Job Analysis, Job Design and Quality of Work Life

A. Learning Objectives

Explain what is meant by job analysis and job design.

Understand the uses of job analysis.
Describe the content of a job description and a job specification.
Discuss the collection of job analysis data.
Explain the major methods of job analysis.
Discuss competency profiling.
Understand the major approaches to job design.
Discuss quality of work life, employee participation and industrial democracy.

B. Outline
Introduced here are the concepts of job analysis, job design and quality of work life.
The first six
sections are devoted to job analysis and examine the collection of data for the
purposes of job analysis, the methods of job analysis, problems that might be
encountered, and the use of job analysis in relation to other HRM functions. Section
seven discusses the issue of job design and the characteristics that should be
considered when designing any job. The final section looks at the quality of work life
and the use of quality circles to improve employee job satisfaction.
C. Job analysis
A proper match between work and employee capabilities is now an economic
necessity, and organizations that fail to have the right people in the right place at
the right time are at risk. Job analysis focuses attention on what employees are
expected to do. It can be defined as the process by which jobs are divided to
determine what tasks, duties and responsibilities they include, their relationships to
other jobs, the conditions under which work is performed, and the personal
capabilities required for satisfactory performance.
C.1.

Purpose of job analysis

The purpose of job analysis is to determine why jobs exist, what tasks are required
within the job, when, where and how the job is performed, under what conditions,
and what qualifications are needed to perform the job.
C.2.

Components of job analysis

Job analysis provides information about three basic aspects of a job.

Job content: the duties and responsibilities of the job

Job requirements: the formal qualifications, knowledge, skills, abilities and
personal characteristics which employees need to perform the content of the
job

C.3.

Job context: situational and supporting information regarding the particular

job
Approaches to job analysis

There are two basic approaches to job analysis:

2
C.4.

a job-oriented (or task) approach - A job-oriented approach is concerned

with what gets done that is, the tasks, duties and responsibilities of the job
(job content).
an employee-oriented (or behaviour) approach. - The employeeoriented approach focuses on how the job is done that is, the human
behaviour required to perform the job (job requirements).
Job analysis and job design

Job analysis is normally conducted after the job has been designed, the worker has
been trained and the work has been performed. It is a snapshot of the job that
exists at that time, not what it should be.
C.5.

When to analyse a job

Job analysis is generally undertaken:

C.6.

when the organisation commences and the job analysis program is started;
when a new job is created; and
when a job is changed significantly as a result of new methods, new
procedures or new technology.
Uses of job analysis

The information produced by job analysis is used extensively in HRM. For example it
is used to effectively hire, train, appraise, compensate or use its human resources.
The information gathered during the job analysis used in:

Job descriptions
Job specifications
Job design
organisational structure and design
HR planning
recruitment
selection
job orientation
performance standards and performance appraisal
training and development
career planning and development
job evaluation

compensation and benefits

healthy and safe working environment.
industrial relations
legal requirements

D. Job descriptions
A job description is a written statement explaining why a job exists, what the jobholder actually does, how he or she does it, and under what conditions the job is
performed.
D.1. Job description guidelines
Their use and organisational preference largely determine the style and format of
job descriptions. Clarity and simplicity of expression are prerequisites for job
descriptions and specifications.
D.2. Job specifications
The job specification or person specification is derived from the job description. It
identifies the experience, qualifications, skills, abilities and knowledge, personal
qualities and special requirements needed to successfully perform the job.
D.3. Job descriptions, job specifications and unions
The language used in writing job descriptions and job specifications is extremely
important as it may become part of an award or negotiated agreement involving a
union. Badly written job descriptions and job specifications restrict managements
freedom to change job tasks, duties and responsibilities and to assign work to
employees. To avoid disputes, it is critical that job descriptions and job
specifications be clear, concise and understandable.
D.4. Criticism of job descriptions
The traditional job description has been criticised for being a straitjacket suitable
only for repetitive work; a static written description that ignores the dynamics of the
job. Job fluidity undermines the effectiveness of traditional job descriptions and
means that they risk being out of date and counterproductive as guides for
selection, job evaluation and so on. Thus, job descriptions are seen as being
appropriate only for stable, predictable and bureaucratic organisations. Finally, job
descriptions are seen as archaic because the traditional job comprising set tasks is
disappearing. Project-based work instead of position-based work signals the demise
of the traditional job and traditional job description. Competition, technical
innovation and changing workplace values have created the need for a work
environment where jobs are re-invented totally.
E. Collection of job analysis information
There are numerous ways of collecting job analysis information. The most
appropriate data collection method depends on the purpose of the job analysis, the

types of information to be collected, the sources of information, the means of

information collection and the way in which the data are to be analysed and
reported. The five most common data collection methods are observation,
interview, questionnaire, diary/log and critical incident reports. Other
approaches include film and video, a computerised system and job analyst
participation. Each can be used alone or in conjunction with one or more of the
other data collection methods.

E.1.

Combination of data collection methods

A combination of methods increases the probability of better results, so multiple

methods are frequently used. The job analyst, depending upon the purposes of the
job analysis (for example, recruitment and selection, performance appraisal or job
evaluation), determines the method or combination of methods to be used.
F. Methods of job analysis
The most popular job analysis techniques are:

Functional Job Analysis (FJA) - uses standardised statements and

terminology to describe the nature of jobs and to prepare job descriptions
and job specifications.
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) - is a job analysis instrument and
scoring/reporting service that is marketed commercially for quantitatively
assessing jobs.
Management Positions Descriptions Questionnaire (MPDQ) - is a
behaviourally oriented, structured questionnaire for describing, comparing,
classifying and evaluating management positions.
Position Classification Inventory (PCI) - is a job analysis inventory based
on Hollands RIASEC theory, which can be used to classify occupations and to
assess personjob fit.
Hay Guide Chart Profile Method - Job content is analysed in terms of three
major factors that are present to some degree in every job. These are knowhow, problem solving and accountability. A fourth factor, working conditions,
is used for those jobs for which hazards, an unpleasant environment and/or
particular physical demands are significant elements.
New multi-method approaches - based on computer technology and
sophisticated quantitative techniques are now coming into use. These can
efficiently analyse a geographically dispersed work force, track and document
rapidly changing job content and, for large organisations, produce results
which are very cost effective.

