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Eni Corporate University

TRAINING PROGRAM
MINISTRY OF OIL OF IRAQ
JUNIOR PRODUCTION ENGINEER

GAS PLANTS 1
Lecturer: Eng. Romano Bianco

BOOKLET N1
Code: IMG017-E-A0 Rev.: 02

date : 02/08/2004

Pages number: 89

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GENERAL INDEX

1 NATURAL GAS

BOOKLET N 1

2 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING

BOOKLET N 1

3 SURFACE WELL EQUIPMENT

BOOKLET N 1

4 COLLECTION AND TREATMENT CENTRE

BOOKLET N 1

5 TREATMENT LINE

BOOKLET N 2

6 GLYCOL DEHYDRATION SYSTEM

BOOKLET N 2

7 COOLING TREATMENT PLANTS

BOOKLET N 2

8 NATURAL GASOLINE BY ADSORPTION

BOOKLET N 2

9 LPG PLANT

BOOKLET N 2

10 PROPANE DEHYDRATION

BOOKLET N 2

11 COS TREATING

BOOKLET N 2

12 MERCAPTAN TREATING

BOOKLET N 2

13 SWEETENING

BOOKLET N 2

14 SULPHUR RECOVERY PLANT

BOOKLET N 2

15 TAIL GAS TREATMENT

BOOKLET N 2

16 COMPRESSION UNITS

BOOKLET N 3

17 DEHYDRATION BY SOLID BEDS

BOOKLET N 3

18 SOUR WATER STRIPPER PLANT

BOOKLET N 3

19 FLARE SYSTEM

BOOKLET N 3

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20 NITROGEN PRODUCTION

BOOKLET N 3

21 COMPRESSED AND INSTRUMENT AIR SYSTEM


BOOKLET N 3
22 FUEL GAS SYSTEM

BOOKLET N 3

23 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM

BOOKLET N 3

24 FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEM

BOOKLET N 3

25 POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM

BOOKLET N 3

26 ALARM AND SHUT-DOWN SYSTEMS IN GAS PLANT


BOOKLET N 3

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BOOKLET INDEX

1 NATURAL GAS
1.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FEATURES OF GASEOUS
HYDROCARBONS
1.1.1 Characteristics of Natural Gas
1.1.2 Density and Specific Gravity.
1.1.3 Heating value and Wobbe Index
1.1.4 Specific Heat
1.1.5 Molecular Weight

5
5
6
12
14
18
18

1.2 GENERAL DATA ABOUT COMPONENTS OF NATURAL GAS OTHER


THAN METHANE
20
1.2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
20
21
1.2.2.Nitrogen (N2)
1.2.3 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
21
1.2.4 Natural Gasoline
22
1.3 SWEET GAS - ACID GAS - CONDENSATE GAS

22

1.4 WATER PRESENCE IN NATURAL GAS


1.4.1 Determination of the water content in natural gas

27
27

1.5 HYDRATES AND HYDRATES PREVENTION


1.5.1 Methods to prevent the formation of hydrates
1.5.2 Hydrates elimination

30
32
33

2 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING

34

2.1 NECESSARY CONDITIONS AND GOALS OF PROCESSING


2.1.1 Treatment needs and objectives

34
34

2.2 DEHYDRATION BY ABSORPTION OR ADSORPTION


2.2.1 Dehydration through liquid absorption
2.2.2 Dehydration by adsorption

37
38
45

2.3 HYDROCARBON RECOVERY

48

2.4 GAS SWEETENING

48

3 SURFACE WELL EQUIPMENT

50

3.1 WELLHEAD MANIFOLD


3.1.1 Separators
3.1.2 Heaters
3.1.3 Hydrate inhibitor injection

50
53
59
62

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3.1.4 Drain Trap and Exhaust flare

67

3.2 CONTROLS
3.2.1 Alarms and Shut-Down
3.2.2 Process value upsets
3.2.3 Fusible Plug Network-heat detection line
3.2.4 Emergency
3.2.5 Safety Valves

67
67
68
69
69
69

4 COLLECTION AND TREATMENT CENTRE

70

4.1 GAS GATHERING

70

4.2 INLET MANIFOLD

76

4.3. SEPARATION UNIT

78

4.4 TREATMENT CENTRE

83

4.5 GAS FLOW METERING

84

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1 NATURAL GAS
1.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FEATURES OF GASEOUS
HYDROCARBONS
Natural gas is a mixture of paraffin hydrocarbons composed of C and H,
mostly non condensable at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature.
The main component is methane (CH4). Other constituents normally
present are the following:
ETHANE

- C2H6 -

Gaseous in atmospheric conditions (*)

PROPANE

- C3H8

Gaseous in atmospheric conditions (*)

BUTANE

- C4H10

Gaseous in atmospheric conditions (*)

PENTANE

- C5H12

Liquid in atmospheric conditions (*)

HEXANE

- C6H14

Liquid in atmospheric conditions (*)

(*) The general formula of paraffin hydrocarbons is:


CnH(2n + 2)
The following other components are often present in the natural gas:
CARBON DIOXIDE

- CO2

NITROGEN

- N2

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE

- H2S

Less frequent HELIUM/MERCURY

- He/Hg

In addition Water is always present

Typical Compositions (dry basis) of Natural Gas could be the following:

Mol %

Mol %

NITROGEN

0.51

4.85

CARBON DIOXIDE

0.67

0.24

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE

METHANE

91.943.11

83.74

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ETHANE

1.26

5.68

PROPANE

0.37

3.47

I BUTANE

0.34

0.30

N BUTANE

traces

1.01

NEO-PENTANE

0.18

N PENTANE

0.110.16

0.18

I PENTANE

1.35

0.19

HEXANE

0.09

C7+

0.25

.
100.00

100.00

1.1.1 Characteristics of Natural Gas


General parameters
To define a gas stream, besides the composition, the following parameters
should be known: pressure, temperature and flow rate.
The units of measurement normally used are:
a) Pressure:
The common unit used is bar, which is related to other units as follows.
1 bar = 100.000 Pa = 0,9809 8 = kg/cm2 = 0,9866 Atm = 750 mmHg
In particular, the atmospheric pressure, expressed in the various units said
above, is:
Atmospheric pressure, i.e. 1 Atm =1,01325 bar =1,033 kg/cm2 =760 mmHg
=14,7 psi 1033 mH2O
b) Temperature:
The units used are either degree Celsius, [C], and degrees Kelvin [K] .
The Kelvin scale for the temperature is defined as thermodynamic absolute
scale. The relationship between the Celsius [C] and Kelvin [K] is:
K = C+273,16

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c) Volume (or referred to a time, Flow rate)


Usually the volume is expressed in cubic metres , m3 , or in british units
cubic feet, Ft3, while the flow rate of a gas stream is expressed as mass or
standard conditions volume flow.
For mass units , kg/h or t/d (metric tons per day) are common units, but
when feed or product of a plant are to be defined, the flow rate is usually
given as volumetric flow rate in certain standard or normal reference
conditions, that are can be one of these:

Standard conditions

T = 15 C = 298,16 K
P = 1 Atm = 1.01325 bar
Or:
Normal conditions:
T = 0 C = 273,16 K
P = 1 Atm = 1.01325 bar

The unit of measurements for the volumes at the above reference


conditions are indicated as Sm3 (Standard conditions) or Nm3 (Normal
conditions), e.g. Sm3/h, Nm3/h,
Still rather common are the Standard conditions: in british units :
T = 60 F
P = 14.7 Psia (i.e.1 Atm = 1.01325 bar)
The units for the flow rate in these standard conditions are usually
Standard Cubic Feet per Day. For large flow rates the units of
measurements are MMSCFD, i.e. millions of Standard Cubic Feet per Day.

Ideal Gases and Real Gases


As said above, the state parameters for a gas are, pressure, temperature
and volume. Changes of these parameters correspond to a process for the
gas. Typical processes for a gas are

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a) Isothermal process: when pressure and volume vary, while temperature


remains constant.
For an ideal gas, using the suffix 1 for the initial state and suffix 2 for the
final state, the Boyles law indicates that :
P1 V1 = P2 V2

(at constant temperature)

b) Constant pressure process: when volume and temperature vary while


pressure remains constant.
If V0 is the volume at T0 and V the volume at T, with temperatures
expressed in degrees K, the following equation applies for the changes of
volume:
V / V0 = T / T0

(at fixed P )

c) Constant volume process:


when volume remains constant while temperature and pressure vary, the
following equation applies for the changes of pressure:
P / P0 = T / T0

(at fixed V )

These relationships can be combined to give the equation of state for an


ideal gas: PV = NkT
Where N is the number of molecules of gas present in the volume V and k
is a constant of proportionality called Boltzmanns constant.
Instead of specifying a large number of molecules in a sample, it is more
convenient to use the number of moles.
One mole (commonly denoted as mol) of any substance contains as many
elementary units (such as atoms or molecules) as the number of atoms in
12 g of the isotope carbon-12.

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This number is called Avogadros number NA = 6.02 x 1023 per mole.


The mass of one mole of a substance is called molecular mass M
(commonly said also, although not fully correct, molecular weight) which
can be measured in g/mol or, in the SI system, in kg / kmol (where kmol
stands for 1000 moles). For example, methane has a molecular mass of
16.043 kg/kmol , which means that 16.043 kg of this gas contain 1000 x NA
molecules.

The number of molecules in n kmoles is then N =n x 1000 x NA


Thus the equation of the ideal gas can be rewritten to become:
PV = n R T
Where n is the number of kmoles and R is universal gas constant.

The volume occupied by one

kmol of an ideal gas at 0 0C and at

atmospheric pressure , i.e. 1.01325 bar, is 22,414 m3., that can be written
as defined above also 22,414 Nm3.

