Socrates

This article is about the classical Greek philosopher. For As for discovering the real-life Socrates, the diculty is
other uses of Socrates, see Socrates (disambiguation).
that ancient sources are mostly philosophical or dramatic
Not to be confused with Isocrates.
texts, apart from Xenophon. There are no straightforward
histories, contemporary with Socrates, that dealt with his
own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources
[2]
Socrates (/skrtiz/; Greek: [skrts],
[1]
Skrts; 470/469 399 BC) was a classical Greek that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be
historically accurate, and are often partisan. For instance,
(Athenian) philosopher credited as one of the founders
of Western philosophy. He is an enigmatic gure known those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left
chiey through the accounts of classical writers, espe- no testament. Historians therefore face the challenge of
cially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon and reconciling the various evidence from the extant texts in
the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Platos di- order to attempt an accurate and consistent account of
alogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates life and work. The result of such an eort is not
Socrates to survive from antiquity, though it is unclear necessarily realistic, even if consistent.
the degree to which Socrates himself is hidden behind Amid all the disagreement resulting from dierences
his 'best disciple', Plato.[3]
within sources, two factors emerge from all sources perhe was
Through his portrayal in Platos dialogues, Socrates has taining to Socrates. It would seem, therefore, that
[11][12]
ugly,
and
that
Socrates
had
a
brilliant
intellect.
become renowned for his contribution to the eld of
ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who lends his name
to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method,
or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in
a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in
which a series of questions is asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight
into the issue at hand. Platos Socrates also made important and lasting contributions to the eld of epistemology,
and his ideologies and approach have proven a strong
foundation for much Western philosophy that has followed.

1.1 Socrates as a gure

The character of Socrates as exhibited in Apology, Crito,
Phaedo and Symposium concurs with other sources to an
extent to which it seems possible to rely on the Platonic
Socrates, as demonstrated in the dialogues, as a representation of the actual Socrates as he lived in history.[13]
At the same time, however, many scholars believe that
in some works, Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his
avowedly brightened-up version of Socrates far beyond
anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done
or said. Also, Xenophon, being an historian, is a more
reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate over which Socrates it is whom Plato
is describing at any given pointthe historical gure, or
Platos ctionalization. As British philosopher Martin
Cohen has put it, Plato, the idealist, oers an idol, a
master gure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of 'the
Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a
heretic.[14]

Socratic problem

Main article: Socratic problem

Nothing written by Socrates remains extant. As a result, information about him and his philosophies depends
upon secondary sources. Furthermore, close comparison between the contents of these sources reveals contradictions, thus creating concerns about the possibility of
knowing in-depth the real Socrates. This issue is known
as the Socratic problem,[4] or the Socratic question.[5][6]
To understand Socrates and his thought, one must turn
primarily to the works of Plato, whose dialogues are
thought the most informative source about Socrates life
and philosophy,[7] and also Xenophon.[8] These writings
are the Sokratikoi logoi, or Socratic dialogues, which
consist of reports of conversations apparently involving
Socrates.[9][10]

It is also clear from other writings and historical artefacts,

that Socrates was not simply a character, nor an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle,
alongside some of Aristophanes work (especially The
Clouds), is useful in eshing out a perception of Socrates
beyond Platos work.
1

1.2

2 BIOGRAPHY

Socrates as a philosopher

The problem with discerning Socrates philosophical

views stems from the perception of contradictions in
statements made by the Socrates in the dierent dialogues
of Plato. These contradictions produce doubt as to the actual philosophical doctrines of Socrates, within his milieu
and as recorded by other individuals.[15] Aristotle, in his
Magna Moralia, refers to Socrates in words which make
it patent that the doctrine virtue is knowledge was held by
Socrates. Within the Metaphysics, he states Socrates was
occupied with the search for moral virtues, being the '
rst to search for universal denitions for them '.[16]
The problem of understanding Socrates as a philosopher
is shown in the following: In Xenophons Symposium,
Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to
what he regards as the most important art or occupation,
that of discussing philosophy. However, in The Clouds,
Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for
teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon.
Also, in Platos Apology and Symposium, as well as in
Xenophons accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specically, in the Apology, Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a
teacher.

Socrates and Alcibiades, by Christoer Wilhelm Eckersberg

Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure

by Jean-Baptiste Regnault (1791)

Two fragments are extant of the writings by Timon

of Phlius pertaining to Socrates,[17] although Timon
is known to have written to ridicule and lampoon
philosophy.[18][19]

Biography

Details about the life of Socrates can be derived from

three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato and
Xenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the plays of
Aristophanes. He has been depicted by some scholars, including Eric Havelock and Walter Ong, as a champion of
oral modes of communication, standing against the haphazard diusion of writing.[20]

Carnelian gem imprint representing Socrates, Rome, 1st century

BC-1st century AD.

In Aristophanes play The Clouds, Socrates is made into a

clown of sorts, particularly inclined toward sophistry, who
teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of
debt. However, since most of Aristophanes works function as parodies, it is presumed that his characterization
in this play was also not literal.[21]

2.4

Arrest of Leon

2.1

Early life

Socrates was born in Alopeke, and belonged to the

tribe Antiochis. His father was Sophroniscus, a sculptor, or stonemason.[22][23][24] His mother was a midwife
named Phaenarete.[25] Socrates married Xanthippe,
who is especially remembered for having an undesirable temperament.[26] She bore for him three sons,[27]
Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. Socrates was
attracted to teenage boys, as is evident in this encounter
with Charmides in a palaestra.[28] However, there is no
evidence that he ever had a homosexual or pederastic relationship. His friend Crito of Alopece criticized him for
abandoning them when he refused to try to escape before
his execution.[29]
Socrates rst worked as a stonemason, and there was a
tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship,
that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces,
which stood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century
AD.[30]

