Cost 333 Interim Report On European Pavement Design Methods

COST 333
INTERIM REPORT ON EUROPEAN

PAVE MENT DES IG N M ETHODS
TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY
PROJECT REPORT PR/CE/23/97
INTERIM REPORT ON EUROPEAN PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS
by M E Nunn and D B Merrill
This report has been prepard for: The Commission of the European Communities (COST 333)
Project Offi cer: Mr A Stimpson
Copyr ight Transport Research Lahoratory Febra ury 1997. All rights reserved.
This is an unpub lished report prepared for the Commision o f the European Co mmuni ties, and must not be
re ferred to in any pu blicat ion w itho ut thei r pe rmission . Th e views expressed are those of the autho rs and not
necessaril y those o f the Conuni sion of European Communities.
APprz
Project Manager
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Quality Revie,:':;
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Chairman of COST
333 Management
Co mmittee
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Com pJUlie'l
Transport Reseerch Found ation(a company limited b)' guonultce) lnld ing ll.S Tran sport Recee rch lAbofl lOI}", Rcgi,terro in F.ngland. Nwnbe r 30 11746 .
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CONTEN TS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARy............................................ ................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION. ................. ..................................................................................... 1
2. SCOPE
3. PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS ..................... ................................................ ........

3.1 Mechanistic
3.2 Analytically Based
3.3 Empirical
3
3
4
4
4. GENERAL INFORMATION
5. PART 1: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

5.1 Brief Description of Design Methods
5.2 Peripheral Factors
5.2.1 Climate
5.2.2 Traffic Assessment.
5.3 Design of Pavement layers
5.3.1 Design life
5.3.2 Pavement design criteria
5.4 Characterisation of Pavement Layers
5.5 Design Models
5.6 In-service Pavement Performance
5.7 Design Thicknesses
5.8 Summarising Remarks
5
5
12
12
12
13
13
14
17
23
25
26
28
6. PART 2: COMPOSITE PAVEMENT DESIGN

6.2. 1 Climate
6.2.2 Traffic Assessment.
6.3 Design of Pavement Layers
6.3. I Design life
:
6.3.2 Pavement design criteria
6.4 Characterisation of Pavement Layers
6.5 Design Models
6.6 In-service Pavement Performance
6.7 Design Thicknesses
6.8 Summarising Remarks............................................................ ................................
30
30
33
33
33
34
34
35
36
40
42
42
44
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
44
8. REFERENCES
44
9. APPENDIX A: NATIONAL DESIGN METHODS
44
10. APPENDIX B: Questionnaire for Flexible Design
46
I I. APPENDIX C: Questionnaire for Composite Design
47
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
COST Action 333 has been set up to develop a new design method for flexible and composite
roads in Europe. TIIis is a concerted European research action which has the objective of
producing a coherent, cost-effective and harmonised European pavement design method which
will open new possibilities for European industry to collaborate in the field of pavement design
and construction.
The initial stage is to gather information, primarily from within Europe, to help establish the
requirements for the main components of the new pavement design method. Part of this
information gathering process will be concerned with establishing the current pavement design
methodology used within Europe and elsewhere. Collecting information in a standardised form
by using questionnaires provided the most convenient means of assembling this large body of
knowledge.
This report collates and summarises the information collected from these questionnaires which
were sent to National Bodies responsible for pavement design in the majority of European
countries. This study establishes the current situation, it is not a critical review.
The questionnaires were concerned only with the design method for the primary road network.
Separate questionnaires were compiled for flexible and composite pavements. A flexible
pavement is defined as a pavement which has bituminous surfacing and the main structural
layer (base course) is either asphalt or untreated granular material willie a composite pavement
has a hydraulically bound base course and asphalt surfacing. The basic pavement terminology
was defined in the questionnaires which are reproduced in Appendices Band C.
The first phase, described in this report, is an interim study that is only concemed with designs
methods used by Individual European countries. In some places the information is incomplete.
However, a more comprehensive review, that updates this report and includes design methods
developed in countries outside Europe, and by other organisations, will be produced as a sequel
to this report at a later date.
The report is divided into two parts: Part I deals with flexible pavement design and Part 2 deals
with composite design. Each Part begins with a brief summary of the design method used by
the countries that contributed information and then various aspects of design are considered;
i.e, climate, traffic, design inputs for each layer, models, observed modes of pavement
deterioration; finally, design examples for each country are given.
This review highlights many features conunon to many of the design methods used in Europe.
For example, the majority of European countries use an analytically based approach that limits
the traffic induced strains at critical locations in the pavement structure to permissible levels to
achieve the specified design life. These methods are calibrated using empirical data.
INTERIM REPORT ON EUROPEAN

PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS
1. INTRODUCTION
COST Action 333 has been set up to develop a new design method for flexible and co mposite
roads in Europe. This is a concerted Europea n research action whi ch has the obj ective of
producing a coherent, cost-effective and harm onised European pavem ent design method which
will op en new po ssibilities for Euro pean ind ustry to collabo rate in the field of pavement design
and construc tion.
Th e initial stage is to gather information, primarily from within Europe, to help establish the
requirements for the main com ponents of the new pavement design method. Part of this
inform ation gathe ring pro cess will be concerned with esta blishing the curre nt pavem ent design
methodology use d within Europe and elsewhere. Collecting information in a standardised form
by using ques tionnaires provided the most convenient means of assembling this large bo dy of
kno wledge. The objec tives of this study are.
T o establi sh curr ent design practice;

To obtain a consensus on design criteria, deterioration mechanisms and design
methodology;
To help establish requ irem ents for a new design method ;
To pro vide backgro und information.
This report collates an d sununa rises this inform ation with the intention of establishing the
current situa tion; this study is not a cri tical review.
2. SCO P E
The qu estionnaire was concerned only with the design method for the primal)' road network.
Sepa rate questionnaires were com piled for flexible and co mpos ite pavem ents. A flexible
pavement is defined as a pavem ent which has bituminous surfacing and the main structural
layer (base course) is either aspha lt or untreated granular material while a composite pave ment
has a hydraulicalIy bound base co urse and asphalt surfacing. The basic pavement terminology
wa s defined in the qu estionnaires,
The questionnaire was sent to a National expe rt in the m ajority of Europea n countries and to
orga nisations and countries outside Europe that had developed signifi cantdesign methods. Thi s
ph ase of the study, described in this repo rt, is only concerned with design methods used by
Ind ividual European coun tries and in some places the information is incomplete. However, a
more com pre he nsive review that updates this report and includes design methods developed in
countries outside of Euro pe and by other organisations, will be produced as a sequel to this
repo rt at a later date. T able I lists the Europea n coun tries and the N ational Bodi es that have
replied to the questionnaire,
T a bilL'
IS t 0 fE' uropcan C on t nlb u t ors
e
Country
Organisation
Austria
Institut fur Stra,Benbau und Stradenerhaltung

Centre de Recherches Routieres (CRR)
Civil Engineering Institute of Croatia (IOH)
Technical University (DTU)
Technical Research Centre of'Finland (YTT)
Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees (LCPC)
Bundesanstalt fur Stra,Benwesen (BAST)
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA)
Istitute for Transport Sciences (KTI Rt)
Icelandic Building Research Institute
National Roads Authority Laboratories
Dienst Weg- en Waterbouwkunde (DWW)
Norwegian Road Research Laboratory (NRRL)
Institute Badawczy Drug i Mostow
Laborntorio Nacional de Engiharia Civil (LNEC)
Druzba za Drz.avne Ceste
Centre d ~ Estudios Carreleras
Ecole PolytecImique Federle de Lausanne (LAYOC)
Swedish Road and Transport Research lnsitute (VTI)
Tran sp ort Research Laboratorv ITRLl
Belgium
Croatia
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Slovenia
Spain
Switzerland
Sweden
United Kinad orn
ISO
Codes
AT
BE
Questionnaires returned
Flexible and Composite
HR
DK
FI
FR
DE
OR
Flexible
Flexible
Flexible andComposite
Flexible
Flexible
Flexible
Flexible
Flexible
Flexible
Flexible WId Composite
HU
IS
IE
NL
NO
PL
PT
SI
ES
CH
SE
OB
This report is divided into two parts: Part 1 deals with the analysis of the questionn aires for
flexible pavement design and Part 2 deals with composite design. Each Part begins with a brief
summary of the design method used by the countries that contributed information and then
va rious aspects of design are considered climate, traffic, design inputs for each layer, models,
and observed modes of pavement deterioration; finally design examples for each country are
given. The number in brackets at the end of each section heading refers to the question number
on the questionnaire.
In the Figu res of this report , a colour coding is used to differentiate broadly between fou r
different climatic regions of Europe as follows:
Green
Yellow
Blue
Red
- temperate regions of north west Europe (cool sununers and mild winters).
- extreme climates of east ern Eu rope (hot sununers and cold winters).
colder countries of northern Europe,
- hotter Mediterranean regions.
This coding is on a country by country basis, It cannot deal precisely with the different climatic
zone, for example, the climate in France ranges fro m temperate in the north west to
Mediterranean in the south. The colour coding used is illustrated in Figure 1.
The analysis or information given in this report gives an equal weighting to each country
irrespective or the length of its road network.
Many or the replies 10 IIw questionnaire on composite pavements were identical to those or the
tlexihle pavement questionnaire and in these cases the text in Pari 2 refers back 10 the analysis
of flexible pavements.
3. I'AVI,;i\Jll:NT DESIGN i\IKI'IIODS

Pavement design methods can be divided into three basic categories; namely, mechanistic,
analytically based and empirical, These melhods are defin ed as follows.
3. 1 Mcchunistl c
A mechanistic method is based on a fuudamental undcrst auding or the behaviour or materials
in the road pavement. A completely mechanistic approach will usc analyricnl modcls of the
physical processes that lead to pavement deterioration and these models will require input data
on Iundamentnl matcrials properties that arc obtained from laboratory tests carried onl under
carefully conirolled conditions, This method will be able to predict the performan ce of
pavements under specified traffic and climatic conditions. This goal has yet 10 be achieved and
the design melhods in regular usc arc either uualytically based or empirical.
3.2 Analylica lly Based

Analytically based methods use empirical data obtained Irom in-service roads to calibrate
analytically determined pavement design cri teria. The design philosophy is identical 10 that for
designing any load healing engineeri ng structure. The most frequently used design method in
Ihis category employs a pavement response model 10 calculate slrcsscs and/or strains at
locations in the pavement structure that arc considered 10 be the source 01" deterioration. These
calculated values art: then compared with permissible values 10 achieve the required life. The
permissible values art: obtained from a hack-calculation of structures thai arc known to perform
well. If the calculated slrains exceed these permissible values, the calculations arc repeated alter
adiustmcnts arc made to either the thicknesses of the road layers or the properties of the
constituent materials to determine mechanically suitable road structures.
3.3 Emp lrlcul
There arc a range of empiric al methods, AI one extreme, an empirical method may he based
solely on engineering experie nce, In which case, it may have evolved over lime with regular
reviews as more experience is accumulated. AI the other extreme, an empiric al method may be
thc result of the systematic collection of performance data over a period of time and a statistical
correlation of design variables with this performance information.
4. C II;N[mA L IN FO RM A T[ ON
The total length of the primary road network, managed by the central government or thc
countries listed in Ta ble I, is approximately 300,000 km, The breakdown lor the individual
countries and the propor tion or new roads buill using flexible, composite and rigid construction
is given in Table 2 and illustrated in Figure I.
(80.9% ) Flexible
(5 .0%) Rigid
(l oU % ) Composite
Fig 2. P ro portion o r types o r cnust ructiou for new road s
.\
Proportion of Construction Types

(%)
Country
Austria
Belgium
Cro atia
Denmark
Finland
France
Ge rmany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Swit zerland
UK
Rigid
5
10
Flexible
90
60
Co mposite
5
30
98
95
50
36
100
60
99
100
86
98
85
95
79
99
73
85
2
5
40
36
0
40
I
0
10
0
5
0
17
<I
2
5
0
0
10
28
0
0
0
0
4
2
10
5
4
<I
25
10
Length of
Primary Road
Network
(km)
11,954
15,709
12,678
7,000
34 ,0 50
52,913
12,000
4,300
2,200
10,000
4,752
15,472
Table 2. Length of P rimary Road Network in European Countries
5. PART 1: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

