BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

CONTEXTUAL OUTLINE:
Because all living things have a finite life span, the survival of each species depends
on the ability of individual organisms to reproduce. The continuity of life is assured
when the chemical information that defines it is passed on from one generation to the
next on the chromosomes.
Modern molecular biology is providing opportunities to alter the information
transferred from one generation to the next in technologies such as cloning and in the
production of transgenic species.
The segregation and independent assortment of the genetic information within a
species provides the variation necessary to produce some individuals with
characteristics that better suit them to surviving and reproducing in their environment.
Changes in the environment may act on these variations. The identification of
mutations and their causes becomes important in preventing mutations and in
identifying and potentially nullifying the effects of mutations in living organisms.
Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of:

changes in physical conditions in the environment

changes in chemical conditions in the environment

- competition for resources
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- What is the question asking?
- Underline key words
There have been many factors that have impacted on the evolution of plants and
animals. The following are some impacts that have altered the evolution of plants and
animals:
Changes in chemical conditions in the environment:
Life has been evolving for millions of years. Early earth was an anoxic environment
which meant there was no free oxygen. The organisms during the anoxic period
metabolised simple organic molecules. A product of this was carbon dioxide.
Eventually the build up of carbon dioxide led to the evolution of photosynthetic
organisms (plants) that metabolised the carbon dioxide to produce energy and oxygen.
This in turn led to the environment changing from anoxic to oxic. This in turn also
meant that plants started to evolve according to the environment as well as animals.
As more and more plants evolved many more animals evolved due to the food chain.
Other reasons as to how plants/animals evolve:
DDT
Antibiotics
Changes in physical conditions in the environment:
The Earths conditions are constantly changing. Due to these changes organisms are
constantly evolving. The following are some reasons as to why organisms have
evolved:

 Sea levels
Land formations (fossil evidence)
Meteorite which formed a dust cloud changed the environment (theory)
Continental drift
Volcanoes (similar effect as the meteorite)
The above reasons illustrate that organisms must have evolved according to the
conditions they faced at the time. Fossil evidence has shown many changes which
indicate a change in the environment. One key Australian example is the evolution of
the eucalypt. Australia was once covered by lush beech forest. As Australias climate
changed so to did its vegetation. The soils became drier and the rainfall dropped. This
in turn led to the evolution of the eucalypt.
Therefore it is evident that changes in the physical environment have led to the
evolution of plants and animals.
Competition for resources:
Competition for resources usually results in the extinction of a species or a species
occupying another niche. There have been many cases whereby competition for
resources has led to the evolution of another species. One Australian example is the
flycatcher. Due to this species having the same diet there has been diversification of
the species. A whole new species has evolved to occupy a different niche. The leaden
flycatcher catches its prey around trees while the restless flycatcher catches its prey
just above the ground by emitting a call that disturbs the insects. This example shows
that if the flycatcher had not evolved, occupying a separate niche, there would have
been competition for resources and in turn the species may have become extinct.
Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the
following areas of study:

palaeontology, including fossils that have been considered as

transitional forms

biogeography

comparative embryology

comparative anatomy
- biochemistry
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Underline key words
- How would you go about answering this question
Outlined below are specific examples which support the theory of evolution:
Palaeontology, including fossils that have been considered as transitional forms:
Palaeontology, the study of fossils is a specific example that accounts for the theory of
evolution. Fossils are formed under strict circumstances and include such traces as
bones, teeth, footprints and faeces. There are many reasons as to why fossils aid in the
theory of evolution. Firstly fossils can be compared structurally. This can lead to
evolutionary relationships and explain an evolutionary pathway. Secondly through
carbon dating fossils can be dated as to when they formed/existed. Knowing how old
a fossil can determine evolutionary relationships. Thirdly knowing the type of rock
the fossil formed in can indicate the time the fossil was formed. Comparing this fossil

to another fossil found in the same rock helps scientists make comparisons between
the two fossils. Fourthly transitional fossils support the theory of evolution.
Archaeopteryx is a transitional fossil that illustrates the relationship between
dinosaurs, reptiles and birds. The lobe fin fish is a transitional fossil that illustrates
the evolutionary pathway of fish to amphibians.
Therefore from the above evidence palaeontology supports the theory of evolution as
it illustrates evolutionary relationships between organisms.
Biogeography:
Biogeography supports the theory of evolution in many ways. Firstly Darwin and
Wallace, through their studies identified that there were striking similarities between
current organisms from differing countries. (As well as fossils.) This eventually led to
the fact that continental drift affected evolution. This is supported by:
Pincushion coneflower (South Africa) VS Holly Leaved Banksia (Australia)
Opossum in South America and its closest relative in Australia.
The above evidence suggests that these landforms were previously much closer
together. Over time these continents drifted apart causing the organisms of that
continent to evolve according to its environment.
Comparative embryology:
Comparative embryology supports the theory of evolution. The embryos of the fish,
salamander, tortoise, chicken, pig, rabbit and human are all very similar in embryonic
stage. These organisms then evolve with each structure having a different specialised
function, supporting the theory of evolution.
Comparative anatomy:
Comparative anatomy supports the theory of evolution in a number of ways. It is
evident that the fore limb also known as the pentadactyl limb supports the theory of
evolution. The limb has a similar structure in many organisms; however the organism
has evolved to use that limb for a specialised function such as swimming or flying.
Biochemistry:
Biochemistry supports the theory of evolution including evolutionary relationships
and evolutionary pathways. Virtually all organisms use cytochrome C, a protein, for
energy. Through studies of this protein scientists can compare the similarity between
organisms. A change in DNA leads to a different amino acid sequence which in turn
produces a different organism. The study of biochemistry therefore supports the
theory of evolution.
Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- What is natural selection?
- What is isolation?
- What does account mean?
Background info:
NATURAL SELECTION: is the process by which an organism will adapt to its
environment due to natural pressures such as the environment or competition. This
leads to desirable characteristics being passed on from one generation to the next.
Also known as survival of the fittest. E.G. Peppered moths in England.

ISOLATION: is the process by which a group of organisms is isolated from the

original species. This new group usually undergoes natural pressures such as
environmental change. This leads to mutation and natural selection which in turn
produces a new species. E.G. The apple maggot fly and the Hawthorn maggot fly.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION: the process by which an organism adapts to its niche
over millions of years.
Darwin and Wallaces theory of natural selection and isolation accounts for divergent
evolution. For example when a species is occupying a certain environment it will be
exposed to those environmental pressures. This organism will adapt and continue to
evolve over thousands and millions of years, according to these environmental
pressures, (natural selection.) However this same species may become separated or
isolated due to flood waters, mountain ranges or even deserts, (isolation.) This then
means this organism, due to its new environmental pressures evolves according to its
new niche, (natural selection.) Evolution of this species continues to occur until the
species become two separate species and are no longer able to reproduce with one
another. This is known as divergent evolution. (A species diverges from its original
species.)
Darwin and Wallaces theory of natural selection and isolation accounts for
convergent evolution. Convergent evolution is the process by which organisms with
different ancestors have acquired the same characteristics according to the similarity
of their niche.
Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an
environmental change can lead to changes in a species.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- Underline key words
- Ensure you use an example to show how environmental change can lead to changes
in the species. E.G. Red kangaroo
A chief example of an environmental change that lead to a change in a species were the
peppered moths in England. Peppered moths are either pale in colour or dark in colour. In
an unpolluted area the pale moths are well camouflaged by the lichen on the surrounding
trees, while the darker moths are much easier to see. The birds within the ecosystem prey
on the darker moths as they are much easier to see. This then equates to the paler moths
occupying the ecosystem and passing on the desirable characteristic of the pale colour.
However due to an environmental change the darker moths have flourished. Due to
industrial pollution the trees within the area have darkened in colour. Consequently the
darker moths have greater camouflage compared to that of the paler moth. This in turn
means that paler moths are picked off by the bird population; therefore the darker moths
through years of natural selection have a higher survival rate in a polluted area.