3
vivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan
navy.[23][37][38]
According to Xenophon, Socrates was the Epistates for
the debate,[39] but Delebecque and Hatzfeld think this is
an embellishment, because Xenophon composed the information after Socrates death [40]
The generals were seen by some to have failed to uphold the most basic of duties, and the people decided
upon capital punishment. However, when the prytany
responded by refusing to vote on the issue, the people
reacted with threats of death directed at the prytany itself. They relented, at which point Socrates alone as
epistates blocked the vote, which had been proposed by
Callixeinus.[41][42] The reason he gave was that in no case
would he act except in accordance with the law.[43]
The outcome of the trial was ultimately judged to be a
miscarriage of justice, or illegal, but, actually, Socrates
decision had no support from written statutory law, instead being reliant on favouring a continuation of less
strict and less formal nomos law.[42][44][45]

Xenophon reports that because youths were not allowed

to enter the Agora, they used to gather in workshops surrounding it.[31] Socrates frequented these shops in order 2.4 Arrest of Leon
to converse with the merchants. Most notable among
them was Simon the Shoemaker.[32]
Platos Apology, parts 32c to 32d, describes how Socrates
and four others were summoned to the Tholos, and told
by representatives of the oligarchy of the Thirty (the oli2.2 Military service
garchy began ruling in 404 B.C.) to go to Salamis, and
from there, to return to them with Leon the Salaminian.
For a time, Socrates fullled the role of hoplite, par- He was to be brought back to be subsequently executed.
ticipating in the Peloponnesian wara conict which However, Socrates returned home and did not go to
stretched intermittently over a period spanning 431 to Salamis as he was expected to.[46][47]
404 B.C.[33] Several of Platos dialogues refer to Socrates
military service.
In the monologue of the Apology, Socrates states he was
active for Athens in the battles of Amphipolis, Delium,
and Potidaea.[34] In the Symposium, Alcibiades describes
Socrates valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium,
recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle
(219e-221b). Socrates exceptional service at Delium is
also mentioned in the Laches by the General after whom
the dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socrates
compares his military service to his courtroom troubles,
and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat
from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat
when it seems likely that they will be killed in battle.[35]

2.3

2.5 Trial and death

Main article: Trial of Socrates
Socrates lived during the time of the transition from the
height of the Athenian hegemony to its decline with the
defeat by Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian War.
At a time when Athens sought to stabilize and recover
from its humiliating defeat, the Athenian public may have
been entertaining doubts about democracy as an ecient
form of government. Socrates appears to have been a
critic of democracy,[48] and some scholars interpret his
trial as an expression of political inghting.[49]

the
Epistates at the trial of the six com- Claiming loyalty to his city, Socrates clashed with
current course of Athenian politics and society.[50] He
manders
praises Sparta, archrival to Athens, directly and indirectly

in various dialogues. One of Socrates purported oenses

to the city was his position as a social and moral critic.
Rather than upholding a status quo and accepting the
During 406, he participated as a member of the Boule.[36] development of what he perceived as immorality within
His tribe the Antiochis held the Prytany on the day it his region, Socrates questioned the collective notion of
was debated what fate should befall the generals of the might makes right that he felt was common in Greece
Battle of Arginusae, who abandoned the slain and the sur- during this period. Plato refers to Socrates as the "gady"
Main article: Trial of the generals

2 BIOGRAPHY

The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787)

of the state (as the gady stings the horse into action, so
Socrates stung various Athenians), insofar as he irritated
some people with considerations of justice and the pursuit
of goodness.[51] His attempts to improve the Athenians
sense of justice may have been the cause of his execution.
According to Platos Apology, Socrates life as the gady of Athens began when his friend Chaerephon asked
the oracle at Delphi if anyone were wiser than Socrates;
the Oracle responded that no-one was wiser. Socrates
believed the Oracles response was not correct, because
he believed he possessed no wisdom whatsoever. He
proceeded to test the riddle by approaching men considered wise by the people of Athensstatesmen, poets,
and artisansin order to refute the Oracles pronouncement. Questioning them, however, Socrates concluded:
while each man thought he knew a great deal and was
wise, in fact they knew very little and were not wise at
all. Socrates realized the Oracle was correct; while socalled wise men thought themselves wise and yet were
not, he himself knew he was not wise at all, which, paradoxically, made him the wiser one since he was the only
person aware of his own ignorance. Socrates paradoxical
wisdom made the prominent Athenians he publicly questioned look foolish, turning them against him and leading to accusations of wrongdoing. Socrates defended his
role as a gady until the end: at his trial, when Socrates
was asked to propose his own punishment, he suggested
a wage paid by the government and free dinners for the
rest of his life instead, to nance the time he spent as
Athens benefactor.[52] He was, nevertheless, found guilty
of both corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and
of impiety (not believing in the gods of the state),[53]
and subsequently sentenced to death by drinking a mixture containing poison hemlock.[54][55][56][57]

Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum

in another country, as he would continue questioning

all he met and undoubtedly incur their displeasure.
3. Having knowingly agreed to live under the citys
laws, he implicitly subjected himself to the possibility of being accused of crimes by its citizens and
judged guilty by its jury. To do otherwise would
have caused him to break his "social contract" with
the state, and so harm the state, an unprincipled act.
4. If he escaped at the instigation of his friends, then
his friends would become liable in law.[58]
The full reasoning behind his refusal to ee is the main
subject of the Crito.[59]

Socrates death is described at the end of Platos Phaedo.

