SOIL EROSION MEASUREMENT

AND CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Joongdae Choi, Ye-Hwan Choi, Kyoung-Jae Lim and Yong-Cheol Shin
Division of Agricultural Engineering, Kangwon National University
Chuncheon, Gangwon-do 200-701, Korea

ABSTRACT
This paper discusses soil erosion mechanisms, factors affecting soil erosion, the current status of
soil erosion, and the impacts of soil erosion on water quality in Korea. Small and large runoff
plots and field-scale monitoring methods with or without rainfall simulation were explained based
on the researches performed in Korea. In one of the studies, no surface runoff was observed at the
covered plots while 71.8% of surface runoff occurred in the bare soil plots. This drastic difference
in runoff was analyzed as the main cause of soil erosion control. A rainfall simulation runoff plot
(5 m x 30 m) test on the sandy loam soil with 28% slope yielded a sediment of more than
70 t/ha from a rainfall simulation of 40-minute, 50-mm rainfall. This meant that sediment
discharges from the steep-sloping alpine uplands may produce much more than 70 t/ha/yr. This
was attributed as the major reason for muddy runoff and water quality degradation in Korea. For
the Korean government to succeed in reducing soil erosion, the study recommends the following:
administrative approach, public relations and training, and technical approach using best
management practices (BMPs). Functional combination of various techniques was strongly
recommended for best results.
Key words: Soil erosion, erosion control technique, sloping uplands, sandy loam, water quality,
NPS pollution, BMPs

INTRODUCTION
Detachment, transport, and deposition are basic
processes that occur on upland areas (Foster
1982). Detachment occurs when the erosive
forces of rainfall drop impact or when flowing
water exceeds the soils resistance to erosion.
Detached particles are transported by the
splash and flow of raindrop. Deposition occurs
when the sediment load of eroded particles
exceeds its corresponding transport capacity.
The relative importance of these fundamental
processes depends on whether the processes
are occurring on inter-rill or rill areas and in
the levels of the controlling variables. Eroded
soil particles generally move downslope,
flowing into rills and gullies. Understanding the
soil erosion mechanism is very important to
design the soil erosion measurement system
and develop the soil erosion control
techniques. This paper aims to describe the

major factors affecting upland soil erosion

processes, characteristics of sloping upland
culture, the impact of soil erosion on water
quality, soil erosion measurement methods, and
the soil erosion control techniques in Korea.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL EROSION

Detachment of soil particles is a function of
the erosive forces of raindrop impact and
flowing water, the susceptibility of the soil to
detachment, the presence of material that
reduces the magnitude of the eroding forces,
and the management of the soil that makes it
less susceptible to erosion. Transport is
basically a function of transport forces of the
transport agent, the transportability of the
detached particles, and the presence of material
that reduces the transport forces.
Either detachment or transport capacity
may limit erosion and sediment load at a

location on the slope. At a given location on

a slope, if the amount of sediment made
available for transport by the detachment
processes is less than its transport capacity,
then the sediment load moving downslope will
be the amount of detached sediment available
for transport. Conversely, if the available
detached sediment exceeds the transport
capacity, deposition occurs and the transport
capacity controls the sediment load.
Hydrology, topography, soil erodibility, soil
transportability, soil surface cover, incorporated
residue, residual land use, subsurface effects,
tillage, roughness, and tillage marks are the
major factors that affect upland erosion
processes. Among these factors, hydrology,
soil erodibility, and soil transportability are not
practically controllable. And thus, these factors
are not modified or changed to control the soil
erosion and the sediment production of a field.
Residual land use and subsurface effects
are not commonly practiced to attenuate soil
erosion because the effect of these factors is
time-limited and is observed when a new crop
field reclamation from a meadow or a forest is
made. The complex root system of grasses and
trees left in the soil surface and column during
the reclamation can retard the soil erosion for
up to three years. But with the decomposition
of the roots, the residual land use and
subsurface effects disappear.
Topography is somewhat controllable by
building terraces. Terracing of a sloping field is
a very effective sediment control method but it
is an expensive alternative. Terracing can be
applied where other best management methods
are not assessed to be effective in controlling
soil erosion and sediment discharge because of
soil condition, steep slope, and long slope
length. Terracing also can be effectively
adopted where the land use is very intensive
and the rainfall amount is large. Terraced
paddy fields in many Asian countries are a
representative example.
The rest of the major factors, including
soil surface cover, incorporated residue, tillage,
roughness, and tillage marks, can be practically
managed to cut down the soil erosion and the
sediment production of a field. Incorporated
residue is the crop residue or mulch materials
like corn stalks that are fully and partially
buried. These materials increase the soils
organic matter content, act like grade control

structures, and prevent rills from getting larger.