G. Competency profiling
The usefulness of task-oriented approaches to job analysis has been reduced by
changes in the workplace. HR managers have increasingly focused on person-

oriented approaches such as critical incident reporting and behaviourevent

interviews to identify the skills and behaviours needed to perform a job. These
occupational requirements are referred to as competencies. A competency is an
underlying characteristic of a person that leads to or causes superior or effective
performance.
G.1. Competency characteristics

Motives
Traits
Self-concept
Knowledge
Skill

The difficulties associated with assessing and developing the hidden competencies,
means some HR managers and theorists prefer to concentrate on developing
universal standards of performance expressed in terms of outputs rather than
inputs. This approach is called the standards model and it emphasises minimal
standards of performance.
G.2. The Behavioural Event Interview
The Behavioural Event Interview (BEI) is a development of critical incident reporting
that generates information about the job, but also about what the job holder thinks,
feels and hopes to achieve in the job. It identifies the competencies needed to do
the job well.
G.3. Criticism of competency profiling

Ambiguous meaning of competency.

Generic off-the-shelf nature.
Present or past focused.
Emphasis on technical competencies.
Assumption of rationality.

H. Job analysis and EEO

To guarantee compliance with Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) requirements,
managers must know the job. Job analysis can provide the hard evidence of job
relatedness and thus help the HR manager to establish organisational adherence to
EEO requirements.
I. Practical problems and theoretical criticisms of job analysis
Some problems that arise in job analysis are the product of human behaviour, while
others stem from the nature of the job analysis method. Traditional approaches to
job analysis are mostly criticised for their basic assumption that jobs are static, and
the validity of the job concept itself.

J. Job design
Job design is the specification of the content of a job, the material and equipment
required to do the job, and the relation of the job to other jobs. A well-designed job
promotes the achievement of the organisations strategic business objectives by
structuring work so it integrates management requirements for efficiency and
employee needs for satisfaction.
J.1.
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Methods of job design

Job specialisation - involves using standardised work procedures and
having employees perform repetitive, precisely defined and simplified tasks.
Job enlargement - seeks to horizontally load a job by adding to the variety
of tasks to be performed.
Job rotation - increases task variety by periodically shifting employees
between jobs involving different tasks.
Job enrichment - involves making basic changes in job content and level of
responsibility.
Socio-technical enrichment - focuses on the relationship between
technology and groups of workers. The aim is to integrate people with
technology.
Autonomous work teams - represent job enrichment at the group level.
The employer sets up self-managed work teams who are responsible for
accomplishing defined performance objectives.

J. Comprehensive job enrichment: the HackmanOldham Job

Characteristics Model
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) combines both horizontal and vertical
improvements to stimulate employee motivation and satisfaction. Employees
perform better when they perceive their work as being meaningful, have
responsibility for outcomes and receive feedback on the results of their activities.
Five core job characteristics are especially important to job design:

Skills variety - the degree to which a job holder must carry out a variety of
different activities and use a number of different personal skills in performing
the job
Task identity - the degree to which performing a job results in the
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work and produces a visible
outcome that can be recognised as the result of personal performance.
Task significance - the degree to which a job has a significant impact on the
lives of other people, whether those people are co-workers in the same
organisation or individuals outside the organisation.
Autonomy - the degree to which the job holder has the freedom,
independence and discretion necessary to schedule work and to decide which
procedures to use in carrying it out.
Feedback - the degree to which performing the activities required by the job
provides the employee with direct and clear information about the
effectiveness of his or her performance.

K. Quality of work life

Quality of work life (QWL) programs incorporate principles of job enrichment and
socio-technical
enrichment in a comprehensive effort to improve the quality of the work
environment. QWL programs especially seek to integrate employee needs and
wellbeing with the organisations desire for higher productivity.
K.1.

Quality circles

The exact meaning of quality circles can vary from organisation to organisation and
country to country. Quality circles usually consist of small groups of five to ten
workers who meet on a regular basis. The objective is to identify problems as a
group, process suggestions and examine alternatives for improving (at relatively low
cost) productivity, raising product and service quality, and increasing worker
satisfaction.
K. Why quality circles fail
Quality circles often fail because:

managers often feel threatened

managers often pressure employees into starting quality circles instead of
leaving employees to initiate them
high labour turnover and frequent job changes among quality circle members
make it difficult, if not impossible, to maintain any continuity of membership
many groups focus on problems that they have no control over or that are
beyond their level of expertise to solve
some organisations restrict the number of meetings and the time spent in
meetings because quality circle gatherings require members to be absent
from their jobs
quality circles are often beset with problems that derive from union
management relations.