Socrates turned down Critos pleas to attempt an escape
from prison. After drinking the poison, he was instructed
to walk around until his legs felt numb. After he lay
down, the man who administered the poison pinched his
foot; Socrates could no longer feel his legs. The numbness slowly crept up his body until it reached his heart.
Shortly before his death, Socrates speaks his last words
Xenophon and Plato agree that Socrates had an oppor- to Crito: Crito, we owe a rooster to Asclepius. Please,
tunity to escape, as his followers were able to bribe the don't forget to pay the debt.
prison guards. There have been several suggestions ofAsclepius was the Greek god for curing illness, and it is
fered as reasons why he chose to stay:
likely Socrates last words meant that death is the cure
1. He believed such a ight would indicate a fear of and freedom, of the soul from the body. Additionally, in
Why Socrates Died: Dispelling the Myths, Robin Waterdeath, which he believed no true philosopher has.
eld adds another interpretation of Socrates last words.
2. If he ed Athens his teaching would fare no better He suggests that Socrates was a voluntary scapegoat; his

3.2

Philosophical beliefs

death was the purifying remedy for Athens misfortunes. ideas of Socrates himself, but which have been subseIn this view, the token of appreciation for Asclepius quently deformed or changed by Plato, and some scholars
would represent a cure for Athens ailments.[51]
think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the
literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did have his own
theories and beliefs.[62] There is a degree of controversy
3 Philosophy
inherent in the identifying of what these might have been,
owing to the diculty of separating Socrates from Plato
and the diculty of interpreting even the dramatic writ3.1 Socratic method
ings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing
the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato
Main article: Socratic method
and Xenophon has not proven easy, so it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might actually be
Perhaps his most important contribution to Western
more the specic concerns of these two thinkers instead.
thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as
the Socratic method or method of elenchus, which he The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates
largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not
such as the Good and Justice. It was rst described by answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the sub[63]
Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it jects about which he questioned others.
would be broken down into a series of questions, the an- If anything in general can be said about the philosophswers to which gradually distill the answer a person would ical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intelseek. The inuence of this approach is most strongly lectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow
felt today in the use of the scientic method, in which Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting
hypothesis is the rst stage. The development and prac- the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of
tice of this method is one of Socrates most enduring con- elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral valtributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the ues are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned
father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, with their families, careers, and political responsibilities
and as a gurehead of all the central themes in Western when they ought to be worried about the welfare of their
philosophy.
souls. Socrates assertion that the gods had singled him
To illustrate the use of the Socratic method, a series of
questions are posed to help a person or group to determine their underlying beliefs and the extent of their
knowledge. The Socratic method is a negative method
of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are
found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that
lead to contradictions. It was designed to force one to examine ones own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs.
An alternative interpretation of the dialectic is that it
is a method for direct perception of the Form of the
Good. Philosopher Karl Popper describes the dialectic
as the art of intellectual intuition, of visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great
Mystery behind the common mans everyday world of
appearances.[60] In a similar vein, French philosopher
Pierre Hadot suggests that the dialogues are a type of spiritual exercise. Hadot writes that in Platos view, every
dialectical exercise, precisely because it is an exercise of
pure thought, subject to the demands of the Logos, turns
the soul away from the sensible world, and allows it to
convert itself towards the Good.[61]

3.2

Philosophical beliefs

The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato,

are dicult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy presentation of ideas given in most of the dialogues may be the

out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke irritation, if

not outright ridicule. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (virtue) can be taught. He liked
to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent
military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their
own quality. Socrates argued that moral excellence was
more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture.
This belief may have contributed to his lack of anxiety
about the future of his own sons.
Also, according to A. A. Long, There should be no doubt
that, despite his claim to know only that he knew nothing,
Socrates had strong beliefs about the divine, and, citing
Xenophons Memorabilia, 1.4, 4.3,:
According to Xenophon, he was a
teleologist who held that god arranges everything for the best.[64]
Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but
his teachers. He mentions several inuences: Prodicus
the rhetor and Anaxagoras the philosopher. Perhaps
surprisingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply inuenced by two women besides his mother: he says that
Diotima (cf. Platos Symposium), a witch and priestess
from Mantinea, taught him all he knows about eros, or
love; and that Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught
him the art of rhetoric.[65] John Burnet argued that his
principal teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus but his
ideas were as Plato described them; Eric A. Havelock,

3 PHILOSOPHY

on the other hand, considered Socrates association with promnestiks) in that he matches the young man to
the Anaxagoreans to be evidence of Platos philosophical the best philosopher for his particular mind. Howseparation from Socrates.
ever, he carefully distinguishes himself from a panderer
( proagogos) or procurer. This distinction is
echoed in Xenophons Symposium (3.20), when Socrates
3.3 Socratic paradoxes
jokes about his certainty of being able to make a fortune,
if he chose to practice the art of pandering. For his part
Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the histori- as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to
cal Socrates have been characterized as paradoxical be- a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he
cause they seem to conict with common sense. The fol- is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role, he claims, is
lowing are among the so-called Socratic paradoxes:[66]
more properly to be understood as analogous to a midwife
( maia).[75][76]
No one desires evil.
In the Theaetetus, Socrates explains that he is himself barren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of
others to birth and determine whether they are worthy or
mere "wind eggs" ( anemiaion). Perhaps sig Virtueall virtueis knowledge.
nicantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to
Virtue is sucient for happiness.
age, and women who have never given birth are unable
to become midwives; they would have no experience or
The term, "Socratic paradox" can also refer to a self- knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the
referential paradox, originating in Socrates utterance, worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillwhat I do not know I do not think I know,[67] often para- side to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have
experience and knowledge of what she is judging.[77][78]
phrased as "I know that I know nothing.
No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly.

3.4

Knowledge

3.5 Virtue

The statement "I know that I know nothing" is often attributed to Socrates, based on a statement in Platos Apology.[68] The conventional interpretation of this is that
Socrates wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own
ignorance. Socrates considered virtuousness to require
or consist of phronsis, thought, sense, judgement, practical wisdom, [and] prudence.[69][70] Therefore, he believed that wrongdoing and behaviour that was not virtuous resulted from ignorance, and that those who did
wrong knew no better.[71]
The one thing Socrates claimed to have knowledge of
was the art of love (ta ertik). This assertion seems
to be associated with the word ertan, which means to
ask questions. Therefore, Socrates is claiming to know
about the art of love, insofar as he knows how to ask
questions.[72][73]
The only time he actually claimed to be wise was within
Apology, in which he says he is wise in the limited sense of having human wisdom.[74] It is debatable
whether Socrates believed humans (as opposed to gods
like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one
hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and
ideal knowledge; on the other, Platos Symposium (Diotimas Speech) and Republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom.
In Platos Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares his treatment of the young people who come to him for philosophical advice to the way midwives treat their patients,
and the way matrimonial matchmakers act. He says
that he himself is a true matchmaker ( Bust of Socrates in the Palermo Archaeological Museum.