Roughness of a crop field is related to tillage
such as harrowing. Plowed and harrowed
surface produce more sediment than just
plowed surface because of the difference of
roughness. No-till and reduced tillage practices
definitely produce less soil erosion and
sediment than conventional plow tillage.
However, no-till and reduced tillage cannot be
applied to all agricultural practices. Where notill and reduced tillage are not appropriate, soil
surface cover and tillage mark play a decisive
effect in controlling soil erosion.
Tillage marks are grouped to up-and-down
till and contour till. Contour till is generally
known to be effective in reducing soil erosion.
However, contour till often creates many gullies
and produces a tremendous amount of
sediment if the amount of rainfall is large
enough to overflow the ridge. Once a ridge
overflows and is destroyed, the stored water in
the furrow is momentarily drained, destroying
the ridges downslope, and consequently
creating small and large gullies. Where the
rainfall amount is relatively large, where the
soil is sandy with a deep profile, and where
the slope length is long with a relatively steep
slope, contour till must be carefully practiced.
Soil surface cover is believed to be the
most effective method to reduce soil erosion
and sediment discharge. Once the soil surface
is covered or mulched with crop residue or
permeable material, raindrop impact is sharply
reduced, soil particles minimally occurs, soil
pores are not clogged, and thus, the soils
permeability and infiltration are maintained.
Because of these consequential processes,
surface runoff is significantly reduced, and the
transport capacity of runoff is also sharply
dropped, resulting in less soil erosion. Table 1
shows the differences of runoff and infiltration
between bare soil and covered plots.
The soil was sandy loam (weathered
granite) and the cover material was a
nonwoven fabric. The infiltration test was
carried out on 1 m x 1 m x 0.5 m runoff plots
with a 10% slope using a ladder-type rainfall
simulator developed by the USDA Soil Erosion
Laboratory at Purdue University, USA. The test
was composed of the first 30-minute rainfall
simulation (dry run), 30-minute break, and the
second 30-minute simulation (wet run). The
rainfall intensity was 60 mm/hr, which is about

Table 1.

Differences of runoff and infiltration between bare soil and covered plots

Treatment and plot no.

100% covered plot

1
2

Bare plot
1

Rainfall
(mm)

Dry run
Wet run
Total

30
30
60

25.5
25.5
51.0

30
30
60

30
30
60

Surface runoff
(mm)

Dry run
Wet run
Total

0
0
0

0
0
0

19.7
23.9
43.6

18.2
24.4
42.6

40.5
19.5

28.8
22.2

10.5
5.9

9.0
8.4

100
0
67.5
32.5

100
0
56.5
43.5

100
72.7
17.5
9.8

100
71.0
15.0
14.0

Percolation (mm)
Soil retention (mm)
Water balance
analysis
(%)

Rainfall
Surface runoff
Percolation
Soil retention

the five-year recurrent rainfall intensity in

Korea.
The differences of surface runoff,
percolation, and soil retention between the bare
soil and the 100% covered plots were very
large. The simulated rainfall intensity of 60 mm/
hr could be considered a downpour. However,
no surface runoff was observed at the 100%
covered plots while 71.8% of surface runoff
occurred in the bare soil plots. This meant that
only 28.2% of the rainfall infiltrated into the
soil and the rest (71.8%) was drained through
surface runoff, causing devastating floods and
producing tremendous muddy water and
sediment.
The 100% covered plots with a nonwoven
fabric showed no surface runoff but 100%
rainfall infiltration. This meant that there would
be no soil erosion and no sediment generated
in spite of the rainfall intensity of 60 mm/hr.
The amount of percolation collected at the
bottom of the bare soil plots was 16.2% of the
rainfall while that of the covered plots was
62.0%. Also, the soil retention of the bare soil
plots was only 11.9% while that of the 100%
covered plots was 38.0% of the rainfall. This
meant that a percolation of 62.% showed that
rainfall was drained throughout the subsurface
flow. However, it does not cause floods nor
muddy water problems in the receiving waters
because percolation takes time and releases the
water slowly into the receiving waters for more

than a 24-hour period and the water is clean.

Also, the high soil retention rate of 30.0% of
the covered plots compared with the 11.9% of
the bare soil plots meant that the covered
plots could hold 3.2 times more rainwater in
the soil profile and thus, provide more water to
crop growth and increase drought resistance. It
is well proven that surface cover is the most
effective among the best management practices
to reduce soil erosion and sediment from
upland cultures.
The tested soil is widely distributed
throughout the alpine agricultural areas in the
uppermost watersheds of large rivers in Korea.
The muddy water and the sediment from the
alpine agricultural lands during the monsoon
season cause severe water quality problems in
every river originating from the areas.
It would be best for soil and water
engineers, policy makers, and farmers to fully
understand the 11 major factors affecting
upland soil erosion to develop technologies
and policies for the reduction of soil erosion
and implement the technologies and the
policies.