TREE COVERED IN LICHEN. (CAN YOU SEE THE PALER MOTH)

TREE AFFECTED BY POLLUTION. NOTE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

THE TWO PICTURES.

Perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources

(including photographs/ diagrams/models) to observe, analyse and compare the
structure of a range of vertebrate forelimbs.
Things to consider:
- What does observe, analyse and compare mean?
- Ensure you include diagrams in your research.
ORGANISM STRUCTURE/FUNCTION
Crocodile
The crocodile has a short structured
forelimb which contains five digits, a
humorous, ulna and radius. The
forelimb is quite compact with the ulna
and radius packed tight together while
the humorous is short and quite dense.
The angle of the forelimb suggests that
the crocodile uses this limb for pushing
off, wading in water and walking on
land.
Human
The human forelimb is long in
structure. It contains five digits, a
humorous, ulna and radius. The
humorous is the largest bone. It is thin
and long in nature. The ulna and radius
are similar in size and structure; they
connect to the carpals and phalanges.
The human forelimb has many
functions including balance.
Bird

The birds forelimb contains a

humorous, ulna, radius and three digits.
The bones are at different angles
suggesting that at rest the forelimb
folds up. The density of the humorous,
ulna and radius are quite similar. The
function of the birds forelimb is mainly
for flying.

PICTURE

Bat

The bats forelimb is thin in structure

and contains a small humorous, thin
ulna, thin radius and five long digits.
The angle of the bones suggests that the
limb folds up when not in use. The
bones are quite thin suggesting that the
creature is small and light. The main
function of this limb is for flying.

Whale

The Whales forelimb is very dense in

structure. It contains a large square
humorous, an ulna, a radius and five
digits. Due to the structure of the
whales forelimb it appears that the
whole limb moves as one. Therefore it
is apparent that the main use of the
whales forelimb is for swimming.

Frog

The frogs forelimb contains a

humorous, ulna and radius. The
humorous is long and thin in structure
while the ulna and radius are short and
thin in structure. The five digits are
long and thin in structure. The function
of the forelimb is for balance and to
some degree pushing off the ground.

Use available evidence to analyse, using a named example, how advances in

technology have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- Ensure you use an example to explain your answer
- Relate your example to evolutionary relationships
One example of an advance in technology that has changed scientific thinking about
evolutionary relationships is DNA hybridization. DNA hybridization is used to
identify the similarities between two different organisms by comparing their DNA.
The process of DNA hybridization is outlined below.
2 strands of DNA are collected. One from one species the other from another
species.
These 2 strands are heated which causes the strands to separate.
One strand from each organism is then combined to form a hybrid. Not all of
the bases in each sequence will match up.
Pairing of the DNA strands depends on the similarities of the organisms being
compared. Organisms are said to have come from a recent ancestor if their
sequence is highly similar. Conversely if the sequence has a low degree of
pairing the organisms are said to unalike.
DNA hybridization has changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships as
it directly enables scientists to compare organisms genetically. This process allows
scientists to determine whether a species recently diverged from a common ancestor
or diverged from a common ancestor a very long time ago. Therefore it is evident that
this advance in technology has changed thinking about evolutionary relationships.
Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories
of evolution and use available evidence to assess social and political influences on
these developments.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse and assess mean?
- Underline key words
- Be succinct
HISTORY:
The main constituents of evolutionary theory were Darwin and Wallace. Darwin, a
naturalist is recognised mostly for his work in South America. Darwin sailed to the
Galapagos Islands in the 1830s on his ship called the beagle to observe the local flora
and fauna. What he discovered was the beginning of his theory on natural selection. In
Darwins observations he noticed that depending on the island and the habitat certain
finches, from a common ancestor, portrayed different physical characteristics. The
main characteristic Darwin concentrated was the shape of the finchs beak. He noticed
that the finches had acquired a certain shaped beak according to their niche. Darwin
concluded that:
All these finches came from a common ancestor.
The finches then occupied individual niches.
These niches had an abundance of food.

Over time the finchs evolved a beak according to the food they ate.
Darwin concluded by calling his theory, The Theory of Natural Selection.

At the time of Darwins research another scientist by the name of Wallace was
completing similar research in Indonesia. In Indonesia it has been documented that
Wallace collected 125 660 species, producing over one thousand new species to
science. Through his research he was coming to similar conclusions to that of Darwin.
He sent his research and documentation to Darwin, who in turn subsequently
produced the book The Origin of Species.
Darwin and Wallace have both been attributed with the theory of natural selection.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE:
Darwins book caused uproar among certain English social and political groups.
People could not believe in the theory of evolution because at that time it seemed
completely impossible and a threat to religious, social and political beliefs.
However through further scientific research and support the theory of natural
selection has become more accepted in social and political groups. This is evident in
the 1860s where groups borrowed the ideas of Charles Darwin and transferred them
to the social domain. They proposed that societies could evolve just like plants or
animals. This view was known as social Darwinism and was proposed by Herbert
Spencer. This theory rose to prominence in the late 19th and early 20th century. Spencer
suggested that life was a struggle an only the people who were the fittest would
survive (not documented). This directly had an impact on social and political
influences.
Social Darwinism is outlined below:
Struggling for existence within society was part of evolution.
This meant only the fittest members of society would survive.
Weakest members would fail.
State Reforms were said to interfere with evolution. (Welfare)
Social classes were natural.
Also influenced political groups. The stronger/fitter groups would run the
nation. Governing over the weaker.
War was a positive as it was seen to eliminate the weakest.
Subsequently through common sense biological evolution no longer is applied to
social groups. E.G. poverty can not be attributed to laziness.
Therefore it is evident that Darwins/Wallace theory of natural selection did have an
impact on social and political groups.

Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to model

natural selection.
Things to consider:
- What does plan mean?
- Underline key words?
- Ensure your experiment models natural selection.
AIM:
To use coloured tooth picks to models natural selection.
MATERIALS:
20 Green tooth picks
20 red tooth picks
METHOD:
1. Mark out an area of approximately 1M x 1M on the school oval.
2. Group member 1 is to place the tooth picks within the marked out area while
the group member 2 is looking away.
3. Group member 1 then instructs group member 2 to turn around and collect as
many tooth picks as possible over 10 seconds. Group members are then to
record their result in their results table.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 five times.
RESULTS:
TRIAL
NO. OF GREEN
NO. OF RED TOOTH
TOOTH PICKS
PICKS
1
2
3
4
5
QUESTIONS:
1. Identify any control(s) you used in this experiment.
The controls we used in this experiment were;
- The amount of tooth picks (20)
- The area in which we dropped the tooth picks
- The time allocated to picking up the tooth picks
2. Identify the independent variable(s) of this experiment.
The independent variable of this experiment was the colour of the toothpicks.
3. Identify the dependent variable(s) of this experiment.
The dependent variable of this experiment is the amount of tooth picks that are
picked up.
4. How does this experiment model natural selection?
The purpose of this experiment was to model natural selection. The green tooth
picks were to blend in with the natural surroundings that being the grass while the
red tooth picks were meant to stand out. This example in an ecosystem would

mean that the red tooth picks would be easier to see therefore easier to pick off,
by a predator. This experiment also relates to the peppered moths in England.
Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Be succinct
Gregor Mendel was one of the first scientists to research and develop ideas about
genetics and the passing on of genes from one generation to the next. He performed
many experiments which supported his research. One of these experiments involved
crossing two pea plants. Mendel crossed a homologous tall pea plant with a
homologous short pea plant. These parents produced all tall offspring. He called this
generation the F1 generation, F meaning filial (son). Mendel then interbred all of the
first generation. The first generation then produced a range of tall and short plants in
the ratio of 3:1. (Generation 2 F2) The experiment performed by Mendel was accurate,
valid and reliable because he used pure breeding plants and he yielded large results.
He produced over 400 plants as part of generation 2 and still managed to have a ratio
of 3 to 1. (REFER to Fig 6.4.1 pg 303)
Other outcomes of Mendels experiments:
The law of segregation- Mendel established that all organisms carry factors (genes).
These factors control characteristics. These factors at the point of reproduction
separate. They then pair up with another factor. The dominant factor will be
expressed.
The law of independent assortment- This law basically states that chromosomes
separate independently of one another and are arranged in the gamete independently
of one another.

Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to his
success.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Underline key words
- Understand what the question is asking before you answer the question.
There are five main points that led to Mendels success. They are:
- He studied a large number of characteristics. Concentrating on one
characteristic would have been an arduous task. Broadening the field for
certain characteristics enabled Mendel to produce a larger set of results.
- He carried out a large number of crosses. Mendel completed a large number of
crosses which in turn yielded more plants. This large result would have made
his research and conclusions more accurate and reliable as he repeated the
process and obtained similar if not precise results over and over.
- He used pure breeding lines. This enabled Mendel to concentrate on certain
characteristics. Pure breeds are homozygous which means they carry two
identical genes either being recessive or dominant. Pure breeding plants also
enabled Mendel to obtain reliable and accurate results.
- He made exact counts of characteristics. Exact counts of characteristics
produced quantitative data which enabled Mendel to analyse and make
conclusions about his results.
- Mendel studied separate identifiable characteristics. This enabled Mendel to
concentrate on characteristics which could be seen and easily documented.
Ultimately the stringent criteria that Mendel followed led to the discovery of genetics.

Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognised until
some time after it was published.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Underline key words
- Use scientific language
There are many reasons as to why Mendels work was not recognised until some time
after it was published. Firstly he only presented his work to a small group of
scientists. These scientists may not have understood his research as it was a new
concept or they understood his work but did not realise the significance of it.
Secondly Mendel was not a famous scientist. He was an Austrian monk who worked
in a small team within his monastery. He worked quietly with his team and then
produced and published his results from obscurity. This may have been one reason as
why his work was not received with open arms.
Biological research began to evolve in the 1900s where Mendels work became
recognised. Subsequently through his research Mendel became known as the father of
genetics.
Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using
Mendels explanations.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- What is a monohybrid cross?
- Ensure you include Mendels explanations in your answer.
Monohybrid crosses are crosses which involve only one specific characteristic. These
characteristics could include eye colour, hair colour or in Mendels case the height of
pea plants. When performing a monohybrid cross we need to obtain certain
information. Information necessary to produce a cross includes whether or not the
cross is between homozygous or heterozygous pairs and whether or not the
characteristic is dominant or recessive. For example Mendel crossed a homozygous
tall pea plant (TT) with a homozygous short pea plant (tt). We know that the tall gene
is the dominant gene because the first generation of plants were all tall. Some of the
first generation, although all tall, would have been carrying a short gene. This in turn
was shown in the second generation whereby the short gene was expressed in the ratio
of 3 tall plants to 1 short plant. Through simple monohybrid crosses scientists are able
to determine the dominance of a gene as well as hypothesise what the outcome could
be between certain crosses involving certain characteristics.

Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid crosses.

Things to consider:
- What does distinguish mean?
- Underline key words
- Best way to represent this information?

HOMOZYGOUS
Homozygous genotypes are pure
bred for that specific
characteristic.
Homozygous alleles are either
both dominant and recessive.
Dominant homozygous alleles are
always expressed as capital
letters. E.G. AA.
Recessive homozygous alleles are
always expressed as lower case
letters. E.G. aa.
The letters used to illustrate the
specific characteristic are known
as the genotypes.

HETEROZYGOUS
Heterozygous genotypes contain
different alleles that express
different characteristics.
Heterozygous alleles always
contain a dominant gene and a
recessive gene.
Heterozygous alleles are always
expressed as a capital and then a
lower case letter. E.G. Aa.
The letters used to illustrate the
specific characteristic are known
as the genotypes.

Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples.

Things to consider:
- What does distinguish mean?
- Ensure you use examples in your answer

ALLELE
Alleles are pairs of genes situated
in the same location on a
homologous pair of
chromosomes.
Alleles contain information for
the same characteristic but not
necessarily the same information.
For example the allele will be for
hair colour. One allele could
specify for brown hair while the
other allele could specify for
blonde hair.

GENE
Genes are found on all
chromosomes.
Each gene can be represented as a
band on a chromosome.
In a double stranded chromosome
each gene is represented twice as
indicated below.
Genes code for certain
characteristics. For example
certain genes according to their
chemical make up code for hair
colour or eye colour.

Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using
examples.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words
- Be succinct
When considering phenotypes we need to keep in mind whether or not certain alleles
are dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles dominate over other alleles and are
always expressed. When expressing dominance in a cross the letter is always written
as a capital. Recessive alleles are rarely expressed in an offspring. The only occasion
when recessive alleles are expressed is when there is an absence of a dominant gene.
Dominant and recessive alleles can be linked to the phenotype of an offspring. The
phenotype of the offspring is the actual physical characteristic that is being expressed.
For example a dominant black haired person (BB) produces offspring with a recessive
blonde hair person (bb).
B
B
b Bb Bb
b Bb Bb
As indicated by the punnet square above 100% of the offspring will have the
phenotype of black hair. This is represented by all the alleles containing a capital B
(dominant) and a lower case b (recessive).

Perform an investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees, trace the inheritance

of selected characteristics and discuss their current use.
Things to consider:
- What does perform mean?
- What does discuss mean?
- Underline key words
- Understand what the question is asking before you complete the question.

Refer to family tree produced in class.

Then answer questions 1 5 on page 324 of the text book.

QUESTIONS 1 4 ARE BASED ON THE FAMILY TREE CONSTRUCTED IN

CLASS.
5. Family trees can be used to provide genetic counselling. The family tree in
figure 12.1 shows the occurrence of a rare lung disease, which is caused by
a recessive gene. Children suffering from the disease rarely live more than
2 years. The probability of an individual in the population carrying the
recessive gene is about 1 in 400 (1/400).
(a) There are no known cases of the disease among any of Marinas relatives.
Prior to Jen and Bob having children, what would have you estimated the
probability of them having a child with the disease would be?
(b) After having Sue and Sean, what would the probability have been of the
next child suffering the disease?

(c) After having Marina, what is the probability that their fourth child might
have the lung disease?
(d) Use a punnet square to show the genotypes of Jen, Bob, Sue, Sean and
Marina.
(e) If you were providing genetic counselling to Jen and Bob, what would you
tell them?
(f) Su Chi and Mark have not yet had children. If you were providing genetic
counselling to them, what would you tell them?
(g) Research genetic counselling to find out how the prospective parents are
advised. Compare the type of information provided with the advice you
gave.
(a) Due to the nature and the prevalence of the disease I would have estimated
that there would have been an extremely low to zero possibility that Jen and
Bob would have a child that would suffer from the lethal lung disorder.
(b) Due to the nature of punnet squares and probability, and knowing the outcome
already of the family tree it was a 50% chance that the next child could have
the disease. However prior to having this child, the nature of the disease and
knowing that no other member of the family had the disease it would also be
accurate in saying that there was 0% chance of the next child having the lung
disease.
(c) Due to the disease being a recessive disease the probability that the next child
will have the disease is 0%.
(d)
JEN
L
l
BOB L
LL Ll
l
Ll ll
L = Healthy lungs
l = The recessive gene for the lung disorder
The following are the possible genotypes of the parents and their offspring.
Jen = Ll
Bob = Ll
Sue = LL or Ll
Sean = LL or Ll
Marina = ll
(e) If I was providing genetic counseling for Jen and Bob I would tell them that it
is extremely rare for them to conceive another child with the disease. It is
almost a zero percent chance that there next child would have the disease. I
would also tell them that there other healthy children; Sue and Sean could
possibly be carrying the recessive gene for the disease based on probability.
(f) If I was providing genetic counseling to Mark and Su Chi I would tell them
that it would be extremely rare that they would have any offspring that would
have the disease. Based on the family tree Mark is highly unlikely to be
carrying the recessive gene.
(g) Genetic counseling is a process undertaken by professionals whereby a family
pedigree is assembled and assessed according to the parents genetic

variations. All variables such as certain diseases and hereditary problems are
discussed with the parents. Parents are informed of the chances of whether
their offspring will have a certain disease or not. The genetic counselor then
offers advice on community programs or a plan of care for the child. This is
often passed onto the family physician. This type of information is similar to
the advice I gave. However a plan of action was not discussed nor the
probability of other diseases.