L. Summary
Job analysis is a fundamental HRM activity. It is the process whereby jobs are
studied to determine their tasks, duties and responsibilities, their relationships to
other jobs, the conditions under which work is performed and the personal qualities
required for satisfactory performance. The major job analysis data collection
methods include observation, interview, questionnaire, employee diary/log, critical
incident reporting and competency profiling. The products of job analysis are job
descriptions and job specifications: job descriptions provide a written summary
of the duties and responsibilities of the position; and job specifications focus on the
personal characteristics and qualifications that are required to successfully perform

the job. Job design identifies what work must be performed, how it will be
performed, where it is to
be performed and who will perform it.
Job specialisation involves using standardised work procedures and having
employees perform repetitive, precisely defined and simplified tasks. Job
enlargement, in contrast, seeks to increase the breadth of a job by adding to the
variety of tasks to be performed. Job rotation increases task variety by periodically
shifting employees between jobs involving different tasks. Job enrichment builds
motivating factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility and
opportunities for personal growth by vertical and horizontal loading. Autonomous
work teams represent job enrichment at the group level. QWL programs represent a
comprehensive effort to improve the quality of the work environment by integrating
employee needs and wellbeing with the organisations need for higher productivity.
Quality circles attempt to overcome job specialisation by giving employees the
opportunity to participate in the management of their jobs instead of modifying the
job content.
Industrial democracy is often equated with employee participation. Industrial
democracy involves a redistribution of power in an organisation whereas employee
participation schemes (such as quality circles) do not. Industrial democracy is
subject to controversy and management resistance whereas employee participation
schemes, while also controversial, appear to have a greater chance of acceptance.

M. Terms to identify
autonomous work
teams
autonomy
competency profiling
critical incident
diary/log
feedback
Functional Job Analysis
horizontal loading
industrial democracy
interview
job analysis
job analysis
questionnaire

job analysts
Job Characteristics
Model
job description
job design
job enlargement
job enrichment
job rotation
job specification
Management Position
Description
Questionnaire
observation

Position Analysis
Questionnaire
Position Classification
Inventory
quality circles
quality of work life
skills variety
socio-technical
enrichment
task identity
task significance
vertical loading

N. Review questions
Questions in bold print below are recommended as exam questions
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1. What is job analysis? Why is it important?
Job analysis is a basic HR activity because it focuses attention on what employees
are expected to do. Knowledge about jobs and their requirements is collected
through job analysis. Job analysis may be defined as the process by which jobs are
divided to determine what tasks duties and responsibilities they include, their
relationships to other jobs, the conditions under which work is performed, and the
personal capabilities required for satisfactory performance. In larger organisations,
this systematic collection, evaluation, and organisation of job information is done by
HR specialists called job analysts. In smaller organisations it is generally part of the
HR Managers job portfolio.
Organisations today are becoming more dependent on their human resources.
Revolutionary change, complex techniques and global competition mean increasing
vulnerability. Organisations that fail to have the right people in the right place at the
right time are at risk. A proper match between work and employee capabilities is
now an economic necessity. HR Managers therefore need a good understanding of
work and the way it is organised. Job analysis and job design provide the
foundations for this knowledge.
2. What steps are involved in job analysis? Who should be included in the
job analysis process?
The purpose of job analysis is to obtain answers to such questions as:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Why does the job exist?

What physical and mental activities does the worker undertake?
When is the job to be performed?
Where is the job to be performed?
How does the worker do the job?
What qualifications are needed to perform the job?
What are the job working conditions (such as the levels of temperature, light,
offensive fumes, and noise)
h. What machinery or equipment is used in the job?
i. What constitutes successful performance?
Job analysis provides information about 3 basic aspects of a job:
Job Content - describes the duties and responsibilities of the job in a manner that
can range from global statements to very detailed descriptions of tasks and
procedural steps
Job Requirements - identify the formal qualifications, knowledge, skills abilities
and personal
characteristics that employees need in order to perform the content of the job in a
particular situation or context.

Job Context - refers to situational and supporting information regarding the

particular job: its
purpose, where it fits within the organisation, scope data such as the magnitude of
financial, human or material resources managed; the availability of guidelines, the
potential consequences of error, the amount and closeness of supervision received
or provided; and the work setting, cultural context, physical demands and working
conditions.
3. What are some problems you would expect to find in an organisation
where jobs have been designed for maximum efficiency without any
consideration of employee needs?
Two basic approaches to job analysis exist - a job (or task) oriented approach and an
employee (or behaviour) oriented approach. A job oriented approach is concerned
with what gets done - the tasks, duties and responsibilities of the job (job content).
The job oriented approach usually designs jobs for maximum efficiency. In contrast,
the employee oriented approach focus is on the human behaviour required (i.e. how
a job is done) to do the job (job requirement). This approach has greater
consideration for human needs. Job requirements (knowledge skills and abilities)
can be determined from a description of the job content. A description of
knowledge, skills and abilities however, does not permit an identification of tasks,
duties and responsibilities.
Some of the problems that one would expect in an organisation where jobs are
designed for maximum efficiency without any consideration of human needs are:
low levels of job enrichment
poor Quality of Work Life (QWL)
dissatisfaction with work
staff turnover
low motivation
4. What are the major uses of job analysis in HRM?
The information produced by job analysis is used extensively in HRM. It is difficult to
imagine how an organisation could effectively hire, train, appraises, compensate or
utilise its human resources without the kinds of information derived from job
analysis" viz:
1. Job Descriptions - job descriptions define what a job is by identifying its
content, requirements and context. Because job descriptions provide a
written summary of the duties and responsibilities of the job, they help
managers and current and prospective employees understand what the job is
and how it is to be performed.
2. Job Specification - job specifications focus on the personal characteristics
and qualifications that an employee must possess to perform the job
successfully.
3. Job Design - job design identifies what work must be performed, how it will
be performed, where it is to be performed and who will perform it. Job

