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a NC a eC g Pre, Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering Technologists Fith Edition The late T.D.EASTOP A. McCCONKEY BSc,PhD.CEng, BSc, PhD, CEng, PIMehieRCLESE, — FIMecE: Formeriy Head ofthe School Formerly Head ofthe ‘of Ensinccring at Deparment of Mechanical and Woverhampion we Industrial Engineering at Dundee Collegeof Tecnoloyy COMPLIMENTARY COPY RAYMOND TUAN PEARSON MALAYSIA SDN BHD «soow) Higher Education io Sy nan Banagin §, "rama Dest Deol 75230 Cheng Bara, Mela ‘reuran 065121 #16 UP 012-6082060, ‘Eni raymond @pearsonedomany ro gh «andan «New Yor Bin Sn Func Ta Seago Srp ong Kong Ses pe Yom sabes cy un nh “anbugh Ge Hisex C2021 ‘and Associated Companies thnoaghou the word st arom the World Wide Web a: huputwoepeasonede com (© Longman Group UK Lined 1963, 196, 1978, 1986, 1983, ‘lights reserved no pst of thi pbliction may be epoca, Stored in eval system, or transmit nay form ot by an ‘means, lectreni, mechanical, photocopying, cording, or terwise ‘without cite the prior writen permission ofthe Publishers ra ence peiting vesicted copying nthe United Kingdom ised by ‘he Copyright Licensing Ageny Lu, 90 Toenam Cou Road, ondan, WIT LP ist publishod 1963 Second Eton 1969 ‘Third Ration 1978 Four Eon 1986 Pil Edion 1993, ISBN 042-09193-4 Brith Library Cataloguing in Publiston Data ACP record fr this book is aval rom the British Library Library of Congress Catalogng-in-Puiiation Data ast, ED, (Thomas D) ‘Apolo tsodyamics for engagering technologist. Bey, A McConkey Shed Pc Ineloes bibliographical references an inde. L'Themodyaamie. I. MeConke, A (Allan, 1927 nn ‘Ti2gsii2 1995 eaiaor tae ‘Set by 6 n 1012p Monotype Lasereomp Times 569 Produced by Pea Education Asa Pe Lid Pine in Singapore (COS) nu 07 05 05 08 0% Contents Preface Acknowledgements Nomenclature 1) Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics 4 12 13 14 Ls 16 17 18 Heat, work, and the system Units ‘The state of the working fuid Reversibility Reversible work Conservation of energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics ‘The non-fiow equation ‘The steady-flow equation Problems 2. The Working Fluld Liquid, vapour, and gas ‘The use of vapour tables The perfect gas Problems Reversible non-fow processes Reversible adiabatic non-flow processes Polytropie processes Reversible low processes Irreversible processes Nonsteady-flow processes Problems 4 The Second Law 44 ‘The heat engine contents 42. Entropy 43° The T-s diagram 44 Reversible processes on the T-s diagram 45. Entropy and irreversibility 46 Exergy Problems 5 The Heat Engine Cycle S41 The Carnot eyele 52 Absolute temperature scale 53 The Carnot eyele for a perfect gas 54 The constant pressure cycle 53. The air standard eyele 56 The Otto cycle 57 The diesel cycle 58 The dual-combustion cycle 59 Mean effective pressure 5.10 The Stirling and Ericsson eyeles Problems 6 Mixture 61 Dalton’ law and the Gibbs~Dalton law 62 Volumetric analysis of a gas mixture 63 The molar mass and specific gas constant 64 Specific heat capacities of a gas mixture 65 Adiabatic mixing of perfect gases 66 Gas and vapour mixtures 67 The steam condenser Problems 7 Combustion TL Basie chemistry 72° Fuels 73 Combustion equations 74 Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 71S Exhaust and fue gas analysis 16 Practical analysis of combustion products 17 Dissociation 78. Internal energy and enthalpy of reaction 79° Enthalpy of formation 710 Calorific value of fuels TAL Power plant thermal efficiency 112 Practical determination of calorific values 713 Air and fuel-vapour mixtures Problems 93 9 109 us 21 125 12s 127 128 130 133 135 136 138 a1 3 145 vr 147 150 131 137 162 166 170 13 0 " 2 Steam Cycles &1 The Rankine cycle 82 Rankine eycle with superheat 83 The enthalpy-entropy chart 84 The reheat eycle 85 The regenerative eycle 86 Further considerations of plant efficiency 87 Steam for heating and process use Gas Turbine Cyck Problems ‘The practical gas turbine eycle “Modifications to the basic eycle Combustion ‘ditional factors Problems Nozzles and Jet Propulsion 104 02 103 wos 10s 106 107 108 109 1010 Nozzle shape Critical pressure ratio Maximum mass fow [Nozzles off the design pressure ratio ‘Nozzle efficiency ‘The steam nozzle Stagnation conditions Jet propulsion ‘The turbojet “The turboprop Problems Rotodynamic Machinery td 2 3 114 us 116 17 8 us 11.10 Rotodynamic machines for stoam and gas turbine plant ‘The impulse steam turbine Pressure and velocity compounded impulse steam turbines ‘Axial-flow reaction turbines Losses in turbines Axialflow compressors Overall efficiency, stage efficiency, and reheat factor Polytropic efficiency Centrifugal compressors Radial-ow turbines Problems Positive Dieplacement Machines 124 122 Reciprocating compressors Reciprocating compressors including clearance vil contents 1% “ 6 123 124 125 126 129 Multistage compression Steady-flow analysis Rotary machines Vacuum pumps Air motors Problems Reciprocating Internal-combustion Engines 14 132 23 Ba 135 136 87 a3 ne Bao 131 2 Bo 134 1s Four-sroke eycle ‘Twostroke cycle Other types of engine Criteria of performance Engine output and efficiency Performance characteristics Factors influencing performance Real eycles and the air standard eycle Properties of fuels for IC engines Fuel systems ‘Measurement of air and fuel fow rates Supercharging Engine emissions and legal requirements ‘Alternative forms of IC engines Developments in IC engines Problems Refrigeration and Heat Pumps 1d 142 43 144 las 146 147 148 149 4.10 14 1412 Reversed heat engine cycles ‘Vapour-compression cycles Refrigerating load ‘The pressure-enthalpy diagram Compressor type ‘The use of the flash chamber Vapour-absorption eyeles Gas cycles Liquefaction of gases Steamet reftigeration Reffigerants Control of refrigerating capacity Problems Peychrometry and Air-conditioning 1st 152 153 154 Paychrometric mixtures Specific humidity, relative humidity, and percentage saturation Specific enthalpy, specific heat capacity, and specitic volume of moist air Airconditioning systems 396 406 sul 412 416 6 w Contents 155 Cooling towers 553 Problems 556 Heat Transfer 561 16.1 Fourier’s law of conduction 562 162 Newton's law of cooling 565 163 The composite wall and the electrical analogy 568 164 — Heat flow through a cylinder and a sphere 32 165 General conduction equation 37 166 Numerical methods for conduction 584 167 Two-dimensional steady conduction 387 168 One-dimensional transient conduction by finite difference 593 169 Forced convection 399 16.10 Natural convection 610 1641 Heat exchangers 613 16.12 Heat exchanger effectiveness os 16.13 Extended surfaces er 16.14 Black-body radiation 633 1615 The grey body 634 16.16 The Stefan—Boltzmann law637 oT 1617 Lambert's law and the geometric factor 9 1618 Radiant interchange between grey bodies 63 16.19 Heat transfer coeficent for ra 49 1620 Gas radiation 650 1621 Further study 651 Problems 652 ‘The Sources, Use, and Management of Energy 663 174 Sources of energy supply, and energy demands 664 172 Combined cycles 610 173 Combined heat and power (co-generation) on 174 Energy management and energy audi 680 175. The technology of energy saving 688 176 —Altemative energy sources 696 177 Nuclear power pla i) Problems 701 Index 08 Preface to the Fifth Edition ‘This book aims to give students of engineering a thorough grounding in the subject of thermodynamics and the design of thermal plant. The book is comprehensive in its coverage without stcrificing the necessary theoretical ra; the emphasis throughout is on the applications of the theory to real fprocesses and plant, The objectives have remained unaltered through four previous editions and continuing interest in the book not only in the UK but ‘Also in most other counties in the English-speaking world has confirmed these “objectives as suitable for students on a wide range of courses, ‘The book is designed as a complete course text for degree courses in mechanical, aeronautical, chemical, environmental, and energy engineering, tngincering science, and combined studies courses in which thermodynamies fand related topies are an important part of the cucriculum, Students on Technician diploma and certificate courses in engineering will also find the book suitable although the coverage is more extensive than they might requir 'A numberof lecturers in universities and polytechnics in the UK were asked for comments on the book before the fifth edition was prepared; the consensus twas that the balance ofthe book was broadly correct with only minor changes needed, but a more modern format was thought to be desirable, "The fith edition has therefore been completely recast in a new style which ‘will make it more attractive, and easier to use. The opportunity has also been taken to rearrange the chapters in what seems to be a mote logical order. “Throughout the book the emphasis snow on the effective use of energy resources and the need to protect the environment. The chapter on energy sources, tse and management (Ch. 17), has been improved and extended; it now includes fa more extensive coverage of combined heat and power and a new section on fenergy recovery, including a brief mention of pinch technology. The material fon gas turbines, steam turbines, nozzles, and propulsion (Chs 8-10) has been rewritten in a more logical format giving a more general treatment of blade design while sil stressing the differences in design procedures for steam and igas turbines. In the chapter on refrigeration (Ch. 14) more emphasis is given {o the heat pump and to vapour-absorption plant. A new section on refrigerants discusses the vitally important question of the thinning ofthe ozone layer due to CFCs; examples and problems in this chapter now use refrigerant 134a face to the Fith Edition instead of refrigerant 12, and tables and a reduced seale chart for RI34a are included by permission of ICI. Analysis of exhaust gases, emission control for IC engines, and the greenhouse effect are also included [A new sign convention for energy transler across a system boundary has ‘come into general use in recent years and has therefore been introduced inthis ‘book. The convention is to treat both work and heat crossing @ boundary as [postive when itis transferred from the surroundings to the system, Als, there has been an international agreement to standardize symbols used for heat and ‘mass transfer and the symbols in this text have been chosen accordingly. For example, the symbol for heat transfer coefcient is a, that for thermal ‘conductivity 4, that for dynamic viscosity m, and that for thermal diffusivity x. “Molar quantities are now distinguished by the overscrpt,~ Thanks are due to Dr Y.R. Mayhew for many helpfl discussions on the use of physical quantities, units, and nomenclature. Inthe chapter on combustion (Cl, 7) the section on dissociation has been rewritten to conform with the use of @ standard thermal ‘equilibrium constant as tabulated in the latest edition of Rogers and Mayhew's Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluid, ‘While preparing this new edition T have been ever conscious ofthe loss of my co-author and colleague for so many years, Allan McConkey, who died {vst after the publication ofthe previous edition in 1986. I would ike to dedicate this edition to Allan with deep affection and gratitude for a long and fruitful collaboration. TDR 1992 Acknowledgements We are grateful to Blackwell Publishers for permission to include extracts from the Rogers and Mayhew Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids (SI Units) (4th ed), 1988, Figure 154 is reproduced by permission of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, copies of the chart (size A3) for record purposes may be obtained from CIBSE, 222 Balham High Road, London ‘SWI2 9BS. Figure 14.14 is reproduced by permission of ICI; Table 141 is an textract with some interpolated values of thermodynamic properties of HFA 1134a by permission of ICI, Runcorn, Cheshire. ‘The following sources have been drawn on for information: Figures 13.21 ‘and 1322 are adapted from The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice by CF. Taylor, MIT Press. Section 13.13 includes material adapted from Exhaust Emissions Handbook published by Cussons Ltd. The data for Fig. 12.30 was provided by JS. Milne ofthe Department of Mechanical and Industral Engineering, Dundee College of Technology, from an original test carried out by him. Nomenclature air-fuel ratio; area velocity of sound; acceleration; non-low specific exergy bottom dead centre British Standard Biot number steady-flow specific exergy brake mean effective pressure brake power velocity; constant; thermal capacity combined heat and power ‘compression ignition coefficient of performance calorie value discharge coeficient specific heat capacity molar heat capacity specific heat expacity at constant pressure specific heat capacity of air per unit mass of dry ait specific heat capacity at constant volume ‘molar heat capacity at constant pressure molar heat capacity at constant yolume bore; diameter ‘missive power; energy eccentricity force; geometric factor fuel injection Fourier number ftition factor; frequency {ition power ieeadiation {ross calorific value Grashof number jgravitational acceleration ‘enthalpy; fundamental dimension of heat hydrocarbons enthalpy of reaction specific enthalpy specific enthalpy of reaction ‘molar enthalpy ‘molar enthalpy of reaction specific enthalpy of a saturated liquid specific enthalpy of vaporization specific enthalpy of a saturated vapour electri current internal combustion intensity of radiation indicated mean effective pressure indicated power current density radiosity Colbura factor for heat transfer ‘equilibrium constant standardized equilibrium constant isentropic index for steam; blade velocity coeficient stroke; fundamental dimension of length length; characteristic linear dimension fundamental dimension of mass Mach number molar mass mass flow rate rotational speed net calorific value non-dispersive infra-red Nusselt number number of transfer units polytropic index; amount of substance; number of eyinders; nove are length ‘octane number perimeter performance number Prandtl number absolute pressure; blade pitch ‘mean effective pressure brake mean effective pressure indicated mean ellective pressure pressure loss heat ate of heat transfer rate of heat transfer per unit area rate of heat transfer per unit volume NKR SE SSEEEE specific gas constant; thermal resist thermal capacities ‘molar gas constant reheat factor Reynolds number radius; expansion ratio pressure ratio compression ratio entropy; steam consumption spark ignition Stanton number specific entropy specific fuel consumption absolute temperature; torque; fundamental dimension of time top dead centre temperature; fundamental dimens thickness temperature difference {rue mean temperature difference arithmetic mean temperature difference logarithmic mean temperature diflerence internal energy; overall heat transfer coefficient intemal energy of reaction specific internal energy specific internal energy of reaction ‘molar internal energy molar internal energy of reaction volume :ate of volume flow specific volume ‘work; brake load rate of work transfer, power temperature on any arbitrary scale dryness fraction; nozzle pressure ratio; length height above a datum level ‘number of stages 08; radius; ratio of| of temperature; blade Greek symbols er angle of absolute velocity; heat transfer coefficient; absorptivity for radiation blade angle; coeticient of cut ratio of specific heats, ¢y/¢, film thickness degree of reaction emissivity; effectiveness ofa heat exchanger expansion Nomenclature egenauenns Subscripts as. g ge Sie a et ele eiate 75 geecc efficiency; dynamic viscosity thermal diffusivity thermal conductivity; wavelength kinematic viscosity ensity; reflectivity Stefan-Boltzmann constant time; shear stress in a fluid; transmissivity relative humidity; angle specific humidity; solid angle Peroentage saturation air standard dry air; atmospheric; arora; absolute velocity absolute velocity at inlet absolute velocity at exit black body brake thermal blade velocity cold fuid; compressor condensate; convective; critical value; clearance dew point; diagram ary bulb exit; exhaust fin; fuid saturated liquid; fuel; films low velocity change of phase at constant pressure saturated vapour; gases {ross hot fluid; high- heat pump. intercooler indicated thermal inlet; a constituent in a mixture; inside surface; intermediate; indicated; mesh point; injector mesh point; jet low-pressure stage mechanical normal net stagnation condition; overall; ouside; ero or reference condition essure stage Bagi at agenegr length x length has units ‘of m?; specific volume = volume/mass has units of m’/kg Force, energy, and power Newton's second law may be written as force oc mass x acceleration for & body of constant mass, ie kona ay ‘where m is the mass of a body accelerated with an acceleration a, by a force Fi; is a constant In a coherent system of units such as SI, k= 1, henoe ‘The SI unit of force is therefore kg m/s*. This composite unit is called the newton, N, ig. 1'N isthe force required to give a mast of | kg an acceleration of m/s? It follows that the SI unit of work (= foree x distance) is the newton metre, Nim, As stated earlier heat and work are both forms of energy, and hence both can have the units of kg m?/s? or Nm. A general unt for energy is introduced by giving the newton metre the name joule, J 12 Unite ie, 1 joule, 3= 1 newton > I metre or = Nm The use of additional names for composite units is extended further by introducing the wat, W, as the unit of power, ie L watt, W= 13/8 1N m/s Pressure ‘The unit of pressure (Force per unit atea) is N/m? and this unit is sometimes called the pascal, Pa, For most cases occurring in thermodynamics the pressure expressed in pascals would be a very small number; a new unit is defined as follows: bar = 10° N/m? = 10° Pa ‘The advantage of using a unt such as the bar is that itis approximately equal to atmospheric pressure, In fact the standard atmospheric pressure is exactly 1101325 bar. {As indicated in section 1.1, i€ i often convenient to express a pressure as head of a liquid. We have: Standard atmospheric pressure ‘Temperature ‘The variation ofan easily measurable property of a substance with temperature ‘can be used to provide a temperature-measuring instrument. For example, the length of a column of mercury will vary with temperature due to the expansion ‘and contraction ofthe mercury. The instrument can be calibrated by marking the length ofthe columa when it is brought into thermal equilibrium with the ‘vapour of boiling water at atmospheric pressure and again when it sin thermal equilibrium with ice at atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius (or Centigrade) scale 100 divisions are made between the two fixed points and the zero is taken atthe ice point. ‘The change in volume at constant pressure, or the change in pressure at constant volume, of fixed mass of gas which snot easily liquefied (e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, helium, etc.) can be used as a measure of temperature. Such an instrument is celled a gas thermometer. It is found for all gases used in such thermometers that if the graph of temperature against volume in the ‘constant pressure gas thermometer is extrapolated beyond the ie point co the point at which the volume ofthe gas would become zero, then the temperature ff this point is —273°C approximately (Fig. 1.10). Similarly ifthe graph of temperature against pressure in the constant volume as thermometer is ‘extrapolated to zero pressure, then the same zero of temperature is found. An absolute zero of temperature has therefore been fixed, and an absolute scale of temperature can be defined, Temperature on the absolute Celsius scale can be 7 Introduction and the Firt Law of Thermodynamics Fig. 110. Graph of temperature against volume fora as, Volume ‘ol seam | “Temperatur/"C) ‘obtained by adding 273 to all temperatures on the Celsius scale; this scale is called the Keloin sale. The unit of temperature is the degre kelvin and is given the symbol K, but since the Celsius scale which is used in practice has a diferent ‘ero the temperature in degrees Celsius is given the symbol C(eg. 20°C = 293 K ‘approximately; also, 30°C ~ 20°C = 10K), In this text eapital T is used for absolute temperature and small for other temperatures. In Chapter 5 an absolute scale of temperature will be introduced as a direct consequence of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. It is found that the gas thermometer absolute scales approach the ideal scale as a limit, Also, with regard to the practical absolute temperature scale, there is an internationally agreed working scale which gives temperatures in terms of more practicable and more accurate instruments than the gas thermometer (see rel 13). Multiples and sub-multipl ‘Maultipies and sub-multiples ofthe basic units are formed by means of prefixes, and the ones most commonly used are shown in the following table: ‘Multiplying factor Prefix. Symbol One millon million tea ‘One thousand million giga. = G ‘One million, 10° megs M ‘One thousand, 10* kilo k ‘One thousandth, 10" milli om One millionth, 10° micro ye ‘One thousand millionth nano One million milionth pico p For most purposes the multiplying factors shown in the above table are suficient For example, power ean be expressed in either megawatts, MW, or kilowatts, EW, or watts, W.In the measurement of length the millimetre, me, the metre, m, and the kilometre, km, are usually adequate. For areas, the difference in size 13 Fig. 11 State ofa ‘working fd on a property diagram 0 ofthe working Fluid ‘between the square millimetre, mm?, and the square metre, mis large (a factor fof 10%), and an intermediate size is useful; the square centimetre, em*, is recommended for limited use only. For volumes, the difference between the cubic millimetre, mm?, and the cubic metre, m?, is much too great (a factor of 10°), and the most commonly used intermediate unit is the cubic decimetre, «dm, which is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre (ie. | dm? = 10"? m) ‘The cubic decimetre can also be called the litre, I dma? = 10° m? ie Litre, (Note, for very precise measurements, 1 litre = 1.000028 dim*,) ‘Certain exceptions to the general rule of multiplying fuctors are inevitable ‘The most obvious example is in the case of the unit of time. Instead of the centisecond, kilosecond, or megasecond, for instance, the minute, hour, day, te. are used, Similarly, a mass flow rate may be expressed in kilograms per hous, kg/by if this gives a more convenient number than when expressed in kilograms per second, kg/s. Also the speed of road vehicles is expressed in kilometres per hour, km/h, since this is more convenient than the normal unit of velocity which is metres per second, m/s. The state of the