Solve problems involving monohybrid crosses using Punnett squares or other

appropriate techniques.
Things to consider:
- What does Solve mean?
- What is a monohybrid cross?

Students are to complete questions 1 7 on page 307 of the text book.

1. (a) i) ss
ii) SS or Ss
(b) i) Smooth seed
ii) Wrinkled seed
iii) Smooth seed
(c) i)
S
S
s Ss Ss
s Ss Ss
Genotypes = Ss
Phenotypes = All Smooth seed
Percentage = 100%
ii)
S
s

S
SS
Ss

s
Ss
ss

Genotype = SS : Ss : ss
1:2:1
25% : 50% : 25%
Phenotype = Smooth : Wrinkled
3:1
75% : 25%
iii)
s
s

S
Ss
Ss

s
ss
ss

Genotype = Ss : ss
2:2
50% : 50%
Phenotype = Smooth : Wrinkled
2:2
50% : 50%
2. (a)
b b
b bb bb
b bb bb

Genotype = ss
1
100%
Phenotype = Blue eyes
1
100%
The percentage chance that this couple would have a blue eyed baby is 100%.
(b) This answer depends on the phenotypes of the parents. Consider all possible
phenotypes:
BB x BB
BB x Bb
Bb x Bb
B
B
B BB BB
B BB BB
Genotype = BB
1
100%
Phenotype = Brown eyes
1
100%

B
B
B BB BB
b Bb Bb
Genotype = BB : Bb
2:2
50% : 50%
Phenotype = Brown eyes
4
100%

B
b
B BB Bb
b Bb bb
Genotype = BB : Bb : bb
1 : 2 : 1
25% : 50% : 25%
Phenotype = Brown : Blue
3:1
75% : 25%

Therefore the only possible chance that two brown eyed parents have a blue eyed
baby is if both there genotypes are Bb. This means that the parents have a 25% chance
of having a blue eyed baby.
3.
r
r

R
Rr
Rr

r
rr
rr

Genotype = Rr : rr
2:2
50% : 50%
Phenotype = Red flowers : White flowers
2:2
50% : 50%
4.
b
b

B
Bb
Bb

b
bb
bb

Genotype = Bb : bb
2:2
50% : 50%

Phenotype = Black hair : Brown hair

2:2
50% : 50%
In the offspring you would expect 50 % of the mice to have black hair and 50% of the
mice to have brown hair.
5.
R
r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr
Genotype = RR : Rr : rr
1:2:1
25% : 50% : 25%
Phenotype = Red eye : Pink eye
3:1
75% : 25%
1680 offspring were produced. 75% of these offspring have red eyes and 25% of the
offspring have pink eye. Therefore:
1680 100 = 16.8
16.8 x 75 = 1260
(1260 have red eyes)
1680 100 = 16.8
16.8 x 25 = 420
(420 have pink eyes)
6. (a) Genotype refers to the actual genes that control that actual characteristic
while phenotype refers to the characteristic being expressed, for example hair
colour.
(b) A gene refers to a section of DNA on a chromosome which contains
particular information for a particular characteristic. An allele is a
corresponding pair of genes on separate chromosomes.
(c) Heterozygous refers to alleles which are different for example a
heterozygous pair is always a capital and a lower case. Homozygous is a pair
of pure bred alleles for example they are always written as capitals.
7. (a) Elemente is now known as a gene.
(b) i) The ratios do not show the exact ratio however they are extremely close to the
ratio of 75% to 25%. This is due to the fact that there is always going to be a degree
of variation.
ii) Round, yellow, axial, purple, inflated, green and tall.
iii) Round x wrinkled (F1)
R
r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr
Genotype = RR : Rr : rr
1:2:1
25% : 50% : 25%

Phenotype = Round : Wrinkled

3:1
75% : 25%

F1 genotypes = Rr
F1 phenotypes = 100% Round
F2 genotypes = RR, Rr, rr
F2 genotypes = 75% round 25% wrinkled
Process information from secondary sources to describe an example of hybridisation
within a species and explain the purpose of this hybridisation.
Things to consider:
- What does process mean?
- What does describe mean?
- What does explain mean?
Firstly hybridisation is the pairing between single stranded complimentary DNA
segments from organisms from the same or even different species.
If we look at hybrid plants, hybrid plants are a more vigorous and higher yielding
plant compared to that of their homozygous parents. A specific example of
hybridisation in plants is hybrid corn. The reason why farmers produce hybrid corn is
the fact that the plant is a much stronger plant as well as producing a greater yield of
corn which in turn produces more money for the farmer.
In the 1930s corn production was increased due to farmers interbreeding corn which
produced large fruit while the other breed of corn was a sturdy vigorous plant. The
result from this cross was a hybrid that was strong, vigorous and produced large fruit.
Ultimately the purpose of hybrids is to increase the genetic pool of a certain organism.
This increases the likelihood that a desirable plant/animal will be produced. On the
other hand hybridisation can produce unwanted characteristics. For example if a horse
reproduces with a donkey the resultant offspring is a mule. Mules are infertile this
means that they can not reproduce, which in turn eliminates the species. Therefore
hybrids are chosen in certain circumstances to produce high quality reproducing
plants and animals.
Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Ensure you learn these scientists contribution to biology as scientists are
frequently referred to in the HSC.
- Be succinct.
In 1902 Sutton proposed a chromosomal theory of inheritance. Sutton built his theory
around Mendels work, where Mendel concluded that inheritance was due to certain
factors (genes). Sutton elaborated on Mendels work to suggest that genes were
carried on chromosomes. Sutton discovered this while observing meiosis in
grasshoppers. His findings were as follows:
- During meiosis in grasshoppers the chromosomes lined up in pairs.
- Each pair of homologous chromosomes separate so that each gamete receives
the same amount of chromosomes.
- After fertilisation the zygote had a full set of chromosomes. (Half from male
half from female.)

