Professional Documents
Culture Documents
production/operations system
9.3 Marketing Management Information System model
9. Current and Upcoming Strategic Issues and Opportunities in IS. (JMJ)(03/27/2000)
10. E-Commerce and EDI
11.1 E-Commerce (TM) (04/09/00)
11.2 Electronic Data Interchange ( EDI) (MR) (04/09/00)
11.3 E-Commerce and EDI (MR) (04/09/00)
11. Interfaces.
12.1 Computer Assembly (MR) (04/16/00)
12.2 Software loading (MR) (04/16/00)
12.3 Distribution and Transportation System (TM) (04/16/00)
12. Glossary of terms. (JMJ)
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS (JMJ)
The history of information systems (IS) only span five decades. Yet from its inception,
IS has done more to expand business and industry into global markets than any other convention
in history. Today the backbone of IS is know as the World Wide Web, Internet, or with a business
a Local Area Network, along with lists of acronym buzz word; EDI, EIS, ERP, SCM and host of
others to describe new ways in which IS can be employed to grow business.
Contrary to the speed of information today, just over forty years ago, the business
climate in United States was experiencing post-war growth much like it had never seen. Much of
the experience that grew the economy had been learned during World War Two in tooling up the
nations industries into producing an effective war machine. The field that developed out of this
push to win the war was Operations Research (OR). When the war end those involved with OR
were released from government work, thus unleashing an experienced and highly skilled field,
like no other in history, into business and industry, which launched the US into a era of
prosperity and growth that lasted over twenty-years. World War Two also saw the birth of the
first practical computers or Turing Machines, which were responsible for cracking the German
codes and giving the allies advanced warning of enemy movements. By today's standards these
first practical computers were not that practical, half a million dollars and far less powerful than
a pocket calculator which today purchased for under ten dollars. However these first computers
gave Operations Researchers the power they needed to begin simulate larger and more
complicated systems which in business and industry help greatly to hone uses capital
expenditures into profitable ventures. This background from the early days of simulation, OR,
and new technologies birthed studies into the areas of what became known as Information
Systems.
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When and how were they first used? Formalized?
By the mid-sixties IS was already forging its way into business mainstream. While
computers remained out of reach for most businesses, telecommunications made its mark with
the TELEX machine. This step gave businesses the ability to communicate within its own
organization anywhere in the world at any time and effectively pass instructions and information.
The use of computer in business and industry usually started off in the accounting
departments. It was assumed that this area would know the most about using numerical machines
and the lack of understanding in how important databases could be other areas of the business.
By this time a number of business school began developing Management Information System
(MIS) programs to meet the growing need of IS managers.
During the seventies more upper management recognized the importance of IS and the
flexibility it was bring to business. The TELEX became the standard of information transfer and
the mainframe computer became the standard for database creation. As the need for organized
and easy access to data became apparent, information based businesses began moving the
mainframes from under the accounting management to it own department.
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Approaches toward IS Design and Why?
As IS begins to receive its own autonomy and large budgets in corporations, many
technical savvy managers of these new departments begin spending huge amount of money on
systems and software at their own discretion and many time out spend all other departments
without any returns to the business. These were troubling and risky times for CEO's deciding to
direct the business into IS based systems . The systems and software were complex, continually
changing, and the people that knew the systems tended have their own agendas. Out of this
turmoil came the basis of how IS develops with in businesses.
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Mainframes Vs PCs
This new rush in what is now referred to as e-mail, was brought about by the invention
of the mini and micro computer, which could put and entire system on an executives desk for a
very low price compared to mainframes and the ability to have an autonomous system with out
pay huge amounts of money to process information. Once again turmoil enters the relationships
of IS and businesses, where software and hardware vendors begin making demands on
businesses to switch there style of business to fit the computer systems. There was little
standardization of software and hardware with many start up companies that went under there
after leaving business with out any technical or system support, resulting in spending above
budgets to install entirely new systems. As the desire to support different departments of a
corporation with IS and the new affordability of hardware and software each department began
to put IS programs together independently of MIS department. This result in a new position in
companies: Chief Information Officer (CIO), a position that in many companies at this time
rivaled the CEO. The need for this position was to standardize all of the electronic data interfaces
(EDI) between all departments so information could be more efficiently.
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Quality Initiatives in IS Development
The mid-eighties were the time most manufacturing companies began to shift to IS to
forecast sales, take orders, and manage distribution of products. Time Berners-Lee developed the
World Wide Web in 1989. This protocol HTML used over the existing Internets that had been
constructed opened up a new era of EDI the world had never seen. Where by the mid-1990's it
became apparent that there is no way for a corporation to efficiently do business without a solid
functioning IS setup inside its own walls as well as connected with its supply-chain vendors and
distributors. EDI once known as Electronic Data Processing (EDP) have now brought profit
margins so low that any business that does not prepare itself will be out of business in the next
five years.
IS is a technology driven system. With out it, business would not be what it is today. It
has evolved over the past forty years to being the back bone of business, yet the simple
application rules created in the 1960s and 1970s are still very relevant in any application where
data or information is transferred in what ever business model it is applied to no matter the
complexity.
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CHAPTER 3
INFORMATION SYSTEMS - AN INTRODUCTION (TM)
However an information system cannot just be broadly described as an Input-Processoutput mechanism in vacuum. It is required to provide major organizational solutions to
challenges and problems posed in the business environment. Hence a manager needs to be not
just computer-literate but also have a good idea of the organizational structure and functions as a
whole. This concept is illustrated in the figure on the opening page.
Also, at the heart of the issue Information systems should not be confused with
information technology. They exist independent of each other and irrespective of whether they
are implemented well. Information systems use computers (or Information Technology) as tools
for the storing and rapid processing of information leading to analysis, decision-making and
better coordination and control. Hence information technology forms the basis of modern
information systems.
5. Management information systems (MIS) serve the management level of the organization.
6. Executive support systems (ESS) serve the strategic level of an organization.
(Source: Management Information Systems, Laudon and laudon)
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CHAPTER 4
DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS (TM)
As mentioned earlier, every company to start with, has an information system already
in place, be it a file card and pencil based system, a computerized system or an intermediate of
the two. Hence the IS development process involves work on an existing system - mapping the
system, automating it and making sure that it functions according to user requirements. Hence in
its first phase the process attempts to determine the scope and type of new system that the user
wants. The next phase analyzes the above requirement in two parts to facilitate detailed
verification and validation before the system is actually designed and implemented.