working fluid In all problems in applied thermodynamics we are concemed with energy transfers to oF from a system. In practice the matter contained within the boundaries of the system can be liquid, vapour, or gas, and is known as the working fluid, At any instant the state of the working fuid may be defined by ‘certain characteristics called its properties, Many properties have no significance in thermodynamis (electrical resistance), and will not be considered. The thermodynamic properties introduced in this book are pressure, temperature, specific volume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy. It has been found that, for any pure’ working fluid, only two independent properties are necessary to define completely the state of the fluid. Since any {wo independent properties suffice to define the state ofa system, itis possible to represent the state ofa system by a point situated on a diagram of properties. For example, a cylinder containing a certain fiuid at pressure p, and specific volume », is at state 1, defined by point 1 on a diagram of p against 0 (Fig. 1.11(a)) Since the state is defined, then the temperature ofthe fui, 7, is re ri r e o ° Introduction and the Firat Law of Thermodynamics fixed and the state point can be located on a diagram of p against T and T against v (Figs 1.11(b) and 111(c)) At any other instant the piston may be moved in the elinder such that the pressure and specific volume are changed to pzand ¢. State2can then be marked on the diagrams. Diagrams of properties are used continually in applied thermodynamics to plot state changes. The most important are the pressure-volume and temperature-enteopy diagrams, but enthalpy-entropy and pressure-enthalpy diagrams are also used frequently. Fig. 112. Reversible and irreveribleprocesses 10 1m section 1.3 it was shown thatthe state of Mud can be represented by a point located on a diagram using two properties a coordinates. When a system, Changes state in such a way that at any instant during the process the state Point can be located on the diagram, then the proces is suid to be reversible ‘The fid undergoing the process passes through a continuous series of equilibrium states. A reversible process between two slates can therefore be drawn as a line on any diagram of properties (Fig. 1.12(a)}- In practice, the fuid undergoing a process cannot be kept in equilibrium in its intermeiate states and a continuous pth cannot be traced ona dagram of properties. Sich real processes are called reversible processes. An irreversible proces is usually represented by a dotted line joining the end states to indicat that the intermediate sates are indeterminate (Fig .12(b)) ‘A more rigorous definition of reversibility is as follows: When a lui undergoes a reversible process both the fluid and its surroundings ‘cam always be restored to their original state ‘The eriteria of reversibility ate as follows: (a) Thoprocess must be frictionloss. The uid itself must have no internal ition and there must be no mechanical friction (eg. between cylinder and piston) (b) The difference in pressure between the uid and its surroundings during the process must be infinitely smal. This means tha the process must take place infinitely slowiy, since the force to accelerate the boundaries of the system is infinitely small Fig. 113 Fh ina clindse undergoing 8 compresion (€) The difference in temperature between the uid and its surroundings during the process must be infinitely small, This means that the heat supplied or rejected to of from the Aid must be transferred infinitely slowly It is obvious from the above criteria that no process in practice is truly reversible. However, in many practical processes avery close approximation to an internal reversbity may be obtained. In an internally reversible process, although the surroundings ean never be restored to their original state the uid itself st all mes in an equilibrium state and the path of the process can be ‘exactly retraced to the initial state. In genera, processes in cylinders with a reciprocating piston are assumed to be internally reversible as a reasonable ‘approximation, but processes in rotary machinery (eg. turbines) are known to be irreversible due to the high degree of turbulence and scrubbing of the fi Reve work Consider an ideal frictionless fivid contained in a cylinder behind « piston. ‘Assume that the pressure and temperature of the fuid are uniform and that there is no friction between the piston and the cylinder walls. Let the cross-sectional area ofthe piston be A, lt the pressure ofthe fluid be p, let the pressure of the surroundings be (p + dp) (Fig. 1.13). The force exerted by the piston on the fluid is pA. Let the piston move under the action of the Torce exerted a distance dl to the left. Then work done on the fluid by the piston is given by force times the distance moved, (ra) x al ie. Work done, dW —pav hese dV is «small inerease in volume. The negative sign is necessary because the volume is deoreasing (Or for a mass, m, AW = mp do where v is the specifi volume. This is only true when criteria (a) and (b) hold as stated in section 1.4 ‘When a fluid undergoes a reversible process a series of state points can be joined up to form a line on a diagram of properties. The work done on the fluid during any reversible proosss, W, is therefore given by the area under the line ofthe process plotted on a p-» diagram (Fig. 1.14), ie pa mmf rae =m shaded are on Fa 138) (12) n Inroduetion and the First Law of Thermodynamics ig. 14 Work done ina compression proses ‘hon pcan be expresied in terms of v then the integral, [2 pd, ean be evaluated Example 1.1 Unit mass of a fluid at a pressure of 3 bar, and with a specific volume of 0.18 m!/kg, contained in a cylinder behind a piston expands reversibly to a pressure of16 bar according toalaw p = c/o, wherecisa constant. Calculate the work done during the process Solution Refering to Fig. 1.15 ig. 115 Pressurespeific volume diagram for Example 11 premure(N/a?) w= am [pdr -m shade ae) -o(-il 3 x 0.187 = 0.0972 bar (m?/kg)? 2 os catia aoe therefore 402 m3. w= —o0972 x 105(1 tN my O18 0409, . = 29840 N m/ke ie. Work done by the fuid = +29840 N m/kg, 12 Fig. 116 Reversible expansion process on spe diagram | Fig. 117 Reversible cycle on ap diagram Example 1.2 1.5. Reversible work ‘When an expansion proces ake place reversibly (oe Fig. 1.16) th integral 3p, is positive, ie inf nae [A process from right to left on the p-p diagram is one in which there is a work input to the fuid (i. Wis positive), Conversely, a process from left to right is fone in which there is a work output from the fluid (ie. Wis negative) ‘When a fluid undergoes a series of process and finally returns to it initial state, then itis suid to have undergone a thermodynamic cycle. A eycle which consists only of reversible processes is a reversible cycle. A cycle plotted on a diagram of propertis forms a closed figure, and reversible cycle plotted on a ‘pro diagram forms a closed figure the area of which represents the net work ofthe cycle, Forexample,a reversible eyele consisting of four reversible processes 102,210 3,3 to 4, and 4 to 1 is shown in Fig. 1.17. The net work input is qual to the shaded area, Ifthe cycle were described in the reverse direction (is. 1 t0 4,4 to 3, 3 to 2, and 2 to 1), then the shaded area would represent ‘et work output from the system. The ruleis thatthe enclosed area ofa reversible eyele represents net work input (ie. net work done on the system) when the cycle is described in an anticlockwise manner, and the enclosed area represents work output (ie. work done by the system) when the eyele is described in a clockwise manner. w 1 (shaded area on Fig. 1.16) Unit mass of a certain fluid is contained in a eylinder at an initial pressure (020 bar. The fluid is alowed to expand reversibly behind a piston according toa law pV = constant until the volume is doubled. The fluid is then cooled 13 Introduction and the Fist Lew of Thermodynamics reversibly at constant pressure until the piston regains its original position; heat is then supplied reversibly withthe piston firmly locked in position until the pressure rises tothe original value of 20 bar. Calculate the net work done by the fui, for an intial volume of 0.05 m’ Solution Referring to Fig. 1.18 Fig. 118 Figure for Example 12 a ta q y : Ly 2 an : 105 a Votonea?) therefore v,)* _20 amp) =a shee noni -F ™, = J» tom equation (1.2 area 128A ie Wa J Sa¥ whee = 9:77 20 005 bar mt therefore hs = 10" «20 001 | {] = =10° 20 x ooms(t aa) = =s0000 Nn 005 a1 Way = area 32BA3 = py(Vy — Va) = 108 % 5 x (0.1 ~ 0005) 25000Nm ‘Work done from 3 to | is zero since the piston is locked in position, Therefore Wha + Was = (enclosed area 1231) $0000 + 25000 = ~25000 Nm Hence the net work done by the Buid is +25000 N m. Net work done thas beon stated above that work is given by ~{ p do fora reversible process ‘only. It can easily be shown that —f pdv is not equal to the work done if @ Fg. 19 Compartments with sining partitions Fig. 120. Ireversible process on Poe diagram 16 1.6. Conservation of ergy and the firet law of tharmodinam I 2p OR 4 proces is ireversible For example, consider a cylinder, divided into a number of compartments by sliding partitions (Fig 119). Initially, compartment A filled with a mass of fui at pressure p,. When the sliding partition I is removed 4uickly, then the Nuid expands to fil compartments A and B. When the system settles down to a new equilibrium state the pressure and volume are fixed and the state can be marked on the p-V diagram (Fig. 120). Sliding partition 2is now removed and the fluid expands to occupy compartments A, B, and C. ‘Again the equilibrium state can be marked on the diagram. The same procedure can be adopled wit partitions 3 and 4 until finaly the fuid isa p» and occupies volume V when filling compartments A, B, C, D, and E. The area under the curve 1-2 on Fig. 1.20 is given by f3 pV; but no work has been done (apart from the negligible work required to move the partitions), No piston has been ‘moved, no turbine wheel has been revolved; in other words, no external force thas been moved through a distance. This isthe extreme case ofan irreversible process in which f pdV has a value and yet the work done is zero. When fluid expands without a restraining force being exerted by the surroundings, as in the example above, the process is known as fre expansion. Free expansion is highly ireversible by criterion (b), section 14, In many practical expansion ‘provesses some work is done by the fuid whichis less than § p do and in many ‘practical compression processes work is done whichis greater than jp do. Its ‘important to represent all irreversible processes by dotted lines on a pv diagram ‘asa reminder that the area under the dotted line does not represent work. Conservation of energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics ‘The concept of energy and the hypothesis that it can neither be ereated nor destroyed were developed by scientists inthe early part ofthe nineteenth century, 16 Introduction and the Fist Law of Thermodynamics Example 1.3 Solution Fig. 121 Steam plant for Example 13 16 tnd became known as the Principle of the Conservation of Energy. The First Law of Thermodynamics is merely one statement of ths general principe with Particular reference to thermal energy, (ie. heat), and mechanical energy, (ie. work) ‘When a system undergoes a complete thermodynamic cycle the intrinsic ‘energy ofthe system isthe same at the beginning and end of the eyele. During the various processes that make up the eycle work is done on or by the Aid ‘and heat is supplied or rejected; the network input can be defined as FW, and the net heat supplied as .Q, where the symbol represents the sum for a complete cycle. Since the intrinsic energy of the system is unchanged the First Law of ‘Thermodynamics states that: When a system undergoes a thermodynamic eyele then the net heat supplied to the system from its surroundings plus the net work input to the system rom its surroundings must equal zero ‘That is Eo+Ew a3) {In a certain steam plant the turbine develops 1000 kW. The heat supplied to the steam in the boiler is 2800 kJ/kg, the heat rejected by the steam to the cooling water in the condenser is 2100 ki/kg and the feed-pump work required to pump the condensate back into the boiler is SW. Calculate the steam flow rate ‘The eyce is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.21. A boundary is shown which ‘encompasses the entire plant. Strictly, this boundary should be thought of ‘as encompassing the working fuid only. For unit mass low rate ¥ dg = 2800 — 2100 = 700 ks kg Let the stem flow be vi kg/s. Therefore 40 = 700m kW and F-dW=5~ 1000. ~995 kW Tortie Ps os. oy [endear 1.7 The non-fow equation “Then in equation (1.3) Edo+ yaw =o ie 7007-995 =0 therefore 421 kg/s ie, Steam mass flow rate required = 1421 kg/s The non-flow equation In section 1.6 itis stated that when a system possessing a certain intrinsic energy is made to undergo a eycle by heat and work transfer, then the net heat supplied plus the net work input is 2er0. This is true for a complete cycle when the final intrinsic energy of the system is equal to its initial value. Consider now a process in which the intrinsic energy of the system is finaly preater than the initial intrinsic energy. The sum of the ret heat supplied and the net work input has increased the intrinsic energy of the system, ie. Gain in intrinsic energy = Net heat supplied + net work input When the net effect is to transfer energy from the system, then there will be a loss in the intrinsic energy ofthe system. ‘When a fluid is notin motion then its intrinsic energy per unit mass is known 1s the specific internal eneray ofthe fuid and is given the symbol w, The specitic internal energy ofa fluid depends on its pressure and temperature, and is tse! 1 property. The simple proof that specific internal enerey is a property is given ref, Lo, The internal energy of mass, m, of a Quid is wetten as U, ie. mu = U. ‘The units of internal energy, U, ate usually written as kl ‘Since internal energy is @ property, then gain in internal energy in changing fom state 1 fo state 2 can be written Us — Uy, Also, gain in internal energy = net heat supplied + net work input, in Uso Um hed haw ‘This equation is true for a prooess or series of processes between state 1 and state 2 provided there i no flow of Hud into or out of the system. In any one nnon-fiow process there will be either heat supplied or heat rejected, but not ‘both; similarly there wil be either work input or work output, but not both Hence, U-u, Q+W fora nonlow process or, for unit mass o+w um 4) "7 Introdvetion and the First Law of Thermodynamics 18 Example 1.4 Solution Example 1.6 Solution ‘This equation is known as the non-low energy equation. Bquation (1.4) is ‘very often written in diferential form. For a small amount of heat supplied dQ, 4 small amount of work done on the uid 41, and a small gain in specific internal energy du, then dQ +4W = du as) In the compression stroke of an internal-combustion engine the heat rejected to the cooling water is 45 kJ/kg and the work input is 90 kJ/kg. Calculate the change in specific internal energy of the working fuid stating whether ities gain or a loss, 4s bake (ve sign since heat is rejected). W = 901d /kg Using equation (1.4) O+Wau—m 454 90=u; uy therefore uy =m, = 45g ile, Gain in internal energy = 45 KI/ke In the cylinder of an air motor the compressed air has a specific internal ‘energy of 420 kd kg atthe beginning ofthe expansion and a specifi internal ‘energy of 200 Kd /kg after expansion. Calculate the heat flow to or from the cylinder when the work done by the air during the expansion is 100 k5/kg, From equation (14) + Wau uy ie, Q-100= 200-420 therefore = 1201 /kg ie, Heat rete by the wir ~ +120 kg Tis important to note that equations (1.3), (14), and (15) are true whether cor nt the proces is reversible These are energy equations For reversible non-flow processes we hav, fom equation (1.2) wen nav or in diferent form dW = —mpdv 18 Fig. 122. Stendy-fow open system Boundaer., Int rit] Fig. 123. Section at int to the system | 41.8. The stendy-flow equation Hence for any reversible non-flow process for unit mass, substituting in ‘equation (1.5) dQ = du + pdo (16) ‘or substituting in equation (1.4) @ wm) pd (17) Equations (1.6) and (1.7)can only be used for ideal reversiblenon-flow processes. The steady-flow equation In section 1.7 the specific internal energy of a fluid was said to be the intrinsic energy of the uid due to its thermodynamic properties, When unit mass of a ‘uid with speciic internal energy, u is moving with velocity C and is a height Z above a datum level, then it possesses a total energy of u + (C2/2) + Zg, ‘where C#/2is the kinetic energy of unit mass ofthe uid and Zg is the potential nergy of unit mass of the uid Inmost practical problems the rate at which the fluid flows through a machine Cr piece of apparatus is constant, This type of flow is called steady flow: Consider a uid flowing in steady low with a mass flow rate, i through @ piece of apparatus (Fig. 1.22), This constitutes an open system as defined in section 1.2 The boundary is shown cutting the inlet pipe at section 1 and the ‘outlet pipe at section 2. This boundary is sometimes called a control surface, and the system encompassed, @ control volume, Boundary 2 Boundary" Let it be assumed that a steady rate of low of heat Q units is supplied, and that H isthe rate of work input on the fuid as it passes through the apparatus. Now in order to introduce the fluid across the boundary an expenditure of ‘energy i required; similarly in order to push the fuid across the boundary at ‘exit, an expenditure of energy is required. The inlet section is shown enlarged in Fig. 123. Consider an element of fuid, length f, and let the cross-sectional area of the inlet pipe be A,. Then we have Energy required to push element across boundary (Pdi) x 1 = py x (volume of uid element) 9 Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics therefore Energy required for unit mass flow rate of uid ‘where 0 isthe specific volume of the Muid at section 1 Simitarly it ean be shown that Energy required at exit to push unit mass flow rate of fluid ueross the boundary Pat ‘Consider now the energy entering and leaving the system. The energy entering the system consists of the energy of the lowing Mud at inlet C (uy +S 2, ( is ‘) the energy term rip, 2, the heat supplied Q, and the rate of work input, W. The energy leaving the system consists of the energy of the lowing uid at the outlet section ss Ez) and the energy term rip,0,. Since there is steady low of fui into and out of the system, and there ae steady flows of heat and work, then the energy entering sis cacly onl ery ng ct cg +e zarnn) rds on(ut Fs 20400) a (1s) In nearly all problems in applied thermodynamics, changes in height are negligible and the potential energy terms can be omitted from the equation. ‘The terms in w and po occur on both sides ofthe equation and always will do so in a flow process, since a uid always possesses a certain internal energy, and the term po always occurs at inlet and outlet as seen in the above proot. ‘The sum of specific internal energy and the po term is given the symbol h, and is called speefc enthalpy, +p «sy ‘The specific enthalpy of a Nuid isa property of the Bui, since it consists of the sum ofa property and the product of two properties, Since specific enthalpy is a property like specific internal energy, pressure, specific volume, and temperature, it can be introduced into any problem whether the process is a flow process or & non-flow process. The enthalpy of mass, m, ofa fluid ean be ‘written as H (ie. mi = H), The units of hare the same as those of nternal energy. ‘Substituting equation (1.9) in equation (1.8) (i+ ze)sorwen(n+Eez0) cao) ie. Specific enthalpy, h Equation (1.10) is known as the steady-flow energy equation. In steady flow the rate of mass low of uid at any section is the same as at any other section. “The steedy-flow equation Consider any section of cross-sectional area A, where the fuid velocity is C, then the rate of volume flow past the section is CA. Also, since mass flow is volume flow divided by specific volume cA Mass flow rate, i= A= pCa ay where v isthe specific volume at the section and p the density at the section ‘This equation is known as the eontinulty of mass equation ‘With reference to Fig, 1.22 Example 1.6 In the turbine of a gas turbine unit the gases flow through the turbine at 1 7kg/s and the power developed by the turbine is 14000 kW. The specitic enthalpies of the gases at inlet and outlet are 1200K)/kg and 260 kI/kg respectively, and the velocities ofthe gases at inet and outlet are 60 m/s and 150 m/s respectively. Calculate the rate at which heat is rejected from the turbine. Find also the area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases at inlet is 0. m?/kg. Solution A diagrammatic representation of the turbine is shown in Fig, 1.24. From ‘equation (1.10), neglecting changes in height ni(in +P) 404 W oni(n+ 2) Fig. 124 Gas turbine for Example 16 For unit mass flow rate Ch _ 60 Oke Kinetic energy at inlet = Ct = 9 majg2 = 0" a 2 ag 1800 N m/kg = 18 kS/kg a 2 1.25 ky/kg (since C2 = 2.5C,) Kinetic energy at outlet =! = 2.5? x (kinetic energy at inlet) a Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics Example 1.7 Solution Fig. 1.25. Air compressor for Example 17 Also W = ~14000 kW. Substituting in equation (1.10) 17(1200 + 1.8) +0 ~ £4000 = 17(360 + 11.25) therefore Q=-1193 KW ie, Heat rejected = +1193 kW ‘To find the inlet area, use equation (1.11) i. at oe ant ther Inet a, om Air flows steadily atthe rate of 04 kg/s through an air compressor, entering at 6 m/s with a pressure of 1 bar and a specific volume of O85 m/ke, and leaving at 45m/s with a pressure of 69 bar and a specific volume of (0.16 m?