According to the used units of measurement, the values of R are as follows:


R = 0.08205 litresatm / K mol
R = 0.8314 J / K mol
R = 1.987 cal / K mol
A real gas can be considered almost ideal if both the volume of its
molecules and the interactions between them are negligible compared to
the volume of the gas itself.
Actually, any real gas behaves as an ideal gas at very low pressure and
high temperature. A gas behaves as real, as pressure increases (that is, as
the gas molecules get progressively closer) and as temperature decreases
(that is, as the mean molecular kinetic energy gets progressively lower).
The equation of state P V = R T is valid for 1 kmole of ideal gas. For a
real gas, the ratio PV/RT is then defined as the factor of compressibility
z, and the equation of state is written in a more general form:
PV= z n RT.

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Many other forms of the equations of state for real gases have been
developed to allow the calculation of the main parameters such as
pressure, volume and temperature along with the processes of the gas.

One of these has been developed by Van Der Waals on the basis of the
equation of the state of ideal gases, adding some correction factors, based
on the following concepts:

The volume physically occupied by the molecule in a real gas is not


negligible compared to the volume of the container of the gas.
There are non-negligible interactions (attraction and repulsive forces)
between the molecules of the real gas.

The final equation of a mole of real gas is:


P V = RT - (a/V) + (ab/V2) + bP

n =1

The magnitude of correction becomes negligible with decreasing low


pressure values (low values of P and high values of V a perfect gas) and
increases its importance with increasing pressures (real gas).

The same formula can be written as:

p + 2 (V b ) = RT
V

The constant values a and b vary according to the gaseous species and
are tied to critical data (critical temperature, critical pressure and critical
volume of the gas). The parameter a/V2 is related to the interactions that
exist between the gas molecules, whose action is summed to external
pressure, while the constant b represents the actual volume of the gas
molecule and must be subtracted from the total volume occupied by the gas

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in order to reach the volume of space actually available for the motion of
molecules.

Tc =

8a
Vc
;b =
; a = 3 pc V 2 c
27Rb
3

Critical temperature is the temperature beyond which it is impossible to

liquefy gas by compression only.


For example, if oxygen, whose critical temperature is -118 C,

is

compressed at a constant temperature of 20C, it is impossible to change


its gaseous state to liquid, at whatever pressure, while ammonia (critical
temperature is 132 C) at 20C at about 8 bar is liquid.
Conversely, if oxygen is at a higher pressure compressed at 120C is
liquid at atmospheric pressure, while if ammonia is at a temperature above
132.5C does not liquefy, whatever the pressure.

Critical pressure is the pressure limit value for the saturated liquid.

For H2O the critical pressure is 221.3 bar and the critical temperature is
374.1 C. At critical pressure or higher, the two phases liquid and vapour
cannot exist and there is only one phase, called supercritical phase.

Any substance above its critical temperature is referred to as a gas, while


any gaseous substance below its critical temperature is a vapour; this
means that gas is not liquefiable through compression, while vapour is
liquefiable through compression

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CRITICAL POINTS OF SOME SUBSTANCES

Hydrogen

Critical
Temperature
- 240 C

Critical Pressure
12.8

atm
atm

Oxygen

- 118 C

49

Carbon Dioxide

+ 31.04 C

72.85 atm

Water

+ 374.1C

218.13 atm

Since the Van der Waals equation is not easy to use in calculations, it is
better to use the general state equation of gas: P V = Z nRT. Where the
compressibility factor Z is an intensive dimensionless factor, experimentally
determined for every gas at the various pressures and temperatures. Z is
so defined:

Z=

VACTUAL
VIDEAL

For an ideal gas Z=1

1.1.2 Density and Specific Gravity.

The density of a body or a certain amount of a substance is the ratio


between the mass and its volume. It is a function (for ideal gas) of T
(absolute temperature), P (pressure), W (molecular weight).

mass
volume

If density of a gas is 0 at P0 and T0 conditions is known, its value


, Ti

conditions can be obtained by means of the following equation:

i = 0

Pi T0 1

P0 Ti Z

at Pi

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Where:

i = density of gas under operational pressure and temperature


[kg/m3

0= density of gas under normal pressure and temperature


[kg/m3]
Pi = absolute operational pressure [bar]
Po = reference pressure (normal) corresponding to 1,01325 [bar]
Ti = absolute operational temperature expressed in Kelvin (K=273,16 + t

C)
T0 = absolute temperature at normal conditions (273,16 K)

Z = gas compressibility factor under operational conditions (Pi and Ti)


( for ideal gas Z=1)
The density of a natural gas is given by the weighted average of the specific
weights of its components.
In order to work out the density of the same (ideal) gas at a temperature of
0 C one must proceed as follows:

15 T0
=
0 T15
(from equation of ideal gases)
where:

15

= density of gas at 15 C and P = 1,033 kg/cm2

[kg/Sm3]

= density of gas at 0 C and P = 1,033 kg/cm2

[kg/Nm3 ]

T0

= 273,16 K T15

= 273,16 + 15 = 288,16 K

The Specific Gravity is the ratio of gas density to density of air at the
same conditions of pressure and temperature.
The ratio is:

GAS
AIR

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15 AIR =air density at 15 C and 760 mmHg= 1,2248 kg/Sm3.


0 AIR =air density at 0 C and 760 mmHg= 1,2921 kg/Nm3.
By definition, the specific gravity of a gas does not depend on pressure and
temperature.
1.1.3 Heating value and Wobbe Index

The heating value is the heat (kcal) produced during the complete
combustion of 1 kg of a substance; it is calculated by the reaction to the
combustion.
For example, 12 grams of Carbon (i.e. 1 mol) produces 96 Kcal, 1,000 g =
1 kg produce 96 1,000/12 = 8,000 kcal.
As far as gas is concerned, the heat of combustion is the heat released by
completely burning one Nm3 of gas. It is expressed in kcal/Nm3 @ 0C and
760 mmHg (or kcal/Sm3@ 15 C and 760 mmHg.
The complete burning reaction for pure Methane is

CH4 + 2O2

C O2 + 2H2O

The distinction between gross heating value and net heating value is
based on the assumption that, after burning, the first takes into account the
water as a liquid and represents the maximum heat available, while the
second considers that water remains in the vapor state (this is the most
common situation).
Thus, the difference between gross heating value and net heating value is
the vaporisation or condensation heat

of the water generated in the

combustion.
The heating values are experimentally determined using calorimeters.

The heating value of a gaseous mixture can be calculated by weighted


average of single component heating values.
If a natural gas has the following composition:

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CH4

= 94,0 Mol%

C2H6

= 5,5 Mol %

N2

= 0,5 Mol %

The heating values of the components are known from table 1.1:
0,94

9.513 = 8.942,2

0,055 x 16.775 =
0,005 x

0 =
3

GHC (kcal/Nm ) =
0,94

922,6

8.573

0,0
9.864,8

= 8.058,6

0,055 x 15.356

844,6

0,005 x

0,0

NHC (kcal/Nm3)

= 8.903,3

In order to obtain the values referred to standard conditions, it is necessary


to multiply for the ratio of absolute temperatures 273,16 / 288,16.
Gross heating value = 9864,8
Net heating value = 8903,2
NAME AND
FORMULA

DENSITY
3

273,16
= 9351,3 kcal/Sm3
288,16

273,16
= 8439,8 kcal/Sm3
288,16

SPECIFIC

Gross Heating

Net Heating

GRAVITY

Value

Value

kg / Nm

kg / Nm

(0C 760 mmHg)

(Air = 1)

kcal/ Nm

(0C760mmHg)

kcal/ Nm3
(0C-760mmHg)

METHANE

CH4

0,717127

0,55491

9513

8573

ETHANE

C2H6

1,352940

1,04690

16775

15356

PROPANE

C3H8

2,003500

1,55030

24110

22197

BUTANE

C4H10

2,677580

2,07190

31633

29213

PENTANE

C5H12

3,411800

2,64000

39900

36984

HYDROGEN

H2

0,089950

0,06960

3046

2576

0,96700

5989

5228

CARBON

1,249800

MONOXIDE

CO

CARBON

CO2

1,963200

1,51900

N2

1,250000

0,96720

DIOXIDE
NITROGEN

Table 1.1 Physical Constants of some components of Natural Gas

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The composition of some Italian natural gases is shown in table 1.2 and the
composition of gases from different countries is shown in table 1.2a.

COMPOSITION (Mol %)

FIELDS

Sergnano Cupello

Rubicone

Cortemaggiore

Methane

97.38

61.44

99.69

92.57

Ethane

1.00

4.86

0.06

4.82

Propane

0.33

2.53

0.03

1.30

Butane

0.13

0.86

0.01

0.59

Heavier hydrocarbons

0.07

0.50

0.02

0.30

Nitrogen

0.94

21.90

0.16

0.42

Carbon Dioxide

0.15

7.64

0.03

-0-

-0-

0.04

-0-

-0-

Specific gravity (air=1)


Gross heating value
(kcal/Nm3)
Net heating
value(kcal/Nm3)
Density (kg/Nm3)

0.572
9084

0.781
7990

0.557
9024

0.605
9703

8184

7011

8125

9248

0.710

1.020

0.682

0.760

Compressibility factor Z

0.9979

0.9942

0.9980

0.9980

Hydrogen sulphide
CHARACTERISTICS
@ 15 C & 1.01325 bar

Table 1.2 Gas composition of some fields in Italy.

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Table 1.2a Gas composition of different nations

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Wobbe Index is a number proportional to the the heat input to a burner at

constant pressure. It is expressed as the ratio of the gross heating value


divided by the square root of its specific gravity .
This number is widely used to assess the interchangeabilty of fuel gases
For example, in case of methane:
WI = 37.708 MJSm3 / SQRT(16.043/28.9625) = 50.66 MJ/Sm3

1.1.4 Specific Heat

Specific heat : is the heat needed to raise the temperature of the volume

unit or weight unit by 1C.