5.1 Brief Description of Design Method s
Au stria: Th e Austrian guid elines for the design of flexible pavements contains a catalogue of
standardised pavement constru ctions, with 5 different load classes for design traffic and 2
different construction types. Th e nominal design period is 20 years , after that time it is
presumed that strengthening or rehabilitation is necessary. Because of the standardised
construction types, acconunodation of new materials is not possible. In this case, a spec ific
design calculation is necessary that follows the analytical pro cedure describ ed below.
T he standardised pavements are based on the results of analytical calculations nsing a linear
clastic mod el of the mad to calculate hori zontal tensile stresses and strains at the bottom of the
bound layers and vertical stresses and strains at the subgrade induced by a standard wh eel load
of 50kN. Th ese stresses and strains are used to predict the fatigue life of the road in terms of
the cumulative number of rep etitions of the 100kN standard axle. The existing traffic,
expressed in number of commercial vehicles, is transformed to this standa rd axle using an
equivalence facto r. The calculations are performed for 12 different periods of the yea r with
different asphalt temperatures and different subgrade moduli. Finally, the total damage per year
is calculated using Miner's hypothesis. T he results of the analytical calculations were calibrated
5
using empirical performance data from different sec tions on the existing ro ad netw ork.
At present these guid elines are under revision . T he new vers ion will be published at the end of
1997 . The re will be some modifications of the analytical model which will result in a marginal
cha nges in the thickness of the asphalt layer in so me cases . Also, an additional load class for
very heavy traffic, l Omsa to 20 rnsa, will be includ ed. However, the structu re will generally be
the same .
Belgium: TIle philosophy ofthe design methods is to avoid fatigue cracking of bituminous
pavements and excess ive deformation of the road struc ture. It is the result of the application of
a mod el based on the th eory of multil ayer systems consisting of m echanically hom ogeneous
and isotropi c mat erials. This model was preferred to others because of its ge nera l applicability
and its validation in pra ctice. From its appli cation, the method requires a knowledge of the
m echanical properties of the pavement m aterials and the effec t of seasonal conditions on these
properties, as well as a knowledge of the soil and the amount of traffic to be carrie d. It is valid
for all conditions likely to be encountered in Be lgium and abroad. Be cause of the large volume
of input data, the use of a computer programme is a necessity. This method do es not provid e
tailor-made solutions for all possible sets of input data (materials, seasonal conditions, soils and
traffi c), but serves as a guide in the resolution of a design for a particular problem.
Croatia: An empirically based method, develop ed in 1980, is used . The method is based on
the USA recommendations for flexible pavement design (AASHO Interim Guide) published by
AASHTO (1974). Certain simplifications , conceming local materials and climatic conditions,
have been applied. Pavements designed using tltis method are considered to survive for 20
years provided that they are strengthened at a suitable time; they are then expec ted to last for a
further 20 years.
Denmark: Th e Danish pavement design standard is an analytically based method. Laye red
elastic theory is used for calculating the ma ximum tensile strain at the boltom of the aspha lt
layer and the vertical normal stress at the top of all of the unbound layers (including the
subgra de) . In the Diagram version of the standar d, O demark-Boussinesq's approach is used
for calculating the stresses.
Normally a standard wheel load of 100 kN + 20% for dyn antic effec ts is use d in the design ,
but if the axle load spec trum is known it m ay be used. Only on e season is consi dered in the
design, corresponding to summer-autumn co nditions for the unbound mat erials and a weighted
m ean temperature of the asphalt.
The permissible strain at the boltom of the asphalt is derived from laboratory fatigue tests
(controlled strain with the failure condition defined as the point when the mod ulus reduced to
half its initial value), but modified for in-situ conditions. The condition of the road at failure
fro m fatigu e is not sp ecified. The permissible stress on the unbound materials is based on
results from the AASHO Road Test. Failure corresp onds to a increase of pavem ent
se rviceability index (pSI) from 2 to 2.5. Reliability is not treat ed explicitly, except by the use of
conserv ative estimates of material parameters.
Finland : Th e design method is semi-empirical, based on Odemark's theory, For each layer the
m odulus of mat erial and the layer t1tickness are needed. The moduli are static, based on a plat e
bearing test. Tens of thousands of plate bearing test have been made and the moduli have been
back-calculated, when layer thickness and material are known . Then the modulu s of material is
classified by grading curve. Typical values are: crushed rock 300MPa, gravel 200 MP a, gravel
till 100MPa, sand 50MPa and clay 10MPa. For Asphalt Concrete a typical value is 25000 MPa
and for cement treated base course 2000...2500 MPa.
The pavement structure is calcnlated as a two layer system. If we have many layers, we start at
the bottom and calculate the bearing capacity on the two lowest layers. Then we calculate the
bearing capacity on the next layer similarly and so on until we have the bearing capacity on the
road surface.
For pavement design, a forecast of the numb er of heavy vehicles per day is needed. Based on
this, the numb er of equivalent standard axle loads (10 tonne) will be determined. Mean values
for trucks 0.4(1.5), tractor-s emitrailer 1.5(3.0) and truck+trailer 2.3 (4.5); values in brackets
for fully loaded vehicles.
Base d on ESALs, roads are classified to road class I-6. For example, road class I means
ESALs are greater than 5 million. For each road class there is a target bearing capacity (late
bearing test) e.g. for road class I it is 420 MPa and for road class 6 it is 175 MPa. Starting with
the subgrade, layer materials and thicknesses will be designed so that the target bearing capacity
is reached on the road surfac e. To obtain dimensions, there are nomograms and tables for
different pavement types. There are minimum thicknesses for pavements because of frost
depending on subgrade, frost index (location in Finland) and drainage conditions.
France: French pavement design uses an analytically based method developed over the last
twenty five years. A linear, multi-layer elastic model (Burm ister's model) is used to calculate
the tensile stresses and strains at the bottom of the bound layers, and also the vertical
compressive strains at the top of the unbound layers induced by an axle load of 130kN.
Calculations are carri ed out at an equivalent temperature of 15'C, which is a damage weighted
mean temperature.
The thicknesses of the layers are chose n so that the calculated stresses or strains do not exceed
the allowable amoun ts in each layer. These allowable stresses and strains take into account the
fatigue behaviour of the material, the risk of failure of the pavement, the bearing capacity of
the subgrade and a fitting coefficient. The risk of failure depends upon the traffic but is always
less than 50%; there are fou r classes of bearing capacity of the subgrade; the fitting coefficient
has been determined from the observed perform ance of num erous pavements. The design life
is 15 or 20 years, depending on traffic. The method can acconunodate new materials and
designs.
Germany: Pavements are initially assessed accord ing to the requiremen t for frost resistance.
TIle subsequent determination oflayer thicknesses for the various pavement types is contained
in RStO 86. Pavements are constructed in accordance with the following philosophy
1. The natural ground and subgade must meet minimum requirements in respect of load-
bearing capacity and degree of compaction.

2. The demands on the individual layers become greater closer to the surface.
3. Layer thicknesses depend on traffic flow and are in accordance with different standard
design types. The selection of design type is based upon economic considerations and account
is taken of local conditions, regional experience , technical and economic aspects and
environmental factors .
4. The traffic flow calculation takes into account the average daily commercial traffic (>2.8 I),
the life of the road, lane factor, lane width factor and gradient.
5. The overall thickness of the road , to prevent frost damage, is based on the frost susceptibility
class of the subgrade, the regional frost zone, an exposure factor, the water table and whether it
is in an urban or non-urban location.
Greece: The pavement design method used in Greece is an analytically based method that was
developed in 1992 . The method uses a linear, multi-layer elastic model of the road to calculate
permissible levels of the horizontal tensile strain at the underside of the asphalt base course and
the vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade induced by a standard wheel load.
These strains are used to predict the fatigue life and the deformation life of the road in terms of
the cumulative number of 130 kN standard axles. the calculations are carried out at a standard
pavement temperature which is a traffic and damage weighted mean temperature. These
designs are considered to have an 85 per cent probability of surviving 20m years before
strengthening is required. The method can accommodate only typical materials for flexible and
composite pavements . The method is still being calibrated .
Hungao': The pavement design method used in Hungary is an analytically and empirically
based procedure that was developed in 1991. The method uses the design traffic (during a
predetermined design period) and design subgrade bearing capacity (CBR, % or E" MN /m') as
main inputs. Several pavement structure variants could fulfil these requirements. The design
criteria are as follows: permissible levels of horizontal tensile strain at the underside of the
asphalt layers to prevent cracking and vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade to
prevent rutting. The traffic volume is given as a cumulative number of 100kN standard axles.
The design manual comprises six standard pavement structure variants for several base course
types. The selection of the actual base course type depends upon the availability and cost of
local materials. Its thickness is chosen using a relevant design diagram as a funct ion of traffic
volume and subgrade design bearing capacity. CBR 5% was chosen in the design base strength .
The base course types included are: unbound or untreated, bituminous bound (eventually
asphalt macadam) as well as hydraulically bound variants. The total asphalt thickness can be
taken from the relevant design diagram as a function of the design traffic. For lightly trafficked
roads, low cost pavement structural variants using low quality local material and industrial byproducts are included. The system can accommodate new materials and designs. The highest
predicted traffic volume considered is l Omsa,
Iceland: The pavement design method is an empirical method adopted from Norway (the
Index method). The design criteria were calibrated from monitoring roads in Norway. The
method was implemented in 1980 and a Norwegian revision in 1992 is now in use. The
philosophy of the method is that it designs pavements for the cumulative number of 10 tonnes
loads, and tyre pressures 0.9MPa, for a 20 years lifetime. The method uses the annual average
daily flow of heavy vehicles, type of material in each layer of construction and the type of road
(primary, secondary etc.). From this information, and the type of subgrade, the thickness of
8
different layers can be read from a table. By using correction factors that are related to the
average daily flow of heavy vehicles, it is possible to adjust designs to different axle loads,
traffic growth rates, pavement lives, two or four lanes etc. Th e method as it is used in Iceland
cannot deal with innovations, but a second step in the Norwegian method defines a laboratory
testing regime to obtain information on the charact eristics of the material in each layer, for use
in the design method.
Ireland: A design methodology similar to that of the UK is adopted, but modified to suit Irish
conditions.
Netherlands: The present RHED design method is a derivative of the analytical Shell
Pavement Design Manual (SPDM) method of 1978 that is based on linear elastic multilayer
calculations. RHED has modifi ed the Shell method by, amongst other things, the inclusion of
material characteristics that have been specifically determined for Dut ch standard asphalt
mixes. It calculates fatigue life from the tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt concre te and
the resistance to subgrade deform ation from vertical compressive strain. However, subgrade
strain is never dominant in the design of primary roads. T raffic loads are expressed in 100kN
standard axles using the 4th power law. Th e method has been empirically calibrated,
particularly on the basis of the number of structural failures in 1983 and 1984. It is available as
a manual and in the computer program ASCON as well as the more sophisticated CARE
program. Mu ch attention is given to the recommendations about mix choice depending on
traffic situation and the type of road. Th e method is applicable for fully bituminous pavements
and pavem ents with an unb ound or slightly bound granular base layer.
Th e method gives design thicknesses that are considered to give 85% reliability that structural
repairs will not be needed during the design life, and only an overlay is required after this
peri od ; usually 20 years. Innovations in construction and materials can be dealt with to some
degree where it concerns the fatigue effects, provided that the fatigue properties of new
materials are available. But, calculations are not necessarily used and empirical evidence from
test sections can be used to assess the performance of these new mate rials.
Portugal : The Portuguese pavement design guide for flexible (and also composite and rigid)
pavements contains a catalogue of standard pavement structures for 6 traffic categories and 4
foundat ion (subgrad e + capping layer) categories. This catalogue is intended to be used as an
indication concerning the types of pavement structures to be used in the national network, for a
preliminary design of pavem ents. The final pavement design must be j ustified with more
detailed analysis. Furthermore, if traffic is too 101V or to high to fit in the above mentioned 6
categories, a specific analysis must be performed.
Th e catalogue was developed using an analytical approach, considering the Limitation of the
tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous layers and the compressive strain at the top of the
foundation as design criteri a for fatigue cracking and rutting, respectively. Traffic is expressed
in terms of number of 80 kN standard axles. Climatic effects were consid ered for three climatic
zones, and the guide provides indications on the type of binder to be used in the bituminous
mixtures according to the climatic zone and to the traffic category.
Nominal design life is 20 years, although the guide strongly advises to perform an economical
analysis for a period of 40 years, in order to select the final design life.
The guide also gives some indications about the type of materials to be used in granular and
bituminous layers (like for example, maximum dimension of aggregate, depending on layer
thickness), as well as the type of materials or soil improvements for the pavements foundation
(capping layer).
Slovenia: The pavement design method referred to as JUS U .C4.012, that is used in Slovenia,
was developed in 1981 by the Civil Engineering Institute of Croatia (IGH) in the former
Yugoslavia. It is based on the results of the AASHO test. In addition, the SHELL program was
used for some of the necessary calculations. It is thus based on empirical relationships as well
as analytical models. In Slovenia, additional guidelines and specifications are used in
conjunction with the method. TIle design method cannot accommodate innovative materials or
designs.
Sweden: The pavement design method used in Sweden (VAG 94) was developed in 1994 and
can be seen as a mixture of empirical and mechanistic design. This means that the old purely
empirical method, last revised in 1984 (BYA 84), has been developed using both new
experience and theoretical calculations. The theoretical model used is a linear, multilayer elastic
model of the pavement which is used to calculate permissible levels of horizontal tensile strain
at the top of the subgrade induced by a standard axle (100kN). These strains are used to
predict the fatigue life and the deformation life of the pavement in terms of cumulative number
of standard axles. The theoretical calculations were carried out for different seasons and
climatic zones, and the cumulative damage was obtained by Miner's law.
The design method also contains an empirical/analytical method for frost heave design. Notable
features in the method (VAG 94) are that there is a performance requirement for both the
completed pavement and the different layers depending on road category.
Switzerland : The pavement design method used in Switzerland and described in the standard
"Dimensionnement superstructures des routes" [1] is based on the AASHTO method and the
experience and knowledge acquired from thc construction and the maintenance of the Swiss
road network. The standard contains a catalogue of structures of flexible composite and rigid
pavements. The design method has for objective to determine the whole thickness of the
structure as well as the thickness of each layer so that the road should resist to the traffic
during 20 years with an acceptable practicability. The standard is valid for all roads trafficked
by motorised vehicles and for parking areas. The catalogue presents different structures for a
daily number of 80kN standard axles between 10 and 3000. The catalogue can be used for the
design of new pavement as well as the maintenance of existing road structures, The standard
"Terrain et infrastructure" [2] gives information concerning the types of measures to take for
preventing frost degradation. The thickness of the road structure depends on the frost depth
penetration, the subgrade frost susceptibility, the frost index of the road surface and the type of
pavement. These parameters are determined in the standard "gel"[3].
[I] Standard SN 640 324 "Dimensionnement superstructures des routes" published in 1998 by
"Union des professionnels suisses de la route (YSS)"
[2]
Standard SN 640 317 Terrain et infrastructure" published in 1998 by "Union des
10
professiouncls suisses de la route (YSS )"