/ke. The specifi internal energy ofthe ar leaving is 88 ki/kg greater than that of the air entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 59 KW. Caleulate the power required to drive the compressor and the inlet and outlet pipe cross-sectional In thisprolemitismre convenient to wit the Now equtionasinequation 1, citing the Z terms, ' 2 a ie a(ut Fenn) +04 Wan(n +S +n) A diagrammatic representation of the compressor is shown in Fig. 1.25. Note that the heat rejected across the boundary is equivalent to the heat removed by the cooling water from the compressor. For unit mass flow rate: Sig 8 J/kg = 0018 KI/ke Ain 2 Ai ot a Problems Ch 45x45 2 J/kg = 10.1 J/kg = 0.0101 Ki /kg ivy = 1x 108 x 08S Paty = 69 x 108 % 0.16 = 110400 5/5 yy = 88K kg Also = ~S9kW 110453 /kg a_o Now 0+ ries — 1) + (rar nse +( 2) le 94 Wm o4(ss + 104 ~85 + 010 ~ a8) thereore 1044 kW (Note that the change in kinetic energy is negligibly small in comparison with the other terms.) ie, Power input required = 104.4 kW From equation (1.11) Ay 0.057 m* ie, Inlet pipe cross-sectional area = 0.057 m* Similarly 1p = AXONS _ 014m? as ie. Outlet pipe cross-sectional area = 0.014 m* Tin Example 1.7 the steady-flow energy equation has been used, des fact that the compression consists of suction of air, compression in a closed cylinder, and discharge of air. The steady-flow equation can be used because the eyele of processes takes place many times in a minute, and therefore the ‘average effet is steady flow of air through the machine. Problems ‘A osrtain uid at 10 ba i contained ine eyinder behind a piston, the initial volume being 005 m°, Caleulate the work done by the Buid when it expands reversibly: {i at constant pressure toa inl volume of 02 ms (i) cording toalinea law toa nal volume of0.2 manda final pressure of? bar; 23 Introduction and the Fist Law of Thermodynamics 24 13 14 15 16 uw (ii) according toa law pY (iv) according to a law po? = constant to final volsme of 0.06 ms () according toa lam, p = (4/¥)—(B/V), toa final volume of 0.1m? and a Binal pressure of I bar, where 4 and 8 ae constants, ‘Sketch all processes on a p-v diagram. (150000 N m; 80000 N m; 34700 Nm; 7640'N my; 19200 N mm) ‘kg of a Bud is compresed reversibly according to a law pw =0.25, where p isin ‘bar and vis in m/kg. The final volume is £ of the iil volume. Calculate the work done on the Bui and sketch the process on a p-v diagram. (24660 8 m) (005 m? of a gas at 69 bar expands reversibly ina cylinder behind a piston according to the law po! = constant, until the volume is 008 m°, Caleslate the work done by the gas and sketch the process ona p-V diagram, (15480. mp 1 ig of a uid expands reversibly according to 4 tineat lw from 42 bar to 1.4 bar; ‘he intial and final volumes are 0008 m? and 02m The Bud is then cooled reversibly at constant pressure, and finaly compressed reversibly according to a law ‘pe constant back to the inital conditions of 42 bar and OOM”. Calculate the ‘work done in each proces and the net work of th eyle Sketch the eye on a pv siagram, (-480 Nm; 41120; +1885 Nm; —1515 Nm) ‘A Dud at 0.7 bar occupying 009 m? is compressed reversibly to a presure of 3 bar According toa law pu" = constant. The Mud it then heated reversibly at constant volume until the pressures 4 ar; the specie volume i then 0. m3 /k.A yeversibe expansion according to a law po? = constant restores the Auid to is nial state, Sketeh the ‘yee on a po diagram and calculate (Gj) the mass of fud present, (i) the value of in the Dist proces; (i) the net work ofthe eye. (00753 kg; 1887; ~640 Nm) [A Suid is heated reversibly at a constant pressure of 10S bar wnt it has a specific ‘volume of. m/kg- tis then compressed reversibly according 1 law po = constant to a pressure of 42bur, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law "7 = consant, and is finally heated at coastant volume back to the intl conditions, ‘The work done in the constant pressure proses is —S1SINm, and the mass of fuid preset is O2kg. Calculate the net workf the eyele and sketch the eyele on & po siagram. (2781Nm) In an ir compressor the compression takes place at @ constant internal energy and SD1d of heat are rejected to the cooling water for every kilogram of air. Caleuate ‘the work inpt forthe compression stroke per kilogram of a, (soxs/ig) Inthe compression stroke of a gas engine the work done on the gas by the piston is T01U/kg and the heat rejected to the cooling water is 42k)/kg. Calculate the ‘change of specific internal energy stating whether it again or alo. (28 kag gain) ‘A mass of gas at an initial pressure of 28 bar, and with an internal energy of 1500, is contained in @ welkinsulated cylinder of volume 006m The gus i allowed 10 133 ‘expand behind a piston unt its internal energy i 1400; the law of expansion is po! = constant. Calulate: ) the work done (i) the inal volume; (il) te ial pressure (1001; 0148 m?; 459 bar) “The anses in the cylinder of an jnternal combustion engine have a speci internal energy of 800 kJ/kg and specie volume of 006 mk at the beginning of expansion, ‘The expansion ofthe gas may be assumed to take place according to a reversible law, po"* = constant, from $3 bar to 14 bar. The speciic internal nergy after expansion ir 250 K/kg. Calulate the heat rejected to the lind cooling water pet Selogram of gases during the expansion stroke (10443) ‘A scam turbine receives a stam flow of 1.35 kg/s and the power output is $00 kW. ‘The het los from the casing is negligible. Caleulate (3) the chango of specie enthalpy across the turbine when the veloc ‘and exit and the difrence in clevation are negligible; (i) the change of specific enthalpy across the turbine when the velocity at entrance is (ens, the velosity at exit 860 m/5, and the inlet pipe is 3m above the exhaust Pipe (3101 /kg; 433 3 /ke) [A stady flow of steam enters & condenser witha specie enthalpy of 2300 kI/kg anda velocity of 3501m/s The condensate leaves the condenser with aspecitic enthalpy ‘of 160 kd/kg and a velocity of 101m/s. Calculate the heat tanser to the cooing uid po klogram of steam condense. (2199 13/88) |A turbine operating under steady-flow conditions recives steam at the following State: pressure, 138 bar; specie volume 143m/kg, specie internal energy 2590 KJ/ks, velocity 30m/s. The state of the steam leaving the turbine is as follows pressure 0.35 bat, specie volume 437!m*/kg, speci intemal energy. 23601 /kg. ‘oloeity 90 m/s, Hest is rejected to the surroundings atthe rate of 025 kW and the rate of steam flow through the turbine is 038 kg/s. Calculate the power developed by the erbine (102.72W) [A nozdeis a device fr increasing the vlocty ofa steadily owing uid. At the inet toa certain nozzle the specie enthalpy of the Mud is 302530/kg and the velocity {= Gos. At the exit fom the novle the specific enthalpy is 790 ki /kg. The nozle 's horizontal and there sa negligible eat los from it, Cale (@) the velocity ofthe uid at ext; (ii) the rate of flow of fuid when the inlet are is 01m? and the specie volume at ink is 0.19 >; (i) tho exit atea ofthe nozzle when the specie volume atthe nozzle exit is 0.5 m3/kg {688 mjs; 31.6 kg/s; 00229 m?) References LL easror rp and cxorr 0x 190 Energy Eieieney Longman, 22 DOUGLAS Jf, GASIOREK J Mand SWAFFIELD 3A 1986 Fladd Mechanies 2nd edn ‘Longman 25 Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics 1a 14 BS 1041 Temperarure Measurement HMSO; Section 21 1985 Guide to Seletion and Use of Liguid:i-gass Thermometers; Pat 31989 Guide to Selection and Use Of Indusrial Resistance Thermometers; Part 4 1966 Thermocouples; Part $1972 Radiation Pyrometers; Part 7 1988 Gulde to Selection and Use of Temperature-tne Records oGERs © ¢ and uaviteW vx 192 Englnering Thermodynamics, Work and Heat Transfer 4th edn Longman 24 2 The Working Fluid In section 1.3 the matter contained within the boundaries ofa system is defined as the working fluid, and it is stated that when two independent properties of the fluid are Known then the thermodynamic state of the fid is defined. In thermodynamic systems the working fluid can be in the liquid, vapour, or ‘gaseous phase, All substances can exist in any one ofthese phases, but we tend to identify all substances with the phase in which they are in equilibrium at atmosphere pressure and temperature. For instance, substances such as oxygen ‘and nitrogen are thought of as gases; H,O is thought of as liquid or vapour (je. water or steam); mercury is thought of as a liquid. AI these substances can exist in diferent phases: oxygen and nitrogen can be liquefied; H, can become a gas at very high temperatures; mercury can be vaporized and will fact as a gas if the temperature i raised high enough. Liquid, vapour, and gas Consider a p-v diagram for any substance. The solid phase is not important in engineering thermodynamics, bing more the province of the metallurgst ot physicist. When a liquid is heated at any one constant pressure there is one fixed temperature at which bubbles of vapour form in the liguid; this phenomenon is knowin as boiling. The higher the pressure of the liguid then the higher the temperature at which boiling occurs. It is also found that the volume occupied by 1kg of a boiling liquid at a higher pressure is slightly larger than the volume occupied by 1 kg of the same quid when itis boiling at a low pressure. A series of boiling-points plotted on a p-v diagram will ‘appear as a sloping line as shown in Fig 2.1. The points P, Q, and R represent the boiling-points of aliquid at pressure pp, po, and py respectively ‘When & liquid at boiling-point is heated further at constant pressure the ‘additional heat supplied changes the phase of the substance from liquid to ‘vapour; during this change of phase the pressure and temperature remain ‘constant. The heat supplied is called the specific enthalpy of eaportzation, It is found that the higher the pressure then the smaller is the amount of heat required, There isa definite value of specific volume of the vapour at any one The Working Fluid Fig. 21 Boling points plotted on a poo diagram Fig. 22. Points of complete vaporization plotted on a ov diagram 28 a) pressure, a the point at which vaporization is complete; hence a series of points such as P,Q, RY can be plotted and joined to form a line as shown in Fig. 22. ‘When the two curves already drawn are extended to higher pressures they form a continuous curve, thus forming a loop (see Fig. 23). The pressure at which the turning point occues is called the critical pressure and the turning point itself called the critical point (point C on Fig. 2.3). It can be seen that atthe critical point the specific enthalpy of vaporization is zro, The substance existing at a state point insde the loop consists of a mixture of liquid and dry ‘vapour and is known as a wet tapowr. A saturation state is defined as a state atwhich a change of phase may oeur without change of pressure or temperature. Hence the boiling-points P,Q, and R are saturation states, and a series of such boiling-points joined up is called the saturated liquid line, Similarly the points P,Q, and R’, at which the liquid is completely changed into vapour, are saturation states, and a series of such points joined up is called the saturated ‘pour line. The word ‘saturation’ as used here refers to energy saturation. For ‘example, a slight addition of heat to a boiling liquid changes some of it into a vapour, and it is no longer a liquid but is now a wet vapour. Similarly when 2 substance just on the saturated vapour line is cooled slightly, droplets of liquid will begin to form, and the saturated vapour becomes a wet vapour. A saturated vapour is usualy called dry saturated to emphasize the fact that no liquid is present in the vapour in tis state. Lines of constant temperature, called isothermals, can be plotted on a pv diagram as shown in Fig. 24, The temperature ines become horizontal between Fg.23. Wet loop plotted on @ p-edagram Fig. 24 Tsothermals fora vapour plated on apes diagram 2.1 Liquid, vapour, and ‘the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapour lin (eg. between P and P’, ‘Qand QR and R’), Thus there isa corresponding saturation temperature for each saturation pressure. At pressure pp the saturation temperature is T;, at presure po the saturation temperature ie T,, and at pressure py the saturation temperature is T,. The critical temperature ine Tp ust touches the top of the loop at the critical point C. ‘When a dry saturated vapour is heated at constant pressure its temperature rises and it becomes superheated The diference between the actual temperature ‘of the superheated vapour and the saturation temperature at the pressure of the vapour is called the degree of syperheat, For example the vapour at point (Fig. 24) is superheated at po and T,, and the degree of superheat is Ty — Ty In section 1.5 it is stated that two independent properties are sufcient to define the state of a substance. Now between P and P’, Q and Q', R and R’ ‘the temperature and pressure are not independent since they remain constant for a range of values of r. For example, a substance at po and T; (Fig. 24) could be a saturated liquid, a wet vapour, ora dry saturated vapour. The state cannot be defined until one other property (eg. specific volume) is given. The condition or quality of a wet vapour is most frequently defined by its dryness 29 ‘The Working Flu 22 Jraction, and when this is known as well as the pressure or temperature then the state of the wet vapour is flly defined Dryness fraction, x the mass of dry vapour in 1k of the mixture (Sometimes a wetness fraction is defined as the mass of liguid in 1 kg of the ‘mixture, ie. wetness fraction = 1 — x.) [Note that for a dry saturated vapour x = 1, and that fora saturated liquid ‘The distinction between a gas and a superheated vapour isnot rigid, However, at very high degres of superheat an isothermal line on the p-» diagram tends to become a hyperbola (ie. po = constant). For example the isothermal T, on Fig 24 is almost a hyperbola, An idealized substance called a perfect gas is assumed to have an equation of state po/T = constant. It ean be seen that when a line of constant temperature follows a hyperbolic law then the equation po/T = constant is satisfied. All substances tend to obey the equation o/T = constant at very high degrees of superheat. Substances which are thought ofus gases (eg. onygen, nitrogen, hydrogen etc, are highly superheated at normal atmospheric conditions. For example, the critical temperatures of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen are approximately ~119, ~147, and ~240°C respectively. Substances normally existing as vapours must be raised to high temperatures before they begin to act as a perfect gas. For example, the critical temperatures of ammonia, sulphur dioxide, and water vapour are 130, 157, and 374.15°C respectively. ‘The working fvid in practical engineering problems is either 2 substance which is approximately a perfect gas, or a substance which exists mainly as liquid and vapour, suchas seam and the refrigerant vapours, For the substances which approximate to perfect gases certain laws relating the properties can be assumed. For the substances in the liquid and vapour phases the properties are not related by definite laws, and values of the properties are determined empirically and tabulated in a convenient form, The use of vapour tables ‘Tables are available for a wide variety of substances which normally exist in the vapour phase. The tables which will be used in this book are those arranged by Rogers and Mayhew (ref. 21), which are suitable for student use. For more comprehensive tables for steam, ref, 2.2 should be consulted. The tables of Rogers and Mayhew are mainly concerned with steam, but some properties of refrigeranis are also given. Saturation state properties ‘The saturation pressures and corresponding saturation temperatures of steam are tabulated in parallel columns in the rst table, for pressures ranging from (0.006 112 bar tothe critical pressure of 221.2 bar. The specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy are also tabulated for the dry saturated vapour ‘Table 21 Extract from tables af properties of Fg. 28 Points ‘dented on a 2.2 Tho use of vapour tables ? 4“ & WM (bar) CC) _(mfAw) Chafee) (ike K) 034 72-4647 302-2472 3022828 2600 9H 67457725, % at each pressure and corresponding saturation temperature. The sux gis used to denote the dry saturated stage. A specimen row from the tables is shown in Table 2.1. For example at 034 bar the saturation temperature is 72°C, the specific volume of dry saturated vapour, vat this pressure is 4649 m? kg, the internal energy of dry saturated vapour, tis 2472 kJ/kg, andthe enthalpy of ny saturated vapout hy is 2630 kJ/kg. The steam isin the state represented by point A on Fig. 2, At point B dry saturated steam at a pressure of 100 bar and saturation temperature 311°C has a specific volume, yf 001802 m/s, internal energy, uy of 2545 kl/kg and enthalpy, hy of 2725 KI/kg. aos 7 ‘Specie yolume/(m? ha) ‘The specie intemal energy, specific enthalpy, and specie entropy of saturated liquid are also tabulated, the sui {being used for this state. For fxample at bar and the corresponding saturation temperature. 143.6°C, Saturated water has a specie internal eneray, 1, of 605 KJ/ke, and a speci enthalpy hy of 605 KI/ke. This state corresponds to point C on Fig. 25. The Specie Volume of saturated water, is tabulated in a separate abl, but itis usually negligibly small in comparion withthe speci volume of the dry saturated vapour, and is variation with temperatures vey small the saturated liquid line on a p-e diagram is very nearly coincident with the pressure axis Jn comparison with the width ofthe wet loop (s® Fig. 25). AS seen from the table, values of, vary from about 001 m3/kgat 001 °C to about O00 m? kg at 160°C; as the pressure approaches the crtial value the increase of i tore marked, and at the eritcal temperature of 374.15°C the value of o i (0.00317 mk ‘The change in specific enthalpy from hy toh, is given the symbol hy. When saturated water is changed to dry saturated vapour, from equation (1), Q+ Wau mau ‘The Working Fuld Also —W is represented by the area under the horizontal line on the p- diagram, ie W=—(0,-09p therefore = (ym) + PY — 0) (4+ Pm) ~ (ue + Bed) From equation (19) w+ po “The heat required to change a saturated liquid to a dry saturated vapour is called the specific enthalpy of vaporization, fg In the case of steam tables, the specific intemal energy of saturated liquid is taken to be zero at the triple point (i. at QOL°C and 0.006 112 bar). Then since, from equation (19), = w+ po, we have (0.006.112 x 10* x 0,001 0002 10° ‘hat 001°C and 0,006 112 bar = 0+ ‘where vat 001°C is 0001 0002.m*/kg, 112 x 10-* kg ‘Thisis negligibly small and hence the zero for enthalpy may be taken at 01°C. [Note that at the other end of the pressure range tabulated in the frst table the pressure of 221.2 bar is the etitical pressure, 374.15°C is the critical temperature, and the specific enthalpy of vaporization, hy, is zero. ie A Properties of wet vapour For a wet vapour the total volume of the mixture is given by the volume of liquid present plus the volume of dry vapour present. Therefore the specitic volume is given by volume ofliquid + volume ofdry vapour ‘otal mass of wet vapour Now for I kg of wet vapour there are «kg of dry vapour and (1 — x) kg of liquid, where x is the dryness fraction as defined earlier. Hence, peal x) box ‘The volume of the liquid is usually negligibly small compared to the volume of dry saturated vapour, hence for most practical problems a Example 2.1 Solution Example 2.2 Solution 22. Tho use of vapour tables ‘The enthalpy of a wet vapour is given by the sum of the enthalpy of the liquid plus the enthalpy of the dry vapour, ie haa) bay therefore baht xh) ie hehe thy 22) Similarly, the internal energy of a wet vapour is given by the internal energy ‘ofthe liquid plus the internal energy of the dry vapour, 1 xe + xy (3) A+ xu, — 4) es) Equation (2-4) can be expressed in a form similar to equation (22), but equations (2.3) and (24) are more convenient since 1, and u are tabulated and the difference, u, ~ uy, is not tabulated in ref. 2.1, Calculate the specific volume, specific enthalpy, and specific internal energy of wet steam at 18 bar, dryness fraction 09. From equation (21) therefore 09 0.1104 = 0.0994 m?/kg From equation (22) h therefore him 8854 (09 x 1912} From equation (2.3) 1 — x) + x, itty 2605.8 kl kg (1 = 09)883 + (09 x 2598) = 24265 kJ/kg Calculate the dryness fraction, specifi volume and specific internal energy of steam at 7 bar and specific enthalpy 2600 iI /ke. AUT bar, hy = 2764 kI kg, hence since the actual enthalpy is given as 2600 KI/kg, the steatn must be in the wet vapour state. Fromequation (2.2) h = y+ xg, ie, 2600 = 697 + x2067 ‘The Working Fluid Table 22. Extract fom {ables of properties of fuperbeated steam at oar (saturation ‘emporature 2124°C) therefore ‘Then from equation (21) p= xn = 0921 x 02728, 2515 m?/kg From equation (23) (1m +a therefore = (1 = 0:921)696 + (0921 « 2573) ie w= 2020KI/kg Properties of superheated vapour For steam in the superheat region, temperature and pressure are independent ‘properties. When the temperature and pressure are given for superheated steam then the state is defined and all the other properties ean be found, For example, steam at 2bar and 200°C is superheated since the saturation temperature at 2ar is 1202°C, which is less than the actual temperature. The steam in this ‘state has.a degre of superheat of 200 — 120.2 = 798 K. The tables of properties ‘of superheated steam (ref. 21) range in pressure from 0.006 112 bar tothe ertial pressure of 221. bar, and there is an additional tabie of supercritical pressures ‘up to 1000 bar. At each pressure there is a range of temperatures up to high 109 ie 3051 — 98 33251 — 33178) (Note the negative sign inthis ase sine at 1S bar, 422°C is lange than hat 20 bar, 452°C.) Then frat 185 bar, 432°C 3525.1 ~ (07 x 73) = SORT ke Sketch a pressure-volume diagram for steam and mark on it the following points, labelling clearly the pressure, specific volume and temperature ofeach point. (a 20ber, 37 ‘The Working Fuld (b) ¢=2124°C, » = 0.09957 m°/ke (c) p= 10 bar, hm 2650 KI kg (A) p= 6 bar, b= 316641 /ke Solution Point (a): At 20 bar the saturation temperature is 212.4°C, hence the steam is superheated at 250°C, Then from tables, v= 0.1115 m*/kg. Poin (b): At 2124°C the saturation pressure i 20 bar and p, is 09957 m/e. ‘Therefore the steam is just dry saturated since » = Point (c): At 10-bat, hy is 2778kI/kg, therefore’ the steam is wet since 2650 kJ/kg. Since the steam is wet, the temperature is the saturation temperature at 10 bar, ie. = 179.9°C. The dryness fraction can be found from equation (2.2), heahyt thy therefore 2650 ~ 763 _1887 _ 995, 2018 ~ 201 ‘Then from equation (2.1) 19 = 0937 x 0.1944 = 0.182 m?/kg Point (d): At 6 bar, fi, is 2757 kJ/kg, therefore the steam is superheated, since it is given that h = 3166 kJ/kg. Hence from tables at 6 bar and h = 3166 kI/ke, ‘the temperature is 350°C, and the specific volume is 0.4743 m*/kg. ‘The points (a), (b), (c), and (@) can now be marked on a pv diagram as shown in Fig, 28 Fig 28. Solution for Example 25, a i ho 2 [mre ree ay < ‘ ‘Spee volume?) 38 Example 26 Solution Example 2.7 Solution 23 2.3. The porfoct gas Calculate the internal energy for each ofthe four states given in Example? (a) The steam is superheated at 20 bar, 250°C, ie, w= 2681 KI /kg (b) The steam is dry saturated at 20 bar, ie ou 600 KI kg (c) The steam is wet at 10 bar with x= 0937, Therefore = x)u+-xu,_ from equation (2.3) (1. 