The specific heat of a gas mixture is the weighted average of the specific
heats of each component.
It varies according to temperature, pressure and composition of the gas. It
is expressed in kcal/Nm3 / C.
Specific heat values are defined at constant pressure (Cp) and at constant
volume(Cv).

1.1.5 Molecular Weight

Molecular Weight: The molecular weight of a chemical compound is given

by summing up the atomic weight of all constituents of the mixture. For


example, the molecular weight of PROPANE expressed by the chemical
formula C3H8 is equal to: 3x12,01 (atomic weight of C) +8x1,008 (atomic
weight of H) = 44, 094 kg/kmol.
The atomic weight of the most common elements contained in natural gas
is:
HYDROGEN

1,008

CARBON

12,01

OXYGEN

15,99

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SULPHUR

32,06

The molecular weight of a mixture is given by the weighted mean of the


molecular weights of each compound of the mixture.
As an example, the molecular weight of the following mixture is calculated
below:
C H4

96,0 Mol%

C2H6

2,1 Mol %

C3H8

1,5 Mol %

C4H10

0,4 Mol %
_____
100,0

0,96

x (12,01 + 4 x 1,008)

15,400

0,021 x (2 x 12,01 + 6 x 1,008) =

0,631

0,015 x (3 x 12,01 + 8 x 1,008) =

0,661

0,004 x (4 x 12,01 + 10 x 1,008) =

0,232
_____

Molecular weight of the mixture

16,924 kg/kmol

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1.2 GENERAL DATA ABOUT COMPONENTS OF NATURAL GAS OTHER


THAN METHANE

As said, Natural gas is a mixture of methane, with lower amounts of other


hydrocarbons and other substances.
These other constituents modify the physical and chemical characteristics
of natural gas, for example, inert gases make the natural gas heating value
lower.
The substances that can be in natural gas are:

Carbon dioxide

Nitrogen

Hydrogen sulphide

Heavier hydrocarbons which can be separated to give condensate


(gasoline) Water vapour is always contained in natural gas.

1.2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

The content in CO2 varies from traces to very high amounts.


It forms from the reaction of field water with silicates and carbonates. Even
a minimal presence of carbon dioxide in natural gas saturated with water
forms carbonic acid, which is the cause of severe corrosion in the surface
equipment and the pipelines, that are usually made of carbon steel. Its
removal is therefore, often a must in the plants.
The CO2 removal can be done by absorption using ethanolamine.
Unfortunately, since the elimination process is carried out in the plants,
corrosion inside well production tubing and conducts it is prevented or
mitigated through injection of inhibitors.
The corrosion of carbon steel by CO2 is dependent on two factors: the
presence of water or saturated steam and the partial pressure of CO2.
CO2 is corrosive for carbon steel, only when it is combined with water,
because it creates carbonic acid and ionic carbonic acids.
CO2

H2CO3

H2O

H2CO3
+

H +

HCO-3

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1.2.2.Nitrogen (N2)

It is almost always present in small percentages in natural gas.


Nitrogen does not cause corrosion in the equipment, but reduces the
heating value of the gas. Its elimination can be required to produce sales
gas with the specified calorific value.
The removal of nitrogen from the sales gas is normally accomplished using
a cryogenic process.
Nitrogen is also commonly available as utility fluid, in all petrochemical
plants, where is used for blanketing tanks and vessels and for inerting the
plants and pipelines. Nitrogen is normally produced from the air either via
an air fractionation unit or from air treated on carbon molecular sieves.
Usually it is stored in liquid form in special double-wall tanks. In gaseous
state it is available in the plant from supply stations as part of a distribution
network., normally at about 8 bar.
1.2.3 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

It is the most dangerous compound that can be found in natural gas. It is


responsible of corrosion phenomena taking place inside the gas treatment
facilities; it is highly toxic and even lethal over certain concentrations.
Hydrogen sulphide is a weak acid in dry conditions, but in the presence of
water its corrosive power is high.
H2S, corrodes carbon steel, because of its ionisation into H+ and HS . Its
corrosion however, is less rapid than that of CO2 due to its lower ionisation.
Moreover, H2S is depolarised by oxygen. The corrosion by hydrogen
sulphide can also cause the so called sulphide stress corrosion cracking,
that can be avoided mainly by a proper material selection.
To reduce general corrosion caused by H2S and CO2 inhibitors are used.
Inhibitors are substances injected into the pipes in low quantities. Main
feature of inhibitors is the fact that some functional groups in their
molecules can form very thin layers on the pipe wall, maintaining the
metallic surface isolated from the acid. Among these compounds the most
commonly used are the amino compounds.

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1.2.4 Natural Gasoline

Gasoline is a liquid hydrocarbon mixture that forms from the condensation


of the fractions that are less volatile than natural gas, that is to say propane,
butane, pentane and higher hydrocarbons. Gasoline, from a commercial
standpoint, is defined by the following characteristics:

1. REID vapour pressure

(0,7 bar)

2. Volatile substances @ 60 C

(28 85 %)

3. Volatile substances @ 135 C

(> 90 %)

4. Final boiling point

(< 190 C)

5. Sourness Absent (Not corrosive)

The content of heavy hydrocarbons in the natural gas H2S, CO2 are the key
factors for the definition and the design of proper treatment units.
1.3 SWEET GAS - ACID GAS - CONDENSATE GAS

A natural gas is called sweet gas if it has no sour components such as


H2S, CO2, mercaptans, but is almost exclusively composed of methane, low
amounts of ethane, propane, inert gases (N2) and traces of heavier
hydrocarbons. It is generally saturated in water at reservoir temperature and
pressure.
A natural gas is usually defined as sour when it contains hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) and/or carbon dioxide (CO2).
A condensate gas reservoir can be defined as a reservoir in which
temperature is between critical temperature and cricondenthermal point
(maximum temperature at which coexistence of the two phases is still
possible) for the particular natural hydrocarbon system it contains.
At this point it is useful to outline a phase diagram of a natural hydrocarbon
system.
In a natural hydrocarbon reservoir, within the porous bed that makes up
the source rock, we will find hydrocarbons of aliphatic, aromatic and
naphthenic type, ranging from low molecular weight terms (like methane) to

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sometimes, very high molecular weight terms (crude oil), together with
minor amounts of some non hydrocarbons (CO2, N2, H2S etc.).
Formation water is almost always present in the reservoirs.
In the reservoir, the fluids can be present as a single phase gas (a gas
reservoir), single phase liquid (an under-saturated petroleum reservoir) or
two distinct phases (a petroleum reservoir with an overlaying gas cap).

Fig. 1.1 P, T phase diagram

The points along the line AC represent liquid at incipient vaporization i.e first
vapour bubble formed, and constitute the bubble point curve. (Fig. 1.1)
The points along the CB curve represent vapours at incipient condensation
i.e and constitute the dew point curve. (Fig. 1.1 )

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From the diagram we can observe that a pressure decreasing, for


temperatures between Tc and Tc, that cross the dew point curve, causes
the appearance of dew (drops of liquid) in the initially homogeneous
gaseous phase. Bubble point and dew point curves cross at point C, known
as the critical point of the system, corresponding to critical temperature and
critical pressure. In a multi-component system the coexistence of liquid and
gaseous phases is possible even at temperatures above critical
temperature. Therefore, it is preferable to define as critical, such a state in
which all the intensive properties (density, compressibility, viscosity, etc.) of
the liquid and gaseous phases are equal.
POINT C: maximum temperature at which coexistence of the two phases
is still possible; it identifies the CRICONDENTHERM state.

POINT C: maximum pressure at which both liquid and gaseous phase can
coexist; it identifies the CRICONDENBAR state.
The internal AB area of the curve represents the region of coexistence of
liquid and gaseous phase. The dotted curves inside this area connect points
of equal percentage of liquid phase.
By reducing pressure below the dew point value, there is initially an
increase of the liquid phase and subsequently a partial or total reevaporation of the phase itself. This phenomenon is known as retrograde
condensation and the reservoirs involved in this action are commonly
known as condensed reservoirs. The pressure reduction produced by the
gas distribution in these reservoirs, that are initially single phase gaseous,
causes a liquid phase to appear in the layer.
In the following table, the components of SWEET, ACID and CONDENSED
gas fluids are indicated. (Table 1.3)

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SWEET GAS
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Nitrogen
Helium
Water
Carbon dioxide

CH4
C2H6
C3H8
N2
He
H2O
CO2

ACID GAS
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Hydrogen
Carbon Oxide
Hydrogen sulphide
Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen
Water

CH4
C2H6
C3H8
H2
CO
H2S
CO2
O
H2O

CONDENSED GAS
CH4
Methane
Ethane
C2H6
Propane
C3H8
Buthane
C4H10
Pentane
C5H12
Hexane
C6H14
Hepthane
C7H16
Ethylene
C2H4
Propylene
C3H6
Butylene
C4H8
Nitrogen
N2
Helium
He
Water
H2O

Table 1.3 An example of the components of a hypothetical reservoir

The composition of the various natural gases is determined in laboratory,


where a sample of gas is examined by gas chromatographs.
Table 1.4 shows some analysis reports .

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ANALYSIS REPORT N. 433/91 LACH (gas)


Sample of gas from the SPILAMBERTO Station
Well S. MARTINO

1 LONG STRING

Sampling data
_______________
Interval:

3
Capacity: - m /day

m. -

Sampling location: Wellhead

Pressure 83 bar

Temp. - C

Sample date: 07-05-1991

Arrival date: 08-05-1991

Sample taken by: LACH

Bottle n. 3047A

Analysis Results
CENTESIMAL
COMPOSITION
CALCULATED
(gas
chromatography)

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC

at 15 C and 1,01325 bar


% mole

Nitrogen

0.72

Compressibility Factor

0.9980

Carbon Dioxide

0.01

Specific Gravity (air=1)

0.561

Hydrogen sulphide

0.1 ppm

Density kg/m3

0.687

Methane

98.99

Ethane

0.19

Gross heating value


kcal/m3
kJ/m3

8997
37669

Propane

0.02

I-Buthane

0.02

Net heating value


kcal/m3
kJ/m3

8101
33918

N-Buthane

<0.005

Neo-Penthane

I-Penthane

0.01

N-Penthane

<0.005

Hexane

< 0.005

Hepthane

0.01

Octanes

0.03

Note: the Hydrogen


sulphide was determined
in compliance with the
SANDS method on the gas
sampled in a glass beaker.