1. It is important to build the information systems that the users really need. You dont know
what they really need if you dont start with some kind of analysis and design.
2. It is a waste of resources to build information systems without sufficiently good "blueprints"
because it takes more time and yields worse results if you dont have blueprints.
Analysis and design is performed to meet information needs. If it is required to arrive
at models that describe information systems that the users really need, then interest groups (or
user groups) generally have to participate in the work. Another reason for performing analysis
and design is that those who participate in such work learn much about the new information
systems. To be able to use information systems requires knowledge about how these systems
work. Participating in the analysis and design work is one way of obtaining such knowledge.
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4.2 Determining need and performance expectations
As every company has an existing system and the process of IS development involves
system conversion. The general steps involved in the conversion are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Requirements Determination
This stage consists of obtaining user needs and requirements which reflect the userexpectations from the IS being developed. It consists of several stages:
1) Problem definition
2) Feasibility Study
3) Requirements Acquisition
4) Requirements Analysis
The problem definition and feasibility study stages consist of definition of a bare
outline of the desired system. The Problem Definition Stage defines to a high level of detail the
application for the desired IS and an indication of the advantages that will result from its
implementation. The Feasibility Stage is the examination of the different alternatives with which
a solution can be found for the design of the desired system. The Requirements Acquisition Stage
results in a "statement of requirements". The Requirements Analysis stage produces the
"requirements specification". Using the 'statement of requirements' as the main input the aim of
the requirements specification is to act as an overview of the desired system in a structured form.
Analysis Phase
This phase analyzes the requirements from the previous phase and converts them into
components, which are used to build a 'specification' of the desired system. The specification is
more precise than in the previous phase and adds more detail, at the same time retaining user
semantics, so that the description would be recognizable to the user. However the model is at an
abstract level, that is, with no details concerning data representation or computer
implementation.
Logical design
This phase produces a design of the desired system that will serve as a basis for
computer implementation. There are two major tasks in logic design. Firstly the specification
from the analysis phase is transferred and secondly the human computer system is designed. The
significant difference in this phase is that the structure component is now represented by data.
There will often be several possible ways of representing relationships. We may also use
normalization in this phase. We decide exactly what data types are required for data
representation, how many characters are required for each data item and we design records and
files or databases to store the data, taking into account the type of processes that will operate the
data. An abstract programming form is often used here, such as structured English, JSP diagrams
or action diagrams. In addition DFDs may be drawn showing the processes that occur, the data
input to and output from each process etc.
The second major task in logical design consists of design of human computer systems.
Two levels of detail are normally considered here:
- Design of user procedures which consist of tasks and processes with which users will be
directly involved
-Computer interface design consist of the detail of processes and the objects on which these
processes operate, and may involve considerations related related to interaction style ( screen and
report layouts, human-computer dialogues), specifications of manual or mechanical operations,
and off-line or online processing.
Physical design
This is the last of the design phases. We may consider it as consisting of 3 components:
Hardware, software and human-computer systems. The hardware design consists of a description
of the computers, storage devices, input/output devices and possibly networking devices required
for the desired system.
Software consists of the programs that run on the hardware. The physical design of
data needs to be considered as the kind of data invariably affects the programs that process the
data. It will be necessary to decide on the appropriate types of applications software, including
languages and packages as well as systems software required for supporting the eventual system.
Process Design
There are four options for process design
1. For standard processes, we can buy packaged software. For example, accounting software is
largely standardized.
2. Use of a fourth-generation language such as lotus123, VB, Oracle etc.
3. Generate code using a CASE tool
4. Write our own code.
If in-house coding is done data structures are chosen for the representation of data in the
programs, together with decisions as to the programming language required for eg. COBOL, C+
+ etc. Issues such as execution speed and ease of maintainability of program code are considered.
Human Computer system design
Some of the design of this system specifies the activities to be followed when
communicating with the computer, for example, detail of dialogue between computer and
operator, procedures for starting-up and shutting down the system and screen contents such as
windows or colors etc.
Implementation And Testing
The major output of the implementation and testing phase is a physical information
system and not a design. Of course the physical and earlier designs remain available for
reference, as they form the specification. The major tasks consist of:
Acquiring and integrating hardware, producing software, generating data for the files or
databases and producing the human-computer system.
System is tested, user comments are evaluated, perhaps to redesign the system.
Maintenance
The maintenance phase consists of correcting errors in the system or responding to
changes in the user requirement, due, for example, to environmental changes or personal
preferences for system operation and it may require reworking of all the previous phases for the
part of the system that requires changing.
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CHAPTER 5
INFORMATION SYSTEMS MODELLING (TM)
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5.2 Stages in IS modeling
As mentioned earlier, we do not design the internal model right away. A conceptual information
model is first formulated and this is then translated into an internal model. Also we need to
develop two conceptual models
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CHAPTER 6
METHODOLOGIES FOR IS DEVELOPMENT
Structured Design: structured programming technique only addresses "design in small" , these
never gave any guidelines on how to carry out "design in the large".
Successive refinement (Top Down Functional Design): A required system function was brokendown to smaller number of tasks that could be combine to accomplish the function. Each of these
were in turn broken down into smaller sub-tasks. The process was continued until the subtask
was so simple that it could be coded with little chance of error.
Techniques based on the semantics of the structure chart
Main criteria for improving program design were based upon :
1. Coupling: measures the complexity of interfaces, If interfaces between module
are simple, design is described as having low coupling.
2. Cohesion: measure of how " single-minded " a module is. If module carries out
exactly one well defined function it is described as having functional cohesion.
Data Refinement: Relation data model, which treats all the data as "tables". Refinement criteria
were used to check the quality of design. Application of these criteria is called normalization.
Structured Analysis: The set of tools and techniques referred to as " structured analysis " were
developed to address the problem of identifying and stating the user requirement in an
unambiguous, understandable form. These techniques were mainly "Process-oriented"
concentrating on required system functions.