0937)762 + (0.937 x 2584) = 2470 15/kg (4) The steam is superheated at 6 bar, 350° ie w= 2881 KI /kg Using the properties of ammonia given in ref. 2.1, caleulate! (i) the enthalpy at 1.902 bar, dryn (ii) the enthalpy at 857 bar, 60°C. (@) From equation (22) 3s fraction 0.95; ha het he, ‘Therefore, at 1.902 bar, A i) AC 8.570 bar the saturation temperature is 20°C so the ammonia at 60°C is superheated by (60 — 20) = 40 K. It is therefore necessary to interpolate to find the enthalpy, 40 © (iso72 — 14626) 462.6 + 5 x ( ) = 15703 kak, ‘The perfect gas The characteristic equation of state [At temperatures that are considerably in exoess ofthe evtical temperature of 8 fuid, and also at very low pressures, the vapour of the fuid tends to obey the equation Po constant = R T ‘The Working Fluid No gases in practice obey this law rigidly, but many gases tend towards it An imaginary ideal gas which obeys the law is ealled a perfect gas, and the equation, po/T = R, is called the characteristic equation of state of a perfect gas. The constant, R, is called the specific gas constant, The units of R are N m/kg K. oF Kd/kg K. Bach perfect gas has a different specific gas constant ‘The characteristic equation is usually written po=RT es) or for 4 mass, m, occupying a volume, ¥ pV =mRT 6) ‘Another form of the characteristic equation can be derived using the amount of substance (sometimes called the mole). The amount of substance is defined by the 1971 General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) as follows: ‘The amount of substance of a system is that quantity which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0012 kg of eatbon-I2; the clementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, cleetrons, or other particles, or specific groups of such particles. ‘The normal unit symbol used for the amount of substance is ‘mol’. In ST it is convenient to use "kmol’ ‘The mass of any substance per amount of substance is known as the molar en where m isthe mass ands the amount of substance. The normal units used Tor m and n ate kg and kmol, therefore the normal unit for fis kg/km. Relative masses of the various elements are commonly used, and physicists and chemists agreed in 1960 to give the value of 12 to the isotope 12 of carbon (this led to the definition of the amount of substance as above), A scale is thus ‘obtained of relative atomic mass oF relatioe molecular mass (e.g. the relative ‘atomic mass ofthe element oxygen is approximately 16; the relative molecular ‘mass of oxygen gus, O,, is approximately 32). ‘The relative molecular mass is numerically equal to the molar mass, i, but is dimensionless. ‘Substituting for m from equation (2.7) in equation (2.6) gives Z an! PY = niRT or ik = Pe [Now Avogadro's hypothesis stats thatthe volume of I mol of any gas is the same as the Volume of | mol of any other gas, when the gases are at the same temperature and pressure. Therefore V/n i the same for all gases at the same value of p and 7: That is, the quantity pV'/n7 is a constant forall gases. This constant is called the molar gas constant and is given the symbol, R, ~ v je R= R= or pv = nk 2.8) Be or (28) Example 2.8 Solution Example 2.9 7 es) “The value of R has been shown to be 8314.5 N m/kmol K, ‘From equation (29) the specific gas constant for any gas ean be found when the molar mass is known, eg, for oxygen of molar mass 32 kg/kmol, the specific 488 constant s BOS as eNmitek [A vessel of volume 0.2.m? contains nitrogen at ,013 bar and 15°C. 10.2 kg of nitrogen is now pumped into the vessel, calculate the new pressure when the vessel as returned to is initial temperature. The molar mass of nitrogen is 28 kg/kmol, and it may be assumed to be a perfect gas. From equation (29) Specific gas constant, R= From equation (26), for the initial conditions Kam RT therefore _ pi, _ 1.013 x 108 x 02 RT, 29695 x 288 5 + 273 = 288K "The mass of nitrogen added is 0.2 kg, hence m, = 0.2 +0237 = 0437 kg. ‘Then from equation (2.6), for the final conditions pale but ¥y = ¥; and T; = 7, therefore taRT, _ 0437 x 20695 x 288 10 x02, 237 kg kT ‘A certain perfect gas of mass 0.01 kg occupies « volume of 0.003 m? at a pressure of 7 bar and a temperature of 131°C. The ga i allowed to expand ‘anil the pressure is I bar and the final volume is 0.02 m?, Calculate: (a) the molar mass of the gas; (i) the final temperature a ‘The Working Fluid 42. Solution (i) From equation (26) PAY, = mRT, therefore ih _ 7x 108 x 0.003, mT, 001 x 404 where T, = 131 +273 = 404 K. ‘Then from equation (29) R shrdoe fous SHS sexgynmal 5297 16ke/kmol __Nolarmass = 16k From equation (28) P2¥a=mRT, therfore rafal 10 O02 ay mR O01 x 520 ie, Final temperature = 384.5 ~ 273 = 115° Specific heat capacity ‘The specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid is usually defined as the heat required to raise unit mass through one degree temperature rise, We have 440 = med, where m is the mass, dT isthe increase in temperature, and ¢ is the specific heat capacity. For a gas there are an infinite number of ways in Which heat may be added between two temperatures, and hence a gas could have an infinite number of specific heat capacities. However, only two specific heat capacities for gases are defined; the specific heat capacity at constant volume, ¢,, and the specific heat capacity at constant pressure, cy ‘The definition must be restricted to reversible non-low processes, since irreversbilities can cause temperature changes which are indistinguishable from ‘those due to reversible heat and work quantities. Specific heat eapacitis can ‘be introduced more rigorously as properties of «fluid, We have in the limit o-), st o-G), ‘A more rigorous treatment is given in ref. 23, 23 The perfect gas We can write c,4T_ for a reversible non-flow process at constant pressure (2:10) and 4Q.=e, dT for a reversible non-flow process at constant volume Qu) For a perfect gas the values of ¢, and e, are constant for any one gas at all [pressures and temperatures. Hence integrating equations (210) and (2.11) we Ihave for a reversible constant pressure process Q= melt —T) (212) {or a reversible constant volume prooess mme,(Ts~ 3) 213) For real gases, ¢, and, vary with temperature, but for most practical purposes ‘a suitable average value may be used, Joule’s law oule’s law states that the internal energy ofa perfect gus i a function ofthe absolute temperature only, jeu = ((T)-To evaluate this function let unit mass of perlet gus be heated at constant volume. From the non-ow energy ‘uation, (13) dQ +dW = du Since the volume remains constant then no work is done, ie. rr {At constant volume for a perfect gas from equation (2.11), for unit mass, dQ =c,a7 ‘Therefore, dQ nT+K where K is a constant oule’s law states that w= (7), hence it follows that the internal energy ‘varies linearly with absolute temperature. Internal energy ean be made zero at any arbitrary reference temperature, For a perfect gas it can be assumed that =O when T = 0, hence the constant Kis zer0, 0, therefore 6. 4T, and integrating ie. Specific internal energy, u = ¢,7" for a perfect gas (214) ‘or for mass, m, of a perfect ga, Internal energy, U = me, (215) 43, ‘The Working Fluid In any provess fora perfect gas, between states I and 2, we have from equation 213), Gain in internal energy, Us ~ Uy = me\(Ts—T) (216) The gain of internal energy for a perfect gas between two states is always given by equation (2.16), for any process, reversible or irreversible. Relationship between the specific heat capacities Let a perfect gas be heated at constant pressure from T, to Ts. From the non-flow equation (1.4), Q-+ W= (U3 ~ Uy). Also, for a perfect gas, from ‘equation (2.16), Uz ~ Uy = me,(Ts ~ 7). Hence, Q+ W=me(T,—T) In a constant pressure process the work done is given by the pressure times the change in volume, i. W= —p(V,—V,) Then using equation (2.6), pV, =mRT; and p¥, = mRT;, we have We -mR(7, ~ 7) ‘Therefore substituting Q~mR(T, ~ T,) = me(Ts ~T) therefore Q=mic, + RET) [But for @ constant pressure process from equation (2.12) Q=me,(T—T) Hence by equating the two expressions for the heat flow, Q, we have ames + RYT = T) = me,(T ~ Ti) therefore gtRae, or (217) Specific enthalpy of a perfect gas From equation (19), specific enthalpy, h = u + po For a perfect gas, from equation (2.5), po = RT. Also fora perfect gas, from Joules law, equation (214), u = ¢,T Hence, substituting ee THRT=(G4 RIT 23 Tho porfect g But from equation (2.17) Gp G=R oF G+ R= ey ‘Therefore, specific enthalpy, h, for a perfect gas is given by hee? (218) For mass, m, ofa perfect gas H=me,T 219) (Note that, sinoeit has been assumed that u = O at T'= 0, then k= Oat T= 0.) Ratio of specific heat capacities ‘The ratio ofthe specific heat capacity at constant pressure to the specific heat ‘capacity at constant volume is given the symbol 7 (gamma), (229) Note that since ¢, — ¢= R, from equation (2.17), it is clear that ¢, must be ‘greater than c, for any perfect gas. 1¢ follows therefore thatthe ratio, ¢,/¢, = 7, is always greater than unity. In general, 7 is about 14 for diatomic gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N,), and oxygen (O.) For monoatomic gases such as argon (A), and helium (He), is bout 1.6, and {or triatomic gases such as carbon dioxide (CO,), and sulphur dioxide (SO,), ‘ris about 13, For some hydrocarbons the value ois quite low (eg. for ethane (CoH), 7 = 1.22, and for isobutane (CyHyq) y = 1.1} Some useful relationships between ¢,, ¢,, R, and can be derived. From equation (2.17) R Dividing through by ¢, ae 221 5D 21) Also from equation (2.20), c, = 7¢y, hence, substituting in equation (2.21) oR e 222) 15D (22) 45 ‘The Wor ing Fluid Example 2.10 Solution Example 2.11 Solution ‘A certain perfect gas has specific heat eapacities as follows: p= O86 KI/kgK and c= 0657 KI/kg K CCalevlate the gas constant and the molar mass ofthe gas. From equation (2.17) ie, R= 0846-0657 From equation (29) 189 ky kg K = 189 N m/kg K sa14s in om 189) = 44g /kmol ‘A perfect gas has a molar mass of 26kg/kmol and a value of y= 1.26. CCaleulate the heat rejected: () when unit mass of the gas is contained in a rigid vessel at 3 bar and 315°C, and is then cooled until the pressue falls to 1.5 bar; (ii) when nit mass flow rate of the gas enters a pipeline at 280°C, and flows steadily to the end of the pipe where the temperature is 20°C. Neglect changes in velocity of the gas in the pipeline. From equation (29) R_ sis ; BSS _ sos wm/kgk From equation (221) R 3198 G1) 1051261) Jao ike K ‘Also from equation (2.20) therefore ey = ep = 1.26 % 1.229 = 1.548 KIRK (i) The volume remains constant for the mass of gas present, and hence the specific volume remains constant, From equation (25), T, and p20; = RTs aa 22 Problems Therefore since v, = v; we have 15 Pa 588 3 > 3 where T; = 315 + 273 = $88 K ‘Then from equation (2.13) Heat supplied perkgofgas = c,(T, — T,) = 1.229(294 — 588) = 1.229 x 294 = —361 KI/ke +361 kg (ii) From the steady-flow energy equation, (1.10), alee ct cit eer a(n D)rorw (hse) In this case we are told that changes in velocity are negligible; also there is no ‘work done. "Therefore we have 94K ie. Heat rejected per kilogram of ga vhs +O =ihy For a perfect gas, from equation (218) hao? therefore te, T, ~ T}) = 1 x 1.548(20~ 280) = —403 kW ic. Heat rejected per kilogram per second = +403 kW ‘Note that itis not necessary to convert ¢, = 280°C and ¢, = 20°C into degrees Kelvin, since the temperature difference (t, ~ f,)is numerically the same as the temperature diflerence (7, ~ 73). Problems Note: the answers to these problems have bosn evaluated using the tables of Rogers find Mayhew (re 2.1). The values of Ry cy, cy And for aie may be assumed (0 beasgiveminthe tables (ie = 0.287 kI/kg Kc, = 1005 Kk Kc, = 07181 keg K; and y= 14). For any other perfect gas the values of R ey, cy, and i required, must be calelated from the information given inthe problems te valve of Rie given in the tables (ref 21] ‘Complete Table 24 (p48) wsing steam tables. Insert a dash for ielevant tems, and interpolate where necessary. (see Table 26 p. $0) [A vessel of volume 003 m* contains dry saturated stcam at 17 ba. Calculate the ‘mass of steam i the vessel and the enthalpy of this mass (0287 kg; 718) “7 ‘Tho Working Fluid ‘Table 24 Data for Problem 2.1 2a 24 26 te se : Degree of (a CO) (mike) x _superbeat(hiyka)_tka7hw) oo 361 20 299 5 ses 188 2400 au 09 a3 as 3 aw 5 ous 10 sais 250 L601 saa os. 2 095 23 300 abo ‘The completed table is given on p. 50 as Table 26. ‘Steam at Thar and 250°C enters a pipeline and flows along it at constant pressure Tr the steam rejects heat study to the surroundings, at what temperature will droplets ‘of water begin to form in the vapour? Using the sletdy-flow energy equation, and neglecting changes in velocity ofthe steam, calculate the heat rejected per Kilogram of seam flowing. (195°C: 191 3/ke) (005g of stem at 15 bar is contained ina rigid vessel of volume 00076 n°. What isthe temperature ofthe steam? Ifthe vessel is cooled, at what temperature wil the seam be jost dry saturated? Cooling is continued until the pressure inthe Yess ie 11 bar; eaeulate the fina drynese fraction ofthe steam, and the heat ejected between ‘the initial and the final state, (230°C; 1914°C; 0857; 18.545) Using the tables for ammonia given in ef, 21, calculate: (Gj) the specific enthalpy and specie volume of ammonia. 09; (i) the spciic enthalpy and specie volume of ammonia at 13°C saturated; (Gi) the spciic enthalpy of ammonia at 7529 bar, 30°C. (1251 Kk 1.397 m? kg; 1457 Kl/kg, 0.1866 m/e: 14965 keg) (0717 bar, dryness faction Using the property value for refrigerant HFA. [3a given in Table 25, calculate (i) thespeciic enthalpy and specific volume of HFA 13a at ~8°C, dryness fraction O85; (i) the spcitic enthalpy of HPA 134a at $7024 ba, 35°C. (259.6 Lk, 00775 m2; 32825 kd ke) Problems ‘Table 25 Data for Problem 26 Superteat Vales deree sapere saturation ¥ sox p ay aauneC Un Eee OCCEEE CO) toa) wee) OB) tare) io 200si ome S698 HABE 50868 “3 2usnt Oue —9346 29177 31205 20 S704 0036 12692 306222895 27 Tho relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide, COs, is 44. In an experiment the value of» for CO; was found to bo 1.3. Assuming thal CO, i a perfect fas, calculate the spesific gus constant, R, and the speci: heat eapacis at eamstant presse and constant volume, ¢ and (0.189 kJ/kg K; 0819 KJ/kg K; 063 k3/ke K) 28 Calelate the internal energy and enthalpy of 1 kg of ai occupying 00S m* at 20 bat. he internal energy is increased by 120) as the ai is compressed to 0 bar, calculate the new volume occupied by 1 kg of thea. (2501 kk 350. ke 0.0296 m") 29 Oxygen, Os, at 200 bar isto be stored in ste vesel at 20°C. The capacity of the vessel i O04 m?, Assuming that O, is a perfect as, calculate the mass of oxygen that can be stored in the vessel. The vessel i protected against exesive pressure by «fusible plug which will melt ifthe temperature rises too high. At what temperature ‘tthe pg melt to limit the presse inthe vesel to 240 bas? The molar mass of ‘oxygen is 32 kg/kmol, (105g; 786°C) 240 When a certain perfect gas is heated at constant presture from 15°C to 95°C, the heat required is 11364i/kg, When the same gas is heated at constant volume between ‘the same temperatures the heat requied is 808 kJ/kg Calculate cy, e, 9, R and the ‘molar mass ofthe ea (142 Ky kg K; 101 Kd /keg K; 1405; 41 Kika K; 2028 kg/kmel) 2.11 In an air compressor the pressures a let and outlet are I bar and 5 bar respectively. ‘Tho temperature of the air at inlet is 15°C and the volume at the beginning of ‘ompresion is three times that at the end of compression. Calculate the temperature fof the si at outlet and the increase of internal energy pe kg ofa. (207°C; 138 ka/kg) 242A quantity ofa cata perfect as is compressed from an inital state of 68S m?, ‘hae to a final state of 004m’, 39 bar. The specific heat at constant volume is (0724 kJ/kg K, and the specie het a constant pressures 1.020 kl eg K. The oberved temperature rise is 146K. Calculate the specific gas constant, R, the mass of gas present, andthe increase of intl energy ofthe pi. (0.256 kd kg K; 0.11 kg 11.6343) ‘The Working File Table 26. Solution to oblem 2. on ? £ * : « Problem 2.1 on p.47 pour (a) mg) x superheat (kik) Ga/k) om «9% 261, 1 ° 260 aoe » ang oms9s7 ° 21992600 5 11803865, gst dis 2471 2 18 Otel ays 2162400 4 gogo 2a aa os a3 278 oss 2900 216s 3 mm O76 6s 23652681 5 2 0182 SLT 226 130500087 19.2 3353007 1828) L601 186 bn 3 382-2476 = OKITS Os 2s 2296 as 207 ones 2032505 500 Lise is Bor 2308 520096 1643 me Bs References 2A ROGERS 6 Fe and waviEw YR 1987 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids 4th edn Blackell NATIONAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY Steam Tables 1964 HMSO. oGHks @ rc und waview vx 1992 Enginering Thermodynamics, Work and Heat ‘anger &th edn Longman 22 23 50 34 Shot Reversible and Irreversible Processes In the previows chapters the energy equations for non-flow and flow processes are derived, the concepts of reversibility and ireversibility introduced, and the properties of vapours and perfect gases discussed. It is the purpose of this chapter to consider processes in practice, and to combine this with the work of the previous chapters Reversible non-flow processes Constant volume process In a constant volume process the working substance is contained in a rigid vessel, hence the boundaries of the system are immovable and no work ean be done on or by the system, other than paddle-wheel work input. It will be ‘assumed that ‘constant volume" implies zero work unless stated otherwise "From the non-flow energy equation, (14), for unit mass, O+ Wau — a, Since no work is done, we therefore have Q=m—u Gy or for mass, m, of the working substance Q=Us-U; G2) {Allthe heat supplied in «constant volume process goes to increasing the internal nergy. ‘A constant volume process for a vapour is shown on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.1(a) The inital and final states have been chosen to bein the wet region ‘and supetheat region respectively. In Fig. 3.1(b) a constant volume provess is shown on a p-r diagram for a perfect gas. For a perfect gas we have from equation (2.13) Q=me(Ts—T) and Irreversible Process Fig. 31 Constant ’ ” volume proces for a ‘vapour and a perfect os ‘ ie o : Constant pressure process ‘I-can be seen from Figs 3.1 (a) and 3.1(b) that when the boundary ofthe system is inflexible as in a constant volume proces, then the pressure rises when heat is supplied. Hence for a constant pressure process the boundary must move ‘against an external resistance as heat is supplied; for instance afuid in a cylinder ‘behind a piston can be made to undergo & constant pressure process. Since the piston is pushed through a certain distance by the force exerted by the fuid, then work is done by the fluid on its surroundings From equation (1.2) for unit mass w = few for any reversible process ‘Therefore, since pis constant, We of “d= —Plo2—,) From the non-flow eneray equation, (1.4), oww Hence for a reversible constant pressure process Q = (us ~ m4) + (Os ~ 04) = (us + 72) — (uy + D4) Now from equation (1.9), enthalpy, = u + po, hence, Q=ha— hy (63) (oF for mass, m, of a fluid, Q=1,-H, Ga ‘A constant pressure process for a vapour is shown on a p-o diagram in Fig. 32(a}. The inital and final states have been chosen to be in the wet region and the supetheat region respectively. In Fig. 32(b) a constant pressure process for a perfect gas is shown on a p-v diagram, For a perfect gas we have from 52. Fig. 32 Constant pressure process fora ‘apour and aperect gs Example 3.1 Solution 21. Reversible non-flow processes \ Ly ~ A \ = equation (2.12), Q=me,(T—T) [Note that in Figs 3.2(a) and 3.2(b) the shaded areas represent the work done by the fuid, (oy — 01) ‘A mass of 0.05 kg of a fluid is heated at a constant pressure of 2 bar until the yolume occupied is 0.0658 m*, Calculate the heat supplied and the work done: (]) when the fuid is steam, intially dry saturated; (i) when the Bud is air, initially at 130°C, (i) Iotialy the steam is dry saturated at 2 bar, hence, hy = gat bar = 2707 kd ke Finally the steam is at 2 bar and the specific volume is given by 0.0658 5 = 0658 = 1 316 mk 005 a. Hence the steam is superheated finally. From superheat tables at 2bar and 1.316m?/kg the temperature of the steam is 300°C, and the enthalpy is hy = 30721 /kg. ‘Then from equation (3.4) Q= Hy — Hy =m(h; hy) = 0.05(2072 — 2707) jie, Heat supplied = 005 x 365 = 1825 3 ‘The process is shown on a po diagram in Fig. 33, =< W = plo, ~v,) = shaded area at 2 bar = 0.8856 m?