The Analysis Report Sheet


Table 1.4

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1.4 WATER PRESENCE IN NATURAL GAS

Remarkable levels of salty water (variable salinity from 12 gr. per litre
upwards) (see Fig. 1.2) can always be found under the form of interstice or
bottom water in oil fields.
Consequently, gas is always saturated with water.
Special wire-line measuring instruments (AMERADA) are used to determine
the temperature and the pressure at the different depths to which they are
lowered in the well.
1.4.1 Determination of the water content in natural gas

Gas with the constant presence of interstice water in the field is saturated
with water vapour at levels depending on the temperature and the pressure
of the place where it is found.
Saturated means that the amount of water vapour contained in the

gaseous phase is the highest possible, according to pressure and


temperature condition of the gas. Any increasing in pressure (T=const) or
decreasing in temperature (p=const) results in water vapour condensation.
The water vapour content depends, as already mentioned, only on
temperature and pressure. The water vapour is a saturated vapour at its
dew point condition.
For example, at 135 bar and 40 C (See diagram of Fig. 1.2) the water
content in the gaseous phase is 700 grams per 1000 Nm3. This is the
maximum amount of water that the gas can contain at this temperature and
pressure. When the gas temperature rises, the possible present liquid water
phase in contact with the gas, evaporates and the gas is maintained in
saturated condition. If the liquid phase is not present, the gas becomes
under-saturated (its water vapour content is lower than the maximum
possible). Over-saturated means that the gaseous phase contains some
liquid water (for example fog).
The term over-saturated can also refer to an entire two phases system:
liquid phase + saturated gaseous phase.

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In any case, a liquid phase is very often present in a gas stream from a well,
the gaseous phase is therefore saturated.
The gas treatments are intended to lead the gas to under-saturated
conditions.
First of all, the liquid phase has to be removed, then the gas is sent to
drying systems (final treatment). A gas can also turn out to be undersaturated when it is heated, but in this case the water content remains the

same as before heating. So, when the gas returns to its previous
temperature, it is again in saturated condition (temporary treatment).

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Fig. 1.2 Water content in natural gas

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1.5 HYDRATES AND HYDRATES PREVENTION

Hydrates are crystallized, compact, porous and rather light mass, similar to
compressed snow. They are made of water, hydrocarbons, H2S and CO2.
Unlike ice, hydrates have an unusual characteristic: they form at a
temperature that is above water freezing point . For instance, they can form
at 20 C at particular pressures.
When they are exposed to air, they dissolve chugging and fizzing because
of the gas that is more or less slowly freed according to the surrounding
temperature. When they are lit in the air, they can slowly and completely
burn, until they leave a small residue of water. This does not represent the
quantity of water they actually contain, as part of the water content is lost
through evaporation. Hydrates form quite easily by simple contact of gas
and water and the formation is related to the conditions of temperature and
pressure, according to the law of equilibrium.
They can quite frequently form in lines that gather gas from the various
wells and transport it to the central treatment station where it undergoes
dehydration.
This formation of hydrates can partially or totally obstruct the lines, limiting
or hindering the transportation of gas
Hydrates can form only if the following conditions occur:

a)

presence of H2O in the liquid state

b)

presence of hydrocarbons

c)

turbulence (created by curves, collisions etc)

d) for a given pressure, only if the temperature is lower than a


certain value

The researcher Donald L. Katz experimented the mixtures of gas with


different compositions to determine the formation curves of hydrates. The
result of this experiment is shown in the following pressure-temperature
diagram. (Fig. 1.3) The curves of the diagram are valid for natural gases
that have density very similar to those examined.

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Fig. 1.3 Pressure temperature diagram

In the following diagram, the curve indicating the formation of hydrates is


always described in pressure temperature diagram, for a natural gas with
a density of 0,7 (Fig. 1.4).

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Fig. 1.4 Pressure temperature diagram for a natural gas with a density of 0,7

1.5.1 Methods to prevent the formation of hydrates

In order to reduce the possible formation of hydrates in a line that transports


natural gas it is essential that:
a) there is no free water;
b) the temperature is higher than that required for hydrates formation.

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If one of these conditions cannot be removed, it is necessary to use other


systems to prevent the formation of hydrates:
a) the use of inhibitors (anti-freezing agents), i.e. substances capable of
decreasing the hydrate formation temperature.
b) Water removal from the gas
1.5.2 Hydrates elimination

The method for hydrates elimination depends on the nature of the


obstruction.
Partial clogging: can be located when the pressure and the gas flow in the

conducts vary. This is due to a partial obstruction in the conduct.


In this case, the operator should check if a hydrate prevention system has
been installed upstream the hydrate clog (i.e. a heater or an inhibitor
injection system) and if it functions properly..
The interventions that can follow are:
-

temperature increasing of the outlet gas released by the heater;

Increasing of the inhibitor rate.

The inhibitors injections upstream the choke.

Complete clogging: The complete clogging with hydrates provokes a total

production shutdown, so the methods adopted in case of partial clogging


are no longer valid. In this case, decompression will be the proper method
for melting.
The decompression must be carefully carried out, since it can be
dangerous.
First of all, the pressure upstream the choke has to be reduced by
balancing the pressures upstream & downstream the choke itself. This is
done in order to avoid that a higher P and the hydrates clog detachment
can have evident consequences on the pipeline.
Once the pressure is balanced, the contemporary released upstream and
downstream depressurisation must reach the atmospheric pressure.
At this point the clog melts on its own, having absorbed the molecules of
gas at the pressure level in which the hydrate had formed.

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From the nature of hydrates and their formation it can be stated that, correct
gas treatment must be carried out so that such dangerous formations are
avoided.

2 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING


2.1 NECESSARY CONDITIONS AND GOALS OF PROCESSING

The types of treatments carried out on gas streams usually are:


separation;

heating;

inhibition.

dehydration;

liquid hydrocarbon recovery;

sweetening.

2.1.1 Treatment needs and objectives

The first gas treatments are temporary. Their aim is to prevent the
hydrates formation and theyre classified as follows:
-

separation of free water;

increase in the temperature of gas above that of hydrate formation;

inhibitors injection to prevent hydrate formation.

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Elimination of free water

The elimination of free water in the gas is carried out through separators
that are installed at the well-head and at the entrance of the treatment
stations.
This treatment removes the liquid phase from the two-phases coming out of
the well head. The gaseous phase is saturated before the treatment and is
still saturated (at pressure and temperature conditions) leaving the
separator.
Gas undergoes a temperature decrease flowing within the pipe from well
head to the treatment station and expands (decreasing in pressure, caused
by head losses along the pipe and across valves and fittings). The
expansion causes a temperature loss (Joule-Thompson effect), since
another condensation of moisture takes place, so that the liquid phase can
be present at the inlet of the treatment station once again.
Gas heating

In the diagram representing the hydrates formation of a 0,7 specific gravity


gas, the evidenced area defines the condition under which the hydrates can
form.
From the same diagram it is evident that we have the gas phase increasing
the temperature.
The treatment is temporary because heating the gas at constant pressure
increases the capacity to hold vapour, however content is still the same.
So, when the temperature is lower than the previous values, gas returns
into the hydrates formation area.
Inhibitors

Inhibitors are liquid substances that prevent and also eliminate the
formation of hydrates. The inhibitors enter a solution with water, lowering its
freezing point thus shifting the equilibrium of hydrates towards lower
temperature values. The inhibitors which are generally used are:
- ethyl Alcohol;
- methanol;
- diethylene Glycol.

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Other chemical inhibitors are used in order to hinder, in case of sour gas,
the corrosion of the machinery located at the wellhead.
Both treatments are temporary, since they do not eliminate the problem, but
simply hand it over to the treatment stations, either for the elimination of
water vapour or the elimination of corrosive agents such as CO2 and/or H2S.
Final treatments

After temporary treatments, gas is delivered to the treatment plant and then
to users, according to the requested specifications.
The final treatments eliminating harmful elements from natural gas consists
in:
1. reducing water (dehydration);
2. reducing the content of superior hydrocarbons (adsorption);
3. reducing the content of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide
(sweetening).
The above-mentioned treatments are carried out by appropriate types of
plants according to the composition of natural gas. Moreover, the plants are
managed to meet the users specifications. The maximum concentration
allowed for the various undesirable components are indicated as follows:
(Table 2.1)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL GAS ACCORDING TO USERS REQUESTS


(These specifications can vary depending on the customer)
WATER

Content usually expressed as dew point temperature


e.g. < 5 C at 50 bar

HYDROGEN SULPHIDE

Content

= 2 ppm/Vol Max

CARBON DIOXIDE

Content

= 1,3 Mol% Max

NITROGEN

Content

= 6 Mol%

GASOLINE

Content usually expressed as dew point temperature

Max

e.g. < -10 C at 50 bar


Table 2.1

2.2 DEHYDRATION BY ABSORPTION OR ADSORPTION

The methods currently used for gas dehydration are the following:
1. Absorption through liquid substances (diethylene triethylene glycol).
2. Adsorption through solid substances (Molecular sieves, Alumina,
Silicagel).
The dehydrating agents used for ABSORPTION and ADSORPTION after
use, must be regenerated.
The main characteristics of these dehydrating agents are as follows:

1. Absorption capacity: it is the maximum amount of water that a


dehydrating material can absorb before being regenerated ( weight
%).
2. Dew point depressing capacity: it is the ability of the dehydrating
agent to lower the water dew point of the gas.
3. Dehydration capacity: it is the capacity to reduce the humidity
percentage in gas during the treatment.
4. Range of temperature: it is the operational temperature range in
which the dehydrating material can be used without losing its
hygroscopic properties.