analysis information is invaluable in determining which tasks should be

grouped together to form a job and structuring jobs so that employee
satisfaction and performance can be enhanced.
4. Organisational Structure and Design - job analysis by clarifying job
requirements and the interrelationships among jobs means content and tasks
duties and responsibilities at all levels can be specified, thus promoting
efficiency by minimising overlap or duplication. Job analysis information is
invaluable in determining which tasks should be grouped together to form a
job and structuring jobs so that employee satisfaction and performance can
be enhanced.
5. HR Planning - HR or personnel planning involves "getting the right number
of qualified people into the right job at the right time". Job analysis
information is essential for this if the number and types of employees to be
recruited or exited from the organisation are to be accurately determined.
6. Recruitment - job analysis information helps the HR Manager attract better
qualified candidates by identifying who to recruit and how and where to
recruit them by establishing the job requirements that must meet. In
addition, job analysis permits the HR Manager to provide realistic job
previews by highlighting irrelevant and or distorted job information.
7. Selection - job analysis information identifies what the job is by defining
what duties and
responsibilities must be performed. This facilitates the development of job
related selection techniques, helps ensure that EEO requirements are met,
and increases the likelihood of a proper matching of an applicant with a job.
Finally, job analysis information can be used to validate the selection
techniques.
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8. Orientation - Effective job orientation requires a clear understanding of the
work to be performed. A new employee cannot be properly taught how to do
a job if job duties and responsibilities are not clearly defined.
9. Performance Appraisal - Job analysis information is essential to the
establishment of performance standards. Through job analysis a thorough
understanding of what the employee is supposed to do is obtained. Without
this, acceptable levels of performance cannot be determined or an accurate
measure of actual performance obtained.
10.
Training and Development - Job analysis information is used to
design and implement training and development programs. The job
specification defines the knowledge, skills and abilities required for successful
job performance. This allows the HR Manager to establish training and
development objectives, design programs and determine whether or not a
current or potential employee requires training.
11.
Career planning and Development - HR Managers are better placed
to offer career guidance when they have a good understanding of the types

of jobs existing in an organisation. Similarly, by identifying jobs and job

requirements, employees become aware of their career options and what
constitutes a realistic career objective for them in the organisation.
12.
Compensation and Benefits - the job description is the foundation of
job evaluation. It summarises the nature and requirements of the job and
permits its evaluation relative to other jobs. Once the relative worth of a job
has been determined an equitable level of compensation and benefits can be
assigned.
13.
Health & Safety - job analysis information helps create a healthy and
safe working environment. Jobs with hazardous conditions methods or
procedures can be identified and redesigned to eliminate or reduce exposure
to health and safety hazards.
14.
Industrial Relations - Misunderstandings and disagreement among
managers, employees and unions over job content is a major source of
grievance and demarcation disputes. Job analysis information can help avoid
such disputes by providing a clear description of tasks and responsibilities
and identifying the formal qualifications, skills, abilities, knowledge and
experience required to successfully perform the work.
5. Do you think job enrichment is just a fancy name for employee
exploitation? Explain your answer.
Job enrichment is operationalised with job descriptions and job specifications. Badly
written job
descriptions and job specifications restrict management's freedom to make changes
in job tasks, duties and responsibilities; and assign work to employees. Claims of
employee exploitation will usually come from trade unions. To avoid industrial
disputes with trade unions, it is critical that job descriptions and job specifications
be clear, concise and understandable. This is particularly so with jobs that have
A,B,C, classifications. Such jobs must be carefully distinguished by job title and
clearly involve different job content and job requirements. Where ABC type
classifications have developed for 'historical' reasons it is essential that a thorough
job analysis be conducted to ensure that more than one level of the job actually
exits. If this is not done, claims for "higher duties" payments or upgrade to a higher
classification are likely to be an ongoing source of grievances. Precise job
descriptions cannot overcome incompetent management or inadequate wage and
salary administration but they do help.
Job analysts or HR Managers preparing job descriptions subject to award or contract
negotiation can minimise risk of disputes by paying attention to the following;
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Job descriptions and job specifications for higher level jobs should include
only job content and job requirements which reflect the highest level of
difficulty encountered by job holders on a regular and consistent basis.
Job descriptions and job specifications for jobs at each level should only use
terms and definitions which have the complete agreement and common

understanding of employees, union representatives, supervisors and

managers.
Job description language should be kept clear and simple to avoid the union
argument that the job sounds "difficult to do".
Job descriptions should be concise. Long job descriptions allow the union to
argue "if the employee has to do ALL this..."

Job enrichment involves making basic changes in job content and level of
responsibility. Through vertical loading (the technique of adding more tasks of a
higher, more demanding skill level to an existing job) the employee is given the
opportunity to experience greater achievement, recognition, responsibility and
personal growth and through horizontal loading the complexity of work is increased
to promote interest. Job enrichment thus builds motivating factors into the job
content by:

Combining tasks - factionalised tasks are combined to increase skill variety

and task identity.
Creating natural work units - the job is changed so that the employee is
responsible for or "owns" an identifiable body of work so that he will view his
work as important and meaningful rather than irrelevant and boring.
Establishing client relationships - wherever possible a direct relationship
is established between the employee and her client (ie. the user of the
product or service that the employee produces).
Expanding jobs vertically - vertical loading gives employees
responsibilities and control formerly reserved for higher level positions. It
seeks to close the gap between the "doing" and the "controlling" aspects of
the job and thus increase employee autonomy.

The above elements of job enrichment all sound like they are giving the worker
more to do, without any commensurate increase in remuneration. This can lead to
claims of exploitation. Job enrichment clearly is not for everyone. To avoid claims of
exploitation, and to minimise the risk of industrial disputation arising from the
implementation of job enrichment, management should consider the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

The existing level of discontentment among employees.