P I Standard SN 670 140 "Gel" published in 1998 by "Union des prolessionncls suisses de la
route (YSS)"
UK: T he pavement design method used in the UK is au analylically based method that was
developed in 19K4. The method uses a linear, multi-layer elastic model of the road 10 calculate
permissible levels of the hori zontal tensile strain al the underside of the base course and vertical
compressive strain al the top of the snbgrade induced by a standard wheel load. T hese strains
are used to predict the fatigue lilc and the deformation life of the road in terms of the
cumulative number of 80 kN slandard axles. The calculations are carried out at a standard
pavement temperature which is a traffic and damage weighted mean temperature. Performa nce
data from 34 sections of experi mental road were used 10 calibrate the model. T hese designs arc
considered 10 have an K5% probability of surviving 20 years before they require strengthening.
Suitable strengthening will enable the road to survive a furlher 20 years. The method is used to
design roads that are predicted 10 carry up 10 200 msa and it can accommodate new materials
and designs.
The curre nt method is under revision. High user costs due to congestion al roadworks indicate
lhat il would be more cosI effective on the more heavily trafficked routes to increase the design
lif e to 40 years without the need lor structural strengthening.
II

5.2. 1 C limate (Q 6-7)
T he response 10 the question on how the climate is taken into account is give n in Figure 3.
o
Single climatic zone
Several c lima tic ZOIlL'S
Air temperatur...'S
Pavement temperatures
Daily temperatures
Mean temperatures.
10
~::;;;~=~~=;~~~'"""
I==!-,-<l=~ =""---L-J==--'
F:;-,.,= - ,.--,
I ~qllivalcn t temperatu res I;;;;~~----,

Max or min temperature I=:!---'---'
Precipitation
Fros t index F=;---,Frost penetration depth
Climate 1\0 1 considered
O AT 0 BE IiIil DE 01'1
II]
FR 1m DE IZl OR D II U 0 IS
O NI. O NO OPt. 0 1'1' OS I
0(,.';
IilIJ IE
O SE D e ll Clcm
I'ig J. Climatic Factors co ns idered in des ign
All co untri es lake climate into accoun t. T here arc a varie ty of ways of dealing with
temperatures, So me countri es, by virtue of their size and topography, only have a single
climutic zone hut Finland, Ge rm any, Greece, Po rtuga l, Spain and Swede n divid e their
countries into more than one climatic zone. Apart li'OII1 the M editerra nean co untries, most
co untri es lake Irost factors into account in their design meth ods. In many cases fro st
penetrat ion depth co nsiderations dictat e the ove rall depth of the road construc rion, with a
pavem ent incorporating a thick layer of unb ound granular materia l to provide frost prot ection
10 the subgrade,
5.2.2 T ramc Assessment (Q H- Il)
All the European design melhod s require traffic 10 he expressed in tenus of either a wheel load
spec trum and/or the numb er of co mme rcial vehicles per day. T he minimum weight of a
comme rcial vehicle vnli ed from co untrv
. 10 co untry;
. 55% of the countries usc 3. 5 kN, 18% usc
3.0 kN, 9% usc 2.8 kN and 18% usc 1.5 kN. G reece, Hun gary, Ireland and Slovenia also usc a
maximum axle or wheel load value. Thi s inform ation is normally converted into a number of
equivalent standa rd axle loads ( ES AL) thai the road is expec ted 10 call}' over its life time.
Figure 4 gives the weight of an ES AL ado pted hy the vari o us countri es,
12
kN
I'ig 4.
I~ SA L
f igure 4 shows that 80 kN or 100 kN is ge ne rally used . France, G reece and S pain use I .~ O kN
and ES ALs are nol used in Germany. T he fourth power law is used by all countries Ihal
convert Ihe axle load dat a to ES ALs.
5.3 Desigu o f Pavemen t laye rs

5.3. 1 Desig n life (Q 12- 16)
T he majori ty of Euro pean countries desig n their most heavily trafficked roads for a 20 year
lile, T he exception is fra nce who design this category of roa d fo r J O years. However, the
design life dep ends o n the defin ition o f the terminal co ndition. Fo r ex am ple, many of the
countries design roa ds for staged co nst ruction. The initial period is often 20 years hUI , with
streng thening all er this period , they arc expeeled 10 last a further 2 0 years. If this stra tegy is
ado pted , the design life is taken to be the period between co nstruc tion and strengthe ning, which
is most cases is 20 years.
T he definition of terminal co ndition o f the pavemen t at the e nd of the design period is
illustra ted in f igu re 5. AI the e nd of this period streng the ning is normally applied 10 ex tend
pavement lite.
IJ
10
15
20
/,
In need of strengthening
"1
,
~
~
~
~
.'
Requiring rec o nst ruction
Chan ge in se rv ica bjlity
OAT OBE rnJ OK OFt

O N!. ONO OPL
El FR rnJOE rnJ GR DHU ~ I S
OPT O St
DES
IilliJ tE
(;;:l SE O CH CJGI3
l' ig 5. Terminal Cond ition (Q 15-16)

Abo ut 70% of the co untries base the selection of design life on eco nomic co nsiderations. 20%
co nsider co nstruc tion, mainten ance and user cos ts, 15'}(' consider co nstruct ion and maintenance
cos ts and 35% consider construc tion costs only.
Approxima tely 20% of the countries expressed pavement life in term s of a probability or
reliability (; ICtOr .
5.3.2 P ave ment d esign criteria (Q 17-21)
Almost half the countries designed the road using separate cri teri a for the layers up to the
surface of the sub-base. In many countries this pari of the road is known as the road
foundation and Figure 6 shows the role it is considered 10 play during road construc tion and in
the completed road.
l -l
10
15
Structural strength
A fl'os l protec tion layer
A co nstruc tion platform

A drainage layer
To res ist fulling
f-L=
To protect the subgradc
01\ TOilE 181 DK 0 FI
ill FR I&l DE 181 GI( 0 fl U m IS IlIIl IE
o NL ONO 01'1, OPT OS I
DES
la SE o efl OOIl
r'ig 6. Role of Suh-hase
The most important functions of the sub-base arc seen to be: a contribution to the structural
strength o r the completed pavement, the protection of the subgrade Irom fro st and as a
construction platform on which to lay the base course. The sub-base appears 10 play a less
important role for the Mediterranean countries. Th is is presumably because they do not have to
contend with the colder and weller wealher, particularly duri ng road construction, experienced
in the rest of Europe.
Figure 7 gives the limns or deterioration that are conirolled by criteria in the design met hods ,
The majority or the countries that adopt an analytically based design method use cri teria to
guard against the possibilities o r fatigue cracks initiating at the underside or the bituminous base
course and structural deformation originating in the subgrade.
15
III
15
13c-1.')c course fatigue cracking
Rutting ill the subg rad e

Rutting ill bituminous lay ers
Rutt ing in granular layers

Servicability index
Cracking from IIw surface

l.ow temperature c rack ing
OAT Cl BE Ii1iJ DK Cl 1'1
NI. DNO
PI.
Cl FR lliIiI DE I11il OR OHU D IS
01'1' D SI
Dr.'>
ElSE
D eH
IilliI IE
DOll
Fig 7 . Pavement dctcrlnrutlon controlled by dcsign critcrlu