At around the same time as Sutton, Boveri drew a link between hereditary
characteristics and chromosomes. Together these two scientists were recognised as the
founders of the chromosomal theory of inheritance. Their research into the activities
of chromosomes showed that chromosomes are the mode for inheritance.
Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Identify the chemicals first then their chemical make up.
Genes are organised into larger structures known as chromosomes. These
chromosomes carry many different genes containing different types of information
such as hair colour and eye colour to name a few.
Each chromosome (genes are within a chromosome) is made up of approximately
60% protein and 40% DNA. This means that chromosomes contain many different
amino acid sequences which make up proteins. As chromosomes are made up of DNA
chromosomes and genes would contain the chemicals adenine, cytosine, thymine
guanine, various types of sugars and phosphates. These bases are responsible also for
the chromosome containing a large amount of protein.
Identify that DNA is a double stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand
comprised of a sugar phosphate backbone and attached bases adenine (A),
thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G) connected to a complimentary strand by
pairing the bases, A T and G C.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- The dot point basically states the answer within it. Ensure you understand the
structure of DNA.
The DNA molecule is referred to as a double stranded helical structure. If you were to
unwind this structure so that it lay flat it would look like a ladder. The DNA molecule
is made up of a number of subunits called nucleotides. Nucleotides are comprised of a
sugar generally represented by a pentagon in a diagram, a phosphate generally
represented by a black dot and one base varying from adenine (A), thymine (T),
cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
These bases can only match up to the corresponding base. For example in the DNA
double helix structure A can only match up to T and G can only match up to C.
For example if my DNA strand was:
AATCGCTTAGCT
The complimentary strand would be:
TTAGCGAATCGA

DNA MOLECULE

http://www.biologycorner.com/resources/DNA-colored.gif
NUCLEOTIDE:

NOTE: The nucleotide is highlighted by the box above.

http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/images/nucleotide.gif
Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during
meiosis and the inheritance of genes.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Understand what you are going to write before you write an answer.
- Be succinct
Chromosomes behave in certain ways during meiosis so that the inheritance of genes
is a possibility. Firstly in meiosis the chromosomes line up in homologous pairs on the
equator of the cell. Each of these chromosomes contain many genes. Genes are the
building blocks of inheritance; they contain information for specific characteristics
such as hair colour. As the chromosomes split up and sorted they move to different
daughter cells. These daughter cells divide again to produce four new cells.
During the production of these daughter cells crossing over occurs. Crossing over is
the process whereby chromosomes swap genetic information which in turn causes
variation from daughter cell to daughter cell. Crossing over does not occur every time
the chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell. The closer the chromosomes are
in characteristic the less likely crossing over is going to occur the further apart they
are in characteristics the more likely crossing over will occur.
Therefore during meiosis chromosomes act in a certain behaviour this causes a
variation of inheritance in all daughter cells.

Explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of

offspring.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words.
- Understand the key words before you answer. For example what does
variability mean?
Gametes also known as sex cells (sperm and ova) are produced in the testicles of the
male and the ovaries of the female. Gametes are haploid (n = 23) which means they
contain half the number of chromosomes compared to a normal cell which contains a
diploid (2n = 46) number of chromosomes. During meiosis crossing over occurs.
Crossing over causes all the gametes to vary in their characteristics meaning none of
them are the same. All gametes are unique and are different from their parent.
As stated above all gametes vary genetically due to meiosis. In sexual reproduction
two gametes (sperm and egg) are brought together. These gametes fuse together to
form a diploid (46 chromosomes) zygote. This new organism is a unique combination
of genes inherited from the parents. Sexual reproduction causes variation within a
species for the following reasons:
- Fertilisation is based on chance. Gametes are not pre chosen to fuse together.
- Meiosis causes a huge pool of unique gametes. The chances that a genetically
identical sperm and egg fuse together is nearly impossible.
Describe the inheritance of sex linked genes, and alleles that exhibit co
dominance and explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Understand what the question is asking before you answer it.
- Relate answer to Mendelian ratios.
Sex linkage refers to the inheritance patterns determined by genes located on the sex
chromosomes in humans. In females their chromosomes are in the combination of X
and X. Males on the other hand carry an X and Y chromosome. The Y chromosome
determines that the offspring is a male. The Y chromosome also carries very few
genes. This causes in most cases, male offspring to inherit a sex linked trait due to the
fact that it will only take one recessive gene from the mother to be expressed in the
male offspring. This is evident in the sex linked disease colour blindness. For example
if normal vision is represented by N and colour blindness is represented by n we can
illustrate how this condition is sex linked.
E.G. A heterozygous female with a normal vision male.
XN
Xn
XN XN XN XN Xn
Y XN Y
Xn Y
In the resultant offspring both females have normal vision, one male has normal
vision and one male has colour blindness. This is largely due to the fact that Y
chromosome does not carry genetic material and therefore is susceptible to inheriting
characteristics from the mother.

Co dominance is the process by which both alleles are expressed which means
neither are dominant over the other. These two alleles are expressed and are not
blended. For example roan cattle is the result of both genes being expressed separately
without blending. (White and red)

http://www.ccs.k12.in.us/chsteachers/BYost/Biology
%20Notes/CH11notescoincompletedom_files/image004.jpg
Sex linkage and co dominance do not produce simple Mendelian ratios. This is
largely due to the fact that Mendel started with pure breeding parents. Mendel then
interbred the offspring which limited the genetic pool, causing a steady ratio of plants
with certain characteristics. Ratios from other situations like sex linkage and co
dominance will not conform to Mendels ratios because Mendel did not study these
complicated forms of inheritance.
Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Ensure you learn Morgans work as scientists are constantly referred to in the
HSC.
Morgan first discovered sex linkage through his work with the Drosophila fruit fly.
Morgan had been breeding Drosophila and one day he noticed a male white eyed fly
within the population of red eye Drosophilas. This was an odd characteristic as all
Drosophilas were meant to have red eyes. Morgan investigated the problem further.
He bred the male white eyed fly with a red eye female. The resultant offspring all
had red eyes. Morgan then interbred the first generation of offspring. The resultant
second generation contained white eyed Drosophilas. All of these offspring with
white eyes were males. Morgan then hypothesised from these results that the white
eye characteristic was sex limited. Morgan suggested that sex limited,
characteristics were carried on the X chromosome by the female. The result from this
experiment is known as sex linkage.

Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the
resulting phenotypes in examples of co dominance.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Link answer to co dominance.
- Be succinct.
Firstly homozygous genotypes are expressed by either capital letters or lower case
letters showing either dominant or recessive genes. In comparison heterozygous
genotypes are expressed by a capital and lower case letter.
Homozygous and heterozygous genotypes play an important role in co dominance.
As we know co dominance means that both genes are expressed but not blended.
For example lets use AR for red flowers and AW. The results of a punnet square cross
for these flowers would be:
AR
AR
AW AR AW
AR AW
W
R
W
A
A A
AR AW
As indicated by the punnet square above the first generation (F1) of flowers all have
the genotype AR AW. This means that the phenotype for these flowers is pink. If we
cross the F1 generation using the above combinations the results are as follows:
AR
AW
AR
AR AR AR AW
W
A
AR AW AW AW
As indicated by the punnet square above the second generation (F2) of flowers have
the following varying genotypes and phenotypes of AR AR (red) AR AW (pink) and AW
AW (white).
The above results still show that Mendels rules for inheritance still apply. This is
because both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous manner and are both
represented by their respective capital letters.
Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an
individual.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Relate environment to gene expression.
There are many underlying principles that determine the phenotype of any individual.
Our physical characteristics are not merely based on inheritance. The environment in
which we live has a determining factor on what genes are expressed and why they are
expressed. For example two people with the same genetic inheritance for tallness may
not be the same height. These factors are somewhat regulated by the environment in
which we live. Environmental factors can include such lifestyle choices such as
nutrition. For example a person may have genetically inherited a gene for lean
muscle, if this person changed their nutritional requirements and increased the amount
of exercise in their life there is no reason why genes would not be expressed in a
different manner in order for that person to gain bulk muscle. Another environmental
factor that causes changes in genetic expression is geographic location. For example a

