TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1538

75

Modeling Fault Among Bicyclists and

Drivers Involved in Collisions in Hawaii,
19861991
KARL KIM AND LEI LI
Subsequent to a review of trends in collisions between bicyclists and
motorists in Hawaii during the period 1986 to 1991, characteristics of
bicyclists and drivers involved in crashes are compared. On the basis of
police-reported crash data it can be concluded that bicyclists tend to be
young, male, and, not surprisingly, more likely to be seriously injured
than motorists in bicyclemotor-vehicle collisions. Bicyclists are much
less likely to be attributed with inattention than motorists, and slightly
less likely to be attributed with misjudgment or alcohol or drug use than
motorists. Bicyclists, however, are much more likely than motorists to
disregard traffic controls or go the wrong way on a street just before
becoming involved in a collision. Motorists are more likely than bicyclists to fail to yield, to engage in improper overtaking, or to follow too
closely before becoming involved in a collision. The largest proportion
of bicycle collisions occurs during the period 3:30 to 6:30 p.m. Other
temporal and locational features of bicycle collisions are described.
Among the most significant findings presented is that motorists in Hawaii
are much more likely to be classified at fault than bicyclists. Whereas
motorists are at fault in approximately 83.5 percent of incidents, bicyclists are at fault in only 16.5 percent of incidents. A logistic model is
developed and used to explain the likelihood of motorists being at fault
in collisions with bicyclists. Covariates that increase the likelihood of
motorist fault include motorist age (squared), bicyclist age, bicyclist helmet use, and motorist turning actions. Variables that decrease the likelihood of motorist fault include motorist age, bicyclist age (squared), bicyclist alcohol use, bicyclists making turning actions, and rural locations.

Despite the possibly ideal environment Hawaii presents for bicycling, the bicycle is losing ground to automobiles and other motorized forms of transportation in the state. Although there has been
growth in recreational, off-road cycling, the use of bicycles for commuting and short-distance trips in Hawaii has declined steadily. The
moped has found greater acceptance than the bicycle as a low-cost
alternative to the automobile (1). With its year-round temperate
climate, concentrated pattern of development, and its populations
health-conscious attitudes and lifestyles, Hawaii could be a bicyclists paradise, but it is not. One of the reasons the bicycle has not
gained greater prominence in Hawaii is the risk associated with
bicycling (2). Bicycling in Hawaii is perceived by many to be
dangerous. Moreover, the described study found that in the majority of police-reported collisions between bicycles and motor
vehicles more often than not the driver of the motor vehicle is at
fault. Motorists are at fault approximately 83.5 percent of the time,
whereas bicyclists are at fault 16.5 percent of the time. Many bicyclists may feel that they are fighting a losing battle, and that it is
better to stay off the roads and streets of Hawaii. The research
described intended to seek a better understanding of bicycle collisions in Hawaii so that an initial step could be taken in the design
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, Porteus Hall 107, 2424 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.

of more effective strategies for bicycle safety. A description of

bicyclemotor-vehicle collisions in the state is presented, and a statistical model is developed for explaining fault in collisions. By
focusing on the prevention of fault among both bicyclists and
motorists, a contribution can perhaps be made to the safety of
Hawaiis environment.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research described was motivated by a number of underlying
questions. Are bicycle collisions increasing or decreasing in
Hawaii? What are the characteristics of bicyclists and motorists
involved in collisions? What human and other factors are involved?
Are there differences between the bicyclists and motorists involved
in collisions? Who is at fault, most of the time, in collisions between
bicyclists and motorists? Is it possible to model the likelihood of
fault among those involved in bicycle collisions? When are bicyclists most likely to be at fault? When are motorists at fault?
Approaching the problem of bicycle collisions by asking who is at
fault is a novel feature of the analysis. Setting aside for the moment
the normative aspects of fault, if it were possible to understand
the characteristics of motorists and bicyclists, as well as the
circumstances in bicyclemotor-vehicle collisions that contribute
to the determination of fault, then perhaps populations, crash
circumstances, or locations could be targeted for efforts to improve
bicycle safety. Answers to questions of fault may be useful in the
design of bicycle safety policies and programs.