The economic and technical feasibility of job enrichment.
Whether there is a natural unit of work.
Whether the employee can be given control over the job.
The employees perceptions about the meaningfulness of the job to society.
Whether there is a reward to the employee for assuming increased
responsibility.
g. If performance feedback can be given.
h. If there is some form of consumer identification.
i. Whether management style is compatible with job enrichment.
j. If the employees want enriched jobs.
k. If there is union opposition to job enrichment.
l. If the jobs are easy to enrich.
m. Whether motivation is central to the problem.

n. If the compensation benefits and working conditions are satisfactory.

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6. What is job design? What factors influence job design? Give examples.
Workers today expect more from their jobs. Alas the gap between what employees
want from their jobs and what they actually get appears to be widening. Today
significant numbers of workers are dissatisfied with the quality of their working
lives. Human Resource Managers must promote employee productivity by finding
ways to unlock the potential that exists in the overwhelming majority of employees.
One way to do this is through better job design - as both productivity and quality of
work life are tied to job design. There is however, no one best way to design a job.
The different approaches to job design can emphasise either efficiency or employee
satisfaction. Because job design is influenced by numerous factors such as
management philosophy, government regulations, union requirements, economic
conditions and employee numbers and availability trade offs inevitably occur . This
means that some jobs will be more or less efficient or satisfying than others.
Regardless poorly designed jobs result in lower productivity, employee turnover,
absenteeism, sabotage, resignations and unionisation. In contrast, a well designed
job promotes the achievement of the organisation's objectives by structuring work
in a way that integrates management requirements for efficiency and employee
needs for satisfaction. Effective job design thus presents a major challenge for the
HR manager. Job design is also affected by the nature of the task, the attributes of
the worker, the cost of re-design.
7. Imagine that you manage a fast-food franchise. If you wanted to
decrease labour turnover and absenteeism, would you (a) increase pay
rates or (b) rotate, enlarge or enrich jobs? Explain your answer.

Increasing pay rates is probably not feasible because of the low margins that
fast food franchises operate on. Also, pay rates are usually determined in
Australia by industrial awards.
Rotation is certainly feasible to break up the monotony that comes with
performing low skill tasks over and over.
Job enlargement is another way to provide task variety. However, the
confined space of fast food franchises means that it may be impractical to
have the workforce performing a wide range of tasks simultaneously.
Teamwork may also suffer if the workforce does not have clear and
specialised jobs to perform. There may also be union opposition to job
enlargement, especially in light of the low wages that are paid.
A degree of Job Enrichment is possible, but its feasibility is limited. The nature
of the workforce may be such that too much enrichment will over stretch the
capacity of workers to accept extra responsibility. Combining tasks has been
discussed above. Creation of natural work units is encouraged in fast food
franchises; one person might "own" the drive-through order point, for
example. Establishing client relationships is possible to the extent that
workers have direct interaction with customers. Vertical expansion (loading)
is often not feasible for various reasons. However, promotion is quite possible
for those who stay. Work related feedback is not feasible, but supervisor
initiated feedback can certainly be very motivating.

8. What are the relationships between job analysis, job descriptions and
job specifications?
The information produced by job analysis is used extensively in HRM. It is difficult to
imagine how an organisation could effectively hire, train, appraises, compensate or
utilise its human resources without the kinds of information derived from job
analysis. The two principle components of the job analysis are job descriptions and
job specifications.
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Job Descriptions define what a job is by identifying its content, requirements and
context. Because job descriptions provide a written summary of the duties and
responsibilities of the job, they help managers and current and prospective
employees understand what the job is and how it is to be performed. A job
description is a written statement explaining why a job exists, what the job holder
actually does, how he or she does it, and under what conditions job is performed.
There is no standard format used for writing a job description. The format, in fact,
will vary widely depending on management preference and the uses to which the
job descriptions will be put. Most job descriptions (in one form or another) do
however contain information on job identification, job summary, duties and
responsibilities, relationships, know how, problem solving, accountability, and
special circumstances.
Job Specification - job specifications focus on the personal characteristics and
qualifications that an employee must possess to perform the job successfully. The
job specification is derived from the job description. It identifies the experience;
qualifications, skills, abilities and knowledge, personal qualities and special
requirements needed to successfully perform the job. The job specification shows
the HR Manager what kind of candidate to recruit and identifies what factors to
assess the candidate on. The job specification may be incorporated into the job
description form or documented separately.
Job Descriptions and Job Specification should be reviewed on a regular basis to
ensure that they still accurately describe the job and the personal requirements
needed. This maintains the integrity of the documents and promotes employee
confidence in the job analysis process
9. What are the differences between job rotation, job enlargement, job
enrichment and
comprehensive job enrichment?
Job enlargement seeks to horizontally load a job by adding to the variety of tasks
to be performed. Task variety is assumed to offset some of the disadvantages of job
specialisation and thereby increase employee performance and satisfaction.
Job rotation increases task variety by periodically shifting employees between jobs
involving different tasks. It is closely related to job enlargement but instead of
giving the employee more tasks to do, the employee is rotated between different
jobs. Job rotation aims to reduce boredom through diversifying the tasks to be
performed. If however, all the tasks are boring and routine, similar problems to
those found with job enlargement arise. In contrast, if job rotation is used to place