/kg, and v, = 1.316m"/kg. Therefore 2 x 10*(1.316 ~ 08856) = — 86080 Nm/kg Now #4 w Reversible and Irreversib Fig. 33 Process for a vapour for Example 3. fon p-v diagram 20 aR aie Specie votue((a ke) ie Workdone by thetotal mass presen (Gi) Using equation (2.6), Day __ 2% 10° x 0.0658 mR ~ 005 x 0287 x 10° For a perfect gas undergoing a constant pressure process we have, from equation (2.12), Q=me,(T:~T,) jie, Heat supplied = 005 x 1,005(917 — 403) where T, = 130-4273 = 403 K, jie, Heat supplied = 005 1,005 x 514 = 25.83 kd ‘The process is shown on a p-o diagram in Fig. 34, ie. =W=plos~o, From equation (2.5), po = RT; therefore Work done = — R(T ~ Tj) = ~0.281(917 — 403) kI/ke ie, Work done by themass of gas present = 0.05 x 0.287 x 514 r 17K shaded area =738K Fig. 34. Proces for a perfect gus for Example 31 on @ - pe diagram = : : | ig. 35 Iotherma races for a vapour on apo diagram | Example 3.2 Solution Constant temperature or isothermal process ‘A process at constant temperatut is called an isothermal process. When a fluid in a oylinder behind a piston expands from a high pressure to a low pressure there isa tendency for the temperature to fll. In an isothermal expansion heat rust be added continuously in order to keep the temperature at the initial value. Similarly in an isothermal comprestion heat must be removed from the fluid continuously during the process. An isothermal process for a vapour is shown on a p-o diagram in Fig, 35. The intial and final states have been chosen in the wet region and superheat region respectively. From state 1 to state A the pressure remains at p,, since in the wet region the pressure and temperature are the corresponding saturation values, It can be seen therefore that an isothermal process for wet steam is also at constant pressure and equations (33) and (34) can be used (eg. heat supplied from state 1 to state ‘A per kilogram of steam = fy — ih) Inthe superheat region the pressure falls to pz as shown in Fig. 3.5, and the procedure isnot so simple. When states 1 and 2 are fixed then the intemal energies and 1; may be obtained from tables. When the property entropy, sis introduced in Chapter 4, a convenient way of evaluating the heat supplied will be shown, When the heat flow is calculated the work done can then be obtained using the non-flow energy equation, (14), for unit mass O+Waw— my ‘Steam at 7 bar and dryness fraction 0.9 expands in a eylinder behind a piston isothermally and reversibly to a pressure of 1. bar. Calculate the change of internal energy and the change of enthalpy per kg of steam. The heat supplied during the process is found to be 547 KI/kg, by the method of Chapter 4. Calculate the work done per kilogram of steam. ‘The process is shown in Fig. 36. The saturation temperature corresponding to ‘Thar is 165°C. Therefore the steam is superheated at state 2. The internal energy at state | is found by using equation 23, ie my = (1 — xu + xu, = (1 — 09) x 696 + (09 x 2573) 55 Reversible and reversible Procoss Fig. 36 Isothermal proces on @ boo diagram for Example 32 56 Presre/(N/*) therefore uy = 69.6 4.23157 Interpolating from superheat tables at 1.5 bar ind 165°C, we have = 28904 ss 25m) = 25048 ie, y= 26028 KI/kg ‘Therefore Gainin internal energy = us — uj = 26028 ~ 23853 = 2175 ki/kg hy = hy + xh = 697 + (09 x 2067) therefore fh, = 697 + 18603 = 2557.3 kI/ke Interpolating from superheat tables at 1.5 bar and 165°C, we have hears Bea amy =2m 49 803 Ike ie, hy — fy = 2803 — 25573 = 245.7 kd/ke From the non-flow energy equation, (14) Ot Wana, therefore w (uy — my) — Q= 2175 — 547 = ~329.5 KI /kg ie, Work done by the system = 329.5 ki/ka. (The work output is als given by the aca on Fig. 6, [8 pd: this ould only be evaluated graphically i this case) Fig. 37. Tsothermal proces fora perfect gas ona pe diagram 3.1 Reversible non-flow processes An isothermal process for a perfect gas is more easily dealt with than an isothermal process for a vapour, since there are definite laws fora perfect gas relating p,¢, and T, and the internal energy u. We have, trom equation (2.5), =RT Now when the temperatures constant as in an gothermal process then we have poo RT = constant ‘Therefore for an isothermal process fora perfect gas ‘pe = constant es) ie pit = Pate In Fig. 37 an isothermal compression process for a perfect gas is shown on 44 p-v diagram, The equation of the process is po = constant, which is the equation of a hyperbola. It must be stressed that an isothermal process is only ofthe form pe = constant for a perfect gas, because iti only for a perfect gas that an equation of state, po = RT, can be applied From equation (1.2) we have for unit mass w= ~ | pdr= ode ae a e327 In this case, po = constant, or p = c/o, where ¢ = constant. Therefore wa fete etn ot em() ‘The constant ¢ can either be written as pv, OF aS pds, since pv, 20 = constant, c, ie Wenoytn(2) por anit may of gx 66 or We pasta) pr uit may of gx 87 Reversible and lreversbte Processes For mass, m, of the gas w=o.rin(2) on) Also, sige p= pata then oo mr Hence, substituting in equation (3.6) W = py0, In22 por unit mass of gas 38) ni or for mass mf the gs w=nrin() 09) i Using equation (25) pip = RT Hence, substituting in equation (38) we nr( 2) pr unit mass oes G10) cor for mam ofthe ges bo we maria 2 a1 () an ‘There are clearly a large number of equations forthe work done, and no attempt should be made to memorize these sine they can all be derived very simply from first principles. For a perlect gas from Joule’s law, equation (214), we have U, - U, = meT ~ 7) Hence for an isothermal process for a perfect gas, since T; = T;, then u;-U,=0 {ce the internal energy remains constant in an isothermal process for a perfect gas ‘From the non-flow energy equation (1.4) for unit mass 0+ Wau—u, ‘Therefore, since up =u, then Q+w=0 12) {or an isothermal process for a perfect gas. [Note thatthe heat flow plus the work input is zero in an isothermal process fora perfect gas only. From Example 32 for steam itis seen that, although the 58 Example 3.3 Solution 3.2 process is isothermal, the change in internal energy is 217.5 kI/kg, and therefore ‘he heat supplied plus the work done is not zero [kg of nitrogen (molar mass 28 kg/kmol) is compressed reversibly and isothermaly from 1.01 bar, 20°C to 4.2 bar, Caleulate the work done and ‘the heat flow during the process. Assume nitrogen to be a perfect gas From equation (29), for nitrogen, R_ aus pak 5 oor ajkgK a" ke ‘The process is shown on a p-v diagram in Fig. 38 Presse) 101 From equation (3.10) vl) where T'= 20-4273 = 293K. 24 Kye From equation (3.12), for an isothermal process for a perfect gas, Q+w=0 therefore Q= ~ 12414 /ke jie, Heat rejected = 124 kJ/kg 2) = sar ie Work input Reversible adiabatic non-flow processes An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transfered to or from the Nuid Tt can be seen that these equations are similar to the equations (3.17) and (3.18) for a reversible adiabatic proces fora perfect gas. In fact the reversible Adiabatic process for a perfect gas is a particular case of a polytropic process with the index, n, equal toy. Equations (3.26) and (3.27) can be waitten as = constant G27 oa P Ze) ox mi Be om) Note that equations (3.26), (327) (3.28) and (3.29) do not apply to a vapour undergoing 2 polytropic process, since the characteristic equation of state, po = RT, which was used in the derivation of the equations, applies only to & perfect gas, For a perfect gas expanding polytropically itis sometimes more convenient to express the work input in terms of the temperatures at the end sates. From equation (324) W = (pars ~ proi)itn=1) 3.3. Polytropie processor then, from equation (2.5), p,» = RZ; and p,v, = RT;, Hence, wa BGT) (330) I (for mass, m, we MRE = Ti) a can be found, ie Q+Wau-m =e (%—T) R(Ty~T) “(n= 1) From equation (221) R “5 Hence substituting ie 0+ (-T) TT, ye) (! iM ) RUB T)n-1-y +) =i R O- BBG =1 @- De=1) (aan Using the non-flow energy equation, (1.4), the heat flow during the process (8.30), W = R(T, ~ 1,)/(x — 1) por unit mass of gas, (332) Equation (3.32) is a convenient and concise expression relating the heat supplied and the work input in a polytropic proces. In a compression process ‘work is done on the gas, and hence the term W is positive, Therefore it can be seen from equation (332) that when the polytropic index n is greater than 9, in a compression process, then the right-hand side ofthe equation is positive (je heat is supplied during the process). Conversely, when m is less than 7 in 4 compression process, then heat is rejected by the’ gas. Similarly, the work ;put in an expansion process is negative, therefore when n i greater than 9, fan expansion process, heat is rejected; and when 7 is less than 7, in an expansion process, heat must be supplied to the gas during the proces. It was shown in section 23 that 7 for all perfect gases has a value greater than unity Reversible and irreversible Processes Example 3.7 1kg of a perfect gas is compressed from 1.1 bar, 27°C according to a law po" = constant, until the pressure is 66 bar. Caleulate the heat flow to ‘of from the cylinder wall: (i) When the gas is ethane (molar mass 30kg/kmol), which has c= 210 ki/kg K. i) When the gas is argon (molar mass 40kg/kmol), which has p= 0520kI/kg K. Solution From equation (3:29), for both ethane and argon, HG)" © sony ia es) aca at where 1, = 27 +273 = 300K. () From equation (29), R= R/i, therefore, for ethane RW 8 | gama /keK 30 ‘Then from equation (2.17) ¢ = 210 = 027 = 1823 kg K where 6, R, therefore 1.75 kl/kg K for ethane, Then from equation (2.20) e210 Te 21a8 152 From equation (3.30) R(T, T,)_ 0277 x (45346 — 300) W nat 13-1 = 1418 kI/ke “Then from equation (3.32) n=) yy _ (19-12 = (12) wo (BEM) ans «ets 0-1)" iat i ie, Heat suppiod = 138. ke (4) Using te sme method for argon we have sus po 8348 206 tek sas ke Avo 6 therefore 520 0.208 S12 KI/ke K 0.520 0312 67 Fig. 312 General palytropic processes plotted on @ p-edagram 33. Polytropie processes ‘Then the work input is given by R(T, = Ts) _ 0.208 x (4536 ~ 300) Bias ener w thea 0- (222) = (122! es eb ie, Heat rejected = 58.6410 /kg = 1065 ki/kg In a polytropie process the index m depends only on the heat and work quantities during the process. The various processes considered in sections 3.1 and 3.2 are special cases ofthe polytropie process for « perfct gas When n= 0 po® = constant, ie. p = constant When n = 20, po™ = constant or p'™>= constant, ie 0 When n= 1 po = constant, ie. T'= constant since po/T = constant for a perfect gas. Whea n= > po = constant, ie. reversible adiabatic ‘This is illustrated on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.12, Thus, state 1 to state A is constant pressure cooling ( % state I to state B is isothermal compression (n= 1) state | to state C is reversible adiabatic compression (n = 9) state I to state D is constant volume heating ( 0) Reversible and Irreversible Processes R Example 3.8 ‘Similarly, 1 to Ais constant pressure heating; 1 to Bi isothermal expansion; 1 to C'is reversible adiabatic expansion; | to Dy is constant volume cooling NNote that, since 7 is always greater than unity, then process 1 to C must lie between processes Ito B and I to D; similarly process 1 to C’ must lie between processes [to B’and 1 to DY For a vapour a generalization such as the above is not possible. A vapour may undergo a process according toa law po = constant, In this ease, since the characteristic equation of state, po = RT; does not apply to a vapour, then the process isnot isothermal, Tables must be used to find the properties atthe end states, making use of the fact that po; = pv. Expansion of steam in a reciprocating engine is found to approximate to a hyperbolic expansion (po = constant; such engines are rarely used nowadays. Reversible flow processes Although flow processesin practice are usualy highly irreversible itis sometimes Convenient to assume that a flow process is reversible in order to provide an ideal comparison. An observer travelling with the flowing fluid would appear to see a change in thermodynamic properties as in a non-flow process. For example, ina reversible adiabatic process fora perfect gas, an observer travelling with the gas would appear to see a process po" = constant taking place, but ‘the work input would not be given by —[ pda, or by the change in internal ‘energy as given by equation (3.13). Some work is done by virtue ofthe forces ‘acting between the moving gasand its surroundings. For example fora reversible adiabatic flow provess for a perfect gas, from the flow equation (1.10), for unit ‘mass low rate (+) v0+w-(me®) Toniewd =e ) Also, since the process is assumed to be reversible, then for a perfect gas, po = constant. This equation can be used to fix the end states. Note that even ifthe kinetic energy terms are negligibly small the work input in a reversible adiabatic low process between two states is not equal to the work input in a reversible adiabatic non-low process between the same states (given by equation (3.13) as W=u ~ 1) v= th — ny + (SE rats -no+(2 AA gas turbine receives gases from the combustion chamber at 7 bar and {650°C, with a velocity of 9 m/s. The gases leave the turbine at 1 bar with a velocity of 45 m/s. Assuming that the expansion is adiabatic and reversible in the ideal ease, calculate the power output per unit mass flow rate. For the gases take y ~ 1.333 and cy = 111 KI/kg K- Solution 3.5 35 reversible processes Using the flow equation for an adiabatic process ofo-mo (5 For a perfect gas from equation (2.18), fen —m+(4 To find 7 ws equation (321), (ay T. \by is 2-(2) ee 1.06 pT therefore, yt mt therefore pe ose 626 ” 1626 where 7; = 680 +273 =923 K “once substituting for unit mass Row rate 4529 W = 1 x 1.145672 ~ 923) 4 (42 = ison 90+ (a) therefore W = 3944.4.097 = ~39344W je. Power output per kilogram per second = 393.4 kW (ote that in Example 38 the Kinetic energy change i small compared with the enthalpy change. Ths i often the cae in problems on flow processes, and the change in kinetic energy can sometimes be taken to be negligible For a vapour undergoing a reversible adiabatic flow process the end state is fixed by equating the intial and final entropies (see Ch 4). Irreversible processes The criteria of reversibility are stated in section 1.4. The equations of sections 3.1, 32, and 33 can only be used when the process obeys the criteria of reversibility to a close approximation Ia proceses in which a Nui is enclosed in a cylinder behind a piston, friction effects can be assumed to be negligible However, in order to satisfy eriterion (e) in section L4 heat must never be transfered to or from the system through a finite temperature difference. Only in an isothermal process is this conccivable, since in all other processes the {temperature ofthe system is continually changing during the process; in order to sats criterion (c) the temperature of the cooling or heating medium external 3 Reversible and Irreversible Procassas Fig. 313. Two perfectly insuined interconnected vessels 74 to the system would be required to change correspondingly. Ideally a way of achieving reversibility can be imagined, but in practice it eannot even be approached as an approximation. Nevertheless, if we accept inevitable irreversibilities in the surroundings, we can still have processes which are internally reversible. That is, the system undergoes a process which can be reversed, but the surroundings undergo an irreversible change. Most provesses ‘ecurringin a cylinder behind a piston can be assumed tobe internally reversible to a close approximation, and the equations of sections 3.1, 32, and 33 can be used where applicable. Certain processes cannot be assumed to be internally reversible, and the important cases will now be considered. “This process was mentioned in section I.5in order to show that in an irreversible ‘prooess the work done is not given by —[ pdu. Consider two vessels A and B, interconnected by a short pipe with @ valve, and perfectly thermally insulated (see Fig 2.13). Initially let the vessel A be filled witha fluid ata certain pressure, and let B be completely evacuated. When the valve is opened the fluid in A ‘will expand rapidly to fill both vessels A and B. The pressure finally will be lower than the initial pressure in vessel A. This is known as an unresisted expansion ora free expansion. The process is not reversible, since external work ‘would have to be done to restore the fui to is initial condition. The non-flow energy equation, (14), can be applied between the intial and final states, ie O+W Ves Vowel * Now in this process no work is done on or by the fui, sine the boundary of the system does not move, No heat flows to oF from the ud since the system is well lagged. The process is therefore adiabati, but irreversible, ie, mm =0 or meu, In a free expansion therefore the internal energy initially equals the internal ‘energy finaly. For a perfect gas, we have, from equation (2.14), weg? ‘Therefore for free expansion of a perfect gas oh =o Example 3.9 Solution Fig. 14 Iroversibo proces on | pe diagram for Example 39 25 Irreversbte processes ‘That is, for a perfect gas undergoing a free expansion, the initial temperature is equal to the final temperature, Air at 20 bar is intially contained in vessel A of Fig. 3.13, the volume of Which can be assumed to be 1 m?, The valve is opened and the air expands tofill vessels A and B. Assuming that the vessels are of equal volume, calculate the final pressure of the air FFor a perfect gas for a five expansion, T; = 7. Also from equation (26), pV = mRT, hence ps Vs = Pas: Now Vy isthe combined volumes of vessels A and B, ie Watt hat+l=2m? ‘Therefore we ave mand Y= 1m? % =p. x = 20 x $= 10bar marx 4 ie, Final pressure ~ 10 bar ‘The process is shown on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.14, State 1 is fixed at 20 bar and 1m? when the mass of gas is known; state 2 is fixed at 10 bar and 2m? for the same mass of gas, The process between these state is ireversible and must be drawn dotted. The points 1 and 2 lie on an isothermal line, but the process between | and 2 cannot be called isothermal, since the intermediate femperatures are not the same throughout the process. There is no work done ‘during the process, and the area under the dotted line does not represent work done. Presse (ta) Throttling A flow of fluid is said to be throttled when there is some restriction to the flow, ‘when the velocities before and alter the restriction are either equal or neglibly ssmall,and when there isa negligible heat los tothe surroundings. The restriction to flow can be a partly open valve, an orifice or any other sudden reduction in the cross-section of the low. 78 Fig. 448 Theoting process 6 Example 3.10 {An example of throttling is shown in Fig. 3.15. The fluid, lowing steadily along well-lagged pipe, passes through an orfceat section X-X, Since the pipe is well lagged it can be assumed that no heat flows to or from the fuid. The flow equation (1.10) can be applied between any two sections of the flow, se afi) 04 eal) When the velocities C, and C, are small, or when C, is approximately equal to C,, then the kinetic energy terms may be neglected. (Note that sections 1-1 and 2-2 can be chosen well upstream and well downstream of the disturbance to the flow, so that this latter assumption is justified.) Then hy = h,. Therefore or a throtiting process, the enthalpy initially is equal to the enthalpy finaly ‘The process is adiabatic, but is highly irreversible because of the eddying of the Muid round the orifice at X-X. Between sections 1-1 and X-X the enthalpy ‘decreases und the kinetic energy increases as the fuid accelerates through the orifice. Between sections X-X and 2-2 the enthalpy increases as the Kinetic energy is destroyed by fuid eddies. For a perfect gas, from equati gh=eh o h=T For throttling of a perfect gas, therefore, the temperature initially equals the temperature finally. ‘The process of throttling can be used to find the dryness faction of steam, AA sample of steam is drawn off the steam main, passed through a mechanical separator, then through a throttle valve, and finally through a condenser; the ‘water separated from the mechanical separator and the water from the condenser are weighed and the dryness fraction calculated as shown in the following example (2.18), how ep 7 therefore, ‘The dryness fraction of wet steam in a main is determined using @ separating, and throtling calorimeter. The pressure in the main is 5 bar; after throtling, the steam pressure and temperature are 1.01325 bar and 120°C; the water collected from the separator is at the rate of 0Skg/h, and that from the condenser atthe rate of 9 kg/h. Making suitable assumptions, caleulate the dryness fraction of the steam in the main, Solution ig. 316 Processes on poo diagram for Bxample 810 35 trovorable processes ‘The assumptions made are as follows: negligible pressure drop of steam in the separator; no change of kinetic energy across the throttle valve; negligible heat loss in the separator and in the throttling process. ‘The processes are shown on a p-v diagram in Fig. 3.16; process 1-2 represents the separating process, process 2-3 the throtling process, and process 3~4 the ‘condensing process, Process 2~3is shown dotted since the processisirreversible; rno work is done during the process and the area under line 2-3 is not equal to work done, Presse (ta) 0135 ‘The enthalpy after throting is obtained by interpolating from steam tables, (220 ~ 100) (450 — 100) = 164 KI/kg For an adiabatic throttling process neglecting kinetic energy changes, hy = hs» therefore using equation (22) hy = 2676 + x (2777 — 2676) Ing = hy = ha + Nahe therefore 2716.4 — 640 mia where hey = 640 KI/kg, and hy at S bat, “The mass flow rate of water in the steam at state 2 is therefore given by hes 7 = 0985 2109 ki/kg, are read from saturation tables I~ x,) X (mass flow rate of condensate) 10985) x 9 = 0135 kg/h "Therefore the total mass flow rate of water in the steam sample from the main is given by the mass flow rate after separation, vi» plus the mass of water separated, given as 0.5 kg/, ie tig 0438 +05 1635 kg/h Reversible and Irreversible Process Fig. 317 Mixing process ‘The mass flow rate of dry vapour in the sample is therefore the total mass flow rate of (0.5 +9) kg/h minus my, (= 0.635 kg/h) ie, Mass flow rate of dry vapour in sample 5 +9 — 0635 = 8865 kg/h ‘Then the dryness faction in the main s the mass flow rate of dry vapour divided by the total mass flow rate, 8.865 (0549) ie os 933 Adiabatic mixing ‘The mixing of two streams of fuid is quite common in engineering practice, ‘and can usually be assumed to occur adiabatically. Consider two streams of a fluid mixing as shown in Fig. 3.17, Let the streams have mast flow rates rh, and rit, and temperatures T, and T;. Let the resulting mixed stam have a Temperature T,. There is no heat flow to ot from the Guid, and no work is done, hence from the flow equation, we have, negleting changes in kinetic nergy, i hy hy = nigh 33) a ery Fora perfect gas, rom equation (2.18), k= 6,7; hence, fing p.T + tay, To (ey, + heey) Ty Or, assuming that the two streams 1 and 2 are ofthe same fuid with the same specific heat capacity, ig Te hg (hy +) (334) ‘The mixing process is highly irreversible du to the large amount of eddying. and churning of the uid that takes place. Nonsteady-flow processes ‘There are many cases in practice when the rate of mass flow crossing the boundary of a system at inlet is not the same as the rate of mass flow crossing 36. Nonstoody-tlow processes the boundary ofthe system at outlet. Also, the rate at which work is done on or by the fuid, and the rate at which heat i transferred to or from the system js not necessarily constant with time. In a case of this kind the total energy of the system within the boundary is no longer constant, as i is in a steady-low prooess, but varies with time. Let the cotal energy of the system within the boundary at any instant be E. During a small time interval let the mass entering the system be dm,, and let ‘the mass leaving the system be dm; let the heat supplied and the work input during the same time be 50 and 8’ respectively. Consider a similar system to the one shown in Fig. 122. Now, as shown in section 1.8 (p. 19), work is done at inlet and outlet in introducing and expelling mass across the system Doundaries, ie, at inlet Energy required = 6,240, and at outlet Energy required = dmP302 Also, as before, the energy of unit mass of the flowing fluid is given by (up 4 C¥/2 + 2,0) at ine and by (ug + C3/2+ Za0) a outlet, Hence Energy entering system iQ + BW + dm(uy + CH/2-+ 2,9) + Smaps and Energy leaving system = dm3(uz + C3/2 + Zag) + dmap02 ‘Then, applying the first law, Energy entering ~ energy leaving = increase of energy ofthe system, 5 therefore 80 + BW + 5m (u, + CH/2+ Zig + Puvs) — bina{ug + C2/2 + Zag + Pads During a finite time the total heat transferred is given by $60 = 0, and the total work done is given by 61 = We Let the inital mass within the system boundaries be m’ at a height, 2’, and the initial internal energy be w’; let the final mass within the boundaries atthe ‘end of the time interval be mat a height, Z*, and the final internal energy be w’, Therefore DoE = miu’ +2%9)— mw + Z'9) ‘Therefore we have OF WHS Lom (uy, + rir + C24 Z 901 Ll, (us + pave + C2 + Zea] + mu" + 2g) — mw + Z'0) 835) 7 Reversible and irreversible Processes Fig. 418 Filing a bole or teva rom ‘pipeline 80 O+ WHY am(hy + CF/2+ Zsa) Loria + CH/2 + Zao) + (nw — min’) + (m'2"g— miZ'a) (836) ‘Also, from continuity of mass, ‘Mass entering — mass leaving increase of mass within system boundary ie Lam, — Lh, = mn" — mt 837) (One of the most commonly occurring