DATA AND METHODS

Data came from the Department of Transportation, State of Hawaii
(HDOT). In Hawaii crash reports are required for all collisions that
involve an injury or $300 property damage (the amount was raised
to $1,000 in 1990). The data are collected by police officers at the
crash scenes. HDOT has responsibility for inputting and managing
crash data. As in other states (3), there are concerns in Hawaii about
the quality of police-collected crash data. There are, however,
reasons that the quality of police crash reports in Hawaii may be
superior to that in other states. Crash reporting is standardized in
Hawaii through a common form used across the state. There are only
four counties and four police departments in the entire state. All
police officers receive the same training. Approximately threequarters of the population resides on the island of Oahu, which is
under the jurisdiction of the City and County of Honolulu. For
serious collisions the Honolulu Police Department uses trained
accident investigators to ensure high-quality reporting. In recent

76

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1538

years Hawaii has been the recipient of several large federal trafficsafety research grants, including the Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (CODES) cooperative agreements with the National
Highway Safety Traffic Administration. The CODES agreements
involve the development of traffic safety data bases and support of
various traffic safety research projects. The CODES project provided an opportunity to acquire as well as to clean and edit the data
used in this analysis.
The data were transferred from HDOT on 9-track tapes, from
which they were converted into an SAS data base for analysis on a
dedicated Sun Sparc 10 workstation housed at the Department of
Urban and Regional Planning, University of Hawaii. Three statistical techniques are used. First, the pattern of monthly bicycle
collisions is modeled using a standard Poisson distribution. This
makes it possible to determine whether bicycle collisions are
increasing, decreasing, or staying approximately the same. Second,
various descriptive and distributional statistics on bicycle collisions
during the period 1986 to 1991 are presented. Standard statistical
tests (z-tests) are employed to compare bicyclists with motorists and
bicycle collisions with motor-vehicle collisions.
A logistic regression equation explaining fault among motorvehicle drivers involved in collisions with bicyclists as a function of
various personal characteristics (of motorists and bicyclists) and
crash and environmental factors is estimated. Fault is determined
by investigating officers and reported on crash report forms. The
logistic model explains fault (F) among motorists as a function of
various covariates such as age (A), age squared, alcohol and drug
use (AD), helmet use among bicyclists (H), rural location (R),
turning actions (T), and wet roadway surfaces (W) using the
following form:
loge{Pr(F) [1 ] Pr(F)]} 5 a0 1 a1 A 1 a2 A2 1 a3 AD 1 a4 H
1 a5R1 a6 T 1 A7W

FIGURE 1

(1)

By using a single dependent variable, loge {Pr(F)/[1 2 Pr(F)]},

fault is expressed as the odds of the motorists being at fault over the
odds of the motorists not being at fault (or the odds of the bicyclists
being at fault). In this way the process being modeled is the determination of fault, which is dependent upon characteristics of both
bicyclists and motorists and the environments in which their collisions occur. The modeling process involves fitting various terms
believed to be correlated with fault in bicycle collisions. A combination of backward elimination and forward inclusion methods were
used to produce the best-fitting model. Nonsignificant terms were
dropped from the model. A likelihood ratio, c2, is used to assess the
model fit. The likelihood ratio tests the null hypothesis that there are
no effects of the covariates included in the model. It is calculated by
subtracting the log-likelihood values of the full model from the loglikelihood values of the model containing only the intercept. Models are compared against each other to determine which produces the
best fit as well as the information most useful for policy purposes.
The described study extends earlier work on loglinear and logistic
modeling in traffic safety (4,5). More detailed explanation of logistic modeling can be found in standard methods texts such as Jobson
(6 ), Agresti (7 ), and Feinberg (8).

FINDINGS
During the period 1986 to 1991 the annual number of policereported bicycle collisions reached a low in 1989 and increased in
1990 and 1991. The actual number of monthly collisions, the
monthly predicted number of collisions (using a standard Poisson
model), and the annual average is plotted in Figure 1. The Poisson
model assumes that events (such as bicycle collisions) occur as discrete counts, independently in time (or space), with mean equal to

Number of bicyclemotor-vehicle collisions in Hawaii, 1986 1991.