The answers 10 thc questionnaire highlighted the importance attributed to the ASSHO road
trials that were carried out in the 1950s. Approximately 35% of the countries still usc
information trom these trials to cnlibrnle their design criteri a, The chart in Figure 8 gives the
breakdown of the source of pavement performance data used 10 calibrate flexible design
methods.
Road net work (6)
AAS IIO trials (3)
Roud lIe!wor klAA SII O trials (3)
Fig 8. Source or iulormutiun used to calibratc design crit eriu
Although only 2 countries used accelerated lest facilities to calibrate design criteria, many or the
16
other countries used nccelcrutcd test facili ties to introduce new materials and to test
modifications to the design method.
5.4 C haracterisation of Pavcmcnt I.ayers (Q 22-3 1)
The questionnaire asked the various counities how the different pavement layers were
characteri sed. Countries were asked to tick column A if the properly was uscd I()\' the
pavement design calculation and tick column B if the property was checked dur ing pavement
construction. The Tables in this Section give the responses Irom the countlies starling with the
subgradc and working up, layer hy layer.
Analytical design melhods require values II' the elastic stiff ness modulus of each of the
pavement layers and this requirement is rcll ecteil in Tables 3 to X. However, still ness values
arc rarely measured during construction,
Table 3 shows that the majority of countrie s usc a either <I predetermined design value of
stiff ness based on subgrade type and condition or a value derived from the California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) . The most commonly used relationship between stiffness (E) and CBR is E ~ 10
x CHR. 1Iowever 3 countries assume a power relationship of the form E ~ k x CI3R", where k
and n arc constants,
Table </ gives the properties used to characterise the capping layer.
The sub-base properties arc shown in Table 5. Th e majority of sub-bases <Ire unbound granular
materials. However, some countries also usc bituminous and cement treated materials and other
unspecified materials, Figure 9 gives a breakdown of the proportion of material types used in
this layer.
(~O . 7 %)
(0.9% )
( 12 .9% )
(5. 4%)
IiDI Unirealed granular material
iii Cement treated material
Bituminous material
0 Other materials
Fig 9. Proportion of mat erial s used for sub -base
17
Th e base course is the most import ant load spreading layer of the road. T his layer can consist
of either unt reated granular or bituminous material, Untreated granular material can be used for
the whole thickness of the base co urse, and this may be the case for designs tor lightly
tra ffic ked roads or, only as the lower base co urse layer in designs for hea vier traffic. Table (,
gives the prop erties of this layer considered in design .
Table (, indicates that the base co urse is usually characterised by material type. In the case o f
analytical design, each material typ e is nonnally considered 10 have a characteristic design
Sti11ilCSS. A similar comment can be made about the binder course whose properties are given
in Table 7.
Th e primary function of the finished road surface is to pro vide the road user with a smooth
tide and maintain good skid resistan ce for safety aud textu re for surface drainage. Load
spreading ability is therefore nol the prime co ncern of the wearing co urse . Th e prop erties that
are co nside red in the design melhod and require measu rement durin g co nstruc tion are given in
T able S.
IS
Table 3. Sub
..
rti
- - - --
Country
ProPf'rty
AT
CBR
StiJfuessmodulus
Bearinz capacity
Plastic pererceters
Frost suscectib ilitv
Moisturecondition
A
AB
Material type
Particle size distribution
BE
DK
A
A
B
B
A
B
AB
B
B
A
Fl
FR
B
A
B
DE
GR
HU
IS
AB
AB
B
AB
IE
AB
NL
NO
A
PL
PT
SI
ES
A
A
AB
A
A
A
AB
B
B
AB
B
A
AB
A
AB
A
AB
AB
B
AB
B
B
A
A
AB
AB
B
AB
B
A
B
AB
AB
A
AB
AB
B
A
B
A the propertywas used for pavementdesign calculation;B the prop erty was checked duringpavement construction
A
B
Tabl e 4. C -
!""l . -
_ .
.-
- ~
SE
A
B
CH
AB
GB
AB
A
AB
AB
B
A
A
A
A
B
AB
B
B
B
B
- ._ ~
Country
ProP f'rty
AT
BE
DK
B
A
AB
A
A
B
B
B
CBR
Sti.fIDess Modulus
Bearin. eeoeeirv
Plastic DarBIDCteJ"S
Frost susceoibitv
Permeability
Moisture condition
Material type
Parti cle size distribution
B
B
n
A
B
A
FR
DE
AB
A
B
AB
A
B
AB
GR
HU
A
B
IS
IE
AB
NL
A
AB
B
B
AB
AB
AB
A
B
B
B
AB
AB
AB
A thepropertywas used for pavement design calculation: B the propertywas
NO
PL
PT
SI
AB
A
AB
A
A
B
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
B
B
AB
AB
B
AB
B
checked duringpavement construction
ES
SE
AB
CH
AB
GB
B
A
AB
B
A
B
B
AB
B
AB
B
AB
B
B
B
19
Table 5. Sub-b
rti
Country
Property
AT
BE
CBR
Stiffness modulus
Bearine capacity
Plastic c arameters
Waterpermeability
Frost suscepibity
Frost orotection
Moisture condition
C~ es of material
Pertiele size distribution
Material strength
A
B
A
B
20
B
A
AB
A
B
AB
B
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
UNTREA11ID
A
A
IE
AB
I NLI NO I PL I PT I SI
A
AB
A
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
I ES
B
B
B
B
AB
B
B
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
I SE I
B
B
Stiffuess modulus
B.orin. cap acity
Plastic parameters
Frost susceotibilitv
Frostprotection
Moisture condition
Cereecri es of material
Pertiele size distribution
Malena! stren eth
Elastic stiffuess modulus
Beannli: capacity
Plastic eerameters
Moisture condition
Cateecrie s of material
Material str~
I DK I Fl I FR I DE I GR I HU I IS I
CH
GB
B
A
B
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
A
A
AB
A
BITI1MINOUS
B
A
AB
AB
A
A
AB
AB
AB
B
B
B
AB
AB
B
B
B
AB
A
AB
A
A
A
B
AB
AB
A
AB
AB
AB
A
AB
A
CEMENTITIOUS
AB
AB
AB
AB
B
A
AB
B
B
B
B
B
AB
B
AB
B
AB
AB
AB
B
B
AB
B
AB
AB
A
A the property was used for pavement design calculation: B the property was checkedduring pavement construction
AB
B
rt-
Table 6. B
COUDtry
Property
AT
I BE
I DK
I FI
FR
DE
CBR
Stiffness modulus
Bearine cecacitv
Frost suseectibilitv
Plastic parameters
Watercmneabititv
Frostprotection
Permeebilitv
Moisture condition
Characterised bv wee
StifiDess modulus
Fatigueresistance
Defonnarion resisteaee
Rheolocical orocerties
AJ:einJ: characteristics
Low temp. crackiaa resistance
Moisture susceetibilitv
Thermal conductivity
Malenal type
AB
B
B
B
B
AB
AB
AB
GR
AB
AB
B
HU
IS
GRANULAR
IE
AB
NL I NO
B
PL
PT
AB
A
AB
AB
AB
AB
SI
ES
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
B
A
AB
AB
AB
AB
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
CH
GB
B
B
B
B
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
B
B
B
B
AB
A
I SE
A
A
AB
AB
AB
BIIUMINOUS
AB
AB
A
AB
AB
AB
B
AB
B
B
A
A
A
A
A
AB
AB
AB
AB
A
A
A
A
A
A
AB
B
B
A
A
A
A
AB
B
AB
A
AB
AB
A
A
AB
B
A
B
AB
AB
A theproperty was used for pavement design calculation: B theproperty W<lS checked during pavement construction
AB
B
B
21
Table 7. P
rf
fbind
Country
Property
AT
Stiffaess modulus
Fatigue resistanc e
Defo nnation resistance
Rheological properties
~i.nJ:: characteristics
Low temp. craclcinte; resistance
Moisture suscectibifitv
Material type
BE
DK
rr
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AB
AB
AB
AB
FR
A
A
A
DE
GR
A
A
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
HU
AB
IS
IE
NL
A
NO
A
PL
A
A
PT
A
A
SI
ES
SE
CH
GB
A
A
AB
A
A
A
A
AB
AB
A
A
AB
B
A
AB
B
AB
A the property was used for pavement de sign calculation; B the property was checked during pavement construction
Table 8. P
rf
fth
AB
AB
- - -- ......
Country
Property
Stiffile ss modulus
Fati~ resistan ce
Deformation resistance
Rheological properties
AT
A
A
BE
DK
rr
A
A
A
A
A
A
A2einl:: characteristics
Low temp, crackina resistance
Surface texture
Skiddin~ resistance
Mo isture susceotibil itv
Material type
22
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
DE
GR
A
A
AB
AB
AB
A
AB
AB
B
HU
AB
IS
IE
NL
A
NO
A
PL
A
A
PT
A
A
SI
ES
SE
CH
A
A
A
AB
GB
A
B
B
B
B
AB
B
B
B
B
B
AB
A
A
A
B
A
B
AB
AB
AB
A
A
AB
AB
A the pro perty was used for pavem ent design cal culati on: B the property was checked during pavement construction
B
AB
FR
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
AB
5.5 Design Model s (Q 32-36)

The pic chart shown in Figure I() gives a breakdown of the types of design melhods practised
in Europe. The majority of European countries use a blend of empirical and analytical
melhods.
Unspec ified (7)

Em prical (6)
Aualytical mill Empirical ( LJ)
l.'ig 10. Design Met hods

Figure I I illustrates the type of model that the different countries use 10 model the lower
unbound layers of the road (below the surface of the sub-base).
Linear and Non-linear elastic (1)

Linear elastic only (5)
Linear elastic and empirical (2)
Uns peci fie<1 (4)
(i'i g f I. Models used 10 design the lower unbound road layers

Different modes of pavement dcteriomtion were identified and the European experts were
asked 10 stale whether pavement design was based on empirical or analytical models of these
modes of deterioration. Table 9 gives the replies.
Table 9. Deterioration models used for desisn

Country
De tertcratlcn
AT
BE
PL
Rutting originating in
bituminous lavers
Rutting crigiuanng ill
LIE
LlElPR
subcrade
I OK I
Longitudinal cracking in
wheel oath
Cr ac king iaiticiiug at
underside c f'bus ccoursc
Longitu dinal unevenness
LIVrE
LIE
LIE
Cracking initiated aI the
EM
LJE
I
LIE
LIE
LIE
EM
LIE
Loss of skidding resistance
E.\I
Ravelling
~I
wear due to studded t)TC :>
EM
Low temperature cracking
E.\l
Frost hea ve
EM
EM
Key:
EME-
24
I
I
Linear
~1... .
Nou-lincur
PR PL -
Probabi listic
PI~1 i c
EM
EM
LIE
I
I
EM
LIE
LIE
EM!PR
:'-1 .JE,1
EM
I
I
I
I
EM
LIE
PT
I
LIE
EM
EM
EMiPR
LIE
I IE I 1"1. I NO I PI.
EM
EmpiricaJ
Elastic
Viscous
L-
EM
EM
E
IS
HU
EM
I EM I
Paveme nt scrvic euhili ty
EM
EM
GR
FR
EM
surfac e
General surface cracking
DE I
FI
EM
I SI
I
I
LIE
u
u
I
I
GB
UEfPR
!JEID,I
I
LIE
LIE
I UE
LIE
EM
I
I
UErEM
UErEM
I
I
I
~I
I
I
CH I
SE
EM
UE!~1
EM
~I
ES
EM
I
I
1\'1JTh1
LlElPR
I
I
I
The most favou red anal ytical model is the multi-Iaye r, linear elastic an alysis. T his model
requires , as an input , stiff ness modulus lor bituminou s material, which is dep endent on the
tcmpe rnture and frequen cy of loading. Therefore a cho ice o f these co nditions is required.
Table 10 shows the referen ce co nditions that arc used to select the design stiffness of asphalt.
r it II) C
C ou nt ry
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
Fra nce
Germany
Greece
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
S pain
UK
II. Deslun reference CIInlI'itinns for Ii luminous materials

Tramc speed
Loading timc
Temperature
Frequency
(n C )
(Hz)
(Iun/h)
(ms)
40
15
27
GO
25
20
10
15
20
10
70
20
10
2
20
8
50
2
25
GO
25
20
10
20
5
50
5.6 In-service Pavement Performance (Q 37-38)

Countri es were asked 10 slate the most co m mon forms o f deteriorati on obse rve d on their roads
using a rising scale o f increasing imp ortance from 0 10 5: Whe re 0 means thai il is irrelevant , 1
it OCC III'S occasionally and 5 it is a maj or determinant or pavem ent per forman ce. T he
c umula tive sco res arc summarised in Figure 11.
0)
nuttin g OI iginalillg ill the bilumillutlS lay u s
~~~~~~=~!~~~~~g~~::'J1rulJ
Longitudn al uneveuess fl-.JOO"--_ U,." ooo;= .L..JUlWI

Los s of skidrling res istance
Gl'Il(1;1!
surfac e crac king

Ravd lill8
illlIIICL:.....=
F::::;';:;;;~~~:;':;;=~IillIJJ
.I
Rnlling int he slIbg ratk
Frost heave
Low nmpcranne cr ack i ng
/iJ
h=~*=
~~~-----~
O AT
D BE
illll OK
O FI
D Nl
O NO
E ' Pl
O PT
FR
O SI
(llJ OE
rm ES
IllIllGR D IV
SE
O CH
I?ig II. Rating of observed dctcrioralion
25
This Figure illustrates that rutting at the surface is judged to be the most common limn of
deterioration, followed by loss of skidding resistance and general surface cracking. Cracking
originating at the underside of the base course and structural deterioration arc ranked 7 ami 8
out of the 12 modes of deterioration listed,
T he lin k between pavement design and in-service performance is very important. Of the 20
countries responding, 8 had on-going programmes of validation monitoring of in-service
pavements to obtain feed-back on Iheir design method. Of these Germ any had the longest
running programme which started 30 years ago, followed by The Netherlands which has been
running lor 22 years and 17 years for Finland. The other validation monitoring programmes
were less than 6 years old.
S.7 Dcsi!(u 'I'hickncsses (Q 41)

Each country was asked 10 give examples of the most commonly used pavement designs lor
cumulative traffic levels of I, 10 and 100 million 80 kN standard axles and a subgrade COR of
5 per cent. These designs arc illustrated in ligures 12, 13, 14. The designs Ior Austria arc lor
their standard subgradc condition of 7 per cent COR and for France an equivalent subgrade
condition PF, (surface stiff ness between 20 and 50 Ml'a) . The French design thicknesses are
fo r structure bitumincuse epaissc (full depth asphalt) type pavements iu which uo granular
layers arc used.
To enable these designs 10 be broadly compared, they have all been converted to an equivalent
thickness of bituminous material. A 100 nun of untreated granular was assumed to be
structurally equivalent to 30 mrn of bituminous material. The equivalence between the
thickness of asphalt and untreated granular material is only an approximation. Some countries
use a very thick granular layer as a uon-structural layer to protect the subgrade, In cases such as
this, where very thick granular layers arc used the equivalent thickness will be unrealistically
large. Also, the equivalence will depend on the stiffness of the asphalt, which in IUI11 will
largely depend on the penetration grade of the binder used. PO I' this reason, the penetration of
the binder used in the main structural layer of the road is given, where known, in Figs 12 10 14.
T he equivalent thicknesses are shown in the Figures above the corresponding design for each
Table I I.
country and the design thicknesses arc summarised in
26
SOO
70 70 100 65
600
50 65
90
45 60
50
120
100
,100
200
o
-200
'-,100
'6
5
-S -600
ofr
-SOO
-1000
- 1200
AT [JE I)K 1'1 FR I)E CiR IIU IS IE NL NO 1'1. 1' 1' SI ES SE CII Gil
. 13011lld layer CJGranular base course fm Sub-ha:,w . Equivalent thickness
Figure 12, Designs for cumulative traffic of I msa