problems involving the nonsteady-flow equation isthe filing of a bottle or reservoir from a source which is large in comparison with the bottle or reservoir. Figure 3.18 shows @ typical example, {tis assumed that the condition ofthe fluid in the pipeline is unchanged during the filling process. In this ease there is no work done on the system boundary; also, no mass leaves the system during the process, hence dm Pipetine System boundary "Sora Sytem boundary Applying equation (3.36), making the additional assumption that changes {in potential energy are ero, and that the kinetic energy, C2/2 small compared with the enthalpy hy, we have 4 Em hy) = mu = wt (0, sinc, yi constant daring the proces, 4 hE (im) = mu" — mw In thi case equation (3:37) becomes Sim, =m" Hence substituting O+ hm =) = mae — nie 028) Itsoften posible to assume thatthe proesis abut andinthat case weave ign =m) = mu" — mae + in words Enthalpy of mass which enters the botle = increase of internal energy ofthe system Example 3.11 Solution Fig. 319 uid escaping ftom a vessel 36 Nonsteady-flow processes A rigid vessel of volume 10m? containing steam at 21 bar and dryness fraction 0.9 is connected to a pipeline, and steam is allowed to flow from the pipeline into the vessel until the pressure and temperature in the vessel fare 6 bar and 200°C respectively. The steam in the pipeline is at 10 bar and 280°C throughout the process. Caleulate the heat transfer to or from the ‘vessel during the process. Using the notation previously introduced we have fl — 09) + (w, x 09) = SLL x 04 + 2531 x 09 is w= 23294 /kg so, m= V/y’ = 10/090, = 10/(09 x 08461) = 1313 kg ‘The steam is superheated finaly at 6 bar and 200°C, therefore w= 2640 1g, and v= 03522 m°/kg ie m= V/o" = 10/0,3522 = 284 kg ‘The steam in the pipeline i superheated at 10 bar and 250°C, henee fh, = 2948 K/h Then using equation (3.38) (0+ 2944(284 — 1313) = (284 x 2640) — (1313 x 2329) therefore (0-= 74980 ~ 30590 44940 = —55010 ie, Heat ejected ftom vesel = $801) “Another commonly occurring example ofthe nonsteadyflow process is the ‘ase in which a vessel is opened to a large space and fui is allowed to escape (Fig, 3.19), There is no work done and in this case dm, = O since no mass enters ‘the system, Neglecting changes in potential energy and applying equation (3.36): Q = TLim,(hy + CH/2)]1 + (mut — mw) Ste boundary “The dtficulty arising in this analysis is thatthe state 2 ofthe mass leaving the esse is continually changing, and hence iti impossible to evaluate the term SLima(hy + C3/2)]- An approximation can be made in order to find the mass Of fd which leaves the veel a8 the pressure drops Co given vale. It can a 82 Example 3.12 Solution Example 3.13 and Ireversible Processes ‘be assumed that the fluid remainingin the vessel undergoes a reversible adiabatic expansion. This is & good approximation if the vessel is well lagged, or if the uration ofthe process i short. Using this assumption the end state of the fluid in the yesei can be found, and hence the mass remaining in the vessel, m’, ean be calculated. [An air receiver of volume 6m? contains air at 15 bar and 40.5°C. A valve is opened and some air is allowed to blow out to atmosphere. The pressure of the ar in the receiver drops rapidly to 12 bar when the valve is then closed Calculate the mass of air which has let the reeiver. Initially 15x 10° x6 VIRT = XW x6 _ a9, ORT 10? x 3135 ® Assuming thatthe mass inthe receiver undergoes a reversible adiabatic process, then sing equation (3.21) Tp 12, therefore Tra 335/1066— 241K Hence im’ = p'V/RTY = 0 ESS = 853 kg ‘Therefore Mass of air which left receiver = 100 ~ 85.3 = 14.7 kg In the ease of a vapour undergoing a reversible adiabatic expansion no ‘equation such as (3.21), as used above, holds true. Tt is necessary to make use ‘of the property entropy, s, which can be shown to remain constant during @ reversible adiabatic process, ie. s"= s*. Then using tables the value of ¢” can be calculated and hence m” found (see Problem 4,22), [At the beginning of the induction stroke of petrol engine of compression ratio 8/1, the clearance volume is occupied by residual gas ata temperature ‘of 840 "C and pressure 1,034 bar. The volume of mixture induced during the stroke, measured at atmospheric conditions of 1.013 bar and 15°C, is 0.75. of the eylinder swept volume. The mean pressure and temperature in the induction manifold during induction is 0.965 bar and 27°C respoctvely, and the mean pressure in the eylinder during the induction stroke is 0.828 bar. Calculate the temperature and pressure of the mixture at the end of the induction stroke assuming the process to be adiabatic. For the induced ‘mixture and final mixture take ¢, = 0.718 kl/kg K and R = 0.287 kI/kg K; for the residual gas take c, = 0.840 kJ/kg K and R = 0.296 ki/kg K. 36. Nonstoady-fow processes Solution Let swept volume be V, and clearance volume be V,. Then *% ‘Compression ratio 8 (see p. 135) Initially the residual gas occupies the volume, V, = V/7, therefore intl LOM 10 x RT’ ~ 0296 % 1113 x7 = 108 0448, kg where 7’ = 8404273 = 1113 K, ‘Also using equation (3:37) m=’ = Dm, — Lams tnd noting that in this example dm, = 0, we have 1013 x 10° x 075% (0287 x 288 % 10° 091927, kg therefore im’ = 09192¥, + 004487, 0.9647, ke ‘Changes in kinetic and potential energy can be neglected, and the process is adiabatic (ie. Q = 0), hence applying equation (3.36) we have imshy + W =m’ — mia’ ‘Also, the temperature of the mixture in the induction manifold is constant throughout the stroke, i. hy = cp = constant. Therefore myeghy + W = m'e,T* — me,” uw ‘The work input is given by —W = (mean pressure in eylinder during induction x swept volume) = 0828 x 10° x ¥,= 828000, Nim = 828K, 10 therefore We —828%,1) 718 + 0.28 For the mixture induced, ¢, = ¢, +R ‘Then substituting values in equ 1.005 kd kg K. ua (09192 x ¥, x 1.005 x 300) ~ 82.8%, = (0964¥, x 0.718 % T) — (00448Y, x 084 x 1113) therefore T=MIaK = 683°C ie, Final temperature = 683°C 83 aa 32 aa 34 as ar 38 a9 Processes ‘Then = 09H O28 33 cast rH am ie. Final pressure = 0.826 bar Problems 1 kg of air enclosed in a rigid container is iniially at 48 bar and 150°C, The container is heated until the temperature is 200°C. Caleulate the presse of the ait nally and ‘the heat supplied during the proces. (5.37 bar; 35.9 kak) ‘A rigid vessel of volume 11m? contains steam at 20.bar and 400°C, The vessel is ‘voted unt the steam i just dry saturated. Calculate the mass of steam in the vss the final pressure ofthe steam, and the heat rejected during the process. (662 Kg; 1301 bar, 235543) Oxygen (molar mass 32kg/kmol) expands reversibly in eylinder behind & piston ata constant pressure of 3 ar, The volume iil is O01 m? and finally i 003 n°, {he initial temperatute i 17°C. Calelate the wor input andthe feat supplied during the expansion, Assume oxygen to bea perfect gas and take ¢ = 0.917 KI/kg K. (64; 211815) Steam at Thar, drynes faction 09, expands eovesibly at constant pressure unt the Temperature is 200°C. Calculate the work iaput and heat supplied per unit mass of steam during the process, (3824p; 288.7 kg) (005m? of a perfect gas at 63 bar undergoes @ reversible fothermal process to & ‘rcerure of 1.05 bas. Caulate the heat supplied, (64%) Dy saturated steam at Tbar expands reversibly in a eylinder behind a piston wntil the pressure is 0. bar If heat is supplied continuously during the press in onder to Keep the temperature constant, calculate the change of internal enerhy per wit mast ofstea. (7241) kg ofa is compresed sothermally and rveribly fom 1 bar and 30°C to bar Caleulate the work input andthe beat supplied (140 kag; — M0 KI) kg of air at 1 ar, 15°C is compresed reversibly and adiabatically to a pressure ‘of 4 ba. Calculate the final temperature and the work input. (155°C; 100.511 /ke) Nitrogen (molar mast 28kg/kenol) expands reversibly ina. perfectly thermally insulated cylinder from 35 bar, 200°C ta a volume of 109m. I the intial volume ‘occupied was 003m calculate the work input. Assume nitrogen to be a pede gat and take ¢,= 0741 ki/keK. (931k) Table 32. Properties of refrigerant for Problem 318 a4 ‘A corain perfec gas i compresed reversibly ffom I bar, 17°C to a pressure ofS bar in w portly thermally insulated cylinder, the finel temperature being 77°C. The work done on the gas during the compression is 45 J/kg. Calculate , c,, R, and the molar mass ofthe gas. (1.132; 07543 /kg K; 00991 /kg K; 84 kg/kmol) kg of air at LO2bar, 20°C is compressed reversibly according to @ law po" constant, to a pressure of 5.5 bar Calculate the work done on the air and the heat supplied during the compression (13346 14 /kg; — 3333) ‘Oxygen (molar mass 32kg/kmol) is compressed reversibly and polytropcally in a ‘ylinder from 10S bee, 15°C to 42bar in eich a way that one-third of the work Input is rejected as heat to the cylinder walls Caleulae the final temperature of the ‘oxygen. Assume oxygen to be a perfect gas and take c, = 0689 KJ/kg (use) ‘A mas of 0.05 kg of carbon dioxide (molar mass 44 kg/kmol), occupying «volume of (003 mat 1.025 bars compressed reversibly until the pressure is 6.15 bar. Calculate the final temperature, the work done on the CO,, and the heat supplied: (i) when the process i asording to a law po = constant; (i) when the proces s isothermal; (Gi) when the process takes place in perfectly thermally insulated cylinder “Assume carbon dioxide to bea perfect gus, and take = 13, (210°C; $135k}; L712KI; 925°C: SSI KI —S31 KI; 219°C; 5:25 44; Od) ‘A reltgerant is compresed reversibly in a cylinder according to a polytropic law from 262 bar, dry saturated, 9 820 bar when the temperature is then 40°C. Using the refrigecant properties given as Table 32, calculate: () the polyropic index; (i) the work input during the compression process: (Gi) the heat tansfored 10 oF from the esinder walls during the process (1.073; 2195 ky /egs 616 KI) Superheat values a Saturation values S2bar, 40°C hy ° i (oar) (m/kg) Ce) mh) CR) 2a oo a9 ~~=~=CmaSIS ‘A frigerant is dry saturated at 2bar and is compressed reversibly jn a cylinder according to a law po= constant to a pressure of 10 bat. Using the properties of ‘etrigorant given as Table 33, calculate (i) the final specie volume and temperature ofthe retigerant (i) the final specific volume and temperature when the working substance is air, compressed between the sme pressures and from the same initial temperature. (1024 m?kg, 24°C; 0071 m?/kg, —25°C) Revers Table 33. Properties of refigerant for Problem 115 318 Table 34. Properties of retigerant for Problem 3.16 sar 320 aa ‘and Irroversibie Processes % CO ay mg) “52am 2% 10am ‘A reejgorant leaves a condenser as a saturted liquid ata temperature of 25°C, and is thotted to a pressure of 1.83 bar where it enters te evaporator. Using the propartcs of retigerant given as Table 34 caleulate the drynew fraction of the efigerant ‘vapour entering the evaporator. (0236) eta hy com ke) 2% 6s 97 1977 1s te 23 i810 ‘The presure in a steam main is 12 bar. A sample of steam is drawn off and passed ‘rough a throttling calorimeter, the pressure and temperature at exit from the ‘and 140°C respectively. Calculate the dryness fraction of the ing any assumptions made in the throting process. (0.966) Air at 69 bar, 260°C is theotled to 5 bar before expanding through a nozzle to a pressure of 1.1 bat. Assuming that the ae flows reversibly in steady flow through the nozzle, and that no heat is rejected, calculate the velocity of the air at exit from ‘the nozale when the inlet velocity is 100:m/s (636 m/s) ‘Aira 40°C enters a mixing chamber ata rate of 25 kg/s where it mites with ar at 15°C entering at arate of $40 kg/s. Calculate the temperature of the air leaving the chamber, assuming steady-fow conditions, Assume that the heat los x negligible (224°C) ‘Steam from a supevheater at 7 bar, 300°C is mited insted adiabatic flow with wet steam at bar, dryness faction 09. Caleulate the mase of wet steam required per [elogram of supereated steam to produce seam at 7 bar, dry saturated. (143g) [A rigid cylinder contains hum (molar mass 4kg/kmol) ata presute of Shar and 8 temperature of 15°C. The cylinder is now connected to a lage source of helium at 10 ar and 15°C, and the valve connecting the cylinder i closed when the eyinder Dresure has risen to § bar. Calculate the final temperature of the helium in the ‘ylnder assuming thatthe heat transfer during the process is negligibly smal. Take for eli as 3.12 Kl/kg K. (68°C) aa a2 324 Problems A wellagged vesel of volume Im', containing 1.25 kg of steam at a presure of vale to a large source of stam at 20'bar. The valve is ‘opened and the pressure inthe vessel is allowed to rise until the steam in the vessel ie jot dry saturated at 4 bar and the vale is then closed. Caloulste the drynest fraction ofthe steam supplied. (0908) ‘An air receiver contains 10g of air at Tar. A Blow-of valve i opened in error and closed again within seconds, but the pressure is observed to drop 10 6 bat Calculate the mass of air which has escaped from the rcsver, stating clearly any sssumptions made ‘Caleulate also the pressure ofthe ai in the receiver some time ater the valve has been closed such thatthe air temperature has attained is original value, (104g; 627 bar) ‘A vertical eylinder of cross-sectional area 6480 mm? is open tothe atmosphere at one tend and connected toa large storage vessel atthe other end by means fa pipsine and valve. A frictionless piston, of weight 100, is ited into the cylinder and the initial cinder volume is negligible. The vale is then opened and ai is slowly admitted fom the large storage vessel into the liner until the piston has moved very slowly a distance of 0.61, when the valve is shut Ifthe temperature ofthe air inthe cylinders 30°C atthe fend of the operation andthe temperature of the arn the larg storage ves is constant 81 90°C, eaeulate (j) the pressure ofthe aie inthe cylinder during the proces; (i) the wore done on the air during the proces; (i) the work done on the piston (Gv) the heat supplied tothe air in the cylinder during te proces, ‘Take the atmospheric pressure as 1.013 bar (1.168 bar; — 221N m; ON m; 031 KS) 87 4a 4 The Second Law In Chapter 1 it s stated that, according to the First Law of Thermodynamics, ‘when a system undergoes a complete cycle the net heat supplied plus the net work input is zero. This is based on the conservation of energy principle which follows from observation of natural events. The Second Law of Thermodynamics, ‘which is also a natural law, indicates that in any complete cycle the gross heat supplied plus the net work input must be greater than zero. Thus for any cycle in which there isa net work output (ie. W —ve), heat must always be rejected, FFor any cycle in which heat is supplied at @ low temperature and rejected at 4 higher temperature there must always be a positive work input. To enable the second law to be discussed moze fully the heat engine must bbe defined and discussed, The heat engine ‘A heat engine is a system which operates continuously and across whose boundaries flow only heat and work ‘A diagrammatic representation of a heat engine is given in Fig. 4.1; forward heat engine is shown in Fig. 41(a) and a reversed heat engine in Fig. 4.1(b). (Note: the term ‘reservoir’ is taken to mean an energy source at & uniform temperature.) In both cases the first law applies as given by equation (1.3), EQ +EW=0, or reerring to Fig. 41, a+ +W ‘As shown in Fig. 4.1, for a forward heat engine cycle such as that used for power production, Q, is positive and Wand Q, are negative; for a reversed eycle such as that used fora refrigerator or heat pump, Q, is negative and W and Q; are positive ‘An example of a forward heat engine is shown in Fig. 4.2; by the frst law the heat supplied of 100 units equates to the work output of 30 units plus the heat ejected of 70 units. Itcan be demonstrated that itis impossible to construct a forward heat engine in which 100 units of heat ate supplied and 100 units of work output are produced; some heat must always be rejected, One statement Fig. 41 Forward and reversed heat engines Hiphsempecatre 100 units Forward ([7y]30 is nt Gagne J" 70 nits rere Fig. 42. Example of forward heat engine Highemperatue are oe Towtemperure Sure Fig. 43. Example of reversed heat engine 41 The heat engine =e er , e. reruns (BSI — sete (Otte (OO le. a. Toeapnia =e 58 238 (ere (item ‘of the Second Law of Thermodynamics is therefore as follows: IIs impossible for a heat engine to produce a net work output in a complete eycle if it exchanges heat only with a single energy reseeoir. Using the chosen sign convention for heat and work and referring to Fig, 4.1, we ean write this statement of the second law in symbols a follows: Q>-W ay ‘The cycle efficiency of a forward heat engine can then be defined as the ratio ‘of the net work output to the gross heat supplied, w ie. Cycle efficiency, (42) a ‘The second law implies that the cycle efficiency must always be less than unity For the heat engine shown in Fig, 4.2 the eyele efficiency is m = 30/100 or 30%, {An example of a reversed heat engine is shown in Fig, 43; by the fist law the 70 units of heat supplied from the low-temperature energy reservoir plus the work input of 30 units is equal to the 100 units of heat rejected to the high-temperature reservoir. It can be demonstrated that itis impossible to transfer 70 units of heat from the low-temperature reservoir to the high-temperature reservoir without a work input. An alternative statement of the second law is therefore as follows: 3 {tisimpossible to construct a device that operating in a cycle wll produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler toa hotter body. Refering to Fig, 4.1(b) this statement of the second law can be expressed as woo (43) tis interesting to note that in the ease of a forward heat engine the second ‘The Second Law nw impis that herons alvays be some heat rected to thelow-temperature | Teservoir, but in the case of the reversed heat engine (Fig. 4.1(b)), there is no I reason why Q, should not be zero. This means that it is possible to convert | Imechanical energy into het energy (gon braking a et the kinetic energy 8 Converied oto eat tthe whesh) On theater hand ts impose toconvert | feat energy contnaouly and completly int mechanical work The efectvenest ofa revered heat engin i defined in terms ofa coeficient | of performance COP. When the revered engine used mainly a regertor then, efertng to Fig 51(b), the coeficent of performance is dened ss | | | aa) When the reversed heat engine is used as a heat pump the heat transferred to the high-temperature reservoir isthe useful energy, and referring to Fig. 41(b) wwe have Q w COP, (45) (Note: the coefcient of performance of both a refrigerator and a heat pump is always greater than unity; in the example given in Fig. 43, COP = 70/30 = 2333, and COPyy = 100/30 = 3.333) Refrigeration and | heat pumps are considered in more detail in Chapter 14 | 4.2 Entropy In section 1.7, an important property internal energy, was found to arise as & consequence ofthe First Law of Thermodynamies. Another important property, entropy, follows from the second law. Consider a reversible adiabatic process for any system on a p-v diagram, ‘This is represented by line AB on Fig. 44 Let us suppose that it is possible for the system to undergo a reversible isothermal process at temperature T; from B to C and then be restored to its original state by a second reversible Adiabatic process from C to A. Now by definition an adiabatic process is one Fig. 44. Hypothetical ’ (Gmposibe)eyele on a pot diagram 8, Reversible adiabatic 7 ose in which no heat lows to of from the system, Hence the only heat transferred is rom B to C during the isothermal process. The work done by the system is given by the enclosed area (see section 1.6). We therefore have 2 system ‘undergoing a cycle and developing a net work output while drawing heat from fa reservoir at one fixed temperature. This is impossible because it violates the second la, as stated in section 41, Therefore the original supposition is wrong, ‘and it is not possible co have two reversible adiabatic processes passing through the same state A, 'Now one of the characteristics of @ property ofa system is that there is one ‘unique line which represents a value of the property ona diagram of properties. (For example, the line BC on Fig. 44 represents the isothermal at T,.) Hence there must be a property represented by a reversible adiabatic process. This property i called entropy, s. Ic follows that there is no change of entropy ina reversible adiabatic process. Bach reversible adiabatic process represents @ unique value of entropy. On p-v diagram a series of reversible adiabatic processes appear as shown in Fig. 45(a), each line representing one value of entropy. This is similar to Fig. 4.5(b) in which a series ofisothermals is drawn, each representing one value of temperature. In order to be able to define entropy in terms ofthe other thermodynamic properties a rigorous approach is necessary; a much simplified approach has been adopted in this book. For a more rigorous approach ref. 4.1 should be consulted. In section 32 a reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas was shown to follow a law po" = constant. Now the law po? = constant isa unique line on a ‘p-v diagram, so thatthe proof given in section 3.2 for a perfect gas isa similar proof to that given above (ie. the proof that a reversible adiabatic process ‘occupies @ unique line on a diagram of properties). The proof given above Ps > Pa> Ps» ete and in Fig 4.12(b)}, 0, > v2 > rs, ete. As the pressure rises the temperature rises and the volume decreases; conversely as the pressure and temperature fll the volume 97 ry “The Second Law Example 4.3 Air at 15°C and 1.05 bar occupies 002m. The air is heated at constant volume until the pressure is 4.2 bar, and then cooled at constant pressure ‘back to the original temperature, Calculate the net heat flow to or from the air and the net entropy change. Sketch the process on a T-s diagram. Solution The processes are shown on a T-s diagram in Fig. 4.13. From equation (2.6), for a perfect gas, DY _ 105 x 108 x 002 I~ 0287 x 10° x 258 O54 6 hore 7, = 15 + 273 = 288 K. ig. 413. Process on no! 2 Tos diagram for Ae Ate Branple 43 . g y 195) : E 3 £ ( Fora perfect gas at constant volume, ps/T; = pa/ Ty hence py = 2B isk 105 From equation 2.13} at constant volume Q= meg( F, — T,) = 00254 x 0.718(1152 ~ 288) je Quam 15.750 From equation (2.12), at constant pressure Q = me,(T, ~ T,) = 00284 x 1.005(288 — 1152) ie Qs = 220545 therefore [Net heat flow = Qi-2+ 025 ic, Heat rejected = 6310 5.75 ~ 2205 = ~631 Referring to Fig. 4.13 ‘Net decrease in entropy (2— 53) ~ (82-8) At constant pressure, dQ = me, dT; hence, using equation (48), ne ee) 0384 1I/K 98 44 Rovertible proceases on the T-s diagram At constant volume, dQ = mc, dT; hence, using equation (4.8) wisn [ME nt carte) sh ‘Therefore, ‘m(s, ~ $5) = 00354 ~ 0.0253 = 00101 KI/K. ie, Decrease in entropy of air = 0.0101 ki/K ‘Note that since entropy is a property, the decrease in entropy in Example 43, gen by 5, ~ 55, is independent ofthe processes undergone between states Vand 3. The change s;—s, can also be found by imagining a reversible isothermal process taking place between 1 and 3, The isothermal process on the T-s diagram will be considered in section 4. 