.82
0.75
0.70
Table 7.4: Reliability factors

for six probabilities of
survival.

Size Factor:
0.869d0.112
1
ks =
1.248d0.112
0.3 in. < d < 10 in.

d < 0.3 in. or d 8 mm
8 mm < d 250 mm
d depends on manufacturing
process, but one approach allows
estimation from the equivalent area
where the stress is above 95% of the
maximum stress:
A95
d=
0.0766
Temperature Factor:
kt =
Sut
Sut,ref
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Shot Peening Eect

200
300
200
150
Peened - smooth
or notched
100
690
Not peened - smooth
345
50
Not peened - notched
(typical machined surface)
690
1380
2170
Ultimate tensile strength, Sut, (MPa)
(a)
483
70
414
Al 7050-T7651
Ti-6Al-4V
60
Shot peened
345
50
276
40
207
Machined
30
Polished
20
138
104
ksi
1035
100
Alternating stress, ma, MPa
1380
ksi
Fatigue strength at two million cycles (MPa)
ksi
105
106
107
Number of cycles to failure, N'
108
(b)
Figure 7.12: The use of shot peening to improve fatigue properties. (a) Fatigue strength
at 2 x 106 cycles for high-strength steel as a function of ultimate strength; (b) typical S-N
curves for non-ferrous metals. Source: Courtesy of J.~Champaigne, Electronics, Inc.

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 7.3:

Determination of Endurance Limit
If an experimental investigation is impractical, the endurance limit can be estimated through
the following procedure:
1. The endurance limit for a specimen (Se) can be estimated for a type of loading from Eq.
(7.6). This requires knowledge of the material's ultimate strength, which can be obtained
from experiments or from tables of mechanical properties; some steel properties are
summarized in Appendix A.
2. Note from Fig. 7.8 that the predicted value should not be assigned a value greater than 690
MPa (100 ksi).
3. The modied endurance limit (Se) is then obtained from Eq. (7.18), where:
a. The surface nish factor, kf, is obtained from Eq. (7.19) using coecients from Table
7.3, or else kf can be estimated from Fig. 7.11.
b. The size factor, ks, can be estimated from Eq. (7.20) for bending or torsion, with ks=1
for tension. If the part is not round, then an equivalent diameter can be obtained from
Eq. (7.21). These equations have high uncertainty, but they do allow size eects to be
considered without overly complicating the mathematics.
c. The reliability factor, kr, can be obtained from Table 7.4.
d. The eects of temperature, kt, are best obtained experimentally, but Eq.~(7.23) gives a
reasonable estimate for this factor.

2014 CRC Press
Examples 7.5 and 7.6

r=0.2
2
r=2
41
M
45
45
50
Figure 7.13: Round shaft with a

retaining ring groove considered in
Example 7.5. All dimensions are in
millimeters.

Figure 7.14: Drawn square prole with

machined groove considered in
Example 7.6. All dimensions are in
millimeters.
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Haigh Diagram
ma
Sut
mm
Sut
8
0.
0.6
4
0.
0.2
0.0
-1.0
- 0.
0.
0.4
0.
R=
mmax/Sut
0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
6
0.
4
0.
2
0.
-0.8
8
0.
.0
1.
0
4 ycles
10 c
les
5 c yc
0
1
l es
6 cy c
10
-1
0.5
R=
R = 0.0
1.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
mmin/Sut
Figure 7.15: A typical Haigh diagram showing constant life curves for dierent
combinations of mean and alternating stresses.

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Nonzero Mean Stress

Syt
Gerber:
Alternating stress, ma
Yield line
Kf ns a
+
Se
Se
Gerber line
Goodman
line
Soderberg line
0
Syt
Sut
Mean stress, mm
Figure 7.16: Inuence of nonzero mean stress

on fatigue life for tensile loading as estimated
by four empirical relationships.

ns m
Sut
=1
Goodman:
Kf a
m
1
+
=
Se
Sut
ns
Soderberg:
Kf a
m
1
+
=
Se
Syt
ns
2014 CRC Press
Modied Goodman Equations

Line
AB
Equation
max =
Se
+ m
Kf
1<
Se
Su K f
0)
Sy
BC
max = S y
1<
Sy
CD
min = 2 m < S y
1<
Se
K f Su
DE
min =
EF
min = m <
FG
min = < S y
GH
max = 2 m + S y
HA
max = m +
1+
Se
Kf
Se
Kf
m <
Se
Kf
0)
Range
S y < S e /K f
m )
Se
1<
K f Su
Se
<
Kf
) m ) S y
Se
K f Su
Se
<
Kf
) m ) S y
Se
K f Su
Se
Sy <
Kf
m )
Se
1<
K f Su
Se
< S y ) m )
Kf
Se
< S y ) m )
Kf
Se
< S y ) m )
Kf
Se
< S y ) m )
Kf

0
< Sy
< Sy
0
Table 7.5: Equations and range of

applicability for construction of
complete modied Goodman
diagram.
2014 CRC Press
Modied Goodman Diagram

Su
Su
+S
B
Sy
C
Sy Smax
N
Se /Kf
Smax
Sm
D
45
Smin
H
0
Sm
Sy
Su
Sm
Smin
E
Se /Kf
S
G
a
45
Sy
b
Figure 7.17: Complete modied Goodman diagram, ploNing stress as ordinate

and mean stress as abscissa.