IMPACT OF SOIL EROSION ON WATER

QUALITY IN KOREA
NPS pollution in agriculture has been
recognized as one of the major sources in the
degradation of the nations water quality. The

total agricultural land area of Korea in 2002

was 1,862,622 ha and composed of 1,138,408 ha
(61.1%) of paddy and 724,214 ha (38.9%) of
upland. The annual average pollutant discharge,
so called unit load from the paddy and the
upland is 1.59 kg/km2 and 2.30 kg/km2 for BOD,
9.44 kg/km2 and 6.56 kg/km2 for T-N and 0.24
kg/km2 and 0.61 kg/km2 for T-P, respectively
(MOE 2004).
T-P load from the upland is estimated to
be 2.5 times higher than that from the paddy.
By considering that T-P is the limiting factor in
Korea for river and reservoir eutrophication,
experts believed that the impact of NPS
discharge from the upland would be even
greater than that from the paddy. However,
pollutant discharges, including soil erosion from
the upland, have not been intensively studied,
and limited data are available.
Almost all rivers and reservoirs in Korea
have experienced severe water quality
degradation after the monsoon season because
of soil erosion and the resulting muddy runoff.
The muddy runoff is not directly drained to
the sea but is stored in large reservoirs created
by dams. The stored muddy water that holds
various pollutants is then slowly discharged,
for more than 14 weeks in some cases, to
downstream, which increases turbidity, gives
adverse impacts to the ecosystem, and
decreases the safeness of water use. Because

Table 2.

Some existing soil erosion data in Korea

Source

Index

Upland
Upland
Feedlot
Forest
Upland (soybean)
Upland (corn)
Upland (tobacco)
Upland (weed)
Watershed
Watershed (alpine area)
Forest
Sloping upland
Newly reclaimed upland
Upland (corn)
Upland (red pepper)
Upland (radish)
Upland (potato)
Watershed

SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
Soil loss
Soil loss
Soil loss
Soil loss
Soil loss
Sediment
Sediment
SS

of this, the Korean government in 2004

initiated a comprehensive measure to cut down
soil erosion coming from the muddy runoff
from the sloping agricultural lands in the alpine
areas of 400 meter above the mean sea level.
However, the lack of soil erosion control
engineers and experts to design, implement,
and educate soil erosion control workers is one
of the biggest obstacles to succeed in the plan
in the short term.
Critical factors that can be economically
controlled need to be identified and
experimentally tested to develop and apply new
or existing soil erosion control technologies.
Table 2 shows some of the measured or
estimated soil erosion data in Korea.
Depending on the researchers, the measurement
index is different. It is assumed that SS
stands for suspended solids and does not
include bed loads; soil loss stands for
estimated average soil loss by the USLE; and
sediment stands for both suspended solids
and bed loads at the edge of a field or at the
outlet of a watershed.
Current water quality degradation that the
rivers in Korea have been experiencing may
not be caused by the small amount of soil
loss of about 5,000 kg/ha/yr. The water quality
degradation is thought to be caused by soil
loss much higher than 5,000 kg/ha/yr. It is well
represented by the average watershed SS load

Quantity (kg/ha/yr)
23.0
350.4
1,149
4.75
3,169
4,277
3,246
24.9
293
876-3,962
2,000 or less
5,000 or greater
Up to 485,000
20,000-50,000
20,000-40,000
3,300-81,600
4,200-29,600
8,100

Literature
Lim (1984)
Seo (1987)
Lim (1984)
Lim (1984)
Choi et al. (2003)
Choi et al. (2003)
Choi et al. (2003)
Choi et al. (2003)
MOE (2004)
MOE (2004)
Quoted from Choi et
Quoted from Choi et
Quoted from Choi et
Quoted from Choi et
Quoted from Choi et
Choi (2004)
Choi (2004)
Eum et al. (2005)

al.
al.
al.
al.
al.

(2005)
(2005)
(2005)
(2005)
(2005)

of 876-3,962 kg/ha/yr and 8,100 kg/ha/yr. These

SS loads were measured at the outlet of the
respective watershed that was composed of
uplands, forests, paved roads, residential areas,
and others. Because forest, paved road, and
residential land uses do not generate large soil
erosion, it could be easily imagined that much
of the SS load of 8,100 kg/ha/yr, for example,
came from uplands that had steep slopes with
a sandy soil texture. And thus, the sediment
load at the edge of an upland of this
watershed would be much higher than the
8,100 kg/ha/yr measured at the mouth of a
watershed. The watershed called a punch ball
watershed is one of the most notorious
watersheds that drain bad muddy water every
monsoon season in Korea.
Based on the rainfall, field, crop, and
management method, sediment load at the edge
of a field for radish and potato culture were
measured up to 81,600 kg/ha/yr and 29,600 kg/
ha/yr, respectively. A runoff plot study that
had four 5 m x 30 m runoff plots on 28%
slope, sandy loam soil, and Chinese cabbage
culture, equipped with a rainfall simulation
system, produced the sediment of 18,000-72,000
kg/ha during a 40-minute, 45 mm rainfall
simulation (Choi et al. 2005). The plot size was
relatively smaller than the actual field size in
the alpine area. If the same condition was
assumed in the runoff plot study, it would be
expected that the sediment load at the edge of
the alpine agricultural area might well be more
than a few hundred thousand tons per hectare
per year. This is the major cause of muddy
runoff and water quality degradation in Korea.