Modeling tools : The main need was for modeling tools that would help to partition complex
requirements into smaller units with well defined inter-relationships. The modeling tools used
were :
1) Data Flow Diagrams to show the portioning of proposed system into smaller functional areas
or "mini-systems".
2) Mini-specs to specify each "mini-system".
The use of review sessions, where part of the requirements was also presented was a key
technique capturing user requirements. These review sessions were termed as "structure
walkthroughs".
Information Modeling: at the same time as structure analysis were developed, a semantic
approach to information modeling was formulated. This was based on real-world entities and
relationships.
Problems with top down functional decomposition (TDFD) :
Top down functional decomposition was carried out by trying to guess what main functional area
were. Each functional area was then examined in turn and successively broken down until the
functions were simple enough to verify with the user.This lead to second problem that caused
TDFD to be supplemented or replaced in the second generation methods.
Analysis-Paralysis
Correct partitioning of the system could not be done until system was understood and system
couldnt be understood until it had been partitioned. Because of this problem an optimal
statement and organization of the user requirement was very time consuming, required
considerable reworking of the models and due to time pressure it compromise on quality of
work.
Analyst Bias
TDFD is creative technique and reflects the way the analyst thinks or perceives the system. The
logical model tends to reflect the unconscious bias of analyst towards a specific solution.
Fragmentation of Policy
Although there were guidelines that helped identify the best organization of the user
requirements,it was sometimes found that functions which were widely separated in the model
needed to be cross-checked.
Different system development philosophies:
1) Process and data driven methods.
2) Phase oriented and model oriented development.
Process oriented: concentrating on system functions and regarding the data as only being present
to support system functions.
Data Driven methods: Concentrating on information requirements, particularly in terms of
identifying the data to be stored in database. Systems functions were considered to be less
important.
Phase oriented : System development life cycle was seen as sequence of phase, each consisting
of well defined activities that had to be carried out.
Model oriented : here life cycle was seen as a sequence of models of system requirements. Each
model had a defined structure that could be checked.
Second Generation Methods
1. In First Generation (FG) methods developers were process oriented or data oriented and
used modeling in fairly informal way. In all Second generation methods main stress is on
the construction and checking of models.
2. FG methods are largely independent approaches for dealing with each stages of system
development life cycle. Second Generation methods provide a smoother development
path from requirements analysis to later design and implementation stages.
3. FG model is used to capture system requirements in policy terms, later models elaborate
on how the model is mapped onto available technology because models are not
independent but each model evolves into the next, taking into account another layer of
technology.
4. FG methods viewed system from one viewpoint with relative poor modeling from other
viewpoints.SG methods regard system functions and data as two equally important
aspects the system.
Second generation methods were externally oriented :
Analysis techniques are based on real world requirements of two types
a) response to real world events and
b) store information about real world entities.
Real World Events : Time is more explicitly modeled in terms of events that occur in the
environment of system.System behaves as they do only because of these events that occur and
requires policy for responding to these events.
Real World Entities : By collecting information about real world entities and the relationships
between them, the analyst avoids bias towards any possible data storage organization.
CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering )
Use of CASE was not common until 1980s although such tools become available from about
1975.Some case products have "draw what u want "approach and some have "more well defined
grammar that the diagrams can be checked against".
The second generation technique are mainly " Diagram Oriented" unit of modeling is a diagram.
Diagrams are drawn and checked.
Reasons For Third Generation Methods
The second generation view of models is rather low-level.It deals with individual diagrams rather
than the larger issues of how individual analysis and design unit fit together and interact.
Third generation methods will be distinguished by a philosophy that is more concerned with the
whole rather than parts.
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The above table shows the position or stage in the development where any particular technique is utilized and
whether it is primarily regarded as general, or data or process-oriented.
The asterisk indicates the IS development stage or stages (discussed previously) in which the technique is most
commonly used. For example entity modeling is used in two stages but its use at the logical design stage is most
common.
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6.3 Tools (TM)
Tools (especially automated tools) are available in plenty for the system development process.
Listed below are a few tools classified (and thereby defined) into some significant groupings.
1. Project management tools
2. Database management systems
3. Data dictionary systems
4. Systems repositories
5. Drawing tools
6. CASE (computer aided software engineering) tools
Methodologies for information systems development make use of some of the process-oriented
techniques of functional decomposition such as data flow diagrams, decision trees, decision
tables and structured English. Functional decomposition gives structure to the processes reflected
in particular by the most important technique of data flow diagrams. This emphasis on structure
gives the name of the first methodology STRADIS.
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includes the techniques of data flow diagramming and entity life histories, and
recommends the use of tools, such as CASE tools and workbenches.
5. Merise Unlike as in the previous methodologies wherein emphasis has been placed on
either process or data aspects, Merise has been designed such that both are considered
equally important and these aspects are analyzed and designed in parallel.
6. JSD (Jackson Systems Development) is the development of Jackson systems
programming (JSP) (which has had a profound effect on the teaching and practice of
commercial computer programming.) into systems development as a whole. This
methodology concentrated on the design of efficient and well-tested software, which
reflect the specifications and is particularly applicable where efficiency is of paramount
importance, for example in process control applications.
7. Object oriented Analysis : This approach reflects the view that in defining objects and
their component parts (attributes) we capture the essential building blocks of information
systems. Also it is a unifying approach as analysis and design can be undertaken
following this approach.
8. ISAC (Information Systems Work and Analysis) This methodology seeks to identify the
fundamental causes of users' problems and suggests ways in which the problems may be
overcome (not necessarily through the use of computer information systems) by the
analysis of activities and the initiation of change processes. It is therefore a peopleoriented approach with emphasis on the analysis of change and the change process.
(Source: Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools by
Avison, Fitzgerald)
9. ETHICS ( Effective Technical and Human Implementation of Computer based Systems) :
Also a people-oriented approach and encompasses a socio-technical view that, in order to
be effective, the technology must fit closely with the social and organizational factors in
the application domain.
