Prediction of Pore Fluid Viscosity Effects On P-Wave Attenuation in Reservoir Sandstones

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Chapter 7
Prediction of Pore Fluid Viscosity Effects on P-wave

Attenuation in Reservoir Sandstones
Angus Best,1 Clive McCann,1 and Jeremy Sothcott1
Introduction
In this chapter, a laboratory ultrasonic data set of Pwave velocity and attenuation measured as a function of
pore fluid viscosity in three reservoir sandstones is compared to the BISQ model. The three sandstones (Elgin,
Berea, Northern North Sea) represent a typical spread of
porosity, permeability, and intrapore clay contents for reservoir sandstones (see Table 1). The importance of clay
content for increasing ultrasonic attenuation in sandstones
is well established for P-waves (Klimentos and McCann,
1990) and S-waves (Best et al., 1994), but in the absence
of a validated elastic wave model, it is difficult to predict
how this behavior will manifest itself on surface seismic
data sets. Hence, there is a need for careful crosschecking
of theoretical models against well-constrained experimental data sets. The BISQ model is a strong candidate for
further investigation because it uses input parameters that
are readily available to the reservoir engineer or petrophysicist. The only ambiguity in the BISQ model concerns the value of the characteristic squirt flow length.
However, in practice, this is found by matching model
outputs to velocity or attenuation measurements at a
given frequency (Dvorkin and Nur, 1993). The resultant
calibrated model can then be used to explore frequency- and
viscosity-dependent velocity and attenuation effects for a
given lithology.
After determining the BISQ squirt flow lengths for
the three sandstones reported here, there was reasonable
agreement between predicted and observed attenuation
magnitudes. The BISQ model was then used to predict
the likely sonic and seismic attenuation magnitudes for
each sandstone as a function of pore fluid viscosity. The
results indicate that significant attenuation changes due to
thermal stimulation may only be detectable in clay-rich
sandstones with low permeabilities at seismic and sonic
logging frequencies.
Seismic wave attenuation (absorption or intrinsic