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5. Lifetime is the number of regenerations the dehydrating material can


undergo without losing its properties, that is the number of cycles it
can operate before replacement.
2.2.1 Dehydration through liquid absorption

The process to remove components from a mixture of gases is called


adsorption if the removed components are retained on a solid phase and is
called absorption when the removed components are removed by a liquid
solution.
Most absorption systems for water removal, use diethylene glycol (DEG) or
triethylene glycol (TEG) since they offer the best combination of easy
operation and economics. Other peculiar advantages are:
-

effective liquid-gas interface contact;

easy handling of the liquid solution by pumps;

sharp control of concentrations;

suitability to different operating systems;

relatively low costs, if compared to other systems;

easy regeneration;

prompt adaptability of the process with different gas concentrations.

The absorption liquids have high boiling points. They are thermally stable
and do not loose efficiency with usage.
Dehydration with glycols occurs as follows:
The saturated gas is put in contact with glycol, which absorbs part of its
water content by absorption. The glycol that has absorbed the water
(exhaust or rich glycol) is heated to release by evaporation the absorbed
water (regeneration). The regenerated or lean glycol is then cooled and
sent back to the contactor.
Absorption is favoured by large contact surfaces. The liquid absorption is
widely used because, compared to other methods, has relatively low
installation and operation costs. The factors that influence the absorption
process are:
-

Composition of the gas;

Operating pressure and temperature of the gaseous phase;

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Efficiency of the contact system between glycol and gas;

Contact surface (number of contact units);

Temperature and viscosity of the liquid phase;

H2O content in the lean glycol;

H2O concentration in rich glycol (that is a function of glycol flowrate)

For the same installation and the same gas with the same liquid flowrate,
dehydration is stronger if carried out with solutions characterised by high
concentration. An important parameter that governs the absorption of water
vapour is the contact temperature. Besides high concentrations of glycol,
also low working temperatures (15 C) have a positive influence on
dehydration. DEG and TEG are almost odourless and colourless liquids,
with high hygroscopicity . Their physical properties are indicated in Table
2.2.

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Formula
Molecular weight
Density:at 20/20 C
at 25/25 C
Boiling temperature, at 760 mm Hg
Decomposition temperature
(theoretical)
Freezing point
Dragging point
Specific viscosity : at 0C
at 25C
Specific heat: at 25 C
at 100 C
at 180 C
Evaporation heat at 760 mm Hg
Heat of solution in water :at 25C
at 30C
Flash point
Surface tension
Water vapour pressure at 20C
at 40C
Refraction index, at 25C
Gasoline solubility (*)
Na Cl solubility, at 20 C (*)

UNITS

DEG

Kg/l
Kg/l
C
C

C4 H10 03
106
1,1184
1,1160
245
164

C6 H14 04
150
1,1254
1,1220
287
206

-9
- 62
127
29
0,550
0,610
0,680
83,3
32,2

-6
56
155
34
0,540
0,615
0,695
99,5

C
C
Centipoise
Centipoise
(kcal/kg C)
(kcal/kg C)
(kcal/kg C)
(kcal/kg C)
(kcal/kg C)
(kcal/kg C)
C
dine/cm2
mm Hg
mm Hg
=
% in weight
% in NaC1
weight

(*) for aqueous solutions at 85% of glycol (by weight)


Table 2.2

135
44
0,00295
0,02250
1,446
0,040
6,2

TEG

50,6
154
45
0,00064
0,00490
1,434
0,045
5,5

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Figures 2.1 and 2.2 highlight the temperature in which glycol freezes, in
relation to its H2O content.
The regeneration temperature of DEG should not exceed 164 C to reach a
96% by weight concentration, as for higher concentration,

it would be

necessary to work under vacuum or insert a gas stripping equipment. For


TEG, it is possible to perform the regeneration at temperatures not above
204 C, (decomposition begins above this temperature) and obtain dry
glycol at concentration of 98.9% by weight.
Other regeneration systems are available to improve the purity of the lean
glycol; examples are the following:

Regeneration under vacuum

Use of stripping gas

Coldfinger system (Proprietary)

SuperDrizo system (Proprietary)

The advantages and disadvantages of DEG versus and TEG are listed
below:

D E G ADVANTAGES
-

stable with H2O and CO2 at normal operation temperatures;

very hygroscopic;

small losses for dragging on the gas part;

lless expensive than TEG;

easily found in the market.

D E G DISADVANTAGES
-

Partial solubility in liquid hydrocarbons;

regeneration not exceeding 95% by weight (at atmospheric


pressure).

T E G ADVANTAGES
-

Stable at H2O and CO2 at normal operation temperatures;

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very hygroscopic;

small losses for dragging on the gas part:

concentration of lean glycol up to 97% .

T E G DISADVANTAGES
-

Much more expensive than DEG;

Foam formation with gasoline (anti-foam substances have to be


injected)

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Fig. 2.1 Diagram for diethylene glycol

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Fig. 2.2 Diagram for triethylene glycol

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2.2.2 Dehydration by adsorption

In the adsorption phenomenon one or more components of a mixture are


removed and retained in a solid adsorbing agent.
The substance adsorbed is usually water vapour and the adsorbent solid
materials can be: Activated Alumina, Silica Gel, Molecular Sieves or
Sovabead (Trade name).
Adsorption can be described on the basis of the molecular forces of
attraction, since the attraction of water to the adsorbent material is
regulated by the Van der Waals forces. These forces of reciprocal attraction
of molecules lead to an equilibrium status with a high amount of adsorbed
components on the surface of the adsorbent that can be reversed,
depending on the temperature and pressure so that the adsorbed
substance is released and the adsorbent is regenerated.
Adsorbent materials are characterised by a large contact surface,
distributed within the solid under the form of non regular capillary channels.
These contact surface areas constitute a field of attracting forces that cause
the condensation of hydrocarbons or water vapours flowing through.
The retention capability of solid adsorbents is specifically related to the size
of the molecules of the removed component so that the adsorbents can be
highly selective.

A good adsorbent has the following characteristics:


- great adsorption capacity;
- high speed of adsorption;
- easy reversibility of the adsorbent in regeneration process;
- low resistance to gas flow;
- high mechanical resistance;
- chemical inertia;
- low variation in the specific volume at varying of pressure and

temperature.
- High selectivity f

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ADSORPTION CAPACITY

It is the percentage of water content, when theres the saturation of the solid
material.
In Figure 2.3 it is evident that the adsorption capacity of Silica Gel is lower
than that of the Sovabead.

SPEED OF ADSORPTION

It is the speed in which vapour molecules are taken away from the gaseous
stage and condensed.
RANGE OF TEMPERATURE

It is the temperature scope in which the adsorbent maintains its dehydrating


properties within economically and technically convenient values.
In brief, the process occurs as follows.
A mass of wet gas flows in a vertical vessel filled with adsorbent material
(generally molecular sieves ).

TIME- WEEKS

Figure 2.3 Adsorption capacity

The vapour fills up the pores of the adsorbent until the quantity/level of
condensed water per Kg of adsorbent (about 10 Kg. per 100 Kg of

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adsorbent) passes a certain level, the adsorption action suddenly drops


then it completely stops as the adsorbent is saturated.
The adsorption phase, in practice, is stopped prior to reaching the
saturation of the adsorbing bed and the towers are switched over, so as the
wet gas will enter the drier with regenerated adsorbent while the exhaust
vessel will undergo the regeneration phase.
The regeneration phase consists of two stages:
- Heating phase during which the hot regeneration gas flows upwards

and heats the adsorbent up to the required temperature. This


temperature is maintained at the maximum required value for a
programmed time. During this heating phase the adsorbed water is
removed and will flow out of the drier with the regeneration gas.
The regeneration gas is flowing upwards (opposite direction with
respect to that in the adsorbing phase).
- Cooling phase , during which the regeneration gas flows at ambient

temperature through the bed under regeneration for the time required to
cool down all the system, i.e. adsorbent and vessel, to a temperature as
close as possible to that of the adsorbing phase. At the and of the
cooling phase, the bed is ready to be switched back on line.

The adsorbing and regeneration sequence of the driers is a cyclic operation


which is usually driven by a PLC programme.
The temperature of the regeneration gas is dependant on the type of
adsorbent used, for example molecular sieves usually require a
regeneration temperature of 240C for the 3A type and 280C for the 4A
type. Activated Alumina and Silica gel normally require a lower regeneration
temperature e.g. 200C max.
In terms of attainable water dew points, the capability of the solid
adsorbents is as follows:
- Molecular sieves: down to a water dew point of 100C
- Activated Alumina: down to 73C
- Silica Gel: down to -60 C

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2.3 HYDROCARBON RECOVERY

Part of water and gasoline vapours condenses to the liquid phase by the
effect of decreasing temperature and pressure (retrograde condensation) of
the gas stream flowing from the field to the gathering station. In this case,
the separation processes of gasoline and free water occur simultaneously in
separators. Nonetheless, the gas which leaves the separator is still
saturated with water and gasoline. In order to recover gasoline vapours and
steam, a degassing treatment is carried out. The operation can consist in
cooling the gas by a refrigerating plant, e.g. a refrigerant propane
compression unit, or by a turbo-expander where the cooling is due to the
work done during the pressure let-down through the machine or, to expand
it through a throttling valve so as to obtain cooling by the Joule-Thomson
effect.
Another way of recovering heavy component fractions is by adsorption on
solid bed. Solid bed units when applicable, have the advantage of being
easy to operate and also performing heavy fractions removal and
dehydration, at the same time.
This type of unit is based on proprietary adsorbing agent Sovabead, which
is a type of molecular sieve. The objective of the heavy fraction removal is
two-fold: one purpose is to treat the gas to meet the hydrocarbon
contractual dew-point and the other one is to recover saleable gasoline.
2.4 GAS SWEETENING