3.7

Covertness

Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to

focus on the pursuit of virtue rather than the pursuit, for
instance, of material wealth.[79] He always invited others
to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of
true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way
for people to grow together as a populace.[80] His actions
lived up to this standard: in the end, Socrates accepted
his death sentence when most thought he would simply
leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go
against the will of his community; as mentioned above,
his reputation for valor on the battleeld was without reproach.

of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was

never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to
his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the
rule of the Thirty Tyrants was also objectionable; when
called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before
the Tyrants were overthrown. He did, however, fulll
his duty to serve as Prytanis when a trial of a group of
Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign
were judged; even then, he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed
in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense
pressure.[83] Judging by his actions, he considered the rule
The idea that there are certain virtues formed a common thread in Socrates teachings. These virtues repre- of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic
Senate that sentenced him to death.
sented the most important qualities for a person to have,
foremost of which were the philosophical or intellectual Socrates apparent respect for democracy is one of the
virtues. Socrates stressed that "the unexamined life is themes emphasized in the 2008 play Socrates on Trial by
not worth living [and] ethical virtue is the only thing that Andrew David Irvine. Irvine argues that it was because
matters.[81]
of his loyalty to Athenian democracy that Socrates was
willing to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens. As
Irvine puts it, During a time of war and great social and
3.6 Politics
intellectual upheaval, Socrates felt compelled to express
his views openly, regardless of the consequences. As a
It is argued that Socrates believed ideals belong in a result, he is remembered today, not only for his sharp wit
world only the wise man can understand,[82] making the and high ethical standards, but also for his loyalty to the
philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern view that in a democracy the best way for a man to serve
others. In Platos dialogue the Republic, Socrates openly himself, his friends, and his cityeven during times of
objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his waris by being loyal to, and by speaking publicly about,
adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates the truth.[84]
found short of ideal any government that did not conform
to his presentation of a perfect regime led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, 3.7 Covertness
however, possible that the Socrates of Platos Republic is
colored by Platos own views. During the last years of
In the Dialogues of Plato, though Socrates sometimes
Socrates life, Athens was in continual ux due to polit- seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation
ical upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a
and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to
junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Platos rela- Plato.[85] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be distive, Critias, who had once been a student and friend of missed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the dierSocrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the ences between the views of Plato and Socrates; in addiAthenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it de- tion, there seem to be some corollaries in the works of
clared an amnesty for all recent events.
Xenophon. In the culmination of the philosophic path as
Socrates opposition to democracy is often denied, and
the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates
when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed.
The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did
not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is
that the view is expressed no earlier than Platos Republic,
which is widely considered one of Platos Middle dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates
views. Furthermore, according to Platos Apology of
Socrates, an early dialogue, Socrates refused to pursue
conventional politics; he often stated he could not look
into others matters or tell people how to live their lives
when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He
believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of
Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates acceptance of his death sentence after his conviction can also
be seen to support this view. It is often claimed much

discussed in Platos Symposium, one comes to the Sea of

Beauty or to the sight of the beautiful itself (211C); only
then can one become wise. (In the Symposium, Socrates
credits his speech on the philosophic path to his teacher,
the priestess Diotima, who is not even sure if Socrates
is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.) In the
Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno
he would understand Socrates answers better if only he
could stay for the initiations next week. Further confusions result from the nature of these sources, insofar as
the Platonic Dialogues are arguably the work of an artistphilosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to
the passive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. According to Olympiodorus the Younger in his Life of Plato,[86]
Plato himself received instruction from the writers of
tragedy before taking up the study of philosophy. His
works are, indeed, dialogues; Platos choice of this, the

medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the ctions of theatre, may reect the ever-interpretable nature of his writings, as he has been called a dramatist of reason. What
is more, the rst word of nearly all Platos works is a signicant term for that respective dialogue, and is used with
its many connotations in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and
the Symposium each allude to Socrates coy delivery of
philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the
Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and
mystery in all writing. The covertness we often nd in
Plato, appearing here and there couched in some enigmatic use of symbol and/or irony, may be at odds with the
mysticism Platos Socrates expounds in some other dialogues. These indirect methods may fail to satisfy some
readers.

LEGACY

plete form. Aristotle refers frequently, but in passing,

to Socrates in his writings. Almost all of Platos works
center on Socrates. However, Platos later works appear
to be more his own philosophy put into the mouth of his
mentor.

5.1 The Socratic dialogues

Main article: Socratic dialogue

The Socratic Dialogues are a series of dialogues written

by Plato and Xenophon in the form of discussions between Socrates and other persons of his time, or as discussions between Socrates followers over his concepts.
Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates rePlatos Phaedo is an example of this latter category. Alliance on what the Greeks called his "daimnic sign,
though his Apology is a monologue delivered by Socrates,
an averting ( apotreptikos) inner voice
it is usually grouped with the Dialogues.
Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that prevented Socrates from en- The Apology professes to be a record of the actual speech
tering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates Socrates delivered in his own defense at the trial. In the
considered this to be a form of divine madness, the sort Athenian jury system, an apology is composed of three
of insanity that is a gift from the gods and gives us poetry, parts: a speech, followed by a counter-assessment, then
mysticism, love, and even philosophy itself. Alternately, some nal words. Apology is a transliteration, not a
the sign is often taken to be what we would call intu- translation, of the Greek apologia, meaning defense"; in
ition"; however, Socrates characterization of the phe- this sense it is not apologetic according to our contemponomenon as daimnic may suggest that its origin is divine, rary use of the term.
mysterious, and independent of his own thoughts. Today, Plato generally does not place his own ideas in the mouth
such a voice would be classied under the Diagnostic and of a specic speaker; he lets ideas emerge via the Socratic
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as a command hal- Method, under the guidance of Socrates. Most of the dilucination.[87]
alogues present Socrates applying this method to some

Satirical playwrights

He was prominently lampooned in Aristophanes' comedy

The Clouds, produced when Socrates was in his midforties; he said at his trial (according to Plato) that the
laughter of the theater was a harder task to answer than
the arguments of his accusers. Sren Kierkegaard believed this play was a more accurate representation of
Socrates than those of his students. In the play, Socrates
is ridiculed for his dirtiness, which is associated with the
Laconizing fad; also in plays by Callias, Eupolis, and
Telecleides. Other comic poets who lampooned Socrates
include Mnesimachus and Ameipsias. In all of these,
Socrates and the Sophists were criticized for the moral
dangers inherent in contemporary thought and literature.