2014 CRC Press
Modied Goodman Equations

Region in
Fig. 7.16
Failure
equation
max < 2 m = S y /n
max < m =
max + m
max =
Validity limits
of equation
< S y ) m )
Se
ns K f
Se
K f Su
< 1 =
Sy
ns
Se
ns K f
Se
< Sy
Kf
Se
< S y ) m ) 0
Kf
Se
Sy <
Kf
0 ) m )
Se
1<
K f Su
Se
Sy <
Kf
) m ) S y
Se
1<
K f Su
Table 7.6: Failure equations and validity limits of equations for four regions of
complete modied Goodman relationship

2014 CRC Press
Alternating stress
ratio, ma/Su
Alternating Stress Ratio

1.5
1.0
0.5
0
4.0
Se
(0.4)(0.9) = 0.36
Su
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
Mean stress ratio, mm/Su
Figure 7.18: Alternating stress ratio as function of mean stress ratio for axially
loaded cast iron.

2014 CRC Press
Fatigue Crack Growth Data

10-4
PVC
10-2
Epoxy
PET
10-3
10-4
10-5
Nylon 66
PC
Nylon
ST 801
300M Steel
10-6
0.2 0.4
0.8 1.0
2024-T3 Al
Al 2219-T851
PMMA PSF
Rate of crack growth, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)
Rate of crack growth, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)
10-1
8 10
20
40
80
6K (MPa m)
(a)
7075-T6 Al
10
Mo
-5
10-6
Mg
A36 steel
10-7
Ti-6Al-4V
10-8
10
4340 steel
20
50
100
6K (MPa m)
(b)
Figure 7.19: Fatigue crack growth data for a variety of materials. (a) Selected
polymers in comparison to aluminum and steel; (b) selected metal alloys. {\it
Source:} From Bowman [2004].

2014 CRC Press
Paris Law Data

Material
Steel
Ferritic-pearlitic
Martensitic
Austenitic
Aluminum
6061-T6
2024-T3
mm/cycle
( MPa m)m
in/cycle
m
ksi in
6.89 10 9
1.36 10 7
5.61 10 9
3.6 10 10
6.6 10 9
3.0 10 10
3.0
2.25
3.25
5.88 10 8
1.6 10 11
3.1 10 9
8.4 10 11
3.17
3.59
Paris law:
dlc
m
= C (K)
dN
Table 7.6: Paris Law constants for various classes of

steel. Data represents worst-case (fastest) crack growth
rates reported for the material classes. Source: From
Dowling [2007].

2014 CRC Press
100
80
80
/S u
th S u
Ratio S y
eng
r
t
s
e
Ultimat
60
Total elongation
40
20
0
106
60
Sy
Yield strength
10
10
40
20
Average strain rate,
10
Sy/Su, percent
100
Elongation, percent
Ultimate and yield stresses, Su and Sy, ksi
Dynamic Mechanical Properties
s1
Figure 7.20: Mechanical properties of mild steel at room temperature as

function of average strain rate.

2014 CRC Press
Example 7.11
y
V
40 mm
0.6 m
M
P
x
1.5 m
(a)
450 mm
(b)
(c)
Figure 7.21: Diver impacting diving board, used in Example 7.11. (a) Side view;
(b) front view; (c) side view showing forces and coordinates.

2014 CRC Press
D-Check
(a)
(b)
Figure 7.22: (a) Exterior view of Boeing 747-400 during a D check; (b)
inspection of landing gear component for structural integrity. Source: Courtesy
of Lufthansa Technik.

2014 CRC Press

Fatigue

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Fatigue

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Chapter 7: Fatigue and Impact

All machine and structural

Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, taken April

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Figure 7.1: On the Bridge, an illustration from Punch magazine in 1891

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Design Procedure 7.1: Methods to

Figure 7.2: Variation in nonzero cyclic

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Cyclic Properties of Metals

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Common Stress PaNerns and R.R.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 7.3: R.R. Moore machine

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Crack growth rate at 50 Hz

6m2 > 6m1

Crack growth rate, dlc/dN (mm/cycle)

Fatigue Crack Growth

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fatigue Crack Growth Notes

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Figure 7.5: Cross section of a fatigued section, showing fatigue striations or

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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High Nominal Stress

Low Nominal Stress

Mild stress Severe stress

Figure 7.6: Typical fatigue-fracture

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fatigue Strength Ferrous Alloys

Fatigue stress ratio, Sf /Sut

Number of cycles to failure, N

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fatigue Strength Nonferrous

Alternating stress, ma, ksi

Number of cycles to failure, N

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (b)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fatigue Strength - Polymers

Alternating stress, ma, psi

Alternating stress, ma, MPa

Number of cycles to failure, N

Figure 7.7: Fatigue strength as a function of number of loading cycles. (c)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Endurance Limit vs. Ultimate

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Figure 7.9: Typical results from fatigue

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Design Procedure 7.2: Staircase Approach

Design Procedure 7.2 (concluded)

d. The endurance limit is then estimated from Se = o + d