attenuation) is underutilized by the petroleum industry
mainly because of the difficulty of measuring it with sufficient accuracy using seismic reflection methods. However, the recent trend toward time-lapse 3D seismic
monitoring of reservoirs means that absolute attenuation
measurements are no longer so important. Instead, temporal changes in seismic amplitude and wavelet frequency
content could hold the key to interpreting changes in reservoir fluid properties in response to certain production
strategies. Seismic monitoring of heavy-oil reservoirs
would be particularly appropriate because of the known
link between seismic attenuation and pore fluid viscosity
(Batzle et al., 2006a).
Seismic wave attenuation in porous rocks is thought to
be dominated by viscous fluid flow mechanisms such as
those described by the unified Biot and Squirt (BISQ)
model (Dvorkin and Nur, 1993; Dvorkin et al., 1994). By
definition, the magnitude of attenuation is related to the
viscosity of the pore fluid and the frequency of the elastic
wave, as well as to other pore fluid parameters (density,
bulk modulus) and pore geometry parameters (porosity,
permeability, tortuosity, squirt flow length). This theoretical link between attenuation and pore fluid viscosity could
be exploited if changes in heavy-oil viscosity caused by
thermal stimulation, typically in the range 11000 cP (1 cP
103 Pas), give rise to sufficiently large changes in elastic
wave attenuation for detection and monitoring by surface
seismics. Also, an accurate model of frequency/viscositydependent attenuation as a function of lithology could help
tie in sonic well logs at frequencies of 1020 kHz to surface
seismics at less than 200 Hz for the benefit of reservoir
characterization.
University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, The National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, United Kingdom
113
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114
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Heavy Oils: Reservoir Characterization and Production Monitoring
Table 1. Average lithological properties of the sandstone samples used in the ultrasonic experiments.
Parameter
Porosity (%)
Permeability (mD)
Clay content (%)
Frame bulk modulus (GPa)
Frame shear modulus (GPa)
Mineral bulk modulus (GPa)
Mineral density (kgm3)
Elgin
Berea
Northern North Sea
10.3 6 1.9
152 6 53
2.7
25.92 6 1.12
25.80 6 0.94
36.5
2632
20.5 61.9
519 6 93
7.4
15.35 6 1.85
13.67 6 0.70
36.5
2634
14.8 6 1.1
5.0 6 1.3
14.1
20.87 6 2.75
17.93 6 1.29
36.5
2645
Laboratory Measurements
Laboratory experiments were conducted on seven different reservoir sandstones using the ultrasonic pulse-echo
method (Winkler and Plona, 1982; Best, 1992; McCann
and Sothcott, 1992). Recordings of arrival times and
amplitudes of tone burst pulses (approximately 800 kHz)
reflected from the Perspex/sample interfaces were used to
calculate velocity (60.3%) and attenuation coefficient
(620 dB/m) from which quality factor Q and its inverse
Q1 were derived. For each lithology, six rock samples
(5 cm diameter, 23 cm long) were saturated with a different viscosity pore fluid, giving P-wave velocity (VP)
and attenuation (Q1
P ) results over a viscosity range of
0.31000 cP. The results, reported in Best and McCann
(1995) for a differential pressure of 50 MPa, showed
complex interactions with pore fluid viscosity and lithology (porosity, permeability, clay content). There appeared
to be evidence for two competing attenuation mechanisms; namely, global and squirt viscous fluid flow.
Global flow, as described by the Biot model (Biot,
1956a; Biot, 1956b), seemed to predict the attenuations
of high permeability sandstones over only part of the
viscosity range, and not at all in low-permeability sandstones. The relatively high attenuations seen in the clayrich sandstones not predicted by the Biot theory were
thought to be indicative of a clay-related squirt flow loss
mechanism. Squirt flow losses are caused by local fluid
flow in and out of compliant pores (Mavko and Nur,
1975; Mavko and Nur, 1979; Palmer and Traviolia,
1980; Murphy III et al., 1986). The observed increases in
velocity with viscosity in clay-rich sandstones were consistent with a squirt flow mechanism. Similar P-wave
velocity VP and attenuation Q1
P results for a differential
pressure of 60 MPa are presented in Figure 1 with average
rock and pore fluid properties given in Table 1 and 2,
respectively.
Figure 1a shows a net increase in VP with viscosity
from 0.3 to 1000 cP for all three sandstones, most notable
for the Northern North Sea sandstone. A small drop in
velocity between 0.3 and 1 cP is seen for the Elgin sandstone but not for the other two sandstones; this is probably
attributable to a reasonably large jump in rock sample
porosity from 7.2% to 11.9% (see Best and McCann,
1995). The Elgin sandstone also shows a small decrease in
velocity above approximately 60 cP, whereas this occurs
above approximately 300 cP for the Berea and North Sea
sandstones. Taking net velocity dispersions between 1 and
1000 cP gives values of 3.0% for Elgin, 2.9% for Berea,
and 5.8% for the Northern North Sea sandstone. The direction of the velocity dispersion is consistent with a squirt
flow type mechanism (see Mavko et al., 1998).
Figure 1b shows complex variations in Q1
P with similar shaped curves for the Berea and North Sea sandstones
indicating possible attenuation peaks at approximately 1,
60, and 800 cP. By contrast, only one attenuation peak is
seen for the Elgin sandstone at approximately 330 cP. The
attenuation peaks have quite high magnitudes of Q1
P values greater than 0.02, equivalent to a quality factor Q of
less than 50.
Comparison with BISQ Theory

A unified theory of the Biot and squirt flow models
was introduced by Dvorkin and Nur (1993) for P-waves
in rocks at high pressures (no microcrack dependence).
This so-called BISQ model accounts for the interaction of
the two mechanisms as a function of frequency and pore
fluid viscosity among other rock input parameters (porosity, permeability, etc.). If this model can explain the
experimental observations discussed above, then it could
also be used to predict the behavior of these and similar
reservoir rocks at seismic and sonic frequencies during
thermal recovery of heavy oil.
Because different samples were used for each pore fluid,
the corresponding porosity, permeability, and dry frame
moduli were used for each rock sample in the BISQ model.
The dry frame moduli were calculated using Gassmanns
model (Gassmann, 1951) by matching the Gassmann saturated
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Chapter 7: Prediction of Pore Fluid Viscosity Effects on P-Wave Attenuation

a)
6000
Elgin
Berea
N. North Sea
800 kHz, 60 MPa
VP (m/s)
5000
Figure 1. Ultrasonic (a) P-wave

velocity VP and (b) attenuation Q1
P
as a function of pore fluid viscosity
at a differential pressure of 60 MPa
for three reservoir sandstones:
Elgin, Berea, and Northern
North Sea.
4500
4000
3500
3000
0
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
b)
0.07
Elgin
Berea
N. North Sea
800 kHz, 60 MPa

0.06
0.05
1/QP
5500
115
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
velocities (VP, VS) to the observed saturated velocities.