boy from Sydney and a boy from North Africa. These boys live in complete differing
environments. The boy from Sydney is generally going to express genes for medium
bones and strong muscles whereas the boy from North Africa is generally going to
express genes for long bones and less muscle.
Overall the environment has a determining factor in the expression of genes.
Process information from secondary sources to construct a model that demonstrates
meiosis and the process of crossing over, segregation of chromosomes and the
production of haploid gametes.
Things to consider:
- What does process and construct mean?
- Identify the stages in which crossing over occurs, segregation of chromosomes
occurs and the production of haploid gametes.
- To complete the dot point accurately and efficiently you must complete the
following tasks: read through the information for Investigation 3: Meiosis on
pages 324 327. Once you have completed the readings construct a diagram of
the process of meiosis (page 326). Finally answer questions 1 8 on page 327.
Solve problems involving co dominance and sex linkage (Questions 1, 2, 3 and 5 pg
312 of text.)
Things to consider:
- What does solve mean?
- What is co dominance?
- What is sex linkage?
1. In Drosophila, the gene for red eyes, R is dominant for the gene for white eyes,
r. This is sex-linked. Determine the possible genotype and phenotype ratios
expected from a cross between:
(a) Heterozygous female and red-eyed male.
(b) A heterozygous female and a white-eyed male.
(c) A homozygous dominant female and a red-eyed male.
(d) A homozygous dominant female with a white-eyed male.
2. In humans the gene for normal blood clotting, H, is dominant over the gene for
haemophilia, h. This is a sex-linked trait found on the X chromosome. A woman with
normal blood clotting factor has four children. They are a normal son, a haemophiliac
son, and two normal daughters. The father has normal blood clotting. What are the
probable genotypes for each member of the family?
Identify data sources and perform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect
of environment on phenotype.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- What is phenotype?
- Ensure you perform an accurate and reliable experiment and record all relevant
results.

We constructed an experiment involving tomato plants. These plants were placed in 3

environments. Environment 1 the plant was placed in the garden. Environment 2
the plant was placed in the house. Environment 3 the plant was placed in the garden
shed. All the plants received 20mL of water per day. As environment 1 was outside it
also received water in the form of rain.
Your task:
- Describe the physical appearance of each plant and relate this to the
environment in which the plant was exposed to.
Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance.
Things to consider:
- What does describe and explain mean?
- Be succinct.
DNA is unique in the sense that it is the building blocks of all life forms but it is also
capable of replicating itself exactly. This is possible because of the double helix
structure being able to unwind. The process of DNA replication or copying takes
place in meiosis and mitosis.
The process of DNA replication is outlined below:
- DNA replication begins with the two strands separating. The bonds break
between the bases so that the two strands of DNA unzip. (Binding proteins
prevent the strands from reattaching to one another)
- A complimentary copy of each strand is constructed from new sugar
phosphate base units. This process is catalysed by the enzyme DNA
polymerase.
So in a brief summary; the DNA molecule unzips, a complimentary strand is
produced, these two strands come together to form a new molecule of DNA.
This process is significant as DNA is the building blocks of life. Being able to
replicate DNA means our body can repair itself when it is damaged (mitosis) or
variation within a species (meiosis).

Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of
polypeptides.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Underline key words
- Be succinct
Polypeptides:
Is a chain or link of amino acids.
DNA controls the production of polypeptides in a process known as protein synthesis.
This involves the following steps:
- A gene on the DNA strand contains information required to build that specific
polypeptide. This is in the form of a specific codon. (3 base sequence.)
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) a special type of RNA carries the information from
the DNA in the nucleus, to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the ribosomes to help build the
polypeptide. There are over 20 types of tRNA each carrying a different type of
amino acid. Each tRNA contains complimentary bases to that of the mRNA.
- Ribosomes act as the site for the synthesis of polypeptides. Ribosomes
contain three active sites, one site to hold the mRNA strand and the other two
for the tRNA. These sites temporarily bind these molecules in order for amino
acids to link up and produce a polypeptide chain.
- Enzymes also aid in catalysing the process. (Speed it up.)
Explain the relationship between polypeptides and proteins.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Illustrate your answer by showing how polypeptides relate to proteins.
Proteins are large complex molecules which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. These large complex molecules are made up of smaller molecules called
amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of all proteins. There are only
twenty known types of amino acids. These amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
eventuating into a polypeptide bond. (POLY = many)
Explain how mutations in DNA may lead to the generation of new alleles.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Refer answer to DNA and alleles.
Mutations in DNA can lead to the generation of new alleles. Firstly a mutation is a
change in a gene. It is an alteration in the DNA of a certain gene. It may be a
substitution whereby a base is substituted for another base. It may be a deletion
whereby a whole base or bases are deleted completely from the sequence or it could
be an insertion where an extra base or bases are added to the sequence. If this
mutation takes place in a specific location on the gene it may alter the production of a

specific protein. This alteration also effects the production of polypeptides, which in
turn affects the gene. An example of a mutation that occurs in humans is sickle cell
anaemia. This mutation occurs when there is one substitution in the DNA sequence
resulting in the disease.
Mutations cause variation within an organism. Mutations may lead to the generation
of new alleles in an organism. This would result in changes to the information carried
by the DNA on the chromosome. Most mutations are lethal and the cell ultimately
dies. However if the cell survives it increases the variation within a population of
organisms. Mutation can occur during meiosis, consequently the mutation gets passed
on from the parents to the offspring. Therefore it is evident that mutations can lead to
the generation of new alleles.
Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation.
Things to consider:
- What does discuss mean?
- Ensure you support your answer with relevant cases as well as statistics.
Mutagen Environmental factors that induce mutation.
During the 20th century there has been increasing evidence to suggest that radiation
has mutagenic qualities. For example ultraviolet radiation from the sun, ionising
radiation from atomic bombs (Hiroshima), nuclear accidents (Chernobyl) and simple
x rays have all been linked to causing mutations within a population.
Sunlight is a known mutagen. U.V. light causes a deletion of certain bases in the DNA
strand. Another known effect is that thymine bases begin to link together. This
subsequently causes the DNA not to replicate and the cell to die. Mutation rates such
as skin cancers have increased over the years due to the increase in U.V. light. It is
known that due to an increase in pollution the hole in the ozone is getting larger. This
has led to a higher rate of skin cancers in those people who are regularly exposed to
U.V. light.
Atomic bombs such as the one in Hiroshima have shown the mutagenic nature of
radiation. The ionising radiation in atomic bombs can break strands of DNA or even
whole chromosomes. The atomic bomb of Hiroshima supports the mutagenic nature
of radiation as many people died from leukaemia from years following the attack as
well as descendents of people effected have displayed mutations.
The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 caused many deaths. However the full extent of the
disaster has not been fully realised. Over 9 million people have been exposed to the
radiation through food, soil and water contamination. It is believed that the life span
of the people in the area will dramatically drop due to radiation induced cancers. The
effects of the disaster can also be seen in that in every 3 calves that were born in the
area 2 were still born. (First 5 years.)
X rays have also been linked with causing mutations within patients. In the 1950
and 1960s X rays were used to measure feet, resulting in early induced cancers.
Nowadays X rays are only used under strict circumstances by doctors, dentists and
scientists.

Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided

support for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. (Page 316)
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Relate source of variation to Darwins theory of evolution.
- Be succinct.
Firstly Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection states that organisms may
vary according to changes in their physical environment. Through Darwins research
he knew that certain desirable characteristics were passed on from one generation to
the next however he did not know how these characteristics were passed on. Mendel
showed how genes were passed on from generation to generation. Boveri and Sutton
outlined how genes and chromosomes interacted and how they could be inherited.
Then through the work of Watson and Crick the DNA molecule was discovered.
Darwin knew that variation within a species was essential for natural selection to
occur. The source of this variation is caused by changes in DNA eventually resulting
in variation within the species.
Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from
the gradual process proposed by Darwin. (Page 299)
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- You will have to define punctuated equilibrium.
- Show the difference in your answer.
Punctuated equilibrium is the process by which an organism rapidly undergoes
evolution followed by a period of stasis (no change/lull). This theory was proposed by
Gould and Eldredge. Gould and Eldredges theory suggests that when a sudden
change occurs in their environment the organism either moves out of the area or dies
out. Populations on the edge of their niche may survive the sudden change in the
environment. This species then evolve and migrate over time and then suddenly
appear on the fossil record. This theory of evolution differs from Darwins theory of
evolution as Darwin stated that evolution is a gradual process that takes millions of
years.