employees in more challenging jobs it can be effective for improving job satisfaction
helping an employee develop a generalist perspective, increasing skills and
increasing workforce flexibility.
Job enrichment involves making basic changes in job content and level of
responsibility. Through vertical loading the employee is given the opportunity to
experience greater achievement, recognition, responsibility and personal growth
and through horizontal loading the complexity of work is increased to promote
interest.
Comprehensive job enrichment combines both horizontal and vertical
improvements to stimulate employee motivation and satisfaction. Employees
perform better when they perceive their work as being meaningful, have
responsibility for outcomes and receive feedback on the results of their activities.
10. What methods of job analysis would be most appropriate for analysing
the job of:
a. a HR manager?
b. a university lecturer?
c. a sales representative?
d. a process worker?
Some suggestions are:
13
a. HR Manager - Observation is probably not feasible. Much of what they do is
not 'observable'. Interviews will provide a rich source of data. Most HR
management is situation specific. The only way to find the true nature of any
one specific job is to interview. Questionnaires are ok if specific information is
required. A diary/log will provide similar information to that provided by
observation.
b. University lecturer - similar comments can be made to that of the HR
manager.
c. Sales representative - Observation is very feasible. Interactions with
customers are observable and can provide an accurate insight into the nature
of the job. Interviews and questionnaires are less valuable and the
information provided by them is open to differing interpretations and affected
by attitudes and opinions. A diary/log can often correct misconceptions about
what people really do.
d. Process worker - most factory workers are process workers. Observation is
a rich source of data, but a sensitive issue to most workers. Interviews are not
very valuable. Questionnaires are good to test satisfaction and attitudes, but
not very valuable for tasks and duties. A diary/log is not feasible because
process workers are usually too busy to fill them out.
10. Identify and discuss the key internal and external influences that have
significance for job analysis and job design.
:
Legal - Job design and the process of job analysis must conform with equal
opportunity requirements. It must also conform with occupational health and safety

requirements. It must also not contravene the requirements of relevant awards of

enterprise deals.
Technological - Technology usually alienates workers from the product or service
that they are
producing. Technology often also ensures that jobs are in need of more skilled
people. Hence, jobs have to be designed with clear skill implications stated, and
with effort to build in more of the motivating job characteristics.
Demographic - Job Design must take account of the differences between
individuals. The job must suit the person to be motivating; and the person must suit
the job for the job to be performed well.
Business - Job design has two basic rationales. the first is to produce a good or
service. The second is to increase individual motivation and commitment.
Industrial Relations - Job designs must not contravene awards or enterprise
bargaining provisions.
Because job design is influenced by numerous factors such as management
philosophy, government regulations, union requirements, economic conditions and
employee numbers and availability trade offs inevitably occur. This means that
some jobs will be more or less efficient or satisfying than others. Regardless poorly
designed jobs result in lower productivity, employee turnover, absenteeism,
sabotage, resignations and unionisation. In contrast, a well designed job promotes
the achievement of the organisation's objectives by structuring work in a way that
integrates management requirements for efficiency and employee needs for
satisfaction. Effective job design thus presents a major challenge for the HR
manager.
11. Explain the impact that job analysis and job design have on the
acquisition, development, reward, maintenance and exit of an
organisations human resources.
A job that is designed for the person who has been specified in the job analysis will
be motivating to that person. It will help to acquire such a person. Job analysis
clarifies the skills, abilities, and knowledge that must be improved by the training
and development process. If people have the right match of skills, abilities and
knowledge for the job, and if they perform the job in accordance with the activities
in the job description, then their reward for the job will be optimised. Conformity
with the description and specification will ensure maintenance of the employment
relationship. Non-conformity will hasten exit, either from the organisation, or into
another job in the same organisation.
14
12. Discuss the impact that job analysis, job design and the quality of
work life may have on commitment, competence, cost effectiveness,
congruence, adaptability, performance, job satisfaction and employee
motivation.
If every individual is acquired, developed, and rewarded fairly and equitably, then
there is a chance that their commitment, competence cost effectiveness,
congruence, adaptability and performance will all be enhanced. The sections on job
enrichment and quality of work life help to elaborate on these issues.
NOTE

THERE ARE SELDOM CLEAR ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS. THE IDEA IS

TO STIMULATE DEBATE AS MUCH AS TO DETERMINE AN ANSWER.
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Introduction to Job Analysis
What Is Job Analysis?
Job analysis is the systematic study of jobs to identify the observable work
activities, tasks, and responsibilities associated with a particular job or group of
jobs.
What job analysis is:
It is a systematic method for gathering information
It focuses on work behaviors, tasks, and outcomes
It identifies the personal qualifications necessary to perform the job and the
conditions under which work is performed
It reports the job as it exists at the time of analysis; not as it was in the past
nor as it exists in another organization
What job analysis is not:
It is not an analysis of thought processes, attitudes, traits, or aptitudes
It is not a time and motion study
It is not an analysis of an individual position
Why Do Job Analysis?
Job data obtained by job analysis serves a variety of organizational purposes
and provides a basis for decision making. Click here for a listing of common
applications of job analysis.
Job analysis serves as a legal compliance tool for EEOC and ADA
Job analysis can be used to help organizations cope with change. In today's
rapidly changing world, organizations need a flow of accurate and reliable
information about the content and requirements of their jobs.
The OHR Compensation Study is using job analysis to meet these goals:
Develop broader, more flexible job classifications
Describe the work of the job family
Identify and differentiate functions within the job family
Develop a common language to describe work
Aid in bargaining unit classification
Conduct market studies of salaries
Apply FLSA for exempt/nonexempt work
How Is Job Analysis Conducted?
Job analysts use a variety of job analysis methods to gather job information. Each
methodology has advantages and disadvantages. Choosing a "best" method
depends on the type of work being performed, the environment or employer, and
the desired outcomes or applications of the analysis.
The OHR Compensation Study utilizes a task inventory approach that is developed
in questionnaire format. Gathering information about the work being performed is a
participative process in the study. A representative group of employees working in