The temperature varied between experiments, so the pore
fluid properties were calculated for the correct experimental
temperature of each rock. Because the pore fluid viscosity
was changed by using different pore fluids (hexane, distilled
water, and four different strength solutions of glycerol/water;
see Table 2), it is possible that each fluid will have different
chemical softening effects on the rock, but this was not
quantified.
The BISQ model requires knowledge of the squirt
flow length R (mm). In practice, this was achieved by
matching the BISQ velocity to the observed velocity at
800 kHz by varying the squirt flow length for each sample/pore fluid combination. The resulting squirt flow
lengths are shown in Figure 2, plotted against fluid
mobility M permeability/viscosity (mD/cP) (see Batzle

et al., 2006a). In general, squirt flow length decreases with
increasing fluid mobility for each sandstone, changing by
three orders of magnitude for these rocks. All squirt flow
lengths fall on the same trend apart from the two highest
fluid mobilities for Berea; this suggests a certain degree of
consistency between different lithologies with a common
squirt flow loss mechanism, lending weight to the theory.
Results
The BISQ predicted attenuations (Q1
P ) are shown for
each of the three rock types in Figures 35 as a function
of pore fluid viscosity at 800 kHz together with the
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experimental values. The experimental results indicate

relaxation peaks within the measured range of viscosities
(0.31000 cP). This is clearest for Elgin sandstone, in
which a single smooth peak is seen at approximately
300 cP. The experimental results for Berea and North Sea
sandstones are more complex because, in addition to
dominant peaks in Q1
at approximately 70 and 1 cP,
P
values
oscillate between successive
respectively, the Q1
P
high and low values at other viscosities in Figures 4
and 5. The question is: does the BISQ model capture the
essential features of the experimental attenuation observations in these typical reservoir rocks?
In fact, the range of magnitudes of the Q1
P values at
800 kHz predicted by the BISQ model is very close to the
observed range over the viscosity interval for all three
rocks. This is a significant point because observed attenuation magnitudes are notoriously difficult to predict. Furthermore, differences between the model and observations
seem to be restricted to the position of the main attenuation
peak, the height of the side lobes, and the lack of any secondary attenuation peaks. This could be a result of
Table 2. Pore fluid properties at 20 C.
Fluid
Parameter
Hexane
Water
Glycerol/water
Glycerol/water
Glycerol/water
Glycerol/water
Viscosity
(cP)
3
4
2
1
0.33
1.0
23
74
456
943
Density
(kg/m3)
Bulk
Modulus
(GPa)
658
998
1183
1212
1246
1256
0.75
2.19
3.95
4.30
4.72
4.85
incorrect selection of the dominant squirt flow length

(unlikely given that the squirt flow length was matched to
the experimental velocities) or failure of the model to
account for the interaction between multiple squirt flow
lengths acting at the same time.
Another observation that may not be coincidence is
that the viscosity offset between the model and experimental attenuation peaks varies systematically with clay content. There is good agreement for the North Sea sandstone
(clay content 14.1%), underprediction by approximately
30 cP for the Berea sandstone (7.4%), and by approximately 300 cP for the Elgin sandstone (2.7%). This
assumes that the largest attenuation peak seen in the experimental data corresponds to the peak predicted by BISQ in
this viscosity range (BISQ predicts two peaks for a single
squirt flow length: one due to squirt flow and the other to
Biot global flow). It is also possible that the BISQ model
predictions correspond to one of the other attenuation
peaks seen in the Berea data (e.g., with similar magnitudes). These results lend weight to the previous assertion
that clay-related squirt flow is an important loss mechanism at these frequencies. For example, the interaction
between fluid flowing between compliant porosity associated with grain contacts and fluid flowing from compliant
clay pores could explain the possibility of multiple squirt
flow lengths. However, more experimental data points at
intermediate viscosities are required to verify this.
Implications for Seismic Monitoring

of Heavy-oil Reservoirs
Whatever the details of attenuation behavior at ultrasonic frequencies, the value of models such as the BISQ
10.00
Figure 2. Squirt flow length R

against fluid mobility M (note
log-log scale).
60 MPa
Squirt flow length, R (mm)
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Elgin
Berea
N. North Sea
1.00
0.10
0.01
1.E-03
1.E-02
1.E-01
1.E+00
1.E+01
Fluid mobility, M (mD/cP)
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
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0.030
Figure 3. Elgin sandstone BISQ

model predictions for P-wave
attenuation Q1
P against pore fluid
viscosity at frequencies of 100 Hz,
10 kHz, and 800 kHz. Experimental
data at 800 kHz are indicated.
BISQ Model Results