SOIL EROSION MEASUREMENT METHODS

IN KOREA
Soil erosion can be measured by the three
types of experiments, as follows: small-size
runoff plot test, runoff plot erosion test, and
field-size erosion test.
The small-size runoff plot test uses plots
of 1 m x 1 m, for example. It does not measure
the actual amount of soil erosion but the effect
of
experimental
treatments.
Common
experimental treatments are the percent of soil
surface cover both by residue and vegetation,
slope, rainfall intensity, the type of soil, the
depth of impermeable layer or groundwater
level, and the degree of compaction by tractor.

This test is usually equipped with a rainfall

simulator to measure the exact effect of the
treatment under a tightly controlled
environment. Experimental results are applied to
describe the basic soil mechanisms and
develop conceptual soil erosion models. This
test also measures the effect of organic farming
on water quality. Whether or not organic
farming is environmentally friendly remains
debatable. If organic farming was not
environmentally friendly, especially in terms of
water quality, what would be the alternatives
to maintain agricultural productivity and
minimize the NPS pollutant discharges? A few
national laboratories and universities are
performing this basic soil erosion test in Korea.
The runoff plot erosion test commonly
measures the amount of soil erosion driven by
rill and inter-rill erosion, verifies and modifies
the soil erosion mechanisms derived by the
small-size runoff plot test, collects model input
data for USLE, for example, derives soil erosion
models, and measures the effect of agricultural
management practices, vegetative filter strips,
and other best management practices on water
quality. The standard plot size, used to derive
the USLE, measures 72.6 feet (22.1 m), with a
variable width on a 9% slope. The width is
not specified but 13.3 feet (4.1 m) or wider is
preferred to allow the development of rill and
inter-rill erosion patterns. The surface of the
plots is carefully prepared to have a uniform
slope. The test can be performed with or
without a rainfall simulation system. However,
it is strongly recommended that it be equipped
with a rainfall simulation system to minimize
experimental errors and to measure the effect of
treatments as precisely as possible. A runoff
plot is bordered with steel strips driven into
the ground and an endplate at the bottom end
of the plot. A gutter or a trough is placed to
collect and guide the runoff to an H-flume or
other flow measurement device. If a large
amount of sediment is expected from the plots,
a drop box is used instead of an H-flume. A
drop box is a kind of flume designed to drain
the sediment without depositing in the flume
by causing turbulent flow in order to stably
measure the runoff. Runoff samples are taken
by an automatic sampler for distributed samples
or a Coshocton wheel sampler for composite
samples. The Rural Development Administration
(RDA) and Kangwon National University have

been performing the runoff plot experiments in

Korea.
The field-size erosion test is performed on
a field that is bordered by earthen berm and
equipped with runoff measurement and
sampling devices. The sizes of field tests vary
depending on the objectives of a test and the
local land uses. This test can represent the
actual effect of experimental treatments.
However, fields are very much site-specific,
which means that there is no same field that
has the same soil texture, and concave and
convex topographies unless the surface is
manually prepared. However, because the
objective of a field test is to measure the
actual effect of treatments under the same local
land use and cultural conditions, manual
preparation for a field test is not recommended.
The results of a field test also are site-specific
and are difficult to generalize. Numerous test
results are needed to avoid risks, biases, and
misrepresentations in using the results for a
policy development or for public releases.
Depending on the field size and condition,
runoff and soil erosion measurement system
must be installed. Because the test is weatherdependent, automatic flow measurement and
sampling system is preferred. Flume or drop
box should be large enough to measure the
runoff that can occur under a severe storm
event. This test has not been intensively
performed and experienced engineers and
experts are very rare in Korea.
Soil erosion test plots should be equipped
with runoff measurement and sampling systems.
For flow measurement, H-flume, long throat
flume, drop box, and V-notch weir are
commonly used. Water level or/and velocity of
these devices are measured by various types
of water level gauges and flow meters. Runoff
volume is either computed by using a rating
curve or measured directly by a flow meter.
Runoff samples are taken manually or by a
sampler. Also, runoff samples can be taken by
time or runoff volume. Recent devices can
compute runoff rate real time and take runoff
samples by preset time interval or flow volume.
One disadvantage of these pieces of equipment
is that they are expensive. If distributed
samples are not required, a composite sampler
such as Coshocton wheel sampler can be
effectively used. Soil erosion tests are generally
weather-dependent and they need an automatic

measurement system. If a field plot size is large

and heavy sediment is expected, a sediment
basin is placed where the runoff is collected
before a flume could measure the runoff rate.