Kim and Li

variance. It is a useful tool, therefore, with which to examine the

time distribution of events such as bicycle collisions. When the
actual and predicted number of collisions are compared the fit is
found to be reasonable for most months, suggesting that this estimation procedure could be used for estimating future levels of bicycle collisions or evaluating the effectiveness of various bicycle
safety programs. In the monthly trend data peaks occur at the summer months (June or July) for most years, but also at the spring or
winter months for some years. In 1990 the property damage threshold for crash reporting was raised from $300 to $1,000. Although
this might have reduced the total number of reported collisions, the
effect on bicycle collisions appears to have been minimal because
of the general declining trend in such collisions that had been established even before the change in the crash reporting threshold. The
existing trend data indicates that Hawaii can expect 30 to 50 injuryproducing collisions between bicyclists and motorists per month.
Table 1 shows some of the interesting differences between bicyclists and motorists involved in collisions. There are more younger
bicyclists involved in collisions: more than one-third 14 or younger.
Whereas less than 9 percent of bicyclists involved in collisions are
over 40 years of age, more than 35 percent of motorists are 40 or
older. There is also a disparity in gender. More than 78 percent of
bicyclists involved in collisions are male. The proportion of male
motorists involved in collisions with bicyclists is just over 62 percent. Not surprisingly, bicyclists are much more likely to be injured
in a collision than drivers of motor vehicles. Collisions for which
injury severity was indicated on the police form left less than 3 percent of bicyclists uninjured, compared with almost 99 percent of
motor-vehicle drivers. During the study period there were 139 fatalities and incapacitating injuries and 1,370 minor injuries to bicyclists. Motorists were injured 16 times, and the vast majority of
those injuries (15) were classified as minor.
Table 2 summarizes the differences between bicyclists and
drivers of motor vehicles by human and other factors. According to
police reports motorists involved in collisions with bicyclists are
more likely to be inattentive than bicyclists. Whereas just under 30
percent of bicyclists were inattentive, 40 percent of motorists were
inattentive. Although larger proportions of motorists were found by
police to have exhibited misjudgment, been fatigued, and been
under the influence of alcohol or drugs in collisions, the differences
between bicyclists and motorists in these human-factor categories
are small and not statistically significant. The incidence of alcohol
and drugs is low for both bicyclists (.779 percent) and motorists
(1.071 percent).
TABLE 1 Characteristics of Bicyclists and Motorists Involved in
BicycleMotor-Vehicle Collisions in Hawaii, 1986 1991

77

TABLE 2 Human and Other Factors Associated with

BicycleMotor-Vehicle Collisions in Hawaii, 1986 1991

Table 2 also shows results for other factors associated with

bicyclemotor vehicle collisions. Among bicyclists, failure to yield,
going the wrong way, and other unspecified bicycle violations are
the major factors associated with collisions. Among motorists, failure to yield and other unspecified actions are the most common contributing factors cited by police crash investigators. Motorists are
more likely than bicyclists to have proceeded with excessive speed,
overtaken improperly, or followed too closely before a collision.
Bicyclists are more likely than motorists to have disregarded controls, crossed centerlines, gone the wrong way, and made improper
turns before a collision. Many of the differences between bicyclists
and motorists are small and not statistically significant, however.
There are three major statistically significant differences: bicyclists
are more likely than motorists to disregard controls; motorists are
more likely than bicyclists to fail to yield; and bicyclists are more
likely than motorists to go the wrong way on streets.
Table 2 also shows that in 83.5 percent of bicyclemotor-vehicle
collisions in Hawaii during the 6-year study period, drivers were
classified at fault. Bicyclists were found to be at fault in 16.5 percent of the collisions. This high rate of fault among motorists needs
to be explored more systematically; it is discussed further in the next
section.
In addition to the examination of motorist and bicyclist characteristics made in the study, environmental factors of bicycle collisions were compared with those of motor-vehicle collisions. Table
3 shows a comparison of collisions between bicycles and motor
vehicles and collisions between motor vehicles for the factors time,
day of week, jurisdiction location (urban versus rural), intersection
location, weather, and road surfaces (dry or wet). Distributional statistics and z-tests are presented. Results for time of day indicate that
a larger proportion of bicycle than motor-vehicle collisions occurs
during the afternoon peak time, 3:30 to 6:30 p.m. Collisions involving only motor vehicles are most likely to occur during the morning
period, 9:00 a.m. to 1:30 p.m. Collisions between bicycles and
motor vehicles tend to occur during daylight hours. The proportion
of bicycle collisions both for morning and evening periods is smaller