10. SSM (Soft Systems Methodology) : Whereas most of the earlier approaches stress on
scientific analysis, breaking up a complex system into its constituent parts to enable
analysis, systems thinking might suggest that properties of the whole are not entirely
explicable in terms of the properties of its constituent elements. SSM addresses the
'fuzzy', ill-structured or soft problem situations which are the true domain of information
systems development methodologies, not simple technical problems.
(Source: Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools by
Avison, Fitzgerald)
11. Multiview is a hybrid methodology that brings in aspects of other methodologies and
adopts techniques and tools as appropriate. Basically a contingency approach : techniques
and tools being used as the problem situation demands.
12. Process innovation does most to tie business process reengineering with information
technology and information systems, IT being seen as the primary enabler of process
innovation as it gives an opportunity to change processes completely.
(Source: Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools by
Avison, Fitzgerald)
13. RAD (Rapid application development) is in response to the need of rapidly changing
business environments. It is usually enabled by CASE tools and systems repositories.
14. KADS is the outcome of a European research project to develop a comprehensive,
commercially viable methodology for knowledge-based systems construction..
15. Euromethod also results from a european initiative and is more of a framework for the
procurement and management of services for the investigation, development or
amendment of information systems than methodology.
(Source: Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools by Avison,
Fitzgerald)
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CHAPTER 7
IT : This includes the capabilities offered by computers, software and telecom. IT is considered
as analysis and modeling tool. Thinking about IT should be in terms of " How it supports new or
redesigned business processes.
Use of IT in Manufacturing Industries :
a) Process Modeling.
b) Production Scheduling and Controls.
c) Materials and Management Information Systems.
d) Logistics.
Business Process ( BP ) : Business processes are defined as set of logically related tasks
performed to achieve a defined business outcome.Set of business processess forms a business
system.
Business processes have two important characteristics :
a) They have Customers : Recipients of outcome.
b) They cross Organizational Boundaries.
Five steps in (PD) Process design :
1) Develop Business Vision and Process Objectives : Prioritize objectives and setstretch targets.
2) Identify the Process to be Redesign : To find out critical processes.
3) Understand and measure existing process : Identify current problems.
4) Identify IT levers : To think of new process approach.
5) Design and build a prototype of the process : Implementation.
Develop Business Vision and Process Objectives.
In past process redesign was to rationalize the process, i.e to eliminate obvious
bottlenecks and inefficiencies.
Most likely Objectives :
a. Cost Reduction : Important objective with others but insufficient in itself, while
optimizing other objectives seems to bring the cost inline but not the vice-versa.
b. Time Reduction : Common approach for reducing time is to make steps
simultaneously rather than sequentially, using IT to co-ordinate.
The process design after agreements by owners and stakeholders are implemented
on pilot basis ( Parallel with the existing processess) examined regularly for
problems and as the process reaches final acceptance, it is phased into full
implementation.
There are 4 main types of modeling tools used inYSM ( Yourdon System Methods )
1) Graphic
2) Tabular
3) Frame
4) Textual
Graphic Tools : These are used to show high level components of particular aspect of a model.
Each graphic modeling tools has set of icons used to represent specific model component.
Graphic tools are preferred type of modeling tools when the connection between model
components is important.
Graphic tools in essential modeling are mainly of a semantic nature highlighting the meaning of
the requirements.
Graphic tools in implementation modeling are mainly concerned with syntax or structure.
Tabular Tools : Some information is usefully laid out in tabular forms. Tabular tools may be
useful in some circumstances particularly if subject matter expert finds the graphic modeling tool
difficult to relate to.
Frames : Frame is used informally for a certain type of specification tool. Frame specifications
are used to specify all relevant info about a model component that has been declared on a
diagram or another frame.
Textual Tools : Textual grammar is defined formally, using meta language or set theory.
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Components of ERD :
Entity : Entity is a class of real world thing whose role of interaction with the enterprise is welldefined. Each entity has a unique name which should reflect the role that is played by that type
of object. These things may be physical objects abstract concepts. Each entity must be distinct
from but fulfill the same role as other occurrence of the entity. Instructor in ERD defines entity.
Relationship : relationship represent possible associations that may occur between occurrence of
entities. On diagram, each relationship is shown linked by lines to entities to which it refers.
"Occurrence of the relationship" represents a single instance of the association between entities.
Relationship Frame : Each relationship frame that includes the entities involved and other text
forming a complete sentence.
Binary Relationship : A relationship that refers to two entity occurrences is called binary
relationship.
Higher order Relationship : A relationship involving more than 2 entity occurrences is referred
to as higher order relationship.
Associative Entity : This is the entity which acts as entity and relationship both. As a relationship
it indicates a group of real world associations between entities. Attributes of associative entity do
not describe the entities that participate in relationship but the occurrence of relationship between
them.
Components of STDs
Access : Access on STD shows the possible access to the occurrence of entity when change of
state occurs.
Create Access : causes a new occurrence of entity to exist , occurs for initial transition.
Read Access : for an event which occurs and requires some attributes to be used but not
necessarily changed.
Update Access : used where some of attributes of entity are to be changed.
Delete Access : after this entity do not exists.
Match Access : to check whether a specific occurrence of the entity exists.
Connector : Where it is difficult to draw diagrams without crossing transaction lines a pair of
connector symbols may be used. On diagram connector "op"is used in this way.
Entity : each STD is for one state variable of specific entity.Example shown is for associative
entity "scheduled course". An entity may have several STD one for each of its state variable.
Entity death : this indicates that occurrence of entity no longer exists and cannot be accessed.
Event : event is the thing which causes transition to take place.When this event occurs a change
of state may occur for one occurrence of the entity but it doesn't always occur.The responsibility
whether or not it does occur resides in a data process.
Initial State : state of the occurrence of entity when it is created.A transition to this initial state is
referred to as an initial transition and must always include "create".
State : Each occurrence of the entity have a well defined state for a given state variable. Each
schedule course may have a status of "open","running", "full" or finished".
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7.2c CONTEXT DIAGRAMS
This is a diagram where systems is represented as a system diagram in whole.Purpose of context
diagram is to depict how the system is connected to,interacts with other entities which makes its
( data ) environment.
Continuous access flow : if system or a terminator continually updates or monitors the value in a
store it is shown as continuous access flow.