Natural gas can contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S). For example the natural
gas produced in the field of Trecate (Italy) contains 0,049 % of H2S by
weight. In the Russian fields of Kubiscev, Isciubai and Kinelneft the
percentage of H2S varies from 1 to 4,6. In the United States, and precisely
in the fields of Mc Kamie in Arkansas, gas is produced with a H2S
percentage volume of 6,80 %, whereas in France, in the large field of Le
Lacq, the gaseous hydrocarbons contain a H2S percentage by volume of
15%. The hydrogen sulphide is toxic and must be removed almost

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completely. The specification for the natural gas in the distribution pipelines
allows a maximum of 0,002 g./Nm3 as H2S. Another reason to carry out the
sweetening, is that H2S is:corrosive when dissolved in aqueous fluids on
some metals. For carbon steel, in a similar way as CO2, but at a lower level,
has a particular type of attack referred to as Sulphide Stress Cracking,
(SSC) which is very harmful due to its material collapsing effects and
consequent sudden loss of containment toward the envronment.
Gas sweetening by absorption in an aqueous solution of amines is a
commonly used method in natural gas treatments. The aqueous solutions
most commonly used are:
- Monoethanolamine (MEA)

(CH2 CH2 OH) - NH2

- Diethanolamine (DEA)

(CH2 CH2 OH) 2 - NH

- Methyl-Diethanol-Amine (MDEA)

(CH2 CH2 OH)2 N - CH3

Some physical and chemical characteristics of these amines are listed in


the following Table 2.3. Besides absorbing hydrogen sulphide, they also
absorb carbon dioxide.
The absorption of H2S and CO2 occurs through the contact between the
amine solution and gas in the absorber tower.
The amine solutions have basic pH values and they reversibly react with
acids giving amine salts.

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Property

Monoethanolamine

Molecular weight
Specific gravity. (at
20C) kg/dm3
Vapour pressure (at
37.8C) mmHg
Boiling Point in C
at 760 mm Hg
Vaporisation heat in
Kcal/kg
Freezing point at C
Solubility at 20 C in %
of weight

61,08
1,0179

Diethanolamine Methyl Diethanol


amine
105,14
119.2
1,0919
1,041

1.05

0.058

0.0061

170
197.2

269
160

247
123.9

10,4
100

28
96,4

- 21,2
100

24,1

380

101

from 15 to 25

from 25 to 35

from 40 to 50

Absolute viscosity
At 20 C in cps
Solution concentration
usual range (wt %)

Table 2.3 - Physical and chemical properties of ethanolamines

Besides the absorption in alknolamine solutions, other methods can be


used to remove acid gas components from a gas stream; the possible
alternatives are as follows:

Absorbing by physical solvents, such as Selexol

Adsorbing in molecular sieve beds

Batch removal by means of non-regenerable agents, such as iron


oxide beds or equivalent

3 SURFACE WELL EQUIPMENT


3.1 WELLHEAD MANIFOLD

Before being transported to the treatment station through a gathering


network, the gas coming from the wells, is first treated in a unit located in
the well area itself, and defined as wellhead equipment.
Basic functions of these systems are:

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To separate via three-phase separators, gas, oil, water, if separate


transportation pipelines are foreseen or local disposal systems are
installed for water, e.g. injection wells or for hydrocarbon fluids, e.g.
burn pit or flares.

To separate and measure gas, oil and water produced by each well
by means of a Test Separator

Inject corrosion inhibitors, if fluids are corrosive for the pipelines

Inject hydrate inhibitor if the operating temperature along the pipeline


is expected to be in the region of hydrate formation
The temperature in the pipeline can be lower than that of the fluid at
the well-head due to the throttling through the choke valves used to
adjust the production flowrate.

As an alternative to the hydrate inhibitor injection, the wellhead


fluid, prior to flowing through the choke valve, can be heated to a
temperature that will allow the temperature decrease due to throttling
to a final temperature, i.e. safely outside of the hydrate region.

Part of the gas itself is often used as fuel gas for the heater and as
instrument gas.
Typical wellhead equipment arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.1.

The wellhead manifold usually consists of the following equipment items:


-

Test Separator;

Heaters;

Drain Trap and Exhaust flare;

Inhibitor injection pumps;

Choke valves

Automatic isolation valves

Control loops, safety valves;

Fuel Gas and instrument Gas Scrubber;

Gathering manifolds

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OKKIO

Figure 3.1 Wellhead manifold for sweet gas

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3.1.1 Separators

At well-head location, separators are often installed to separate, by gravity,


the two or three fluids, i.e. gas, liquid hydrocarbons and water which are
flowing, mixed together, from a well or a group of wells.
Since the separation mechanism depends on the force of gravity, the
separation of the fluids depends primarily on the difference of their densities
(or specific weights).
Water density is about 1000 kg/m3 and depends also on its salinity; the
density of a crude oil or hydrocarbon condensate can be in the range 850
down to 700 kg/m3, while the density of a gas is, in general, much lower:
For example, a gas consisting mainly of methane and at a pressure of 52
bar and 35 C is about 36 kg/m3
Separators usually have internals to improve the separation, such as:
Inlet deflectors or impingement plates
Inlet cyclones
Coalescing plates
Outlet gas demisters
Settling plates

Apart from the internals, there are two types of separators:


-

Horizontal separators;

Vertical separators;

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Horizontal separators

Horizontal separators are those where the fluids travel inside the vessel,
mainly along a horizontal path, while the separation of each couple of
phases, e.g. liquid from gas or liquid hydrocarbons from water, takes place
by gravity, i.e. vertically, and thus, perpendicularly to the average direction
of the fluids.
Usually, the horizontal separators are selected when large flow rates of gas
have to be treated.
For example, a horizontal separator, as shown in Fig. 3.2 has a higher
treatment capacity than a same diameter vertical separator, due to the
longer runs that can be obtained for the fluids in a horizontal separator with
respect to a vertical separator.
The two-shell separator, (Figures 3.3 and 3.4) have the upper shell
dedicated to the gas/liquid separation and this ensures a high gas capacity.

Figure 3.2 Horizontal separator

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Figure 3.3 Horizontal separator with two shells

Figure 3.4 Horizontal separator with two shells

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Vertical separators

This type of separator has definite advantages in the treatment of flows


containing mud and sand (Figs. 3.5 and 3.6).
The reason is that vertical separators allow a good drainage and an easy
bottom discharge.
With the vertical separators, a high efficiency can be obtained for those
designed as two-phase separators, while as three-phase separators, a high
separation efficiency can be reached usually only with a proprietary
arrangement and type of internals.
The vertical separators save plot space and, consequently, they are
normally selected for off-shore applications, where the area for installation
is limited.

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Fig. 3.5 Vertical separator

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Fig. 3.6 Vertical separator

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3.1.2 Heaters

Well-head heaters are usually indirect fire type, (see Fig. 3.7, 3.8)

Figure

Fig. 3.7 Heater

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Heat is transferred from a fire tube to an intermediate liquid, generally a


water-glycol mixture, to a coil where the well head fluid is heated whilst
flowing.
At the inlet of the fire tube , a fuel gas burner maintains the flame and the
hot flue gas flows along the duct and goes to atmosphere through the
chimney.
The temperature of the water bath is controlled to be not higher than 80 C
to reduce the vaporization losses.
The gas used as a fuel is normally taken from the feed gas stream,
upstream of the heater.
Two temperature control loops are provided to ensure, first, the supply of
fuel gas to the burner as required to maintain the temperature of the water
bath and the second to control the well fluid outlet temperature by adjusting
a control valve located on the heater by-pass line.

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1 -VARIABLE CHOKE 2 INLET


2 -AIR PACKING FOR VARIABLE CHOKE
3 -COIL
4 -FLANGE PORT OF CHOKE 2 1500
5 -FIXED CHOKE 2 1500
6 -COIL SUPPORT SECTORS
7 -SUPPORT
8 -HEATER CASE
9 SUPPORT LEVEL FOR COIL PACKING
10 -SKID
11 FIRE TUBE
12 FLUE GAS DUCT
13 -GAS BURNER

Figure 3.8 Heater

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3.1.3 Hydrate inhibitor injection

The use of inhibitors is a common practice adopted in gas fields. The


reasons are that the well fluids are almost always water saturated and at a
rather high pressure. Therefore the cooling due to the fluid throttling at the
wellhead choke valves and along the pipeline up to the oil or gas centre
make it necessary to check if any risk of hydrate formation is to be
considered.
And, very often, measures to avoid hydrates are to be taken.
Generally, inhibitors are used and the most commonly used inhibitors are:
ethylene glycol (EG), diethylene (DEG) (Fig. 3.9) and methanol (MeOH)
(Fig 3.10). These compounds are injected at the wellhead. At the end of the
pipeline, in the gas treating plant, the water phase with glycol is separated
and the glycol recovered by heating and vaporizing the associated water.
Then, the glycol is pumped back to the well-head clusters by means of
multi-stage centrifugal pumps.
At the well-head, glycol is injected in the well fluids usually by means of
reciprocating dosing pumps (Fig. 3.11).
Glycol is used in an aqueous solution with a concentration of 75 - 85% by
weight.
Another hydrate inhibitor often used is methanol.
The comparison between these two hydrate inhibitors is as follows:

Glycol advantages

It does not vaporise in gas, although it forms solution with water. As a


result, it can be recovered, regenerated and reintegrated.

Glycol disadvantages

Viscosity increases at low temperatures making injection difficult

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Methanol advantages

Is a better inhibitor than glycol

It is lighter and less viscous than glycol, it is consequently easier to


pump.