~
SOO
~
,~
60 0
70 70 100 65 50 65 60 90 .
45 60
50
120
100
c: '"
~ :{J ,100
~j
,z' :
200
-200
_,100
-S
fr -600
o -SOO
- 1000
- 1200
AT BE OK 1'1 Fit DE GR flU IS IE NI. NO 1'1. 1''1' SI ES SE CII G13

. 13olll1d layer lZlGranular hase co urse
~~~ Sll b M ba:-j c
. Equivalent thickness
[I'jgure 13, Desi gns for cumulntlve truffl e of 10 msa

~ 80 0
~ 5 600
-c: :(l'" ,100
~j
,z' : 200
50 65 60 90
45 60
o
6
-S
-200
-,100
fr -600
o
-SOO
- 1000
- 1200
...... .......1 .
AT BE \) K 1'1 FR DE CiR IIU IS IE NL NO 1'1. PT SI ES SE e l l Ci[J
_ Oolln" layer ElGranular base co urse m Sub-bmic Equivalent thickness
Figure 14, Designs for cumu lative truffl e of 100 msa
27
'
it ) C 11. SumuulI'Y Il f(lesiuns
'I'll
C umulul ive Trufflc
Equiva lent
thickness
(mm)
Thickness of
asphalt
(nun)
To tal thickness
of pavement
(nun)
Mean
Thickest
Thinnest
Mean
Thickest
Thinnest
Mean
Thickest
Thinnest
I msa
273
383
183
11 9
300
25
573
1030
2 10
10 msa
378
497
280
2 18
425
150
689
IllO
280
100 msa
436
527
330
295
350
230
711
1050
330
It is interesting to note that generally the colder countries of Europe have the thickest pavement
designs, because lrost protection tor the suhgradc is a controlling influence on design. However
design thicknesses can vary considerably between adjacent countries that have similar climates.
5.H Summarising Remarks
The following general observations can be made concern ing this review of the design of
Ilexiblc pavements.
I. All analytical design methods used in Europe fall into the analyrically based category. T hese
melhods usc linear elastic theory to calculate permissible values of strain at cri tical locations in
the pavement structure. The hori zontal tensile strain at the underside of the base course is
related to the fatigue life of the road and the vertical compressive strain at the subgrade to
structural deformation.
2. In reply to the question on the most common for ms of deteri oration observed, structural
deformation was ranked 9 out of 12 possible modes of deterioration. Frost heave, wear due to
studded tyres and low temperature cracking were ranked lower. Fatigue cracking was ranked 6.
Rutting occurri ng in the surfacing (wearing course and binder course) and cracking initiating at
the surface were considered 10 be the most dominant modes of deterioration.
J . All the aualytically based methods contained cri teria to control structural damage due to
fatigue cracking and structural deforma tion. Neither of these deterioration mechanisms were
common modes of deterioration in the field. An interpretation of this could be Ihal conservative
design elilelia are being used.
4. The thicknesses Il l' pavements designed for the same traffic levels vary widely from country
til country .
5. All the European design methods are calibrated empiric ally to accommodate climatic facto rs,
construction practices and materials used in the particular country, This may cause difficulties
in applying the method to diff erent countries.
5. Only the more industrialised countries of Europe have need lor designs lor cumulative traffic
28
of 100 million or more of standard 80 kN standard axles. Designs for traffic levels of up to 10
or 20 rnsa would be adequate for many countries. However, there is a need to design for up to
200 or 300 rnsa for congested heavily industrialised countries especially where there is
economic advantage in designing roads to survive without structural maintenance for up to 40
years .
29
6. PART 2: COMPOSITE PAVEMENT DESIGN

A us t ria: T he Austrian guidelines for the design of flexible pavements contains a catalogue of
standa rdised pavement construc tions, with S different load classes for design traffic and 2
different construction types. The nominal design period is 20 years, after that time it is
presumed that strengthening or rehabilitation is necessary. Be cause of the stand ardised
construction types, accommodation of new materials is not po ssible. In this case, a spec ific
design calculation is necessary that follows the analytical procedure describ ed below.
The standardised pavements are based on the resu lts of analytical calculations using a linear
elastic model of the road to calculate hori zontal tensile stresses and strains at the bottom of the
bound layers and vertical stresses and strains at the subgrade induced by a standard wheclload
of SOkN . These stresses and strains are used to predict the fatigue life of the road in terms of
the cumulative number of repe titions of the lOOkN standard axle. The existing traffic,
expresse d in number of commercial ve hicles, is transform ed to this standard axle using an
equivalence factor. The calculations are performed for 12 different periods of the year with
different asphalt temperatures and different subgrade moduli . Finally, the total damage per year
is calculated using Miner's hyp oth esis. T he results of the analytical calculations were calibrated
using empirical performance data from different sections on the existing road network.
At present these gu idelines are und er revision. T he new version will be published at the end of
1997. Th ere will be some m odification s of the analytical model which will result in a margin al
cha nges in the thickness of the asphalt layer in some cases . Also, an additional load class for
very heavy traffic, IOmsa to 20msa, will be includ ed. However, the struc ture will generally be
th e same.
F rance: Th e French pavement design method is an analytical method developed over the last
twenty five years . It is based on a linear, multi-layer elastic model (Bunnister's model) which
allows the calculation of tensile stresses and strains at the bottom of the bound layers, and also
vertical compressive strains at the top of the unbound layers indu ced by an axle load of l 30kN.
Calc ulations are carried out at an equivalent temp erature of IS C, which is a dama ge weight ed
m ean temperature .
T he thickn esses of the layers are chosen in order to have a constant ratio K (K=thickness of
asphalt layers/thickness of cement bound layer. Us ually K=O.S. Th en, two stages of the
pavem ent are considered:
A first stage wh ere the pavem ent is in good condition. It is then assumed that it is the
cement bound material which be ars the stress induced by the axle loads . The horizont al
tensile stress 0 , at the bottom of the cement treat layer is calculated for this stage.
A second stage where the pavem ent is damaged . In this stage, it is assumed that the
modulus of the cement bound material is redu ced by a fac tor of S and that there is no
bonding between the asph alt base and the cem ent bound subbase. It is then the asphalt
layer whi ch bears the stresses indu ced by the axle loads. The horizontal tensile strains 1:2 at
the bottom of the asphalt layer is calculated for this stage.
30
Eac h of these two values 0. and 8 2 is used to determine the number ofloads to failure of each
layer, N I and N2 (considering the risk of failure, the bearing capaci ty of the subgrade and the
fitting coefficients). The structure is acce pted if the total number ofloads N I +N2 excee ds the
cumulative traffic of the design life.
Germany: The design methodology is the sam e as for flexible pavements.
Greece: The design methodology is the same as for flexible pavements.
H uugary: The pavement design method used in Hungary is an analyticaUy and empirically
based procedure that was developed in 199 1. The method uses the design traffic (during a
predetermined design period) and design subgrade bearing capacity (CDR, % or E" MN/m 2 ) as
main inputs. Several pavement structure valiants could fulfil these requirement. TIle design
criteria are as foUows: Permissible levels of horizontal tensile strain at the underside of the
asphalt layers to prevent cracking and vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade to
prevent rutting, the traffic volume is given in the cumulative number of 100kN standard axles.
the design manual comprises six standard pavement structure variants for several base course
types. The selection of the actual base course type dep ends on the local organisation and
technological aspects. Its thickness is chosen using a relevant design diagram as a fun ction of
traffic volume and subgrade design bearing capacity. CDR 5% was chosen a design base
strength. The base course types applied are : unbound or untreated, bituminous bound
(eventuaUy asphalt macadam) as well as hydraulicaUy bound (usuaUy cement-treated) variants
used on highway trafficked roads. SAMI-Iayers are designed to prevent or postpone reflection
cracking. The total asphalt thickness can be from the relevant design diagram as a fun ction of
the design traffi c also the design can be adjusted for different pavement strengths but not for
different lean concrete strengths. For lightly trafficked roads, low cost pavement structural
variants using low qu ality local material and indu strial by-products are applied. Th e system can
acconunodate new materials and designs. The highes t predicted traffic volume considered is
lOmsa .
Portugal: The Portuguese pavement design guide for composite (and also flexible and rigid)
pavem ents contains a catalogue of standard pavement structures for 6 traffic cat egories and 4
foundation (subgrade + capping layer) categories. Thi s catalogue is intend ed to be used as an
indication concerning the types of pavement stru ctures to be used in the national network, for a
preliminary design of pavements. TIle final pavement design must be justified with more
detailed analysis. Furthermore, if traffic is too low or to high to fit in the above men tioned 6
categories, a specific analysis must be performed.
Th e catalogue was developed using an analytical approach, considering the limitation of the
tensile stress at the bottom of the cement bound layers, as design criteria for fatigue cracking.
Traffic is expressed in terms of number of 130 kN standard axles. Climatic effects were
considered for three climatic zones, and the guid e provides indications on the type of binder to
be used in the bituminous wearing course according to the climatic zon e and to the traffic
category,
31
Nominal design life is 20 years, although the guide strongly advises to perform an economical
analysis for a period of 40 years, in order to select the final design life.
TIle guide also gives some indications about the type of materials to be used in granul ar,
cementitious and bituminous layers (like for example, maximum dimension of aggregate,
depending on layer thickness, or cement content, depending on type of cementitious material),
as well as the type of materials or soil improvements for the pavements foundation (capping
layer).
Switzerland: TIle pavement design method used in Switzerland and described in the standard
"Dimensionnement superstructures des routes" [1] is based on the AASIffO method and the
experience and knowledge acquired from the construction and the maintenance of the Swiss
road network. The standard contains a catalogue of structures of flexible composite and rigid
pavements. The design method has for objective to determine the whole thickness of the
structure as well as the thickness of each layer so that the road should resist to the traffic
during 20 years with an acceptable practicability. The standard is valid for all roads trafficked
by motoris ed vehicles and for parking areas. The catalogue presents different structures for a
daily number of 80kN standard axles between 10 and 3000. The catalogue can be used for the
design of new pavement as well as the maintenan ce of existing road structures, The standard
"Terrain et infrastructure" [2] gives information conceming the types of measu res to take for
preventing frost degradation. The thickness of the road structure depends on the frost depth
penetration, the subgrade frost susceptibility, the frost index of the road surface and the type of
pavem ent. These parameters are determined ill the standard "gel" [3]
[1] Standard SN 640 324 "Dimensionnement supers tructures des routes" published in 1998 by
"Union des professionnels suisses de la route (VSS)"
[2]
Standard SN 640 317 Terrain et infrastructure" published in 1998 by "Union des
professionnels suisses de la route (VSS)"
[3] Standard SN 670 140 "Gel" published ill 1998 by "Union des professionnels suisses de la
route (VSS)"
UK: Composite roads are designed for the cumulative traffic in 80 kN standard axles predicted
over 20 years . At the end of this period, strengthening will enable the road to survive a furth er
period of 20 years. Th e designs are based on the performance of experimental road sections,
supplemented by slructural analysis. Two design strategies are employed. An empirical method
is used to design roads for less than 20 million standard axles. These roads are expected to
deteriorate gradually under the influence of traffic. For higher traffic loading, the thickness of