Discrete access flow : Access toa store that takes place at a particular instant of time. Data is
present in store and can be accessed anytime.
Context Process : This is a process group which represent the system.On context diagram system
is regarded as a "Black Box". All requirements for behavior or data storage by the system is
considered to be within this process.
Dataflow : data flow on context diagram either represents information produced within or
outside the system which is used by outside world or by the system itself.
Continuous data flow : continuous data flow represents a value that is available over a period of
time.
Discrete data flow : data flow that is only present for a instant of a time.
Dialogue data flow : a data flow generated by the terminator for the use of system is combined
with a data flow created by the system for use of terminator.
Event Flow : indicates synchronization between the system and its environment.
Continuous event flow : represents a status that is indicated over a period of time.
Discrete event flow : event flow that is only present for an instant of time.
Dialogue event flow : pair of event flows that occur at the same time may be combined and
shown as a dialogue event flow , provided that they are to/from the same terminator. Dialogue
event flow is used to show a group of input flows ,together with corresponding response flows
either initiated by terminator or the system.
Terminator : terminator is a producer or user of data that interfaces with the system.
Data Store : a data store on the context diagram shows an interfaces between system and its
environment. The store indicates that the system and terminator are decoupled in the sense that
one can change values in the store independently of the other.
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A data flow diagram is the most important technique for modeling high level detail of the process
within a system.These highlights the functions of the system and how they use stored
information and transfer information between each other.
They show how input data is transformed to outputs results through sequence of functional
transformations.
Components of DFDs :
Access Flow : access flow is used to show that a process needs to use or change stored
information to accomplish its purpose.An access flow from a store show that the process uses
information held in the store . This may correspond to:a. Match Access : The process checks whether an entity or relationship occurrence
matching a particular criterion exists.
b. Read Access : The process uses the values of one ( or more) attributes for a
selected occurrence of the entity.
c. Check Access : The value of a state variable needs to be checked.
An access flow going to a store shows that the process will alter information held in the store,
This may correspond to a :a) Create access : to create a new occurrence of an entity or relationship.
b) Delete access : to delete one ( or more) occurrence of an entity or relationship.
c) Update access : to modify the value of an attribute.
d) Change access : to change the state of a state variable.
Continuous Access Flow : In some situations it is necessary to continuously monitor the value in
the store. This is carried out using data process. Link between this data process and the store is
shown as continuous access flow.
Control Process : Control process coordinate the activation of processes and signal to other
components of system essential model. The coordination is carried out by interpreting and
generating event flows and controlling processes by triggering or enabling or disabling them.
In figure control process "control car oxidation" shows that control logic must be present to
coordinate the monitoring, changing and replacing of solutions.It also derives the movement of
the car body by interpreting the state of the oxidation bath and generating required signals such
as "move car signal" to move the car body.
Continuous event flow : continuous event flow is one that is available over a period of time,
such as the status of a device. Continuous event flows represent a situation or status that is either
true or not.
Data Flow : a data flow represents the information generated by a source and used by another
system function or terminator. On a data flow diagram the source of the data flow may be :
a data process : the function represented by the data process is the one that
generates the information.
a process group : the function that generates the information within this group.
Continuous Data Flow : Data Flow that persists over a period of time is called as continuous data
flow.The value is present over a period of time and may change during that time.
The figure shows a continuous data flow "solution strength" used by the process "monitor
solution strength". Solution strength is the present strength of solution which is continuously
present.
Dialogue data flow : dialogue data flow contains several data flows as an interface.At lowest
level there can be two data flows in direct relation to each other, one causes the other to occur.
Comment : free-format comments may be added to the DFD to elucidate or stress any important
points. Comments may be used to highlight any aliases,ties to previous or anticipated
implementation.
Data flow diagram name ( DFD Name ) A data flow diagram has the same name as the
corresponding process group show on the parent DFD.The context diagram is treated as a DFD
with one process group.
Data flow diagram number ( DFD Number ) A data flow diagram has the same number as the
process group it describes in more detail. The child diagram of the context diagram is numbered
"0".
Data Process : A data process is a process that solely transforms data.Data processes may be
continuous or descrete.A continuous data process may generate continuous or discrete event
flows.A discrete data process cannot generate continuous event flows.
Data Store : Stores act as buffers between processes that are active at different times. A data
store holds the data at rest.
A data store between two processes 'decouples' them ; a data flow between them 'synchronizes'
them. In the figure the data store " solutions" is a collection of entity occurrence of all possible
solutions used in the bathing of car bodies.
Dialogue event flow : Dialogue event flow is a packing of several event flows between two
processes or between a process and a terminator.
Discrete access flow : A discrete access flow is an access to a store that takes place under the
control of the system at a particular instant of time.In figure the process "Check solution is
correct " accesses the store "solution in tank" to insure that the solution is correct for the car that
is about to be bathed.
Discrete data flow : data flow that is variable for an instant of time is discrete data flow. A
discrete data flow is transient and must be processed at the moment it occurs.
In the figure "solution change", generated by "change to new solution" represents the need to tell
the operators that they must change to a certain solution.This is an example of discrete data flow.
Discrete event flow : event flow available for an instant of time is called as discrete event flow. If
a control process detecting the discrete flow is not active at the time it occurs, the event flow will
be lost.
Enable / Disable : This represents a process being enabled and disabled from a control process.
An "E/D" represents the fact that the control process enables the process at one time and disables
it subsequently.A process that is enabled will run whenever its stimulus occurs or run
continuously until disabled.
Event Flow : An event flow represents the occurrence of an event ( discrete ) , or the state of
something ( Continuous ).
Event store : An event store is a mechanism for storing events relating to resources until they can
be used by a control process.When an event detector signals an event store ( rather than use a
discrete event flow), it can respond ,or until the store is reinitialized.
Process : A process is a system function.It is either a data process , a control process , or a
process group.It may be either continuous or discrete.
Process group : A process group represents a group of processes as a single icon on the diagram.
This group may also contains internal stores and flows to accomplish its purpose -these are
'hidden' within the process group.
Process group are used to reduce the complexity of any one data flow diagram by combining
related functions and naming the combinations for the general function that this group carries
out.