SOIL EROSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Numerous soil erosion control techniques,
including the best management practices
(BMPs), have been developed in many
advanced countries. These techniques are
basically based on the control of the major
factors affecting soil erosion and have greatly
contributed in cutting down soil erosion to
meet the allowable soil erosion (or tolerable
soil loss, T-value) criterion. Korea has not
established the allowable soil erosion standard
but the USA has set up the allowable soil
erosion of 11 t/ha/yr in the 1960s (Mutchler et
al. 1994). It is based on the assumption of an
average 1 mm sheet erosion of a soil surface.
However, the allowable soil erosion can be
adjusted by a local government to meet the
local water quality criteria. For example, Hudson
(1981, quoted from Shin and Kim 2001 and
reference not listed) proposed the allowable
soil loss of 2 t/ha/yr for common agricultural
fields and 1 t/ha/hr for water quality-sensitive
area by NPS pollution.
A few guidelines for soil erosion control in
Korea have been proposed. In the province of
Jeju, land use is grouped into three categories:
absolute conservation area, moderate
conservation area, and sustainable development
area (Table 3). The moderate conservation area
is again subgrouped into three classes. It is
based on the soil loss from 50 m-long sloped
field (Yoon et al. 1997). Ha et al. (2004)
proposed a general guideline based on the size
of soil erosion and compared with OECD
standards (Table 4). These are only guidelines
and have no legal binding authority. The
allowable soil erosion standard that has legal
binding authority is the most powerful and
effective tool to enforce and persuade farmers
to adopt the erosion control techniques.
Soil erosion control techniques are
theoretically simple and easy but practically
dirty, tough, time-consuming, laborious,
controversial, and costly. Also, soil erosion
techniques are very much site-specific. One
technique can be successfully applied to
reduce the soil erosion on a site but success

Table 3.

Soil loss criterion in Jeju province, Korea

Group

Absolute
conservation area

Class

II

III

IV

More than
1,000

1,000600

600300

300100

Less than
100

Soil loss
(ton/ha/yr)

Table 4.
Class
Soil loss
(ton/ha/yr)
OECD
Standard

Moderate conservation area

Sustainable
development area

Proposed soil erosion classes in Korea

Very
good

Good

Moderately
good

0-2

2-6

6-11

Low

Tolerable

cannot be guaranteed on another site if it is

not modified to reflect site-specific
characteristics. Soil erosion control strategies
can be approached in three ways:
administrative system approach, public relations
and training, and technical approach.

Administrative System Approach

Administrative system approach is a key to the
success of soil erosion control in Korea. The
system should be well organized and supported
by laws and the members of the system
should well understand the soil erosion
processes and the factors affecting soil erosion
as well as hydrology and hydraulics. Also, the
government should set up the allowable soil
erosion criterion in terms of the amount of
sediment discharge at the edge of a field. It is
believed that the local administrative offices in
Korea are well established and they provide
excellent public services to the local citizens
for general and routine affairs. But because the
office personnel is mostly composed of nonengineers who do not understand engineering
principles and practices related to soil erosion
control, there may be many trials and errors in
developing and implementing policies to reduce
soil erosion and muddy runoff from the

Moderate

Moderately
severe

Severe

Very
severe

11-22

22-33

33-50

More
than 50

Moderate

High

Severe

uplands. As a matter of fact, the policies have

not been satisfactory.
Many measures must be carried out to
successfully control soil erosion in Korea. One
of the most urgent measures for the Korean
government to carry out is the education of
public domain workers who practically execute
the government budget in planning and
performing soil erosion control projects. Also,
private consultants and construction engineers
who are willing to design and perform soil
erosion control projects must take soil erosion
control training courses offered by workshops
and institutions that have a specialty in soil
erosion control. Because government budgets
have been executed by the two groups who
do not understand soil erosion control
techniques, the soil erosion plans by local
administrative offices could not be carried out
satisfactorily.
Setting up of the allowable sediment at the
edge of a field is also one of the most urgent
tasks. Based on the allowable sediment, BMPs
can be effectively chosen and practiced. If the
set of BMPs to reduce soil erosion from a
field cannot meet the allowable sediment
discharge, the field can be forced to change
the land use to produce less soil erosion. For
example, land uses of vegetation cultures to