the jobs being studied are asked to describe their work. These individuals are
referred to as subject matter experts (SMEs). The SMEs participate in a series of
workshops to develop an inventory of tasks that describes their work and the
related requirements and competencies.
The inventory is then developed into a questionnaire. This questionnaire is
administered to all job incumbents to efficiently and accurately gather information
and describe work. Individual profiles are generated to reflect the work of
individuals, and the aggregate data provides the basis for other analysis.
Job Analysis Methods
Common methods of job analysis include the following:
Observation:
A trained observer observes a worker, recording what the worker does, how
the work is done, and how long it takes. There are two types of observation:
(1)Continuous observation involves observing a job over a given period of
time. (2)Sampling involves observing several incumbents over random,
relatively short periods of time. Observation is a simple and frequently used
method of job analysis.
Interview:
A trained job analyst interviews a job incumbent, usually utilizing a
standardized format. Sometimes more than one worker is interviewed, and
the results are aggregated. Another variation is the group interview, where
several incumbents are interviewed at the same time.
Critical Incident:
Behaviorally based critical incidents are used to describe work, and a job
analyst determines the degree of each behavior that is present or absent in
the job.
Diary:
The job incumbent records activities and tasks in a log as they are performed.
Checklist:
A worker or supervisor check items on a standardized task inventory that
apply to the job. Checklists may be custom-made or purchased from an
outside vendor.
Questionnaire:
There are two types of questionnaires: The structured questionnaire uses a
standardized list of work activities, called a task inventory, that job
incumbents or supervisors may identify as related to the job. In addition, the
respondent may also identify additional information such as how much time
is spent on the task, the amount of supervision required, and/or the expertise
required. The open-ended questionnaire asks the job incumbent to describe
the work in his or her own words.
Technical Conference:
Several experts (often called "subject matter experts") on the job collaborate
to provide information about the work performed. A job analyst facilitates the
process and prepares the job description based on the consensus of the
technical experts.
In certain applications, two or more methods may be combined. An example is the
observation-interview.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Job Analysis Methods

Method
Advantages
Disadvantages

Observation

Firsthand information.

Simple to use.

Verifies data from other

sources.

Useful for manual and

psychomotor tasks.

Time consuming.

May bias worker

performance.

Small sample size.

Requires skilled
observer.

Validity & reliability

may be problematic.

Not useful for jobs

consisting of mostly
mental tasks.

Requires experienced
interviewer and welldesigned questions.

Difficult to combine
data from disparate
interviews.

Data gathered is
subjective and should
be verified.

May elicit extraneous

data.

Incumbent describes
work.

Can yield data about

cognitive and
psychomotor processes
difficult to observe.

Qualitative data can be

examined.

Works well for jobs with

long job cycles.

Analysis is based on
concrete behavior.

Scales require some

expertise to develop.

Collects data as events

happen.

Consistent and
continuous entries
may be difficult to
obtain.

Interview

Critical
Incident

Diary

Method

Advantages

Inexpensive.

Easy to administer.

Does not require

trained interviewer.

Relatively less
expensive.

Can reach more

workers.

Data is standardized
(structured).

Data from experience is

superior to observation.

Data is comprehensive.

SME's chosen for

expertise and
competence.

Checklist

Questionnair
e

Technical
Conference

Disadvantages

Data not in
standardized format.

May not include all

important parts of
work.

May be difficult to
construct.

May have low

response rate.

Responses may be
incomplete.

Responses may be
difficult to interpret
(open-ended).

SME's may have

trouble breaking work
into tasks and
describing work.

Time consuming.

Differences in opinion
need to be resolved
to consensus.

Job Analysis: Methods Of Questionnaire

Classification Systems used as basis for or resulting from job analyses.
Common
Metric
Questionaire
(CMQ)

The Common Metric Questionnaire (CMQ) is targeted toward

both exempt and nonexempt jobs. It has five sections: (1)
Background, (2) Contacts with People, (3) Decision Making, (4)
Physical and Mechanical Activities, and (5) Work Setting. The
Background section asks 41 general questions about work

requirements such as travel, seasonality, and licensure

requirements. The Contacts with People section asks 62
questions targeting level of supervision, degree of internal and
external contacts, and meeting requirements. The 80 Decision
Making items in the CMQ focus on relevant occupational
knowledge and skill, language and sensory requirements, and
managerial and business decision making. The Physical and
Mechanical Activities section contains 53 items about physical
activities and equipment, machinery, and tools. Work Setting
contains 47 items that focus on environmental conditions and
other job characteristics. The CMQ is a relatively new
instrument. It has been field tested on 4,552 positions
representing over 900 occupations in the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles (DOT), and yielded reasonably high
reliabilities. (Harvey, 1993)
Fleishman Job
Analysis
Survey

Another job analysis methodologythe Fleishman Job Analysis

Survey (F-JAS), formerly the Manual for Ability Requirements
Scalescontains a taxonomy of abilities that is buttressed by
decades of research (Fleishman & Mumford, 1991). The
taxonomy includes 52 cognitive, physical, psychomotor, and
sensory abilities that have strong research support, and the
FJAS uses level of ability rating scales that specify level of
functioning requirements for jobs. FJAS is a job analysis
method; it has not been applied to a large number of jobs in
the U.S. economy to produce an occupational database.

Functional Job
Analysis Scales

Beginning in the 1940s, Functional Job Analysis (FJA) was used

by U.S. Employment Service job analysts to classify jobs for the
DOT (Fine & Wiley, 1971). The most recent version of FJA uses
seven scales to describe what workers do in jobs: (1) Things,
(2) Data, (3) People, (4) Worker Instructions, (5) Reasoning, (6)
Math, and (7) Language. Each scale has several levels that are
anchored with specific behavioral statements and illustrative
tasks. Like other job analysis instruments, FJA is a methodology
for collecting job information. While it was used for many years
as a part of the DOT, the Department of Labor is replacing the
DOT with O*NET and will not be using FJA in O*NET. There is no
current database of jobs (other than the DOT) containing FJA
data for jobs in the national economy.