the concrete road base is calculated to prevent longitudinal cracking due to the combin ed effect
of restrained thermal warping stresses due to temperature gradients in the road, and traffic
induced stresses. This is achieved by ensuring that the flexural strength of the concrete base
course is somewhat greater than these stresses. The life of pavements designed for greater than
20 msa is considered to be long but indeterminate. The ultimate structural life of these
pavements is not known, but at present, their nominal design life is restricted to 80 msa.
Investigations are currently und erway to reassess the life of these pavements.
32
6.2 Pcriphcral Fa ctors

6.2.1 C lima tc (Q 5-6)
Figure 15 summarises the answers given to the qu estion of whal climatic factors are included in
the design method.
I
IlliWllil .:
Single climatic zone I

Several climatic ZOIh..'S
Air temperatures
Daily temperatures
Mean temperatures
I:quivaicill temperatu res
Max or min temperatures
I"
it;
+d
W/""/,0 I-li~ I
':',,;~ I
.".
Precipitation
." ..
'1
;:;";"lt ~i! '
..."..
~.
Frost index
Frost penetration depth
Climate not considered
.I:lt
(. 1
., '-'0 , . ""
);:;/$; 1
1:.++,., 1"';-;-;';;;:;:::1",_.,1
CJ Al12J I3EO f'R~ DrE
Ht El PLO PTO ESE2J CI EYl G13
Flgure 15. C limat ic I'actors consider in th e dcsign method
All countries lake climate into account. T he re arc a variety of ways of dealing with
temperatu res, So me countri es, by virtue of their size and top ography, only have a single
climatic zone bUI Finland, Germany, Greece, Po rtugal, S pain <1IHI Sweden divide Iheir
countries inlo more than one climatic zo ne. Apart from the Mediterranean countries, most
co untries take fro st fact ors into accoun t iu their desig n me thods. In many cases frost
pen etra tion depth conside rations dictate the overall depth of the road construc tion, with a
pavement incorporating a thick layer of unbound granular mat erial 10 pro vide frost protection
10 the subgrade.
6.2.2 Traffic Assessment (Q II-II)
All the Euro pea n countries that use com pos ite pa vem ents assess traffic in an identi cal manner
10 that used for llexible pavement s. Thc exce ptions arc Ihal Belgium and Portugal use a highe r
weig ht of standa rd ax le o f 130 kN lor co mposi te design com pared with 80 kN used lor llcxih lc
design.
.1.1
6.3 Desi gn
or Pn vemcnt La yers
6.3 .1 Deslgu llfe (Q 12-16)
As with flexible design, the majority or Euro pean countrie s des ign their most heavily traflickcd
ro ads lor a 20 years, apart from Fra nce whe re the design life is 30 years 1'0 1' category o r road.
The definition or terminal condition or the pavement OIl the end or the design period is
illustrated in Figure 16. AI the end or this period strengthening is normally appl ied 10 ex tend
pavem ent lile.
I II 1I0",d
of S trengthening
Requiring rec ons tru c tion
Chang e in se rv icability
AT E W E 0 I'R !ilia DE 0 HU 0 PL 0
PT 0 ES 0 CII O G I3
Fig 16. T crminal C o nd itio n
Approximutcly SOIVO or the countries expressed pavement life in terms or a probability or

reliability factor,
34
.,
6.3.2 Pavement d esign criteriu (Q 17-21)
The comments given for flexible pavements can be applied to this Section and, therefore only
the Figures are presented.
A cons truc tion pial form
Struc tural strength

A fros t protection layer
To protect the s ubgradc
e:
To resist rutt ing .
A drainage layer
OAT El [m 8 m
I&1I DE GrIlJ OJ !' /, 0 1''1' D ES [J CrI GIlGn
Fig 17. Rolc of Su b-base
l.oad associated crac king
Reflection c racking
Rutting in bituminous layers
Th ermal cracking
Servic ability inde x
OAT lEJ BE IZl FR IiZJ DE 0 J-1lJ CD PI. 0 1''1' IT! ES
0 CI-I 1m G [l
Fig IH. Pavement deterlnratlnn cuntrnllcd by design criteria
.15
Road netw ork/ Accclarated testing (2)
Uns pec ified (2)
Road netw ork (1)
Road nelw ork/AAS HO road trial (3)
(rig (9. So urce nfinformation us ed to calihrate d esi gn cr iter ia

6.4 C ha rac ter isati on of Pavement Layers (Q 22-3 4)
Th e questionnaire asked for how the various pavement layers were characteris ed. Countri es
were asked 10 lick column ;\ if the prop erty was used for the pavem en t design calculation and
lick column B if the prop erty was chec ked during pavement construc tion. The tab les in this
Sectio n give the responses fro m the countries starting with Ihc subgra dc and working up layer
bylayc!'.
36
Table 14. Sub
-- d
rti
- - -- -
COmttly
Property
B
F
D
H
I
PL
P
E
A
B
An
A
B
A
A
Elastic: stifmess modulus
A
A
A
A
Beerins ceeecitv
An
B
B
B
An
B
Plastic: paramet ers
B
An
An
B
B
A
An
An
An
An
An
Moisture condition
B
An
B
Soil type
An
An
An
An
An
An
B
An
An
An
B
B
A the property was used for pavement design calculation: B the property was checked during pavementconstruction
A
CH
!""I
_. . -
--
GB
An
B
B
-... -
-...... - ---
CBR
Co...",.
Property
A
CBR
B
A
A
B
B
B
B
PL
An
A
An
Elastic stiffitess modulus
A
A
A
A
Beerins;capacity
B
An
B
B
Plastic param eters
An
B
B
Frost scsceotibilitv
An
A
An
Permeab ility
An
Moisture condition
An
An
An
B
B
An
An
Soil tvoe
B
An
A
An
An
B
B
B
An
An
A the prop erty w as used for pavement design calculation; B the property was checked duringpavementconstruction
CH
An
GB
B
An
A
A
A
An
An
An
B
B
B
B
B
B
37
Table 16. Subb-- -- -----Country
Property
A
CBR
Elastic stiffness modulus
Beerine CBD3C i tv
Plastic naro:mcters
A
B
A
B
B
AB
B
B
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
Water permeability
Moisture condition
Careaeries of material
Material strens:th
I D
I H
UN1REATED
A
B
B
B
PL
AB
A
B
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
AB
B
B
B
A
B
Frost susceetibilitv
Frost ercteeticn
Moisture condition
Cateecri es ofmaterial
MBterial .....>:th
AB
AB
AB
B
CEMENTITIOUS
Elastic stiffuess modulus

Frost susceptibility
Frost erctecticn
Moisture condition
Cllte~es of material
38
A
A
B
AB
AB
B
A the property was used for pavement design calculati on; B the property was checked during pavement construction
Material strenJrth
AB
AB
AB
GB
AB
B
B
AB
AB
B
A
A
B
AB
AB
BITUMINOUS
Elastic stiffitess modulus
CH
AB
B
B
Table 17. B
I
I
Pro p~n y
Elastic :>'ti.f&lc:ss modulus
Futicuc r es istanc e
Str ength of concrete
A
A
B
A
A
B
A
Coc:fficicUI of thcnnal C:xPansion

El astic st iffness modulus
A
A
Fcricuc rc:;isl;lt).cc:
I H
D
I
HYDRAUUCAllY B OID.'D
A
A
B
AB
A
AB
Elastic stiffuc s s mod ulus

Parieue rC ::i i S~I C C
A
A
AB
CH
A
A
B
GB
A
A
AB
A
I
B
AB
A
A
B
B
B
~ -
B
A
-------
A
A
Rheolccicul properties
Mo isture susceoribil itv
CH
GB
-- - . ~ -
I
I
Ccuncv
I
I
I
I
AB
AB
AB
Defcrmarion resistance:
PL
A
A
B
I
I
A
A
B
B
I
I
A
AB
I AB
A
B
A
AB
A the: property was use d for pav ement des ign calculation: B the pro perty was checked during pave ment constructi on
AB
Tabl e 19. P - -
- - --- - - fth
- --- -
Ccune-v
I
:.tiJ:1nc;ss modulus
FazilWl: res istance
---- --- .... - --- --
Property
Defcrmaricn resi stance

Rheolo.ci ca1 properties
Surface texture
Skiddinc re si stance
Thermal cond uctiv ity
~:ueria1 type
E I ~1 i ~
A
A
B
AB
B
AB
AB
I A I
A the property w as used for pave ment design cal culation; B the pro perty w as checked duri ng pave ment construction
A
Table 18. P . - ------
Mater ial tvoc
I
I
I
PL
Prcperty
Thermal conductivirv
BlTUMIKOUS
AB
A
AB
AB
A
AB
AB
A
A
Countrv
I
I
I
AB
De fonnation re si stanc e
Rhcolczi cal nrco crtics

Moi sture suscec t ibilir...
Material wee
A
A
.~
i
I
I
B
A
A
A
A
B
B
I H
I AB
PL
.>Jl
AB
B
A
I
I
A
A
B
I
I
A
A
I
I
I
GB
I
B
B
CH
I AB
B
AB
.>Jl
B
I .>Jl I A
i .>Jl
A the property w as us ed for pave ment d esign calcularicn: B the property was check ed during pavement ccastrucncu
I
I
I
I
B
B
B
39
6.5 Dos lgn Mode ls (Q 35-311)
The pie chart shown in Figure 20 gives breakdown of the types of design methods practised in
Europe. The umjority of European countries usc a blend of empirical and analytical methods.
Unspec ified (2)
Empirical (2)
Aualyticnl'Empiricul (7)
Fig 20. Dcsign Me t hods

Figure 2 1 illustrates the types or model that the diffe rent countries usc to model the lower
unbound layers of the road (below the surface of the sub-base).
Uns pec ified (3)
Linear elastic (6)

No n- line ar elastic (1)
Fig 2 1. Models uSNI to design the lower unb ound road layers
Di fferent modes of pavement deterioration were identified and the European experts were
asked to state whether pavement design was based on empirical or analytical models of these
modes of deterioration. The most favoured analytical model is the multi-layer, linear clastic
analysis. Table 20 gives the replies.
-/0
Table 20. Det eriora tion models used for design

Country
Deteriorati on
AT
Runins in the bitumin ous layers
Ruttins in the subzrade
Crackins initiated at the surfa ce
General surface crackine
Lonzitudinal crackins in the wheel path
Reflection cracking
Thermal effects in cement base course
Longitudinal unevenness
Loss of skid resistance
Ravellins
Wear due To studded rvres
Low temperature crackins
Frost heave
Pavement serviceability
Key :
Thl
Vis cous
Linear
PL
LE
BE
PL
LEIPR
FR
LE
DE
I HU
PL
EM
LE
PT
LE
LEIPR
I
I
I
I
ES
CH
GB
LE
LE
EM
LE
LE
LE
EMIPR
EM
EM
EM
E?vl
EM
EM
I
I
EM
Empirical
Elusnic
L
NL
PR
Ncn-IincarProbabilistic
Plast ic
41
6.6 In-service Pa vem ent Pe rfo rm a nce (Q 39-40)

Countri es were asked 10 stat e the 1II0St commo n forms of deterioration observed on their road s
using a rising sca le of increasing importance from 0 10 5: Where 0 mean s thai it is irrelevant, I
it occurs occasionally and 5 il is a maj or determ inant of pave me nt perform ance. T he scores arc
summa rised in Figu re 22.
Transverse reflection cracking

Rutting ill biluminous layers
Loss of skidding resistance
Long itudinal crac king
Lo ug itudiual un cveness
General surface cracking
~;;!;;;11~!!!~~~~~1l
li:iJ
~
1=TI~~~~~=;:;:::=r::;;;;;;;~"'-J
~~~~:2i=~~~~~;;;:'t'
I==:=n:==;;~~~=..o
Ravelling I==::;;:~
I.I.)W
rcmpcnuuro crac king
~~~~~~ilill~.J. . I
Rutting in the s ubg rade F .w.-== '-'-.,w

Frost heave
Wear due 10 stu dde d tyr os
CJ AT
CJ BE
I--'-.....J
CJ FR lim DE CJ flU CJ PI.
CJ 1'1' CJ ES
CJ e ll
CJ GB
Figure 22. Rating or obscrvcd d et erioration

T his Figure illustrate s thai transvers e reflection crac king is judged to be the most commo n form
of deterioration, followed by rutting in the bituminou s layers, loss of skidding resistance and
lon gitudinal cracking.
The link betwee n pavement design and in-servi ce performan ce is very important, T he
valida tion mon itoring programmes covered both llexible and co mposi te design ,
6.7 Design T hicknesses (Q 33)
Eac h co untry was asked 10 give examples of thc most commonly used pave ment designs lo r
cumulative traffi c levels of I, 10 and 100 million 80 kN standard axles and a subg rade C BR of
5 per ce nt. T hese design s arc illustra ted in figures 24, 25 and 26. T he design s lor Austria arc
lor their standard suhgradc condition of 7 per cen t C B R and lor Fra nce an equivalent subgra de
condition PF, . T he Fren ch des ign thicknesses arc lor "structures se mi-rigide " pavem ent s fo r
whic h no granular layers are used on PF, type suhg radc. Design thickn esses lor asphalt and
ce mented layers arc summarised in Table 2 1.
42
o
100
200
300
0400
500
.
600
700
800
~
ffi
00
HU
rn
00
I_Bound Layer D Cementitious Base Course Bill Subbase!
Figure 24. Designs for cumulative traffic of 1 II1sa
o
100
-200
-300
400
500
600
700
..
aoo
AT
BE
FR
DE
HU
PL
PT
ES
CH
GB
rn
00
I_Bound Layer OCementitious Base Course m!J Suobase I
o
100
200
300
400
500
60 0
70 0
800
~
ffi
00
ES
I_Bound Layer D Cementitious Base Course mlSubbase I
43
T a bl e 2 1 S ummary 0 fuesigns
l'
Thickness of
asphalt (mm)
Thickn ess of
Ce mented
Base (rnm)
M ean
Thickest
Thinnest
M ean
Thickest
Thinnest
Cumulative Traffic
1 msa
10 msa
100 msa
153
186
95
240
140
290
40
80
250
176
20 0
22 8
320
350
4 10
150
150
150
It is interesting to not e that generally the co lder co untries of Europe have the thickest pavem ent
designs, because fros t protection of th e subgrade is a co ntrolling influ en ce on design . H owever
design thicknesses can vary considerably between adj acent countries that have similar clima tes.
6.8 Summarisin g R emarks

The general remarks that ca n be mad e about composite pavement design are very similar to
tho se of flexible pavements. The analytically based design methods are similar in co nce pt to
those used fo r flexible pavement design . The UK differs in that designs fo r heavy traffi c are
ba sed on limiting the combination of thermally indu ced and traffic induced stres ses to a
proportion of the flexural strength of the conc rete. All the other analytical methods only
cons ider traffi c induced stresses or strains an d use a fatigue criterion.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
8. REFERENCES
9. APP ENDIX A: NATI ONAL DESIGN METHOD S
Austria: RVS3.63 OBERB AU, specifications and guidelines for road engineering, 1986.
Belgium: Co de de BOIUle pratique pour Ie dimensionnement des chausees a reve tem ent