row crop cultures and eventually to grassland

or forest can be forced. In this case, farmers
or landowners must be compensated for their
losses by the land use changes by the
government.
Soil erosion control projects must be
continuously supported by a large government
budget. In most cases, soil erosion control
structures are not permanent ones and may be
destroyed, buried, lost, or damaged by runoffs
and floods caused by severe storm events.
Those soft and hard soil erosion control
structures should be continuously reinforced
and repaired to maintain the designed
purposes. Minor maintenance operations need
to be done primarily by farmers and
landowners. And if the maintenance works are
beyond the landowners ability, local
construction engineers may be hired by the
local administration to fix the problem. Land
purchase or lease for the soil erosion
structures, regular and irregular maintenance
works, and incentives to farmers for the loss
of land productivity and the cooperation of
maintenance works need money, not small but
large budget every year. The Korean
government announced a comprehensive plan
to reduce soil erosion and muddy runoff from
the alpine uplands by the end of October 2004.
More than 2.2 million US dollars will be
invested from 2006, for 10 years, according to
the plan. The success of the plan is largely
dependent on the conditions described above.

practices, no policies and techniques can be

successful. Farmers can voluntarily accept the
techniques only when they understand the
impacts of sediment and muddy runoff from
their lands on a receiving water body, when
they feel a strong responsibility for the
degradation of water quality, and when they
are sincerely motivated to stop soil erosion in
their lands. Hefty incentives to farmers can
greatly help them decide to adopt the
necessary soil erosion control techniques.
By providing various free incentives, low
interest loans, and other benefits without any
conditions, the Korean government has been
helping farmers. However, it is strongly
recommended that the government must ask
farmers to take certain soil erosion control
classes before they apply for government
incentives. It is an easy way to educate and
train farmers. Korea has a well-established
agricultural extension service system. Extension
service personnel generally have agricultural
backgrounds but are not familiar with soil
erosion control techniques. It is also strongly
recommended that the extension service
personnel be trained about the soil erosion
control techniques so that they can discuss
and educate farmers at the site. It should be
kept in mind that the voluntary participation of
farmers in the soil erosion reduction campaign
is the best way, technically and economically,
to achieve the goal of long-term soil erosion
control.

Public Relations and Training

Technical Approach

Theories, principles, and techniques to cut

down soil erosion and muddy runoff from
sloping uplands have been well established in
environmentally advanced countries. However,
adoption of these techniques is dependent on
the citizens support and the decision makers
intentions. When the general public asks its
government to reduce sediment and other NPS
pollutants to protect and conserve water
quality, a decision maker can easily adopt the
techniques and allocate the necessary budget.
Other important variables for the successful
implementation of sediment and muddy runoff
reduction policies are the farmers and
landowners. Unless they are willing to accept
the soil erosion control techniques on their
lands and in their agricultural management

Soil erosion control techniques are very much

site-specific. It means that a technique may be
successful on a site but may not work on
other sites. Although numerous soil erosion
techniques have been developed in many
advanced countries, these techniques may not
be directly applicable to agricultural fields in
Korea because of the differences in soil, slope,
crop, customary agricultural management,
rainfall, and so on. However, because the basic
theories, principles, and practices of soil
erosion control techniques are the same, some
of these can be applied in Korea with minor
modifications and after verification experiments.
Verification experiments are complex, laborious,
and costly in most cases. Only a few
researchers and institutions have been
conducting these experiments in Korea.

BMPs for soil erosion control for plain and

mild-sloped fields are not much different from
those of other countries. However, BMPs for
steep-sloped uplands in Korea may be quite
different from those of other countries. The
emphasis of this paper is placed on the soil
erosion control techniques for the steep-sloped
uplands in the alpine belts of 400 m above the
mean sea level in the Korean Peninsula.
It is known that the dominant factors
affecting soil erosion are land slope and
length, amount of land cover, inherent
erodibility of the soil, and rainfall
characteristics. The alpine uplands in Korea
unfortunately have more than sufficient
conditions to meet the worst combination of
the dominant factors. The slope and the length
of the uplands are generally very steep and
long, the sandy soil is very much erodible, the
surface is never covered by residues, and
rainfall is very intensive. It is no wonder that
the uplands dump a huge amount of sediment
and muddy runoff into receiving waters. As
described earlier, a 5 m x 30 m runoff plot with
28% slope and 54 mm rainfall in 40 minutes
produced about 72 t/ha of sediment.
Controlling soil erosion is not a matter of
improving soil quality by increasing organic
matter content. It is a matter of controlling
runoff. So, erosion control strategies must be
directed to reduce or bypass surface runoff by
all means.
The following BMPs are mainly focused on
the reduction or the bypass of runoff and the
removal of sediment during conveyance to a
receiving water. Sediment basin and trap,
terrace, drainage channel, check dam, weir (e.g.,
concrete drop structure and chute, gabion), and
wetland are considered as hard BMPs. Surface
cover, vegetative filter strip, tillage method and
mark (e.g., no till, reduced till, contour till) are
considered as soft BMPs. The hard and soft
BMPs must be functionally combined to get
the best results. These BMPs for soil erosion
control can be schematically developed as
shown in Fig. 1.
Soft BMPs. Surface cover and tillage
method and mark are the two main BMPs to
reduce runoff and erosion at the source. It is
proven that the tillage mark of contour does
not significantly reduce soil erosion. Contour
tillage mark can work well to reduce runoff and
erosion if rainfall is small. However, if rainfall