In the figure "change to new solution" is a process group comprising processes "control solution
change","determine new solution","detect empty tank", etc.
A process group is drawn on the diagram as a solid circle, it cannot be visually distinguished
from a data process without looking at its specification.
Trigger : A prompt labeled "T" represents a trigger . The trigger will activate a discrete process ,
which will then "run to completion' and 'stop'.
In figure "check solution is correct " is triggered , as it will run in "zero time" and immediately
reply with one of the two event flows "correct solution" or "incorrect solution".
Strengths and Weaknesses of DFDs
Strengths : DFD method is an object oriented method that allows to design systems using
objects. It is widely used and promotes easy architecture and coding of a project. This method is
also easy to learn.The symbols are few and simple and easy to translate.
Weaknesses : There aren't many weaknesses associated with this method. The DFD for large
programs can be hard to translate and take a lot of time. Also, once the DFD is drawn for such a
program, it becomes difficult to read and understand what is going on. The data flow can become
confusing to the programmer in such an instance. Also, if the DFD is not drawn with the great
amount of detail, then it is not useful to the programmer. Another disadvantage of using the DFD
model is that the symbols used are not common to all DFDs. Different models use different
symbols for the structure of a DFD.
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7.2e DATA DICTIONARY
(ref :1. E. Yourdon (1989) : Modern Structured Analysis, Prentice-Hall , 2. T. De Marco (1991) :
Introduction to System Analysis and Design. IInd edition, Prentice-Hall )
During the analysis and design of a system, huge amount of data is collected. If data is going to
be referenced throughout the design, and several people are responsible for that design notation,
then individuals who may not have initialized that data but will need to reference it need to know
where it came from. Manually thumbing through several volumes of the data is not the most
efficient way to find such information. To make sure that everyone can access it, it needs to be
stored centrally in one document. A Data Dictionary fulfills that role.
Dictionary is basically a way of organizing the information, which is collected. This information
enables us to work out the composition of the data, uniqueness and consistency of names and
definitions of terms, and document them in dictionary which all team members can use.
Ultimately it contain all information that enters, leaves and is transformed by the system, the
policies surrounding that information, and description of all other objects and events of interest.
This includes:
1. data composition
2. policies about data
3. object and attribute descriptions
4. event and state descriptions
NAME
SYMBOL
MEANING
Compostion
is composed of
Concatenation
and
Iteration
Selection
[ | ]
Option
Discrete value
"
"
Comment
multiple occuerneces of
choice1 or choice2
additional information
Ex:
1) entity 1 entity A = element B + element C + ( element D )
here it is shown that an entity A is made up of element B and element C and may or maynot
contain element D.
2)
entity 1 travel claim = approval form + 2{ expense receipts }
it shows that travel claim contains 2 elements, approval form and set of expense receipts.
entity 2 expense receipts = travel receipt + {(incidental expendature)}
expense receipts consists of travel receipt and additionaly it could also consist of number of
incidental expendature.
entity 3 travel receipt = [coach receipt | air receipt | rail receipt ]
* receipts not needed for a car travel *
travel receipt is needed for any form of travel undertaken with one exception that receipt is not
needed if journey is
done by car.
entity 4 approval form = name + ref. no. + claim total
approval form has three parts, name of the person making the claim, the reference under which
claim is made up and total being claimed.
entity 5 ref. no. = "B123"
reference number has a discrete value, the claim needs to be referenced as "B123".
entity 6 name = 2 {character }
a name must be 2 character long
entity 7 claim = 1{number}+"."+2{number}2
Claim figure must be made up of 1 or more numbers, a decimal point, and another 2 numbers to
indicate fractions.
Problems with building and maintaining Data Dictionary
If the data dictionaries are poorly maintained, even on a fair sized project
problems can arise. Aliases, imposters, hybrids, and real-time or orphaned data
cause some of problems.
Aliases: same definition given to several items with different
names. Giving a common name so that we have a single word
defining them all can solve this problem.
Imposters: items having the same name but multiple/different
definitions. Giving a different (logical)name or new name can
solve this problem.
Hybrid data: when definition has a hidden or mixed use. Using
meaningful names and do the things right away without thinking of
changing in future can avoid this very crucial problem.
Orphaned data: when nobody owns data, and nobody knows who
created them. Author, data of entry and other "pedigree"
information should be recorded.
There are , therefore, a number of ways in which the data dictionary will be
impacted when designing the system. Definitions need to be put through a
filtering process in order to make sure that rogue definitions do not go undetected.
Regular analysis of data definitions is a time consuming but important and
necessary exercise.
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CHAPTER 9
IS APPLICATION MODELS IN INDUSTRY
(TM)
Over time, a typical manufacturing company has developed the major information systems
shown above. These systems are not separate and distinct; they connect interact and otherwise tie
the subsystems of the organization together through the medium of information.
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The major operating systems of a company along with their respective functions
(Shown in figure above) merge or integrate with the Accounting and Financial Information
System to facilitate financial reporting and for management information for planning and
control. Moreover, the financial system has a very significant impact on other systems when one
considers that the ultimate common denominator of many operating decisions is the dollar.
Perhaps, Billing (Invoice Preparation) is the most widely used data processing application among
financial information systems.
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1. Sales Analysis
2. Engineering
3. Inventory Control and Production Scheduling
4. Production/Operations Facilities
5. Purchasing
6. Financial
7. Sales and Distribution
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
Customer invoices
Sales
Profitability
CHAPTER 10
STRATEGIES FOR IS (JMJ)
"The face of business is changing." "Businesses that do not become an e-business will not be
around in five years."After watching the Superbowl this year, one might be will to accept these
statements at face value. These statements lend themselves into being the mottoes of Silicon
Valley, knowing these quotes come from Andy Grove chairman on Intel and also from a recent
article in the Harvard Business Review by Hamel. It should obvious that an industry
representative would make claims on the future that are much more hype than reality, but when
these same statements are made in prestigious business journals, how does the business world
react? Information Systems are the medium of this "evolution" in business and the proliferation
of technologies is the catalyst IS change. The major shift coming is the impact of the internetplatform for doing business, which is currently being done on proprietary EDI systems. It is
believed by businesses on the cutting edge of technology that the internet will be a leveling field
for businesses that could not afford EDI in the past. EDI also was once claimed to be an
evolutionary business step, but at an average cost of 50 million dollars for the system and in
many cases no return on the investment , the future of EDI looks very grim, so say some of the
successful practitioners of EDI. . In a recent joint study by the Economic Research Council and
Oasig concluded that between eighty and ninety percent of EDI systems do not meet original
performance goals . So while EDI is in its decline, is it prudent to embrace the new technologies
of e-business? Forecasts call for a growth of e-business from 43 billion in 1998 to 1.3 trillion in
2002. The world has been wrapped many times over with internet connection lines and business
already make up ninety percent of internet traffic.