hydrocarb one (Code of practice for the design of pavem ents with bituminous surfacings) ,
Recomrnandations CRR-R49/ 83, 1983. (French and Dutch)
D enmark: Vejregler for dim ensignering a befe stelscr, J.IO.03 Befrestelser,
Vej direc kto ratet, 1987.
Finland : P avement design, Finnish Road Administration, . (Finnish only)
France: Guide technique conce ption et diensi onnem ent des structure de chausees, Le Service
d'Etudes Techni ques des Routes et Autoroutes (S ETRA), 1994 .
Ge rmany: Richtlinien fuel' die standarddisierung des Oberbaucs von Ve rkehrflaechen. RStO
86. Ausgabe 1986. Ergaenzt e Fassung 1989. (Guidelines fo r the standardisation of the upper
44
structure of traffic bearing surfaces, RStO 86. 1986 edition . 1989 expanded version). Roads
and Traffic Research Association.
Gre ece: Design of flexible and semi-rigid pavements. Kolias S, and A Lozios. Ministry of
Public Works. 1992 (Greek only)
Hungary: Structural design of new asphalt pavements and of their strengthening, ME-07-37061994, 1994.
Iceland: Vegbygging 80, Handbok 018, Public Roads Administration, Norway, 1980, ISBN
82-7207-067-7.
Ireland:
The Netherlands: RHED Road Design Manual, Vol. Pavement Design, 1987.
Norway: Vegbygging, Handbok 018, 1980, ISBN 82-7207-067-7 .
Poland: Catalogue of flexible and semi-rigid pavements, 1997.
Portugal: Manual de concepcao de pavimentos pave a pede rodoviasia nacional, IAE, 1995 .
Slovenia: JUS U.C4.012, 1981.
Spain : Instruccion 6.1 & 2-IC de secciones de finne direccion general de carreteras, ISBN:847433-648-1.
Sweden: Various publications from the Swedish Road Administration. (Swedish only)
Switzerland: Dimensionnement terrain et infrastructure, SN640 317a, 1988.
United Kingdom: Design Manual for Roads and bridges, Vol . 7, HSMO, 1996.
45
10. APPENDIX B: Questionnaire for Flexible Design
46
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11. APPENDIX C: Questionnaire for Composite Design
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QUESTIONNAIRE: NOTES FOR GUIDANCE AND INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION
The information collec ted in this Questionnaire will assist COST Action 333, Development
of New Bituminous Pavement Design Method. This is a concerted European research action
which has the objective of deve loping a coherent, cost-effective and harmonised European
pavemen t design method which will open new possibi lities for European industry to
collaborate in the field of pavement design and construction.
An initial stage of COST 333 is to gather information within Europe and throughout the
world to establish requirements for the main components of the new pavement design
method. This Questionnaire is part of this informat ion gathering process and it has the
following objectives:
To obtain a consensu s of opinion on design criteria, deterioration mechanisms and
design methodo logy.
To help establish requirements for a new design method.
To provide backgrou nd information prior to a more detailed comparisons of design
methods.
Separate Questionnaires have been compi led for flexible and compo site pavements.
This Questionnaire is part of an important study, please endeavour to fill it in as
comprehensively as possible. In anticipation, thank you for your help .
GENERAL
I. Thi s Questionnaire is only concerned with the primary road network. A composite
pavement is defined as a pavement which has bituminou s surfacing and the main
structural layer (base course) is unreinforced hydraulically bound material.
2. In any section more than one box can be ticked (.I) . Fo r example, if climate is taken
into account by the use of detailed pave ment temperatures in several climatic zones
and frost susceptible materials are not per mitted close to the surface, then it would
be appropriate to tick boxes (b), (d), (e) and U) in Question 7 .
3. The person that fills in the Questionnaire should have a detailed understanding of the
design method . He could seek other expert opinion to fill in other sections. For
exampl e, Question 39 dealing with perform ance of in-service roads may require input
from someone more closely associated with pavement condit ion assessment and
maintenance.
4. Please make the most of the comment boxes to give additional information that you
feel will help this study . The blank sheet at the end can be used to make more
extensive commen ts.
Pri nted: 10 Fehr nary 1997
Page 2 of 16
C:\COST333\QUESTION.COM
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TERMINOLOGY
The terminology used in this questionnaire is illustrated in the Figure below .
Aulbau del' Strafle

Structure of the pavement
Structure de la chausse
I
T~ chlchl (un"~)
. . .. ... . . .. . . . . . _
:0
I'1 .":_-) L---UY:;;._=,,::;"::-, -; u: :;:~'::;.'~::'
..
.. ...
..-.-.-..-.-..-. I~ .. '" .y.,.~. ':t~,_~.~'lIlund

.. ' "
~.....
. .
~........"'---..
""""
UnMfQNM
I
I
I
English
Francais
Deutsch
pavement
base layer
subgrade
road surface
surfacing
surface layer
or wearing course
binder course
(basecourse-UK)
base course
(roadbase- UK)
sub-base
capping layer
subgrade
formation (level)
chaussee
couche de base
sol de fondation
surface de chaussee
couche de surface
couche de roulement
Oberbau
Tragschicht
Unterbau
Fahrbahnoberflache
Decke
Deckschicht
couche de liaison
binderschi cht
couche de base
(obere) Tragschicht
couche de fondation
couche de forme
sol de fondation
forme
(unlere) Tragschicht
verbesserter Unterbau
Printed: 10 February 1997
Page 3 of 16
Untergrund
Planum (unterbau-)
C:\COST333\QUEST10N.COM
QUESTIONNAIRE: PAVEMENT DESIGN METH ODS - COMPOSITE

PAVEMENTS
Please tick (.f) boxes, to indicate yes, where appropriate. Delete as necessary where
indicated by italics'. If it is not possible to give an answer, please indicate whether the
information is unavailable or unknown by putting II in box.
Name:
Position:
Organisation:
Address :
TEL:
FAX :
GENERAL
I. Name or acro nym of design method
Yes/No'
2. Is this the official design method for your country

If not, what is its range of application :
.......... .... .. ....... ..... ............... ... ....... ............ .......... ... ... ... ... .... ................ .
3. Is the
a)
b)
c)
reference document for design in the form of a:Design guide

Pavement catalogue
Computer program
o
o
o
4. State year in which curren t design method was implemented

Give reference docu ment for design method:
... .. .......... .. ... ........ .. ... ......... .. ... ........... ... ............ ..... .. ......... ... ... .............
If available, give reference of document that describes how the method was
formulated:
................................................... ......... ..... .... .. ............ ...... .. ........ ...... ...
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5. What proportion of new roads are constructed using: a) Flexible construction

b) Composite construction
c) Rigid construction
NOTE: Please respond to this questionnaire at the level

are based.
%
%
011
which the design thicknesses
CUMATIC FACTORS
6. No question
7. Is climate/temperature' taken into account in terms of:a)

b)
c)
d)
e)
Single climatic zone

Several climatic zones
Air temperatures
Detailed daily temperature data
f) Mean monthly/seasonal/annuai' temperatures
g) Maximum and minimu m monthly/seasonal/annual' temperatures
h) Equivalent monthly/seasonal/aunual' temperatures
i) Prec ipitation
i) Fros t index
j) Frost penetration depth
k) Not considered in design method
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
Other methods or comments, please state:
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
8. Does the method require traffic to be expressed as:a) Maximum axle or wheel load
b) Gross vehicle weight
c) Axle or wheel load spectrum (If yes, answer 9)
d) Number of commercial vehicles (If yes, answer 10)
D
D
D
D
9. If the spectrum is converted into a number of equivalent single axle loads (ESALs);
a) What is the weight of an ESAL
.
leN
b) Is a power damage law used
D
Yes/No'
c) Is the damage law dependant on material used
d) If No, what is the expo nent of the damage law
Pri nted: 10 February 1997
Page 5 of 16
C:ICOST333IQUESTION,COllf
10. If traffic is characterised by the number of commercial vehicles (CV);

a) What is the minimum weight of a CV
b) Is the number of CVs converted into ESALs
(if yes, answer (c) and (d) below)
c) What is the weight of an ESAL
d) Is a single conversion factor used, or
e) Are different conversion factors used for different traffic categories
kN
YeslNo'
kN
YeslNo'
YeslNo'
Please state any special factors, for example, if super singles receive special
consideration or further define commercial vehicle, if appropriate.
...... ......... ... .... ... .... .. ..... ... .... .... ........... ........ ... ............ ...... ..... ... ... ... ... ....
I I . Is traffic assessed using any of the following:
a) Initial traffic flow
b) Traffic growth rate
c) Predicted cumulative traffic in ESALs over design life
DESIGN LIFE
12 . Are all composite roads designed for nominally the same period in years
a) Does design life depend on material used
b) Does design life depend on type of road
c) State nominal design life for heaviest traffic category
o
o
YeslNo'
YeslNo'
YeslNo'
years
Please state other nominal periods.
... .... ..... ... ....
.
YeslNo'
13. Is this design period based on economic considerations

14. Are any of the following taken into account:a) Construction costs
b) Maintenance costs
c) Road user costs
o
o
15. What is the terminal condition of the road at the end the design period
a) In need of strengthening
b) Requiring reconstruction
c) Change in level of pavement serviceability index
o
o
o
16. Is design life expressed in terms of a proba bility or a reliability factor
YeslNo'
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Additional comments, please state:
........ ..... ... .......... ............. ... ............ ....... .. ...... ... ... .... ... .. .... ... .......... .... ...
DESIGN CRITERIA
17. Are separa te criteria used to design the layers up to the surface of the sub-base (in
some countries this is known as the road foundation) and the complete road?
Yes/No'
Sub-base surface (foundation) criteria

18. Is the surface of the sub-ba se (foundation) designed to act as a: a) A construction platform on which to lay and comp act the overlying layers
b) To resist rutti ng by construction traffic
c) A frost protection layer
d) To protect the subgrade from adver se weather during construction
d) Drainage layer in the completed pavement
e) Contrib ution to the structural strengt h of the road
0
0
0
0
0
0
Pavement criteria
19. Are cri teria used to control the following during the service life of the road :a) Reflect ion cracking in the bituminous surfacing
c) Rutting origi nating in the bituminous layers
b) Cracking of the concrete base course by traffic
d) Cracki ng of the concrete base cour se by thermal stresses
e) Serviceability Index
0
0
0
0
Other criteria or comments, please state:
.. ....... .. ... ........ ..... .. ....... ... .. ..... ... ...... ........... ............ .. ..... ............ .... ... ... .
20 . Are any of the follo wing determined on the basis of other criteria:
a) T hickness of wearing course
b) Thickness of binder course
c) Thickness of base course
d) T hickness of sub-base
e) Combined thickness of bituminous, granular and cement itious layers
0
0
0
0
If so, please state cri teria (for examp le, traffic levels, frost pro tection):
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C:\COST3 33\Q UEST ION.COM
2 1. Were design criteria calibrated using information from :

a) monitoring performance of roads in your country
b) an accelerated pavement testing machine
c) AASHO road trials
o
o
o
Other or comments, please slate:
..................... ............................................... .................... .. ..................

DESIGN INPUTS FOR EACH PAVEM ENT LAYER
In this Section , please tick boxes in column A if the listed propperties are used in the
pavement design calculations. T ick boxes in column B if the listed properties are checked
during pavement construction.
Subg rade
22. Indicate which of the following are used to charac terise the subgrade:-
a) California Bearing Ratio (CBR) .

b) Elastic stiffness modulus .
c) Bearing capacity (plate bearing test) .
d) Plastic para meters .
e) Frost susceptibil ity .
f) Moisture condition.
g) Characterised by soil type .
h) Particle size distribution.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
23. If CBR is converted into elastic stiffness modulus, please state the relationship:
Please slate others and any special factors:
'
eo
'
'
'
'
Cappiug
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C:IC OST333IQUESTI0 N.COM
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24. Indicate which of the following are used to characterise capping material:-