Prose sources

Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle are the main sources for

the historical Socrates; however, Xenophon and Plato
were students of Socrates, and they may idealize him;
however, they wrote the only continuous descriptions
of Socrates that have come down to us in their com-

extent, but nowhere as completely as in the Euthyphro.

In this dialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several iterations of rening the answer to Socrates question,
"...What is the pious, and what the impious?"
In Platos Dialogues, learning appears as a process of remembering. The soul, before its incarnation in the body,
was in the realm of Ideas (very similar to the Platonic
Forms). There, it saw things the way they truly are,
rather than the pale shadows or copies we experience
on earth. By a process of questioning, the soul can be
brought to remember the ideas in their pure form, thus
bringing wisdom.[88]
Especially for Platos writings referring to Socrates, it is
not always clear which ideas brought forward by Socrates
(or his friends) actually belonged to Socrates and which
of these may have been new additions or elaborations
by Platothis is known as the Socratic Problem. Generally, the early works of Plato are considered to be
close to the spirit of Socrates, whereas the later works
including Phaedo and Republicare considered to be
possibly products of Platos elaborations.[89]

6 Legacy

6.2

6.1

Later historical inuence

Immediate inuence

9
Cynicism.
The idea of asceticism being hand in hand with an ethical life or one with piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle
and somewhat dealt with by the Cynics, formed the core
of another philosophy in 281 BCStoicism when Zeno
of Citium would discover Socrates works and then learn
from Crates, a Cynic philosopher.[93]

6.2 Later historical inuence

Statue of Socrates in front of the Academy of Athens (modern)

Immediately, the students of Socrates set to work both

on exercising their perceptions of his teachings in politics
and also on developing many new philosophical schools
of thought. Some of Athens controversial and antidemocratic tyrants were contemporary or posthumous
students of Socrates including Alcibiades and Critias.
Critias cousin Plato would go on to found the Academy in
385 BC, which gained so much renown that Academy
became the standard word for educational institutions in
later European languages such as English, French, and
Italian.[90] Platos protege, another important gure of the
Classical era, Aristotle went on to tutor Alexander the
Great and also to found his own school in 335 BCthe
Lyceumwhose name also now means an educational
institution.[91]

Depiction of Socrates by 13th century Seljuk illustrator

While some of the later contributions of Socrates to

Hellenistic Era culture and philosophy as well as the
Roman Era have been lost to time, his teachings began
a resurgence in both medieval Europe and the Islamic
Middle East alongside those of Aristotle and Stoicism.
Socrates is mentioned in the dialogue Kuzari by Jewish
philosopher and rabbi Yehuda Halevi in which a Jew instructs the Khazar king about Judaism.[94] Al-Kindi, a
While Socrates dealt with moral matters and took no well-known Arabic philosopher, introduced and tried to
and Hellenistic philosophy to an Isnotice at all of nature in general,[92] in his Dialogues, reconcile Socrates
[95]
referring
to him by the name 'Suqrat'.
lamic
audience,
Plato would emphasize mathematics with metaphysical overtones mirroring that of Pythagoras the for- Socrates stature in Western philosophy returned in full
mer who would dominate Western thought well into the force with the Renaissance and the Age of Reason in
Renaissance. Aristotle himself was as much of a philoso- Europe when political theory began to resurface under
pher as he was a scientist with extensive work in the elds those like Locke and Hobbes.[96] Voltaire even went so
far as to write a satirical play about the Trial of Socrates.
of biology and physics.
Socratic thought which challenged conventions, espe- There were a number of paintings about his life includcially in stressing a simplistic way of living, became di- ing Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Senvorced from Platos more detached and philosophical sual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault and The Death
pursuits. This idea was inherited by one of Socrates of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in the later 18th cenolder students, Antisthenes, who became the originator tury.
of another philosophy in the years after Socrates death: To this day, the Socratic Method is still used in class-

10

8 NOTES

room and law school discourse to expose underlying is- 6.4 In literature
sues in both subject and the speaker. He has been rec Socrates is a major character in Mary Renault's hisognized with accolades ranging from frequent mentions
torical novel The Last of the Wine. The books proin pop culture (such as the movie Bill & Teds Excellent
tagonists, Alexias and Lysis, study under him in
Adventure and a Greek rock band called Socrates Drank
Athens.[101]
the Conium) to numerous busts in academic institutions
in recognition of his contribution to education.
A humorous version of the deceased Socrates apOver the past century, numerous plays about Socrates
pears in John Kendrick Bangs's comic novel A
have also focused on Socrates life and inuence. One of
House-Boat on the Styx and its sequels.[102]
the most recent has been Socrates on Trial, a play based
on Aristophanes Clouds and Platos Apology, Crito, and
Phaedo, all adapted for modern performance.