There is little doubt that the internet is here to stay and it will have an impact on business,
especially in the areas of information systems. If IS were about technology alone, its future
would the very bright. Yet, information systems are more about the data and the people that use
them to resolve problems. The technology is only a tool and not the answer to IS. Many software
companies that do IS consulting and IS teams within the company may not agree with that
philosophy, but software vendors have a tendency to be inflexible with their platforms and IS
departments have a history of being rouge divisions within company structure .
A strategy to look at the future of IS, really needs to examine the past, and take a sober look
at how IS in its many forms have fallen short of its promises. Steve Cardell and Neil Tiffin in an
article in Industrial Management compiled six rules for putting together information systems.
1. Do not re-engineer and implement systems concurrently. From there studies the success rate is
less than five percent.
2. Recognize that people fix things and information technology does not. They site Henry Ford
as an example, his plants were able to process steel from iron ore to finished product in three
days, in which he kept a few days inventory.
3. The business, not the IS department owns the system. This keeps costs under control and
implementation on track.
4. Have an effective decision making forum. Managers and department heads are already busy,
incorporating a new system that changes policy can be made very difficult if they are not kept up
on what changes are taking place.
5. Configure only what the business needs.
6. When given a choice, choose flexibility
In reality strategies for IS come from studying data-flow with in an organization, and
clearly defining the goals for the system and the users. If consultants are hired in they need to
configure the system to fit the data flow of the business. Many EDI/ERP software companies had
businesses reshape their data-flow, resulting in suboptimal returns.
The new frontier of the internet and the information technology that drives it along with
the heavy performances of high-tech industry market can be intoxicating to businesses,
especially those IS illiterate. From the UH panel discussions, it becomes obvious EDI has work
in only a few cases, there is no standard of IS software for the internet, everyone knows they
must move to the internet, some of the companies invited to the panels do not have clear goals of
how their organization should work with IS, and not one company was a the same level
information technology; if this is the picture of the real world, the opening statements quoted are
very risky, either very nave or very arrogant. Quietly below the surface-hype of technology lies
the ultimate future of IS, in the areas of data flow analysis. This is the one common thread for all
the business that have succeed with any IS system no matter the decade it occurred in.
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CHAPTER 11
E-Commerce and EDI
11.1 ELECTRONIC COMMERCE (TM)
Electronic commerce may be defined as the entire set of processes that support commercial
activities on a network and involve information analysis. These activities spawn product
information and display events, services, providers, consumers advertisers, support for
transactions, brokering systems for a variety of services and actions (e.g., Finding certain
products, finding cheaply priced products etc.), security of transactions, user authentication. etc.
[Ref. N.R Adam and Y. Yesha. Electronic commerce: an Overview]
There have been several similar electronic technologies in the past, for example Electronic data
interchange (EDI) and Electronic funds tranfer (EFT) have been around for more than 20 years
now. While many of these have electronic trading technologies have had radical effects within
their own markets and created their fair share of publicity, none have attracted the level of hype
or have been hailed as purveyors of economic transformation to the extent that e-commerce has
in recent years. [ Ref. The Economist The Economist Electronic commerce survey :In search of
the perfect market]
For example, EDI never gained the ubiquitous acceptance that was initially anticipated for it.
High costs for initial investment, maintenance costs, or simply lack of preference by potential
users kept EDI technologies from developing at a more rapid pace and has traditionally restricted
its use to very large corporations.
Electronic commerce has experienced an explosion due to the convergence of these technology
developments, the merging of the telecommunications and computing industries, and the
business climate. [Ref. C Beam and A Segev The rise of Electronic commerce :Contributions
from three factors] A ubiquitous digital infrastructure that provides an efficient means for
communication and information sharing presents an extremely attractive new medium for
electronic commerce and for the first time has the potential to deliver what the notion of EC has
always implied. [D. Tapscott. The Digital Economy: Promise and peril in the age of networked
intelligence]
Electronic commerce involves issues (both technical and non technical) that are multidisciplinary in nature. They are complex in nature and overlap significantly with each other.
Technical research issues overlap with other technical research areas. For example, finding and
filtering information is a fundamental requirement of an electronic commerce system but can be
an equally important service for a digital library.
The figure below depicts the multidisciplinary nature of EC. As shown in the fig. The model is
made up of several major components, beginning with the consumer who is interested in
purchasing some goods electronically from some vendors whose product lines are represented in
and are part of a global electronic marketplace.
The objectives of E-Commerce are several. Primarily they involve increasing the speed and
efficiency of business transactions and processes, and improving customer service. Also EC
should :
- Streamline procurement processes thereby cutting overall costs via a more competitive process
- Contribute to a decrease in the length of production cycles.
- Enable enterprises to conduct business with distant partners the same way they do with
neighboring partners.
- Empower small businesses.
- Create new services and businesses.
- Help expand the horizon of participants.
In contrast to the emerging area of EC, EDI (Electronic data interchange) which has been around
(in the same form) for 20 years now is the cause of positive and negative effects on industrial
structures. A true cost benefit analysis of the effects can be difficult to assess, however; the costs
become much easier to quantify than the benefits. Reduced personnel expense for data entry,
paper and postage savings, and shortened receivable cycles are all quantifiable benefits, but the
thousands to hundreds of thousands of dollars required to set up and maintain the implementation
of traditional EDI needs to be justified with more significant benefits than these.