4.4 Reversible processes on the T-s diagram ‘The various reversible processes dealt with in Chapter 3 will now be considered in relation to the T-s diagram. The constant volume and constant pressure processes have been represented on the T's diagram in section 4.3, and will therefore not be discussed again in this setion Reversible isothermal process A reversible isothermal process will appear as horizontal ie ona Ts diagram, land the area under the line must represent the heat flow during the process. For example, Fig, 4.14 shows a reversible isothermal expansion of wet steam into the superheat region. The shaded area represents the heat supplied during the process, ie. Heat supplied = T(s3~s,) [Note that the absolute temperature must be used. Fig. 4.14 Reversible 1 Iaothernal proces or seam on a'T-s diagram Tn a S co 99 ‘The Second Law Example 4.4 Solution ig. 418 Process on @ ‘Tos diagram for Example 44 100 Dey saturated steam at 100 bar expands isothermally and reversibly to @ pressure of 10 bar. Calculate the heat supplied and the work done pet kilogram of steam during the process. ‘The process is shown in Fig. 415, the shaded area representing the heat supplied From tables at 100 bar, dry saturated 5) =4,= S615 kI/kgK and ‘AC 10 bar and 311 °C the steam is superheated, hence interpolating sett (2228) ni ie nein san nad au Vet —s m = 16—) suis) et 1 ise mpd 81 Toi ok don sate nso syn, ie, Q+W=u—u, or W=(u;—u,)-O Pom ul a dy st A toter and 1° into x oye (242) ae ic. uy = 211.8 KI /ke Fig. 416 Reversible Isothermal process for a perfec gis {444 Rovorsible processes on the Te diagram We (usu) -@ = (28118 ~ 2545) — 904 = 2668 — 904 = —6372 KI/kg ie. Work done by the steam = 637.2 KI /kg ‘A reversible isothermal process for a perfect gas is shown on a T-s diagram in Fig 4.16. The shaded area represents the heat supplied during the process, ie Q=T-5) " hoy re For a perfect gas undergoing an isothermal process i s possible to evaluate s~ 5. From the non-flow equation (1.6) we have, for & reversible process, dQ =du+ pao Also for a perfect gas from Joule’s law du = ¢, dT; ie dQ=.dT + pdo For an isothermal process, 7 = 0, hence 40 =pdo ‘Then, since po = RT; we have ag~ er ‘Now from equation (48) ie gy = nio(22) = ein() (413) ‘Therefore the heat spp is ven by = T1s,s)= RTIn(%) = rie) 1. Pa 101 ‘The Second Law Example 4.5 Solution ig 417 Processes for Example 45 on p-o and T-s diagrams 102 ‘Note that this result i the same as that derived in section 3.1, ie = -werin(2)~pyen(2) 003m? of nitrogen (molar mass 28 kg/kmol) contained in a cylinder behind piston is initially at 105 bar and 15°C. The gas is compressed thermally and reversibly until the pressure is 42 bar. Calculate the change of entropy, the heat flow, and the work done, and sketch the process on a pov and T-s diagram. Assume nitrogen to act asa perfect gas. ‘The process is shown on a p-v and a T-s diagram in Figs 4.17(a) and 4.17(b) respectively. The shaded area on Fig. 4.17(a) represents work input, and the shaded area on Fig. 4.17(b) represents heat rejected. : 7 10} m 12104 sper 105 «10 q @ % From equation (4.13) From equation (29) R_s3tas B ‘Then, since pV = mRT, we have PY _ 105 x 10° x 003, = 0368 ke ‘Then $;—S;=m(s, —s3) (0.0368 x 0.4117 = 001516 KI/K Fig. 418 Isentropic proces for steam on @ ‘Tos dingram Example 4.6 Solution 444 Reversible processes on the T-s dlagram Heat rejected T(s, — 53) ie. 437K ‘Then for an isothermal process for a perfect gas, from equation (3.12), o+W=0 -4374+W=0 37k ie. Work input, Reversible adiabatic process (or isentropic process) For a reversible adiabatic proces the entropy remains constant, and hence the process i called an isentropic process. Note that for a process to be isentropic it need not be either adiabatic or reversible, bu the process will always appear as a vertical line on a T-s diagram. Cases in which an isentropic process is not both adiabatic and reversible occur infrequently and will be ignored throughout this book. ‘An isentropic process for superheated steam expanding into the wet region is shown in Fig. 418, When the reversible adiabatic process was considered in section 3.1, it was slated that no simple method was available for fixing the end states. Now, using the fact that the entropy remains constant, the end states can be found easly from tables. This is illustrated in the following example. Steam at 100 bar, 375°C expands isentropically in a eylinder behind a piston toa pressure of 10 bar. Calculate the work done per kilogram of steam. From superheat tables, at 100 bar, 375°C, we have 5 = 5 = 6091 kik K ‘AL 10 bas and s, = 6.091, the steam is wet, since s, is less than s,. Then from equation (4.12) gyn e SP1= 2138 yy Se 4448 103 “The Second Law ‘Then from equation (23) uy = (1 ep), + Xa, = (DALI 762) + (0889 x 2584) ie, uy = 846 + 2097 = 2381.6 kI/kg [At 100 bar, 375°C, we have fom tables hy = 3017 kJ/kg and = 0024 53 m° kg. ‘Then using equation (1.9) sn, = hy — py = 3017 — OX WO 002453 _ 5017 453 10° jeu = 2777 kg For an adiabatic process from equation (3.13), Wawa, therefore, W = 23816-27717 = 390.1 kg ie, Work done by the steam = 390.1 kJ/kg For a perlect gas an isentropic process on a T-s diagram is shown in Fig. 4.19, Ibis shown in section 311 that for a reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas the process follows a law po” = constant. Since a reversible adiabatic provess occurs at constant entropy and is known as an isentropic process, the index 7 is known as the isentropic index of the gas Fig. 419. Isentropic "1 proces for a pero gas fon T-s diagram Polytropic process ‘To find the change of entropy in a polytropic process for a vapour when the ‘end states have been fixed asing p= p03, the entropy values at the end states can be read straight from tables. Example 4.7 In a reciprocating compressor ofa refrigeration plant the refrigerant is dry saturated at 201 bar at the beginning of compression and is compressed 104 Table 41. Properties of refrigerant for Example 47 Solution Fig. 420 Isentropie compression process for Example $7 reversibly according (o a polytropic law po?! ‘44 Roversible processes on the T-2 diagram nstant to a pressure of 10 bar. Calculate the change of specific entropy during the process using the table of properties of reftigerant given in Table 41, interpolating where necessary. Satara a 4 (ar) (mae) ake) 201 ome «L789 1 aoa 17033 From Table 4 1, = 0.0978 m/kg ‘Superboated values at 10 bar (fig) (ark K) 0002217564 00233 L787 1.7189 KI /ke K na(2)" oman) = 00228 m*/kg [At 10 bar and a specific volume of 0.0228 m?/kg the steam is superheated. The process is shown in Fig. 4.20. 0 bie of Interpolating from the supetheat tables of Table 4.1, (00228 (00233 = 17704 k3/ke K Increase of entropy p= 17568 + x (17847 — 1.7564) [7104 — 1.7189 = 00515 KI/ke K 105 ‘The Second Law Fig. 421 Polytronic proces fr a perfect gas ona Tos diagram 106 It was shown in section 3.1 that the polytropie proves isthe general case for a perfect gas. To find the entropy change for a perfect gas in the general case, consider the non-flow energy equation for a reversible process equation (1.6), 4Q-= du + pdo Also for unit mass of a perfect gas from Joule’s law di equation (2.5), po = RT. Therefore a RT e4AT, and from RT + ‘Then from equation (4:7) edt | Rab Te Hence between any two states | and 2 vanaf raf Saan(Boan(s) on ‘This can be illustrated on a T-s diagram asin Fig, 421. Since in the process in Fig. 421, T; < T,, then itis more convenient to write neon wam(%)—cin(B) (41s) 1 oon D 4 % 5 fe % gi ‘The first part of the expression for s, — s; in equation (415) is the change of entropy in an isothermal process from 10 0, ie. from equation (4.13) une (22) (see Fig. 421) Ato the second prt ofthe expesion fry — ny in equation (415) the hang of entony in constant volume proces rm Tt Tye rkring fo Fie 421, saan on(B) Example 4.8 Solution Fig. 422. Process for Example 48 ona Tes diagram ‘44 Reversible processos on the T-s a Itcan be soon therefore that in calculating the entropy change in a polytropic process from state 1 to state 2 we have in effect replaced the process by two simpler processes: from Ito and then from A to Itisclear from Fig. 4.21 that 5181 = (5451) = (S452) ‘Any two processes can be chosen to replace a polytropie process in order to find the entropy change. For example, going ffom 1 to B and then from B to 2 asin Fig. 421, we have 5— 51 = (59 ~ 51) ~ (Sa 52) ‘At constant temperature between p, and p>, using equation (4.13), wncrm() and at constant pressure between T; and 7; we have Hence, or (4.16) ‘Equation (4.16) can also be derived easly from equation (4.14). ‘There are obviously a large number of possible equations for the change of entropy in a polytropic process. Each problem can be dealt with by sketching the T-s diagram and replacing the process by two other simpler reversible processes, as in Fig. 421 Calculate the change of entropy of 1 kg of air expanding polytropically in a cylinder behind a piston from 63 bar and 550°C to 1.05 baz, The index of expansion is 1.3 ‘The process is shown on a T-s diagram in Fig. 422. From equation 329, 105tar Temperate /(K) 107 “The Second Law Fig. 423. Alternative 108 Example 4.9 Solution therefore 823 isi. where 7; = 550 4273 = 823K. [Now replace the process 1 10 2 by two processes, | to A and A to 2, Then at constant temperature from 1 to A, from equation (413) w(2)=02xr( 2) Asso po fo A TY «005 n(22 (2) =sase( 2) h 544k “Note that ifn Example 48 s,s happened to be greater than 4 — 1, this would mean thats, was greater than 5, and the process should appear as in Fig. 423 1 3 pac Lospor 1 005 kg of carbon dioxide (molar mass 44 kg/kmol) is compressed from 1 bar, 15°C, until the pressure is 8.3 bar, and the volume is then 0.004 m?, Calculate the change of entropy. Take c, for carbon dioxide a 0.88 ki/ke K, and assume carbon dioxide to be a perfect gas. ‘The two end states are marked on a T-s diagram in Fig. 4.24. The process is ‘not specified in the example and no information about itis necessary. States and 2 are fixed and hence 5) ~ 5; is fixed. The process between 1 and 2 could be reversible or ireversible; the change of entropy is the same between the end states given. With reference to Fig. 424, to finds, — 8, we can fist find sy — 83 and then subtract s, ~ ,.Fitst of all itis necessary to find R and then Fig. 424. 7s diagram for Example 49) 45 Example 4.10 48- Entropy and irevorsibiity 2.096 n> shar % Temperate (K) ‘ +200] ei From equation (2.6), pY = mR, therefor, Pay _ 83 x 10° x 0.004 Tieton eatin = (*8)-ssianex Aosta prs i 0 aw(®) i Hence for 005 kg of carbon dioxide Decrease in entropy = 0.05 x 0226 = 00113 kJ/K. sso( 2!) -areariax Entropy and irreversibility In section 44 itis pointed out that, since entropy is @ property, the change of ‘entropy depends only on the end states and not on the process between the ‘end slates. Therefore, provided an irreversible process gives enough information to fix the end states then the change of entropy can be found. This ‘can best be illustrated by some examples. ‘Steam at 7 bar, dryness fraction 096, is throttled down to 3. bar. Calculate the change of entropy per unit mass of steam. 109 “The Second Law Solution Fig. 428. Throting process for Example 410 on 2 Tes diagram Example 4.11 Solution 10 ‘At T at, dryness fraction 0.96, using equation (4.11) we have 192 + (0.96 x 4717) 85, 48, ie 9) = 6522kI/kg K In section 24 it is shown that for a throttling process, hy, equation (22) Ing = hy hy, +g, 97 + (0.96 X 2067) = 2682.1 kg ‘At 35 bar and hy equation (2.2), hy From 682 kJ/kg the steam is still wet, since I, > hp. From Ii, + ag therefore a, _ 2682 ~ 584 = 2082 54 g977 he, 2188 ‘Then from equation (4.11) 529 5,4 Xf, © 1.727 + (O9TT x S214) = 6817 KI kg K Increase of entropy = 6817 ~ 6.522 = 0295 il kg K ‘The process is shown on a Ts diagram in Fig. 4.25. Note that the process is shown dotted, and the ares under the line does not represent heat flow; a ‘throttling process assumes no heat flow, but there isa change in entropy because the proves i irreversible. ‘Two vessels ofequal volumeare connected by short length of pipe containing 1 valve; both vessels are wel lagged. One vessel contains ait and the other is completely evacuated. Calculate the change of entropy per kg of ar in the system when the valve is opened and the air is allowed to fill both vessels. Initially the vessel A contains air and the vessel B is completely evacuated, as in Fig. 426; finally the air occupies both vessels A und B. In section 3.4 it was shown that in an unresisted expansion for a perfect gus, the initial and final temperatures are equal. In this case the initial volume s Ys and the final volume Fig. 426 Two well-lagged Interconnected vessls for Example 4.11 Fig. 427 Process on a ‘Tas diagram for Example 4.11 ‘45. Entropy and iroversibiity ye 2% is Vy + Vq=2Vq. The end states can be marked on a T-s diagram as shown in Fig. 4.27, The process 1 to 2is irreversible and must be drawn dotted. The change of entropy is 5 ~5,, regardless of the path of the process between states 1 and 2. Hence, for the purpose of calculating the change of entropy, sagine the process replaced by a reversible isothermal process between states | and 2, Then from equation (413) % a. in(*2) 028710 m(i-earm(ae) = 0287 in? = 0199 KEK ic. Ines of entropy = 0199/ke (2-0 ‘Note thatthe process is drawn dotted in Fig. 427, and the area under the line thas no significance; the process is adiabatic and there is a change in entropy sinoe the process is irreversible. T's important to remember thatthe equation (4.7), ds = 40/7 is tue only for reversible processes. Inthe same way the equation AW = —p dois true only for reversible processes. In Example 4.11 the volume of the air increased from Vg 10 2¥4, and yet no work was done bythe air during the proces, je GW =0 yt B—W=M—-haMs Similarly, the entropy in Example 4.11 increased by 0.199 kI/kg K and yet the heat flow was zero, is. ds # 49/7. No confusion shouldbe caused if the T-s andor the p- diagram is drawn foreach problem andthe state points marked in their correct positions. Then, when a process between two states is reversible, the process ean be drawn in as fll ines, and the area 1m “The Second Law Steam on 8 T-s diagram Fig. 429 Inoversibl adiabatic compression fora perect gas on 8 Tes diagram Example 4.12 12 under the line represents heat flow on the Ts dingram and work done on the 1p-e diagram. When the process between the states is ireversible the line must be drawn dotted, and the area under the line has no signifieance on either diagram, It can be shown from the second lav that the entropy of a thermally isolated system must either increase or remain the same, For instance, a system ‘undergoing an adiabatic process is thermally isolated from its surroundings since no heat flows to or from the system. We have seen that ia a reversible Adiabatic process the entropy remains the same, In an irreversible adiabatic process the entropy must always inerease, and the gain of entropy is a measure ofthe irreversibility ofthe process, The processes in Examples 410 and 4.11 illustrate this fact, As another example, consider an irreversible adiabatic ‘expansion in a steam turbine as shown in Fig. 428 as process I to 2. A reversible adiabatic process between the same pressures is represented by 1 to 2s in Fig 428. The increase of entropy, $;—;=8;— Say is a measure of the inreversbility of the process. Similarly, in Fig. 4.29, a irreversible adiabatic ‘compression in a rotary compressor is shown at process 1 to 2. A reversible adiabatic process between the same pressures is represented by 1 to 2s. AS before, the increase of entropy shows the irreversibility of the process. r In an air turbine the air expands from 68 bar and 430°C to 1.013 bar and 150°C, The heat oss from the turbine can be assumed to be negligible. Show that the process is irreversible, and calculate the change of entropy per kilogram of air Solution Fig. 430 Ts diagram for Example 412 45- Entropy and iroversibility Since the heat loss is negligible the process is adiabatic. For a reversible adiabatic process for a perfet gas, using equation (3.21) “ey ee (& yeaa 7 Vion where 7; = 430 + 273 = 703 K, 7, = 3. = 408 K = 408 — 273 » 135°C i But the actual temperature is 150°C at the pressure of 1.013 bar, henoe the process is irreversible. The process is shown as 1 to 2 in Fig. 430; the ideal isentropic process 1 to 2s is also shown. Its not possible for process I to 20 be reversible, because in that case the area under line 1~2 would represent heat flow and yet the process is adiabatic. 1013 a “Temperture/K) g Sir ‘The change of entropy, s; ~ $4, can be found by considering a reversible constant pressure process between 2s and 2 Then from equation (4.7), ds = dO/T/and at constant pressure for 1 kg ofa perfect gas wehavedQ = c, dT el ol = sn“) oe ie, Increase of entropy, 81 — 5; 0363 kI/ke K (0.0363 Kd /kg ‘Consider now the case when « system is not thermally isolated from its surroundings. The entropy of such a system can increase, decrease, or remain the same, depending on the heat crossing the boundary. However, ifthe boundary is extended to include the source or sink of heat with which the system is in ‘communication, then the entropy of this new system must either increase or remain the samo. To illustrate this, consider a hot reservoir at T; and a cold 13 “The Second Law Fig. 431 Two thermall-insulated Interconnected reservoirs of energy Fig. 432. Processes for the hot and eo Ts diagram, 14 reservoir at 7, and assume that the two reservoirs are thermally insulated from the surroundings as in Fig. 4.31. Let the heat flow from the hot to the cold reservoir be Q. Thereisa continuous temperature gradient from T, to T, between points A and B, and it can be assumed that heat is transerred reversible from the hot reservoir to point A, and from point B to the cold reservoir. It will be assumed that the reservoirs are such that the temperature of each remai constant, Then we have Heat supplied to cold reservoir = +0 ence from equation (4.8) 2 Increase of entropy of cold reservoir = +2 1 ropy ‘E Also, Heat supplied to hot reservoi therefore @ Tncrease of entropy of hot reservoir = — 2 Py t oe ie. Net increase of entropy of system, as = (2 — 2 vr etrten ar=(S—2) Since T; > T; it cam be seen that As is positive, and hence the entropy of the system must increase. In the limit, when the difference in temperature isiginitely small, then As = 0. This confirms the principle that the entropy of an isolated system must ether increase or remain the same. In section 1.4, criterion (e) for reversibility was stated as follows: the difference in temperature between a system and its surroundings must be infinitely small during a reversible process, Inthe aboveexample, when T, > T,, then the heat flow between the reservoirs is irreversible by the above criterion. Thus the entropy of the system increases hen the heat flow process is irreversible, but remains the same when the process is reversible. The increase of entropy is & measure of the irreversibility. The processes occurring in the above example can be drawn on a T-s diagram as in Fig. 432, The two processes have been superimposed on the same diagram. Process P-R represents the transfer of @ units of heat from the hot reservoir, 46 46 txergy fand the area under P-R is equal to Q. Process X-Y represents the transfer of units of heat to the cold reservoir, and the srea under X-Y is equal to Q. ‘The area under P-R is equal to the area under X-Y, and hence it ean be seen from the diagram thatthe entropy of the cold reservoir must always increase ‘more than the entropy ofthe hot reservoir decreases. Thus the entropy of the combined system must increase. Note that, since inthis example both processes PLR and X-Y are reversible, then the irreversibility occurs between A and B ‘on Fig. 431, That is, the ireversbility is caused by the heat transfer prooess between A and B, Whenever heat is transferred through a finite temperature diflerence the process is ireversible and there is an increase of entropy af the system and its surroundings. Tn certain processes the irreversibility may occur in the surroundings, then the process is internally reversible, and areas on the p-v and Ts diagrams relate closely to the work and heat respectively as before. Internal reversibility ‘was mentioned earlier in section 1.5.In most problems when a process is assumed to be reversible it is internal reversibility which is implied. Conversely, most processes in practice which are said to be irreversible are internally irreversible due to eddying and churning of the working fluid, as in Example 4.13. Referring to Fig. 431, if heat engine were interposed between the hot and cold reservoirs, some work could be developed. The second law states that heat ean never flow unaided from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir, therefore in ‘order to develop work from the quantity ofenergy, Q after it has been transferred to the cold reservoir, it would be necessary to have a third reservoir at lower temperature than the cold reservoir. It i clear that when a quantity of heat is transferred through a finite temperature diference, its usefulness becomes les, ‘and in the limit when the heat has been transferred to the lowest existing temperature reservoir then no more work can be developed. Irreversibility therefore has a degrading effect on the energy available and entropy ean be considered as a measure not only of irreversibility but also of the degradation ‘of energy. Note that, by the principle of conservation of energy, no energy can 'be destroyed; by the Second Law of Thermodynamics, energy can only become less useful and never more useful. Systems tend naturally to states of lower ‘rade energy; any system moving to state of higher-grade energy without an external supply of energy would be violating the second law. The second law can be seen fo imply a direction or a gradient of usefulness of energy. Work is ‘more useful than heat; the higher the temperature of a reservoir of energy the more useful isthe amount of energy available. Applying this latter conclusion to-a heat engine it can be deduced that, for a given cold reservoir (eg the atmosphere), then the higher the temperature of the hot reservoir, the higher will be the thermal efficiency of the heat engine. This will be discussed more Tully ia Chapter 8. Exergy ‘The theoretical maximum amount of work that can be obtained from a system at any state p, and 7, when operating with a reservoir atthe constant pressure land temperature pp and Ty