7 See also

Codex Vaticanus Graecus 64

6.3

Criticism

Evaluation of and reaction to Socrates has been undertaken by both historians and philosophers from the time
of his death to the present day with a multitude of conclusions and perspectives. Although he was not directly
prosecuted for his connection to Critias, leader of the
Spartan-backed Thirty Tyrants, and showed considerable personal courage in refusing to submit to [them]",
he was seen by some as a gure who mentored oligarchs
who became abusive tyrants, and undermined Athenian
democracy. The Sophistic movement that he railed at in
life survived him, but by the 3rd century BC, was rapidly
overtaken by the many philosophical schools of thought
that Socrates inuenced.[97]
Socrates death is considered iconic and his status as a
martyr of philosophy overshadows most contemporary
and posthumous criticism. However, Xenophon mentions
Socrates arrogance and that he was an expert in the art
of pimping or self-presentation.[98] Direct criticism of
Socrates the man almost disappears after this time, but
there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle over
the elements of Socratic philosophy distinct from those of
his students, even into the Middle Ages.
Some modern scholarship holds that, with so much of
his own thought obscured and possibly altered by Plato,
it is impossible to gain a clear picture of Socrates amid
all the contradictory evidence. That both Cynicism and
Stoicism, which carried heavy inuence from Socratic
thought, were unlike or even contrary to Platonism further illustrates this. The ambiguity and lack of reliability serves as the modern basis of criticismthat it
is nearly impossible to know the real Socrates. Some
controversy also exists about Socrates attitude towards
homosexuality[99] and as to whether or not he believed
in the Olympian gods, was monotheistic, or held some
other religious viewpoint.[100] However, it is still commonly taught and held with little exception that Socrates
is the progenitor of subsequent Western philosophy, to
the point that philosophers before him are referred to as
pre-Socratic.

List of speakers in Platos dialogues

Xanthippe (wife of Socrates)
Myrto (second wife of Socrates, according to some
accounts)
De genio Socratis

8 Notes
[1] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Socrates". Encyclopdia
Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[2] Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th
edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.
[3] Kofman, Sarah (1998). Socrates: Fictions of a Philosopher. p. 34. ISBN 0-8014-3551-X.
[4] Roberson, C. (8 December 2009). Ethics for Criminal Justice Professionals. CRC Press. p. 24. ISBN
1420086723.
[5] Rubel, A.; Vickers, M. (11 September 2014). Fear and
Loathing in Ancient Athens: Religion and Politics During the Peloponnesian War. Routledge. p. 147. ISBN
1317544803.
[6] Dorion, Louis-Andr.
The Rise and Fall of the
Socratic Problem (pp. 123) (The Cambridge ComCambridge University Press.
panion to Socrates).
doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.001.
ISBN
9780521833424. Retrieved 2015-05-07.
[7] May, H. (2000).
Learning,. p. 20.

On Socrates.

Wadsworth/Thomson

[8] catalogue of Harvard University Press - Xenophon Volume IV. Retrieved 2015-3-26.
[9] Kahn, CH', Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form, Cambridge University
Press, 1998, p. xvii.

11

[10] Many other writers added to the fashion of Socratic dialogues (called Sokratikoi logoi) at the time. In addition to
Plato and Xenophon, each of the following is credited by
some source as having added to the genre: Aeschines of
Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito,
Euclid of Megara, and Phaedo. It is unlikely Plato was the
rst in this eld (Vlastos, p. 52).

[26] A Grafton, GW Most, Settis, S., The Classical Tradition

Harvard University Press, 2010, ISBN 0674035720.
[27] Plato, ''Phaedo'' 116b. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved
2012-08-19.
[28] Charmides. p. 155d. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors
list (help);

[11] Morrison, D.R. The Cambridge Companion to Socrates

(p.xiv).
Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN
0521833426. Retrieved 2015-04-16.

[29] Plato, ''Crito'' 45c-45e. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved

2012-08-19.

[12] Nails, D. Socrates:Socrates{}s strangeness. The Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved 2015-04-16.

[30] The ancient tradition is attested in Pausanias, 1.22.8; for a

modern denial, see Kleine Pauly, Sokrates 7; the tradition is a confusion with the sculptor, Socrates of Thebes,
mentioned in Pausanias 9.25.3, a contemporary of Pindar.

[13] CH Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form (p. 75), Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0521648300.
[14] Cohen, M., Philosophical Tales: Being an Alternative History Revealing the Characters, the Plots, and the Hidden
Scenes That Make Up the True Story of Philosophy, John
Wiley & Sons, 2008, p. 5, ISBN 1-4051-4037-2.
[15] D Nails, Agora, Academy, and the Conduct of Philosophy
(p. 9), Springer, 1995, ISBN 0792335430.
[16] Ahbel-Rappe, S., Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed (p.
2 and footnote 10 on pp. 1578), A&C Black, 2009.
[17] Bett, R. A Companion to Socrates (pp. 299-30). John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 1405192607. Retrieved 201504-17. (A translation of one fragment reads: But from
them the sculptor, blatherer on the lawful, turned away.
Spellbinder of the Greeks, who made them precise in language. Sneerer trained by rhetoroticians, sub-Attic ironist.)
[18] Lieber, F. Encyclopedia Americana (pp. 266-7), published 1832 (original from Oxford University).
[19] CS. Celenza (2001), Angelo Polizianos Lamia: Text,
Translation, and Introductory Studies (note 34), BRILL,
2010, ISBN 9004185909.
[20] Ong, pp. 7879.
[21] P.J. King, One Hundred Philosophers (p. 23), Zebra,
2006, ISBN 1770220011.
[22] G.W.F. Hegel (trans. Frances H. Simon), Lectures on
History of Philosophy
[23] Nails, D, Socrates - A Chronology of the historical
Socrates in the context of Athenian history and the dramatic dates of Platos dialogues, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.). Retrieved 2015-04-17.
[24] Howatson, M.C. (2013). The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (reprint, 3rd ed.). Oxford University
Press. p. 528. ISBN 0199548552.
[25] Plato (1999) [1921]. Theaetetus. Translated by Fowler,
Harold N. (reprint of London, William Heinemann Ltd.
ed.). Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press. p.
149a. Retrieved April 2015. Check date values in:
|access-date= (help)

[31] Xen. Mem. 4.2.1.