Methanol disadvantages

A considerable amount of methanol vaporises and remains in the


product gas. This represents a considerable loss,

The recovery of the methanol from the separated water is a costly


process.

Injection of inhibitions for internal corrosion in pipelines

Internal corrosion in carbon steel pipelines where wet and acidic gas-liquid
well head fluid are transported, is usually mitigated by injecting proper
corrosion inhibitors that can protect internal pipe walls in contact with liquid
as well as with a gas phase.
Anti-corrosion treatments include the use of surface active corrosion
inhibitors and the pH-stabilisation technique. Such technique is a corrosion
control method for wet gas pipelines based on the increase of the water
phase pH, forming a protective corrosion product layer. The liquid corrosion
inhibitor is designed for oil and gas.

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Fig. 3.9 Inhibitor flow (glycol)

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Fig. 3.10 Inhibitor flow (alcohol)

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Fig. 3.11 Reciprocating Pumps

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3.1.4 Drain Trap and Exhaust flare

The liquid drains from the wellhead equipment system, are usually sent to a
closed drain system.
The gas discharge streams for the well, e.g. from the PSVs, are usually
sent to a flare system.
The flare system and the hydrocarbon liquid disposal systems can be
combined in a burn system and provided with a collecting basin. These
systems, called also burn pit, are provided with permanently lit pilot flame,
which ensures the proper operation in case of liquid and/or gas discharge.

3.2 CONTROLS
3.2.1 Alarms and Shut-Down

The wellhead manifolds are normally provided, with automatic systems that
ensure safe operation of the plant equipment.
The manifold will therefore be provided with actuated shut-down valves
which are activated in case of:
-

High pressure;

Low pressure;

Fire;

Emergency.

The above mentioned valves are mainly of two kinds.


-

Emergency Shut-Down Valves (ESDV)

Blow-Down Valves (BDV)

Emergency Shut-Down Valves stop production and, generally require a


manual reset to be re-opened.

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Blow-down valves are normally closed and are automatically opened to


depressurize lines and equipment after shut-down for emergency cases
such as:
-

Fire

Loss of containment with gas leak

Manual activation upon operator decision about an emergency

The emergency event can activate the Emergency Shut-Down and the BDV
opening in automatic sequence, or the depressurisation can be on manual
activation only.
These valves must also be manually reset before re-starting.
The ESD interlocks are activated by specific instruments, either switches or,
most commonly nowadays, transmitters that detect process upsets and any
other abnormal conditions that require ESD.
-

In particular, fire events are detected by fusible plug loops.

3.2.2 Process value upsets

Abnormal values of process parameters such as pressure, temperature,


flowrate, liquid level are detected by means of dedicated transmitters that
are connected to the ESD System of the plant and often linked to act as
voting logics, e.g. one-out-of-two (1oo2) or two-out-of-three (2oo3).
The activations and the actions of the ESD system of a plant are defined in
the document called Cause & Effect Diagrams, which constitutes the basis
for the design of the ESD system.
Examples of such interlocks are:
- High high level in the suction drum to S/D the compressor
- High high pressure or low low pressure in the production pipeline to S/D

ESDV at well-head .
- Low low liquid level in a separator to S/D the pump that receives liquid

from this separator

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3.2.3 Fusible Plug Network-heat detection line

Fusible plug loops are pipe runs, made of metal tubing with a number of
melting plugs fitted on them or fusible plastic pipe, pressurized with air or
gas and installed on some equipment items where a fire is to be detected
and automatic actions taken.
The melting plugs can be specified for a certain temperature of intervention,
e.g. 85C, so that when one or more plugs melt at this temperature, the
consequent depressurisation of the loop will activate S/D actions and, also,
activate firefighting measures such as the opening of deluge valves to spray
water on the concerned machines or tanks to ensure cooling.

3.2.4 Emergency

For other emergencies, ESD push-buttons are located in various points of


the plant in order to trigger the ESD with or without the emergency
depressurisation.
The causes for a manual ESD are, for example, a massive gas leak or a fire
in one of the areas not protected by the fusible plug system.
A special emergency valve (SSSV,: subsurface safety valve) is located at
each well-head downhole inside the production tubing.. This valve is kept
open by means of a hydraulic line pressurised from the well-head control
panel via a pumping system. In case of an emergency Shut-down of the
well , the hydraulic line is depressurised back to the well-head control panel
tank and the SSSV closes under the spring action (fail closed valve).and
stops the gas flow towards the surface.
3.2.5 Safety Valves

To ensure that the design pressure is not exceeded, besides the S/D
instrumentation described earlier, equipment and lines are in general
protected by pressure safety relief valves (PSV). The PSV are considered
the primary overpressure protection of equipment and lines and design has
to provide them in almost all cases, assuming that all other ESD protecting
instrumentation do not exist or have failed.

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Only few exceptions are allowed to this design general criterion: one case is
when a so called HIPS (High Integrity Protecting System) is installed. The
HIPSs are subject to extremely severe design constraints as their reliability
must be proved not lower than that of a PSV system.
A particular type of PSV is referred to as Thermal-Safety-Valve (TSV) that
are installed to protect portion of lines or pieces of equipment which are full
of liquid phase and in case of full isolation, could be over-pressurised due to
the heating up to the ambient temperature, including the solar temperature.

4 COLLECTION AND TREATMENT CENTRE


4.1 GAS GATHERING

After its initial wellhead treatment, the gas is flowing into the gathering
network up to the oil or gas plant
The gathering system should be designed taking into consideration the
following objectives:
-

determine and optimise the pipe-lines layout and size ;

determine the most appropriate materials on the basis of technicaleconomical studies;

ensure the

application of the project safety and general technical

specifications.
-

protect pipelines from corrosion.

The connections to the gas or oil plant can be built according to the
following possible configurations:
-

Individual connection;

Branch structure connection;

Integrated structure connection;

Star structure connection.

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Individual connection

Each well is individually connected to the treatment centre (Fig. 4.1)


ADVANTAGES: Immediate identification of the operating wells directly from
the centre.
Distribution parameter control takes place directly from the centre. Easy
isolation for planned maintenance or emergency situations.
DISADVANTAGES: Elevated installation costs especially in case of large
field and/or high number of operating wells.

Fig. 4.1 Individual connection

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Branch structure connection

The individual flow-lines from each well join a single header of proper size.
(Fig. 4.2)
ADVANTAGES: Restricted expenses on large production fields with a high
number of wells, where the treatment station is at a noticeable distance.
DISADVANTAGES: The entire network must be almost completed before
starting the exploitation.
-

The header capacity must be calculated using estimate data and is


therefore liable to errors.

The entire production can be polluted by one well (H2O H2S CO2).

The distribution line needs to be frequently verified with consequent


increasing of operating costs.

Integrated structure connection

This type of network connects various reservoirs to a first collection centre


where gas is initially treated and then sent to the main treatment centre
through a secondary structure linking all the collection centres and the main
centre to each other (Fig. 4.3).
This is the most complex solution, it has high operating costs but allows a
greater exploitation of the field, even though it is more suitable for the
exploitation of oil fields.

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Star structure connection

This is the typical offshore platform type of connection. The gas sources are
concentrated on a few multi-well platforms while the final platform is located
at the node of a star-like structure (Fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.2 Branch structure connection

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Fig. 4.3 Integrated structure connection

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Fig. 4.4 Star structure connection

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4.2 INLET MANIFOLD

An Inlet Manifold, is the system of headers that receives all the flow lines
and pipelines from the production wells and, by means of a number of
automatic or manual valves, can distribute the incoming fluids between the
treating trains of the oil or gas plants.
As shown in Fig. 4.5 ,a series of automatic and manual valves are used to
feed a horizontal separator that, in most cases is a Slug Catcher type.
Moreover, various lines make it possible to maintain the slug-catcher
without stopping production, or to insert the PIG receiving barrel at the
cleaning stage of the lines.
The manifold is also equipped with high and low pressure switches or
transmitters that have the function of safeguarding the downstream plants
from operating

pressures either too high or too low. Their intervention

causes a shut down of the central process plant and, consequently, the
closure of the valves at the entrance of the plant and those at the outlet of
the central process plant.

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Fig. 4.5 Inlet manifold. Conceptual flow sheet

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4.3. SEPARATION UNIT

The first process unit where the well fluids enter downstream of the inlet
manifold is the slug-catcher. Usually, it is a double-shell type. This enables
the accumulation of large amounts of liquid, as can occur during the
pigging operation. The liquids can be heavy hydrocarbons (gasoline),
water, possibly with glycol. The liquid is flowing along the pipelines, but,
usually, at different velocities from gas phase depending on the line slope
and principally on the operating case and the turn-down capacity, so that
the liquid hold-up in the lines is variable.

Dew Point meters

At the outlet of the treating plant , the assessment of the product gas dew
point, that could be with regard to water or hydrocarbons is important to
confirm that the sales gas meets the specified requirements and, also, that
the treating plant has fulfilled its duty properly.
The measurement of the dew point temperature can be made using one of
the two portable instruments described below.

Gas dew point definition

By definition the dew point of a gas is the saturation temperature at which,


under a defined pressure, certain components such as water or gasoline
start condensing , i.e. the first droplet is formed.