78

TABLE 3 Environments Surrounding BicycleMotor-Vehicle

Collisions in Hawaii, 19861991

than the proportion of collisions involving only motor vehicles for

the same periods.
Both bicycle collisions and motor-vehicle-only collisions occur
least frequently on Sundays. Tuesday is the worst day for bicycle collisions, whereas Friday is the worst day for motor-vehicle collisions.
A larger proportion of bicycle than motor-vehicle collisions occurs
on county roads 76.5 and 53.2 percent, respectively). Only 23.5 percent of bicycle collisions occur on state roads, which include most
major highways and arterials, compared to 46.8 percent of motor
vehicle collisions. A higher proportion of motor-vehicle collisions
(72.4 percent of all collisions) occurs in urban areas compared with
bicycle collisions (62.2 percent of which occur in urban areas).
Bicycle collisions are generally more likely to occur at intersections
(48.4 percent) than are motor-vehicle collisions (41.7 percent).
A larger proportion of bicycle collisions occurs on clear days (81.8
percent) compared with motor-vehicle collisions (71.1 percent).
Whereas 92 percent of bicycle collisions occur on dry surfaces, 81.5
percent of motor-vehicle collisions occur on dry pavement surfaces.
Using the differences between the characteristics of bicyclists and
motorists involved in collisions, a model to explain fault was constructed. Many different models were run and tested. Table 4 shows
the results of the best fitting model; nonsignificant terms were
dropped from the equation. Parameter estimates, standard errors, and
odds ratios for motorists at fault in collisions in Hawaii over the sixyear study period are shown. A likelihood ratio, c2, is provided to
assess the overall model fit. For motorists involved in collisions with
bicyclists, fault is negatively related to driver age, bicyclist age, bicyclist alcohol use, bicyclist turning action, and rural location. Motorist
fault is positively related to driver-age squared, bicyclist age, bicy-

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1538

clist helmet use, and driver turning actions. The odds ratios give a
convenient measure of the strength of the relationship between fault
and each of the various covariates. An odds ratio greater than 1 signifies a strong effectthe larger the value, the stronger the positive
effect. Odds ratios less than 1 indicate a negative relationship. Odds
ratios close to 1 suggest weak effects. The odds ratio of 2.4 for
bicycle-helmet use means that in a collision the motorist is 2.4 times
more likely to be at fault when the bicyclist is helmeted than when
the bicyclist is not helmeted. Moreover, motorists are 2.8 times more
likely to be at fault when they are turning.
The age effects require further explanation. Although fault is generally negatively related to motorist age (as age increases, the odds
of being classified at fault decline), and positively related to bicyclist age, the relationship is not so simple. Other studies have
pointed out that there is a U-shaped relationship between bicyclist
age and accident ratesthat the number of accidents per billion km
are highest for the youngest and oldest age groups (9). For this reason, an age-squared term was introduced into the logistic regression
equation to better capture the U-shaped distribution associated with
collision involvement and age. The use of the age-squared term is a
standard practice in epidemiological studies to account for the nonlinearity of the effect of age.
When the log-odds (logit) of being classified at fault are graphed
against age for both bicyclists and motorists involved in collisions
with bicyclists, two intersecting U-shaped distributions are produced as shown in Figure 2. Several points are noteworthy. When
bicyclists at fault are compared with motorists at fault, it becomes
clear that bicyclists are younger by far when they start riding than
motorists are when they start driving. For most age groups, however,
motorists are more likely to be at fault, with the exception of
younger cyclists and older cyclists (those over age 40); the two
curves intersect at age 40. It should also be noted that the fault curve
for bicyclists is much steeper than the curve for motorists, suggesting that bicyclists are subject to more pronounced and stronger age
effects. According to these curves, however, the bicyclists least
likely to be at fault in a collision are between the ages of 30 and 35,
whereas the safest motorists are somewhere between the ages of 40
and 50. Those motorists most likely to hit bicyclists and be classified at fault are the groups under 20 years old and those 70 years old.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Police-collected crash data used in the study may not include all the
bicycle collisions in Hawaii. Many minor collisions may not even be
reported. The findings and results of the study are best interpreted as

TABLE 4 Logistical Regression Analysis of the Likelihood of

Drivers Being at Fault

Kim and Li

79

FIGURE 2

Log-odds ratio of being at fault by age.