[32] J. Sellars, (2003), Simon the Shoemaker and the Problem
of Socrates. Classical Philology 98, 207-216.
[33] Colaiaco, J.A. Socrates Against Athens: Philosophy on
Trial. Routledge, 2013, ISBN 1135024936. Retrieved
2015-04-17.
[34] Monoson, S.S., Meineck, P., Konstan, D., Combat
Trauma and the Ancient Greeks (p. 136), Palgrave
Macmillan, 2014, ISBN 1137398868.
[35] Iain King details Socrates military service, including how
it may have aected his ideas, in Socrates at War (article),
accessed 2014-03-21.
[36] Ober, J., Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellectual Critics of Popular Rule (p. 184 - footnote 54), Martin Classical Lectures, Princeton University Press, 2001,
ISBN 0691089817.
[37] Plato (2015). Introductory Readings in Ancient Greek and
Roman Philosophy (p. 72). Miller, PL.: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 1624663540. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
[38] Dillon, M., Garland, L., Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Documents from Archaic Times to the Death of
Alexander (p. 119), Routledge, 2010, ISBN 1136991387
(revised).
[39] Garland, L., Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Documents from Archaic Times to the Death of Socrates (p.
321), Routledge, 2005, ISBN 113460372X.
[40] C Tuplin, V Azoulay, Xenophon and His World: Papers
from a Conference Held in Liverpool in July 1999 (p.
379, footnote 92), Geschichte, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004,
ISBN 3515083928.
[41] Larcher, P.H. (1829). Larchers Notes on Herodotus: Historical and Critical Remarks on the Nine Books of the History of Herodotus, with a Chronological Table. 2. John R.
Priestley. p. 330. Retrieved 2015-04-18.
[42] Munn, Henderson. The School of History: Athens in the
Age of Socrates (p. 186). University of California Press,
2000 ISBN 0520929713. Retrieved 2015-04-18.
[43] Hayek, FA. Law, Legislation and Liberty, Volume 3: The
Political Order of a Free People. ISBN 0226321266. Retrieved 2015-04-18.

12

[44] Harris, E.M. The Rule of Law in Action in Democratic Athens. Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN
0199899169. Retrieved 2015-04-18.

8 NOTES

[61] Hadot, P. (1995) Philosophy as a Way of Life, Oxford,

Blackwells, p. 93.

[45] Pangle, T.L. The Laws of Plato. University of Chicago

Press, 1988 (reprint), ISBN 0226671100. p. 511. Retrieved 2015-04-18.

[62] Cohn, Dorrit (2001). Does Socrates Speak for Plato?

Reections on an Open Question. New Literary History.
32 (3): 485500. doi:10.1353/nlh.2001.0030. ISSN
1080-661X.

[46] Ober, J. in Morrisson, D.R. (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Socrates Cambridge University Press, 2011, pp.
167-169. ISBN 0521833426.

[63] Plato, Republic 336c and 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology

23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical
Refutations 183b7.

[47] LD LeCaire, Tyranny and Terror:The Failure of Athenian

Democracy and the Reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Eastern
Washington University. Spring 2013.

[64] Long, AA., in Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A

Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. p. 59.

[48] Smith, W. (1852). The Apology of Socrates, the Crito, and

Part of the Phaedo: With Notes from Stallbaum, Schleiermachers Introductions, A Life of Socrates, and Schleiermachers Essay on the Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher.
Taylor Walton and Maberly. p. ciii note 1.
[49] Wilson, Emily R. (2007). The Death of Socrates. Harvard
University Press. p. 55.
[50] Here it is telling to refer to Thucydides (3.82.8): Reckless audacity came to be considered the courage of a loyal
ally; prudent hesitation, specious cowardice; moderation
was held to be a cloak for unmanliness; ability to see all
sides of a question inaptness to act on any. Frantic violence, became the attribute of manliness; cautious plotting, a justiable means of self-defense. The advocate of
extreme measures was always trustworthy; his opponent a
man to be suspected.

[65] Plato, Menexenus 235e

[66] p. 14, Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1,
Oxford University Press 2007; p. 147, Gerasimos Santas, The Socratic Paradoxes, Philosophical Review 73
(1964), pp. 14764.
[67] Apology of Socrates 21d.
[68] Plato, Apology 21d; A. Andrea, J Overeld, The Human
Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500
(p. 116), Cengage Learning, 2015, ISBN 1305537467.
[69] Oxford English Dictionary, Etymology for phronesis.
" thought, sense, judgement, practical wisdom,
prudence.
[70] T Engberg-Pedersen, Aristotles Theory of Moral Insight (p. 236), Oxford University Press, 1983, ISBN
0198246676.

[51] Watereld, Robin (2009). Why Socrates Died: Dispelling

the Myths. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.

[71] Amlie Rorty, Essays on Aristotles Ethics (p. 267), University of California Press, 1980, ISBN 0520040414

[52] Brun (1978).

[72] Reeve, C. D. C., Plato on Love, Hackett Publishing, 2006,

pp. xixxx, ISBN 1603844066.

[53] Plato. Apology, 2427.

[54] Fallon, Warren J. (2001). Socratic suicide. PubMed.
PMID: 19681231. US National Library of Medicine.
National Institutes of Health. 121:91106. Retrieved
September 12, 2013.

[73] G Rudebusch, Socrates, John Wiley & Sons, 2011, ISBN

1444358707.
[74] D P Verene, Speculative Philosophy (p. 19), Lexington
Books, 2009, ISBN 0739136615.

[55] Linder, Doug (2002). The Trial of Socrates. University

of MissouriKansas City School of Law. Retrieved
September 12, 2013.

[75] Boys-Stones, G., Rowe, C., The Circle of Socrates: Readings in the First-Generation Socratics, Hackett Publishing,
2013, pp. 173-175.

[56] Socrates (Greek philosopher)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 12, 2013.

[76] Vander Waerdt, PA., The Socratic Movement, Cornell

University Press, 1994, pp. 200-202.

[57] R. G. Frey (January 1978).

Did Socrates Commit Suicide?.
Philosophy, Volume 53, Issue
University of Liverpool.
203, pp 106108.
doi:10.1017/S0031819100016375

[77] Plato, Theaetetus.

[58] Allen, R.E. (1981). Socrates and Legal Obligation. U of

Minnesota Press. pp. 6596.

[79] Brickhouse, TC.; Smith, N.D. (1990). Socrates on Trial.

Oxford University Press. p. 165.

[59] Weiss, R. (1998). Socrates Dissatised: An Analysis of

Platos Crito. Oxford University Press. p. 85.

[80] Nichols, M.P. (1987). Socrates and the Political Community: An Ancient Debate. SUNY Press. p. 67.