Functioning scheme of the dew point tester

A small stream of gas is made flow through a cell (Fig. 4.6). This gas is
gradually cooled by an external refrigerating source (for example by the
expansion of liquid propane).
Through a pressure-resistant glass, it is possible to see in the cell some
droplets of condensed water due to the cooling. When the small droplets
appear, the gas temperature is read. This temperature is the dew point.
The isolation valve A is normally left open during the operation, whereas the
flow of the gas through the instrument is regulated via the valve D; Gas

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entering A is directed to a nozzle B against a metallic mirror C, which was


previously cleaned and polished, thus it can go out of the cell through valve
D.
The observation window is shown by E, the Mirror C is in contact with the
thermo-well I. The latter is strictly connected with a tube of copper F whose
edge is contained, outside the cell, in the copper bottle G.
In this cooling bottle, liquid evaporating propane enters in J, .then cools
tube F and, as a consequence, mirror C at the temperature indicated by
thermometer K.
The propane that is in G, comes out from H; the tube of copper F is
thermally insulated.
For special determinations of very low dew points , instead of propane,
liquid carbon dioxide or, in particular cases, liquid air is evaporated in bottle
G. Regulating the flow of the cooling liquid with valve J, a gradual mirror
temperature decrease can be reached. The reading of the temperature is
carried out when a deposit of condensation is formed on the mirror. This
gives the dew point for the pressure indicated by the manometer.
It is a good practice, in order to have quite reliable dew points, to follow
these precautions:
a) the small tube of copper that connects the equipment with the gas
collection point has to be as small as possible in order to hinder
anticipated condensation due to the influence of the external
temperature.
b) In order to have an exact gas dew point it is necessary to repeat the
test a couple of times.
c) It is common, before repeating the test, careful cleaning of the metal
mirror. In particular to clean the small tube of copper of possible
condensates and impurities.

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Fig. 4.6 Dew point tester

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Another Dew-point meter is the Dew Scope tester, (Fig. 4.7).


The temperature of a cooled mirror in the gas cell is measured with a
sensitive electric thermometer and it is indicated directly on the scale of the
(temperature) instrument. An incorporated blinking lamp with 2 standard
batteries of D dimension illuminates the cooled mirror seen through the Dew
Scope optical system with 12 magnifications. The temperature is indicated,
so that the operator can simultaneously record and fix the temperature at
which the dew point is observed. The range of the temperature scale goes
from -50 C to 40 C. With the Dew Scope it is possible to use any type of
refrigerant. The nominal pressure of the gas cell of the Dew Scope is 200
bar; nonetheless, it is normally equipped with a lower range pressure gauge
in order to improve the reading precision. The Dew Scope is provided with a
pressure gauge with the desired pressure, range, batteries, and a quick
connection sleeve for rapid connection for the refrigerant feed

Figure 4.7 Dew scope tester

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Gas Analyzer

The in-line Dew point analyser, differently from the previous portable ones
is a control system which is always in operation.
This instrument can record the dew point of various lines on a real time
basis.
The primary element is a condenser whose walls are one in pure
aluminium, the other in gold. Inside the above-mentioned walls a layer of
aluminium oxide is used as dielectric.
Since this dielectric is highly hydroscopic, higher or lower absorption of
water determines a variation of the capacity characteristics of the
condenser.
These

capacity

variations

are

recorded

and

transformed

by

the

microprocessor in temperature, that is the temperature at which


condensation of vapours takes place at those pressure conditions of gas
(dew point).
Another type of gas analyser is that mounted on the outlet of a sweetening
plant, which carries out an analysis of a sample of gas determining its H2S
content.
These types of analysers can be integrated in the ESD system, to give S/D
of the plant in case of H2S content in the treated gas exceeds

the

maximum limit of 0,002 g/m3.

Operation

As far as the operations to carry out on the inlet manifold are concerned, it
must be kept in mind that by-pass operations of the separator must be
carried out without stopping production.
In this case, it must be kept in mind, that, before operating the by-pass
valves and after having checked that the valves themselves are open, it is
possible to operate the isolation valves of the slug catcher .
If it does not function properly, it could cause a shut-down of the process
plant due to high pressure.

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When the slug catcher has to be put on-line, the first valve to be opened is
the inlet SOV, followed by the closing of the by-pass valve.
The controls to be carried out on the slug catcher are irrelevant to the
pressure and temperature of inlet gas and to the flow rate of the liquids
separated .
Moreover, concentration and salinity of these liquids has to be verified. Both
data are useful for the good operation of the glycol regenerators installed in
the plant. It has been observed that a high content of inlet water reduces
the final glycol concentration that can be achieved, whereas a high content
of salt causes greater deposits in the re-boiler making the capacity of
thermal exchange worse.

4.4 TREATMENT CENTRE

The treating plant is located at the end of the pipelines which have collected
the gas and condensate produced from the wells.
The typical gas treatments are as follows:

Structure

The centre has a specific design structure, starting from the layout that
should be, when possible, barycentric to the reservoir.
Inside the boundary fence that limits the area, the gas treatment units are
generally:
- gas dehydration
- gas sweetening
- gas compression processes

In addition, the gas plant includes the facilities for the regeneration of the
fluids used for the primary feed gas and auxiliaries facilities for disposing of
the waste fluids.
Furthermore, the flow rate of the product gas must be measured before
being delivered to the users and it must be checked to ensure its
compliance with the required specifications.

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Certain structures known as MEASURING ROOMS are used for this


purpose. They are equipped with fiscal instruments for high precision
measurements of the gas pressure and temperatures, dew point analysers
and H2S analysers.
A whole set of these compliance tests is performed on each single
treatment line in order to instantly identify which of the lines is not properly
working and to make the operators intervention easier.
The gas plant is divided into areas based on the type of equipment
installed. The firing area will be where there are heaters, regenerators,
incinerators and all those plants that use free flames.
In the same way there will be an area dedicated to the storage tanks, and,
at a certain distance, exclusively based on safety regulations, from the other
areas, a place to locate the various treatment plants.
4.5 GAS FLOW METERING

In

general,

fiscal

metering

for

gases

uses

differential

pressure

measurements across orifice plates or Venturi, or ultrasonic flow meters.


The use of gas turbine meters is limited to high turn down ratio
requirements, which cannot be met by differential pressure methods, and
where the application of ultrasonic flow meters is not economically justified.

The following table 4.1 lists advantages and disadvantages of each method
of measurement:

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Orifice Plate
2 inches to 40
inches
(there is no reliable
data for sizes >40
inches)
+/- 2%

Gas Turbine
Meter
2 inches to 12
inches

Ultrasonic Flowmeter
6 inches to 36
inches

+/- 1%

+/- 1%

3:1

10:1

>20:1

Expensive for
larger pipe
diameters,
especially with
orifice carrier
assemblies.
Require regular
calibration and
validation on site.

Expensive for
larger pipe
diameters.

Lower costs for


larger pipe
diameters.

Requires proving
with a master
meter.

Metering Standards

ISO 5167

ISO 9951/AGA 7

Acceptability to
Kazakh Regulations

ISO standard

ISO standard

Extensive selfdiagnostics. Dry


calibration possible
on site. Wet
calibration requires
removal and
transportation to
accredited testing
facilities.
AGA-9/ISO TR
12765.
AGA standard may
not be adopted in
Kazakhstan. (Hold)

Meter Sizes

Total Meter
Uncertainty
Basic Turn Down
ratio
Cost

Maintenance and
Calibration

Table 4.1 Comparison of Fiscal/Allocation measurement techniques for Gas flows

All fiscal metering systems shall communicate with the main control
systems. All process and calculated values, status and alarms shall be
available for operator at the central control point(s) through communications
links to the control systems.

Flow stations are normally placed in locations taking into consideration the
following factors:
- Availability of space for straight length meter runs (for offshore

locations)

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- Accessibility for maintenance and calibration purposes


- The party responsible for operating and maintaining flow stations and

metering systems. Generally, the flow stations and meter runs are
under the responsibility of the Seller. The Seller is responsible also for
the accuracy and punctuality of billing documents. The flow stations are
generally located on Sellers premises, just after the take off point of the
products sold, for ease of access to the Flow Stations.
- In case of custody transfer of products, there must be an agreement

between the parties as to rights and responsibilities of each party as far


as operations and inspections of the Flow Stations are concerned.
Flow metering/measuring stations for onshore and offshore plants are
located in the following areas:

OFFSHORE
Type
Location of

Measurement

Duty

Metering

Requirement

Technique

Well Test

Wellhead Island

Operational

Multi-phase

Purge Gas

Process Barge

Operational

Variable Area or Orifice


Insertion

Total Flare Gas

Process Barge

Operational

Ultra-sonic

Utility Barge

Operational

Orifice

RGI Barge

Operational

Orifice or Clamp-on Ultrasonic

Wellhead Island

Operational

Orifice or Clamp-on Ultrasonic

Process/
Fuel Gas from Shore
Raw Gas Compressors
Discharge
Injection Gas to
Individual Injection
Well
Gas Export to Main
Processing Plant/
Shore

Orifice or
Process Barge

Allocation

Ultrasonic

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ONSHORE
Type
Location of
Measurement
Duty
Technique
Metering
Requirement
Onshore Process
Gas Export
Operational
Orifice or Ultrasonic
Facilities
Defined By The
Gas Sales
Fiscal
Orifice or Ultrasonic
Parties
LPG Sales/Tanker
LPG Export
Fiscal
Coriolis
Loading Facilities
Onshore Process
Total Flare Gas
Operational
Ultrasonic
Facilities
Onshore Process
Purge /Stripping Gas
Operational
Variable Area or Orifice
Facilities
Upstream of off-take
Fuel Gas from 3rd Party to Early
to Construction
Works Camp & Onshore Facilities
Camp
Fiscal
Orifice or Ultrasonic
Utilities/Process
Consumed Fuel Gas
Facilities
Operational
Orifice
Fuel Gas from Onshore Facilities to
Onshore Process
Offshore Facilities
Facilities
Operational
Orifice or Ultrasonic
Fuel Gas Generated Internally
Fuel Gas Skid
Operational
Orifice or Gas Turbine
Water Import
KTO Water pipeline
Fiscal
Turbine
Water Treatment
Processed and Disposed Water
Operational Orifice, Magnetic + Others
Facilities

Fig. 4.8 Orifice Plate

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Fig. 4.9 Annuabars and Pitot Tubes

Fig. 4.10 Coriolis mass flow meter

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Fig. 4.11 Turbine meter

Fig. 4.12 Ultrasonic flow meter

Fig. 4.13 Ultrasonic flow meter

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