is large enough to fill the furrow, the ridge is

destroyed, the water in the furrow suddenly
flushes downslope, consequently destroying
the ridges downstream to form large rills and
gullies, resulting in a huge sediment discharge.
Therefore, contour tillage mark practices are not
very effective when a large rainfall is expected.
Reduced till and no-till practices can be
good alternatives to reduce erosion from the
steep-sloped uplands if grain crops such as
corn, soybean, wheat, and barley were
cultivated. But the major crops in the high
mountain alpine fields are potato, Chinese
cabbage, radish, carrot, and other vegetables.
These crop cultures need conventional tillage
and the surface is completely disturbed before
transplanting or seeding is made every year,
making the soil soft and easily erodible.
The last alternative left to reduce runoff
and erosion at the source is surface cover. As
shown in Table 1, the 100% covered sandy
soil plots did not produce runoff while the
bare plots released runoff of 71.8% of the
provided rainfall. Soil retention and
groundwater runoff also showed a large
difference between the covered and the bare
soil plots. The problem is that surface cover
with the vegetable cultures is not easy and
may not be economical. It is well proven that
the source control of NPS pollution is the best
both technically and economically. If so much
soil is eroded every monsoon season and the
water quality of the receiving water is
sensitive, it is well worth applying the surface
cover method. Loose rice straw mats can be
used to cover the surface.
A vegetative filter strip (VFS) is an
alternative to retain sediment in runoff. VFS
can work well in the uplands where the slope
is mild, and runoff does not form large rills.
However, where the land size is small and
concentrated runoff occurs like in the alpine
uplands, VFS may not work well to remove
sediment in the runoff. Munoz-Carpena and
Parsons (2005) developed the VFSMOD-W that
could estimate filter length, width, slope, and
vegetation to meet a sediment reduction. But
they recommended that the model be applied
to smooth slopes, typically less than 10%. In
the USA, VFS is required to remove 75% of
sediment to meet the total maximum daily load
(TMDL) criterion. Considering that a 5 m x 30
m runoff plot on 28% sandy loam soil

Development of Erosion BMPs

Erosion investigation
Maintain current
land use

Yes

No

Encourage ESA

Adopt'n of soft BMPs

(surface cover, VFS,
infiltration, tillage)

Application of soft BMPs

Yes

Satisfy
tolerable soil loss
(T-value)
No

Encourage ESA

Adopt'n of hard BMPs

(Terraces, drainage
ditch, sediment
basin, wetlands

Satisfy
tolerable soil loss
(T-value)

Application of hard BMPs

Econo-sociological validity?

Yes

Satisfy
tolerable soil loss
(T-value)
No

Encourage ESA

Change of land use

(row crop, forests)
Satisfy T-value

Fig. 1.

Schematic flow chart for the development of BMPs for soil erosion
control. (ESA stands for environmentally sound agriculture, and VFS
for vegetative filter strip.)

produced sediment up to 72 t/ha/event, it

could easily be imagined that no VFS could
stand the sediment load. Before a VFS is made
on a field, it is strongly recommended that it
undergo the experiments on the width and VFS
vegetation if it would be installed at the edge
of steep-sloped uplands.
There are many other soft alternatives to
reduce soil erosion from the uplands. One of
them is the coir net that is woven with palm
tree fiber. It takes 3-4 years for the net to
decay in the wild environment. Various types
and forms of coir net products are placed at
the edge of a field and mulched on a slope to
minimize soil erosion.

10

Adding huge amounts of soil has become

customary in some uplands where crop rotation
is not practiced and soil sickness is
experienced. The depth of fresh soil layer
added is sometimes deeper than 20 cm.
Weathered granite soil (sandy or sandy loam
soil) that contains practically no nutrients is
usually quarried from a mountain and placed
on the existing field. If soil is continually
added, the elevation of a field becomes higher
than the adjacent roads. In this case, rainfall
runoff may be drained through the roads and
the roadside soil may be severely eroded. To
prevent these from eroding, a 20-30 cm-high
concrete sill may be made along the roadside.