is called the exergy or availability 15 ‘The Second Law Fig. 433. Mustration of the exergy of a system 6 Consider system consisting ofa fluid in a cylinder behind a piston, the fd ‘expanding reversibly from initial conditions of p, and 7; to final atmospheric ‘conditions of py and Tp. Imagine also that the system Works in conjunction ‘with a reversible heat engine which receives heat reversibly from the fluid in the cylinder such that the working substance of the heat engine follows the ‘yele O1A0 as shown in Figs 4.33(a) and 4.33(b), where s, = s, and T, = Ty Piston system |! Ee — We 1 n @ ‘Note: The only possible way in which this could occur would be if an infinite ‘number of reversible eat engines were arranged in parallel, each operating on a Camot eycle (see Ch. 5), each one receiving heat at a different constant temperature and each one rejecting heat at Ty. The work done by this engine is given by “WHEO therefore -W=O- Ts, —5) ‘The heat supplied to the engine is equal to the heat rejected by the fuid in ‘the eylinder. Therefore for the fuid in the eylinder undergoing the process 1 10 0, we have =O Wow = to ~ my (ym) +0 ‘Therefore the total work output is given by = Wass = W = ~(ty ~ ty) ~ Q + 0 ~ Talss ~ 50) als — 80) ‘The work done by the fuid on the piston is less than the total work done by the fluid, — Waa, since there is work done on the atmosphere which is st the ‘constant pressure pp (see Problem 3.24). That is ie Wa (uy — mg) — Work done by fluid on atmosphere, ~ Wag = Paley ~ 4) 46. Exergy Note: when a fluid undergoes a complete eycle then the net work done on or by the atmosphere is zero. Hence Maximum work availabe Work done by fuid on piston + Work done by engine Waa + WwW 4, — He) — Tals ~ 0) ~ Polto 4) 4, + Pod — Tosi) (to + Pato ~ Tose) =a ~ a4 ‘The property a = 1+ pad ~ Tas is called the specific non-flow exergy. Steady-flow systems Let fluid flow steadily with a velocity C, from a reservoir in which the pressure fand temperature remain constant at p, and 7, through an apparatus to atmospheric pressure of po, Lat the reservoir be at a height Z, from the datum, ‘which ean be taken at exit from the apparatus, ie. Zy= 0. For a maximum ‘work output to be obtained from the apparatus the exit velocity, Cy, must be zero. It can be shown as for non-flow systems above that a reversible heat ‘engine working between the limits would reject Ty(s, ~ 5) units of heat, where ‘Ty's the atmospheric temperature. ‘Therefore we have Specific exergy = (iy + C2/2 + Za) ~ ho ~ Talay ~ $0) {In many thermodynamic systems the kinetic and potential enorgy terms are neglizibe, ie, Specific exerny = (0 ~ T38,) ~ (hy ~ ToS) = Be Effectiveness Instead of comparing a process to some imaginary ideal process, as is done in the ease of isentropic efficiency for instance (See p. 238) itis a better measure of the usefulness of the process to compare the useful output of the process With the loss of exergy of the system. The useful output of a system is given by the increase of exergy of the surroundings, increase of exergy ofsurroundi ie. Biectiveness, o= (a7) Toss ofexergy ofthesystem FFor a compression or heating process the eflectiveness becomes ease of exergy ofthe system ios ofexergy ofthe surroundings "7 “The Second Law Example 4.13 Steamexpands adiabatically ina turbine from 20 bar, 400°C to4 bar, 250°C. Calculate (i) the isentropic efiiency of the process; (Gi) the 1oss of exergy of the system assuming an atmospheric temperature of 15°C; (ii) the effectiveness ofthe process. ‘Neglect changes in kinetic and potential energy. Solution (i) Initially the steam is superheated at 20 bar and 400°C, hence from tables, hy = 3248 KI/kg and 5, = 7126 kI/keg K Finally the steam is superheated at 4 bar and 250°C, hence from tables hy = 2965 U/kg ands, =7379KI/ke K ‘The process is shown as 1 to 2 in Fig. 4.34 8 = 5) = 7126 KI/kg K Fig. 434 T-s diagram 1 for Example 413 Hence interpolating 1126 ~ 6929 Tad = 6908, BAA kd ke hon 78a +( ase - 275 actual work output isentropic work ny = hy _ 3248 ~ 2965 __ 283 fa, hy, 3248 — 2841.4 ~ 9066 (ii) Lossofexergy = by ~ bs = hy ~ fy + Tals ~ 51) = 283 + 288(7.379 - 7.126) = 3559 kd/kg Tsentropicefficiency = 18 Example 4.14 Solution 46 Exergy (ii) BMectivenesse = [Note the effectiveness is greater than the isentropic efficiency; this is because the steam at state 2 has a higher exergy than that at state 2s due tothe heating cilect of the irreversbilites in the expansion process Air at 15°C is to be heated t0 40°C by mixing it in steady flow with a {quantity of nir at 90°C. Assuming that the mixing process is adiabatic and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy, calculate the ratio of the mass flow of air initially at 90°C to that initially at 15°C. Calculate also the effectiveness ofthe heating process the atmospheric temperatureis 15°C, Let the ratio of mass flows required be y; let the air at 15°C be stream 1, the air at 90°C be stream 2, and the mixed airstream at 40°C be stream 3. Then Gh 496% = (1+ Neh or eB) 4(G-T ie, (90-40) = 4015 therefore 25 =%-05 1% Let the system considered be a steam ofr of unit mass, heated from 15 to 40 rerease of exergy of system per unit mass of air intially at 15°C = by—b, = (high) — Talos — 5) 1.005(40 — 15) ~ 288(s, ~ 5,) ys ean(B) i 288, therefore Increase of exergy of system per unit mass of air initially at 15°C. = (1.005 25) ~ (288 0.0831) 1195 KI kg ‘The system, which is the air being heated, is ‘surrounded’ by the airstream boeing cooled. Therefore, the loss of exergy of the surroundings is given by ‘(bs ~ ba) per unit mass of air initially at 15°C, oosin( 3) = oot tke K ne ‘The Second Law 120 Example 4.15 Solution Loss of exergy of surroundings per unit mass of air initially at 15°C =05 (0; ~ hy) ~ Toss ~ 53)} = 03(Lon500— 4 — 28 1.00503) 3B = 365 KI/kg Therefore 1.195 365 ‘The low figure for the effectiveness isan indication of the highly irreversible nature ofthe mixing process Bictivenes 327 oF 32.7% A liguid of specific heat 63 ka/kg K is heated at approximately constant presture from 15 {0 70°C by passing i through tubes which are immersed ina furnace, The furnace temperature is constant at 1400°C. Caleuate the effectiveness of the heating process when the atmospheric temperature i 10°C Increase of exerny of the guid is by —b,= (ha —h) — Tos = 81) ie by — by = 63(70— 15) 283 x sam(*2) 28 = M7 ka/ke [Now the heat rejected by the furnace is equal fo the heat supplied to the liquid (hz ~ hy) A this quantity of heat were supplied to a heat engine operating on the Carnot eyele its thermal efficiency would be eee 1400 + 373, For the thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle seep. 126. Therefore work which could be obtained from a heat engine is given by the product of the thermal efficiency and the heat supplied. os rose wa fat oie =P -25) ‘The possible work from a heat engine is measure of the loss of exergy of the furnace. That is 63(70—15,(1- 2) 288 KI /ke Loss of exergy ofsurrounding a4 42 43 44 46 ar Problems ‘Then PAectveness = 37 = 121 or 121% 288 ‘The very low value of effectiveness reflects the irreversibility ofthe transfer of heat through a large temperature difference. If the furnace temperature were much lower the process would be much more effective, although the heat transferred to the iquid would remain the same. For further reading on this topic see ref. 42. Problems 1 kg of steam at 20 bar, drynes fraction 09, is heated reversibly at constant pressure to a temperature of 300°C. Calculate the heat supplied and the change of entropy, and Show the procs on a T-s digram indicating the area which represents the heat ow. (415 Kg; 08173 keg K) Stcum at 005 bar, 100°C is o be condensed completely by a reversible constant pressure proces, Calculate the eat ejected per kilogram of steam, and the change of specific fntropy. Sketch the process on a Ts diagram and shade in the area which represents the best fw. (2580 kak; 8292 10/k8 K) (005 kg of steam at 10 bar, dryness faction 08, is heated reversibly ina rigid vessel unt the pressure is 20 bar Calculate the change fentopy and the heat supplied. Show the are which represents the heat supplied on a T-s diagram. (Q0704 kJ/kg K; 36853) | gi eylinder containing 0.096 m? of nitrogen (molar mass 28 kg/kael) at 1.04 ba, 15"Cs heated reversibly until the temperature is 90°C, Calculate the change of entropy tnd th heat supplied, Sketch the process on a T-s dlagram. Take the isentropic index, ‘for nteogen a 14 ad assume that nitrogen i perfect gs (100125 ks/K; 0407 Kd) 1m of air is heated reversibly at constant pressure from 15 to 300°C, andi then cooled feversiby at constant volume back to the initial temperature. The inital presure is 1 bar. Calla the net hea ow and the overall change of entropy, and sketch the proosses on a T-s diagram. (10154); 024614/K) 1g of stam undergoes a reversible jsotheemal process from 20 bar and 250°C t0 a pressure of 30 bat. Calculate the heat Now, stating whether i s supplied or rejected, land sketch the proosss on a Ts diagram. (-13510/ke) 1 kg of air is allowed to expand reversibly ina cylinder behind a piston in suck a way that the temperature resins constant at 260°C while the volume s doubled. The piston is thon moved in, and heat is rejected by the ar reversibly at constant pressure unt the volume ithe sume as it was inialy. Calculate the net heat flow and the overall change of entropy. Sketch the proces on a T-s diagram. (1619 ki/kg; ~0497/kg K) 121 “The Second Law 40 49 440 ant Table 42. Properties of refrigerant for Problem 4.11 12 an. an ana Steam at 5 bar, 25°C, expands isentrpically to pressure of 0,7 bar. Calculate the final condition ofthe seam. (0967) ‘Steam expands reversibly ina cylinder behind a piston fom 6 bar dry saturated, to a pressure of 0.6 bar Asuming tha the cylinder sper thermally insulated, calculate ‘he work done during the expansion per kilogram of steam, Sketch the process on ¢ T-s diagram, (5238 kd/ke) 1 kg ofa uid at 30 bar, 300°C, expands reversibly and isothermally to & pressure of 1075 bar, Calculate the heat flow and the work done (i) when the Bud iat, (i) when {he Midis steam. Sketch each process on « T-s diagram, (607K eg; — 607 Kegs 1035 kB/s — 975 kJ/kg) ‘kg ofa fd at 262 bar, ~3°C, is compressed according toa law po = constant to & pressure of §2 bar. Caleulate the work input and the heat supplied (i) when the Hid ‘sir (i when the Mi isa refrigerant inlly dry saturated with the properties given in Table 42 Sketch each process on a T-diagram, (8641 Ki/kg; —BRAI Ki jg; 2263 19 /kg; ~6.69 KI) Saturation values aD he hy CO) (bar) (aig) (kw) ak) =30 262 007579607 29298 323820002 1682931305 1 kg of ar at 1.013 bar, 17°C, is compressed according to law po! constant, until the pressure i 5 bar. Calculate the change of entropy and sketch the process om a T=1 diagram, indicating the area which represents the het flow. (00885 13/ke) (006m? of ethane (molar mas 30 kg/mol) at 69 bar and 260°C allowed to expand isentropically in a eyinder behind w piston to a presute of 1.05 bar and a temperature ‘of 107°C, Cakulate 7, R, cy Gy fr ethane, and calculate the work done during the expansion. Assume ethane to bea perfect gas, ‘The same mass of ethane at LOS bar, 107°C, is compressed t0 69 bar acording to ‘law po'* = constant. Calculate the final temperature ofthe ethane and the heat flow to or ftom the cylinder walls during the compression. Calculate also the change of ‘entropy during the compression, and sketch both processes on a p-vand a T-s diagram, (1.2195 0277 klkg K; 1.542 kJ/kg Ki; 1.265 keg Ky 542K 377.7°C; 4B (00862 13/K) [At the start of the compression proces inthe eiprocating compres of refrigeration plant the retgerant is at 1S bar, dry saturated, AC the end ofthe compression process Which is acording to reversible polytropic lw pe? ~ constant, the pressures 6. bar Using the properties of rfigerant given at Table 43, interpolating where necessary, caleulate (i) the change of specie entropy during the proses; (Gi) the degre of superbeat of the efegerant ae compression. (0106 13/4 K; 38 K) Table 43. Properties of eee Saturation values Superheated values at 65 bar Problem 414 Scope mt s oe 5 CO wks) BK) C0) kg) kK) “oso 000 Las 263 oot moose 12 448 A certain pecect gas for which y= 1.26 and the molar mass is 26 g/ml, expands reversibly from 127°C, 003m? to 2°C, O6m°, according to a linear law on the T-s diagram, Calculate the work done per kilogram of gus and sketch the process on aT-s diagram, (= 9593 13/8) 416 kg of ai at 102 bar, 20°C, undergoes a process in which the pressure i raised to 612 bar, and the volume becomes 028 m>, Calculate the change of entropy and mark ‘the initial and final states on @ T-s agra. (0083 kI/ke K) 447 Steam at 15 ber is throttled to 1 bar and a temperature of 180°C. Calculate the inital dryness eation and the change of speci entropy. Sketch the proces on a T-s diagram fad state the assumptions made inthe toting proces. (0992; 1202 kJ/kg K) 440 Two vessel, one exactly twice the volume of the other, are connected by valve and {immersed in constant temperature bath of wate, Te male vse contains hydrogen (molar mass 2 kg/km and the other is completly evacuated. Calculate the change ‘of entropy per kilogram of gas when the valve is opened and conditions are allowed to settle Sketch the proces on a T-s diagram. Assume hydrogen to be a perfect exs (4567 1k) 44419 A turbine is supplied with steam at 40 ba, 400°C, which expands through the turbine in steady low to an ext pressure of 02 bat, and a dryness fraction of 093. The inlet ‘velocity is negligible, but the steam leaves at high velocity through @ duct of 0.14 m* cross-sectional area, Ifthe mass flow is 3kg/s and the mechanical efiency is 90%, falcalate the power output of the turbine. Show that the process is iteversible and caleulate the change of specific entropy. Heat loses fom the turbine are neligibe. (2088 RW: 06431 /kp K) 420, In a centrifugal compressor the ai is compresed through a pressure ratio of 410 1, and the temperature ofthe air inreases by a factor of 1.65. Show that the proces i irreversible and ealeulate the change of entropy per kilogram of at, Assume that the proces is adiabatic. Sketch the process on a T-s diagram. (0.105 13/kg K) 421 Ina gs turbine unt the gases enter the turbine at 50°C and 5 bar and fave at 1 bar. ‘The process is approximately adiabatic, but the entropy changes by 0.1741 /kg K. Calculate the exit temperature ofthe gases. Assume the pass 10 act as a periect gas, fad take y ~ 1.333 and cy ~ LLL kl/kg K. Sketch the proces on a T-s diagram. (709°C) 123 ‘The Second Law 124 an an amu 425 426 Arig well- lagged vessel of3 m? capacity contains 0.7614 hg of steam at 6 bar. A valve 's opened and the prestute falls to 1-4 bar before the valve i shut agin, Caleulate the ‘condition of he steam remaining the vest and the mess fsteam which has escaped. (0989; 0516 ke) A gid vessel contains 0 kg of @ perfect gas of specific heat at constant volume LURI/kg K. A stirsing paddle is inserted into the vessel and 11 LY of work are done on the paddle by the sizer motor. Assuming thatthe vessel i well lagged and that the ‘esis ntlly atthe temperature ofthe surroundings which are at 17°C, calculate the fectvences ofthe proves, 33%) ‘The identical vessel of Problem 423 i heated through the same temperature diflerence by immersing it in a furnace of eonstant temperature 100°C. Caleulate the elleciveness ofthe process. (148%) ‘Steam enters turbine at 70 ba, $O0*C and leaves at 2bar in w dy saturated state. CCalevlate the isentropic eicieney and the effectiveness ofthe process. Neglect changes ‘of kinetic and potential energy and nssume thatthe process is adiabatic. The stmoepherc temperature is 17°C. (244%; 88%) ‘In an opcr-type feed heater (see p. 249), steam enters at 15 bar, 200°C. The feedwater enters the heater at 130°C and leaves the heater at the saturation temperature ‘corresponding to the presure in the heater of 1Sbar, Caleulate the mass of steam entering per unit mass of fed water entering the hee, CCaleulate also the loss of exergy’ of the steam per unit mass and the eflectiveness of ‘the heater. Assume that cere is no heat loss from the heater and thatthe atmosphere temperature is 20°C. State any oer assumptions made, (0.1536 kg; 7349 kd/kg; 88.1%) 41 nocens 6 Fe and wavimew ¥ R 1992 Engineering Thermodynamics, Work and Heat Transfer, Ah edn Longman 42. avwo00 nw 1991 Analysis of Enginvering Cycles Pergamon The Heat Engine Cycle In this chapter the heat engine cycle is discussed more fully and gas power cycles are considered. It can be shown that there is an ideal theoretical cycle ‘whieh i the most efficient conceivable; this cycle is called the Carnot cycle. The highest thermal efficiency possible for a heat engine in practice is only about half that of the ideal theoretical Carnot cycle, between the same temperature limits. This is due to ireversbilities inthe actual cycle, and to deviations from the ideal eycle, which are made for various practical reasons, The choice of a power plant in practice is a compromise between thermal efficiency and various factors such as the size ofthe plant fora given power requirement, mechanical complexity, operating cost, and capita cost. The Carnot cycle It can be shown from the Second Law of Thermodynamics that no heat engine ‘can be more efficient than a reversible beat engine working between the same temperature limits (se ref 5.1), Carnot showed that the most efficent possible cycle is one in which all the heat supplied is supplied at one fxed temperature, tnd all the heat rejected is rejected at a lower fixed temperature, The cycle therefore consists of two isothermal processes joined by two adigbatie processes. Since all processes are reversible, then the adiabatic processes in the cycle are also isentropic. The cycle is most conveniently represented on a Ts diagram as shown in Fig. 5. Process | to 2 is isentropic expansion from T, to T;, Process 2 to 3 is isothermal heat rejection. Process 3 to 4 is isentropic compression from T; to T, Process 4 to I is isothermal heat supply. ‘The eyele is completely independent of the working substance used, ‘The cycle efficiency of a heat engine, defined in section 41, is given by the net work output divided by the gross heat supplied =EW_Eo om (1) ‘The Heat Engine Cyet Fig. 51 Carnot cle ona T-s diagram Example 5.1 ‘Solution 126 a In the Camot cycle, with reference to Fig. 5.1, it can be seen that the gross heat supplied, Q, is given by the area 41BA4, ie Q, = area 41BA4= T3(sy ~ 54) Similarly the net heat supplied, 0, is given by the area 41234, i, EQ=(T— Tells 54) Hence we have Carnot cycle efcieney (H- Blsn~ 50) esas Tilse— 0) % i Ment (52) ti Ifa sink for heat rejection is available ata fied temperature 7; (ea large supply of cooling water), then the ratio T,/T, will deerease as the temperature of the souree T; is increased. From equation (5.2) it ean be seen that as T/T, ‘decreases, then the thermal efficiency increases, Hence for a fixed lower temperature for heat rejection, the upper temperature at which heat is supplied ‘must be made as high as possible. The maximum possible thermal efficiency between any two temperatures is that of the Carnot eycle, ‘What is the highest possible theoretical efficiency of a heat engine operating with a hot reservoir of furnace gases at 2000°C when the cooling water available is at 10°C? From equation (5.2) 104.273 283 7, 2000273 ma ite, Highest possibleeficiency = 1 — 0.1246 08754 oF 87.54% % Nowa It should be noted that a system in practice operating between similar temperatures (eg. asteam-generating plant) would have a thermal efficiency of about 30%. The discrepancy is due to losses due to irreversibility in the actual Fig. 52. Carnot cycle for'a wet vapour on 8 Tes diagram 5.2 52 Absolute temperature scale plant, and also because of deviations from the ideal Carnot cycle made for various practical reasons. Its dificult in practice to devise a system which can receive and reject heat ‘at constant temperature. A wet vapour is the only working substance which ‘can do this conveniently, since for a wet vapour the pressure and temperature remain constant as the specific enthalpy of vaporization is supplied or rejected A Camoteyele for a wet vapour is as shown in Fig. 52. Although this eyele is the most eficient possible vapour cycle, it is not used in steam plant. The theoretical cycle on which steam cycles are based is known as the Rankine ‘ycle. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter 8, and the reasons for using it in preference to the Carnot cycle will be given a Absolute temperature scale In the preceding chapters temperature scale based on the perfect gas thermometer has been assumed. Using the Second Law of Thermodynamics it is possible to establish a temperature sale which is independent of the working substance. We have, for any heat engine from equation (5.1), Also the efficiency of an engine operating on the Carnot cycle depends only on the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs. Denoting temperature on an arbitrary scale by X, we have OX Xa) (53) where @ is function, and X, and X; ate the temperatures of the hot and cold ‘Combining equations (5.1) and (5.3) we have There are a large number of possible temperature scales which are all independent of the working substance. Any working scale can be chosen by 127 ‘The Hout Engine Cycle 5.3 Fig. 83. Carnot eycle fora perfect gas on a ‘diagram 128 suitably weeting the value ofthe fusetion The funtion ca be chosen that _E0_% aa a XM Aso from equation (52) we have a th Hence using equation (5.1) or 5) ‘Comparing equations ($4) and (5.5) it can be seen that the temperature X is equivalent to the temperature 1: Thus by suitably choosing the function ¢, ‘the ideal temperature scale is made equivalent 1 the scale based on the perfect sas thermometer. The Carnot cycle for a perfect gas [A Carnot cycle for a perfect gas is shown on a T-s diagram in Fig, $3. Note that the pressure of the gas changes continuously from p, to p, during the isothermal heat supply, and from p, to p, during the isothermal heat rejection. In practice it is much more convenient to heat a gas at approximately constant pressure or at constant volume, hence it is dificult to attempt to operate an actual heat engine on the Carnot cycle usinga gasas working substance, Another {important reason for not attempting to use the Carnot cycle in practice is illustrated by drawing the cycle on a pv diagram, as in Fig. $4, The net work ‘output ofthe eyeleis given by the area 12341. This isa small quantity compared with the gross work output of the expansion processes of the cycle, given by area 412BA4, The work of the compression processes (ie. work done on the ‘as is given by the area 234AB2, The rato ofthe net work output to the gross work output of the system is elled the work ratio. The Carnot cycle, despite its high thermal efficiency, has low work rat.

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