pertaining to serious and injury-producing collisions to which a

police officer has responded and for which one has completed
a crash report form. Moreover, the analysis uses the condition that a
collision has occurred. The unconditional odds or risks of a bicycle
collision occurring are not evaluated. To make such an evaluation a
measure of bicyclist exposure to collision risk factors, such as distance traveled or time spent riding on public roads, would be needed.
The study may also be affected by the quality of police-collected
data. As has been mentioned, there are some reasons pertaining to
geography, centralization of government, and standardization of
crash reporting that Hawaii may have better collision data than other
states, but, at the same time, there are data problems that emerge
whenever bicycle collisions are studied. Often information on bicyclists is less complete than that on motorists, who are generally
required to provide drivers licenses and other information when
they have been involved in a collision. Moreover, given the differential pattern of injurythat bicyclists are much more likely than
motorists to be injured and transported to emergency rooms and
medical facilitieschance is greater that a bicyclist would be taken
away from the crash scene before all the necessary information on
crash circumstances is collected than it is that a motorist would be.
There are also questions pertaining to the determination of fault by
police officers. Are police officers more likely to be biased in their
determination of fault given that certain groups (young motorists or
older cyclists) are more likely to be found at fault than others?
At the same time, however, several aspects of this particular study
should be noted. First, the analysis covered multiple years (6) and
included all reported cases in the entire state. Second, by focusing
on one stateand one that has uniform reporting requirements
across four countiesthe problems associated with the aggregation
of data from many different states were avoided altogether. Injury
thresholds, reporting practices, data handling procedures, and accident investigation were consistent. There was high degree of con-

sistency between police-attributed fault and vehicle maneuvers and

actions before collisions. Moreover, interviews of police officers in
Hawaii indicated that they take their responsibility of determining
and recording fault quite seriously. It has been suggested that the
whole purpose of the crash report form is to ascertain who is at fault,
and that although individual fields such as drivers license number,
birth date, vehicle identification number, and so forth may be
sources of error, the determination of fault is bound to be more accurate. Finally, the results of both the descriptive analyses as well as
the modeling of fault generally are not unreasonablethat is, the
findings are generally in line with what other studies have found.
Certainly one of the more significant findings is the high proportion of motorists at fault. That 83.5 percent of the motorists compared with 16.5 percent of the bicyclists were found to be at fault
indicates that there is strong need for more motorist education,
enforcement of traffic laws, and programs directed toward motorists
as a means of increasing bicycle safety. The proportion of motorists
at fault in Hawaii may be higher than that in other states. There is
need to investigate the apparent difference between Hawaii and
other states.
Similar to the findings of other studies (9), the principal error
made by motorists in Hawaii was failure to yield. Bicyclists in
Hawaii who are involved in collisions also exhibit three practices
common among crash-involved bicyclists in other places: failure to
yield, disregarding controls, and riding the wrong way (9).
Among bicyclists, alcohol and drug use greatly increase the likelihood of being classified at fault by police. The incidence, however,
of alcohol use among both bicyclists and motorists involved in collisions with each other is low. However, inattention and misjudgment on the part of both motorists and bicyclists are the principal
human factors involved in bicycle collisions.
There are some clear temporal and spatial patterns to bicycle collisions. This was demonstrated first by the effectiveness of the Pois-