For an EDI implementation to be successful, it needs to be the direct cause of improved
productivity and internal operations, create closer customer vendor relations, provide a
competitive advantage in the marketplace, and open up the procurement process. Historically this
has not been the case for two reasons :The high cost involved with EDI, especially for small to
medium-sized enterprises(SMEs), and what we refer to as standard issues. (Ref. Electronic
commerce; Nabil Adam, Oktay Dogramaci et al.)
For one example of how businesses are accomplishing these goals, craig (in internet Week Nov.
1997) describes a joint venture between SAP and Digital Equipment Co. to keep vending
machines filled to demand with a web-based EDI system. An embedded computer in the vending
machines is connected to the internet, and each time a product is purchased a message is sent to
the supplier. This gives suppliers crucial information about their distribution channels in realtime, and removes the requirement for vending machine operators to use non standard
proprietary software that accomplished this task in the past.
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Processes the data to be sent to, or received from, the trading partner.
4. Delivers inbound transactions to the applications systems and gathers transactions from
the application systems for outbound transmission.
EDI Software
1. Manipulates and routes data between the application system and the communications
handler.
3. Creates Functional Acknowledgments (EDI transaction that notifies the trading partner
that an electronic document was received).
5. Validates the transactions by checking a master file against the information transmitted.
Communications Handler
Transmits data to and from the trading partner through a value-added network.
company.
4. The company receives the EDI shipment notice.
5. The EDI shipment notice is translated into a format that can be used to update the database of
the company.
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Although EDI has been the traditional approach to automating business transactions
between trading partners, e-commerce, using Java applets embedded in Internet-enabled
applications, is coming on strong.
E-commerce offers several advantages over EDI. The initial investment in technology is
much less. For smaller companies with lower trading volumes, the internet costs much
less than a VAN. Internet reaches everyone in the supply chain, supports near real-time
messaging, and supports both machine-to-machine and human-to-machine transactions.
EDI has advantages for larger manufacturers that must automate complex transactions
among a large community of suppliers. It provides a standard way to format key
transaction data and provides a complete set of messages, including acknowledgements.
EDI also includes built-in security, while the Internet is still a very insecure environment.
E-commerce sites focused on the supply chain have been designed to extend electronic
commerce to supply chain members that have not invested in EDI, rather than replacing
existing EDI sites. Most experts expect this pattern to continue and advise manufacturers
with EDI systems to consider adding e-commerce front ends to allow smaller suppliers or
customers to communicate directly with their existing infrastructure.
However, experts caution that EDI and e-commerce are not necessarily antagonistic
and agree most companies need a combination both to effectively reach their entire
supply chain.
E-Commerce Advantages
Less expensive and easier to
implement for simple transactions
bteween two trading partners.
However becomes expensive and
complex when trying to support sets
of complex transactions among large
groups of trading partners.
Provides a complete security package; ecommerce has no built-in security and requires
that a suite of separate security applications be
custom integrated.
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CHAPTER 12
INTERFACES
GlOSSARY OF TERMS
ACQUISITION COSTS: these costs include the price of the items, the shopping time,
the paper work, expediting (emergency buy, down time), mistakes (returns, rejects,
quantity errors; this will generate expediting costs), and the price for internal handling
(receiving and storing).
BREAK-BULK CARGO: Cargo, which is, shipped a unit (i.e. Palletized cargo, boxed
Cargo, large machinery, trucks and pre-slung cargo).
BULK CARGO: Loose cargo that is loaded directly into a ship's hold.
BULK CARRIER: There are two types of bulk carrier, the dry-bulk carrier and the
liquid-bulk carrier better known as a tanker. Bulk cargo is a shipment such as oil, grain,
or ore which is not packaged, bundled, bottled, or otherwise packed and is loaded without
counting or marking.
BUSINESS PROCESS (BP) : A set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a
defined business outcome.
CARRIER(S) CONTAINER(S)/SHIPPER(S) CONTAINER(S): The term Carrier(s)
Container(s) or Shipper(s) Container(s) means containers over which the carrier or the
shipper has control either by ownership or by the acquisition thereof under lease or rental
from container companies or container suppliers or from similar sources. Carriers are
prohibited from purchasing, leasing or renting shipper owned containers.
CHANGE ANALYSIS: Study of suitable changes of the activities of an enterprise in
concrete situation
CORRUGATED CASES: Built like a sandwich cardboard - characteristic arches of
wavy "fluting" lying between two pieces of smooth board on the outside.
CONTAINER: The term container means a single rigid, non-disposable dry cargo,
insulated, temperature controlled flatrack, vehicle rack portable liquid tank, or open top
container without wheels or bogies attached, having not less than 350 cubic feet capacity,
having a closure or permanently hinged door that allows ready access to the cargo
(closure or permanently hinged door not applicable to flatrack vehicle rack or portable
liquid tank).
CONTAINER SHIP: Ocean going ship designed to carry containers both internally and
on deck. Some are self-sustaining.
CONTAINERIZATION: Concept for the ultimate unitizing of cargo used by both
steamship lines and air cargo lines. Containers allow a greater amount of cargo protection
from weather, damage, and theft.
DATA: Raw information representing events occurring in the organization before they
are organized into an understandable and useful form for humans
DATA DICTIONARY: A way of organizing information, which is collected. This
information enables one to work out the composition of the data, uniqueness and
consistency of names and definitions of terms, and document them in dictionary which all
team members can use
DATA FLOW: Data flow on context diagram either represents information produced
within or outside the system which is used by outside world or by the system itself
DATA FLOW DIAGRAM: An important technique for modeling high level detail in a
process within a system. They highlight the functions of the system and how they use
stored information and transfer information between each other.
DATA-ORIENTED WORK: Refers to the development parts whose purpose is to
design technical solutions to this specification.
DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS: Methods by which distribution get products to market.
EDI: Electronic Data Interchange; Proprietary systems by which companies share
information.
END-USERS: Customers that are served by distribution.
ENTITIES RELATIOINSHIP DIAGRAMS (ERD): A semantic modeling tool used to
identify and organize information and to model particular roles of importance to the
enterprise and relationships between them
ENTITIES: A class of real world thing whose role of interaction with the enterprise is
well defined.
INFORMATION: A derivative from meaningful interpretation of data.