a) California Bearing Ratio (CBR).

b) Elastic stiffness modulus.
c) Bearing capacity (plate bearing test) .
d) Plastic parameters.
e) Frost susceptibility.
f) Permeability.
g) Moisture condition.
h) Characterised by material type .
i) Particle size distribution.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Please state others and any special factors:
I
[
Sub-base
25. Indicate approximate proportion of material used:
a) Untreated granular material
b) Bituminous material
c) Cement treated material
d) Other materials
%
%
%
%
26. Is cementitious sub-base treated in a similar manner to cement bound

base course:
Yes/No'
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C:\COST333\QUESTlON.COM
27. Indicate which of the followin g are used to characterise the sub-base:
Untreated
A B
a) California Beari ng Ratio
(CBR) .
b) Elastic stiffness modulus .
c) Bearing capacity .
d) Plastic parameters.
e) Water permeability.
f) Frost susceptibility.
g) Frost prot ection (thermal
conductivity) .
h) Moisture condition .
i) Categories of material.
j) Particle size distribution.
k) Material strength.
Bitumino us
A B
Cementitious
A B
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
........ ...... .............. ......................... ....... ....... .. ............. ....... ... ....... .........
......... ........... .... .. ...... .... ................ ... .. ................................... ...... .. ...... ..
Hydraulically bound base course
28. Indicate approximate proportion of material used:
a) Cement treated materi al
b) Other materials
%
%
Name other types of material, if used:
.... ..... ... ... .. ...... ....... ..... ...... ..... ..... ,
29. Indicate which para meters are used to characterise the base course
Cementitiou s
B
A
a) Elastic stiffness modulu s.
b) Fatigue resistance .
c) Strength of concrete .
d) Coefficient of therm al
expan sion.
Others
A
B
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D .
D
30. Are tran sverse cracks induced in the base course dur ing construction
If so, what is the preferred longitudinal spacing between the induced cracks
Page 10 of 16
Yes/No'
_
C:\C OST333\QUESTION.C OM
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31. Do the bituminous layers act as a thermal insulation layer
Yes/No'
Please others and any special factors :
.......... ......... ....... ....... .......... .... .............. '"
Bituminous base course:

32. Indicate which parameters are used to characterise the base course
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
a) Elastic stiffness modulus

b) Fatigue resistance
c) Deformation resistance
d) Rheological properties
e) Ageing characteristics
f) Low temperature cracking resistance
g) Moisture susceptib ility
h) Thermal conductivity
j) Material type
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
... ... ..... ......... ... .... ... ..... ... ...... .... .. ..... ... ...... .. ,
Binder course
i
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33. Indicate which parameters are used to characterise the binder course
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
a) Elastic stiffness modulus

b) Fatigue resistance
g) Moisture susceptibi lity
h) Thermal conductivity
j) Material type
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Please state others and any special factors :
.......... .. ...... ... .... ..... ... ........ .. ,
.... ........
Weariug course
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Page II
or 16
34. Indicate which parameters are used to characterise the wearing course
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
a) Elastic stiffness modulu s

b) Fat igue resista nce
g) Surface texture
h) Skidding resistance
i) Moisture susceptibility
j) Thermal conductivity
k) Material type
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Please state others and any special factor s:
........................ .... ...... ........... .... ............ .. ........... ......... .. ... ........... ....... ..
MODELS
35. Is the design of the layers to the surface of the sub-base (foundation) based on: a) Empirical evidence
b) An analytical model
c) A combination of (a) and (b)
0
0
36. Are any of the following models used to the sub-b ase surface:
a) Linear elastic/viscolis/plastic
b) Non-linear elastic/viscolis/plastic
c) Empirical
o
o
o
Please state others and any special factor s:
, t o, ,
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37 . Is your design method based on empirical or analytical/mechanistic models for any

of the following modes of deterioration:-
a) Rutting originating in bituminou s layers .

b) Rutting originating in subgrade .
c) Cracking initiating at the surface .
d) General surface cracking .
e) Longitudinal crackin g in wheel-path.
f) Reflection cracking.
g) Thermal effect s in cementitious base
course.
h) Longitud inal unevenness (roughness) .
i) Loss of skid resistance .
j ) Ravelling .
k) Wear due to studded tyres.
I) Low temperature cracki ng.
m) Frost heave .
n) Pavement serviceability .
Empirical
Analytical
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
38. If models are used for design, please indicate type of model used (use the following
codes; E - elastic, V - viscous, PL - plastic, L - linear , NL - non-linear, C - models
involvin g crack propagation or fracture mechanics, PR - probabili stic considerations, EM
- empirical model. More than one letter may be used. For example, LIE/V/PR would
mean that a linear visco-elastic model would be used to carry out a probabilistic
calculation for the deterioration mechanism): Type of model
a) Rutting origin ating in bituminous layers

b) Rutting originating in subgrade
c) Cracki ng initiating at the surface
d) General surface crac king
e) Longitudinal cracking in wheel-path
f) Reflection cracking
g) Thermal effects in cementitious base course
h) Longitudinal unevenness (roughness)
i) Loss of skid resistance
j) Ravelling
k) Wear due to studded tyres
I) Low tempe rature cracking
m) Frost heave
n) Pavement serviceability
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C:ICOST333IQUESTION.COM
IN-SERVICE PERFORMANCE OF ROADS

39. What are the most common forms of deterioration observed in the roads of your
country. Please rate using a rising scale of increasing importance from 0 to 5; where 0
means it is irrelevant, 1 it occurs occasionally and 5 when it is a major determinant of
pavement performance (Please fill this section in independently of the sections on design ;
it is possible that this rating will not correspond to the deterioration mechanisms
employed in your design method) :a) Rutting originating in the bituminous layers
b) Rutting originating in the subgrade
c) Transverse reflection cracking
d) General surface cracking
e) Longitudinal cracking in wheel-path
f) Longitudinal unevenness (roughness)
g) Loss of skid resistance
h) Ravelling
i) Wear due to studded tyres
j) Low temperature cracking
k) Frost heave
State other forms of distress that causes significant maintenance intervention on inservice roads:
40. Do you have a programme of validation monitoring of in-service roads to obtain

Yes/No'
feed-back on design method.
a) If yes, how long has this been in operation
__ years
b) Has any comparison between design and performance been published
Yes/No'
Please give reference for any major published papers:
MISCELLANEOUS
41. Can the design method accommodate innovative materials and/or designs.
42. Do you have performance based speci fications for any of the following:
a) Wearing course
b) Binder course
c) Bituminous base course
d) Granular base course
e) Sub-base
f) Formation
P,,~e
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Yes/No'
o
o
o
o
o
o
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EXAMPLES OF PAVEMENT DESIGNS

43. Please give design examples for light, medium and heavily trafficked roads. The traffic levels should be roughly equivalent to 1
million, 10 million and 100 million cumulative standard 80 kN axle loads or the approximate equivalent in commercial vehicle flow rates.
Please give a design example for a pavement with a cement bound base course, an untreated granular sub-base and a subgrade CBR of 5
per cent to enable designs of different countries to be compared easily. Please duplicate this sheet and give otherflexible design options
permitted in your country.

Design thicknesses (mm)
Light traffic
I msa
.... ......
..
Layer
Medium traffic
10 msa
. .... ....
..
Heavy traffic
100 msa
. .. ......
Name materials used in each layer
..
Wearing course
Bituminous
-------------------Cementitious
Binder course
...
Base course
Base course
Sub-base
subgrade
5 % CBR
It app - -
Enter tratnc units used In desi gn method.

Approximate proportion of composite pavements constructed to this material combination in your country
~
Give details of foundation, or any other aspect of the design, if it cannot be expressed in above tablet-
Page 16 of 16
C:\COST333 \QUESTION.COM
44. ADDTIONAL COMMENTS
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
Page 17 or 16
FURTHER EXAMPLES OF PAVEMENT DESIGN

Light traffic
1 rosa
Layer
... ... ... .
Medi um traffic
10 msa
Heavy traffic
100 rosa
........ .
.........
Wearing course
Bituminous
-------------------Cementitious
Binder course
Base course
Base course
Sub-base
subgrade
Enter trattic units usedtI1 'design method.
5 % CBR
~
If applicable.
Approximat e proportion of composite pavements co nstructed to this material combination in your country
Give details of foundation, or any other aspect of the design, if it cannot be expressed in above tablet -
Page 18 of 16
C:\COSf333\QUESTION.COM
FURTHER EXAMPLE S OF PAVEMENT DESIGN

Light traffic
I rosa
Layer
.... ... ...
Medium traffi c
10 rosa
Heavy traffic
100 rosa
.........
. ........
Wearing cou rse
Bituminous
Binder course
-------------------Cementitious
Base courseBase course
Sub-base
subgrade
5 % CBR
used
EnlerT riflic units

in design method, <~ If app licable.
Approximate proportion of co mpos ite pavements co nstrue too to this material co mbination in your country
Give details of foundation, or any other aspect of the design, if it cannot be expressed in above tablet-
Page 19 of 16
C:\COST333\QUESTION .COM

Cost 333 Interim Report On European Pavement Design Methods

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Cost 333 Interim Report On European Pavement Design Methods

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COST 333

INTERIM REPORT ON EUROPEAN

TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY

PROJECT REPORT PR/CE/23/97

INTERIM REPORT ON EUROPEAN PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS

by M E Nunn and D B Merrill

T rall5po r1 R ff,tarcb . ound ali on Grou p

3. PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS ..................... ................................................ ........

5. PART 1: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

6. PART 2: COMPOSITE PAVEMENT DESIGN

9. APPENDIX A: NATIONAL DESIGN METHODS

10. APPENDIX B: Questionnaire for Flexible Design

I I. APPENDIX C: Questionnaire for Composite Design

INTERIM REPORT ON EUROPEAN

T o establi sh curr ent design practice;

current situa tion; this study is not a cri tical review.

Institut fur Stra,Benbau und Stradenerhaltung

3. I'AVI,;i\Jll:NT DESIGN i\IKI'IIODS

3.2 Analylica lly Based

Fig 2. P ro portion o r types o r cnust ructiou for new road s

Proportion of Construction Types

Table 2. Length of P rimary Road Network in European Countries

5. PART 1: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

bearing capacity and degree of compaction.

professiouncls suisses de la route (YSS )"

5.2 Peripheral Factors

I ~qllivalcn t temperatu res I;;;;~~----,

O NI. O NO OPt. 0 1'1' OS I

I'ig J. Climatic Factors co ns idered in des ign

5.3 Desigu o f Pavemen t laye rs

Requiring rec o nst ruction

Chan ge in se rv ica bjlity

OAT OBE rnJ OK OFt

El FR rnJOE rnJ GR DHU ~ I S

l' ig 5. Terminal Cond ition (Q 15-16)

A co nstruc tion platform

01\ TOilE 181 DK 0 FI

ill FR I&l DE 181 GI( 0 fl U m IS IlIIl IE

o NL ONO 01'1, OPT OS I

r'ig 6. Role of Suh-hase

13c-1.')c course fatigue cracking

Rutting ill the subg rad e

Rutt ing in granular layers

Cracking from IIw surface

OAT Cl BE Ii1iJ DK Cl 1'1

Cl FR lliIiI DE I11il OR OHU D IS

Fig 7 . Pavement dctcrlnrutlon controlled by dcsign critcrlu

Road net work (6)

AAS IIO trials (3)

Roud lIe!wor klAA SII O trials (3)

Fig 8. Source or iulormutiun used to calibratc design crit eriu

IiDI Unirealed granular material

iii Cement treated material

Fig 9. Proportion of mat erial s used for sub -base

5.5 Design Model s (Q 32-36)

Unspec ified (7)

Aualytical mill Empirical ( LJ)

l.'ig 10. Design Met hods

Linear and Non-linear elastic (1)

Uns peci fie<1 (4)

(i'i g f I. Models used 10 design the lower unbound road layers

Table 9. Deterioration models used for desisn