MOSAIC

The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is in the process of

developing a database of information on federal jobs using
Multipurpose Occupational Systems Analysis Inventory-Closed
Ended (MOSAIC). Toward that end, OPM has been conducting a
series of occupational analysis projects, each project handling a
different set of occupations (e.g., clerical, managerial, etc.).
Each job analysis inventory used to collect data for OPM's

system includes a variety of descriptors. The two primary types

of descriptors in each questionnaire are tasks and
competencies. Tasks are rated on importance and
competencies are rated on several scales including importance
and requirement for entry. The MOSAIC database is intended to
include all government occupations. Clerical, technical, and
managerial job sections are complete. Information on the
reliability of MOSAIC questionnaires has not been reported.
Occupational
Analysis
Inventory (OAI)

The Occupational Analysis Inventory (OAI) contains 617 "work

elements." It was designed to yield more specific job
information than other multi-job questionnaires such as the
PAQ while still capturing work requirements for virtually all
occupations. The major categories of items are five-fold: (1)
Information Received, (2) Mental Activities, (3) Work Behavior,
(4) Work Goals, and (5) Work Context. OAI respondents rate
each job element on one of four rating scales: part-of-job,
extent, applicability, or a special scale designed for the
element. The OAI has been used to gather information on
1,400 jobs selected to represent five major occupational
categories. Reliabilities obtained with the OAI have been
moderate, somewhat lower than those achieved with the PAQ.

Position
Analysis
Questionaire
(PAQ)

The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by

McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972) is a structured job
analysis instrument to measure job characteristics and relate
them to human characteristics. It consists of 195 job elements
that represent in a comprehensive manner the domain of
human behavior involved in work activities. The items that fall
into five categories:
1. Information input (where and how the worker gets
information),
2. Mental processes (reasoning and other processes that
workers use),
3. Work output (physical activities and tools used on the
job),
4. Relationships with other persons, and
5. Job context (the physical and social contexts of work).
Over the course of many studies, PAQ researchers have
aggregated PAQ data for hundreds of jobs; that database is
maintained by Purdue University. A wealth of research exists on
the PAQ; it has yielded reasonably good reliability estimates

and has been linked to several assessment tools.

Work Profiling
System (WPS)

Saville & Holdsworth's Work Profiling System (WPS) is designed

to help employers accomplish human resource functions. The
job analysis is designed to yield reports targeted toward
various human resource functions such as individual
development planning, employee selection, and job
description. There are three versions of the WPS tied to types
of occupations: managerial, service, and technical occupations.
The WPS is computer-administered on-site at a company. It
contains a structured questionaire which measures ability and
personality attributes in areas such as Hearing Skills, Sight,
Taste, Smell, Touch, Body Coordination, Verbal Skills, Number
Skills, Complex Management Skills, Personality, and Team Role.
Saville & Holdsworth aggregates information provided by users
into a database when users make those data available. Saville
& Holdsworth does not require WPS users to submit their data.

THE HAY JOB EVALUATION METHODOLOGY

The Hay Guide Chart Profile Method

THE HAY METHOD IS THE WORLDS
MOST WIDELY USED APPROACH TO JOB
EVALUATION, BEING USED FOR

The Hay Guide Chart Profile Method

The method is based on the simple
but powerful observations that:

LITERALLY MILLIONS OF JOBS IN MANY

THOUSANDS OF ORGANISATIONS
WORLD-WIDE, IN EVERY SECTOR OF
THE ECONOMY, BOTH PUBLIC AND
PRIVATE:

It combines a sound conceptual

basis and robustness which has
enabled it to stand the test of
time, with an inherent flexibility
which allows it to respond to the
profound changes taking place
in organisations. It can deal
equally well with the flexible
roles which are emerging in
todays environment, as with
structurally defined jobs;
It can be applied to any kind of
job at any level, and hence can
be used top to bottom
throughout an organisation
important with todays moves
towards integrated employment
conditions and the breaking
down of barrier between
traditional job groupings;
Being an analytical method, with
non-discriminatory factors, it can
be used to support the
achievement of equal pay for
work of equal value, and is
supported by a comprehensive
Equal Value Code of Practice;
Because it makes no
organisational assumptions, it
can be used in any
organisational context;
It can be applied by a wide
range of processes, including
computer assisted, geared to the
specific needs of organisations
and responsive to the everincreasing need for efficiency;

Any job or role, in whatever

organisational context, exists to
provide some contribution or
output to the organisation in which
it works its Accountability;
Achievement of the Accountability
demands an input of knowledge,
skills and experience the KnowHow;
To turn the Know-How into results,
it must be used or processed to
solve the problems which arise in
the job the Problem Solving;

Input Processing Output

KNOW-HOW PROBLEM SOLVING
ACCOUNTABILITY

Any role can thus be characterised

in terms of these three factors.
Know-How, Problem Solving and
Accountability and the relationship
between them. The Hay Guide
Chart-Profile method is built on
these simple principles.

To refine and make for more focused

evaluation, each factor is considered
in terms of either two or three facets
or elements.
Know-How
Technical and procedural
knowledge/ skills;
Planning, organising and
managerial skills;
Human relations skills
Problem Solving
Thinking environment
Thinking challenge
Accountability
Freedom to act

Its widespread use and its

common numbering basis
means that it can be used to
provide valid pay market
comparisons. Hays
comprehensive world-wide pay
and benefits surveys and
databases use Hay job size as
the basis of comparison
avoiding the ambiguities
generated by some other
approaches. The Hay method
thus provides the unique
capability to satisfy in a single
process the internal need for job
evaluation with the means of
accessing comprehensive
external market data.

Magnitude the scale of events on

which the job has its main impact
Impact the directness of impact
on the chosen magnitude