Perform a first-hand investigation or process information from secondary sources to

develop a simple model for polypeptide synthesis.
Things to consider:
- As this is a choice between first hand or second hand we will be
completing this as a secondary source activity.
- What does process and develop mean?
- Although notes are in detail make sure you keep your answer simple enough
to understand it.
Polypeptide synthesis is the process undertaken by the DNA molecule to manufacture
(make) certain proteins. There are two main steps involved in this process and they
are outlined as follows:
Transcription (Copying phase)
- The DNA strand unwinds in the area of the gene that contains the information
about the protein that is going to be made.
- RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand linking complimentary bases
of RNA with the DNA to form the mRNA strand.
- The start and stop codon limit the length of the mRNA strand.
- Once this process is complete the mRNA strand is modified to only contain
exons which are sections that only contain information to code for particular
proteins. (Introns are spliced out.)
- mRNA then moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
Amino acids
- Amino acids become active in the cytoplasm by an enzyme and begin to attach
themselves to specific tRNA.
Translation (Change language)
- mRNA binds to ribosome with the start codon AUG
- tRNA carrying specific amino acid at one end and the anticodon at the other
binds to the mRNA on the ribosome.
- A second tRNA binds to the next codon linking with the first amino acid
making a peptide bond.
- First tRNA is removed from the ribosome.
- Ribosome moves along mRNA strand one codon at a time.
- Two tRNAs bound to the ribosome at any one time and their two amino acids
are linked together. Subsequently a polypeptide forms.
- When the stop codon is reached synthesis stops.
- Polypeptide is then released into the cytoplasm.
http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/21/concept/index.html
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/protein_synthesis.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJxobgkPEAo

Analyse information from secondary sources to outline the evidence that led to Beadle
and Tatums one gene one protein hypothesis and to explain why this was altered
to the one gene one polypeptide hypothesis. (Page 314/Internet)
Things to consider:
- What does analyse, outline and explain mean?
- There are two parts to this answer. Ensure you explain why their hypothesis
was changed.
The following evidence supports Beadle and Tatums one gene one polypeptide,
hypothesis:
- Beadle and Tatum performed their experiments on bread mould (Neurospora)
- The bread mould was grown on a medium of sugar, salts and the vitamin
biotin.
- These were the minimal requirements for the bread mould to grow. (Minimal
medium.)
- They suggested that these substances must be converted by the mould into
amino acids and that enzymes were responsible for this metabolism.
- To test this Beadle and Tatum exposed the spores to X rays to cause
mutations.
- They then grew the mould on the minimal medium. If it grew it was discarded
if it did not grow it was kept for further testing.
- The mould that did not grow was then exposed to a variety of media
containing a different amino acid.
- They found that if they supplemented the minimal medium with a particular
amino acid the mould would grow.
- This suggested that the mutants had lost the ability to produce particular amino
acids because they lacked certain enzymes.
- This means that a mutant that required tyrosine to grow lacked the enzyme
tyrosine.
- From this experiment Beadle and Tatum hypothesised that each gene coded for
a particular enzyme, which was firstly known as the one gene one enzyme
theory.
- The theory was changed to one gene one polypeptide because genes code
for proteins and not enzymes, many proteins are made of more then one
polypeptide and each gene codes for a polypeptide.
Process information to construct a flow chart that shows that changes in DNA
sequences can result in changes in cell activity (Internet)
Things to consider:
- What does process and construct mean?
- Explain the flow chart so it makes more sense to you.
Changes in the DNA sequence can result in changes in cell activity. For example if
there is a substitution, insertion or deletion of a certain base sequence this can and will
change cell activity. This is due to the fact that the change in the DNA sequence
changes the whole process of transcription and translation. A change in a base is
ultimately going to change the mRNA strand, the amino acid and the polypeptide. The

flow chart below shows the result when thymine is deleted from the DNA strand. The
deletion of thymine results in a premature stop in the formation of the amino acid.

(http://hsc.csu.edu.au/biology/core/blueprint/9_3_2/BIO934NET.htm#net10)
Cell activity, as we have learnt is regulated by enzymes. As indicated by the flow
chart above a change in the DNA sequence also effects the formation of a functional
enzyme.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to explain a modern
example of natural selection (Internet peppered moth)
Things to consider:
- What does process, analyse and explain mean?
- We have learnt about peppered moths before so you should have some
understanding on this topic.
There are three main examples which you could use to answer this question:
- Peppered moths
- Mosquitoes (DDT)
- Bacteria
Peppered Moths There were two observed varieties of peppered moths located in
industrial England, black and white in colour. The white moths were much more
common as they were well camouflaged by the lichen on the surrounding trees. As
industry within the area developed in the 19th century soot began to build up on the
trees and turn their bark a darker colour. This resulted in the white moths being eaten
by birds while the black moths began to reproduce at a higher rate to pass on their
desired characteristics. This example of natural selection was easily observable as it
occurred over a relatively short period of time.
Mosquitoes (DDT) DDT was initially used to kill off insects and mosquitoes which
affected crops and the production of food. It was initially a very successful insecticide
until a small population of mosquitoes survived. These mosquitoes then passed on
their immunity to the DDT onto further generations. This form of modern natural
selection was easily observed as mosquitoes have a high reproduction rate. When the

immunity is passed on it generates into millions of mosquitoes becoming resistant to

DDT.
Bacteria Bacteria much like mosquitoes have become resistant to antibiotics. This
is due to the fact that antibiotics are over prescribed or the patient does not complete
the course of antibiotics. Much like the mosquitoes the bacteria that survive the
chemicals in the antibiotics reproduce. Their desirable immunity is passed on from
generation to generation resulting in the antibiotic have little to no effect on the
bacteria. This is an example of modern day natural selection as it is easily observable
in patients as well as the fact that scientists/doctors are constantly upgrading different
antibiotics to become effective in the fight against resistant bacteria.
Process information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the relative
importance of the work of:
James Watson
Francis Crick
Rosalind Franklin
Maurice Wilkins
in determining the structure of DNA and the impact of the quality of
collaboration and communication on their scientific research. (Internet research,
page 329,330.)
Things to consider:
- What does process, describe and analyse mean?
- Ensure you can link their work to current technologies that involve DNA.
- Learn these scientists and their names as scientists are regularly tested on in
the HSC.
James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins all played a
pivotal role in determining the structure of the DNA molecule. However it has been
publicised that they did not all work together cooperatively and there is still some
debate over who should be accredited with the discovery of the DNA double helix.
Watson and Crick both had a passion for science, in particular the DNA molecule.
They began their research together at Cambridge University in England. They bonded
almost straight away and became a formidable research team. In contrast Rosalind
Franklin and Maurice Wilkins were also researching the structure of DNA. Unlike
Watson and Crick these two scientists did not get along. They despised each other.
Watson and Crick also admitted to having a patronising attitude towards her. This was
largely due to the fact that Rosalind Franklin was a female in a male dominated area
of work. Franklin had few opportunities to express her ideas and to develop a positive
working relationship with Wilkins.
Watson and Crick worked together as a team. They used the ideas of other scientists
to solve the puzzle that was DNA. Ideas from other scientists that manipulated
Watson and Cricks ideas included:
- Linus Pauling showed that proteins are arranged in a shape of spring coil.
- A talk by Franklin in 1951 illustrating DNA images produced by X ray
crystallography initially causing Watson and Crick to produce an inaccurate
model of DNA.
- Erwin Chargaffs work on nitrogen bases enabled Crick to suggest that these
nitrogen bases were complimentary to one another (A T, C G). This was