[60] Popper, K. (1962) The Open Society and its Enemies,

Volume 1 Plato, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, p133.

[81] Duignan, B. (2009). The 100 Most Inuential Philosophers

of All Time. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 33.

[78] Guthrie, WKC., Socrates, Cambridge University Press,

1971, p. 126.

13

[82] Attributed to Solomon in 100 Most Inuential People of

All Times for Smartphones and Mobile Devices. Mobile
Reference. 2007.
[83] Kagen (1978).
[84] Irvine, Andrew D. Introduction, Socrates on Trial,
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 19.
[85] McPherran, M.L. (1998). The Religion of Socrates. Penn
State Press. p. 268.
[86] Olympiodorus the Younger, Life of Plato, in The Works
of Plato: A New and Literal Version Chiey from the Text
of Stallbaum, p. 234, Bohm, 1854.
[87] Leudar, I.; Thomas, P. (2013). 1. Voices of Reason,
Voices of Insanity: Studies of Verbal Hallucinations. Routledge.
[88] Khan, C.H. (1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The
Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press.
[89] Morrison, D.R. (2011). 1. The Cambridge Companion
to Socrates. Cambridge University Press.
[90] Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to
Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 306309.
[91] Magee, B (2000). The Great Philosophers: An Introduction to Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p.
34.
[92] Carruccio, E. (2006). Mathematics And Logic in History
And in Contemporary Thought. Transaction Publishers. p.
44.

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Brun, Jean (1978). Socrate (sixth edition). Presses
universitaires de France. pp. 3940. ISBN 2-13035620-6. (French)
May, Hope (2000). On Socrates. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-57604-4.
Ong, Walter (2002). Orality and Literacy. New
York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28129-6.
Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire.
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1987.
Pausanias, Description of Greece. W. H. S. Jones
(translator). Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press; London, William
Heinemann Ltd. (1918). Vol. 1. Books III: ISBN
0-674-99104-4. Vol. 4. Books VIII.22X: ISBN
0-674-99328-4.
Thucydides; The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M.
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Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates, Ironist and
Moral Philosopher. Ithaca: Cornell University
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Bernas, Richard, cond. Socrate. By Erik Satie.
LTM/Boutique, 2006

[93] Long, A.A. (1996). Stoic Studies. Cambridge University

Press. pp. 3132.

Bruell, C (1994).
On Platos Political Philosophy.
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[94] Hughes, B. (2011). The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens

and the Search for the Good Life. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.

Bruell, C. (1999). On the Socratic Education: An

Introduction to the Shorter Platonic Dialogues, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littleeld.

[95] von Dehsen, C. (2013). Philosophers and Religious Leaders. Routledge.

Grube, G.M.A. (2002). Plato, Five Dialogues.

Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

[96] Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to

Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. xixxx.

Hanson, V.D. (2001). Socrates Dies at Delium,

424 B.C., What If? 2, Robert Cowley, editor, G.P.
Putnams Sons, NY.

[97] Wilson, E.R. (2007). The Death of Socrates: Hero, Villain, Chatterbox, Saint. Prole Books. pp. 6162.
[98] Danzig, G. (2010). Apologizing for Socrates: How Plato
and Xenophon Created Our Socrates. Lexington Books.
pp. 6667.
[99] W. K. C. Guthrie, Socrates, Cambridge University Press,
1971, p. 70.
[100] A.A. Long How Does Socrates Divine Sign Communicate with Him?", Chapter 5 in: A Companion to Socrates,
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[101] Gomez, Alex (July 10, 2010). Mary Renaults 'The Last
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2014-10-14.
[102] Bangs, John Kendrick (1901). A House-Boat on the Styx.
Harper & Bros. pp. 164170. Retrieved 2014-10-14.

Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: A

play based on Aristophanes Clouds and Platos Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-08020-9538-1 (paper); ISBN 978-1-4426-9254-1 (epub)
Kamtekar, Rachana (2004). Platos Euthyphro,
Apology, and Crito: Critical Essays. Lanham, MD:
Rowman and Littleeld. ISBN 0-7425-3325-5.
Kierkegaard, Sren (1968). The Concept of Irony:
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Levinson, Paul (2007). The Plot to Save Socrates.

New York: Tor Books. ISBN 0-7653-1197-6.
Luce, J.V. (1992). An Introduction to Greek Philosophy, Thames & Hudson, NY.
Maritain, J. (1930, 1991). Introduction to Philosophy, Christian Classics, Inc., Westminster, MD.
Robinson, R (1953). Platos Earlier Dialectic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824777-7.
Ch. 2: Elenchus, Ch. 3: Elenchus: Direct and
Indirect
Taylor, C.C.W., Hare, R.M. & Barnes, J. (1998).
Greek Philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle,
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Taylor, C.C.W. (2001). Socrates: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

10

External links

Socrates at DMOZ
Nails, Debra. Socrates. Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
Ambury, James M. Socrates. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Socrates at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

Socrates on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

Greek Philosophy: Socrates
Lartius, Diogenes (1925). "Socrates, with predecessors and followers: Socrates". Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:2. Translated by Hicks, Robert
Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
Shorey, Paul (1905). "Socrates". New International
Encyclopedia.
Original Fresque of Socrates in Archaeological Museum of Ephesus
Socrates Narrates Platos The Republic
Project Gutenberg e-texts on Socrates, amongst others:
The Dialogues of Plato (see also Wikipedia articles on Dialogues by Plato)
The writings of Xenophon, such as the Memorablia and Hellenica.
The satirical plays by Aristophanes
Aristotles writings
Voltaires Socrates
A free audiobook of the Socratic dialogue Euthyphro at LibriVox

EXTERNAL LINKS

15

11
11.1

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Socrates Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates?oldid=738681074 Contributors: Magnus Manske, General Wesc, MichaelTinkler, Brion VIBBER, The Anome, Amillar, Larry Sanger, BenBaker, XJaM, Fubar Obfusco, Karen Johnson, William Avery, Ray Van
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File:David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/David_-_The_Death_of_
Socrates.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.metmuseum.org/collection/the-collection-online/search/436105 Original
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