Elgin Sandstone, 60 MPa
100 Hz
10 kHz
800 kHz
Exp. 800 kHz
1/QP
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
0.060
Figure 4. Berea sandstone BISQ

model predictions for P-wave
attenuation Q1
BISQ Model Results

0.050
100 Hz
10 kHz
800 kHz
Exp. 800 kHz
0.040
1/QP
0.025
117
0.030
0.020
0.010
0.000
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Viscosity (cP)
model is their ability to accurately predict changes in

attenuation at seismic (100 Hz) and sonic logging (10
kHz) frequencies (Dvorkin and Nur, 1993). Although further experimental studies are required to validate the
BISQ model over the full frequency range of interest, the
generally favorable comparison with the ultrasonic data
above suggests it can be used with some confidence at
lower frequencies.
Heavy oils typically have American Petroleum Institute (API) gravities less than 20 , with viscosities that
range from greater than 10,000 cP at 0 C to less than
2 cP at 200 C (using equations given in Batzle et al.,
2006b). Although heavy oils themselves have their own
significant attenuation-viscosity behavior (Batzle et al.,
2006a), it is worth speculating on the effect on reservoir
monitoring of the squirt flow mechanism in the absence

of intrinsic fluid attenuation. Hence, the following results
may be more appropriate for intermediate API gravity
oils in which intrinsic fluid attenuation is negligible.
Again, further experimental studies are needed to quantify
the actual effect of thermal stimulation on real heavy-oil
reservoirs.
Figures 35 show the BISQ model results for 100 Hz
and 10 kHz for fully saturated rocks. For these rocks at
100 Hz, no significant changes in Q1
P over the viscosity
range of 110,000 cP would be seen; the maximum value
of Q1
P is approximately 0.01 (QP 100) for the North
Sea sandstone, which would be barely detectable on
reflection seismic data. However, larger changes in Q1
P
could be expected at higher viscosities for all rocks. By
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0.040
Figure 5. North Sea sandstone

BISQ model predictions for P-wave
attenuation Q1
100 Hz
10 kHz
800 kHz
Exp. 800 kHz
BISQ Model Results

North Sea Sandstone
60 MPa
0.035
0.030
0.025
1/QP
118
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0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0
contrast, significant and detectable variations in P-wave

attenuation (Q1
P > 0.01) would be observed at 10 kHz on
wireline logs in North Sea- and Berea-type rocks over this
viscosity range. This could have important implications for
tying in 4D seismic survey data to wells if this frequency
dependence were not taken into account.
There is one unexpected outcome from this exercise:
the results indicate possibly larger attenuation variations
with viscosity in the seismic and sonic ranges in reservoir
rocks with significant clay contents such as the North Sea
sandstone than in clean reservoir rocks such as the Elgin
sandstone.
Conclusions
Laboratory ultrasonic measurements of P-wave velocity and attenuation were obtained on three reservoir sandstones at 60 MPa (Elgin, Berea, and North Sea) at six
different pore fluid viscosities in the range of 0.31000
cP (only homogeneous saturated rocks considered). The
results showed complex variations of Q1
P with viscosity.
The unified Biot and squirt flow theory of Dvorkin and
Nur (1993), known as the BISQ model, was able to predict the range of Q1
P magnitudes seen in each sandstone
over the experimental viscosity range. There were some
discrepancies, in particular, differences in the viscosity of
the main attenuation peaks for the Elgin and Berea sandstones, although the BISQ model predicted the right viscosity for the North Sea sandstone. There was some
evidence for multiple squirt flow lengths in the Berea and
North Sea sandstones, perhaps related to the presence of
significant levels of intrapore clay minerals (7.4% and
14.1%, respectively).
Extension of these ultrasonic-frequency (800 kHz)
results to possible reservoir monitoring scenarios at 100 Hz
10
Viscosity (cP)
100
1000
(4D seismics) and 10 kHz (sonic well logs) showed a

negligible effect of viscosity (in the range of 0.31000 cP,
corresponding to the lighter end of the heavy-oil spectrum)
on Q1
for Elgin and Berea sandstones. However, the
P
with viscosity for the
BISQ-predicted changes in Q1
P
North Sea sandstone were significant and most probably
detectable on field seismic/sonic data. The BISQ results for
all three sandstones suggest significant changes in Q1
P at
viscosities greater than 1000 cP (corresponding to heavy
oils and tars).
More experimental data are needed to validate the
BISQ (and other possible) models over the range of viscosities of heavy oils seen during thermal recovery and
for different reservoir lithologies (including carbonates
and sands). Nevertheless, these preliminary results indicate that seismic attenuation could become an important
reservoir monitoring parameter for detecting changes in
pore fluid viscosity in the future. The most important
result of this study is that Q1
P in clay-rich reservoir rocks
could be more sensitive to viscosity changes than Q1
P in
clean reservoir rocks with implications for detecting lowpermeability (clay-rich) zones.
Acknowledgments
Funding was provided by the U. K.s Natural Environment Research Council. Angus Best collected the experimental data during his Ph.D. studies at the University of
Reading, United Kingdom, between 1989 and 1992.
References
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mobility and frequency-dependent seismic velocity
direct measurements: Geophysics, 71, no. 1, N1N9.
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of sedimentary rocks from seismic measurements.
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Prediction of Pore Fluid Viscosity Effects On P-Wave Attenuation in Reservoir Sandstones

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Date: 10th September 2010

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