80

son model used to estimate monthly bicycle collisions and establish

yearly trends. The temporal patterns also are evidenced by the distributional statistics, which show that bicyclists are more likely to
travel and be involved in collisions during daylight hours, on clear
days, on dry pavement surfaces, and on certain days of the week
(Tuesdays) than motorists. Moreover, the proportion of bicycle collisions that occurs at intersections (48 percent) is greater than the
proportion of collisions between motor vehicles (42 percent) that
does. These findings suggest that bicycle safety strategies based on
time of day and location may be effective.
The model developed to explain fault among motorists (and bicyclists) suggests directions for the design of corrective strategies (i.e.,
driver education, bicycle safety, enforcement of traffic laws, and so
forth). There is need for programs that address the young and the old
among bicyclists and motorists. The fault curves suggest that bicycle education programs should begin involving bicyclists at age 10,
if not earlier. Bicyclists age 15 are less likely to be at fault in a collision than are similarly aged motorists. There is special need for
motorist safety programs for young motorists. More research is
needed, however, to understand the age effects associated with fault
among both bicyclists and motorists. Why are motorists so much
more likely to be at fault than bicyclists until the age of 40? What
explains the correlation between being classified at fault and
increasing age among bicyclists? Additional human-factors research
on both younger-motorist risk-taking behaviors as well as the effects
of aging on motorist abilities and performance is needed to better
understand these effects. An important result was that helmet users
were much more likely to be not at fault than nonusers, which suggests that the so-called risk-compensation arguments that have been
applied to seat belt use and other protective devices may not necessarily apply to bicyclists. Several different hypotheses may explain
why rural cyclists are so much more likely to be at fault than their
urban counterparts. Rural areas typically have less lighting and
visibility, and that may present a problem. Roadways may not be
as bicycle-friendly in rural areas, where there are generally less
pavement markings and infrastructure (bike lanes, wider roadways,
traffic control devices, and so forth). Rural bicyclists may, moreover, behave differently from their urban counterparts. These are
hypotheses that might be tested in future analyses.
In conclusion, the potential contributions of the research
described might be seen along two parallel, yet at times,
intersecting lines of inquiry. First, better understanding of
bicyclemotor-vehicle collisions in Hawaii (and presumably elsewhere) can be influenced by policies and programs. Suitable targets
could be established for reducing both the number and severity of
injuries associated with bicycle collisions. Another potential goal
would be achieving greater parity in the distribution of fault. At present the odds favor motorists being found at fault, by approximately
5 to 1. This suggests that there is a need to greatly increase programs
and countermeasures targeted at motorists. A combination of
increased traffic enforcement as well as greater public information
campaigns directed towards changing driver behavior may be
needed. Perhaps one way to begin would be to examine the effectiveness of the various share the road campaigns that have been
launched in other states. Inattention combined with the increased
likelihood of fault associated with turning motor vehicles seems to

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1538

be a key ingredient for at-fault, injury-producing bicycle collisions

in Hawaii.
Another potential contribution of this research pertains to the use
of police crash-report data and the specific analytical techniques used
to analyze and model bicycle collisions and fault among motorists
and cyclists in Hawaii. The value of police crash-report data is that it
is collected by virtually every state in the country. Although there are
problems with using the crash data, it does provide location-specific
information on topics such as bicycle collisions for which there may
be limited national data available. Particularly in a state such as
Hawaii, which is geographically isolated from other states and where
the data quality is high, the potential exists for useful findings that
could be incorporated into state and local programs. Although fault
has been the subject of numerous studies and deliberations elsewhere
(e.g., in courtrooms and insurance settlements), it has not been the
subject of scrutiny in research such as that described. It would be
interesting to see similar analyses conducted in other states that focus
on fault, which is typically noted on police crash reports. How unique
are Hawaiis results? How do the characteristics of motorists and
bicyclists at fault in other states compare with similar data collected
in Hawaii? The logistic model explaining fault among those involved
in bicycle collisions could be extended to include other covariates
and circumstances. Logistic regression provides a powerful tool not
only to test the relationships between various covariates and fault,
but, along with the odds ratios, it provides a convenient way of measuring and depicting the relative magnitude of the various effects
related to fault in bicycle collisions.
Hawaii has a long way to go before becoming a bicyclists
paradise. Better understanding of the nature and circumstances of
bicycle collisions can develop more effective programs and policies
for improving bicycle safety.

REFERENCES
1. Kim, K., D. Takeyama, and L. Nitz. Moped Safety in Honolulu, Hawaii.
Journal of Safety Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1995, pp. 177185.
2. Kim, K., and C. Albert-Thenet. Attitudes of Honolulu Cyclists Towards
Proposed Bicycle Policies. Presented at 75th Annual Meeting of the
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1995.
3. ODay, J. NCHRP. Synthesis of Highway Practice 192: Accident Data
Quality. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1993.
4. Kim, K., L. Nitz, J. Richardson, and L. Li. Analyzing the Relationship
Between Crash Types and Injuries in Motor Vehicle Collisions in Hawaii.
In Transportation Research Record 1467, TRB, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., 1994.
5. Kim, K., L. Nitz, J. Richardson, and L. Li. Personal and Behavioral Predictors of Automobile Crash and Injury Severity. Accident Analysis and
Prevention, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1995, pp. 469481.
6. Jobson, J. D. Applied Multivariate Analysis. In Categorical and Multivariate Methods, Vol. II, Springer Verlag, N.Y., 1992.
7. Agresti, A. Categorical Data Analysis. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 1990.
8. Feinberg, S. The Analysis of Cross Classified Categorical Data. The MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1980.
9. Thom, R. and A. Clayton. Accident Data Requirements for Improving
Cycling Safety. In Transportation Research Record 1405, TRB, National
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Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Bicycling and Bicycle
Facilities.