firstly rejected by Watson until he came up with the idea that these pairs might
be the rungs of the ladder.
While Watson and Crick were manipulating their ideas surrounding the structure of
DNA, Franklin had discovered from her X ray diffraction pictures the double helix
nature of DNA in 1953. However Franklin did not announce her findings. Unknown
to Franklin, Wilkins shared these images with Watson and Crick showing the structure
of the DNA molecule. Subsequently Watson and Crick produced a 3 D model of the
DNA structure as well as a theory surrounding the DNA double helix. In 1962
Watson, Crick and Wilkins were all accredited in determining the structure of DNA
and were awarded the Nobel prize.
Ultimately Watson and Crick are the two main scientists accredited to discovering the
DNA structure.
Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic
composition of a population: (Page 318, 319 and 320)
- artificial insemination
- artificial pollination
- cloning
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- Address each heading.
- Be succinct
Artificial Insemination is the process by which sperm is collected and inserted into
the vagina of the female. The sperm then swim to the egg, which becomes fertilised.
Artificial insemination has the potential to alter the genetic composition of a
population. If the same female or same male is constantly being used this may limit
the genetic variability of the population. This then decreases biodiversity within the
population increasing the susceptibility of the population to disease and infection.
Artificial insemination could also be beneficial for the population as desired
characteristics are the main reason for artificial insemination. These desired
characteristics could enable the population to be strong, fit and healthy.
Artificial Pollination is a similar process to that of artificial insemination but this
time with plants. The plant breeder will brush the pollen from the anther (male) onto
the stigma (female). The plant is then covered to prevent cross pollination. This
results in the desired plant to grow. This reproductive technique may alter the genetic
composition of the population in many ways. Firstly it will affect the genetic diversity
of the plant. Secondly this will affect the biodiversity of the plant and thirdly if the
plant is susceptible to a specific disease as all plants are alike they have the potential
to be wiped out.
Cloning is the process in which an exact copy is made of an organism (Dolly).
Cloning can have an adverse affect on a population. As clones are exacts copies of
one another there is a total lack of genetic variation. If a disease kills one clone it will
more then likely kill the rest of the population. Cloning lacks total genetic variation
and biodiversity.

Outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of this
process and reasons for its use. (page 320, 321)
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- What are transgenic species?
- State examples
A transgenic organism is an organism that has had a new piece of DNA spliced into a
chromosome in each of its cells. This new piece of DNA is usually inserted to produce
a new type of protein for that type of organism. The new piece of DNA may come
from a totally different species or a different organism within the same species.
The production of a transgenic species involves the following steps:
- The useful gene and the chromosome it is one are identified.
- The gene is isolated and is cut off from its DNA strand.
- Separate DNA sequences are added to the sequence to ensure the gene will
work. (This step may not be necessary)
- Multiple copies of the gene are made. (Not in all cases)
- The gene is inserted into the cell of another organism.
- Once inserted the gene must become part of the genetic material of that
organism.
- The organism is not a transgenic species unless it is able to pass that specific
gene on from generation to generation. This desired gene needs to be
expressed.
An example of a transgenic species within Australia is the production of sheep with
superior wool. Through research scientists have discovered that cysteine is
responsible for the production of superior wool. Scientists are developing this
transgenic species by inserting the gene responsible for producing cysteine into sheep.
Once this gene is introduced into the sheeps egg, the sheep grows, producing
premium wool as well as breeding and passing on the desired gene onto the next
generation.
Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction technologies on the genetic
diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been genetically
altered. (Page 318 321)
Things to consider:
- What do the terms discuss and impact mean?
- What is genetic diversity? Will it lack or improve?
Reproductive technologies can have a positive and negative affect on the diversity of
species. For example in Australia new varieties of tomatoes have been genetically
altered to have a longer shelf life and a greater taste. This in a sense is a positive
because if the tomatoes are a success in the market place they will continue to be
genetically engineered while other tomatoes will be discarded. This in turn produces a
larger yield of tomatoes for the farmer. The negatives for the production of these
tomatoes are that they are all genetically similar. This in turn limits genetic variation
within a population of the tomatoes. This also makes the crop susceptible to disease,
which in turn could wipe out a whole crop. Tomatoes that are not genetically modified

have a greater chance of spreading their desired characteristics from one generation to
the next.
An animal example that has been genetically modified is transgenic sheep. These
sheep have had cysteine inserted into their egg, this egg develops into a sheep, which
produces high quality wool and the cysteine gene is passed on from generation to
generation. Once again a positive for the development of this species is that high
quality wool is being produced for the market place. The negatives for this transgenic
species are that there is a lack of genetic variation within the population causing a
lack of diversity. This species maybe susceptible to disease causing a decrease in wool
production and the loss of money.
Process information from secondary sources to describe a methodology used in
cloning. (Page 319, 320 and internet research)
Things to consider:
- What does process and describe mean?
- What is cloning? List the steps involved.
The following is the methodology in cloning Dolly the sheep:
- Extracted an egg cell from a female sheep and destroyed the nucleus.
- Mammary cells were taken from a donor ewe.
- The nucleus from the mammary cell was inserted into the egg which lacked a
nucleus.
- The egg with a new nucleus developed into a sheep.
- This sheep had exactly the same genetic make up as that of the donor ewe.
(Mammary cell.)
The above process was the simple process in order to clone Dolly the sheep. However
it was not as simple as outlined above. Scientists encountered many mutations and
premature deaths of the developing sheep. It took years to develop and clone Dolly
the sheep.
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify examples of the use of
transgenic species and use available evidence to debate the ethical issues arising
from the development and use of transgenic species. (Page 320, 321 and internet
research)
-

What does analyse and identify mean?

Be succinct. It is also valuable to contain some information about the ethical
issues so that you have that background knowledge.

Some examples of transgenic species are:

- Sheep are injected with a gene responsible for producing a clotting factor in
their milk. This clotting factor is administered to humans who suffer from
haemophilia.
- In Scandinavia farmers are able to grow strawberries in the cold climate by
splicing a gene from the salmon into their DNA so they can tolerate cold
temperatures.

Scientists have genetically altered alfalfa so it produces higher cysteine levels.

These higher cysteine levels enable sheep that graze on the alfalfa to produce
higher quality wool.
Scientists have also spliced cysteine into a sheeps egg. This egg in turn
develops into a sheep, which expresses the gene, which in turn produces
premium wool. This gene is desirable and is passed on from generation to
generation.

Above are some examples of what transgenic species are used for. However there are
many social, economic and ethical implications that arise from the use of these new
reproductive technologies. The issues are as follows:
Food Safety and Health:
- Are the genetically altered plants and animals safe to eat?
- Has any of the nutritional information of the genetically altered plant and
animal been changed in any way for the good or the bad?
Environmental Protection:
- What effect could the genetically altered organism have on the natural
ecosystem?
- Could the genetically altered organism cause damage to the surrounding
ecosystem?
- Could the genetically altered organism reproduce uncontrollably?
- Could there be a decrease in the biodiversity of the genetically altered
organism?
Regulating Issues:
- Should the government produce certain regulations to protect farmers,
consumers and environment?
- Should genetically modified foods be labelled or easily identified in the
supermarket?
Social and Economic Effects:
- What effect would genetically modified organisms have on farming practices?
- Could biotechnology companies eventually take over farming and have
patents and copyrights on the production of certain genetically modified
organisms? This in turn would mean that these groups would control world
food production.
- Could the money spent on genetic engineering be spent on something more
practical such as human health, housing and nutrition?
Ethical and Moral Issues:
- Why should we stop the production of these organisms if they help cure/aid in
the prevention of disease?
- Why should we stop the production of these organisms if they increase the
production of food?
- Should we tamper with the process of evolution?
- Should we change the genetics of an organism for commercial gain?
The above issues are slight indications on the effect transgenic species have on people
today. People will be in constant debate on the benefits of transgenic species.