Hard BMPs. Terrace, sediment basin

and trap, drainage ditch and channel, diversion
and catch drain, grassed waterway, tile drain,
grade stabilization (drop or chute) structure,
and constructed wetland are some of the
examples of hard BMPs that can be applied on
steep-sloped uplands in Korea. The basic
concept of these BMPs is the safe drain of
surface runoff so that it does not form rills
and gullies. If no rills and no gullies were
formed, soil erosion would decrease drastically.
Therefore, the BMPs need to be functionally
combined to minimize the formation of rills and
gullies and to drain the runoff to a channel
where it can be discharged into the drainage
system. This job may involve so much work
and so many farmers and local engineers who
do not have soil erosion control experiences
and may not understand the nature of erosion
control works. They may even think of giving
up land cultivation altogether. These BMPs are
not easy to do but they have to be done to
stop erosion. Otherwise, the land uses may
have to be changed to less erodible uses such
as grassland or forest.
Terrace is a good alternative to remove
sediment in runoff and safely drain surface
runoff through drain pipes. A terrace in smallsized lands is similar to a small sediment basin
that is mainly made of a small dry pool. A dry
pool can be placed at the end or in the middle
of a field where concentrated runoff passes or
discharges. The dry pool receives runoff from
the upper field and the runoff is drained
directly or through drain pipe(s) to a drainage
channel or nearby stream. While the runoff
passes the pool, velocity is drastically reduced,
and much of the sediment in the runoff, except
the clayey particles, is deposited. The sediment
removal rate of the small pool is amazingly
high in sandy soil fields.
Catch drain, diversion, drainage channel,
and sediment basin or trap can play key roles
as a system in controlling sediment discharges.
The slope of these waterways must be mild
enough to decrease runoff velocity and to
deposit the sediments in runoff in the
waterway. If a slope is too steep and the
water velocity is too high to deposit
sediments, drop, chute or grade stabilization
structures must be constructed to make the
slope smooth. Where a concentrated flow flows
into the waterway, a section of the waterway

must be enlarged to accommodate the

depositing sediments. It is because the runoff
velocity decreases where it meets the waterway
and the runoff sediments may suddenly block
the waterway. Sediments do not evenly deposit
over the wide area but they immediately settle
down where the runoff losses its transport
capacity as the velocity decreases. The
enlarged section may be called a sediment trap
or basin. It is believed that the waterway
system of catch drain, diversion, drainage
channel, and sediment basin can functionally
work well and remove much of the runoff
sediment. The authors experiment proved the
sediment removal of more than 95% with a
small sediment basin. One of the disadvantages
of this approach was the need to remove and
empty the basin and waterway after every
severe rainfall event that produced a large
sediment volume.
A drainage channel system in the upland
area is not well established in Korea. The
construction of catch drain, diversion, drainage
channel, and sediment basin systems may
require a large land size, farmers agreement,
and considerable budget. However, it also is
understood that without the system, the
reduction of sediment and muddy runoff from
sloping uplands may not satisfy the water
quality standards.
Sediment basin itself can remove sediment
effectively if it is properly constructed and
maintained. Because of intensive land uses in
Korea, it is not desirable and economical to
build a large sediment basin. But it is
recommended that a sediment basin be built at
the mouth of a field where runoff is
concentrated and discharged. The size of the
sediment basin may be designed to hold the
sediment volume that can be discharged by
two to three large rainfall events. After each
sediment discharge event, the basin must be
emptied for the next storm event. The design
and construction manual of a sediment basin
for upland cultures has not been established in
Korea. However, references on simple and easy
methods of designing a sediment basin are
available (Ohio Department of Natural
Resources 1996).
A favored design is the tile drain where
interflow seeps to the surface during the
monsoon season. Grassed waterway may be a
good alternative to remove sediment in runoff

11

while safely draining runoff. But because it

takes a relatively large area and needs careful
maintenance, it may not be accepted by
farmers. Paddy as a constructed wetland may
be an alternative if it is functionally combined
with a drainage system that is composed of
catch drain, diversion, drain channel, and
sediment basin. An upland watershed is
divided into small sub-watersheds. And at the
mouth of each sub-watershed, a paddy or a
cascade of paddies is prepared to accept the
runoff from the drainage system. The paddy
then further settles down the fine particles in
runoff from the drainage system.

SUMMARY
Soil erosion mechanisms, factors affecting soil
erosion, the current status of soil erosion, and
the impacts of soil erosion on water quality in
Korea were briefly described. Small and large
runoff plots and field-scale monitoring methods
with or without a rainfall simulation were
explained based on the researches performed in
Korea. Soil erosion control techniques that can
be applied to steep-sloped uplands in the
alpine area were grouped into the following
three categories: administrative system
approach, public relations and training, and
technical approach. Basic theories and
principles for soil erosion control, unique
characteristics of the upland cultures in the
alpine area, and recommendations and
suggestions to reduce soil erosion from sloping
uplands were made for each category.

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